ESMAP TECHNICAL PAPER e ~~~ ~~The World B"anK,, 022 LIM1 -* c C ean Air Initiativeir Sub-SaWran Affican Citie ; -^ 25223 s \~~~~~~n initrdq- u 'J - a dr? in Sub-Sah~4ran ASS'g )W.. . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Dakar, Senegal LedJued G26ofln 20n : X ii!;SjvtS d Afrkd **^~~ _ ___% -U,. Program (oordination for the (lean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan Afri(an (ities: Patrick Bultynck, Sr. Urban Transport Economist, The World Bank pbu Itynck@worldbank.org Chantal Reliquet, Sr. Urban Specialist, The World Bank creliquet@worldbank.org www.worldbank.org/dleanair www.worldbank.orq/afr/ssatp We qratefully a(knowledqe support from: Belgian Cooperation Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) Norwegian Cooperation US Agency for International Development (USAID) US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) ExxonMobil TIlE WORI.D BANK WASIIINGTON DC 20433 USA FOREWORD SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA IS NOW URBANIZING FASTERTTHAN ANY OTHER REGION IN THE WORLD,A SITATION GENERATING AN IMPORTANT INCREASE IN TRAVEL DISTANCES AS WELL AS IN THE NUMBER OF TRIPS MADE BY MOTORIZED TRANSPORT.TRAFFIC CONGESTION IS WORSENING,AFFECTING URBAN PRODUCTIVITY AND CAUSING A REAL THREAT TO HEALTH. SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA IS ONE OF THE FEW REGIONS OF THE WORLD STILL USING LEADED GASOUNE, CAUSING HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC LEAD,WHICH IN TURN HAVE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH,WITH CHILDREN BEING THE MOST AFFECTED.THE PHASE-OUT OF LEAD FROM GASOLINE ISAVITAL FIRST STEPTOAN OVERALL URBAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY, AND ONE WITH IMMEDIATE BENEFITS FOR THE POPULATION. THE CLEAN AIR INmATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, WHICH WAS LAUNCHED BY THE WORLD BANK IN 1998, AIMS TO ADDRESS THESE KEY ISSUES THROUGH ITS COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS. THESE DO NOT REPLACE THE EFFORTS OF GOVERNMENTS AND FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS, BUT RATHER COMPLEMENTS THEM BY CREATING NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR PARTNERSHIPS BETWEEN CmES, PRIVATE SECTOR COMPANIES, ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES, FOUNDATIONS AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS TOWARDS A COMMON GOAL OF IMPROVING URBAN AIR QUAUTY MANAGEMENT FOR THE WELL BEING OF THE POPULATION. A KEY ACTIvTY OF THE CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE IN 2001 WASTHE REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE PHASE-OUT OF LEAD FROM GASOUNE, HELD IN DAKAR, SENEGAL FROM JUNE - 26-28.THESE FROCEEDINGS SUMMARIZE THE KEY OUTCOMES OFTHE CONFERENCE,WITH A EACH PRESENTATION PROVIDED FOR THE VALUABLE INFORMATION CONTAINED WITHIN. TUE MAJOR OUT(OM[ Of Iff DAKAR (ONF[R[N([ WASTU[ FORMULATION Or A D[(LARATION, AGRE[D BY ALL PARTIES, STATING TUAT LEAD[D $ 6ASOLIN[ WILL B[ (OMPLETELY PRAS[D-OUT IN ALL SUB-SAflARAN A[RI(AN (OUNTRI[S AS SOON AS POSSIBLE, AND BY 2005 ATITUI LATIST. MICHELE E. DE NEVERS MANAGER ENVIRONMENT & NATURAL ==* E* ~. ... - RESOURCES DIVISION WORLD BANK INSTTUTE LETITIA A. OBENCG SECTOR MANAGER WATER AND URBAN - s -~t -. .. ~~CENTRAL AND WESTERN AFRICA REGION THE WORLD BANK AND ITS PARTNERS. INCLUDING THE ENERGY SECTOR MANAGEMENT ASSISTANCE PROGRAM (ESMAP), THE BELGtAN COOPERATION.THE NORWEGIAN TRUST FUND FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE OIL INDUSTRY,ARE COMMITTED TO THE CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE AND ITS ACTIVITIES, AND LOOK FORWARD TO COOPERATING WITH SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES IN THEIR URBAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT ENDEAVORS. TABL[ OF (ONTINTS 1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2.0 DECLARATION OF DAKAR 3.0 AGENDA 4.0 PRESENTATIONS 4.1 CONFERENCE OPENING: Dr. Frank Sprow,Vice President - Safety, Health & Envinnment, ExxonMobil 13 4.2 KEYNOTE ADDRESS: Ms. Letitia Obeng, World Bank . - - 17 4.3 CONFERENCE FRAMEWORK The Clean Air Initiative in sub-Saharan African cities - Mr. P Bukynck,World Bank and Ms. C Reliquet,WoHd Bank.. 19 4.4 IMPACTS OF LEADED GASOLINE Environmental & health impacts on adults & children - Dr. D. Schwela,WHO and Dr.J. Phoeni, NSC .. . 23 The case of Dakar - Dr.A Diouf Dakar University 37 Myths & realities of leaded gasoline - Mr.J. Rochow,AECLP 47 4.5 TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL ISSUES OF THE PHASE OUT OF LEADED GASOLINE Vehicle emissions standards - Ms.Jane Armstrong, USEPA 51 Fuels - Mr. Paul Beckwith, BP 55 4.6 FUEL REFINING & DISTRIBUTION ISSUES Fuel distribution logistics & infrastructure - Mr. Henry Ikem Obih, ExxonMobil 59 Octane replacement & fuel reformulation - Mr. Martin Megnin, Caktex - - 65 Refinery reconfiguration - Mr. Mamadou Nimaga, SAR, Senegal 69 4.7 OVERVIEW OF TECHNICAL, POLICY & REGULATORY OPTIONS IN INTEGRATING LEAD PHASE-OUT IN AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT STRATEGIES - Mr. E Mayorga-4Aba,World Bank 71 4.8 VEHICLE EMISSIONS Lead phase-out and emnission control: Southern African motor industry experience - Mr. Stuart Rayner, NAAMSA 77 Vehicle emission control - Mr. Mamadou Diallo,Vehicle Control Center, Burkina Faso 81 Correlations between air quality and vehicle emissions: impacts on costs - Prof W Hecq, University of Brussels 85 TABL[ OF (ONTINTS 4.9 AIR QUALITY MONITORING Environmental lead levels in African cities - Prof M.K Sridhar, Ibadan University 93 Air quality guidelines & monitoring program - Dr. D. Schwela, WHO . 99 4.10 PRICING AND REGULATORY ISSUES Economic and financial incentives. Regulation & standards: enforceable balance - Mr. Patrick Coayde, Beidp-Franlab 105 4.1 I POLICY STRATEGIES Promotion of public transport, land use control & city planning - Mr.Yves Amsler, UITP 109 4.12 SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMS OF LEAD PHASE-OUTS Cases of oil importing/exporting countries with or without refineries - Mr. Michel Muylle,World Bank 119 4.13 WORKING GROUPS West Africa 125 Nigeria and Neighboring Countries 129 West Central Africa .. . - 131 Southern Africa 133 East Africa 135 4.14 WRAP-UP AND NEXT STEPS: Mr. P. ButynckWorld Bank and Ms. C Reliquet ,World Bank 137 4. 15 CLOSING ADDRESS: Mr. Brian Doll, ExxonMobil 139 5.0 PARTICIPANT LIST 6.0 PARTNERS Regioatd C6oitf&Ww PhaseaO"tofLe&kd, y4=Xe-&rb fA6 S4WraAfrWuia Dakg, eg Jadt,26-28, 200 DRiUEM SUMMARY Leaded gasoline is the greatest single source of human exposure to lead. The health impacts of lead are serious, affecting the mental and physical development of children and causing elevated blood pressure, cardiovascular conditions, neurological and kidney disease among adults. While over 80 percent of the gasoline sold worldwide is now lead-free,Africa remains the exception. Switching quickly to unleaded gasoline is seen as a first step towards reducing air pollution in Africa, thereby improving the health and quality of life of millions, particularly the urban poor who suffer disproportionate exposure to air pollutants. As part of the regional Clean Air Initiative, a Conference on the Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa was organized by the World Bank and held at the Meridien President Hotel in Dakar, Senegal, from June 26 to June 28,2001. The spedfic objectives of the regional (onferen(e were to: I- Raise dwareness about the health impzcts of leaded gasoline and build (onsensus among the main stakeholders on the te(hni(al, regulatory, institutional, e(onomic issues and the prorties for implementing ledd phase-out programs. l- Deveiop adtion plans to phdse-out leaded gasoline with a timetable and monitorng indi(ators. The Conference was attended by almost 200 participants from 25 different countries, representing a diverse range of national and local government bodies, research and academic institutions, NGOs and international organizations. Three full days of presentations covered issues including the health, environmental, and economic impacts of using leaded gasoline,and the main features of technical,financial, regulatory and policy strategies required to help implement leaded gaso- line phase-out Several successful leaded gasoline phase-out experiences in Latin America and Asia were presented. Gasoline supply in Sub-Saharan Africa is provided by local refineries and complemented by imports.This pattern of supply can be subdivided into frve geographical sub-regions, each dominated by key refinery centers. A working group was formed for each of the five sub-regions. and discussion time allotted, with the aim of formulating action plans to phase out leaded gasoline from the region. Sub-Regions | Countries Key Refinery Centers West Africa Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, C6te d'Ivoire, Gambia, CMte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal NMauritania. Senegal. Sierra Leone Nigeria and Benin, Niger, Nigeria, Togo Nigeria Neighboring Countries West Central Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo Cameroon, Democratic Africa (Brazzaville), Democratic Republic of Congo Republic of Congo (Kinshasa), Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and (Kinshasa), Gabon Principe Southern Africa Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Lesotho, Madagascar, Angola, South Africa Mauritius. Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa. Swaziland, Zambia. Zimbabwe East Africa Burundi. Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti. Kenya, Malawi, Kenya ____________ Rwanda. Somalia, Sudan. Tanzania, Uganda l PegwnAt comftr td& P ef$ Dakar, Sewa1e 4, 2001 OUT(OMES Consensus emerged on: * The negative impact of lead, with children being the most affected * The urgent need to phase-out leaded gasoline * The need for cooperation at the sub-regional level, including harmonization of technical specifications * The need for collaboration with the petroleum and automobile industries * The lack of additional technical constraints for existing vehicles * The need for an overall implementation strategy (technical, institutional, financial and public information) The key result of the (onferen(e was the formulation of a De(laration, aqreed to by all parties, whi(h stdtes that leaded gasoline will be (ompletely phased out in all Sub-Saharan Afri(an (ountries as soon as possible, and by 2005 at the latest. * ACTION PLANS: SUB-REGIONALWORKING GROUPS: Each sub-regional group produced a preliminary "action plan" for lead phase-out Each region - determined by the configuration of its gasoline supply - submitted technical steps and specific timetables for phase-out Although the depth of recommendations varied, all regions agreed that full lead phase-out by 2005 was feasible. As a result the 'Declaration of Dakar' was produced and signed by all parties in attendance. The challenge will lie in the acceptance of such plans by national governments, and effective implementation in line with the agreed timetable. * NETWORK CREATION :The creation of the AFRICACLEAN network of air quality practitioners (at all levels) both throughout the region and internationally occurred as a result of the conference.The diversity of partici- pants indicated the very high level of interest in air quality management issues, and the formation of such a network was highlighted as one of the key components of the Initiative in the region. * KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT :The initial announcement regarding the Initiative and the conference reached over 400 potential participants, itself raising awareness of the issues across the region. A video and CD-ROM were produced prior to the event, detailing the issues and concerns regarding leaded fuels and lead phase-out Many background documents were prepared in both English and French for all participants. NUT SI[PS A series of actions are required to move lead phase-out forward and to develop both the network and governance mechanism: * ACTION PLANS : sub-regional working groups established. World Bank to monitor progress & development, disseminate early success stories * AWARENESS CAMPAIGN : a coherent campaign from a variety of partners. The World Bank will provide a central function via the websites: www.worldbank.org/cleanair and www.worldbankorg/afr/ssatp * DATABANK : much more information is required to effectively implement lead phase-out It is envisaged that the input of the petroleum industry here is key. * REGIONAL CONFERENCE: a follow-up conference will be held at the "Rio + 10" event in Durban, South Africa, September 2002 * STRENGTHENING PARTNERSHIPS : partnerships between regional & international organizations and networks, national and local governments, the private sector will be strengthened. 2 I x =x j.{gXy Reg0at cof rf em or X PA ag&-Ae- of LeAded g wsmb fStdrg/tAfnws Dakar, fexgaZ .Jw&26-28, 2001 DWLRA1ION OF DAKAR The parti(ipdnts from 25 Sub-Sdhdran Afri(an (ountries, representing governments, industry and (ivil sodety, and fom intemational orqanizations attending the Regiondl (onference on the Phasing Out of Leaded Gasoline (Dakar, June l6 - 28, 2001), (onsidering: * The recommendations and resolutions of WHO,WB and UNEP stating the high priority of lead phase out worldwide, * That surveys on blood lead levels in SSA city populations show that in many cases WHO guidelines are exceeded, bringing in particular at risk children's development and intellectual performance. * That delays to start using unleaded gasoline are precluding the introduction of vehicles equipped with catalytic converters and thus the development of urban clean air policies in growing cities of SSA. * The support expressed by the oil industry and the NGO community in favor of a prompt government action phasing out leaded gasoline. agree to: I. join efforts to accelerate the formulation and implementation of programs to completely phase out leaded gasoline in all SSA countries as soon as possible, latest by 2005. 2. Recommend governments to reduce the lead content in gasoline - currently 0.8 g/l in most SSA countries - to average not more than 0.4 g/l by 2002 and to an average not more than 0.2 g/l by 2003. 3. Encourage countries with independent import facilities to accelerate their respective lead phasing out pro- grams. 4. Harmonize the gasoline norms in all sub-regional markets, in order to foster intra-regional trade and traf- fic; and request IPIECA, in collaboration with national and international oil companies and representatives from the automobile industry, to assist in the formulation of a complete set of fuels technical specifications. S. Complete the sub-regional action plans within the next 12 months framing the respective national clean air programs. 6. Request the oil supply chain operators to improve their production, storage and distribution facilities in accordance with the target lead phase out frame. 7. Request WHO, UNEP,WB and bilateral environmental agencies such as USEPA to support SSA stakehold- ers in developing the capacity to implement the lead phase out programs within air quality management. 8. Develop an appropriate public information campaign with an active participation of NGOs community. 9. Request the WB and other international donor agencies to give a high priority to lead phase out in eco- nomic poiicy dialogues with the SSA governments and to continue supporting required technical assistance programs and assisting in the financing of viable investments. 10. Request OAU and other regional organizations (ECOWAS,WAEMU, SADCC, CAEMU, etc.) to endorse the phasing out of leaded gasoline in their priority programs and to contribute to the harmonization of stan- dards and technical specifications. Dezrtlon. of Voko 3 *1.- - 7k1 ~~~..~ ~ ~ r r Xt ~~~~~v AGENDA - a'g, Kd. . _ _ s _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~' JAegrlfUL Cofftrz&vP d&A40Ocatf _ A ax Afri~ DVAkar, SetegaL -JWtz26-28, 2001 AGNDA ru4rd4yju'i& 26, 2001 Time Subject Speaker Moderator 9:00 - 10:00 1. Opening session * Conference opening - Dr. Frank Sprow (Vice President - Safety, Health & Environment, ExxonMobil) * Keynote addresses - Ms. Letitia Obeng (Sector Manager, World Bank) - Mr. Bleu Laine (Minister of Environment, C6te d'Ivoire) - Mr. Modou Fada Diagne (Minister of Environment, Senegal) 1a0.0010:30 Brk. - .- : . ' . -*. 10:30 - 11:00 2. Conference framework * Film on the phasing-out of leaded Mr. J-P. Elong-Mbassi gasoline in sub-Saharan Africa (Municipal * The Clean Air Initiative in sub- -Mr. P. Bultynck (WB) Development Saharan African cities Ms. C. Reliquet (WB) Program) * Conference objectives/methodology 11:00 - 12:30 3. Impacts of leaded gasoline * Environmental & health impacts on - Dr. (Mr.) D. Schwela (WHO) adults & children (Overview) and Dr. (Ms.) J. Phoenix (NSC) Mr. Baglo (ABE, * The case of Dakar - Dr. (Mr.) A. Diouf (Dakar Benin) Univ.) * Myths & realities of leaded gasoline - Mr. J. Rochow (AECLP) 12:30-14:00 Ltnch -' - -. -; .=. . - - -. 14:00 - 14:45 4. Technical and financial issues of the phase out of leaded gasoline Mr. E. Creppy * Vehicle emissions standards - Ms. Jane Armstrong (USEPA) (Bordeaux Univ.) * Fuels - Mr. Paul Beckwith (BP) 14:45 - 15:30 5. Fuel refining & distribution issues * Fuel distribution logistics & - Mr. Henry Ikem Obih infrastructure (ExxonMobil) Mr. Ibou Diouf * Octane replacement & fuel - Mr. Martin Megnin (Caltex) (CETUD, Senegal) reformulation * Refinery reconfiguration - Mr. Manadou Nimaga (SAR, Senegal) 15:30 - 16:00 Break . -.: . ' ; :: - -- . -< = J , - ' ; ______________.__'_ 16:00 - 17:30 6. Working groups by sub-regions Introduction of groups, nomination of group rapporteurs, - Group rapporteurs review of available data, status summary by sub-regions 17:30 - 18:00 7. Wrap-up of day conclusions - Ms. S. Correa (USEPA) Mr. E. Mayorga Alba .__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ .(W B ) 19:00 - 20:00 Social Evenr -[. _ -_. _ I Afg'> c. 91;_fa7 RegiokAl Conete&o;t.w PSaafLiarasivAfca, Dakar, Se&tegat JaA-26-28, 2001 weddte4dy,Jwt27, 2001 Time Subject Speaker Moderator 8:30 - 9:00 8. Overview of technical, policy & - Mr. E. Mayorga Alba (WB) regulatory options in integrating lead phase-out in air pollution abatement strategies 9:00 - 10:00 9. Vehicle emissions * Lead phase-out and emission - Mr. Stuart Rayner control: Southem African motor (NAAMSA) Ms. J. Akumu industry experience (Ministry of Energy, * Vehicle emission control - Mr. Mamadou Diallo (Burkina Kenya) Faso) * Correlations between air quality and - Dr. (Mr.) W. Hecq (Univ. of vehicle emissions, impacts on costs Brussels) 10-00 - 10:30 Breafk - r 9, ,,-,-,,,,;i;,4! 10:30 - 11:15 10. Air quality monitoring * Environmental lead levels in African - Prof. (Mr.) M.K. Sridhar Ms. H. Rakotoarisetra cities (Ibadan Univ.) (Ministry of * Risk factors in exposure of African - Prof. (Mr.) J. Nriagu (Univ. of Environment, children to lead Michigan) Madagascar) * Air quality guidelines & monitoring - Dr. (Mr.) D. Schwela (WHO) I program 11:15 - 13:00 ' 1. Working groups Examination of lead phase-out options & implications by sub- - Group rapporteurs rcions 13 00 - 14:30 Lunch .. :.,.,- - 14:30 - Is 00 12. Pricing and regulatory issues Economic and financial incentives. - Mr. Patrick Cayrade (BEICIP) Mr. Ousseynou Diop Regulation & standards: enforceable (MELISSA) balancc 15:00- 15:30 Break - j .... . . 15:30 - I .00 13. Polic% strategies * Promotion of public transport, - Mr. Yves Amsler (UITP) Ms. Fatoumata Ouane land use control & city planning (UNEP) 17:00 - 17:3() '14. WN rap-up of dav conclusions - Mr. Patrick Bultynck (WB) 20:00 Dinner . - - - RP?onaM Ca oIyn4o*l PhaO fL o/,-XS~ iAnt.fi vakar, SetgaZ -Jut&26-28, 2001 _______ _JU rsi J&28, 2001 Time Subject Speaker Moderator 8:30 - 9:15 15. Presentation of successful programs of lead phase-outs Mr. Ibrahima Sow Cases of oil importing/exporting - Mr. Michel Muylle (WB) (Ministry of countries with or without Environment, Senegal) refineries 9:15 - 10:00 16. Panel discussions of key issues for a Mr. J-P. Elong-Mbassi successful phase-out program - Panelists (Municipal Development Program) 10:00- 10:30; Break :-.-.:_-.. '.. . 10:30 - 12:30 17. Working groups Developing of action plans and of - Group rapporteurs recommended follow-up steps 12:30 - 14:00 Luan:h. ';': - . . --- - 14:00 - 15:30 18. Presentation of preliminary action - Group rapporteurs Mr. Maurice Niaty- plans by group rapporteurs Mouamba (SITRASS) 15:30 - 16:00 19. Follow-up programs and wrap-up - Ms. Chantal Reliquet (WB) - Mr. Patrick Bultynck (WB) 16:00- 16:30 Break',.-..'-, . ., - ; - o , 16:30 - 17:00 20. Closing ceremony - Dr. Amadou Diouf (Dakar University) - Mr. Brian Doll (ExxonMobil) - Ms. Letitia Obeng, (WB) - Mr. Luc Gnacadja (Minister of Environment, Habitat and Urbanism, Benin) - Mr. A. Youssouph Sakho (Minister of Equipment and Transport, Senegal) 19:00 - 21:00 1NGGOQCmcu , . . . - AECLP FrU4aJu,tu29, 2001 Clean Air Initiaitve in Sub-Saharan African Cities Steering Committee - First Meeting Time Subject Speaker 10:00 - 10:30 Presentation of the proposed modus operandi - Mr. Patrick Bultynck (WB) - Ms. Chantal Reliquet (WB) 10:30 - 11:15 Panel discussions 11:15 - 11:30 Approval & Closing Remarks - Ms. Letitia Obeng (WB) .. SNOL1V1NISIdd : -- - _, . * : ~~~-r :.2 rv-~~~~~: > > i,,=, r: L -~~~ --;.- - < p 1~E Rtgnonid Co,f te-ox,cdw Pha azkar, feie,at -J"wi26-2&, 2001 (ONFEREN(E OPENING Wordwi&NePA - out of Lead i gasoti&: A MAd4a&frrAcdonl Dr. Frank B. Sprow, Vi(e President, [xxonMobil Ilrving, Texas USA Honorable ministers, delegates, ladies and gentlemen: I come before you today representing The International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association, or IPIECA, and my message is quite simple -- we want to see leaded gasoline phased out in every country worldwide, and we stand ready to do our part to make that happen. To reinforce that message, I first want to describe the organizations I represent to give you a better idea of the breadth and depth of the resources and support we bring to the table. Then I would like to explain why this issue is important to our industry. And finally. I want to discuss the specific role the oil industry can play to help facilitate the phase-out of leaded gasoline in your respective countries. First, who is IPIECA? IPIECA is comprised of many private and state owned oil companies, as well as various national, regional and international trade associations from around the world. IPIECA holds formal United Nations consultative status as a non-governmental organization. Its prime aim is to help our members address long-term global environmental challenges by facilitating discussion and information exchange. The other oil industry speakers we will be hearing from today are also from IPIECA member companies. I am also here today representing my company, ExxonMobil, which is better known in most of your countries as either Esso or Mobil. We have a substantial presence in Africa, both in business and human terms. Therefore, we share the desire of your governments to see .:: .. __ _ -your economies grow and your people prosper -- your citizens are ', - i vr-. t: * i f _ 1 t->our customers, employees and neighbors. We market fuels and lubes in _______ -. * about 45 African countries and are partners in refineries in 4 countries 'p,, ' : in sub-saharanAfrica.We also have rapidly growing oil and gas production activities in Africa - spanning a dozen countries. _ g s ; -@_ - You may be wondering why a U.S.-based oil company is here to promote lead phase-out in W e -> -<- vE_ sub-saharan Africa. Let me explain with a story - _L _- a true story -- about two oil companies named Exxon and Mobil who decided to merge a few years ago to form ExxonMobil, my company. Each of those companies had been pursuing :i E - E h I lead phase-out for years in various parts of the world - first in the U.S., then in Japan, Europe and elsewhere. A key step in the merger planning process was to define the values and standards we would share as a combined company. We adopted a set of standards of business conduct governing all aspects of our operations -- these standards took effect on day one of the merger in every company location throughout the world. When we looked hard at our combined operations in relation to these standards, we simply concluded that selling leaded gasoline was not consistent with those values. Preveazi sCostere' O~ ~ ¸ w I 1 RtoW C or Xiwf; A e VDA&, feitB *JJi26-28, 200t,, Why don't we want to sell leaded gasoline?TWO reasons. First, using leaded gasoline perpetuates air pollution from motor vehicles because it harms catalytic converters and prevents their broader use. Modem vehicles in the U.S. and Europe are 98% less polluting than they were 35 years ago due in large part to catalytic converters. These benefits could be available to Africa over time by bringing both new and previously owned catalyst-equipped vehicles into the vehicle fleet -- but not until lead is removed from gasoline. Second, numerous scientific studies show that exposure to lead presents health concerns. We are not trying to put lead exposure in priority order to other health concerns. Malaria, HIV/AIDS, social unrest and other factors likely play a much larger role than lead in gasoline in impacting public health in many places in Africa. Nonetheless, gasoline is our product, and getting lead out is clearly beneficial to the public. And importantly, this is an issue where the solution is known, and with proper cooperation, can readily be put into place. Therefore, we are focusing our energies on encouraging each country that is still using leaded gasoline to phase it out quickly by a set date. We have redoubled our efforts through IPIECA and joined in partnership with the World Bank, which has had a related effort underway. Other IPIECA members probably followed different paths to establish their respective positions on leaded gasoline, but we all came to the same point of view with the adoption of the following industry position, which I will quote: "The removal of ledd is importdnt to publik welfare beMuse it will dIlow the introdu(tion of widely available vehi(le (atalyti( exhaust te(hnology to improve air quality." "IPIECA members encourage governments in countries still using leaded gasoline to develop lead phase-out action plans and finally mandate the elimination of lead as an additive. We recognize that affordable energy supplies are just one of many other issues critical to the health and public welfare of people, particularly in countries of the developing world. We understand that each country must set their own priorities and timetables on these issues. Therefore, we intend to approach lead phase- out constructively by working with governments, car manufacturers and others to address the economic, political, and supply barriers to quick action." We are pleased to see momentum building around the world to phase-out leaded gasoline, particularly in non-OECD countries. Just this year, several countries -- Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Oman -- have decided to phase-out leaded gasoline in their domestic markets. Vietnam just made the same decision last month. And I know that there is progress being made here in Africa that we will hear more about as this conference progresses. We are excited to see this momentum building and we want to help it along. Which brings me to the role the oil industry can play to help facilitate lead phase-out in your respective countries. I believe this process can proceed most effectively if there is a partnership between government, industry, and the development banks. One company cannot do this alone, and even all the IPIECA members working together cannot do it. There are many other local and state-owned companies involved in the refining, importing, and marketing of leaded gasoline in Africa that must also be part of the solution. More importandy, as I am sure we all recognize, it is up to each respective government to set the rules on the lead content of their country's gasoline that everyone in that country should live by, and then to enforce those rules. Government officials in each country know and understand the many challenges that are facing their country better than anyone else. They are responsible to allocate needed resources, and to set time frames for implementing solutions. We encourage them to put lead removal high on their priority lists. 