Publication: Gender Dimensions in the Educational Sector in Romania: Background Study for the Romania Gender Assessment
Loading...
Date
2023-11-29
ISSN
Published
2023-11-29
Author(s)
Editor(s)
Abstract
Addressing gender inequalities in educational outcomes is crucial from a human rights and development perspective. Building human capital early in life has crucial implications for developmental and labor market outcomes later in life. In this background note, prepared to inform the Romania Gender Assessment 2023, we rely on a variety of data sources to descriptively study gender inequalities in educational outcomes, such as enrollment rates and test scores, in Romania. We analyze these inequalities for the total population as well as for different income groups andregions. Our evidence shows that gender equality in aggregate estimates often masks important inequalities between subgroups. While in some cases, boys outperform girls, there are also cases in which girls outperform boys. These patterns differ across income groups, regions, and educational levels. Based on this evidence, the Romanian government should take a nuanced approach to achieving gender equality in the educational sector. Moreover, we find that—in the case of all indicators—both Romanian girls and boys perform significantly below the European average and thatthere are some negative trends over time, especially with respect to enrollment rates in secondary schools and school performance. Reversing these trends is crucial to ensure the full development of both boys and girls. Moreover, although girls outperform boys in several educational outcomes, these advantages do not translate into the labor market. We identify several constraints that could drive(reversed) gender gaps in educational outcomes: social norms and gender stereotypes (at home and within the schooling system), relatively low public spending on education at nearly all levels, marginalization and discrimination, teenage pregnancy, and school-based violence. We generate evidence on intergenerational educational persistence, which affects girls more. Moreover, we identify a lack of systematic evidence on what works best to close these gaps, and several important data limitations, such as a lack of indicators that clearly identify Roma children. Lastly, we identify ten high-level policy areas and recommend tailored policy interventions to address gender inequalities ineducation in Romania.
Link to Data Set
Citation
“Robayo-Abril, Monica; Rude, Britta. 2023. Gender Dimensions in the Educational Sector in Romania: Background Study for the Romania Gender Assessment. © World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/40669 License: CC BY-NC 3.0 IGO.”
Associated URLs
Associated content
Other publications in this report series
Journal
Journal Volume
Journal Issue
Collections
Related items
Showing items related by metadata.
Publication Gender Equality in Romania(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2023-11-29)This Country Gender Assessment (CGA) presents updated evidence on the recent gender gaps in Romania and identifies entry points for the sustainable reduction of gender inequalities to support the World Bank country program and the Romanian government’s efforts. This CGA updates the 2018 Romania Gender Assessment (World Bank 2018a) while adding new insights concerning the key drivers and policies to reduce gender inequalities in the country. The report diagnoses the most critical barriers (structural, institutional, and behavioral) that females face, particularly when accessing education and employment, and further, how women’s employment and educational outcomes are constrained to a greater degree than the same outcomes for males. This is informed by key findings from thematic studies or “deep dives” into areas that have been identified as key determinants of the gender gaps inthe country19 and where knowledge gaps in the country or the lack of recent information are hindering the development and implantation of evidence-based policy. It also presents rigorous evidence on what works in countries with similar income levels and contexts to address those barriers in order to highlight policies and interventions that can move the needle toward gender equality. This analysis aimsto strengthen the knowledge base so as to inform the design of policies and interventions to improve progress toward gender equality. In particular, it is expected to inform the government’s and the World Bank’s efforts to close the gender gaps.Publication The Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship in Romania(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2023-11-29)Although female entrepreneurship is crucial to generating sustainable and equitable growth patterns, international evidence shows that women tend to be underrepresented in entrepreneurship, and this gender gap has exhibited remarkable persistence. In this study, we first measure the gender gap in entrepreneurship in Romania by using various data sources. We observe significant gender gaps, with the average gender gap in self-employment rates being 4.2 percentage points when abstracting from observable characteristics. Even when controlling for observable