Publication:
Does Free Sound Too Cheap? The Adverse Effect of a Randomized Text Message Campaign on Program Take-up

Loading...
Thumbnail Image
Files in English
English PDF (362.42 KB)
133 downloads
English Text (32.75 KB)
13 downloads
Date
2025-02-12
ISSN
Published
2025-02-12
Author(s)
Annan, Jeannie
Koussoubé, Estelle
Tassy, Joséphine
Delavallade, Clara
Editor(s)
Abstract
This study conducted a randomized experiment to improve participation in a youth employment program in Côte d'Ivoire by testing text message outreach methods. Sending text messages highlighting that the program was free only to eligible youth had no impact, but messages sent to both youth and trusted contacts led to reduced enrollment. This negative effect was smaller for women, and 0 when their contact was also female. Qualitative findings suggest that distrust among unfamiliar contacts contributed to this decline. The study highlights the importance of tailoring communication strategies in job training programs to increase effectiveness, considering recipients’ relationships and trust.
Link to Data Set
Citation
Annan, Jeannie; Koussoubé, Estelle; Tassy, Joséphine; Rouanet, Léa; Delavallade, Clara; Evans, David K.. 2025. Does Free Sound Too Cheap? The Adverse Effect of a Randomized Text Message Campaign on Program Take-up. Policy Research Working Paper; 11063. © World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/42805 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
Associated URLs
Associated content
Report Series
Report Series
Other publications in this report series
  • Publication
    Disentangling the Key Economic Channels through Which Infrastructure Affects Jobs
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2025-04-03) Vagliasindi, Maria; Gorgulu, Nisan
    This paper takes stock of the literature on infrastructure and jobs published since the early 2000s, using a conceptual framework to identify the key channels through which different types of infrastructure impact jobs. Where relevant, it highlights the different approaches and findings in the cases of energy, digital, and transport infrastructure. Overall, the literature review provides strong evidence of infrastructure’s positive impact on employment, particularly for women. In the case of electricity, this impact arises from freeing time that would otherwise be spent on household tasks. Similarly, digital infrastructure, particularly mobile phone coverage, has demonstrated positive labor market effects, often driven by private sector investments rather than large public expenditures, which are typically required for other large-scale infrastructure projects. The evidence on structural transformation is also positive, with some notable exceptions, such as studies that find no significant impact on structural transformation in rural India in the cases of electricity and roads. Even with better market connections, remote areas may continue to lack economic opportunities, due to the absence of agglomeration economies and complementary inputs such as human capital. Accordingly, reducing transport costs alone may not be sufficient to drive economic transformation in rural areas. The spatial dimension of transformation is particularly relevant for transport, both internationally—by enhancing trade integration—and within countries, where economic development tends to drive firms and jobs toward urban centers, benefitting from economies scale and network effects. Turning to organizational transformation, evidence on skill bias in developing countries is more mixed than in developed countries and may vary considerably by context. Further research, especially on the possible reasons explaining the differences between developed and developing economies, is needed.
  • Publication
    Economic Consequences of Trade and Global Value Chain Integration
    (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2025-04-04) Borin, Alessandro; Mancini, Michele; Taglioni, Daria
