Journal Issue: World Bank Research Observer, Volume 39, Issue 2
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Volume
39
Number
2
Issue Date
2024-08
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Articles
School Meals Are Evolving
(Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the World Bank, 2024-02-23) Alderman, Harold; Bundy, Donald; Gelli, Aulo
School meal programs are popular
social programs. They are provided to 61 percent of primary
students in high-income countries but to a smaller share of
students in less wealthy countries. There is a body of
evidence documenting their contribution to education, health
and nutrition, and social protection. But in each domain,
program objectives have evolved: schooling is recognized to
be more about learning than grades obtained; nutrition goals
include healthy diets that reduce risks of non-communicable
diseases and are more environmentally responsible; social
protection programs aim to respond to acute crises and
address chronic poverty. In addition to assisting in these
sectors, school meal programs are tasked with creating food
systems that assist smallholder farmers, an endeavor that
has yet to be extensively studied. This review examines the
latest evidence on these evolving dimensions of school meal
programs. Findings suggest that while there is a strong
evidence base for school meals, there are also specific gaps
in the evidence of effectiveness and a particular lack of
clarity around costs. The country-led School Meals
Coalition, developed in response to COVID pandemic-related
school closures, has brought new momentum to national
programs and new urgency for reliable evidence on
effectiveness and costs.
Impacts of Extreme Weather Events on Education Outcomes
(Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the World Bank, 2024-04-08) Venegas Marin, Sergio; Schwarz, Lara; Sabarwal, Shwetlena
Extreme weather events are
increasingly disrupting schooling. Yet, these are
underrepresented in the climate change literature. Of 15
review articles on the economic impacts of climate change
published since 2010, only three mention the impacts of
climate change on education. We review available literature
on the effects of weather extremes on education. We outline
key pathways through which these events impact education
outcomes, as well as the magnitude of those impacts.
Evidence implies a significant and adverse relationship
between heat and learning. Studies suggest surpassing a high
temperature threshold makes learning difficult and results
in learning losses. Across studies, each additional day
subject to extreme heat reduces learning. Tropical cyclones,
floods, and wildfires precipitate school closures, which
halt learning. Evidence suggests that one day of school
closures leads to one day of learning lost. Weather extremes
also negatively impact education outcomes through health,
nutrition, poverty, and fragility, among other distal
pathways. We discuss the implications of this evidence for
policy, including the need to adapt education systems to
climate change. Mitigation and adaptation are both urgently
needed as extreme weather events become more frequent and
severe in the context of climate change.
Measuring Total Carbon Pricing
(Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the World Bank, 2023-09-27) Agnolucci, Paolo; Fischer, Carolyn; Heine, Dirk; Montes de Oca Leon, Mariza; Pryor, Joseph; Patroni, Kathleen; Hallegatte, Stéphane
While countries increasingly commit
to pricing greenhouse gases directly through carbon taxes or
emissions trading systems, indirect forms of carbon pricing
- such as fuel excise taxes and fuel subsidy reforms -
remain important factors affecting the mitigation incentives
in an economy. Taken together, how can policy makers think
about the overall price signal for carbon emissions and the
incentive it creates We develop a methodology for
calculating a total carbon price applied to carbon emissions
in a sector, a fuel, or the whole economy. We recognize that
rarely is a single carbon price applied across an economy;
many direct carbon pricing instruments target specific
sectors or even fuels, much like indirect taxes on fossil
fuels; and carbon and fuel taxes can be substituted for one
another. Tracking progress on carbon pricing thus requires
following both kinds of price interventions, their coverage,
and specific exemptions. This inclusive total carbon pricing
measure can facilitate progress in discussions on minimum
carbon price commitments and inform assessments of the
pricing of carbon embodied in traded goods. Calculations
across 142 countries from 1991 to 2021 indicate that
although direct carbon pricing now covers roughly
one-quarter of global emissions, the global total carbon
price is not that much higher than it was in 1994 when the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
entered into force. Indirect carbon pricing still comprises
the lion's share of the global total carbon price, and
it has stagnated. Taking these policy measures into account
reveals that many developing countries - particularly net
fuel importers - contribute substantially to global carbon
pricing. Tackling fuel subsidy reform and pricing coal and
natural gas emissions more fully would have a profound
effect on aligning carbon prices across countries and
sectors and with their climate costs.
Is There Job Polarization in Developing Economies? A Review and Outlook
(Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the World Bank, 2023-08-22) Martins Neto, Antonio; Mathew, Nanditha; Mohnen, Pierre; Treibich, Tania
In this paper we analyze the evidence of job polarization—the relative decline of mid-wage jobs—in developing and emerging economies. We carry out an extensive literature review, revealing that job polarization in these countries is only incipient compared to advanced economies. We then examine the possible moderating aspects explaining this lack of job polarization. We distinguish three groups of explanations: Limited technology adoption; structural change; and changes in the global value chains. Finally, we suggest new microeconomic data and empirical analyses that should be developed in order to guide evidence-based policy-making addressing those issues in developing and emerging economies.
Revisiting the Measurement of Digital Inclusion
(Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the World Bank, 2023-10-18) Sharp, Matthew
As it becomes increasingly clear how
central digital transformation is to development, the need
for clarifying concepts and for coming up with standardized
and accurate measures for digital inclusion becomes more
urgent. Focusing on the internet as a foundational
technology, this paper sets out a framework of core
components of digital inclusion—including access/use,
quality of access/use, affordability, and digital skills.
The paper then surveys the ways these components are
currently measured in household and firm surveys and by
international organizations. Building on simple descriptive
analysis of data from a wide range of sources, the paper
highlights some of the often-overlooked weaknesses of
current measures, and suggests possible improvements. The
paper argues that (a) metrics for certain core components of
digital inclusion - including quality of access/use and
digital skills are relatively underdeveloped, (b) some
questions on technology use and skills may need to be
adapted to developing country settings, (c) more attention
should be paid to within-country inequalities in statistics
reported by international organizations, (d) currently
available digital inclusion indices are not very useful, and
(e) there is much potential in using big data methods to
measure digital inclusion.