14 Co p'e=tC.s: A2410tv- QA~~~~t C D P Av. ha-Ok of Ai- if i rcc4 Dakar, fejgal *Jw& 26.28, 2001 IPIECA and its member companies are prepared to work with governments in several ways. We can offer advice on how best to achieve the phase-out goals set by governments. We can lay out a range of refining and supply options, provide cost data, show the impact of using various fuels on the vehicle population, and estimate the impact of fuel changes on local air quality. For example, IPIECA has worked with the World Bank to deliver workshops around the world on air quality management A toolkit has been developed that with only a few weeks' effort can help local governments prioritize their air quality management options. Such advice from our industry can help streamline the phase-out process, avoid supply disruptions to the marketplace, minimize costs to your citizens, and improve air quality. TheWorld Bank also will certainly continue to play a key role by providing financial resources, incentives, policy advice, and support Before I close, I want to convey my apologies that I will be unable to stay for the entire three days of this conference. Several of my ExxonMobil colleagues will continue to participate including Henry Obih from Nigeria, who will speak this afternoon on fuel distribution and logistics, and KerryWark who has line management responsibility for all Mobil and Esso refining, dis- tribution, and marketing activities in Africa. My schedule next takes me to Chad and Cameroon to review the production facilities and pipeline we are building to bring Chad's crude oil to world markets. I think it is worth noting that this 3.5 billion dollar, four-year project is a joint effort between ExxonMobil, Petronas, Chevron, the World Bank, and the governments of Chad and Cameroon. It holds the prom- ise to increase the gross domestic product of Chad by 50% when the project becomes operational in 2004. The government of Chad has established a unique revenue sharing mechanism to ensure that future profits generated will improve the quality of life for all citizens of Chad through improved health services, education, agriculture and infra- structure. This project shows what can be accomplished when government, industry, and the World Bank pull together in common purpose to seize an opportunity that will result in the mutual benefit of all parties. Similarty, this conference is an opportunity to, cooperatively, take an important step toward improving the quality of life for the citizens of your countries, and we must not waste it We must take advantage of this opportunity and begin laying the grotundwork that will result in cleaner air, lower health care costs, and most important, healthier and more productive citi- zens. The international petroleum industry stands ready to help make this happen. In closing I would like to commend the World Bank for their leadership in pulling this conference together. I want to thank those from Senegal for hosting this conference. And on behalf of my IPIECA colleagues, I want to say that we are looking forward to working with all of you over the next three days and in the months ahead to move this initiative along. KYNOTE ADDRISS Letitia A. Obeng, Se(tor Manager, World Bank Washington, D( USA Honorable Ministers, Delegates, Ladies and Gentlemen, It is my great pleasure to address this regional conference on phasing-out leaded gasoline in sub-Saharan Africa. It is the first, but I sincerely hope that it will not be the last. I would like to share with you a few thoughts on the subject we are about to spend the next couple of days on - working together to help Sub-Saharan Africa become lead free. Let me start by asking a basic question. Why does the presen(e of Iead in gasoline matter? Studies have clearly demonstrated that in developing countries, most of the lead in the environment comes from vehicular emissions: vehicle traffic is the largest source of lead exposure in urban areas. I am sure that we have all heard the statistics on how quickly the continent of Africa is urbanizing. Conservative estimates are that by 2025, half of the people living on this continent will be living in urban areas. This rapid urbanization and associated motorization in sub-Saharan Africa together mean that the problems we are seeing with air pollution are going to get worse much sooner than later, unless something is done. Lead affects our health, damaging organs and having a negative impact on children's intelligence. Those the most affected are the people who work. live or play in the streets, especially school children. Comprehensive research carried out in Dakar in 1999 confirms the devastating impact of lead generated by traffic, on children in particular. We will hear more about this later on during the conference. ledd pollution is a silent threat to life, cnd it has to be stopped. - Who can do this We. as an international community, we, as development banks. we as national and local authorities, we as the oil industry, as research agencies. NGOs, private sector. We as human beings working together. each bringing to the table our own strengths and skills, can . remove the silent threat of lead from Africa. What do we need to do to succeed in phasing lead out of gasoline in the only continent in the world which still uses leaded fuel? Perhaps we can learn from other experiences around the world.What have we learned from the Thaiiands and Costa Ricas? First and fore- most, building partnership and a comprehensive consensus through cross-sectoral dialogue, is essential. Second, public information, aware- ness-raising and education are key. Third, such a program requires a realistic schedule, deadlines and milestones along the way that are clearly defined for all the different partners to work towards. Finally, >- appropriate regulation as well as price and fiscal incentives can have a major impact on the task of reaching the milestones in a timely way. A successful soccer team has all its players working together in partnership, each one has an important role to play. Today we are about to establish a new team or partnership in which all skills represented here will have a key role to play. As we begin to apply the four lessons above, we will begin to grow into a formidable team to achieve our objective. KePl; e eAdr&gs: Obetqe, 17 kEwktAL C~bawowCopL th PAaA o e 1t Afi z 1 D: /e1iioZ26-28 2001, - ;k The World Bank is ready to be a part of this partnership or team. What role can we play and how can we contribute to achieving the objective of lead free gasoline and reduced lead pollution in Africa? In this kind of partnership, the Bank can be a facilitator and a catalyst, assisting Governments: to determine the level of priority assigned to the reduction of exposure to lead; to design and adopt appropriate reform and policies to support the phase-out of leaded gasoline and; to facilitate the implementation of related policies.The Urban Mobility Project in Senegal which is financed by an IDA credit, is a demon- stration of facilitating reform of the petrochemical sector and is beginning to demonstrate how to work in partnership on this kind of reform. I would like to stress the fact that every person in this large multidisciplinary group of participants can add value to the work ahead.To succeed, we need the expertise, knowledge and willingness of every single stakeholderAfrican and non-African.This conference is the opportunity to launchAFRICACLEAN,the network ofAfrican experts in the field of air pollution. By grow- ing in membership and more importantly in experience, such a network is expected to disseminate messages, reinforce local and regional capacity and cooperate in building a better future for African cities. I would like to be able, 10 years or maybe even 5 years from now, to look back and see the beginning of the lead-free program "AFRICACLEAN". I would hope to see that the program has succeeded because of a strong network of dedicated professionals and partners who were determined to realize the dream of a lead-free life. I would also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge and to express our appreciation of the constructive cooperation already built with the oil industry which has allowed us to reach this point and for their co-sponsorship on the organization of this conference. This brings me to my final comment: the Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities was launched by the World Bank Group in 1998 in partnership with many of those represented here today - their common concern - the growing negative impact of air pollution generated by motorized transport. Phasing-out leaded gasoline will be a significant contribution to the work of this initiative, as well as to the work of others such as the SSATP, a long established and successful partnership in the Region. The way forward may be long and will require a careful combination of technical, regulatory, and institutional measures, as well as financing. But we need to start today working regionally to make the cities in Africa "liveable" and just as important "bankable", attractive to foreign direct investment, in support of sustainable development and economic growth. I sincerely hope that in the time here we will develop and share a common vision of a lead-free Africa and bringing our individual and collective experiences to bear, will begin working together effectively towards making the vision a reality. Thank you for your attention and I wish us all a productive and successful conference. 18 .regevr.z6v, es AteAYdedrs Ob6ev 8/1~~~ iRh4wn Cow o0i bX PAA;O+ S^'4 *u fw Dakar, Senegal -Jwze 26-28, 2001 (ONFEREN([ FRAM[WORK dwtx-Air Dd4ttv& iw Sub-Sdwax Afrc4x C&ies Patri(k Bultyn(k, Senior Urban Transport [(onomist, World Bank (hantal Reliquet, Senior Urban Spe(idlist, World Bank Washinqton, DK USA Outline Phasing-out Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa * Urban Air Pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa The World Bank Introduction to the regional conference *The Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa Dakar 26-28 June, 2001 * The role of the World Bank in phasing-out leaded gasoline world-wide Patrick Bultynck, Chantal Reliquet L The Conference and challenges ahead 1. Urban Air Pollution in Africa Air Pollution in Africa A Growing Environmental Concern * Pollution largely due to motorized transport *A situation rapidly deteriorating * CC2 emissions increased by 20% from 1980-1994 * All forms of transport ~* high urban growth (>7% a year) * All forms of transport * increased motorization * Large proportion of motorized 2-wheelers * Poor quality fuels (smuggling, fuel adulteration) * Impact on: * Very old vehicles, poor maintenance * Health (primarily the urban poor) * Lack of emission controls and law enforcement * Living conditions * Environment * Urban sprawl e Productivity * Lack of traffic management Dakar:2.7% GDP Ouagadougou :1.6% in 1998, 2.5% in 2005 * Global warming -3 - -i- ?v&tSzt'vf ofW ffifdfyfc a./rgaft kLqet 19 R'egioxat coxtr of& Pka -f a A4fnv VakAr, Sensav282w.2OO11s 11. The Clean Air Initiative Objectives in Sub-Saharan African Cities - Raise awareness I AmReutoofarp- - * Design and implement * Aim: Reduction of air pollution action plans to reduce generated by urban transport air pollution, with lead * First program to tackle interface - phase-out as first between transport and the priority environment in Africa a Strengthen locaVregional expertise * Partnership and cooperation -5- -6- Achievements and next steps Phasing-out leaded gasoline: * City case studies and national a major step towards an Urban awareness seminars bi s3 - Quality Management Strategy in SSA * Documentation and exchange of information A comprehensive package of technical, . Network of air pollution institutional and regulatory measures will experts in the region be required to achieve the long term * Launching effort to phase-out objective of reduction of air pollution in leaded gasoline sub-Saharan African Cities -1- -8- 111. The Role of the World Bank in World Bank Involvement the Phase-out of Leaded Gasoline Rationale and Strategy * Lead phase-out as first step to overall air * Rationale and pollution abatement program strategy L . * Partnership * Regional initiatives -* Call for complete phase-out (1996) * Role of the World ; * Support to health and feasibility studies Bank * Preparation of policy papers * Main lessons - 1 i- ^ -- tX * Project components * . - <^i,Mi * Regional initiatives -9- - - 20 ?jegez:,, a k v e I , , ; . D'SMieJaZ a&Z26-22, 2007' World Bank Experience in Phase-out Leaded Gasoline: Africa, Asia, Europe WB Region Country City Pr aram Elements AFR~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C Senga .2 F - 0 EAP China Guangzhou X X X Liaoning X Shangai X X Shijiazhuang F F UAumqu eF F F Indonesia aankar X X Malaysia Kuala Lumpur X X Philippines Manila X F F Thailand Bangkok X X X SAS Bangladesh Dhaka X F X India Mumbai X F F F Nepal Kathmandou X Sn Lanka Colombo X X ECA Bulganra X Hungary Budapest X X X Russia Mosrow F F Slovakia X MNA Egypt Cain = World Bank Experience in Phase-out Leaded Gasoline: Latin America WEB Re gin Country City Pr ram Elements 0 ~~~~~~~0 LAC Anfigua & Barbuda X Argentine Buenos Aires X X Bahamas X Bolivia X Brailz Belo Horizonte X X X X Recife X X X Rio X x X X Sao Polo X X X X Chile Santiago X X X X Colombia X Costa Rica X Dominican Republic X Ecuador Quio X X El Salvado AX X X Guatemala X Halti X Honduras X Jamaica X X MexiRo Mexico City X X X NethS Antilles X NChlaagua X Panama X Paraguay X Penu Lima X X Tinidad & Tobago X UEuguay X Venezuela X? X: program iitiated or ompleted: F: future project n prepar rbon Neth. Antilles X Ba&~IK~k a~td' wtja6t 2 - ese.>idorPargua Xu yad e i 2 RmtflaLa Cop-w&ofe OR. te, p4aii-dˇ (?.z,t. &di= j -U5 2D-7z 2001 The role of the World Bank Lessons from countries' experience * Catalytic role of bringing together a * Set mandatory phase out date range of stakeholders * Quick phase-out is possible * Raising awareness; encouraging local * Average phase-out cost (refinery commitment modification etc) is US 1-2 cents/litter * Lending instruments * No modification needed to vehicles * Technical assistance * Use price and tax incentives * Cross-regional and cross-sectoral * Importance of public education expertise campaigns * Knowledge dissemination * Enforcement and inspection mechanisms Monitoring -B3- -IA- IV. Lead Phase-out Regional Conference The situation in year 2001 * Rationale * Objectives About 85% gasoline sold worldwide 1/ Raise awareness is unleaded 2/ Build consensus on technical, regulatory, institutional, and economic issues Main exception: Sub-Saharan Africa 3/ Design preliminary action plans * Expected outputs and follow up -15- - Lead Phase-out Conference Expected Outputs Methodology * Strategy at national and regional level including * Major output : Action Plans options and policy instruments * Monitoring tools and progress evaluation * Rationale and role of the sub- * Differentiated timetable and milestones regional working groups * Regional network: AFRICACLEAN * Use of the technical questionnaire * Commitment (at both regional and national levels) * Rule of presentations * Launching of public education and awareness campaigns -11- -18- l~~ - ~v-. .-4 .B IMPACB OF LEADED GASOUNE E£o&w&d a,cd He4th4spcf oitdAdtr Dr. Dieter Schwela, Air Pollution Sdientist, Occupationdl dnd [nvironmental flealth Programme, World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland INTRODUCTION | Since the introduction of tetraethyl lead as an antiknock agent in gasoline, vehicular lead has made an important contribution to lead exposure in the general population, which, together with other sources of lead emissions, has been associated with adverse health effects in humans. Lead is considered as a pollutant that is persistent in all media of the environment Once absorbed in the human body it can remain in tissues and bones for long periods. Regulators in many countries are now aware of the insidious consequences of cumulative low-level exposure to lead, most notably decrements in neurobehavioural develop- ment of children. In many countries, lead has been or is being phased out as a consequence of this appreciation. However, in countries that have not yet started phasing out lead as an antiknock agent, most of the lead in the their environment originates still vehicular emissions. In those countries, the addition of tetraalkyllead in motor fuels accounts for an estimated 80-90% of lead in ambient air.The degree of pollution from this source differs from country to country, depending on motor vehicle density and efficiency of efforts to reduce the lead content of petrol. The present overview on the environmental and human health effects bases on reviews prepared by the World Health Organization (WHO 1989; 1995; 2000) and a recent reports from Wadge (1999) and Romieu (1999). LEVELS OFTRAFFIC-RELATED LEADI SOURCES OF HUMAN EXPOSURE Atmospheric lead concentrations of 50 pg/m3 have been found in remote areas. In developed countries, where most gasoline sold is unleaded, typical annual average concentrations are between 0.1 and 0.2 .Lg/m3 in urban areas and between 0.01 and 0.05 1g/m3 in rural parts. Higher annual average concentrations are found in the vicinity of industrial sites, ranging between 0.2 and I ig/m3. Over the past 25 years, levels of airborne lead have fallen considerably as a result of progressive reductions in the maximum permitted concentration of lead in gasoline and increased use of unleaded petrol. A typical example of decrease of lead concentrations in at urban sites is presented in Figure I. 3 FIGURE I _ Point Source Sites (33) 0 Urban Sites (202) Comparison of national trend CO 2.5 - (USA) in the E composite average c) of the maximum :3 2 quarterly lead C concentrations ° at urban and 4J 1.5 - NAAQS point source oriented sites. 1 C:) o 0.5 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Prettdwnzbs Sc4li&l2w M 23 Concentrations in excess of I g/nm3 are recorded in cities in developing countries, which still heavily rely on leaded gasoline. Background levels of lead in soil range between 10 and 70 jg/kg and a mean level near roadways of 138 jg/kg has been reported. Present levels of lead in water rarely exceed a few micrograms/litre; the natural concentration of lead in surface water has been estimated to be 0.02 g/litre. ENVIRONMENTALTRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFORMATION Airborne lead can be deposited on soil and water, thus reaching humans through the food chain and in drinking-water. Atmospheric lead is also a major source of lead in household dust The transport and distribution of lead from fixed, mobile and natural sources are primarily via air. Most lead emissions are deposited near the source, although some particulate matter (< 2 gm in diameter) is transported over long distances and results in the contamination of remote sites such as arctic glaciers. Airborne lead can contribute to human exposures by the contamination of food, water and dust, as well as through direct inhalation. The removal of airborne lead is influenced by atmospheric conditions and particulate size. Large amounts of lead may be discharged to soil and water. However, such material tends to remain localized because of the poor solubility of lead compounds in water. Lead deposited in water, whether from air or through run-off from soils, partitions rapidly between sediment and aqueous phase, depending upon pH, salt content, and the presence of organic chelating agents. Above pH 5.4, hard water may contain about 30 jg lead/litre and soft water about 500 jig lead/litre. Very little lead deposited on soil is transported to surface or ground water except through erosion or geochemical weathering it is normally quite tightly bound (chelated) to organic matter. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE In the general non-smoking adult population, the major exposure pathway is from food, dust and water as shown in Figure 2. EPA (1986) FDA (1990) FDA (1990) 2-year infant 2-year infant Female child-bearing age Soil Water Food Air WaterWae X1% 6% 1% 7% Water Food So 6 Food 22% 47% ;~Soi F403%0 2 Dust Dust V Dust Air 45% 75% Air 31% 1% 4% FIGURE 2 Percentage of lead intake from food and other sources in two-year old infants and woman of child- bearing age in the USA. Airborne lead may contribute significantly to exposure. depending upon such factors as use of tobacco, occupation, proximity to motorways, lead smelters, etc., and leisure activities (e.g., arts and crafts, firearm target practice). Food, air, water and dust/soil are the major potential exposure pathways for infants and young children. For infants up to 4 or 5 months of age, air, milk, formulae and water are the significant sources of lead exposure. 24 Pre 6 sw R;qloWpi toozef Pku_2O~ 4ww lrff Aft" Da/kar, eegat .juA26-2* 2001 Levels of lead found in air, food, water and soil/dust vary widely throughout the world and depend upon the degree of industrial development, urbanization and lifestyle factors. Ambient air levels over 10 jg/m3 have been reported in urban areas near a smelter, whereas lead levels below 0.2 g/m3 have been found in cities where leaded petrol is no longer used. Lead intake from air can, therefore, vary from less than 4 jig/day to more than 200 igg/day. Levels of lead in drinking-water sampled at the source are usually below 5 jg/litre. However,water taken from taps (faucets) in homes where lead is present in the plumbing can contain levels in excess of 100 jg/litre, particularly after the water has been standing in the pipes for some hours. The level of dietary exposure to lead depends upon many lifestyle factors, including foodstuffs consumed, processing technology, use of lead solder, lead levels in water, and use of lead-glazed ceramics. HEALTH EFFECTS OF LEAD In humans, lead can result in a wide range of biological effects depending upon the level and duration of exposure. Effects at the sub cellular level, as well as effects on the overall functioning of the body, have been noted and range from inhibition of enzymes to the production of marked morphological changes and death. Such changes occur over a broad range of doses, the developing human generally being more sensitive than the adult Lead has been shown to have effects on many biochemical processes; in particular, effects on haem synthesis have been studied extensively. Increased levels of serum erythrocyte protoporphyrin and increased urinary excretion of coproporphyrin and 8-aminolaevulinic acid are observed when PbB concentrations are elevated. Inhibition of the enzymes &-aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase and dihydrobiopterin reductase is observed at lower levels. The effects of lead on the haemopoietic system result in decreased haemoglobin synthesis, and anaemia has been observed in children at PbB concentrations above 1.92 jimol/litre (40 jg/dI). For neurological, metabolic and behavioural reasons, children are more vulnerable to the effects of lead than adults. Both prospective and cross-sectional epidemiological studies have been conducted to assess the extent to which environmental lead exposure affects CNS-based psychological functions. Lead has been shown to be associated with impaired neuro- behavioural functioning in children.These findings are illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4. A META-ANALYSIS OF MEAN BLOOD LEAD AND FULL-SCALE IQ (MEAN CHANGES AND 95% CONF. INTERVALS) -* - - Boston Cincinnati -' x | |Port Pirie X - I Sydney combined evidence -15 -10 -5 0 FIGURE 3 Estimated mean change in IQ for an increase in blood level from 0.48 to 0.96 pumol/litre (10 to 20 jig/dl) in prospective studies. 1Yhwe4-, 25- A META-ANALYSIS OF THE CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES X Lavrion I-*X---I Edinburgh -X Greenwich X - 4 Bucharest l - X - 4 Budapest I Modena l - X |Sofia - 4 X iDusseldorf 1 I X | Dusseldorf 2 Zagreb combined evidence -15 -10 -5 0 +5 +10 FIGURE 4 Estimated mean change in IQ for an increase in blood level from 0.48 to 0.96 lmol/litre (10 to 20 xgIdl) in cross-sectional studies. Impairment of psychological and neurobehavioural functions has been found after long-term lead exposure of workers. Electrophysiological parameters have been shown to be useful indicators of subclinical lead effects in the CNS. Peripheral neuropathy has long been known to be caused by long-term high-level lead exposure at the workplace. Slowing of nerve conduction velocity has been found at lower levels. These effects have often been found to be reversible after cessation of exposure, depending on the age and duration of exposure. The effect of lead on the heart is indirect and occurs via the autonomic nervous system; it has no direct effect on the myocardium. The collective evidence from population studies in adults indicates very weak associations between PbB con- centration and systolic or diastolic blood pressure. Given the difficulties of allowing for relevant confounding factors, a causal relationship cannot be established from these studies. There is no evidence to suggest that any association of PbB concentration with blood pressure is of major health importance. Lead is known to cause proximal renal tubular damage, characterized by generalized aminoaciduria, hypophosphataemia with relative hyperphosphaturia and glycosuria accompanied by nuclear inclusion bodies, mitochondrial changes and cytomegaly of the proximal tubular epithelial cells. Tubular effects are noted after relatively short-term exposures and are generally reversible, whereas sclerotic changes and interstitial fibrosis, resulting in decreased kidney function and possible renal failure, require chronic exposure to high lead levels. Renal effects have recently been seen among the general population when more sensitive indicators of function were measured. The reproductive effects of lead in the male are limited to sperm morphology and count In the female, some adverse pregnancy outcomes have been attributed to lead. Lead does not appear to have deleterious effects on skin, muscle or the immune system. Except in the case of the rat, lead does not appear to be related to the development of tumours. 