Hammitt, JamesRobinson, Lisa2014-05-132014-05-132009-07https://hdl.handle.net/10986/18289Over the past two decades, the growing awareness of the role that emissions play in human health and environmental degradation had led to a general movement in many parts of the world to control emissions to reduce the impacts. This movement has mainly taken two forms: 1) the development and subsequent required use of control devices for stationary sources and vehicle sources and, 2) changes in the specifications of transportation fuels to reduce emissions of the major pollutants. These trends originated in the industrialized countries and are now spreading, at different rates, throughout the world. As in other world regions, the first improvement in the specifications of transportation fuels in Sub-Saharan Africa was the elimination of lead. The phase out of lead is now complete and the World Bank and its partners are looking at the next step the reduction of sulfur in transportation fuels. The growing complexity of the vehicle emission control technologies for both personal vehicles and commercial trucks and the concomitant need for clean fuels.In addition to the growing awareness of the human health and environmental impact of vehicle source emissions, have placed increasing requirements on refineries. Sulfur is not an additive but a natural part of crude oil. Its removal processes presents both technological and economic challenges to refiners. However, by coming later than Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) regions to ultra-low sulfur fuels, SSA refineries are in a position to benefit from the operating experience and process improvements obtained elsewhere in the refining industry.en-USCC BY 3.0 IGOAIRAIR EMISSIONAIR EMISSIONSAIR POLLUTANTAIR POLLUTANTSAIR POLLUTIONAIR QUALITYAIR QUALITY MODELINGAIR QUALITY RESULTINGALKYLATIONALKYLATION UNITSAMBIENT AIRAMBIENT AIR CONCENTRATIONSAMBIENT AIR QUALITYAPPROACHAROMATICSASTHMA ATTACKSAVAILABILITYBENZENEBENZENE CONTENTBENZENE EMISSIONSBENZENE EXPOSUREBUSESCARBONCARBON MONOXIDECARSCATALYTIC CONVERTERSCATALYTIC REDUCTIONCETANE INDEXCHEMICALSCHRONIC BRONCHITISCLEAN AIRCLEAN AIR INITIATIVECLEAN FUELCLEAN FUELSCLEAN TRANSPORTATIONCLEANER FUELSCLIMATECOCO2COMMERCIAL ENERGYCOMMERCIAL TRUCKSCRUDE DISTILLATIONCRUDE OILDEMAND FOR PETROLEUM PRODUCTSDESULFURIZATIONDESULFURIZATION CAPACITYDIESELDIESEL VEHICLESDISTILLATIONDOMESTIC EMISSIONSDRIVERSDUSTELASTICITIESELASTICITYEMISSIONEMISSION CONTROLEMISSION DATAEMISSION FACTORSEMISSIONS DATAEMISSIONS FACTORSEMISSIONS INVENTORIESEMISSIONS RESULTSENERGY DEMANDENERGY EFFICIENCYENERGY USEENGINESENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITSENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATIONENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIONENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCYFEEDSTOCKSFUELFUEL IMPROVEMENTSFUEL OILFUEL PRICESFUEL PRODUCTSFUEL QUALITYFUEL SPECIFICATIONSFUEL STANDARDSFUEL SULFURFUEL SUPPLYFUEL USEFUELSGASGAS FLARINGGAS FLARING REDUCTIONGASOLINEGASOLINE DESULFURIZATIONGROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCTHEALTH EFFECTSHOUSEHOLD ENERGYHOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURESHYDROCRACKINGHYDROGENHYDROGEN PLANTIMPORTS OF ETHANOLINDUSTRIAL POLLUTIONINFRASTRUCTURE CAPACITYINJURIESINJURYINSPECTIONINTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONSISOMERIZATIONLIFE EXPECTANCYLNGLUBRICITYMEDICAL TREATMENTMETEOROLOGYMINERAL RESOURCESMORTALITYMOTOR VEHICLESMOTORCYCLE EMISSIONSMOTORCYCLE TRAVELMOTORCYCLE USEMOTORCYCLESMTBENITRATENITROGENNITROGEN DIOXIDENITROGEN OXIDESNO2NOXO3OIL COMPANIESOIL PRICEOIL PRODUCERSOILSOXIDATION CATALYSTOZONEPARTICULATEPARTICULATE MATTERPARTICULATESPERSONAL VEHICLESPETROLEUMPETROLEUM DEMANDPETROLEUM INDUSTRYPETROLEUM PRODUCT SUPPLYPETROLEUM PRODUCTSPM10POLLUTANT EMISSIONPOLLUTANT EMISSIONSPOLLUTANT REDUCTIONSPOLLUTION ABATEMENTPOLLUTION CONTROLPOLLUTION LEVELSPOPULATION DENSITYPOWERPUBLIC HEALTHQUALITY OF TRANSPORTATIONQUANTITATIVE ANALYSISREDUCTION IN EMISSIONSREFINERYREFINERY CAPACITYREFINERY CLOSURESREFINERY FUELREFINERY OPERATIONSRESIDUAL FUELRESIDUAL FUEL OILROADROADSSO2SULFATESULFURSULFUR CONTENTSULFUR DIOXIDESUPPLY COSTSTOTAL EMISSIONSTRAFFICTRAFFIC CONGESTIONTRANSPARENCYTRANSPORTTRANSPORT AUTHORITYTRANSPORT FUELSTRANSPORTATIONTRANSPORTATION FUELSTYPES OF VEHICLESUNEPURBAN AIR QUALITYURBAN AREASURBAN TRANSPORTVAPOR PRESSUREVEHICLEVEHICLE EMISSIONVEHICLE EMISSION CONTROLVEHICLE EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIESVEHICLE EMISSIONSVEHICLE FLEETVEHICLE FLEETSVEHICLE KILOMETERSVEHICLE TYPESVEHICLE USEVEHICLESVOCVOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDSWEALTHWINDWIND SPEED10.1596/18289