    This paper introduces a new approach to measuring Global Value Chains (GVC), crucial for informed policy-making. It features a tripartite classification (backward, forward, and two-sided) covering trade and production data. The findings indicate that traditional trade-based GVC metrics significantly underestimate global GVC activity, especially in sectors like services and upstream manufacturing, and overstate risks in early trade liberalization stages. Additionally, conventional backward-forward classifications over-estimate backward linkages. The paper further applies these measures empirically to assess how GVC participation mediates the impact of demand shocks on domestic output, highlighting both the exposure and stabilizing potential of GVC integration. These new measures are comprehensively available on the World Bank’s WITS Platform, providing a key resource for GVC analysis.
  • Publication
    Participation in Pension Programs in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2025-04-24) Giles, John; Joubert, Clément; Tanaka, Tomoaki
    Low- and middle-income countries are aging rapidly but stagnation of growth in participation in pension programs, due to widespread informal employment, presents a major fiscal challenge. Some claim that improving the design of pension program rules can encourage more pension contributions, while others push for universal non-contributory pensions. This paper reviews the recent academic literature on the determinants of active participation in pension systems in high- informality settings. An emerging body of evidence shows that participation responds significantly to financial incentives as well as nonfinancial obstacles. At the same time, pensions are imperfect substitutes for other strategies to cover longevity risk, including support through the family, which will remain crucial for many older people in fiscally constrained environments. Therefore, policy makers should integrate the design of contributory pensions, social pensions, and policies that facilitate other forms of elderly support and consider how all three interact. To inform such efforts, these interactions must be more systematically investigated, and the empirical evidence must be expanded beyond a small number of middle-income countries.
  • Publication
    Capitalizing on Digital Transformation to Enhance the Effectiveness of Property Institutions
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2025-04-14) Deininger, Klaus; Hilhorst, Thea; Zevenbergen, Jaap; Nkurunziza, Emmanuel
    Property registries have long been a pillar of state capacity and a basis for private market activity. While registry establishment and operation traditionally were costly and time consuming, digital technology makes low-cost registry operation and wide outreach easier. To guide developing countries aiming to establish such registries and measure progress, this paper develops indicators (in terms of digital coverage, interoperability, and property taxation for local service delivery and public land management) of effective digital registry service provision. Data from 85 countries highlight vast differences and provide suggestions for strategic reforms as well as a basis for measuring progress over time. Expanding geographical coverage and collecting these indicators on a regular basis could provide guidance to improve the way in which, by protecting property, the state creates the basis for widely shared prosperity and a livable environment.
  • Publication
    Bridging the Gap
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2025-04-21) Kruse, Hagen; Ohnsorge, Franziska; Tourek, Gabriel; Xie, Zoe Leiyu
    This paper examines tax revenue shortfalls in South Asian countries. On average during 2019–23, South Asian revenues totaled 18 percent of GDP—well below the average 24 percent among emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs). Econometric estimates from stochastic frontier analysis, which control for tax rates and the size of potential tax bases, suggest that tax revenues in the region are 1 to 7 percentage points of GDP below potential, with shortfalls in five of the region’s eight countries larger than in the average EMDE. Even after controlling for country characteristics, such as widespread informal economic activity outside the tax net and large agriculture sectors, sizable tax gaps remain, suggesting the need for improved tax policy and administration. The paper discusses and provides evidence from international experience with reforms to raise government revenues.
Journal
Journal Volume
Journal Issue