26 Pie t9±a0 Sc/W" DVak, Se-,i,ya- 7M26-28$ 2001 EVALUATION OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS Lead adversely affects several organs and organ systems, with subcellular changes and neurodevelopmental effects appearing to be the most sensitive. An association between PbB level and hypertension (blood pressure) has been reported. Lead produces a cascade of effects on the haem body pool and affects haem synthesis. However, some of these effects are not considered adverse. Calcium homoeostasis is affected, thus interfering with other cellular processes. a) The most substantial evidence from cross-sectional and prospective studies of populations with PbB levels generally below 1.2 g.mol/litre (25 lgldl) relates to decrements in intelligence quotient (IQ). It is important to note that such observational studies cannot provide definitive evidence of a causal relationship with lead exposure. However, the size of the apparent IQ effect, as assessed at 4 years and above, is a deficit between 0 and 5 points (on a scale with a standard deviation of 15) for each 0.48 jimol/litre (10 ig/dl) increment in PbB level, with a likely apparent effect size of between I and 3 points. At PbB levels above 1.2 gmol/litre (25 g/dl), the relation- ship between PbB and IQ may differ. Estimates of effect size are group averages and only apply to the individual child in a probabilistic manner. Existing epidemiological studies do not provide definitive evidence of a threshold. Below the PbB range of 0.48-0.72 lmol/litre (I10-15 .g/dl), the effects of confounding variables and limits in the precision in analytical and psychometric measurements increase the uncertainty attached to any estimate of effect. However, there is some evidence of an association below this range. b) Animal studies provide support for a causal relationship between lead and nervous system effects, reporting deficits in cognitive functions at PbB levels as low as 0.53-0.72 gmol/litre (I I -15 lig/dl) which can persist well beyond the termination of lead exposure. c) Reduction in human peripheral nerve conduction velocity may occur with PbB levels as low as 1.44 ,umol/litre (30 .ig/dl). In addition, sensory motor function may be impaired with PbB levels as low as about 1.92 gimol/litre (40 jg/dl), and autonomic nervous system function (electro-cardiographic R-R interval variability) may be affected at an average PbB level of approximately 1.68 j.mol/litre (35 ,ug/dl). The risk of lead nephropathy is increased in workers with PbB levels above 2.88 Itrmol/litre (60 lig/dl). However, recent studies using more sensitive indicators of renal function suggest renal effects at lower levels of lead exposure. d) Lead exposure is associated with a small increase in blood pressure.The likely order of magnitude is that for any two-fold increase in PbB level (e.g.,from 0.8 to 1.6 gmol/litre, i.e. 16.6 to 33.3 lg/dl), there is a mean I mmHg increase in systolic blood pressure.The association with diastolic pressure is of a similar but smaller magnitude. However, there is doubt regarding whether these statistical associations are really due to an effect of lead exposure or are an artefact due to confounding factors. e) Some but not all epidemiological studies show a dose-dependent association of pre-term delivery and some indices of foetal growth and maturation at PbB levels of 0.72 g.mol/litre (I15 lg/dl) or more. f) The evidence for carcinogenicity of lead and several inorganic lead compounds in humans is inadequate. g) Effects of lead on a number of enzyme systems and biochemical parameters have been demonstrated. The PbB levels, above which effects are demonstrable with current techniques for the parameters that may have clinical significance, are all greater than 0.96 gmol/litre (20 lg/dl). Some effects on enzymes are demonstrable at lower PbB levels, but the clinical significance is uncerrain. h) Population studies of children and adults who are not occupationally exposed to lead show relationships between I and 3 1.g PbB/dl per I jg/m3 of lead in air. Estimates of the relationship between airborne lead and blood lead which include the total contribution from air via indirect consumption of dust and soil as well as direct inhalation suggest a value between 3 and 5 ptg PbB/dl per Iig/m3. Representative relationships of blood lead median level to intake of lead through various pathways for the general population are shown in Table 1. Pe>Sc 127 DakAr kA k, Ok& ai- " i ^ < Popumuon gbifi t. Medium iiildren P Ai 0.09 u.mol Pb/litre per Ug 0.079 gmol Pb/litre per igg Pb/m3c Pb/m3 (1.92 gg Pb/dl) (1.64 Ug Pb/dl) Water 0.003 ,umol Pb/litre per jig Pb/litre (0.06 Ug Pb/do Food 0.01 ,umol Pb/lItre per Ugg 0.002-0.003 umol Pb/lItre per jg Pb/day (0.16 jig Pb/dl) Pb/day (0.04-0.06 jig Pb/dI) Dust' 0.09 umol Pb/lItre per 1000 ji,g Pb/g (1.8 jig Pb/dl) Soil 0.11 umol Pb/litre per 1000 ua Pb/q (2.2 ag Pb/dl) TABLE I. Representative relationships of blood lead median level to intake of lead for the general population, a These data are provided for illustrative purposes only recognizing that the relationships are curvilinear in nature and are broad guidelines which will not apply at lower or higher levels of exposure. b A value between 0. 144 to 0.24 jimol Pb/litre or 3-5 jig Pb/dl per jg/rm is obtained when one considers indirect contribu- tion through deposition on soil/dust. c The air to blood lead relationship in occupational settings is best described by a curvilinear relationship having slopes between 0.02 and 0.08 p1g/m' air. The slope is variable but lower than that found for humans in the general environment which is between 1.6 and 1.9 ig/mr. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LEAD GENERAL In aquatic and aquatic/terrestril model ecosystems, uptake by primary producers and consumers seems to be determined by the bioavailability of the lead. Bioavalailability is generally much lower whenever organic material, sediment or mineral particles (e.g. clay) are present In many organisms. it is unclear whether lead is absorbed onto the organism or actually taken up. Consumers take up lead from their contaminated food, often to high concentrations but without biomagnification. In general, inorganic lead compounds are of lower toxicity to microorganisms than are trialkyl- or tetraalkyllead compounds. Tetraalkyllead becomes toxic by decomposition into the ionic trialkyllead. On of the most important factors, which influence the aquatic toxicity of lead. is the free ionic concentration, which affects the availability of lead for organisms.The toxicity of inorganic lead salts is strongty dependent on environmental conditions such as water hardness, pH,and salinity.There is evidence that tolerant strains of microorganisms exist and that tolerance may develop in others. UPTAKE BY AND TOXICITY TO AQUATIC ORGANISMS The uptake and accumulation of lead by aquatic organisms from water and sediment are influenced by various environmental factors such as temperature, salinity. and pH, as well as humic and alginic acid content In contaminated aquatic systems,almost all of the lead is tightly bound to sediment. Only a minor fraction is dissolved in the water, even in the interstitial water.The lead uptake by fish reaches equilibrium only after a number of weeks of exposure. Lead is accumulated mostly in gill, liver, kidney, and bone. Fish eggs show increasing lead levels with increased exposure concentration, and there are indications that lead is present on the egg surface and rapidly eliminated in the embryo. In contrast to inorganic lead compounds, tetraalkyl- lead is rapidly taken up by fish and rapidly eliminated after the end of the exposure. There is little evidence for effects of lead on aquatic plants at concentrations below I to IS mg/litre. Many studies of aquatic plants have been made in sediment-free systems. However, the addition of uncontaminated sediment reduces the toxicity of lead to aquatic plants by reducing its availability. The results of experiments on the toxicity of lead salts to aquatic invertebrates are difficult to interpret due to the variations in experimental conditions and the lack of a standardized method for determining lead concentrations in water. In most studies, concentrations of lead in water are nominal; the contribution to toxicity of factors such as pH, water hardness, anions, and complexing agents cannot be fully evaluated. In communities, some populations of organisms are more sensitive than others, 28 PresettaLoKs jfckt kiw.A -oiiu O rA A.e*i6 of - . emena )Ju Z628, 2007 and community structure may be adversely affected by lead contamination. However, populations from polluted areas can show more tolerance to lead than those from non-polluted areas. In other organisms, adaptation to hypoxic conditions can be hindered by high lead concentrations. The toxicity of lead- contaminated water to fish varies considerably, depending on the availability and uptake of the lead ion. Factors affecting this availability are water hardness (prevalence of divalent anions), pH, salinity, and organic matter. Uptake is affected by the presence of other cations and the oxygen content of the water. Organic lead is taken up more readily than inorganic lead.The 96-h LC50 (lethal concentration that kills 50% of the population) for inorganic lead in sensitive species- can be as low as I mg dissolved lead/litre; nominal concentrations being up to 100 times higher in hard waterThe few data avail- able suggest that the toxicity of organic lead may be 10 to 100 times higher than that of inorganic lead. Long-term exposure of adult fish to inorganic lead induces sub lethal effects on morphology, amino levulinic acid dehydratase (delta-ALAD) and other enzyme activities, and avoidance behaviour at available lead concentrations of 10-100 mg/litre. Juvenile stages are generally more ser,sitive than adults, but eggs are often less sensitive because lead is adsorbed onto the egg surface and excluded from the embryo. There is evidence that frog and toad eggs sensitive to nominal lead concentrations of less than I mg/litre in standing water and 0.04 mg/litre in flow-through systems; arrested development and delayed hatching have been observed. For adult frogs, there are no significant an effect below 5 mg/litre in aqueous solution, but lead in the diet at 10 mg/kg food has some biochemical effects. UPTAKE BY ANDTOXICITYTOTERRESTRIAL ORGANISMS In bacteria. the majority of lead is associated with the cell wall.A similar phenomenon is also noted in higher plants. Some lead that passes into the plant root cell can be combined with new cell wall material and subsequently removed from the cytoplasm to the cell wall. Of the lead remaining in the root cell, there is evidence of very little translocation to other parts of the plant because the concentration of lead in shoot and leaf tissue is usually much lower than in root. Foliar uptake of lead occurs, but only to a very limited extent In animals, there is a positive correlation between tissue and dietary lead concentrations. although tissue concentrations are almost always lower.The distribution of lead within animals is closely associated with calcium metabolism.The tetravalent organic form of lead is general more toxic than the divalent, inorganic form. and its distribution in organisms may not specifically follow calcium metabolism. The tendency of inorganic lead to form highly insoluble salts and complexes with various anions, together with its tight binding to soils, drastically reduces its availability to terrestrial plants via the roots.Translocation of the ion in the plants is limited and most bound lead stays at root or leaf surfaces. As a result, in most experimental studies on lead toxicity, high lead concen- trations in the range of 100 to 1000 mg/kg soil are needed to cause visible toxic effects on photosynthesis, growth, or other parameters Thus. lead is only likely to effect plants at sites of very high environmental concentrations. Ingestion of lead-contaminated bacteria and fungi by nematodes leads to impaired reproduction.Woodlice seem unusually tolerant to lead. since prolonged exposure to soil or grass litter containing externally added lead salts had no effect. Caterpillars maintained on a diet containing lead salts show symptoms of toxicity leading to impaired development and reproduction.The information is too meagre to quantify the risks to invertebrates during decomposition of lead-contaminated litter. Lead salts are only toxic to birds at a high dietary dosage (100mg/kg or more).Almost all of the experimental work is on chicken and other gallinaceous birds. Exposure of quail from hatching and up to reproductive age resulted in effects on egg production at dietary lead levels of 10 mg/kg.Although a variety of effects at high dosage have been reported, most can be explained as a pnmary effect on food consumption. Diarrhoea and lack of appetite, leading to anorexia and weight loss, are the pnmary effects of lead salts. Since there is no experimental evidence to assess effects on other bird species, it is neces- sary to assume a comparable sensitivity. Under this assumption it is highly improbable that environmental exposure would cause adverse effects in birds. There is little information on the effects of organolead compounds.Trialkyllead compounds produced effects on starlings dosed at 0.2 mg/day; 2 mg/day was invariably fatal. ACCUMULATION AND EFFECTS IN THE FIELD Organisms have been found to incorporate lead from the environment,generally in proportion to the degree of contamination. Lead deposition in a region depends on the air concentrations of the metal, which decrease with distance from the source. In shellfish, lead concentrations are higher in the calcium-rich shell than in the soft tissue; they relate to the concentrations Pi It-Lo;, Sch 4 29- l[jg/, -2k1&~L !J2$ 2007..; in sediment Lead concentrations in some marine fish are higher in gills and skin than in other tissues; but this may be largely due to adsorption. Liver levels increase significantly with age. In dolphins, lead is transferred from mothers to offspring during foetal development and lactation.This might be related to the calcium metabolism. In highways and urban areas, lead concentrations are highest in soils and organisms close to roads where traffic density is high.The lead measured is inorganic and derives most exclusively from alkyllead compounds added to petrol.The lead in the soil and in vegetation decreases exponentially with the distance from the road. Lead is also found in the sediments of streams in the vicinity of highways. Lead contamination increases lead levels in plants and animals in areas close to roads.These lev- els are positively correlated with traffic volume and proximity of roads. Most lead deposited is found within 500 m of the road and within the upper few centimetres of soil. It can be assumed that lead levels in soil and biota are not influenced by traffic at distances from roads greater than this. No effect on the reproduction of birds nesting near highways has been observed.Toxic effects have been observed in pigeons in urban areas, the kidneys being most frequently affected.A recurring incident of massive bird kills in estuaries near to industrial plants manufacturing leaded "antiknock" compounds has been reported.The total lead content of the livers was sufficiently high to cause mortalities: lead was mostly present in alkyl form. CONCLUSIONS The health effects of lead in the general population have been subject to considerable debate and controversy. Of most con- cern are a series of population studies of lead measures of childhood intelligence. For adults, there is weak evidence of a pos- sible effect on blood pressure. Although the causal nature of these associations is not without restrictions, the overall con- sistency and coherence of epidemiological findings with toxicological evidence in laboratory animals suggests a small adverse effect on both IQ in children and blood pressure in adults.Therefore, it has been recommended by WHO to phase-out any remaining uses of lead additives in motor fuels and reduce lead exposure due to other sources of lead (WHO 1995).The WHO air quality guideline for lead is 0.5 gg/m3; because of the other pathways of exposure the air quality guideline for lead should be accompanied by additional preventive measures (WHO 2000).To prevent further increase of lead in soils and sed- iments and consequent increases in the exposure of future generations, air lead levels should be kept as low as possible. REFERENCES Romieu 1 1999 Epidemiological studies of health effects. In: Urban Traffic Pollution. Eds. D. Schwela, 0. Zali, E & Spon, Cambridge. Wadge A 1999 Lead. In:Air pollution and Health. Eds. ST. Holgate, J.M. Samet. H.S. Koren, R-.L Maynard, Academic Press, New York WHO 1989 Lead - Environmental Aspects. Environmental Health Criteria 85.World Health Organization, Geneva. WHO 1995 Inorganic Lead. Environmental Health Criteria 1 65.World Health Organization, Geneva. WHO 2000 Guidelines for Air QualityWorld Health Organization, Geneva. Internet address: http://www.who.int/peh/. 30 PrLt1 . Sctela. Z?wnAl1yreAc&o# dtp Ph-a Of -~ D.x. -, iuq. Dt Jwa26-28 ,2031 2. - IMPACI OF LEADED GAOLINE pidromwea wa Heal twp4dr ot- Cddre* Dr. Janet Phoenix, Manager of Public lealth Programs, National Safety (oun(il Washington, D( USA Plomb et Sante des Enfants Objectif du CDC pour la reduction au Senegal du plomb dans le sang des enfants Dr Janet Phoenix Environmental Health Center 60 National Safety Council _ dl 2 F30] 1960- 1970- 1985- 1991- I. ~_ .1970 1985 1991 $ *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Emphasis Is on primary prevention efforts (i.e. elimination of lead hazards before children are poisoned) Expositions au plomb et voies de transmission Industrie, certains |Exploitation de mine I V Pesticides et . : . | Air | . n-is Essence -_Wf 4f~- : . *--| Peinture *~ ~ .u~e~ - :--:- | PoussiereP | r ioete I-dn: Poussn id eP mt Nourriture -A non- od mbnw*zrwces -' | EQU | Zmetd Sidiments %Id~t1 Re no vai,. an Qld house Terre/sol Certoins opporeils minagers Tuyouterie rongee A. decisn .. ...int ou soudee ou plomb de cuisine et recip -3- _ _ _ _ _ LPktoe-rsx 31- ' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;1 Rlqwd C/Qfre,ce o; bde Pha- Ok p a Afr.... 4Dak, S.;d% £1.0J01 . | Lcad Concentraition Mort Childr.cn , in Bloodt Adultz Encephalopathie Nephropathie Dcath - et anemie franche 100 EncephQIoPQthYp Colique Encephalop*thy ._n NephropQthy. - FrQjnk AncmiQ synthese Frank Anemia _ L e- d'h6moglobine Colie _ Dcreaeed Longevity 50 _ Hemoglobin Synthecie * Le metabolisme 40 rPcripherel Ncuropathier do la vitamine D Hrenmoglobin Synthe-is t _ -W_ Infertility (Mne) de la vitamine D :=: L~~~N-ophropathy FR r~Syolic Blood Preecure4 La diminution de Vitemin 0 Mct;bolirn *-4 301 (MEn) velocite * Hearing Acuity * d c i Erythocyte Protoporphyrin do conduction ;,;3 (Me4n) 46 d u n er f Nervl Conduction 20 Erythocytt Toxicite Protoporphyrin } _Erthrocyte Protoporphyrin developpementale MVtabolinm l] Developmentol - La diminution du Toxicity I * 10 _ Hyperten5ion (?) 4 01, de l'Ouie, ~~Heearing et de la Growth J Croissance Tr-ploentolTr-nefer _ _ 4 Incrc-a-cd function _ *DcreatQ-d fnto Transfer transplacental Adepted frorn ATSDR,Toxicological Profile for Lead f1S83S Respiration -'' -^t ON " n s Manger, boire et fumer absorption par la peau absorption t 31 transplacentale to/ de la mire , |- >Sore aAaO New South Wales . . , /X: # \ i^P. ^ Environment Protection Authority Land hn t onsa go_ro t q \ 04%C Softhfes eFeWy \ \ brin. iver. kIdnerp %I B ,ood 32 ;;trH¸ Ie x |A4Wii.zo O;ft - - aDAAJr, SWd. .7wYu 26-28, 2001 ,-. Les contributions en charge Les contributions en charge de de plomb sur un corps d'enfant plomb sur un corps d'enfant Bebes et jeunes enfants rampent, explorent et mettent mains et jouets dans leur bouche, ce qui les expose F. - ME -60" au plomb present dans la terre et la poussiere -t - , Le plomb dans la poussiere, le sol ou sur les mains et 11 5 i eo ;rfles jouets sera accidentellement mange 5t' _ -_ 'Les enfants absorbent jusqu' a 50% du plomb tandis ipe--4: \>_ \ ;-;Mc que les adultes absorbent seulement 8-30%. Les cerveaux des enfants sont a un plus grand risque - parce que la balTiere de cerveau et de sang n'est pas . .,- - | 120. . S entierement formne; le plomb absorbe plus ;'''t;t * i e . Tu-- :10 , facilement endommage le cer-veau. -6- - Les contributions en charge de Sources du Plomb au Senegal plomb sur un corps d'enfant Les voitures On peut remedier a certains mais non a tous les Raffineries de petrole, le plomb de dommages du cerveau d'un enfant en bas age manufacture tetra-ethylique La prevention est le meilleur traitement Le caoutchouc manufactur6 Eliminer et reduire la teneur en plomb dans L'extraction simple ou par fusion du plomb, 1 'essence est un acte simple que vous pouvez de I'argent et du zinc faire pour ameliorer la sante de votre population, Centrales, incinerateurs et manufactures particulierement celle de vos enfants , -metallurgiques . Sources du Plomb au Senegal Sources du Plomb au Senegal La peinture a l'usage des residences, des Les soudures et les tuyaux d'eau sont faits industries, des bateaux, du marquage au sol en plomb des routes et des panneaux de signalisation Le plomb dans la nourriture et la boisson Le PVC et les matieres plastiques Le plomb a contamine nourriture et epices contiennent du plomb Le plomb sert a glacer les ceramiques 11 y a des pigments de plomb dans les Le plomb dans les cosmetiques pour le colorage revetements des cables des yeux et dans les medicaments traditionnels I1 y a du plomb dans le cuivre et dans les Le plomb dans les jouets et les produits de alliages de m6taux. consommation -10- -11 P&,'RtE ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~P/wRw 83 Rpqwnd Crnftog du P440-6k Daka, eJg4l 20 . Sources du Plomb en Afrique Empoisonnement par le plomb au Senegal L'essence dans la plupart des pays africains contient 0.5-0.8 g/l d.e plomb L'empoisonnement par le plomb peut etre Les concentrations moyennes en plomb dans I'air prevenu urbain, en milieu rural vont de 0.5 a 3.0 mg/m3 La r6duction de sources du p1omb telles Le Plomb dans le so] et la poussiere depasse que 1'essence am6liorera la sant6 de toute frequemment 1000 uglg fr6quement 100 ug. la population, et surtout celle des enfants L'industnre d'energie, le brfilage de papier, de caoutchouc, de pile et de bois peint sont des sources domestiques de plombl Tong, S. YE von Schimding. T Prapamontol , Emrironmental lead exposure - a public health problem of global dimensions, Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 78(0).2000. -ll- -13- L'elimination de l'Essence avec Plomb Niveaux Moyens de Plomb dans le Sang, aux Etats-Unis 1980s- 1990s > 12 a 1.- Ij , o .. 4 - - g 0 3 100~~~~~~~~~~~~10 860 12 .--23 60 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 6 -11- -15 0~~~~~~~~~ 0)2 OsE a) 406 Vhnehinulamead blood lead levels amon 10 4 _ 20 co ) . 0 90 91 co a97 j 0 M c- t M t '0 C., 00 M 0 -E ~ 0, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 - eiulrLa Emissions -Median Blood Lead Levels c Moco o X -16-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-5 Change in mean blood lead levels among 1 st grade schoolchildren in Mexico City (1990-1997) 1 5 5 0 90 91 92 97 34 ?etv /e~~ Rmt,u>L co. PhARokf L AfrAa. _Dr," i'ew -juz 26-28, 200 Aj Trends in Air lead in Mexico City during leaded gasoline phaseout. 1988-1998 3 - a 1- 1.~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ A 2- 11wnnfU f, R O , teslfsai 1_ _ , °0. LX1q t-~~~~ ~ 0 c ,96 +x44.,,no pb g 9 82 29 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 9 IXt Cpendear yeaw 5 a ~~~~~~~~~ ' -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-1 21 _ too I'W om 10a Io o. o - o o .o 1 10 0 0100 1Ol0 0,0 Pb soil-area (ppm) tsffi22es ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PkOKx 35 R14t7n.d Cob6r, O f fttIUPw Da-, enqal 2001 L'elimination du Plomb dans I'Essence Resultats en Australie Figure 3: Results from hospital based children's opportunistic studies superimpased with leaded petrol sales (1979-1999) 18000 -12 16000 A * ANHMRCGelne10 0 2- 14000 02 . 