Publication: Gender Dimensions in the Educational Sector in Romania: Background Study for the Romania Gender Assessment
Loading...
Date
2023-11-29
ISSN
Published
2023-11-29
Author(s)
Editor(s)
Abstract
Addressing gender inequalities in educational outcomes is crucial from a human rights and development perspective. Building human capital early in life has crucial implications for developmental and labor market outcomes later in life. In this background note, prepared to inform the Romania Gender Assessment 2023, we rely on a variety of data sources to descriptively study gender inequalities in educational outcomes, such as enrollment rates and test scores, in Romania. We analyze these inequalities for the total population as well as for different income groups andregions. Our evidence shows that gender equality in aggregate estimates often masks important inequalities between subgroups. While in some cases, boys outperform girls, there are also cases in which girls outperform boys. These patterns differ across income groups, regions, and educational levels. Based on this evidence, the Romanian government should take a nuanced approach to achieving gender equality in the educational sector. Moreover, we find that—in the case of all indicators—both Romanian girls and boys perform significantly below the European average and thatthere are some negative trends over time, especially with respect to enrollment rates in secondary schools and school performance. Reversing these trends is crucial to ensure the full development of both boys and girls. Moreover, although girls outperform boys in several educational outcomes, these advantages do not translate into the labor market. We identify several constraints that could drive(reversed) gender gaps in educational outcomes: social norms and gender stereotypes (at home and within the schooling system), relatively low public spending on education at nearly all levels, marginalization and discrimination, teenage pregnancy, and school-based violence. We generate evidence on intergenerational educational persistence, which affects girls more. Moreover, we identify a lack of systematic evidence on what works best to close these gaps, and several important data limitations, such as a lack of indicators that clearly identify Roma children. Lastly, we identify ten high-level policy areas and recommend tailored policy interventions to address gender inequalities ineducation in Romania.
Link to Data Set
Citation
“Robayo-Abril, Monica; Rude, Britta. 2023. Gender Dimensions in the Educational Sector in Romania: Background Study for the Romania Gender Assessment. © World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/40669 License: CC BY-NC 3.0 IGO.”
Associated URLs
Associated content
Other publications in this report series
Journal
Journal Volume
Journal Issue
Collections
Related items
Showing items related by metadata.
Publication Gender Equality in Romania(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2023-11-29)This Country Gender Assessment (CGA) presents updated evidence on the recent gender gaps in Romania and identifies entry points for the sustainable reduction of gender inequalities to support the World Bank country program and the Romanian government’s efforts. This CGA updates the 2018 Romania Gender Assessment (World Bank 2018a) while adding new insights concerning the key drivers and policies to reduce gender inequalities in the country. The report diagnoses the most critical barriers (structural, institutional, and behavioral) that females face, particularly when accessing education and employment, and further, how women’s employment and educational outcomes are constrained to a greater degree than the same outcomes for males. This is informed by key findings from thematic studies or “deep dives” into areas that have been identified as key determinants of the gender gaps inthe country19 and where knowledge gaps in the country or the lack of recent information are hindering the development and implantation of evidence-based policy. It also presents rigorous evidence on what works in countries with similar income levels and contexts to address those barriers in order to highlight policies and interventions that can move the needle toward gender equality. This analysis aimsto strengthen the knowledge base so as to inform the design of policies and interventions to improve progress toward gender equality. In particular, it is expected to inform the government’s and the World Bank’s efforts to close the gender gaps.Publication The Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship in Romania(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2023-11-29)Although female entrepreneurship is crucial to generating sustainable and equitable growth patterns, international evidence shows that women tend to be underrepresented in entrepreneurship, and this gender gap has exhibited remarkable persistence. In this study, we first measure the gender gap in entrepreneurship in Romania by using various data sources. We observe significant gender gaps, with the average gender gap in self-employment rates being 4.2 percentage points when abstracting from observable characteristics. Even when controlling for observable characteristics, the gender gap is persistent (3.7 percentage points). Other measures, such as the share of firms with female owners and top managers, indicate that the gap could be even larger. Moreover, we observe that the entrepreneurial gender gap varies across income quintiles and between rural and urban areas. In the second step, we analyze the potential drivers of women’s engaging less in entrepreneurship by following the model of the “5 M’s” developed by Brush, De Bruin, and Welter (2009). We find that the following drivers play a role in the entrepreneurial gender gap in Romania: gender gaps in financial inclusion and access to assets, harmful gender norms, motherhood, lack of childcare, and eldercare. Our findings suggest the need for a nuanced approach toward female entrepreneurship that factors in the distinct challenges of different groups of women and consists of a menu of policy interventions. Policies should range from improving women’s access to relevant assets, human capital, and networks to addressing harmful gender norms and sparking an entrepreneurial culture in Romania more generally. Lastly, our evidence indicates that women are more interested in “impact” entrepreneurship. As women entrepreneurs in Romania mainly operate in the primary sector, givingthem