Related items

Showing items related by metadata.

  • Publication
    Exploring the Drivers of Youth Pursuing Vocational Training in High-Paying Sectors in Côte d’Ivoire
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-09-25) Delavallade, Clara; Zenaki, Manil; Rouanet, Léa; Koussoubé, Estelle
    Education and skills are two key determinants of earning potential, with sector specialization significantly influencing earnings. This study examines the drivers behind training choices in two high-paying sectors: information and communications technology (ICT) and energy. Drawing on data from 2,528 individuals seeking vocational training in Côte d’Ivoire, we find that a majority (72% of men and 51% of women) aspire to train in ICT or energy. For both genders, higher levels of education and larger professional networks are positively correlated with selecting training in these high-paying sectors. For women, previous training in similar fields strongly predicts their training choices, highlighting path dependency. Additionally, women benefit more from male role models, which significantly increase their likelihood of choosing a training in ICT or energy. Women with greater agency are also more likely to opt for training in these sectors. Conversely, women holding more traditional views on specific household responsibilities are less likely to choose high-paying sector training.
  • Publication
    Gender Differences in Socio-Emotional Skills and Economic Outcomes
    (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2022-10) Ajayi, Kehinde; Das, Smita; Delavallade, Clara; Ketema, Tigist; Rouanet, Léa
    Using data from 41,873 individuals across 17 African countries and 13 studies, this paper maps data from various self-reported scales to 10 socio-emotional skills and examine gender differences in these skills and their relationship with education and earnings. Apart from self-control, the findings show a significant male advantage in self-reported skills—men have an aggregate socio-emotional skill level 0.151 standard deviations higher than women, equivalent to the socio-emotional skill gained over 5.6 years of education. This is robust to controlling for positive self-concept. Closing the gender gap in education would close 17percent of this gap. While overall socio-emotional skill and education are positively correlated for both men and women, women do not have a positive correlation with education for some individual socio-emotional skills. The male advantage in socio-emotional skills increases at higher education levels. Socio-emotional skills are associated with higher earnings, especially for women. However, the specific skills associated with higher earnings differ by gender. Interpersonal skills are more strongly correlated with earnings for women than for men, and measures of these skills are often underrepresented, which indicates a key direction for future research. The paper further examines differences in the relationship between socio-emotional skills and earnings by levels of education and occupation. It discusses the implications of these results for interventions seeking to hone women’s socio-emotional skills for labor market success and to address the gender norms that may perpetuate gaps in socio-emotional skills.
  • Publication
    Combining Safe Spaces with Accompanying Measures
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-12-16) Boulhane, Othmane; Boxho, Claire; Cavagnero, Eleonora; Garcia-Meza, Alejandra Mia; Guerrero Horas, Olga; Kanga, Desiré; Karamoko, Djibrilla; Kouacou, Karine; Koussoubé, Estelle; Lemiere, Christophe; Harrit, Margareta Norris; Rouanet, Léa; Traore, Adama; Van Damme, Jozefien
    This cluster-randomized trial in Côte d’Ivoire examined multi-sectoral approaches to improving adolescent girls’ empowerment (AGE). Safe spaces offering life skills and sexual and reproductive health (SRH) education were assessed alone and combined with livelihood support, male engagement (husbands’ clubs), and community leader involvement. Pairing safe spaces with both husbands’ clubs and community leader engagement had the strongest impacts, improving SRH, economic participation, decision-making, and marriage and childbearing outcomes. Safe spaces alone showed limited effects beyond SRH. Findings highlight the importance of fostering community support for gender norm change and ensuring cohesive messaging and high-quality implementation. Multi-sectoral strategies outperform standalone interventions in advancing AGE across multiple domains.
  • Publication
    Empowering Adolescent Girls through Safe Spaces and Accompanying Measures in Côte d’Ivoire
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-03-13) Boulhane, Othmane; Boxho, Claire; Kanga, Désiré; Koussoube, Estelle; Rouanet, Léa
    This study uses a cluster-randomized controlled trial to investigate the effects of a large-scale women and girls empowerment program on sexual and reproductive health and empowerment outcomes in Côte d’Ivoire. The study assesses and compares the impact of diverse strategies aimed at equipping girls with life skills and sexual and reproductive health knowledge, provided through well-established safe spaces, in isolation or in combination with livelihood support interventions, or with initiatives designed to engage boys and men and community and religious leaders. The findings show that one year after the end of the interventions, safe spaces alone have a moderate impact on girls’ empowerment, while safe spaces combined with husbands’ and future husbands’ clubs are the most impactful. Combining safe spaces with livelihood support interventions leads to improvements in adolescent girls’ employment outcomes, as expected. Finally, the findings show that engaging leaders in the context of safe spaces interventions yields mixed results on girls’ empowerment.
  • Publication
    Which Socio-Emotional Skills Matter Most for Women’s Earnings? New Insights from Sub-Saharan Africa
    (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2023-03-30) Ajayi, Kehinde; Das, Smita; Delavallade, Clara; Ketema, Tigist Assefa; Rouanet, Léa
    Evidence on gender-specific returns to socio-emotional skills in developing economies is lacking. To inform the selection of socio-emotional skills in policy design, a new study mobilizing data from 17 African countries with 41,873 respondents examines gender differences in ten self-reported socio-emotional skills and their relationship with education and earnings. Evidence from the existing literature shows that socio-emotional skills positively influence labor market outcomes. Findings from our sample suggest that women in Sub-Saharan Africa could benefit from training programs designed to improve their socio-emotional skills, as women earn on average 54 percent less than men and report lower levels of socio-emotional skills. Educational attainment, which likely contributes to the increase of socioemotional skills for both men and women, might not be enough to eliminate gender differences in socio-emotional skills, since even among the most educated individuals, women still have lower levels of socio-emotional skills than men. Research on the relationship between socio-emotional skills and labor market outcomes should be deepened to improve the design of future programs teaching socio-emotional skills in Sub-Saharan Africa. Our results suggest that public interventions seeking to equip women with interpersonal skills (e.g., teamwork, expressiveness, and interpersonal relatedness) may provide an effective pathway to reduce gender disparities in the labor market.