12000 8 - T6 60 C. 4000 r 2000 0 ~ 0 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 Month/Year * Nat. Leaded Petrol Sales A Opportunistic Studies L "Environmental Health Center" soutient le peuple senegalais * EHC est experimente dans la gestion et la coordination de programmes educationnels internationaux, nationaux et communautaires rsur le plomb * EHC peut procurer un support technique et apporter une expertise sur une serie de problemes relatifs au plomb * EHC peut vous mettre en contact avec des experts en plomb dans le monde entier * Nous sommes impatients de travailler avec vous en vue de creer un environnement sain et sans plomb pour tous les Senegalais. -20- IMPACIS OF L[ADED GASOLINE Tl&Caueof Dakar Dr. Amadou Diouf, Professor, Universite (Ceikh Anta Diop Dakar, Senegal P. Shirali, (.Thiaw, G. Garcon, Y. Diop, M. fall, M. fall, B. Ndiaye, T. Siby, D. Zerrne(k Ba, J.M. Uaquenoer LV[L OF EXPOSURETO LEAD [LIMINATID BY AUTOMOBIL[S - IMPA[ ON OXIDATIV[ STRESS AND MH NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF S[N[GAL[S[ (UILIDR[N. INTRODUCTION The use of automobiles has considerably increased throughout the world. However, over the last few decades the growth rate has slowed down in highly industrialized countries, whereas demographic growth and urban and industrial develop- ment have accelerated the use of motorized vehicles namely in developing countries. Thus, in Senegal like in many of these countries, a rapid uncontrolled growth of the automobile fleet can be seen and could be the origin of negative effects on health particularly in cities. Several studies have shown the clear relationship between automobile traffic density, the use of leaded gasoline and lead content in the air and soil in urban zones (1 ,3,4,1 1,15). Studies carried out in Dakar show that lead content in the barks of trees bordering the highways correlates to traffic intensity (6).These results therefore show that the use of leaded gas is the main cause of air contamination and could be one of the principal sources of exposure to the public especially in children who constitute the most vulnerable group. Adverse effects of Pb on neurobehavioral development in children are observed even with low blood concentrations. Children can also develop symptoms of extreme intoxication with encephalopathy, which is usually irreversible at blood lead levels exceeding 800ig/Il (I 3).To prevent these negative effects, screening of pre-school children was recommended by the American Centers for Illness Control and the American Pediatrics Association. Then, the Organizations of United Nations (PNUE and UNICEF) and the European Union recognized that exposure to lead present in the atmosphere is a major threat to health and called for appropriate actions to be taken to reduce blood lead levels to below 100g/l and to eliminate this metal in gasoline (25). This problem however is not really known in Senegal where data on population exposure is not available. These considerations brought us to carry out this study on Senegalese children in order to: Measure the level of impregnation of lead eliminated by vehicle exhaust Study the biological levels of precocious markers Study the possible relationship between blood lead level and oxidative stress markers Evaluate the nutritional status of children who have been exposed to lead from Dakar's traffic. I 1. METHODOLOGY STUDY POPULATION This study was carried out in WestAfrica, in Senegal. It is a transversal epidemiological study comparing two populations, the exposed children living in urban areas (Dakar) and the non-exposed children living in rural areas (several villages in Khombole in the region ofThies). Th'ttaJwoes DLouf 37 ReiLa coje , . The participating children were selected at random, any child whose parents gave their consent was chosen. Some criteria however were respected: * Inclusion: children had to be between the ages of 8 and 12, and been living in the study zone since their birth * Exclusion: all children with a known pathological condition were excluded The study began on February 26th 1999 and ended on August 19th 1999. A questionnaire was given to the families of participating children to try and determine exposure sources. Blood samples were drawn from the veins by EDTA, and urine samples were taken.The samples were conserved by freezing, first at -200c and then at -80c. BIOLOGICAL DETERMINATIONS Lead was dosed by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (Perkin Elmer 5100 Z AS-60) using a graphite oven with Zeeman correction.The limit of detection was 0.1 0IOg/dl with a precision of 0.01 5g.g/dl. Repeated analyses of standard solutions enabled the method's precision to be confirmed. Obtained results were expressed in gg/L. Concentrations of ProtoporphyrineZinc (PPZ) were measured by fluorimetry (excitation 415nm, emission 595nm) in the total blood. Urinary concentrations of ALA were measured by spectrophotometry (X=546nm). Determinations for oxidative stress markers are specified for each parameter: GST (urine): Enzyme Immunoassay test (ELISA); MDA (plasma); HPLC separation UV detection; GR, GPX, SOD (total blood) Fara Cobas 11; GSH, GSSG (total blood); HPLC electrochemical detection. EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL STATUS Measuring weight Children's weight was measured with an electronic scale OHAUS (I - 10 Model IS 100 A, Germany) maximum weight of 150kg and a precision of 50g. Measuring height Children's height was measured with a wooden measure and tape with a precision of 0. Icm. The indexes for weight according to age P (A) and weight according to height P (T) were calculated following references from the National Center for Statistics and Health (NCHS) adopted by WHO as the international basis.The EpiNut pro- gramme from Epi Info software 6.0 version allowed the indexes to be calculated and translated into Z scores.Allix indexes lower than -2 Z score were considered to be sub-normal. DATA ANALYSIS Epilnfo software, version 6 (The division of Surveillance and Epidemiology - Epidemiology Program - Office Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) was used for statistical analysis. Averages and standard deviations were calculated for each variable and variations amongst the different groups were analyzed utilizing the variant analysis (ANOVA) and the student test. Differences are considered to be significant when the p<0.05. 38 P 'et)o t¸ 7Xof Regiand con(v, iil Phi, A&" DAk . ir, ceg .Juw&26-28, 2001 111. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS In relation to the impregnation parameter: blood lead level (figure 1), a significant difference was observed (p=0) between blood lead levels observed in children living in urban areas (average 106.6 gg/I) and those living in rural areas (average 68.1 gg/l).This is the maximum level in a child tolerated by the CDC since 1991. It is important to note that these high levels of blood lead seem to be caused by lead from automobiles. No industries likely to expulse lead into the atmosphere exist within our study zone. In spite of the absence of data on possible contamination from lead in paint, we believe this source to be slight, given the types of habitat especially in rural areas. Some lead piping could still exist in Senegal resulting in water contamination, but after ques- tioning the various households, they did not have them and this source of contamination does not exist in rural areas. If the results are compared with those from similar studies carried out in Africa, the values are quite similar. NRIAGU J., 1997 carried out two studies; the first one was in Nigeria, in the medium sized town of Kaduna and the average blood lead level in children aged between I and 6 years old was 106 gg/l. In the second study, in South Africa, covering 1200 children aged between 3 and 10 years old, the average blood lead level of children living in urban areas was I OOjg/l and 38.ig/1 for those living in rural areas (NRIAGU, OLERU et al., 1 997a. NRIAGU,JINABHAI et al., 1 997b). It must be noted that the levels found in our study are very high compared to those of children living in industrialized countries. In the USA children between the ages of I and 6 yrs had levels of 27gg/l from 1991 to 1994, whereas these were 404lg/i in 1988 to 1991. and approximately 150jg/l from 1976 to 1980 (13). In France, the average blood lead levels were estimated at 36mg/I in 1995 in children between I and 6, expecting to reach 25jg/dl by 2000 (14).The reduction of average levels of blood lead in industrialized countries since the 80s is linked to the implementation of the "unleaded" policy that began earlier in the States than in France. It is also interesting to compare the blood lead levels obtained in boys and girls, where a significative difference is noted (p<0.005): boys have higher blood lead levels than girls, an average of 98.00 jg/i in boys compared to 78.90,ug/l in girls. If averages are calculated according to regions and gender, boys living in Dakar have the highest, the average being 120g/I.This difference can be explained by the fact that boys are more exposed than girls as they spend their time playing outdoors. It has also been observed that blood lead levels are higher in men than in women (12).After analysis of variables showing that blood lead levels vary significantly according to gender and exposure, it can be said that gender represents a notable factor. Prffisee^Rtaodis Dgvt'f | 39 Dakar, S en&W - ;-V Fa F 120 I20 g80 E E 60- 60 40-40 20 ; 20 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 Non Exposes Exposes Garaons Files n= 139 n= 153 n 144 n= 131 120 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 120]0 T100 I ~80] 08 E 60] 40 4 20~ 20 00 Non Exposes Exposes Non Expos6s Exposes n=68 n=76 n=64 n=67 Figure 1 Plombemies (moyenne et ecart-type) a en population totale non exposee et exposie b: chez les garaons et chez les filles c: chez les garaons non exposes et exposes d: cbez les filles non exposees et exposees ,7,O,;r','<, Preteaiff.ov Do 2Az.7i4WnA Co opt t)d P4 D'ak.ar, i"a. t *Jte. 26-28, 20a1 In a similar study, exposure of children to lead, evaluated by the blood lead level, was related directly to concentrations found in dust and soil, and directly related to the size of the town the children lived in and the density of the traffic (17,18). Furthermore, in several studies, the diminution of leaded gas utilization was immediately correlated to a diminution in average levels of blood lead (20). For the effects of synthesis on the heme, the average ALA from urine obtained from the total population (n=292) is 5.3 1 mg/g of creatine ±4.58. In non-exposed children (n= 139) an average of 4.77mg/g of creatine ± 4.24 whereas in exposed children (n= 153), the average reaches 5.80mg/g of creatine plus ± 4.80. It should be noted that level dispersion appears to be of importance when the typical gaps are as big as the averages. According to the non-parametric test U of Mann-Whitney, the difference between the two populations is significant (p<0.00 I). A significant difference is seen (p=0) when comparing levels of urinary ALA of exposed children to non-exposed children. Furthermore, the correlation between blood. lead levels and urinary ALA on the whole population is good and positive (p=0).ALA-deshydratase ALA-D), that catalyzes the two ALA molecules to give pophobilinogen, is known to be the most sensitive enzyme to lead, the inhibition of this enzyme results in an accumulation of ALA in the plasma and its urinary excretion (13). Recent studies have suggested that damages caused by lead could have partially at their origin oxidative stress due to ALA which, accumulating, could generate the formation of the peroxide ion (14). In NEAL's study (1997), administration of ALA in vitro to hamster cells CHO (Chinese Hamster Ovary) showed a reduction of GSH parallel to an increase of GSSG, thus suggesting the existence of oxidative stress. Urinary ALA therefore seems to be a good marker for evaluating lead exposure. However, given inter-individual susceptibility and possible fluctuations (in the beginning or at the end of lead exposure), urinary ALA is not always considered to be an adequate evaluation measure of lead toxicity. Concerning PPZ, the average PPZ erythrocytaries obtained from the total population (n=281) is of 3.604g/g of hemoglobin ± 1.66; this average is of 3.71,ug/g of hemoglobin ± 1.96 in non-exposed children (n= 130) and 3.50.g/g of hemoglobin ± 1.35 in exposed children (n= 151). For PPZ, the non parametric U test of Mann-Whitney did not show a significant difference between the two populations (p=0.617), a significant difference was not observed between the two populations, exposed and non-exposed (p=0,617), furthermore blood lead levels do not correlate to PPZ levels.These results, however, are not surprising, as PPZ only increases in blood to important blood lead levels (approx. 250ig/1).With the present blood lead level threshold for children of 100 gg/l the predicted level of PPZ is not sufficient to screen children who are at risk; the measure of erythrocytary porphyrins would not be enough to detect blood lead levels below 100 ig/l (MARKOWITZ et al, 1997). Furthermore, the sensitivity of the dosage will quickly diminish when blood lead levels are less than 450 ,g/l and will become inferior to 50% for blood lead levels less than 200 I.tg/l (2). PPZ dosage is therefore not a good indicator of weak lead exposure (HEINZE et al, 1998).This dosage is also not con- sidered to be specific to infant saturnism, particularly because of risk of anemia in children (PPZ increases during iron deprived anemia) (2). l2Louf 4, R~~~I Co..~ Fa . ' -' . a~fc' I 1150~ > 1o 160 J ~~~~140 __ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~120 115002 1050 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~0 .. ,.,1 > 80-8': 1000 - 0 Non exposes Exposes Non exposes Exposes n= 109 n= 148 Figure 2: Activite de la SOD Figure 3: Activite de la GPx chez les non exposes et les exposes chez les non exposes et ]es exposes T~~~~~~~~~~~~ _0- 5- Q 0j 0 Non expos s Expos s Non exposes Exposes n = 1014 n= 148 n=70 n =65 F igure J: Ac:ix ite de la CR che igur non eApoves et les exposes Figure 5: Rapport GSSG/GSH chez les non exposes et les exposes lvoxT 120 100-, 24 80- E 60- 40: 0 Non expos s Expos s n= 148 Figure 6: Taux de selenium chez les non exposes et les exposes 42 ?rt 5D -,, . ; . D.U(aY, 1eteqnzt %JLe 26-28. 2001 MEASURING EFFECTS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS Correlations between blood lead levels and different parameters Using Spearman's regression, we determined correlations between blood lead levels and studied parameters, whose thresholds of correlation signification are shown in Table IV. ALA PPZ SOD GPx GR Se GSSG/GSH Blood lead *** NS NS NS *** NS level p<0,001 p = 0,380 p = 0,215 p<0,001 p = 0,143 p<0,001I p = 0,870 Table I: Correlation between blood lead levels and studied parameters : significative, p<0,001 :significative, p<0,01 *:significative, p<0,05 NS: non significative, p>0,05 The corresponding correlation angles are represented in figure 10, they were drawn up using log values and give a coefficient of correlation of r2. Correlation between certain parameters and oxidative stress We also determined correlations between different parameters of oxidative stress whose thresholds are given in table V GR Se GSSG/GSH GPx NS NS p 0,556 p 0 p 0,268 GR ' ~: -. >, - ** NS -^..:__;__., .- _ p = 0,002 p =0,830 Table 11: Correlations between GPx, GR, selenium and the relationship GSSG/GSH Reduced and oxidized glutathion The relationship GSSG/GSH was determined, the average relationship obtained from non-exposed children (n=70) is of 2.21 ±3.1 i whereas that of exposed children (n=65) is of 2.49±5.38 (Figure 5).The relationship GSSG/GSH is therefore higher in the exposed population and typical gaps are also high. The GSSG?GSH relationship is higher in exposed individuals, with a significant difference (p=0.043); this implies an increase in GSSH level and a reduction of GSH.This result corroborates the hypothesis that in the case of oxidative stress, GSH is consumed in excessive fashion to fight against the apparition of free radicals (o2-, H202), GSSG is thus formed in large quantity by the oxidation of GSH by the action of GPx. Furthermore, it has already been shown that lead is responsible for the diminution of GSH as well as thiol groupings (-SH). (I1). Anti-oxidant enzymes and selenium Different enzymatic activities averages in the two populations were represented on histograms. The average obtained for SOD activity is I 132.65U/g of Hb±232.57 in the non-exposed (n= 109) and 1083.62 Ug of Hb ± 230.62 in the exposed (n= 148) (figure 2). A decrease in enzymatic activity was also noted in the exposed population,the averages being 145.06 U/g of Hb.± 56.50, in the non-exposed (n=109) and 115.95 U/g of Hb ± 38.53 in the exposed (n=148) (Figure 3). vie , D 43 Dakar, feeael S 2.2OO1, - ~z --'- . Ei,...!,- On the other hand, for GR, enzyme activity is higher in the exposed population (n= 148) or 7.20U/g of Hb ± 2.54 as opposed to 5.96 ± 2.25 in the non-exposed (n= 109) Figure 4. The average serum selenium observed in non-exposed children is (n= 132) is 108.13 mg/l ± 33.54 and is much weaker in exposed children (n= 148), or 66.57pg/I ± 18.58 (figure 6). SOD The slight diminution, non significant (p=0.076) of SOD activity in exposed children is explained by an important consummation of this enzyme in order to fight against the increased production of 02- during an oxidative stress phenomenon.This corroborates most of the data showing that anti-oxidant enzyme activity (SOD, catalase, GPx, GR) was experimentally inhibited by lead exposure (l I ).An increase in SOD activity (Costa et al 1991) was also noted after lead exposure. Furthermore, no correlation has been noted between SOD enzyme activity and blood lead levels.Therefore, in this study, activity variations of this enzyme cannot be correctly ascertained, because of the non-significant fact results. GPx An increase in GPx activity was observed, significantly less in exposed individuals (p=O).As for SOF, this also seems to accompany an increased consummation of the enzyme in order to de-toxify H202 produced from 02-- in the event of intense oxidative stress. GPx needs GSH as a co-factor, the latter being weaker in exposed individuals (given the higher relationship), the enzyme cannot therefore function normally. Also, as the selenium level is significantly lower in exposed children (p=O), reduced GPx activity is logical, as selenium is another indispensable co-factor to this enzyme. A significant correlation between blood lead level and GPx also exists as it does with blood lead level and selenium. Reduced GPx and selenium level activity is therefore related to blood lead level increase.These two parameters, GPx and selenium, are therefore interesting markers of lead effect on oxidative stress. GR Contrary to the inhibition observed for GPX activity, significantly higher activity was observed in exposed children than for GR (p=O) It was shown that in individuals who were exposed professionally to lead, GR was higher, suggesting the presence of a compensating mechanism to thiol group losses (-SH) that are normally brought by GSH and are responsible for anti-oxidant activity (I ). GR seems to be solicited at this stage by oxidative stress to regenerate GSH whose level is reduced in children exposed to lead. Finally. a most significant correlation is noted between GPx and its co-factor, selenium, which confirms the hypothesis that we formulated concerning these two parameters. Furthermore, a correlation between selenium and GR exists whose activity is coupled with that of GPx. This obtained prevalence shows that protein energetic malnutrition is a phenomenon that is cut off in this age group. In relation to previous studies carried out on children aged between 0 and 5, (6), the nutritional situation in urban and outlying zones continues to worsen. A recent study carried out in schools showed levels that are comparable to our studies' with a deficit of 10.4 % and 5.0 % of late growth in school children (21) as opposed to, respectively, I I % and 6% in our study. Our study confirms the results from schools.We calculated the relative risk (RR) of being malnourished for children exposed to lead. The test is significant for children suffering from ponderal deficit (RR=0.34; to 95%, p=0.92) whereas the probabilities are higher than 0.05 for other types of malnutrition found in the children studied. xm -w"'innites optr; P;ue rnv v; L1Lvd, a gat Afruyr Da&ar - - , Im,!ja - &26-28, 2001 F Late growth Ponderal Deficit Emaciation T(A) P(A) P(T) Boys (85) 8 18 18 Girls (88) 3 4.5 12.5 Total (173) 6 11 36 Table III: Malnutrition prevalence The highest proportion of anemic children (63.9%) is found in the group whose blood lead levels are higher than 100mg/I. Lead affects the hemoglobin level (p=0.01). In the same way, contaminated girls are more anemic than those whose blood lead levels are less than I00 tg/l. (p= 0.03). The coefficient correlation calculation (r=-0.047; p=0.05) between lead and hemoglobin has shown that blood lead levels have a negative effect on hemoglobin level in children, when the blood lead level increases, the hemoglobin level diminishes. The influence of anemia and iron deficiency was evaluated in children and 54% of the children are anemic, with 17.4% of the children suffering from iron deficiency.These results are lower than the prevalence of anemia in school age children, which is estimated at 49.8% in Africa (25). They are also far superior to those found in studies relating to anemia in schools, which is 33.46% (21). Blood lead level is probably conducive to anemia in the children in our study. Here, blood lead levels influence the nutritional status through anemia, especially in a martial context Iron deficiency can cause poor aca- demic performance due to a decline in cognitive development, from attention to concentration ability (26). It can thus increase susceptibility to saturnine impregnation by being conducive to lead fixing on red blood cells. This study will have allowed the sources of exposure to lead to be better evaluated in Senegal.We have been able to show that through the blood lead levels obtained, an important fraction of Senegalese children have been impregnated. This confirms the presence of an important public health problem that could be certainly controlled by the implemen- tation of regulations designed to lower lead levels in gasoline. REFERENCES I CAPRIO R.J, MARGULIS HLJOSELOW MM. Lead absorption in children and its relationship to urban traffic densities.Arch. Environ. Health 1974; 28: 195 - 197 CEZARD C.. HAGUENOER J.M.- Toxicologie du plomb chez l'homme.Technique et documentation. Lavoisier, Paris, 1992. CHENG Y.WILLETT WC, SCHAWARTZ J, SPARROW D,WEISS, HU H. Relation of Nutrition to Bone and Blood Lead Levels in Middle-aged to Ederly men.Yhe NormativeAging Study.Am.J. Epidemiol 1998,147:1162 - 1174 COSTA CA.TRIVELATO G.C., PINTO A.M.P, BECHARA E.J.H. (1977). Correlation between plasma 5-aminolevulinic acid concentrations and indicators of oxidative stress in lead-exposed workers. Clin. Chem.; 43 (7), 1196-1202. DE BENOIST B. LING Y.Anaemia in school-aged children. SCN. News. 1998;16 :7. DIOUF A.SARR MM. NIANE B, GUEYE A, BA D, CISS M.Air pollution by lead emitted from vehicles in the Dakar region. Dakar Med. 1995:40: 117- 121 GRAZIANO JH.Validity of Lead Exposure Markers in Diagnosis and Surveillance. Clin. Chem. 1994,40: 1387 - 1390 GUEYE A. Prevalence de l'anemie en milieu scolaire: etude representative aupres des ecoles elementaires publiques du departement de Dakar, Memoire DEA [n° 4] UCAD, 1999. GUIRO AT, DIOP B, BOUCHE-OSOCHOWSKA M. Evaluation de la situation nutritionnelle et alimentaire du jeune enfant senegalais (0- 5 ans ) : influence des facteurs socio-economiques et culturels. UNICEF (Dakar), Mai 1990,125p. HAYES E.B., McELVAINE M.D., ORBACH H.G., FERNANDEZ A.M., LYNE S., MATTE T.D. (1994). Long-term trends in blood lead levels among children in Chicago : relationship to air lead levels. Pediatrics; 93 (2), 195-200. HEINZE I., GROSS R., STEHLE P, DILLON D. (I1998).- Assessment of lead exposure in schoolchildren from Jakarta. Environ. Health Perspect.; 106 (8), 499-501. HERCBERG S. Les anemies par carence en fer et en folates. Lenfant en milieu tropical; Centre international de l'enfance, Paris,, 1990 [ n° 186 ]. INSERM (Expertise collective).- Plomb dans 'environnement. Quels risques pour la sanme ? Les editions INSERM. Paris, 1999. prge~eraz~'7L9~ w 5 INSERM (Unite de Recherche en Epidemiologie).- Surveillance de la population fran,aise vis-a-vis du risque saturnin. Rapport final, Decembre 1997. LANPHEAR BP BURGOON DA, RUST SW, EBERLY S, GALKE W. Environmental Exposures to Lead and Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels. Environ. Res, 1998; 76: 120 - 130 MARKOWITZ M.E., CLEMENTE I., ROSEN J.F (1997).- Children with moderately elevated blood lead levels : a role for other diagnostic tests ? Environ. Health Perspect.; 105 (10), 1084- 1088. MIELKE H.W,ADAMS J.L, REAGAN PL, MIELKE PW. (1988).- Soil-dust lead and childhood lead exposure as a function of city size and community traffic flow : the case for lead abatement in Minnesota. Lead in soil, issues and guidelines. Environ. Geochem. Health; 9, 253-229. MIELKE H.W., REAGAN P.L (1998). Soil is an important pathway of lead exposure. Environ. Health Perspect; 106 (I), 217-229. NEAL R.,YANG P, FIECHTL J.,YILDIZ D., GURER H., ERCAL N. (1997).- Pro-oxidant effects of delta-aminolevulinic acid (delta-ALA) on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells.Toxicol. Lett; 91, 169-178. NRIAGU J., BLANKSON M.L., OCRAN K. (I 996).- Childhood lead poisoning in Africa: a growing public health problem. Sci.Total Environ.; 181 (2),93-100. NRIAGU J.,JINABHAI C.C., NAIDOO R, COUTSOUDIS A. (1997b).- Lead poisoning of children in Africa, ll. Kwazulu/Natal, South Africa Sci.Total Environ.; 197 (1-3), 1 -I I. NRIAGU J., OLERU N.T, CUDJOE C., CHINE A. (I 997a).- Lead poisoning of children in Africa, Ill. Kaduna, Nigeria Sci.Total Environ.; 197 (1-3), 13-9. SHALTOUT AA, GUTHRIE R, MOUSSA M, KANDIL H, HASSAN MF, DOSARI L, HUNT MCJ, FERNANDO NP Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin Screening for Lead Poisoning in Bedouin Children.A study from Kuwait.JTrop.Pediat., 1989; 35 :87-91 SCHULTZ A, BARREGARD L, SALLSTEN G.,WILSKE J, MANAY N, PERREIRA L, COUSILLAS ZA. Blood Lead in Uruguayan Children and Possible Sources of Exposure. Environ. Res, 1997; 74: 17 - 23 UNICEF L'intoxication des enfants par le plomb -Information visant a susciter le plaidoyer et l'action.Unicef 1994; 19 p | RfAend Conk"& or bh Piwe O S,oOfte&4 A*i" D":. Se ltz.U .]wtE2628, 2001 IMPA(S OF LADED GOUN[ Myilw o t -3- -14 7 Prezset>ia7rJs R~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s~NCrDO2-0 47 Reitw~ oId PAafh2R - :-1Ar~ D.~Aa,. it}1i'7Jti&2;-2 2007 Alliance To End Childhood Lead Poisoning Alliance To End Childhood Global Lead Network Objectives Lead Poisoning ReaonsforImmediate Leaded Gasoline Phase-Out * Continue Information Exchange and Collaboration N onMor DtNeded between U.S. and International Counterparts No More Data Needed * Fostering Interdisciplinary Coordination Proven Health Benefits * Develop and Evaluate Prevention Policy, Proven Maintenance Benefits Innovative Solutions, and Best Practices Instructive Expenence * Catalyze Development of National Action Plans U.S. and Other Countries for Prevention Exponential Benefits * Promote Models of Cooperative Approaches Worldwide Increase in Vehicle Miles and Fuel Use Adaptable to Other Alliance To End Childhood Prevention of Persistent Residual Pollution Dispersed Lead Poisoning Lead in Soil -5- -66- Alliance To End Childhood Alliance To End Childhood Lead Poisoning Lead Poisoning Lead Commitments in Key International Agreements * United Nations Commission on Sustainable Prevention Means Source Control Development (1994 & 1995) * Eliminating Unnecessary Current * United Nations Commission on Human Settlements (Habitat ll, 1996) Uses of Lead . Organization for Economic Co-operation and . Remediating Development (Ministerial Declaration, 1996) * Remedlatlng Lead in the * Summit of the Americas (1994, 1995, 1996) Environment from Past Uses * Environmental Leader's Summit of the Eight (1997) United Nations General Assembly Special Session (Earth Summit + 5, 1997) -8- Alliance To End Childhood ALLIANCE TO END CHILDHOOD Lead Poisoning LEAD POISONING Reality: (L Alliance pour I Eradication du Saturinisme Infantile) The Direct Relationship Between Leaded Gasoline Use and Lead in Blood Is Well Documented MYTHS AND REALITIES Definitive studies have demonstrated direct correlation between MYTHS AND leaded gasoline use and population blood levels OF PHASING OUT LEADED GASOLINE Existence of other sources does not reduce significance of leaded gasoline (Mvthes et Realities de I Elimination Progyressive ,Mythes et Realities de 1 Elimination Progressive Correlation does not vary significantly country to country de I Essence au Plomb) Data perfectionism opposite of preventive approach R&qiol. C~o~t dKtRe Ptwa-Oit AfiC D.