a leading role in the green transition has great potential for more sustainable and equitable growth patterns.Publication Preparatory School Years and Maternal Employment in Romania(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2023-12-19)This paper uses the introduction of preparatory school classes targeting six-year-old children in Romania to study whether universal, compulsory, public care provision could increase female employment. Results from difference-in-difference estimations show that the reform resulted in rising employment rates for mothers of six-year-old children. The effect is lower for mothers living in households with elderly people, but larger for those facing stronger trade-offs prior to the reform. Overall, investing in universal, compulsory, public childcare is beneficial and could significantly increase female employment and labor force participation rates.Publication Bulgaria Gender Landscape(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-30)According to the 2023 Gender Equality Index (EIGI) by the European Institute for Gender Equality, which measures gender equality across six dimensions,1 Bulgaria has closed critical gaps in gender equality. Still, more progress is needed to catch up with EU peers. Bulgaria has improved its Gender Equality Index scores, which are consistently and significantly lower than the EU average. In 2023, Bulgaria scored 65.1 out of 100 on the EIGI, ranking in the 12th -lowest place among the EU-27 countries and 5.1 points below the average score for the EU (figure 1). Since 2020, Bulgaria’s score has increased by 4.4 points, one of the biggest improvements among EU member states. Despite improvements, the country ranks lower than the European average in all subindicators, except in the power dimension. In addition, its progress in gender equality was slower, ensuring growing disparities between that country and the EU over time. Comparing the six available subindicators with the EU averages, Bulgaria performs well in the power and time dimensions. Still, it performs poorly in the money and health dimensions, falling significantly behind the European average.2 Going beyond composite indicators, the country lags in several dimensions. These include selected aspects of human endowments, economic opportunities (as measured by participation in economic activities and access to and control of critical productive assets), and voice and agency, as expressed in political participation, freedom from gender-based violence, and the ability to make key decisions.Publication Understanding and Addressing Energy Poverty in Romania(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-09-17)Addressing energy poverty is paramount for economic development, given its close connection to income poverty. Research indicates that lower-income households are disproportionately affected by energy price increases. Such households lack the financial means to absorb these shocks, which can lead to decreased overall welfare. This vulnerability can result in households’ refraining from using energy or using less efficient and dirtier technologies and sources, particularly during winter, which poses health risks. Moreover, global evidence suggests that residing in energy-deprived circumstances adversely affects overall well-being, human development, and environmental outcomes. The imperative to measure and address energy poverty in Romania is underscored by the potential development benefits and the European Commission’s prioritization of this issue within the European Just Transition context. This report aims to fill that gap by providing evidence on critical questions about the energy status of Romanian households. The report focuses on four key topics, relying on existing official household surveys and new qualitative and quantitative data collected in June–July 2023, with the aim of providing an updated snapshot of energy vulnerability among Romanian households.
Users also downloaded
Showing related downloaded files
Publication Seeds of Life : Women and Agricultural Biodiversity in Africa(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2000-08)One of the down-sides of worldwide agricultural development, has been the replacement of native plant species by marketable crops, accompanied by a reduction in the diversity of the seed stock. This accounts for the disappearance of plants with potential medicinal uses, particularly in high biodiversity areas, and, the crowding out of native diversity of edible species by standard, sometimes genetically altered by commercial farming demands, is an equally serious problem. Indigenous knowledge of edible plants is one key "pool" of biodiversity in Africa - one in which women play a vital role. The note looks at bean farming in Kenya, where evidence shows that in pre-colonial times a large variety of bean species was cultivated, which constituted a critical element of rural people's diet, and a rich source of protein. Traditionally, women grew, and conserved multiple seed stocks, as a hedge against disease, and unpredictable climate changes. However, the colonial agricultural extension service eliminated multi-cropping - a phenomenon that brought negative consequences for nutrition, biodiversity, and soil fertility. This case unfortunately was not an isolated one, though fortunately efforts to coordinate a participatory research program on gender roles in agriculture, and plant breeding are underway, headed by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).Publication Basic Education beyond the Millennium Development Goals in Ghana : How Equity in Service Delivery Affects Educational and Learning Outcomes(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014)Inequity is the central challenge facing basic education in Ghana and undercuts the potential contribution of basic education to Ghana’s national development goals. Persistent disparities in education service delivery and inequitable allocation of resources in Ghana lead to highly inequitable educational outcomes. These inequities negatively affect system quality, efficiency and accountability and ultimately undermine broader national development. Wide-spread inequity in education service delivery significantly depresses system learning outcomes. This report describes a “missing middle” in terms of learning outcomes: While a small number of children perform well, the majority of pupils (more than 60%) pass through primary school without becoming proficient in numeracy and