characteristics, the gender gap is persistent (3.7 percentage points). Other measures, such as the share of firms with female owners and top managers, indicate that the gap could be even larger. Moreover, we observe that the entrepreneurial gender gap varies across income quintiles and between rural and urban areas. In the second step, we analyze the potential drivers of women’s engaging less in entrepreneurship by following the model of the “5 M’s” developed by Brush, De Bruin, and Welter (2009). We find that the following drivers play a role in the entrepreneurial gender gap in Romania: gender gaps in financial inclusion and access to assets, harmful gender norms, motherhood, lack of childcare, and eldercare. Our findings suggest the need for a nuanced approach toward female entrepreneurship that factors in the distinct challenges of different groups of women and consists of a menu of policy interventions. Policies should range from improving women’s access to relevant assets, human capital, and networks to addressing harmful gender norms and sparking an entrepreneurial culture in Romania more generally. Lastly, our evidence indicates that women are more interested in “impact” entrepreneurship. As women entrepreneurs in Romania mainly operate in the primary sector, givingthem a leading role in the green transition has great potential for more sustainable and equitable growth patterns.Publication Preparatory School Years and Maternal Employment in Romania(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2023-12-19)This paper uses the introduction of preparatory school classes targeting six-year-old children in Romania to study whether universal, compulsory, public care provision could increase female employment. Results from difference-in-difference estimations show that the reform resulted in rising employment rates for mothers of six-year-old children. The effect is lower for mothers living in households with elderly people, but larger for those facing stronger trade-offs prior to the reform. Overall, investing in universal, compulsory, public childcare is beneficial and could significantly increase female employment and labor force participation rates.Publication Bulgaria Gender Landscape(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-30)According to the 2023 Gender Equality Index (EIGI) by the European Institute for Gender Equality, which measures gender equality across six dimensions,1 Bulgaria has closed critical gaps in gender equality. Still, more progress is needed to catch up with EU peers. Bulgaria has improved its Gender Equality Index scores, which are consistently and significantly lower than the EU average. In 2023, Bulgaria scored 65.1 out of 100 on the EIGI, ranking in the 12th -lowest place among the EU-27 countries and 5.1 points below the average score for the EU (figure 1). Since 2020, Bulgaria’s score has increased by 4.4 points, one of the biggest improvements among EU member states. Despite improvements, the country ranks lower than the European average in all subindicators, except in the power dimension. In addition, its progress in gender equality was slower, ensuring growing disparities between that country and the EU over time. Comparing the six available subindicators with the EU averages, Bulgaria performs well in the power and time dimensions. Still, it performs poorly in the money and health dimensions, falling significantly behind the European average.2 Going beyond composite indicators, the country lags in several dimensions. These include selected aspects of human endowments, economic opportunities (as measured by participation in economic activities and access to and control of critical productive assets), and voice and agency, as expressed in political participation, freedom from gender-based violence, and the ability to make key decisions.Publication Understanding and Addressing Energy Poverty in Romania(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-09-17)Addressing energy poverty is paramount for economic development, given its close connection to income poverty. Research indicates that lower-income households are disproportionately affected by energy price increases. Such households lack the financial means to absorb these shocks, which can lead to decreased overall welfare. This vulnerability can result in households’ refraining from using energy or using less efficient and dirtier technologies and sources, particularly during winter, which poses health risks. Moreover, global evidence suggests that residing in energy-deprived circumstances adversely affects overall well-being, human development, and environmental outcomes. The imperative to measure and address energy poverty in Romania is underscored by the potential development benefits and the European Commission’s prioritization of this issue within the European Just Transition context. This report aims to fill that gap by providing evidence on critical questions about the energy status of Romanian households. The report focuses on four key topics, relying on existing official household surveys and new qualitative and quantitative data collected in June–July 2023, with the aim of providing an updated snapshot of energy vulnerability among Romanian households.