*- S&eqa.JwJ 26028. 2001 Alliance To End Childhood Alliance To End Childhood Lead Poisoning Lead Poisoning Myth #3: ~ ~~~~~~~Reality: Myth #3: All Cars Can Operate on Unleaded Some Vehicles, Especially Older Gasoline Vehicles, Require Lead Gasoline All cars can operate on unleaded gasoline Reality: Valve seat recession is a myth, an urban legend All Cars Can Operate on Switching from leaded to unleaded is good for all vehicles Unleaded Gasoline Significant savings in maintenance and fuel efficiency -11- -ll- Alliance To End Childhood Alliance To End Childhood Lead Poisoning Lead Poisoning Myth #4: Reality: The Only Alternative to Lead Is Most Available Alternatives Are Benzene- SaferThan Leaded Gasoline A Known Carcinogen False Dichotomies Reality: False choice between lead and benzene Most Available Alternatives Are Safer Intelligent Choice is the issue Unleaded fuel to enable catalytic converter use, not topsy Than Leaded Gasoline turvy vice versa -13- -IL- Alliance To End Childhood Alliance To End Childhood Lead Poisoning Lead Poisoning Reality: Developing Countries Will Benefit Myth #5: The Most from Phasing Out Leaded Phasing Out Leaded Gasoline Gasoline Now Ler rmexperience and not repeat mistakes of developed Costs Too Much countries Reality: Break Circle of Policy Paralysis Models of experience Phasing Out Leaded Gasoline Makes Investment and social development opportunities Economic Sense Support available from international, regional, and national organizations and agencies -15- -16- pesvsa4io; gC, 49 VDkar e at r2, S 2OO1; A Alliance To End Childhood Alliance To End Childhood Lead Poisoning Lead Poisoning Myth #6: Reality: Developing Countries Will Benefit Phasing Out Leaded Gasoline Is The Most from Phasing Out Leaded Not Practical for Developing Gasoline Now Learn from experience and not repeat mistakes of developed Countries countries Reality: Break Circle of Policy Paralysis Developing Countries Will Benefit The Models of experience Most from Phasing Out Leaded Investment and social development opportunities Support available from international, regional, and national Gasoline Now organizations and agencies -17- -18- 50 | , R:ywYud CoONefere- op&t,v Pfwha-fL:ta4& 1Jw& baS.trl .4r. Dakar, Seftei'al -Jun&26-28, 2001 IT(IINIrLAND FINAN(IAL ISSUES OF1ME PIASE-OT Of LIADED GASOLINE Veude &firsiowSa Jdne Armstrong, Senior Poli(y Advisor, U.S. [nvironmental Protection Agen(y Detroit, Michigan USA U.S. Experience with Introduction Lead Phase-out * In the 1970 s, lead concentrations in U.S. cities were at hazardous levels -The U.S. also wanted to introduce Jane Armstrong clean vehicles with catalysts U.S. Environmental S4EPA Protection Agency &EPA Standards for Lead in Gasoline Valve Seat Recession * Lead was reduced tfrom 2.4 grams/gallon in 1974 to 0.1 * Lead deposits on valve seats gram/gallon by 1986 prevent abrasive wear * Lead was banned in 1995 * Some older engines may have * Average blood lead content dropped by soft valve seats more than 85 percent -foEPA 0EPA -3- - p:r, . - !f51 Rf~ LOd.U cz ireiw& O'l b te PiJ1&-0Uad of~ 4ltfh-z~ n za.f2. RD~~~ j, -1< b'P ,D R ;.. Vakhu'. i'&ujab 200. - Valve Seat Recession Vehicle Maintenance Benefits • Cars operating under normal conditions show little valve seat * Exhaust systems wear wear~~~~~~~~~ Tune-ups * Army found no problems with jeeps, trucks, tractors, motorcycles, * Oil Changes or combat vehicles soEPA wwEPA -5- -6- Exhaust Systems Tune-ups * Leaded fuel exhaust is more acidic than * Lead deposits on electrodes shorten unleaded spark plug life * Accelerates tailpipe and muffler corrosion * Unleaded fuel increases plug life by * Mufflers last twice as long with unleaded about 80 percent fuels w&EPA woEPA Oil Changes Improved Emission Performance * Lead deposits cause corrosion * Unleaded fuel made catalyst cars * Engine oil collects corrosion debris possible * Oil changes are needed more * Hydrocarbons were also lower due frequently to assure good performance to fewer combustion chamber deposits OYEPA wEPA I5g2-10- ke-7u~nYd co4tfeL*cz on, t1e PkueOa Out .h - u; ',4 . Dika; iewal ~fR& 26 28, 2X71 Implementation Improved Fuel Economy * Increased energy of the gasoline by * Fuel nozzles were made smaller for more intensive processing unleaded fuel * Reduced spark plug fouling * Catalyst cars were equipped with inlet * Exxon study found a 1 to 5 percent restrictors improvement ISEPA woEPA -11- -ll- Compliance and Enforcement Problems with Enforcement * Gasoline stations were inspected * Leaded gasoline cost less than * Gasoline nozzles were measured unleaded * Fines up to $10,000 per day * Drivers believed that that leaded gas gave better performance v EPA E PA -13- -14- ArtwbOp 53 J ;. - ?' A., . D.t~.siv Seau.~.tD e WJe.. 26-28,201 TINICAL AD FINAN(IAL ISSUES Of THE PIIAS[-OVI OF LADED GASOUNE Paul Beckwith, Fuels and [nvironment Manager, BP London, United Kingdom Phasing Lead Out Presentation Contents - Background to the use of lead of Gasoline . Alternatives for octane enhancement Paul Beckwith * Economic Considerations Fuel and Environment Manager, * Technical Considerations BP Global Retail Team * Conclusions <: > bp - Some key questions to be resolved O bp Backg;round to the use of lead in tasoline Transition to unleaded gasoline Hisiur trw- IC t'. Tiv . rx Trt.. Disadvantages of lead c, ; M,dc~~~~~ls Le~~Uad in gaLsoline is in compatible.4. .- *1Jg¢v with exhaust catalysts used on . * *1-1 rr.nning pr-s-c- e. t- modern lom. emission vehicles. * _ .?:; - -' uppr:aling iSi4fle Jrci-pcd 11cr *Concems over health impacts - - Ad,ntne, of lead,* Current position of leaded * Advaintage of kad gasoline * The rnr..- i ottecti'c opi,on or * Sales of leaded gasoline are _ thicn Line rJtn*-: declining globally and currently represent less than 5% of BP-s. * IncreA,cd rctimn:n, tlc,l:lL easoline sales - _ * Lo- cncrv' mnin,,:r Main markets for leaded gasoline 3 * Mainly leaded gasoline * Protcction .icjnt ea- c.: are Africa and parts ofAsia. South / Leaded gasoline being recession in sch,vic' . it ' Vton East Asia and South America ( bp replaced by unleaded gasoline sal, . it, Unleaded gasoline sales only -3- 4 ,s c - ,& 55 R~~w,~~atCo oaPAa1~~~~~~ - aJulk,A/ric- Dak,- e, A54 2001 "y + _ , , Octane and lead specifications in Africa Typical octane boost from lead Premium Highest Lowest Typical spec. leaded 100 Lead typically provides 6 - 8 RON at 0.4 a/l RON 97 90 93 l 97.0 RON Specification l t Lead (g/l) 0.85 0.40 0.40 E 95 _ C * * Regular Highest Lowest Typical spec. a) - I Lead (g/l) 0.85 0.4 - d 0 ~ 0 Unleaded Highest Lowest Typical spec. ||0.84 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.15 RON 95 983 9 3 1Grams Pb/Litre O P o bp~~~~~~~~ SAE UTLLS^UESLB;AT M018lrne .klne 1985 -5- -6- Main alternatives to lead for increasing octane: Major factors to consider * Refinery processing * Alternatives for octane ~~~~Control of benzene content Unlenhadhest L4* Least technical and environmental concerns of * Other metallic additives (e.g. MMT, Ferrocene) * Environmental / health impact * Impact on engine and after-treatment system performance * MTBE Q bp - Groundwater contamination * Ethanol * Cost effectiveness -17- -8 - Octane cost for main octane improvement options * Economic Considerations _ 7 Last Friday * Cost of increasing octane 22o06/01 0 * Optimising energy consumption 2.2 1.8 2.0 Obp J ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.0 Octane Improvement Options 56 Preswt_~~9. -10- AIL'onaz Confe' Ots te. PA.a-Oz± 0ke 6 i 6- A$is .:. .t eqz. .Iwwe 26S28 20,1T The "Rational use of fuels in Optimum crude consumption transport - RUFIT" * Considers the car and the refinery as a single system \ * Based on the concept that: * Higher compression ratio increases fuel efficiency , \ * Higher compression ratio requires higher octane gasoline , o -C5 * Higher octane gasoline requires more intensive refinery processing - leading to greater energy consumption in fuel , manufacturing * Balances the increase in refinery energy consumption Research Octane Number with the improvement in vehicle fuel economy 0 bp Sdu... RUFITStudy E O bp St RUFITStudy. E..OM -11- 7-ll Causes of exhaust valve seat recession (VSR) * Localised welding of exhaust valve * Technical Considerations to valve seat at high temperatures . * aursw *P3 g I . Valve opening tears small particles * Valve seat recession and its prevention of material out of the valve seat Hard iron oxides particles further * Setting octane levels damage valve seat due to repeated impact * -, * ~~~Over time valve seat is worn away 4' by a grinding mechanism, reducing O bp | 0.04 - g * Modem Cars have hardened valve seat inserts and are not susceptible to this problem > 0.02 1 leaded gasoline * Altematives have been proven in many markets around lead substitute / / the world: - Pre-blended lead replacement gasoline (LRP) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Bottled additive used in conjunction with unleaded gasoline bp Distance (000 km) C bp -11- -18- Conclusions Key questions related to lead * The octane quality derived from lead can be phase out achieved bv enhianced refining processin Requirement for anti-valve seat recession additives * Under severe drivin2 conditions certain vehicles can sufter froni exhaust valve seat recession in the vehse vehicl population susceptible to VSR9 absence of lead * Are driving conditions sufficiently severe to cause * The protective tunction of lead can be reproduced by, well proven, alternative additives Octane Levels * There are a number of key technical questions which * Octane requirement of existing vehicle population? could h. addret sed to ensure an optimum transition * Optimum octane for unleaded gasoline and new from leaded to unlcaded -asoline vehicles? 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E)XonMobil Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure REFINING CENTRES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (SSA) DISTRIBUTION INFRASTRUCTURE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (SSA) Seree.: - - - r ~ 25 R.flteTas 10.000 Km Of Tduad mDele 0 n r en SeDepe 55 Oee.nfT-nken Or-eals 2 MMIt Kten N k S.000 Flels m RkN:-0cSs ; 00M.WD3LW in M8bus2)i/| G-o- C-n-n: orS iSO r ORnlmCInesGas 00sn C,eodualon'*- ° VehTle Fleet Shae F S MaIS n rISM-7.500e-e Slalens 60 m -&;aMb v¸ k| . qn CO iV-Eua Olt. Pdu we-Oaertd 3r Lea ed Fi - * t '' -:r v.A D.i ie .71 ktw 26-28 20r.7 E*,onMobil E*onMobil Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure KEY MARINETERMINALS & PRODUCTS PIPELINES ROAD TRANSPORTATION & NETWORKS main trsnsportston mode acounts for 80% of passengerrlreight movements _ ,'._. . Good network spanning over 2 Million Km; , I , links key markets, major cities, and rural * rrirva.e ~~~~~~~~~~~~~communities - -~~~~~~~ ~~Road networkt valued at Sf150 SilIlion, largely. J-- D 5,, . . . } * , / ,_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~manageBd by Govemnnents -- F!N,, _ 60% ot network deterorated due to lack of -) 0.!, '-. . '7 '' , -,-~> maintenance,mostinaccessible during rains ,. D7 V-( -., * ' ' 6;4%0 'Over 15,000 tank trucks ame involved in the - - . . ~~~ * ~~~~~~~'-' ~~~~~~bridging of pet roleum products *'7* -ny s _rb rTotal Vehie fleet projected at 1 B million . .... Well located Ofshore/lnland J ,- - G e pe _i . ,,,ar - terminals and a strategic network of fe e- pipelines, facilitate the distibution of - '. " fleet Gasoline in the sub-region _ Significant pertcen tage o cltvalve seat techtnology=egie rgiring valve neata KEY * lubricabon (15-20%) - Pgeinev -v- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~"~~~' * ~~Low turnover rates for replacemfent of older - Rp.11- Plrzenes s , , . cars to newer models v Vehiide growth rates impacted by GDP growth -11- -1l- E*ConMobil E)onMobil Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure 7 ! SERVICE STATIONS DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION FACILmES/INFRASTRUCTURE *C ~' " *Approximately 17,500 Service Stabons located in SSA dspensing white fuels - Averege number of Gasolmre ewmps na ndurawround tanks per Staton - 2 - Average number 5o Gaiar zze nozzles Per servie station-4 =' _ , , . . _ F Major Oil companies and Independents own 86% of the chain G Major O- Ce_omprties, era: ndroeendent. ri%: State rmpavies. t4% More than 400 Inland terminals/depot ____________ - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Avrage nu.beror Ganeli.etanks Perrernrrl-z- I Maki1 Ot-o-en (Year 2000 ~~~ I g: e 5 , - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~55 OceanrvTanker terminals roiai veusiry vewr Outleir 1 .5r0 i OLTLETS S^>;AD C < I J ;> \ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- Ty>ctatly l arge reaaciyritans ntalkiet lvrGasolmve I CTLETS SPREAD ' 3- 60C Ov { J ner to,ooO Km of pipelines tor product receipts/transportaton 3,50C res 2, 600 m )_rostly ion-segrega xtedsystems - Cucoarr.nraion DOS-M !.:800 -13- E*onMobil E*pnMobil Fuel Distribution Logistics and Intrastructure ' Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure . VEHICLE FLEET DISTRIBUTION VEHICLE PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES Ma5ai iviumiOnee~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Mft ntalo P eiedrD eie Men eeuiwaien In u5A .: 16 MXien., ttrlIrOMtO_ -15- -16- Pe-s,>.as-vnzS S6;O 61 ReBiogta1 Co~tfereiw&oZ Cor PA~es-oaP Afri Dakr,5 Segatf 2 2001 -. E)XonMobil E*onMobilI Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure , OPTIONS FOR MEETING LEAD-FREE GASOLINE REQUIREMENTS GASOLINE GRADE AVAILABILITY --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ f-- D I Fully masnedMsets M - Impos t-m LodWs R7tO-rios P / / . OShot mYns Ofthr.'* t - Rl ! -W R .feinry . Ofth-ro 2[ X _- / T . SaaSuA- Go_ *SeIfSttmIemt, Gabon IN/AI _!| , (LocaW Raneyt) Cow d Coa- - _ / -- I KEY S.t!-/Atw l ,~ - Eitsi ___ yi I~ el StochovatAad,tanat Gr oan | g uC7C .\. SwycOovor eOusues same assessment _~ 45aCrOo, _n Xi Swtch-ve/AftlDol Grade - Dift.ftl -11- -IB- E*,onMobil Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure ALTERNATIVE SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS 1. SELF SUFFICIENT IN REFINING CAPACITY (South Africa, Cote d'lvoire and Gabon) * Octane issues and Additivation dealt with in Refining presentation 2. LOCAL REFINING AND SUPPLEMENTARY OFFSHORE IMPORTS , imports can be used to boost octane pool when refining octane capability * Refining issues as for 1 above * Imports* can be Lead-free provided multi-grades of gasoline are in the market place - (Most locations other than Nigeria) * Additionaijy is inadequate Memo: 'Anti-VSR (Valve Seat Recession) additives will generally be needed in all of SSA other than South Afrca -19- 62: :- z >, r C. o~ d .9- --L e . r I Jte PUJ?u JI 26-2Z3> 2007 E*fonMobil- Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure - ALTERNATIVE SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS - (Continued) 3. IMPORTS FROM LOCAL REFINERIES AND OFFSHORE IMPORTS Import requirements will be dependant on action taken at local Refineries * Where logistics permit, some importation of Unleaded Gasoline may be possible 4. FULLY OFFSHORE IMPORT MARKETS * These countries are prime candidates for immediate conversion to Lead-free Gasoline * Due to generally higher percentage of older vehicles, Anti-VSR additivation will be needed Recent studies on soft valve seats and leaded Gasoline show that 0.02 - 00O5gPbA of Gasoline is adequate for valve lubrication Various research work estimate the cost of replacing lead as a lubricating additive in Gasoline at $0.002A The use o0 non-leac based additives in countries with a high proportion of soft valve technology cars has been determined as the least expensive option for lead phase-out -lO- E5(onMobil 7 % Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure - ALTERNATIVE SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS 4. FULLY OFFSHORE IMPORT MARKETS - (Continued) Where dual grades of Gasoline exist today, Unleaded can be substituted for one of the grades provided care is taken to minimize cross contamination - This will add only minimally to cost - No malor capital investments required to enable use Where only a single Gasoline grade exists today or Lead-free Gasoline is introduced as an additional grade. high costs will be incurred - This option would require investments in fuel dispensing pumps and specially sized nozzles to avoid cross contamination * Additional investments also required in storage tanks and pipelines (terminals and service stations) * Single oulane rating will reduce infrastructure requirements * Price incentives/tax differentiation necessary to encourage consumers switch to Unleaded Gasoline - Malor capital investments will be required 6-3 B'R-6z .. -aXi f . Gr;.r~~~~~~~C,-, 63 E*&onMobil Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure SERVICE STATION INFRASTRUCTURE 3 SCENARIOS: 1. FULLY IMPORTED MARKETS No problems for either 1 or 2 grade(s) market - Flush out Leaded Gasoline grade(s) with Lead-free Gasoline (Run down Leaded stocks and replenish with Unleaded) 2. REFINERY DEPENDENT - 2 Gasoline products * Needs careful phased planning * Provided a minimum of 2 grades exists, it can be changed over with time and at low cost KEY - Substitution (not adding a grade) 3. REFINERY DEPENDENT - 1 Gasoline grade * Complicated and difficult * Relies on Refinery conversion/upgrade or the costly option of adding a grade * This is only Nigeria and will need proper study -ll- E,$onMobiI Fuel Distribution Logistics and Infrastructure TIMING AND COSTS SHORT TERM CHANGEOVER * All countries fully serviced by offshore imports can convert rapidly at low costs * Timing of change is affected by time for legislation, local oil industry planning and time to physically work old leaded fuels through the supply chain * Additional cost of approximately $0.002A may be incurred for Anti-VSR additivation LONGER TERM * Refinery production dependent -13- 64 Pr&,6 ol (2JZ. REOS,qL Co5i(I1tSz Ph u ;iIti , r i - 9 _ , ,, Dnax. jStla?.U JjfLC 2628. 20' %~~~~~ ~ .'*,s-4'-;~ 5-e ~ [UEL R[INING AND DISTRIBIMON ISSUES Oc0t& Relaceest ruFueL Rarwd4ioPt Martin Megnin, Regional Manager, (dItex (dpe Town, South Afri(a The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline: Overview of Caltex Corporation Issues and Experience Joint Venture between Chevron & Texaco since 1936 US Refining & Marketing Corporation - Registered in Delaware Clean Air Initiative- Regional Conference on the - Headquartered in Singapore Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa - Approximately 7,000 employees Market products in more than 60 countries 26-28 June, 2001 - In SE Africa, Middle East, Australasia, Korea & Japan Dakar, Senegal - Through approximately 7,000 retail sites Affiliated with over 10 refineries Martin K. Megnin - Refining capacity of approximately Imm BPD Regional Manager - Product Engineering Services Cape Town, South Africa Chevron and Texaco are currently in merger process CALTEX CAITE -I - -l- The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - Issues Vehicle Perspective - Air Quality and Public Health - Function of the lead additives * There are many emissions and pollutants that can - Provide octane and valve seat protection significantly affect public health Fleet octane requirements * Lead is a known poison that affects brain development Makeup of vehicle fleet in children and has adverse affects on adults - Type and age * Understand lead contamination levels and sources Typical driving conditions - Speeds and loads * Most countries have or are in the process of banning the Possible lead substitutes use of lead in motor fuels - MMT, Valvemaster * Need to Develop an overall plan for improving air quality Volatilits requirements et - Driveability Index CALTEX ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CALTEX -3- -I,- zgs@fl-a<-2,. ~~~ 65 RKioAZ Coo,9 o,t t,PhAe,--t Ai DAkAr, feaegalt 2J_ 628O.,. -0' The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - Issues Primary "Drivers" for Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline: Refiner's Perspective- Health Costs to Maintain Fuel Properties - Octane, Volatility, Density Vehicle Technology Alternate blending sources of octane to maintain good Future goals - volatilitv characteristics * Availability of imported blending stocks or finished Emissions inventorv gasoline * Air quality standards * In-countrv refining investment required * Fuel prices/balance of payments Vehicle emissions standards * Old vehicles / New vehicles Fuel quality specifications * Possible lead substitutes Old vehicles / New vehicles balance CALTEX CAILTEX -5- -6- The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - Experience The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - Experience USA - for 1974 model year cars Australia - January 1986 Demanded b, the automobile manufacturers (GMt) in response to Government directive to tighten vehicle emissions standards; vehicle emission requirements (need for exhaust catalysts) unleaded (91RON) required for catalysts; lead phased down in steps V"arious but significant refine,in, lestment required -arious butsignificanes oreners m investment required Refinery investment not needed because pool octane high enough; *multiple grade- of leaded triatutained - multiple grades of unleaded esolsed as nell as a low-lead grade leaded fuel octane dropped from 98 to 96 RON by consensus - different rules for small reFine Price differential bv taxation to encourage leaded users to switch - lead credits trading scheme * Distribution svstem requirements - there was a long lead time Phase down in fise steps - banned leaded in 1996 (effectively in 1986) - early introduction for dilution Segregated ssstems [or leaded and unleaded - small nozzles for unleaded gasoline - small noriles for unleaded car - dilution and tank cleaning both used - both dilution and IanL ctr.n.ac uere uwd No significant cost differentisl Communications by industry/government - drisen b! demand nt n. tar, atlon." LRP introduced in 2000: leaded phased out completely by January No Lead Replacement Petrol ILRP) iairoduced 2002 (earlier in some states) - regulations entorred bi ta1 irencns Comment: multiple tagevpr..duct s not the way to introduce unleadedfuel Unleaded taking market share away from LRP after only 4 months CALTEX CALTt.X 17- -8- The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - experience The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - experience Singapore - January 1991 - 1996 Hong Kong - April 1991 Oil companies were given a specific deadline by which only Government directise to implement in ll months; 95RON min. unleaded could be sold at the pump and 0.013 mg/liter Pb Unleaded was supplied from the refinerv well before the required All fuel is imported; multiple suppli sources not a problem date to correct the tank heel at the terminals and stations Price differential bv taxation encouraged use of unleaded No significant problems Distribution system requirements Malaysia - 1991-1999 3 dispensers for multiple products Phase out started in 1991. completed in 1999 tank cleaning where turnoser not sufficient Industry and the ministry worked closely, because of Petronas as Comniunications by industrs/gosernment state oil company Consumer acceptance only ill': resulted in introduction of news Environmental positioning of unleaded by government was a grade 98RON gasoline It) con e! 4c lity and power of unleaded failure: poor volatilirt control led to perception of inferior quality Comments: technicallk unnecessar, 98RON grade introduced Super unleaded introduced to overcome customer perceptions iz; because of consurner niisperception CALTEX CALTEX -9- -10- 66 . IlL Rtfwnal a,'OeJa OKt rtie e_tOii± Jf gat efi.i,S- at An ~ t .. - .:A.o, S>U.zA. jwti 6 2O. - The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - experienc The Transixion to Unleaded Gasoline - experience Thailand - 1991 to 1996 Philippines - January 2001 Government mandate to phase out leaded gasoline by 1996 because Government mandated a reduction from 0.6 to 0.15 g Pb/cc by 1994 concern about health effects of lead; cooperation from oil companies Unleaded voluntarily introduced by oil companies in 1994; publicity In 1996, because of fears about valve seat recession (VSR), an extra campaign and price advantage did not result in switch to unleaded grade of gasoline with additive was required by the MOC; later was 1999 Clean Air Act requires unleaded nationwide by end 2000 not required as fears subsided Because of specific phase-in program, problems in supply, logistics DOE conducted spot checks to ensure compliance. and distribution were minimal. Major refinery investment not undertaken - higher octane blending Public acceptance was fairly good, and phase in was quick. which stocks imported; distribution system issues relatively minor allowed catalyst equipped cars to further improve air qualitv Government Departments are having problems with implementing Initial driseability problems were overcome with reformulation all of the provisions of the Act because of budget funding using lighter blending stocks Comment: Asian Development Bank loans driving unleaded; no vehicle Comments: technically unnecessary grade with VSR additive introduced; need emission requirements yet; attempt to improve air qualitv by io be sure fuel is properly formulated for good operation fuel regulation is not cost effective e(97R1N and 95RON unodnied in 2000) cALTEX C<EX -11- -ll - The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline The Transition to Unleaded Gasoline - Summary Implementation - Suggest that unleaded be mandated by a specific date with few or no Are las/price incentives necessarv? Yes. transition steps * ill fuel smuggling he a problem? Probabl. Ensure cooperation, coordination and communication between all 1s a lead replacement additis e or LRP for valve seat protection interested groups - government agencies, autos, oils, public required? No. Communicate benefits to gain understanding and support of the maktinrarti products amailable on forecouris public, and to dispel myths about inferior quality of unleaded Arc higher aroematics and benzene a problem? No. Do not be side-tracked by other issues like valve seat recession, b-t ri. i.d -den- l s more than offsets this concern benzene fears, unnecessarily high octane values .., rn- -so pdh i-bntroduce e%haust catavstss nred u.e .%rnment agencr cooperation Set fuel specifications that are cost effective, recognizing that hardware %eed (.osernmeni agenci cooperation changes have much more impact on air quality than fuel changes I -. _- ..d -ntshb* Develop comprehensive plan for improved air quality eed tI communicate that leaded fuel and high octane do not Caltexstronglysupports the elimination of lead in gasoline mean more pareC CALTLC -13- -ll- *'I'&SJt 67 Reaw i, Cmkxret& On the, Pn.se.aOat- O(Lai4A -' ID-vcw Simul?u - I 2S~-28,200? [UEL RW1NING AND DISSIBRUl1ON ISSUES Ryltr Rqratiwv Mamadou Nimaga, Diretor, Socdete Afric4ine de Raffinage Ddkar, Senegal FUEL INDUSTRY EVOLUTION IN SENEGAL Consommation carburants au Srnegal 300000 . - .