literacy. Specifically, children from Ghana’s northern regions and deprived districts, poor and rural households and ethnic and linguistic minorities – students who require the most support to meet learning outcomes – receive, on average, disproportionately fewer resources from the government than their peers. Systemic inequities create this missing middle and drag down system performance. Following a decade of rapid change, as of 2013, more children are attending basic and senior high schools than at any time in the history of Ghana. In the past decade, Ghana has realized great growth, progress and change. Population growth, urbanization and significant GDP growth have changed the economic, political and social landscape of Ghana. In the past decade, incidence of extreme poverty has been cut in half. Introduction of Free, Compulsory, Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) and kindergarten has supported a near doubling of basic education enrollment in the past 15 years. Delivering basic education and ensuring equity has become more challenging. Compared to a decade ago, more stakeholders are involved in allocating and managing core education inputs and accountability systems remain unclear and weak. Addressing the deeply embedded inequities (e.g. allocation of trained teachers, support to deprived districts and populations) is further complicated by a complex and fragmented policy, management and financing environment. The persistence of inequity reflects the persistence of conflicting sector interests and poses genuine policy dilemmas. However, recent experience shows that accelerating progress toward equity and quality basic education for all is possible. Several recent initiatives in Ghana point to the possibility of improving equitable resource allocation, strengthening social protection and providing additional support to improve learning outcomes. For example, children with below-average learning outcomes in poorly resourced environments are likely to show measurable gains when provided additional support (e.g. instructional support, learning resources, management support, demand-side incentives).Publication Lesotho : A Safety Net to End Extreme Poverty(Washington, DC, 2006-10-16)The objective of this study is to help the government to decide what role safety net and transfer programs should play in the coming 5 to 10 years. It seeks to answer following three questions: (i) can increased spending on transfers accelerate poverty reduction in the medium to long term?; (ii) which groups and aspects of poverty will it make sense to target with transfers?; and (iii) which programs will have the greatest impact at an affordable cost? This study examined such programs in Lesotho both ones that currently exist, and the potential scope for using instruments that may not currently exist. It also widened its scope to examine all programs that transfer public resources directly to households such as agricultural subsidies and university bursaries. It analyzed them through the lens of their impact on the poor because it is important to evaluate public spending and trade-offs in the context of where public funds are currently being spent and what distributional impact they are having. The assumption underlying this analysis throughout the report is that the over-riding objective of both the government and its development partners is to reduce the high levels of poverty and inequality that persist in Lesotho. This report is organized as follows: chapter one explores the country context and fiscal space for public expenditure on social safety nets. Chapter two examines the dynamics of poverty in Lesotho and the characteristics of the major vulnerable groups and discusses which of these groups it will make most sense for the social safety net to target. Chapter three analyzes Lesotho's existing transfer programs. Chapter four reviews institutional and capacity issues. Chapter five presents options for a long-term package of social safety nets and associated costs, makes some recommendations for strengthening existing programs, and suggests which type of programs it might be cost-effective to expand.Publication Empowering Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa : Best Practices(World Bank, Washington, DC, 1995-02)This article previews a study defining "farmer empowerment" (increasing the capacities of disadvantaged people to move out of poverty). The study discusses specific country case studies (Uganda, Nambia, Cameroon, Burundi, Mali, and Madagascar) and their dealings with farmer organizations and practices.Publication Mozambique - Improving the Quality of University Graduates(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2003-07)In 1990, Mozambique had fewer than 3,000 university-trained persons. Less than 15 percent of civil service personnel had a university degree, and more than a third of civil servants had less than seven years of primary education. Highly trained and professionally experienced Mozambicans tended to gravitate towards the private sector. Consequently, the planning and management of both public and private sector activities were adversely impacted. This Infobrief focuses on the expansion in the quantity and improvement in the quality of university graduates, a specific objective of the World Bank-assisted Capacity Building: Human Resources Development project which was implemented between 1993 and 2001. The number of students graduating annually from UEM has increased five times during project implementation (1994-2001), from 148 in 1994 to 695 in 2000. The percentage of graduates who complete all degree requirements within the official prescribed time has increased from 5 percent in 1997 to 15 percent in 2000. The overall average examination pass rate has improved from 39 percent in 1994 to 53 percent in 2000. Under the project, 4,350 book titles were imported and 159 textbook titles were produced locally. While the targeted number of books distributed to each student was five, survey questionnaires to a sample of economics and engineering students found that each student had 7-10 books. Critical capacity building needs in the Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) were addressed through a strategy based on linking with selected universities outside the country. Libraries and reading space serving the faculties of agriculture, architecture, economics, veterinary science and medicine were expanded. Overall, about 50 percent of the university infrastructure was rehabilitated as planned.