Users also downloaded

Showing related downloaded files

  • Publication
    Weather, Water, and Work
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-06-27) Khan, Amjad M.; Kuate, Landry; Pongou, Roland; Zhang, Fan
    Vulnerability to climate change and water scarcity is increasing globally. How this affects individual employment outcomes is still not well understood. Using survey data collected from approximately half a million individuals across Sub-Saharan Africa over from 2005 to 2018, this paper examines the causal relationship between water availability and labor market outcomes. It combines georeferenced household survey data with a drought index that captures the exogenous effects of both rainfall and temperature on water availability. The findings suggest that extremely dry periods decrease employment by 2.5 percentage points on average, and wet periods with an abundance of soil moisture (not flooding) increase employment by 4 percentage points. The negative effects of dry shocks are larger in rural, poorer, and agriculture-dependent areas and for individuals who hold low-skilled jobs or work as farmers. Moreover, the paper finds that the burden of dry shocks disproportionately falls on women, while the benefits of wet shocks accrue more to men. The presence of irrigation infrastructure and the historical evolution of local livelihood strategies—historical mode of subsistence—partly mediate the impacts of water shocks.
  • Publication
    Is the U.S. Friend-Shoring, Nearshoring, or Reshoring? Evidence from Greenfield Investment Announcements
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-12-20) Mulabdic, Alen; Nayyar, Gaurav
    This paper examines the evolution of greenfield investment announcements—both domestic and international—for US multinational companies in response to recent global shocks. The results indicate an intensification of reshoring and nearshoring activities by US companies, especially following the Russian Federation’s invasion of Ukraine. This shift is estimated to have doubled the number of direct jobs associated with greenfield investment announcements in the US and its neighboring countries. The paper finds no evidence that US companies are adopting a friend-shoring strategy by investing more in military allies. The paper suggests that US supply chains are likely to become less global and more regional as these investments become operational.
  • Publication
    It's Not Factor Accumulation : Stylized Facts and Growth Models
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2001-05) Easterly, William; Levine, Ross
    The article documents five stylized facts of economic growth: (1) the 'residual' (total factor productivity, tfp) rather than factor accumulation accounts for most of the income and growth differences across countries; (2) income diverges over the long run; (3) factor accumulation is persistent while growth is not, and the growth path of countries exhibits remarkable variation; (4) economic activity is highly concentrated, with all factors of production flowing to the richest areas; and (5) national policies are closely associated with long-run economic growth rates. These facts do not support models with diminishing returns, constant returns to scale, some fixed factor of production, or an emphasis on factor accumulation. However, empirical work does not yet decisively distinguish among the different theoretical conceptions of tfp growth. Economists should devote more effort toward modeling and quantifying tfp.
  • Publication
    Land Price Effects of Informality, Farm Size, and Land Reform
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2025-01-02) Deininger, Klaus; Ali, Daniel Ayalew
    This paper uses a rich set of geo-coded administrative and remotely sensed data on more than 1 million agricultural land transactions in Ukraine to explore how informality, size, and recent land reforms affect land prices. Three main findings are highlighted. First, absence of registered rights generates large negative externalities, the size of which plausibly exceeds the cost of registering all land. By contrast, informality of lease contracts is a choice that may enable owners to evade regulatory obstacles that prevent them from renegotiating contracts to obtain more favorable terms. Second, while land market liberalization generated significant indirect benefits, gains are unevenly distributed. Furthermore, competition in sales markets remains limited, pointing to scope for measures—including reducing the transaction costs of selling land and accessing mortgage finance, improving publicity of pending land sales, and use of electronic auctions—to enhance the reforms’ impact on efficiency and equity. Third, size at the parcel, field, and farm levels is associated with higher per hectare prices, pointing to scope for market-based land consolidation and growth of medium-size farms to increase land values and productivity. Achieving this potential will require measures to limit speculative land acquisition and exercise of market power by making local land markets more competitive and using market-based land valuation as a basis for taxing land on a recurrent basis and any capital gains due to land appreciation.
  • Publication
    Geopolitics and the World Trading System
    (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-12-23) Mattoo, Aaditya; Ruta, Michele; Staige, Robert W.
    Until the beginning of this century, the GATT/WTO system worked. Economic research provided a compelling explanation. It showed that if governments maximize the well-being of their own countries broadly defined, GATT/WTO principles would facilitate mutually beneficial cooperation over their trade policy choices. Now heightened geopolitical rivalry seems to have undermined the WTO. A simple transposition of the previous rationalization suggests that geopolitics and trade cooperation are not compatible. The paper shows that this is only true if rivalry eclipses any consideration of own-country well-being. In all other circumstances, there are gains from trade cooperation even with geopolitics. Furthermore, the WTO’s relevance is in question only if it adheres too rigidly to its existing rules and norms. Through measured adaptation to the geopolitical imperative, the WTO can continue to thrive as a forum for multilateral trade cooperation in the age of geopolitics.