-.. ___________________________ ~~~~~~~~~~~300000 ANNEES 1995 1996 1997 1999 1999 2000 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ - - C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~250000 SUPERCARBURANT 44618 47554 47224 47 079 47 504 48 659 200000 - - p2~~~0150D00 |ESSENCE ORDINAIRE 24 040 26730 29610 34 599 34 059 34 241 (5onno~~~~~~~~~~~Jafl) ~~~~~~~100000 C GASOIL 175 812 196 672 216 510 237 378 265 678 331 681 50D0= 0~~~0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 -- Super -- - - Regular Daesell -,~ ~ ,. .: -, 'I' C 4 - , . -MJAToI DES VEHICUES SEIICF UATRCULES ET RENOUVEIES 0U1 rC Super OIW-. '- r :mAU138 Light Regular . 1Z- . . *Gasoline At*. ' ' S " Naphta -e.10000 fi -&Re .o'nnat DISTILLATION _ t I -. F - 11w1 --600.0 1X.~. -! n- C4 i ; -r DEEP ' CONVEREPSION Light gasoline , Naphta . . o 0 913 .3 13-. 13 _ 20 > 20 Au, i GASOLINE MANUFACTURING -3- '4 P.efe:at---oi / 'u >-71 Regt:ond 6opyirmz& xv &P, PhawiOt of LeuAti a&i56& J. Atnz DR, 1oISreIwboK128 2001.. VakaJ5 e , r 6f _ zlImpact on Health: Importance of Catalytic Converters Gas emissions from vehicles without c.c. With C.C. "well tuned vehicles" CO (gm/kn) 42.67 6.86 VOCs (gm/kan) 5.62 0.67 CH, (g./km) 0.19 ~~0.04 NO. (gm/lan) 2.70 0.52 Distribution of Ql and lead in blood = Gasoline Quality - 1996 Haiti - Phase-Out Plan RON (Research Octane Number) No refineries, all oil products are imported from 100 97 97 the Gulf and Caribbean market. 92 * The decision to phase-out leaded gas was made 90 9 90 87 once it was determined that leaded gas is more 855 R-- 8 expensive than unleaded. 80 H S0,< $@ 81 *ITherefore no price increase. 75: * Decision was made in conjunction with the distributors allowing them to eliminate all 70 traces of lead from transport and storage CLeadrZd m Q2 e -° . '0 E facilities. *0~~~~~ asolne.t' uj a 7 -1- -8 - Dominican Republic Jamaica - Lead Phase-Out Plan Regular gas: con tent from Instead of only one 95 RON gas -available with and -Reduce octane content from 92 RON to 89 RON. without lead- introduce 2 types: -Bv 1/1/98 remove 2/3 of added lead. - Regular leaded gas at 87 (R+M)/2 Octane -Bv 1/l/98 remomplete3ofaddd leadp t. with lead content to be progressivelv reduced. -B 1/1/99 complete lead phase-out.- Premium unleaded gas at 91 + (R+M)/2 Octane, close to the 95 RON already sold. 3. 4 - 0 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ > o ~_____ _______________ -$ 3-- Mar. 90 Jan. 95 Jan. 96 Jan. 98 Jan. 99 1 -I Premium Gas: mid. 97 Jan. 98 Jan. 99 Jan. 2001 - keep the same 95 RON on the market. 72 ¸e f r> 5Pt; t'-Dak-r, jenejaZ */uwe 26 28, 2001 Peru Old engines and unleaded gas 1. Immediate elimination of leaded super gas at 95 RON, * 1970 -USA approx.one third of all cars had old valve seats. keeping only three octane indexes on the market:97 RON EPA and other studies have determined that: unleaded, 90 RON unleaded and 84 RON leaded. - Damage would only occur in extreme driving conditions (.. 100 Kn/hr unleaded, 90RNulae n 4RNlae.for more tha 5 hr.). - The problem would be solved if 0.02 gmPb/lt.were added. 2. An agreement with industry to progressively eliminate * 1992 - in Slovakia, only 6% of gas was unleaded; in 1995, all lead in 84 RON, transition to be completed by 2004. gas was unleaded. - 70% of cars had old valve seats so an additive had to be used (NABEX- 3. Revision of all norms and standards: 99) to replace lead as a lubricant. * Fuel technical specs - The cost of the general plan was estimated at $0.07/gal of gas. * National and urban norms for air quality * In Columbia. Honduras. Bolivia. Guatemala ... countries with * Vehicle emissions norms and vehicle inspection and simnilar vehicle fleets to those in Sub-Saharan Africa where maintenance programs. nothing was added and no problems were mentioned. -11- -11- The situation in Latin America in 2000 Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline Worldwide * 62 countries accounting Only 15% of gas used is for more than 80% of leaded worldwide consumption use unleaded gas. * By 2005, practically all of the countries in American, Middle East and Asia will be "lead-free". Sub-Saharan ca must follow -13- W The Cost of Lead Phase-Out. W Pricing Policies * Depending on a country's fuel supply: * Large price differences between gasoline and - Importers could benefit from lower internationalprices kerosene encouraged adulteration. - Producers have to adapt the refineries * Octane supplies replacing TEL have different costs and different * Large price differences between leaded and consequences on technical specifications of the resulting unleaded gasoline encouraged adulteration and gasoline. inadequate pumping. Direct gasoline = 6073 RON C4 = 93 RON Large price differences with gasoline prices in Isomerate = 82-92 RON FCC naphta = 90-93 RON neighboring countries encouraged contraband Reformate = 90103 RON and eventually adulteration and inadequate Alkylate = 90-97 RON pumping. MTBE - 118 RON * For the same octane index, one liter of unleaded gas costs approx. USS 0.01 a 0.02 more than leaded gas. -15- -16- lAayvrga, -A41a~ 73 -I After Leaded Gasoline Phase-Out ....... Vehicle emission controls * Lead phase-out is the first critical step towards a solid management plan of air quality. Reduction of sulfur in diesel could be another improvement. * However improving fuel quality alone is not sufficient. Programs must also look at vehicles: 1... J X i - Establishing normsfor vehicle a, _ emissions,introduction of IlMprograms and How to improve urban making catalytic converters mandatory in new air quality? vehicles are essential measures. avr quallU7 . t: _ - The objective is to eliminate the vehicles that mostpollute urban highways. -17- -18- |2 Mexico City - Various costs = The importance of monitoring * Monitor air quality in order to regularly control M,ll USS main pollutants in different points of the city. 800 -_ Fue _ * On this basis it would be possible to determine 700 - Z Fuelreformuladon 600 - t ~ the most efficient and cost effective measures. 500-- -. To begin air quality monitoring needs small initial So .investment but also requires great technical 400 - Vehicle Inspeceion / expertise, an adequate operating budget, 300- ~ .-.-- transparence and discipline. 200-. 100 -- - - - Emission reducfonl -* Possibility of standardizing techniques at the sub- -. -~----~-~ SOOh. regional level should be pursued. -19- -10- Traffic problems Need for a multi-sector approach As towns in Sub-Saharan Africa In order to formulate and implement lead phase-out As in full b-Sah, urban programs and develop efficient clean air programs, are affic growth, prban multi-sector coordination is required traffic is a serious problem. The cost of traffic problems is oi civi thlreefold: industry socicety e 1. Unnecessary gas consumption . ooi 11. Increase in atmospheric pollution Mm if III. Loss of time and slowing down of economic acti%ities -li- -ll- 74 Pa .a,t; ,Aovo Re4wsai CDRAcWu OK t*du P'sue-Ost o 1'i& fti6:1 J r. At.4 vaA,.z, Yed&ai ulse 26-2S. 20.27 Public Information Campaigns L Regional cooperation for realistic norms * Everything is to be gained by phasing-out leaded gasoline. , - * The following decisions that have to be made to improve air quality are difficult and require a consensus from various sectors. 2... * An informed public is very important in Why not harmonize fuel p order to facilitate the job of the decision e emission g makers. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~specs.,vehicle emission Z:-- makers. norms and air quality monitoring? -l3- -4 Expected gains Technical Difficulties * Economic * Refineries have to be adapted - Facilitate regional commerce and cooperation * The following particular cases have to be taken - Larger markets and scale economies into consideration: - Large polluted cities -Securitate ofnstrupplie capacities - Markets are smaller in less polluted areas - Facilitate construction capacities - Monitoring conforrnity * Environmental * Implementation of common environmental norms - Reduce adulteration [roposals have to leave time for adaption to takp -25- 26- k Specifications proposed for gasoline in Latin America Specifications proposed for diesel in Latin America Specification Regular Premium Specification Octane indcx (RON i. 91 95 Engine octane index IMON i. mln 82 85 Cetane index for 2001, min. 45 Reid steam pressure (RVP i. psi. 90 to 11.5 Cetane index for 2005, min. 47 T50, °C, max. 120 T90 °C max. 360 T90, 'C. max 190 Sulfur. wt ppm. year 2001. ma% 1,000 Sulfur, wt ppm, year 2001, max. 5.000 Sulfur. wt ppm. year 2005. mat 400 Sulfur, wt ppm, year 2005, max. 2,000 Aromatics. vol%, max 45 Density, kg/m at 15°C 820-860 Olcfins. vol%. max. 25 Aromatics, vol%, max. 30 Benzene, vol%, mar 2.5 Oxygen, vtt%. mar. 2.7 Noet Thxe-p,ec .sho.ld roe,allv be appi,ed by 2005. Lead. g/l. max. 0.013 NAoic. These specs should --Hl,,s IN urph,b.d ,* 2005. -27- 728 7 O;-eZ¢+;^<>;a, >t/ D;f Y -g:grwo ~~75 Evolution of fuel specifications Conclusions Proposed Develop a national plan including a large consensus amongst the principal By 2005 European in AL participants covering: - A sound technical option, Gasoline - A reasonable timetable, Lead, g/l, max 0.005 0.013 - Least expensive, Benzene, vol. %, max 1 2.5 - Consistentwith regional policy. Gas importers will find it easier to phase-out lead within a short transition Aromatics, vol. %, max 32 45 peiodl. Sulphur, wt ppm, max 50 400 * Fuel quality improvement has to be integrated in a general air quality policy. After eliminating lead, the next step is to limit vehicle emissions, Diesel politically difficult but necessary. Cetane, min 51 + 47 * Obtain technical assistance. A large international experience exists that Sulphur, wt ppm, max 50 2000 would help in better decision making and expedite implementation. Polyaromatics, vol %, max 11- 30 * Regional cooperation is essential to facilitate lead phase-out programs and reach a sound harmonization of fuel specs., emission and equipment norms and air quality monitoring. -Z9- -30- Ptafi&zXha . . . . . h o - MA6ao b-A2a Cu.wv. YA. ia' Iae. 26-28, 2011 VII(LI EMISSIONS Lead Phaa--Out aid Enwsio Codtrot: Soa&erwAfrica~t~Motor tIrf fry Expeieri Stuart Rayner, (hairman, NAAMSA/ford Motor (ompany of Southem Afri(a Pretoria, South Africa -naamsa --naamsa c7 .,Index Lead phase out and emission * Background: Southern African motor industry control: Southern African * SADC & leaded gasoline motor industry experience * SADC 'leaded only' states: Vehicle implications * Leaded fuel phase out options PRESENTATION BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURERS AND ASSEMBLERS * Post lead: Vehicle emission control OF SOUTH AFRICA * Emission technology and octane requirements STUART RAYNER DAKAR, SENEGAL, JUNE 2001 Catalytic converter contamination * Conclusions/lessons learned -1- -l- naamsa i iaamsa S w ~~~~~SADC South African Motor Industry Southern African Development Community 'Tariff Free Trade for 2004' * Annual sales volume : 343,000 units * Emplovs 78,000 (direct) 251, 000 (total) * LocaUy manufactured brands include : Audi, BMW, Colt, Fiat, Ford, lsuzu, Land Rover, Mazda, Mercedes, Nissan, Opel, Toyota, VW, Volvo * Vehicle Exports (Europe & US): BMW, Mercedes, VW * Component Exports: Primarily Catalysts, Leather - . Seats. Alloy Wheels and Engines -3- Preuwz&owt 2 77 RegtioFtat Caoe P4a-0b ,L e/ gt S.An.V6 t .4h l rakar, SLY]Z J26-28, 2001 ; naamsa SADC naamsa r 'WAvailability of Unleaded Gasoline * 80% of SSA Vehicles * Angola N? * Namibia Y * Covered by 3 * Botswana Y Seychelles Y Refining sectors. * DR of Congo N * South Africa Y * S Africa mandated .* Kenya N * Swaziland Y 'unleaded only' t W z * Lesotho Y - Tanzania N * Emission controls * Malawi N * Uganda N planned: S Africa & * i N? Z Mauritius - Mauritius N? * Zambia N * Mozambique N - Zimbabwe Y? -5- -6- naamsa naamsa 'Leaded onlv' states: SADC vehicle Phase out of Leaded Fuel (1) implications * Option I :(SINGLE GRADE INFRASTRUCTURE as per all 'leaded onlv' SADC states ) • Cross border traveloufism restrictions. Replace lead with a valve seat recession additive either * Vehicle trade. new model restrictions. at distribution centre or (sold in bottles) at the pump * Continuation of old technology with associated until vehicle parc allows removal. negative fuel economy and performance * Additives based on Sodium, Potassium* or Phosphorus implications. can provide adequate engine protection. * Common operation of Cat' vehicles on leaded fuel. NAANMSA recommends the use of Potassium as the least damaging of these * No emission control. Hligh vehicle emissions. -1 - -8- naamsa naamsa Phase out of Leaded Fuel (2) Vehicle Emissions * Option 2: (TWO GRADE INFRASTRUCTURE) Reduce the lead content of the leaded fuel grades to Lead Phase Out has frequently resulted in a call 0.05g/l. for vehicle emission controls & legislation. * Maintain/equalise octane levels in unleaded and leaded * Retro-fitment of catalytic converters is not grades at 95 RON. effective or practical. * Unleaded fuel should be taxed at a lower dutv as an While leaded fuel has resulted in specific models incentive for use in unleaded capable vehicles, being marketed in such countries, introduction of * Ban lead when vehicle population permits (10 - 15 vehicle emission controls requires such vehicles to years) and, where applicable. v.ith sufficient notice for . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~be run out and new variants established. This refinerv sector to make necessary plant changes. . . > ~~~~~~~~~~~takes time, particularlv in small markets. * Consider introduction of a 2nd grade' premium octane unleaded or LRP fuel. -9- -10- 76 :-, , - ; RegwKAt co~~~~~~~~*-7-i Rffltwai6orem>jdXaitxt .u rizA i.zi rxr yrt Dakar, Segeat -Jt&26-28, 2001 naamsa namsa Emission Evolution Emission Evolution (Cont'd) > 10 0 1 Stage IEuropean Standards ean Standards z C i ° 60 =anJapanese S ndards _ D 80[ ECE 15704 TierIdards o _ 60 St el[ /| 2 O1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 Z i 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 Model Year Model Year -11- -11- naamsa naamsa EC Emission Technology levels - Why Euro 1 for S Africa? LEVEL Technoloav ECE Regulation (EC Directive) Improves emissions by an order of Stage 1 3WayCat EGE 83.01 magnitude. (91/441EEC) * Local fulel quality will not support more Stage 2 3Cay C/couplped ECE 83.03 strngent measures. Stage 3 3 Wav C/coupled ECE 83.05 . Cat . Diesel Cat + (861C -13- -IL linaamsa n~aamsa Emission T n l Emissions - Catalytic Converter $- ~ ~ ~ ~ Smliid Emisions Euroanefor S Africas Contamination * Lead can remain in the distribution system for a long * US \ ehicIc( D 91 RON minimum time,plevelss lowasO.005g can damagea catalytic * SEuropean \3hWclys 95 RON minimum converter. 'Eurourade 95'~~~~~~~~~ A two tier system of both leaded and unleaded (used by 91/441c EEC) s Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland) is subject to * Availability of Sub-95 RON ;European' the risk of cross contamination. Xvehicles is bccomine increasingtly restricted. *Replacement lead additives such as Phosphorus can also damage the catalytic converter. * The octane increasing compound MMT based on the element Manganese should not be used. This also damages catalytic conCerters. -15- -1- Emissions::octane implications Emissions -CatalyticCon ver 7t9 Pr-jwnb.it7 e On S. P Okt , Afrc4 DaA:r, J.e7.S.j iC7 2001, aamsa __ msa Bc MMT? Non Merci ! x'Conclusions/Lessons Learned (1) BlokedCaalyt:83, 000 lans operation in Southemn Africa on MMT doped fue ocuin/esn ere 1 Lack of dual grade distribution is the primary 'cause' of . restricted unleaded fuel availability in the SADC but is .'* not necessary to implement lead phase out. *Lead phase out can be achieved with minimal disruption to the customer. * Maintaining/introducing the unleaded grade at the "leaded" octane level or higher will remove the necessity - for vehicle calibration changes. .-l 9 1S l l r . *To support future European design vehicles and | S iE ;j ii Z emission legislation RON/MON of 95/85 is required. -Il- -18- namsa Conclusions/Lessons Learned (2) * Euro Stage I (ECE 83.01) tailpipe emissions limits will ensure effective catalytic converter fitment and a major reduction in tailpipe emissions. * Post lead emission legislation implementation must allow sufficient time for introduction of new (emissioned) vehicle models. * Fuel quality must at least match the emission standard and the technology of new vehicles entering the market * In service checks need to be introduced to ensure emission gains are realised and maintained. -18- 80 Pi s-asZv- . -wn eaol4 e - ,5 ;. ,. *W%28, 2001 V[Ull(LE EMISSIONS VeAic sciTo« Co#i ot Mamadou Diallo, Directeur General, (entre de (ontr6le des VWhioules Ouaqadouqou, Burkina Faso Two-stroke engine two-wheel vehi(les and the issue of the leaded gasoline phdse-out: "The study (ase of Burkina Faso and of Western Afi(an (ountries as users of two-wheel vehi(es" INTRODUCTION Choice and use of fuels for motorized transportation still remains an issue to be solved, and particularly in countries where there is a high utilization of motorized 2-wheel vehicles. Choosing a certain type of fuel can become a deciding factor in the struggle to eliminate all forms of pollution, only if this choice is appropriate and fits the type of engine considered. 2-stroke engine technology must also guide the fuel distributors.Their misreading of this technology makes the distribution of the appropriate fuel even more difficult, since its quality can vary from one pump to the other. 1. THE CHOICE OF FUEL ISSUEVS.THE ELIMINATION OF LEAD The aim of this paper is to keep in mind the problem of the uncontrolled use of 2-stroke oil mixture in 2-wheel motorized vehicles. The problem rests in the fact that leaded fuel is used in an engine of which the combustion parameters are not mastered; such an engine creates considerable pollutant emissions, especially toxic ones if one considers the emissions of premium- grade petrol. 1.1 THE 2-STROKE ENGINE AND ITS LIMITATIONS The quality of such a 2-stroke fuel does not promote a good combustion.The bad burning of this mixture depends on the percentage of oil used within the mixture; the higher the percentage, the worse the combustion; * Bad combustion can also be of technological origin. Since the compression stroke is weak, even if the fuel is correctly mixed, the combustion will be around 50%; * Not all 2-wheel motorized vehicles possess a measure-incorporated system. If it exists, the 2-wheel user can easily adjust it. 1.2 2-WHEEL MOTORIZEDVEHICLES USERS' BEHAVIOR If pollutant emissions are high for 2-wheels motorized vehicles, it is the result of: * the misunderstanding of the 2-wheel motorized vehicles' operating principles; * the excessive dosage of the 2-stroke oil by the 2-wheel user; * the surprising use of premium-grade petrol in 2-wheel motorized vehicles (such is the case in Burkina Faso); RegioZit Corer,te orM PA4i&0't ofL a X r S i L. vaka, sega4al rZ628, 2001.. II. THE BURKINA FASO STUDY CASE According to available data, by 2010 the population in the Greater Ouagadougou area will attain 1.5 to 2.5 million inhabitants and that of Bobo-Dioulasso will reach I million. This demographic growth is mostly linked to the fact that these two cities, and especially Ouagadougou (with 2/3 of the industry and 60% of modern payroll activity) are the administrative, political and economical cores of the country. Therefore the problem raised by urban transportation is particularly acute in Ouagadougou, both currently and in the future. Ouagadougou offers a genuinely worrisome spectacle when it comes to both traffic jams and pollution. 11.1 2-WHEEL MOTORIZEDVEHICLES SHARE IN OUAGADOUGOU A study of the means of transportation and their share in daily trips in Ouagadougou shows that the 2-wheels are dominant with 39%, in comparison with 6% for private cars and 3% for public transportation. The 2-wheel motorized vehicles also appear to dominate the landscape at rush hour, with 45% at noon and 50% in the evening, versus 8% and 5% for private cars and 4% and 3% for public transportation. 11.2 IMPORTANCE OF GASOLINE CONSUMPTION -CONSUMED POLTANT TYPE of ENGINES NUMBER QUANTITY TM EMISSION( IlL + 'R t TRC 263.831 62.406 191,8106822 (gaNuIz,n'i Vlt' + PL (diescl) 24.077 33.704 107,0848739 TRAIN 1)D0)| 26 3.085 9,801710064 PLANE ictir - 8 542 26,96114151 TOTAL . - - 335,6584077 COMPARATIVE TABLE The Rate of Fuel Consumption and the Rate of Pollutant Emissions (1994) This table analysis reveals that gasoline is the primary source of energy (57,9%) with a 191,81 Gg pollutant emission. This rate also reflects an important emission of lead within the general pollutant emissions, if we consider the fact that the motorized fleet consists mainly in 2-wheel motorized vehicles. 11.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM 2-WHEEL MOTORIZEDVEHICLES These three tables reveal that 2-wheel-based pollutant emissions are high at both morning and evening rush hour and particularly HC emissions that are specifically linked to the very nature of the fuel. CO EMISSION 2WheeIs< . 4 Wheels 4 1orn I,i,, Rutshl Hour 81 %7c 19 % E|ciijn-< Rtshl Hourl 69 31 % RaeWSs ckr~te.on ste Pnue.-OKxt Left4uoa U bt>S-Sza:-v An_ ~~ ' r- <'! ' ~~~~~D.lUV .3&tZ:7.jA -J&Ute Z e v _~~~~~ ~. D..r Se&.-: Iwi W2. :.2 NOI EMISSION '-'W hiels 4-Wheels Morning Rush Hour 12 % 88 % Evening Rush Hour 7 % 93 % _ HC EMISSION |2 Wheels 4 Wheels Morning Rush Hour 96 % 4 % Evening Rush Hour 93 % . 3 % These three tables reveal that 2-wheel-based pollutant emissions are high at both morning and evening rush hour and particulary HC emissions that are specifically linked to the very nature of the fuel. 11.4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICITIES OF THE FUEL DISTRIBUTED IN BURKINA FASO Type of Fuel Lead grade (g/l) Sulfur grade (% --.weight)| Regular Gasoline Max. 0,8 Max. 0,25 Prenium-Grade Petrol Max. 0,8 Max. 0,25 Diesel Max. 1,0 DDO Max. 1,5 * Regular gasoline and premium-grade petrol show the same lead grade; * The percentage of 2-stroke oil provided by manufacturers is of 4%; * At the pump, the mixture served shows a percentage of 2-stroke oil of 8%; * There is a high use of premium-grade petrol by 2-wheel motorized vehicles with a cubic engine capacity of less than 50cc. CONCLUSION If important pollutant emissions linked with 2-strokes oil mixture are restricted, at the same time other emissions such as those from leaded petrol will be also reduced. The particular Burkina Faso study-case deserves some attention, if only for the following reason: Burkina Faso shows a very high rate of 2-wheel motorized vehicles as part of families' transportation equipment, that is ISO 2-wheels motorized vehicles for 100 families versus 22 cars for the same 100 families. This example illustrates the need to encourage the development of public transportation instead of that of individual transportation, since this latter exposes children to the threat of leaded gasoline emissions. ?v;e r "83 vakhr ,eiWega 2001. REFERENCES Mamadou DIALLO: Le niveau d'implication des vehicules a moteur dans la pollution de l'air - juin 1999 (The impact of motorized vehicles in air pollution- june 1999) Normes Senegalaises N.S - 060 f6vrier 1999: Emission des gaz d'echappement des vehicules terrestres a moteur -valeur limite admissible et procedures de contr6le (Senegalese Standards N.S - 060 February 1999 : Motorized Land Vehicles Exhaust Fumes Emissions - the Allowed Limit and Control Procedures) Mamadou DIALLO : Evaluation des gaz a effet de serre dans le secteur des transports au Burkina Faso - decembre 1998. (Estimation of Green House Effect Gas and Transportation within Burkina Faso- December 1998) Serge SANWIDI: La pollution atmospherique generee par les transports urbains motorises a Ouagadougou - octobre 1999. (Air Pollution Engendered by Urban Motorized Transportation in Ouagadougou - October 1999) SONABHY: Specification sur les carburants SPECSXLS (Specifics to SPECSXLS types of fuel) | itzSmi ronfp &of tott NW.Arfout -: i :. ;. DaJ.v Yecjw - *uAe 26-2. 2.201 VEI(LE EMISSIONS Corre/ationw Beh Air qualiy a vt Vekide& Emton: twpat ofv Cost Dr. Wdlter Ue(q, Professor, Universtiy of Brussels Brussels, Belgium V[UI(L[ [MISSIONS AND AIR QUALIY, DAMAG[ AND (OSTS This first part of this presentation shows the role played by traffic in problems arising from air quality degradation.The second part relates to the quantification of pollutants present in the atmosphere and their associated effects.The third part looks at economical costs caused by damages, and here I refer to recent studies carried out in Africa, Europe and the United States of America. Air quality degradation due to traffic is closely linked with the utilization of fossil energy. This degradation can be classified into three categories (table I) depending on the geographical impact on pollution: * local and urban pollution * urban and regional pollution * global pollution 1. EMISSIONS AND AIR QUALITY 1.1. POLLUTION AT LOCAL AND URBAN LEVEL This pollution is essentially one of proximity. Numerous pollutants are to be found: lead components (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO). small particle matter (PM 10, PM2.5) and contaminants. Pollution by lead (the theme of this conference) Lead is added to gasoline in the form of TEL (lead tetraethyl) and TML (lead tetra methyl), which adjusts the octane index. Lead components are emitted into the atmosphere through a vehicle's exhaust system. Lead exposure occurs in various ways, through inhalation from vehicle emissions and also by the food chain as lead gets into the soil. Lead accumulates in living tissues and, at excessive doses, causes neurological damage (see other sessions of this colloquium). Metabolism and toxic effects from lead are well known: blood, central and peripheral nervous system, kidneys, etc. It appears that neurological toxicity from lead is the most harmful as it delays psychomotor development.The guide level established by WHO (0.5 glg/m3 yearly average) is not presently respected in many developing countries (WHO 2000) where leaded gasoline is still used. Average annual concentrations in the atmosphere can reach 1.5 to 2 1g/m3 (Lovel,M. 1999). Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is an intermediary product from combustion coming mainly from vehicles. CO concentration is closely correlated to traffic density, especially as rejects are higher in slow moving traffic (traffic congestion index).Therefore, in areas where conditions are bad (poor dispersion), in tunnels, underground parking lots, average concentrations (Hecq,W 1998) can attain higher levels than those of WHO guide-values (WHO 2000) and be harmful to public health. R&oiLCo#eeostdIz&; PAa-f .safLwi tJ ib 4,J.z Dalzk, Seieyz1 :J.6- 2001 LEVEL POLLUTANTS EFFECTS- .