Sonderholm, Jorn2012-03-192012-03-192010-03-01https://hdl.handle.net/10986/3714The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights negotiated in 1986 under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the institutional predecessor of the World Trade Organization, incorporated substantial and uniform protections of intellectual property rights into the international trade system. A large body of contemporary academic literature suggests that intellectual property rights on socially valuable goods such as essential medicines give rise to a number of ethical problems. This review paper seeks to give an overview of these problems. Moreover, it offers an outline and discussion of a number of proposals as to how these problems might be alleviated. The paper is primarily descriptive in character. This means that although a personal perspective is sometimes offered, the primary ambition of the paper is not to argue for, and defend, a particular solution to the issues discussed. The aim is rather to highlight, explain and put into perspective a number of important arguments in the debate on the ethical nature of intellectual property rights so that policy-makers and other stakeholders are relatively well-equipped to make up their own mind on the issue.CC BY 3.0 IGOBACK UPBIOMEDICAL RESEARCHBUYERBUYERSBUYING POWERCANCERCARDIOVASCULAR DISEASESCDSCITIZENSCONSUMERSCREDIBILITYDEVELOPING COUNTRIESDEVELOPING COUNTRYDEVELOPMENT EFFORTSDEVELOPMENT POLICYDIFFERENTIAL PRICINGDIRECT INVESTMENTDISABILITYDISEASESDOMAINDRINKING WATERDRUGSECONOMIC INEFFICIENCYECONOMIC JUSTIFICATIONECONOMIC POLICIESECONOMIC RESOURCESECONOMIC THEORYELECTRICITYEMERGENCIESEPIDEMICESSENTIAL DRUGSESSENTIAL MEDICINESEXCLUSIVE RIGHTSFAIRFINANCIAL RESOURCESFOREIGN INVESTMENTFOREIGN INVESTMENTSFREE TRADEFUTURE RESEARCHGEOGRAPHIC REGIONSGLOBAL DEVELOPMENTGLOBAL HEALTHGLOBAL MARKETGOVERNMENT FUNDINGGREENHOUSE GASESHEALTH IMPACTHEALTH PROBLEMSHUMAN ACTIVITYHUMAN DEVELOPMENTHUMAN RIGHTSHUMAN WELFAREILLNESSESIMMUNIZATIONINCOMEINFANTINFECTIOUS DISEASESINFERIOR PRODUCTSINNOVATIONINNOVATION POLICYINNOVATIONSINSTITUTIONINSURANCEINSURANCE COMPANIESINTELLECTUAL PROPERTYINTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAWINTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTIONINTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTSINTERNATIONAL BANKINTERNATIONAL MARKETINTERNATIONAL TRADEINVENTIONINVENTIONSINVESTINGIPJOURNAL OF MEDICINEJUDICIAL PROCESSLARGE NUMBER OF PEOPLELEGAL ENFORCEMENTLEGAL ENVIRONMENTSLEGAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL ISSUESLEGAL OBLIGATIONLICENSELICENSE FEELICENSESLOST PROFITSLOW-INCOME COUNTRIESLOW-INCOME COUNTRYLOW-INCOME POPULATIONSMALARIAMANDATESMANUFACTURINGMANUFACTURING INDUSTRIESMARGINAL COSTMARGINAL COST OF PRODUCTIONMARGINAL COSTSMARGINAL PRODUCTIVITYMARKET CONDITIONSMARKET ENTRYMARKET FAILUREMARKET INCENTIVESMARKET PRICEMARKET SHAREMARKET SHARESMARKETINGMEASLESMEDICAL NEEDSMEDICAL PROFESSIONALSMONOPOLYMONOPOLY PRICESMOSQUITO NETNATIONAL GOVERNMENTSNATIONAL HEALTH SYSTEMSNATURAL RESOURCENATURAL RESOURCESNUMBER OF PEOPLENUMBER OF PERSONSOPEN ACCESSORIGINAL CONTRACTSPANDEMICPATENTSPERSONAL FREEDOMPHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIESPHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTUREPOLICY RESEARCHPOLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPERPREMATURE DEATHPRICE CONTROLSPRICE DISCRIMINATIONPRICING SCHEMEPRICING SCHEMESPRIVATE PROPERTYPRODUCT QUALITYPRODUCTIVITYPRODUCTIVITY GROWTHPROFIT MOTIVEPROGRESSPROPERTY RIGHTPUBLIC GOODPUBLIC HEALTHR&DREGISTRATION SYSTEMSRELIABILITYRESEARCH EFFORTSRESERVESRESPECTRESULTRESULTSRETURNRETURNSRICH POPULATIONSSALESSEARCHSHADOW PRICESIDE EFFECTSSOCIAL JUSTICESTORAGE CAPACITYSUPPLIERSSUPPLY CONTRACTTIME FRAMETRADE BARRIERSTRADE SYSTEMTRANSACTIONTRANSACTION COSTSTRANSPARENCYTRUST FUNDTUBERCULOSISURUGUAY ROUNDVACCINESVULNERABILITYWEALTHWEBWORLD TRADEWORLD TRADE ORGANIZATIONWTOWorld Bank10.1596/1813-9450-5228