Users also downloaded
Showing related downloaded files
Publication World Development Report 2006(Washington, DC, 2005)This year’s Word Development Report (WDR), the twenty-eighth, looks at the role of equity in the development process. It defines equity in terms of two basic principles. The first is equal opportunities: that a person’s chances in life should be determined by his or her talents and efforts, rather than by pre-determined circumstances such as race, gender, social or family background. The second principle is the avoidance of extreme deprivation in outcomes, particularly in health, education and consumption levels. This principle thus includes the objective of poverty reduction. The report’s main message is that, in the long run, the pursuit of equity and the pursuit of economic prosperity are complementary. In addition to detailed chapters exploring these and related issues, the Report contains selected data from the World Development Indicators 2005‹an appendix of economic and social data for over 200 countries. This Report offers practical insights for policymakers, executives, scholars, and all those with an interest in economic development.Publication Classroom Assessment to Support Foundational Literacy(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2025-03-21)This document focuses primarily on how classroom assessment activities can measure students’ literacy skills as they progress along a learning trajectory towards reading fluently and with comprehension by the end of primary school grades. The document addresses considerations regarding the design and implementation of early grade reading classroom assessment, provides examples of assessment activities from a variety of countries and contexts, and discusses the importance of incorporating classroom assessment practices into teacher training and professional development opportunities for teachers. The structure of the document is as follows. The first section presents definitions and addresses basic questions on classroom assessment. Section 2 covers the intersection between assessment and early grade reading by discussing how learning assessment can measure early grade reading skills following the reading learning trajectory. Section 3 compares some of the most common early grade literacy assessment tools with respect to the early grade reading skills and developmental phases. Section 4 of the document addresses teacher training considerations in developing, scoring, and using early grade reading assessment. Additional issues in assessing reading skills in the classroom and using assessment results to improve teaching and learning are reviewed in section 5. Throughout the document, country cases are presented to demonstrate how assessment activities can be implemented in the classroom in different contexts.Publication Lebanon Economic Monitor, Fall 2022(Washington, DC, 2022-11)The economy continues to contract, albeit at a somewhat slower pace. Public finances improved in 2021, but only because spending collapsed faster than revenue generation. Testament to the continued atrophy of Lebanon’s economy, the Lebanese Pound continues to depreciate sharply. The sharp deterioration in the currency continues to drive surging inflation, in triple digits since July 2020, impacting the poor and vulnerable the most. An unprecedented institutional vacuum will likely further delay any agreement on crisis resolution and much needed reforms; this includes prior actions as part of the April 2022 International Monetary Fund (IMF) staff-level agreement (SLA). Divergent views among key stakeholders on how to distribute the financial losses remains the main bottleneck for reaching an agreement on a comprehensive reform agenda. Lebanon needs to urgently adopt a domestic, equitable, and comprehensive solution that is predicated on: (i) addressing upfront the balance sheet impairments, (ii) restoring liquidity, and (iii) adhering to sound global practices of bail-in solutions based on a hierarchy of creditors (starting with banks’ shareholders) that protects small depositors.Publication The Journey Ahead(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-10-31)The Journey Ahead: Supporting Successful Migration in Europe and Central Asia provides an in-depth analysis of international migration in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) and the implications for policy making. By identifying challenges and opportunities associated with migration in the region, it aims to inform a more nuanced, evidencebased debate on the costs and benefits of cross-border mobility. Using data-driven insights and new analysis, the report shows that migration has been an engine of prosperity and has helped address some of ECA’s demographic and socioeconomic disparities. Yet, migration’s full economic potential remains untapped. The report identifies multiple barriers keeping migration from achieving its full potential. Crucially, it argues that policies in both origin and destination countries can help maximize the development impacts of migration and effectively manage the economic, social, and political costs. Drawing from a wide range of literature, country experiences, and novel analysis, The Journey Ahead presents actionable policy options to enhance the benefits of migration for destination and origin countries and migrants themselves. Some measures can be taken unilaterally by countries, whereas others require close bilateral or regional coordination. The recommendations are tailored to different types of migration— forced displacement as well as high-skilled and low-skilled economic migration—and from the perspectives of both sending and receiving countries. This report serves as a comprehensive resource for governments, development partners, and other stakeholders throughout Europe and Central Asia, where the richness and diversity of migration experiences provide valuable insights for policy makers in other regions of the world.Publication Argentina Country Climate and Development Report(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2022-11)The Argentina Country Climate and Development Report (CCDR) explores opportunities and identifies trade-offs for aligning Argentina’s growth and poverty reduction policies with its commitments on, and its ability to withstand, climate change. It assesses how the country can: reduce its vulnerability to climate shocks through targeted public and private investments and adequation of social protection. The report also shows how Argentina can seize the benefits of a global decarbonization path to sustain a more robust economic growth through further development of Argentina’s potential for renewable energy, energy efficiency actions, the lithium value chain, as well as climate-smart agriculture (and land use) options. Given Argentina’s context, this CCDR focuses on win-win policies and investments, which have large co-benefits or can contribute to raising the country’s growth while helping to adapt the economy, also considering how human capital actions can accompany a just transition.