-. RA-.IC CONFORMITY WITH WHO C 4ONRIBUTI GUIDE-VALUES LOCAL & Pb HEALTH MAJOR NO URBAN -. - < e CO HEALTH MAJOR NO PMio, PM 2.5 HEALT MAJOR N.A. MATERIALS Hydrocarbons N.D NO incl. Aromatics, aldehydes, HAP... URBAN & SO2, NOx, HCI ACID DEPOSITS, 5 - 60% ACCORDING TO THE AREA REGIONAL HEALTH, MATERIALS, CULTURES 03 PHOTOCHEMICAL 70% (NO2) YES EXCEPT FOR EPISODES (NOx, COVs, POLLUTION 20% (COVs) IN PERI-URBAN AREAS CO) HEALTH, MATERIALS, CULTURES GLOBAL CO2, N20, 0, GREENHOUSE 30% CH4, CFCs EFFECT ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ CLIM ATE _ _ _ _ _ _ TABLE I Air and traffic pollution in urban areas - Seven examples of environmental problems. Given CO's known affinity for hemoglobin (more than 200 times more than oxygen) it represents a danger for populations at risk; cardiac and respiratory system problems, small children, pregnant women, etc. Particle pollution (PM lo, PM 2,5) Fine particles are found in black smoke and come from unburned organic matter and mineral residues in fuel. Present studies show that fine particles produced by diesel and gasoline vehicles present a problem.The time they stay in air can be long (days. weeks) and can therefore accumulate. As these particles are fine (less than 10jm diameter or less than 2.5ztm), they can penetrate everywhere, in homes as well as in man's respiratory system.Toxological and epidemiological studies show fine particles as a factor in the increase of chronic respiratory illnesses and premature death (SFSP, 1966). WHO does not mention protection thresholds but considers exposure to fine particles as a risk factor if there is no sanitary protection level (WHO, 2000). In developing countries however annual concentrations of PM can be superior to I OOug/m3. It must also be added that particles also dirty buildings. Pollution by various air contaminants Still at the urban level, a series of polluting organic substances can be found, including alkenes, monocyclic aromatics especially benzene, toluene and oxygen components (aldehydes, acids, cetones, ethers) coming from the combustion or evaporation of gasoline, and also HAP (aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons such as benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene and benzo(k) anthracene) coming from combustion and some of which are cancerous (WHO,2000). In this case also, a negative impact on public health is to be expected given the exposure-effects relationship as indicated by WHO (lack of thresholds). RegiozLCo~tft-e.oaPhvdwPOsibcfL&z.Xt §ao14& uj Sub v.Sa.w .4i _ c w Dakar, SeKu Jwte&26-28, 2001 1.2 DAMAGE AT THE URBAN AND REGIONAL LEVEL Other urban pollutants also exist, sulfur oxides (S02), nitrogen oxides (NOx), organic components (volatile) COVs and secondary photochemical pollutants (ozone, 03, peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Some of these pollutants originate in city traffic travel outside of cities and are transformed. Whilst they are in the atmosphere, two pollution phenomena are noted: acid deposits (sulfates and nitrates) as well as the presence of tropospheric ozone and other oxidants spread over large geographical zones (up to hundreds of km) and over variable periods of time (up to several months). Acid deposits Sulfur dioxide (S02) produced by the combustion of residual sulfur in fuel and nitrogen oxides (Nox(:) NO, N02) produced by nitrogen oxidation in air are also harmful to living tissues and to construction materials. In towns in developing countries where vehicles do not have catalytic converters, the situation becomes worrisome as average annual concentrations in the atmosphere can reach 3001IgIm3 in S02. In conjunction with fine particles, this can cause respiratory problems in sensitive people (WHO, 2000). Premature death is also linked to the presence of sulfur oxides and particle matter. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) like sulfur dioxide (S02) can cause, after inhalation, bronchia-constructive reactions from sensitive persons (asthma).Annual concentrations of N02 can reach 90ojg/m3 and hourly levels can reach l000og/m3 in some towns in developing countries.This results in WHO's guide-values being regularly exceeded for S02 and N02 (WHO, 2000). Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are transported over long distances. They are transformed in the atmosphere and their deposits (sulfates, nitrates) are harmful to agriculture and acidify surface water and soil. Photooxydant pollution This pollution results from secondary pollutants of which ozone (03) and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) are known to be aggressive oxidizing agents. Ozone is formed from the base of a complex mechanism of formation-destruction from NO2 + NO and sunshine. NO2 is regenerated through volatile hydrocarbons and sunshine. 03 concentration is on the increase everywhere in the world, and is harmful to vegetable and animal tissues. If ozone based concentrations reach 40 to 70ptg/m3/hour on average, they can reach 300-400jg/m3 in peri-urban zones in windy conditions causing negative effects on the respiratory system.WHO guide-values are regularly exceeded in these zones (WHO,2000). 1.3 POLLUTION AT THE WORLD LEVEL The main products from fuel combustion, carbon dioxide (CO2), then nitrogen protoxide (N2), methane (CH4). tro- pospheric ozone (03) contribute to climatic heating.Therefore, higher sea levels, disappearance of coastal areas, climate modifications (rain or droughts) are to be expected. The three types of pollution mentioned are harmful to public health, buildings, agriculture, forests, etc. 2. DAMAGE AND ITS QUANTIFICATION Transport is a significant source of emission of air pollutants such as Pb, CO, Nox, PM 10, S02, C02. Emission of these substances causes various extended damages: man, materials, agriculture, plants, wild life, climate, etc. Extent of damage caused by traffic pollution is not yet fully known. Many research programs are being carried out in order to calculate these damages. Some reflections on these studies, past and present, are shown hereafter. THE CLASSICAL APPROA(C FOR CALMULING DAMAGE IS QUANTIFICATION Of THlE S[QU[NC[: TRAFFIC - [MISSIONS - DISPERSION - EXPOSUR[ - DAMAGE - DAMAGE (OST (EC. 1995, EC 1999). R" 87~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Raw KIZ 4i~ OP& tie- PkA9 ku1t~nt D.L.i jent&al jfl .~wz28,2OO0t-.,.S In this sequence, called the impact pathway, traffic is calculated using a first type of model that provides traffic flow according to the time of day on the highway. Results from traffic models allow fuel consumption to be calculated and emission of pollutants using a second type of model, emissions (HECQ,W et al, 1999). Results from the emissions mod- els are then introduced to a third model type, that of dispersion of the different pollutants. Results from these three models allow the receiver's exposure to pollutants to be calculated (population, buildings, agriculture). Exposure data then enables the damages to be quantified using a fourth model type of dosage-reaction. IT IS THEN POSSIBlI TO CALULAIT Th[ DAMAG[S IN MON[TARY T[RMS BY DIR[IC OR INDIR[C[ M[UOBS. Different information is necessary in order to evaluate the sequence. In order to calculate emissions, information is required on travel and the vehicle fleet. The town's topology and meteorological data, then need to be known and air quality has to be monitored to calculate the concentration of pollutants in the air. For exposure, population distribution, materials storage and sensitive cultures have to be known. For damages, damage functions* have to be selected and then cost calculation methods have to be applied.The whole procedure can be long and complicated depending on the desired degree of accuracy of the estimations. It is useful to estimate unknown margins also. Only certain sized towns are able to measure traffic, meteorology, pollution, population statistics, buildings, and can ascer- tain more or less accurately the bottom line of pollution from traffic. Partial estimations have been made under the aus- pice of the World Bank in cities such as Dakar, Cotonou (WBI, 2000). It would be interesting if these studies were able to quantify damages and measure their importance. WHAT KINDS OF DAMA[E AN B[ AN P[ [[D? A synthesis of studies presently being carried out (INFRAS/IWW @))), FAVREL&;egiU._.; Hec |~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ . . ;l ...-: D e"^ ./' q.'¢ zn The concentration then decreases to 580ng/m3 in 1987 when gasoline with 0.1 5g/l lead is put on the market,With the progressive sales of unleaded gasoline at the end of 1980, lead concentration will continue decreasing and reach I OOng/m3 in 1988.With the definitive elimination of lead in gasoline in 2000 lead content in the air will fall to 50ng/m3, 50 times less than in 1975. The sale of unleaded fuel at the end of the eighties also allowed catalytic converters to be used on new vehicles, thereby complying with the new European standards. Gradual introduction of vehicles with catalytic converters now allows air in European cities to be improved, as was the case for lead over the last twenty years. 4. CONCLUSIONS Urban areas today are experiencing a triple growth: population, economical activities and traffic. Environmentally this results not only in an increase in atmosphere pollution but also congestion, itself a cause of pollution. This pollution is affecting an ever-increasing population, buildings, peri-urbain crops, etc.The costs incurred prove the negative effects on health ard the environment. Some of the solutions to these problems would be urban planning, utilization of public transport and implementation of technical measures. Apart from technical measures focusing on fuel and vehicles, three important elements are to be considered, and concern the utilization of lead in gasoline. - Lead is toxic to health; this is the first reason to reduce its utilization in fuel. - Lead is harmful to catalytic converter utilization, this being a widely used technique today that significantly reduces emission of three categories of pollutants that. pose serious environmental problems; carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and organic volatile components.A second reason to reduce its utilization. - Refining techniques are at present advanced enough to produce quality leadless fuel; a third reason. The Heavy Metals Research Group has the following members: Professor M. K. C. Sridhar, Professor FA.A.Adeniyi, Professor E.A. Bababunma. Dr. J. F Olawuyi. Dr 0. M. Bolaji, Dr.J. l.Anetor, Dr.T. O.Alonge, Mr. G. R. E. E.Ana, Consultants from other disciplines and several Postgraduate Students. As the figures for diesel indicate, this varies considerably according to towns and calculation methods used. REFERENCES| BANQUE MONDIALE (1999): "Etude de la qualite de l'air en milieu urbain: Cas de Dakar et Ouagadougou". Rapports finaux - Programme de politiques de transports en Afrique subsaharienne - 52 p. + annexes EC. 1999 -ExternE Proiect - Methodology 1998 Update Report",Vol.7 - 518 p. EC. 1995 'ExternE Proiect - Externalities of Energy" -Vol.2, Methodology., 571 p. FAVREL V et HECQ W. (2001): "External cost of air pollution generated by road traffic in the Brussels urban area".Accepte pour publication dans 'International Journal of Vehicle Design" HECQ W. GILSON B. et FAVRELV. (1999): "Overview and Analysis of the links between "Models of Mobility" and "Models of Pollutant Emissions from Transport" in "Methods of Estimation of Atmospheric Emissions from Transport". European scientist network and scientific state-of-the-art -Action COST 319 final report pp 68-73 HECQ W(.1998) 'Contribution of fossil fuels and air pollutants emissions in Belgium since 1980.The role of traffic". Catalysis and automotive pollution control IV,A. Frennet & N.Kruse Editors. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis,Vol. 116 pp. 5-22. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. HECQ W dans LEDUC D. et al. (1997), "Relation entre pathologie respiratoire et pollution atmospherique urbaine: Etude dans un service d'urgence". Reanimation-Urgences,Vol 6 pp. 85-90. IBGE (2000). "La qualite de F'air en Regions de Bruxelles-Capitale". Institut Bruxellois pour la gestion de l'Environnement - Mesure a l'Immission - Annexe - 54p. INFRAS/IWW (2000): External Costs of Transport - UIC - International Union of Railways - 305p. L.OVEL M. (1999): "Eliminating a Silent Threat" - Word Bank Support for the Global Phaseout of Lead from Gasoline - World Bank - 20 p. SFSP (1996): "La pollution atmosph6rique d'origine automobile et la santm publique" - "Bilan de 15 ans de recherche internationale" Societe fran;aise de sante publique - 251 p. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). (1985). "Costs and Benefits of Reducing Lead in Gasoline: Final Regulatory Impact Analysis". EPA-230-05-85-006. Office of Policy Analysis. Washington, D.C. WBI (2000): "Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa Cities" Work in progress - World Bank Institute - Sub Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program First Issue - 28p. WHO (2000): "Guidelines for Air Quality" 130 p. I L21 a o S de Ph.e-0iipfr 4-S X.4 v D -'.£i-.: Deq: * jwt Z26-28. 2001 vi AIR QUAIlY MONITORING Ebwrornm ta Lead ever k A *fr C Mynepdlli Sridhar, Dire(tor, Division of [nvironmental fealth, University of lbadan Ibadan, Nigerid INTRODUTION Lead is a common industrial metal that has become widespread in air, water, soil, and food. It is a naturally occurring element that has been used almost since the beginning of civilization.As a result of the many industrial activities that have brought about its wide distribution, lead is ubiquitous in the environment today. Wallace and Cooper (1986) have compiled a list of 120 occupations (e.g., auto-mechanic, painting, printing, and welding) that may involve exposure to lead. All humans have lead in their bodies primarily as a result of exposure to man-made sources (ATSDR, 1992). Studies have shown that the body lead levels of modern humans are about 500 times higher than those of pre-industrial times. Organic lead compounds (Tetraethyl lead and Tetra methyl lead) are extensively used as additives in petrol. It has been pointed out thatAfrica's contribution to global lead pollution has increased from just 5% in 1980s to 20% in 1996 (Nriagu, 1978,1979, 1989,Anon, 1996). Some of the lead in the ambient air around urban centers is in the form of sub-micron sized particulate. More than two-thirds of the Nations in Africa have maximum lead levels above the world median value. In Egypt progressive industrial activity has resulted in increased environmental pollution and attendant health problems. South Africa, however, has introduced unleaded petrol in 1996. In Nigeria, the levels of lead in petrol are estimated at 0.7g/litre. The national consumption of petrol in the country is estimated at 20 million litres per day with about ISO people per car. It is there- fore predicted that at least 15,000 Kg of lead is emitted into the environment through burning (Agbo, 1997). For children, the most important pathways of lead exposure are ingestion of chips from lead-painted surfaces, inhalation of lead from automobile emissions, food from lead soldered, plumbing, and medications in the form of folk remedies. Most people in nigeria are ignorant of lead and its toxicity.The main source of adult human exposure is food, which is believed to account for over 60% of blood levels; air inhalation accounts for approximately 30% and water of 10% (ohn et al, 1991).This paper presents the present status of lead levels in the environment in Nigeria in particular and other African countries in general. LEAD IN FOODS AND VEGETATION Several studies indicated that plants have the ability to concentrate lead (Sridhar, 1988). Leaf and root contain more lead than stem. and the contents of lead in different plant organs were positively correlated to the lead content in soils. Commonly the Pb does not concentrate in the edible fruited part of the plant . Urban trees also concentrate lead. In a study carried out by Ademoroti (1986) on Levels of Heavy Metals on Bark and fruits of trees in Benin city, Nigeria. Levels of lead deposits in all cases were found to vary according to traffic volume; high levels (58.3-143.5(g/g) were recorded for areas of very high traffic volume and low levels (15.2-1 5.8(g/g) for areas of low traffic volume. Ketiku and Adeyinka (1999) reported that imported glazed ceramics (drinking mugs, soup bowls, and cooking pots) in Nigeria released lead up to 0.4 ppm as compared to those manufactured locally which leached only up to 0. I ppm. Okoye (1994) reported high lead levels in dried fish from Nigerian markets.A study carried out by Sridhar and his associates revealed that the lead levels in food var- ied among the communities whether they are living in high, medium or low density areas.The levels are (mg/Kg): smoked fish 0 to 9.7, 'Gari' a popular native cassava dish, 0 to 8.6, dried meat, 0 to 15.1, Suya (a meat preparation), 6.5, and ;Elubo' (a local preparation), 0 to I 2.5.The foods sold in high density areas contained higher levels. -e-u , 5r 93 Yet, in another study by Sridhar and lfeanyi (i998 unpublished data), lead levels were measured in Lagos metropolis.A total of 72 various prepared ready to eat food samples were collected and analyzed for lead from the high (29), medium (18) and low (25) density areas.Varying ranges of results were obtained for all the three areas but high values were recorded for mixed food varieties consumed locally, like soup, 'Jollof Rice and 'Gari', and Eba (Cassava based) and 'Amala' (Yam based). LEAD IN AIR Automobile exhausts are believed to account for more than 80% of the air pollution in some urban centres in Nigeria. The level of lead in Nigeria's super grade gasoline is 600-800mg per litre (Onianwa, 1985; Osibanjo and Ajayi, 1989, Shy, 1990) which is much higher than permissible levels in some pollution conscious countries. In a 1975-76 survey of the level of some automobile related pollutants (excluding lead) in the atmosphere within the urban city of Ibadan, Oluwande (1979) found that the levels of sulphur dioxide, carbon-monoxide and particulate matter were close to the WHO long-term limits. In that study the levels of lead were not measured. But now data are available which agreed with that prediction. In another study from Ile-Ife, among Nigerian traffic wardens, it was found that the mean blood lead level in Lagos wardens was 18.1 ± 6.4 pg/dl, which was significantly higher than the level of 10.2 ± 2.7 pg/dl in Ife wardens (Ogunsola et al, 1994). Nriagu (1992) reported dust lead levels in Lagos about 5pg/m3. He further estimated that about 10 to 30% of the children in Africa might be suffering from lead poisoning. A total of 35 'Harmattan' dust samples were collected over an 8-week period (Adogame and Sridhar, 1997 unpublished data). The mean lead values showed a range of 57.5 to 143.2 mg/Kg. The amount of dust is dependent on the density of the area. The trend followed a decrease from the high to medium to low density area.This phenomenon could be accounted for by the volume of traffic and human population with its attendant activities in such areas and dust particles could be more easily raised by moving vehicles and human activity when the soil is dry (Tables I and 2). Source~~ eadI mg5e *vg particulates TABLE I Lead Levels Source o; .. in dust samples from various socio-economic High Density Area (n=17) 125- 35.7 to 143.2-42.8 groups in Ibadan Medium Density Area (n=6) 54.6-35.1 to 83.9-29.3 Low Density (n=12) 57.5-88.0 to 89.6-20.9 Source of Sam pl l ,, Lead, mg/g u Range 3 ~parnculatesMean S TABLE 2 Lead levels - - . in Commerrial Commercial Automobile Automobile Exhaust Exhaust (n=20) 0.043 - 11.40 3.01- 2.71 in a Selected Area in Heavy Duty Automobile Lagos Metropolis Exhaust (n=10) 0.096 - 18.00 5.404-5 63 Pnvate Automobile Exhaust (n=25) 0.038 - 11.20 3.064-3.09 In another study by Sridhar and lfeanyi (1998, unpublished data) 52 indoor dust samples from high (18), medium (18) and low (17) density area showed varying lead levels. Nature of the building, wall paintings, degree of ventilation, elevation, nearness to heavy traffic and most especially contamination of dust samples with paint peelings off the wall influenced the values.The lead levels were: 0.19 - 388.80 mg/kg, 18.5 - 398.15 mg/kg, and 10.25 - 215 mg/Kg for high, medium and low density areas. respectively. These values were high in a few cases when considering the fact that outdoor urban road dust lead level was about 100- 5.000mg/Kg .The type of house has significant influence as evident from the results of dust analysis (mg/Kg): Bungalow, 94.06. Ground floor. 73.15, and First floor, 125.14. 9 I -, ' RPe4wjL COnfretz& On tte Piecut of L .4f0a _~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~- -i .. -r48!~ -, - ~..~i*Ot G2 LEAD IN WATER Samples of 36 surface and ground waters in Ibadan indicated varying lead levels.The surface waters intended for domestic needs showed lead levels in the range of (mg/I) 0.4 1±0.5,1.25±0.2, and 0.39±0.5 for high, medium and low density areas. Similarly, most wells showed concentrations for Pb to be slightly but considerably higher specifically in high-density communities: 1.50±0.4, 0.5±0.5, and 0.7±0.6 in high, medium, and low density areas. A study in Lagos involving 33 surface water samples and 13 ground water samples revealed similar increased lead levels: for surface waters, 0.324±0.089,0.030±0.046, and 0.346±0.389 mg/l for high, medium and low density areas. For ground waters, 0.022±0.09, and 0.363±0.028 were recorded in high and medium density areas. The source of lead in water is mostly from the drainage and surface runoffs.Areas where lead based activities are high contribute to the lead levels in the final recipients such as river, stream or wells.A study by Ayodele et al (1996) while working in Kano reported that industries contribute a large quantities of lead through the discharge of effluents (Table 3). 5;u.SE5end`eM Lead Dissokved Lead -:-TtlLead TABLE 3 Lead Source of Effluerii' 5 i d m Lead -o- mg I . m;.Le levels in some mglgl, Industrial z *:,. !,S,"-' r ean-SD Mean-SD Effluents at Sharada Industry I (n=10) 184.4-10.23 202.49-2.81 388.20-12.67 Industrial Industry 2 (n=10) 75.60-11.54 363.0-21.81 446.4-35.97 Estate,Kano Industry 3 (n=10) 1.94-0.55 18.04-8.18 21.70-8.12 Subjects NunrJ.~. . rN . .- - . -lNMean Age (Years Blood lead level TABLE 4 Blood Exposed Group (Battery lead levels industry, Paint industry, 56.3-0.95 Petroleum Depot, an 86 '26 97' among Exposed insecticide Company, 8 - 9 and Unexposed fbadan)) controls in Control Group I (Workers 30.1-1.47* Nigeria from Offices, Ibadan) 51 (10 - 58) Control Group 11 (People from Iseyin, Shaki. 28.8-1.22* Ogbomosho and Sokoto) 880 (15 - 63) LEAD IN SOILI I Lead levels in soils vary depending on the location and nearness to lead based activities and vehicular density. A study in Ibadan (Sridhar and Adogame, 1997 unpublished data) showed that in residential areas, the levels ranged from (mg/Kg): 364.0 ± 85.2 in high density area, 269.0± 133.9 in medium density area and 307.0±161.3 in low density area. In mechanic's villages the values ranged between 292.3 and 491.2. Near petrol stations, the values ranged between 190.0 to 1029 mg/Kg on the top 10-cm level and 237.5 to 3,862.8 mg/Kg in I Ito 20-cm layer. Near a lead acid battery industry, the soils showed values of 7,339 in the top 10 cm layer and 6263mg/Kg in the II to 20 cm layer.The type of soil, composition and cation exchange capacity and pH will govern the fate of contaminated lead whether to bind or to leach down. A process was developed to decontaminate soil with lead levels of about seven grams per Kg using physico-chemical and phytoremediation (Sridhar and Johnson, 2000, unpublished data) pj-OfRM,4t,L,02S .95 BLOOD LEAD LEVELS AND POISONING In developing nations limited reports suggest the existence of serious problems of occupational lead exposure. Nasaralla and Ali (1983, 1985) observed that Pb accumulates in crops near Egyptian highways. In an earlier study they had expressed concern about the lack of data on Pb pollution in Egypt to enable estimation of Pb intake in the country. This is probably also true of Nigeria. There are also reports from Malaysia that progressive industrial activity has resulted in increased environmental pollution and attendant health problem. Lim et al (1983 not cited here) attributed this to the high alkyl Pb content of Malaysian petrol with associated automobile emission. The Pb content of Malaysian petrol is 0.84 g/l and one of the highest in the world. This may be comparable to the situation in Nigeria where high gasoline Pb content has also been reported (Osibanjo and Ajayi, 1989). Other reports have come from Jamaica, Northern Sudan, Zimbabwe and Korea. Asogwa (1979) studied 43 battery workers and 50 control subjects. Forty-nine of his exposed subjects had BLL below 40 pg/dl while only one had a value between 40 and 50 pg/dl out of the battery workers, I5 had BLL below 40 pg/dl, 25 had BLL of between 40 and 80 pg/dl and 3 had values of between 80 and 120 pg/dl. Ayoola (1979) reported on 10 cases of Pb poisoning. He drew attention to the difficulty of the diagnosis of Pb toxicity and cautioned that with the rapid industrialization of Nigeria, doctors and other health workers should be aware of the possible increase in the incidence of plumbism. Ayoola (1979) also noted the long term consequences of Pb even after quitting a Pb-based occupation. Osibanjo and Ajayi (1989) reported that the highest level of Pb occurs in Aviation gas (915 pglml) and super grade gasoline, 600-800 pg/ml (with a mean of 700 pg/ml). The comparable maximum levels in United States and Britain (UK) being 200 pg/ml and 500 pg/ml, respectively (Osibanjo and Ajaiyi, 1989). The authors however reported that trace amounts of Pb (2-7 pg/ml) are present in diesel oil, kerosene and lubricating oil. Ndiokwere (1984) studied heavy metal pollution and its effect on soil, vegetation and crops. Okoye (1994) in a survey of Pb and other metal contents of dried fish from Nigerian markets remarks that the Pb content is high. He observes that the high Pb content in fish from Nigerian markets indicates serious Pb contamination in Nigeria. He attributes this mainly to heavy automobile traffic and the high lead content of the local automobile fuels. Anetor et al (1999) studied 137 subjects in Ibadan comprising of 86 Pb workers and 51 control subjects. They were matched for age, sex, socio-economic status and dietary intake. The Pb workers were classified into 3 exposure categories according to severity of exposure as low, moderate and severe. Blood and urine samples were collected from all subjects. In this study 95% of Pb workers had BLL >40 pg/dl (1.93 pmol/dl, the upper limit currently acceptable in occupational exposure), 60% of the Pb workers had BLL >55 pg/dl (2.70 pmol/l, a level indicative of severe poisoning), 38% of Pb workers had BLL 60 pg/dl (2.90 pmol/l) a level considered indicative of the need to exclude the worker from further exposure), only 4% of Pb workers had BLL below 40 pg/dl (1.93 p mol/l). In another study involving 880 occupationally unexposed subjects from Iseyin, Shaki, Ogbomoso, and Sokoto, indicated that occupationally exposed workers had higher blood lead levels. The levels correlated well with smoking, alcohol and salt intake (Adeniyi and Anetor, 1999). Omokhodion (1994) studied blood samples from 90 males and 47 females attending a general outpatient clinic over a period of I month in association with 24 tap water samples from 8 locations around Ibadan, Nigeria. Blood lead levels ranged from 3.0 - 27.6 pg/dl. The mean blood lead level for females and males were 11.40 ± 6.16 and 12.33 ± 5.68 (pg/dl, respectively. The water samples in all eight locations show lead levels <5 pg/l. Omokhodion and Osungbade (1996) made a questionnaire- based survey of automobile mechanics and allied technicians in Ibadan. A total of 300 people were interviewed. The ques- tionnaire sought information on health problems associated with work, the presence of chronic illness and where workers seek help when they fall ill. The interview was followed by hand examination for dermatitis. Musculoskeletal disorders were the commonest work-related health problems reported. Of the 50 respondents who recorded Musculoskeletal disorders, 27 (54%) had low back pain, 75 (25%) of them had signs of hand dermatitis, which was most common among panel beaters and welders. .96 I s.