Publication: Trends and Linkages in Schooling and Work Among Cambodian Youth: A Synthetic Panel Analysis
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2016-10-30
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2019-05-10
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During the decades following the Khmer Rouge regime of the 1970’s and Vietnamese occupation in the 80’s, the Cambodian government focused on rebuilding what had been destroyed during that time. There was a renewed focus on the education sector: the 90’s and 2000’s saw large-scale reconstruction of schools and policies which increased access to schooling. Reports estimating schooling outcomes have found corresponding increases in schooling enrollment. To add to existing literature we analyze 11 years of nationally-representative cross-sectional data in a new way: using a cohort panel approach developed by Deaton in his 1985 paper (Deaton 1985). We construct a panel of 19 cohorts spanning birth years 1980 to 1998 and estimate their life cycle trajectories as these cohorts aged from youth into early adulthood. This approach allows us to control for contemporaneous time effects and trace out the smoothed cohort and age trends in schooling and work outcomes. We answer the question “For a given age, have schooling and work outcomes improved or declined with more recent versus older cohorts? Are there differences in improvement or decline when comparing males versus females, rural versus urban youth?” Using the variation in experiences across cohorts, we are additionally able provide evidence on how early youth experiences translate to outcomes later in life.
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“World Bank. 2016. Trends and Linkages in Schooling and Work Among Cambodian Youth: A Synthetic Panel Analysis. © World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/31680 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.”
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Publication Trends and Linkages in Schooling and Work among Cambodian Youth(World Bank, Washington, DC, 2017-03-28)Cambodia’s education sector has faced and overcome a number of challenges in recent history. Several decades of political and social unrest caused by the Khmer Rouge regime of the 1970s and Vietnamese occupation in the 1980’s dealt a severe blow to the education system and left it in a state of disintegration. Primary and secondary enrollment through to the 1980’s fell, with school attendance dramatically lower for individuals who were teenagers in 1975 compared to previous or subsequent cohorts (de Walque, 2004). There were improvements by the following decade: The Paris Agreements and beginnings of UN sponsored elections ushered in a renewed focus on building and reconstructing schools and increasing the national budget allocation toward education, which reached 15.7 percent in 2001 (GAD/C 2002). Recent generations of youth enjoy greater access to schooling than previous ones; 49 percent of youth finish their education at a level higher than their father and 63 percent finish at a level higher than their mother (ILO, 2013). Net primary enrollments increased from 84 percent in 1992 to 96.4 percent in 2012, and net secondary enrollments from 16.6 percent in 2000 to 35 percent in 2012 (Tandon and Fukao, 2015). The labor market in Cambodia also went through a transformation in part due tostrong economic growth for the last two decades: salaried employment rose one-third in this period from 23 percent in 2004 to 30 percent in 2011 (ILO, 2013). As of 2015, Cambodia has attained the lower-middle-income status, with gross national income (GNI) per capita reaching US$1,070. Section one presents the data, a general overview of the cohort panel approach, and initial visual evidence on and discussion of cross-cohort patterns. 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This study attempts to characterize the NEETs by age, gender, education and their activity status. The main findings of this study are listed are as follows: first, the authors find that in the post-2009 period the youth NEET rate for the ECA region was 19.60 percent, which is higher than the OECD youth NEET rate of 16 in 2011 (OECD 2013). Second, this study finds that the NEET rate prior to the financial crisis in 2009 was on the decline, and increased in the post-2009 period. Third, this study finds that the NEET rate for ECA is higher for women than for men for all years. However, since the financial crisis in 2009, the gender gap has declined from 4.64 in pre-2009 to 2.75 percentage points in post-2009, suggesting that young men were more adversely affected by the recession than women. Forth, this study finds that in the ECA region youth males are more often classified as NEETs but active in the labor market, and youth females are more often classified as NEETs but inactive in the labor market. Fifth, using a linear probability model, this study finds that individuals, who are 20-24 years of age, have a lower level of educational attainment and married females are more likely to be NEET. Also, individuals living in urban areas and with lower household sizes are less likely to be NEET. Sixth, another linear probability model was constructed using household budget surveys for six countries in ECA from 2009. The main finding from this model was that NEET youths tend to live in households with lower per capita consumption than their non-NEET counterparts. Seventh, there is an increase in the NEET (unemployed) rate after the crisis, while the NEET (inactive) rate stayed roughly constant.
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