&zc Raebut Co o* Pa D % zr, le 2-2,2001 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS | From the available data, it could be concluded that the lead concentration in various environmental samples: surface and ground waters, dust, soils and foods are relafively high as compared to other developed countries. Levels of lead in soils from risky environments such as battery industry, mechanic villages, petrol stations are much higher as compared to those soils from the residential environment Residents near heavy traffic highways are at high-risk for Lead pollution.'Harmattan' dust which is characteristic of most sub-Saharan cities carry considerable amounts of lead due to lead from moving vehicles. The following measures are therefore recommended: * Phasing out of lead from petroleum production and formulation of policies at National level to reduce the lead use and emissions, * Monitoring and evaluation of lead levels in the environment at regular intervals and maintaining data base, * Strengthening of laboratories in the region with adequate and up to date equipment to handle the environmental samples and to ensure quality assurance, * Monitoring of blood lead levels among populations particularly children in risk environments, * Educational programs for various population groups on the health and ecological effects of lead, * Exchange of information from West African region through networking and other modern media, * Periodic review of lead levels in the environment through regional conferences and roundtable conferences, * Involvement of Non Governmental Organizations and Activist Groups in campaigning against lead emissions. REFERENCES Agbo, S. (1997), Effects of lead poisoning in children, in Proceedings At a Workshop on Vehicular Emission and Lead Poisoning in Nigeria, Edited by A.A. Falomo and C. C. Chikwendu, Organized by Friends of the Environment (FOTE), Lagos, pp.20-28 Adeniyi, F. A. A. and Anetor, J. 1. (1999), Lead-poisoning in two distant states of Nigeria: an indication of the real size of the problem, African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 28, pp. 107-112 Anetor, J. I., Adeniyi, F. A. A. and Taylor, G. 0. L (1999), Biochemical indicators of metabolic poisoning associated with lead based occupations in nutritionally disadvantaged communities,African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences., 28, pp. 9-12 Anon (1996), Lead pollution: A blight on the future,Africa Health, 18, p.7 Asogwa, S.E (I 979).The risk of lead poisoning in battery chargers and the possible hazards of their occupation on the environment Nigerian Medical Journal. 9: 189-193. ATSDR, (1992). Case studies in Environmental Medicine - Lead toxicity. U.S.Department of Health and Human Services (September), pp. 1-21. Ayodele,J.T., Momoh, R. U., and Amin, M. (1996), Determination of heavy metals in Sharada Industrial effluents, in Water Quality Monitoring and Environmental Status in Nigeria, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Water Quality Monitoring and Status in Nigeria, Organized by Federal Environmental Protection Agency and National Water Resources Institute, Published by Federal Environmental Protection Agency, October 16-18, 1991, pp. 158-166 Ayoola, E.A. (1979). Lead Poisoning in Adults. Nigerian Medical Journal. 9: 185-188. John. H. Cheryl, H, Richard, S and Christine, S. (1991).Toxics A to Z - A guide to everyday pollution Hazards. University of California Press. Berkley. Los Angeles. Oxford pp.47-104 Ketiku,A. O.,Adeyinka. 0. (1999), Leaching of lead from imported and Nigerian earthenware pottery and ceramic household utensils into food and drink,West African Journal of Biological and Applied Chemistry, 44, pp. 18-20 Nasralla, M. M. and Ali, E. A. (1985), Lead accumultion in edible portions of crops grown near Egyptian traffic roads, Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment, 13, 73-82 Ndiokwerre, C.C (1984). A study of heavy metal pollution from motor vehicle emissions and its effect on roadside soil, vegetation and crops in Nigeria. Enviromental. Pollution Ser. B. 7, pp 35-42 Nriagu, J.O, Blackson, M.l and Ocram, K (1996) Childhood lead poisoning in Africa- a growing Public Health Problem, Science of The total Environment 181 (2): 93- 101. Nriagu,J.O (1978) Lead in the atmosphere in the Biogeo-chemistry of lead in the environment. Amsterdam, Elsevier-North, Holland; part A, Pp. 138-164. M;;:,~..... O U. ....J (. / A^; V.Vu. mte;qa!. -J2Gi01 ¶-re Nriagu,J.O (1979) Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere. Nature (London), 279, pp 408 - 411. Nriagu, J.O (1989) A global assessment of natural sources of atmospheric trace metals. Nature (London) 338, pp.48-49. Onianwa, PC and Egunyomi,J.K (1983). "Trace metal levels in some Nigeria Mosses used as indicators of atmospheric pollution", Environmental Pollution Series B 5, pp.71-81. Onianwa, PC. (1985), Accumulation, exchange and retention of trace heavy metals in some mosses from S.W. Nigeria. A Ph. D. Thesis, Chemistry Department, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Onianwa, PC (1993). Environmental pollution studies in an underdeveloped country: Heavy metal pollution in Ibadan, Nigeria. Int. J. Env. Educ.And Inf. (Published by Environmental Resources Unit. University of Salford, U.K Osibano, O0. and Ajayi, S.0 (1980). Trace metal levels in tree barks as indicators of Atmospheric Pollution", Environment International. Vol.4, pp. 239-244 Osibanjo .O;Ajayi S.C ; Mombeshora C. (1981) Pollution studies on Nigerian rivers,Toxic heavy metals statute on surface waters in Ibadan city. Environmental International,Vol. 5 pp 45- 53. Osibanjo, 0. and Ajayi, S.O (I 989).Trace metal Analysis of Petroleum Products by Flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Nigerian Journal of Natural Sciences. 4: 33-40. Shy, C. M. (1990), Lead in petrol:The mistake of xxth century,World Health Statistics Quarterly, 43, 168-176 Sridhar, M.K.C. (I 986).Trace element composition of Pistia Stratiotes L in a polluted lake in Nigeria, Hydrobiologia 131, pp.273-276. Sridhar, M;K.C. and Bammeke,A.0. (1986). Heavy metal contents of some solid wastes in Ibadan, Nigeria. Water,Air, and Soil Pollution.29, pp. 51-56. Sridhar, M.K.C. (1988). Uptake of trace elements by water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes).Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol 16, pp. 3, 293- 297. Sridhar, M.K.C. and Okekearu. l. R. (1999), Exposure toindoor lead in Lagos Metropolis:ANigerian Experience, Epidemiology, USA, Vol. 10, No. 4, 227p Sridhar Mynepalli,Adogame, L. and Olawuyi,J. (2000), Lead exposure in urban centres:A case study from Ibadan, Nigeria, Epidemiology,Vol. I l, No. 4, p. 862 Sridhar. M. K. C.. Olawuyi.J. F..Adogame, L.A., Okekearu, Osajie, C. O., and Linda,A. (2000), Lead in the Nigerian environment: prob- lems and prospects, in 11 th Annual International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment a. Nriagu, Editor), No. University of Michigan, School of Public Health,Ann Arbor, Ml (CD-ROM), Wallace, B. and Cooper. K. (I 986).The citizen's guide to lead: Uncovering a hidden health hazard. NC Press Ltd.Toronto RKeiw"nn Codkht on t*w Phue-Oat of 1 f.i a.. -frd. .46h :. - uz Dakv. jun&26-2,2001 AIR QUAL MONITORING Air Quly ideiwua Motrig Programs Dr. Dieter S(hweld, Air Pollution Scientist, Occupational and Environmental Health Proqiamme, World Heldth Organizdtion Geneva, Switzerldand Air quality guidelines & monitoring WHO Guidelines for Air Quality programme * WHO 1972: Air quality criteria and guides for urban air pollutants Dr Dietrich Schwela WHO/EURO 1987: Air Quality Guidelines for World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland Europe -Updating procedure 1993-1996 Presentation * WHO/EURO 2000: Air Quality Guidelines for at the Europe Conference on Phasing-out leaded Gasoline * WHO 1999: Guidelines for Air Quality, Dakar, Senegal, 26-28 June 2001 Internet address www.who. int/peh/. -1- -l- - ;- - Nature of air quality guidelines slIrQu1g9 4Ufu 4-o 4b Aim: TWO lElidel @3 - ; - Protection of public health from adverse effects KcX . or ! ' . . ~~~~~~of pollutants ; _ -| ; Elimination or reduction to a minimum of I.. _ _l _ ercontaminants Provision of background information for making risk management decisions rl uii > - Guidance to governments in setting standards Assistance in local, regional, national action plans -3- 9 , , -'-XL- 'C ,5d s Z03 RzqWwbiatCot aiii& Ob + AaO~ L?.zA--.. Seiu." -Jteo 26-28, 2091 PRI(ING MD REGULATORY ISSUES P,.Pgu1Ecokuaraci&tarcd Fs atdiDceii Patri(k (ayrade, Directeur, BeiPlnstitut [Fldis dv Ptrole Paris, Fran(e Elimination of lead in gasoline: role of those concerned Elimination of lead in gasoline: * Auto builders economic and fiscal benefits * Sell performance vehicules, high octane content, lead 0.15_0.80 gIl 1- Role of those concerned and consequences lRefineries 2- Economic and fiscal instruments * follow engine evolution, high octane, lead to 3- Plan for the elimination of lead in gasoline: minimize investments legislative aspects and obstacles Consumers * Performance demands, high octane, leaded gas 4- Elements for a regional strategy Protect environment, associations to prevent on de la pollution Govemments * Aware of toxic effects, air quality improvement plan, national plans -1- -1- Consequences of lead elimination Seeking a compromise * Major consequences for refiners * Contradictory interests Compensate teaa eliminabon, investment in new unities, * Engine builders purcrtase oxygenated components (MTBE) seeking performance, high octane, catalytic converters * Consequences for engine builders . Mandatory catalytic converters and costly tune ups * lower octane, lower compression level Refiners Catalytic converters.high cost Minimize investment low octane production of unleaded gas increases gas consumption and * Consequences for consumers pollutant rejects . Higher priced automobiles Solution of compromise . Increased gas consumption, higher cost per km * Consequences for govemments * European study: optimum octane at 95 (RON) Eurosuper * control procedures by realistic legislation * If octane is higher: over consumption of oil, increase in * Consequences on emissions and health refinery costs * Positive bottom line thanks to catalytic converters If octane is lower: higher consumption per km -3- ; f ;'-:_ ii ' ' ;Z/CrL&e 105 Regw ro o&PAaOo/Ap b-&E,itfr~ Dakca, Seftegat .-vj2G-2, 200l. ' Fiscal and tax benefits Economic and fiscal instruments * Role of taxes: Role of regulations Generate income for the State * Overall objective: emissions reduction * And modify economic agents behavior * Solutions mainly depend on the users behavior * Auto sales tax . Renew old and polluting cars * guide buyers choice to other models . Purchase high tech carsde . use clean and adapted fuel And keep cars longer . Good engine maintenance * Fuel tax: increase the cost per km * Limit travel Encourage users to limit travel . Limited role of regulations And also to use more fuel efficient cars . regulations mainly applied to fuel specs and emission limitations * Lower taxes on unleaded gas * Cannot impact all the preceding factors * Encourage penetration during transition period Effectiveness seen in many countries -5- -6- Fiscal benefits measures Plan to eliminate leaded gas * Fiscal benefits: instruments available to the * Need for a national plan regrouping all those State for eliminating lead and reducing pollution concerned and treating the overall problem of * Lower taxes on unleaded gas polluting emissions limitation * During the transition period * Bonus for old car destruction * to accelerate vehicle renewal and * Legislation on limiting vehicle emission eliminate polluting vehicles * National legislation on air quality standards and * Public transport network measuring methods * Partial reimbursment of antipollution system . And also use more fuel efficient cars * Implementation of a fiscal benefit program * Tax on diesel Inspection and maintenance program, . Adjustement of diesel tax to limit use of private diesel technical control vehicles (more difficult pollution control) -1- -8- Obstacles to implementing the plan Elements for a regional strategy * Local (or regional) refineries are not able to produce 100% of unleaded gas Improvement in fuel quality: lead, sulfur, aromatics, olefines. . Refinery transformation investments need * Technical measures conceming cars: mandatory catalytic outside help converters, emission limitation standards * The share of unleaded gas is small in the * Control and maintenance program beginning of the procedure * Harmonisation of fiscal measures (Europe's example) * Most of the cars are old and do not have catalytic converters . Implementation of a technical study program like <( Auto-oil- * Gas stations are not equipped to sell different kinds of gas (transition period) * Etablishment of an integrated ensemble of proposals at the regional level * People are hesitant to use unleaded gas no I -10- R&n.aL~ Ci.UKc G o .rffse PffAAeof.w.4ht ~~- , , , , ;..L:4t: ietn jub-12r Z,s zn(r . . Auto-oil type program Oil industy Essential aspects of regional strategy Refiners, Regional _ European Aton mdusir, distributors Commissions Comission - Auto Overall legislative proposals t I (Au'tll) A prorgran r = *-Gas and diesel specs *Consolidation of emission limits Identfication of possible measures, Air quality Technicl *legislation on I/M programs -technical: engines, fuel . objectives commissions control /car maintenance/ *Non technical and fiscal measures G . o 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Evaluation crntena Costs Impact of thes measures on the objectives *Air quality cntena - Submit proposals to leffactiveness of *Potential reduction of emissions - -Objectives asaocialea man emnssor reduction -the countries mea«sures *Emissionsa/ir qujaMyrelationshlp - : *Contnbution of otner measures -Fi ~~~~~~~~~Trarfric rianaqemeni - - nFinal defineon of cves lImItaton of e,sns 2 *P ifar nsnagernem-- t} ^ *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Pu mC transponrinpro.emen ,- .:*ternatUve fuels Identification of lowest cost measures to reach these air quality objectives -11- -ll- Organization of regional strategy Outside assistance Auto-oil Overall Proposals at a * Private programs in various sectors of program , legislative national level urban ecology: proposals l/M Programs * Educational Programs Technical, - *Maintenance Programs Technical Political Country ccommissions ommissions * Technical and financial support from international :_____., institutions ................................................. [MI Ipicat e d - BM, BAD, OMS /OPS ministeries C CENUA, PNUE Protection of the \* Past and future studies: inuty environment * refining, urban pollution specific aspects of Andustry Municipalities Consuers certain countries, Insitute -13- - -ll Inspection and Maintenance Programs (I/M) 40% of vehicle emissions (particles, CO,HC,Nox, indirectly 03) * Reduces fuel consumption by 0 et 15% * I/M Systems * Centralized system- control only * advantage inconvenient * Lowest cost ping pong effect * Decentralized system- control and repairs * advantage inconvenient . more practical interfacing of functions . no ping pong effect corruption * fiscality- subvention (corruption control) * Costs: control: 6 -12 US$ repairs: 140 US$ * Experimented in Latin America Chile. Mexico. Costa Rica, El Salvador -15- Di->.7-ettzv:2- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a#6t~ 7ssW 07 POLIY STRATEGIES Prowoti of Pab& Tra!qport, La Usge Coentro Ni P/g Yves Amsler, Expert, UITP Brussels, Belgium (AN TUfE PROMOTION OF AN [FFI(I[NT PUB[I( TRANSPORTATION SYSTIM H[LP IMPROV[ AIR QUAL[Y IN (ITIES? 1. INTRODUCTION| UITP is an international association comprised of a worldwide network of public transportation professionals, a reference for the sector, and an international forum for debates on transport policies. UITP posted the Dakar conference and the work of the World Bank's "Clean Air Initiative in SSA" on its web site; UITP is also a spokesperson for public trans- portation and collaborates with many international organizations, one of which is the World Bank, which accounts for my presence here. The presentation I shall be making concerns the advantages of promoting efficient public transportation systems to improve air quality in built up areas. We shall be basing this presentation mainly on the results of an innovative project conducted by UITP entitled "Millenium Cities Database" and particularly on the analysis of the results made by Jean Vivier, UITP Director of Programs and Studies. This UITP project has enabled us, with the collaboration of Professors Jeff Kenworthy and Felix Laube of Murdoch University. Australia, to establish a database on 100 cities worldwide. Collected data includes demography, urban economy and structure, vehicle fleet, taxis, highway transportation, parking, public transportation systems (supply, utilization and cost), individual mobility and transportation choices, efficiency of transportation systems and its effects on the environ- ment (time, and transport costs, efficiency of the energy system, pollution, accidents).A total of 66 gross indicators (175 elementary gross indicators) were sought out in 100 selected cities taking 1995 as a reference year. The "Millenium Cities Database" marks a remarkable progress in the knowledge of economic mobility in cities around the world: 230 standardized indicators per city, allowing pertinent comparisons to be made between cities and transport systems, are to be found in an interactive CD marketed by UITPR A representative sample of cities worldwide The studied cities are drawn from all continents: 35 in Western Europe, 6 in Eastern Europe, 15 in North America, 10 in Latin America, 8 in Africa (incl. Abidjan, Dakar, Harare, Johannesburg and Cape Town), 3 in the Middle East, 18 in Asia and 5 in the Pacific.AII sizes are represented, from Graz in Austria (240 000 inhabitants) to the metropolitan area of Tokyo (32.3 million inhabitants). Of the 100 areas, 60 belong to developed countries and 40 to emerging or developing countries. TABLE I List of cities in the Millenium Cities Database Cities Cities Cities Western Europe Eastern Europe Africa Graz Prague Casablanca Vienne Budapest Dakar Bruxelles Cracovie Tunis Copenhague Varsovie Le Cap Helsinki Moscou Johannesbourg Lille Istanbul Harare Lvon Le Caire Abidjan ,4itier 109 .,h/U1 C~LiEVUf. Onte pAaa-oc uLicAvzJ 3rc >-'q>rn no -, VAJ&u Sce?a2 t-~e,w.~26;Z8, 200.- Western Europe (con't) North America Middle East Marseille ._Calgary Tel Aviv Nantes Montreal Teheran Paris Ottawa Riyadh Berlin Toronto Asia Francfort Vancouver Manille Hamboureg Atlanta Bangkok D sseldorf Chicago Beijing Munich Denver Hong Kong Ruhr Houston Guangzhou Stuttgart Los Angeles Shanghai Ath nes New York Mumbai (Bombay) Bologne Phoenix Chennai (Madras) Milan San Diego New Delhi Rome S Francisco Osaka Turin Washington Sapporo Amsterdam Latin Amenca Tokyo Oslo Buenos Aires Kuala Lumpur Lisbonne Brasilia Jakarta Barcelone Curitiba Taipei Madrid Rio de Janeiro Seoul Stockholm Salvador Singapour Beme Sao Paulo Ho Chi Minh Ville Gen ve Santiago Pacific Zurich Bogota Brisbane Glasgow Mexico Melbourne Londres Caracas Perth Manchester Sydney Newcastle Wellington Given difficulties in collecting information, the results are not perfect, but it is still the most complete and feasible data collection in existence.The total data collected was assembled for 84 of the 100 cities, in the 16 others, the collection varies from 30% to 90%.According to the retained indicators, the number of cities taken into consideration varies from 84 to 100. 2. URBANISM,TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS,AND ENERGY CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAVEL 2.1 URBANISM, MOBILITY AND COST OF TRAVELING Auto traffic | a c s Growth of |got e motorization { - - a \l Inc~~~rease in Higher op g c s adcongestion Decline in th p trnsor modal part of collective \ s_ s * _ ~~~Decline in traffic speed | |Hi-her operatinsg costs and | pr-ices in public transport l 110 A Ncd,vs ttl>r R AWWU CoeeZ o t dU P b- Af . , < ' 'F~~~~~~va~;.i r Ds -Jue*e.. 26-.. Zo28.2007 In developing countries (see table 2), transport is an essential urban function that generally mobilizes more resources than in rich cities: often, more than 20% of the GDP of a metropolitan area goes to transporting people, whereas this percentages varies between 8 and 15% in the rest of the world.When the amount of foot travel, bicycles, public trans- port and density is high, as is the case in certain developing cities in South EastAsia, the portion of the GDP earmarked for travel is moderate (less than 8% of the GDP). TABLE 2 Distribution of travel costs of people for communes between public and private transport (excl. congestion and exterior effects) Region Travel costs for private Travel costs for public Travel costs transport transport (in %of the GDP) (in % of the CDP) (in % of the GDP) USAand Canada 11,8 % 0.7 % 12,5 % Westem Europe 6,7 % 1,6 % 8,3 % Asia (rich cities) 3,8 % 1,6 % 5,4 % Africa 17,3 % 4,4 % 21,7 % Latin America 11,7 % 2.6 % 14.3% It is interesting to also analyze the distribution of total travel expenditure between "public transport" and "individual means". In cities in the U.S. and Canada and in the Pacific where travel expenditure is high, highway investment and auto- mobiles account for almost all of the expenditure. On the other hand, in Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore and in cities such as London, Paris,Vienna, the total cost of the transportation system is moderate and the distribution between "public" and "private" is more balanced (between 25% and 40% for public transport). 2.2. DENSITY,TRANSPORT MODE CHOICE AND AIR POLLUTION (III[S WE[RE AIR QUALITY IS TH[ l[AST A[F[CTED BY TRAFFI( AR[ TIOS[ OF LOW OR AV[RAG[ D[NSITY WE[RE AUTOMOBILE UTILIATION IS MOD[RATE AND WHIR[VEIKL[S ADE[R[TO STRIC( NORMS IN POLLUTING [MISSIONS. Air pollution from hydrocarbon combustion gases depends on the annual mileage and technical characteristics of vehicles. In developed countries, builders have to respect more and more strict pollution norms. In developing countries, where vehicles are older and of lesser performance, the average level of pollution by vehicle/km can be 5 times higher than in developed countries. When new vehicles are subjected to strict norms for polluting gas emissions, the level of pollution per inhabitant mainly depends on the intensity of vehicle utilization and local climate conditions. In the U.S., 265 kilos of pollutants per inhabitant are produced annually by vehicles transporting people (almost all cars), 95 kilos in Western Europe and 31 kilos in the rich cities of Asia (see table 3). TABLE 3 Density, choice of mode and air pollution by vehicle transporting people Region Density Emissions (CO, Emissions (CO, (inhabitants per S02, Nox, COV) ear S02, Nox, COV) ear hectare) _ inhabitant (kg) hectare (kg) USA and Canada 18,5 14 % 237 3.950 Western Europe 55 50 % 88 4.800 Asia (rich cities) 134 62 % 31 3.900 Asia (other cities) 190 68 % 84 14.200 Africa 102 67 % 148 8.600 Latin America 90 64 % 118 9.300 l The highest levels of pollution (more than 15 000kg/ha) are found in Mexico, Athens and in the developing cities of Asia where vehicle performance is mediocre and where population density is high. If automobiles are the principal source of air pollution, motorized two wheelers can also have a very negative impact as can be seen in Ho Chi MinhVille,Tapei or Jakarta. In these cities, there are very serious consequences on the inhabitants' health, as it has been estimated that air pollution is responsible for 500 000 premature deaths yearly in developing countries.This situation is even more pre- occupying as air pollution increases continuously in these cities whereas it seems to be stabilizing even decreasing in cities in developed countries. 2.3. COMPARISON OF ENERGY PERFORMANCE BETWEENTHEAUTOMOBILEAND PUBLICTRANSPORT PUBLH( TRANSPORT US[5 4 lIMIS [[SS [N[RGY P[R VOYAEGR P[R KM TNAN TH[ AUTOMOB6l[ Public transport, especially when it is heavily used, is much more energy efficient than the automobile which is often occupied by only I person (the average occupancy for most cities is 1.2 to 1.8 person per vehicle). However, important differences are to be noted: public transport uses 1.6 times less energy than the automobile per voyager per km in the States, 3.7 times less in Europe and 10 times less in Japan where this exceptional performance is explained by heavy utilization of the strongest regional railroad systems in the world, in Tokyo and Osaka (see table 4). TABLE 4 Energy consumption according to the transportation mode Region Energy consumption ofpublic transport / energy consumption of private transport (per voyager x kLm) USAand Canada 0.432 Western Europe 0,285 Asia (rich cities) 0,141 Asia (other cities) 0,140 Africa 0.230 Latin America 0,227 Overall regions 0,237 In developing countries, comparison results are most vary greatly Note:Taxis having an average occupation of 0.89 in all of the studied cities (less than 0.5 in several cities in North America and Europe to more than 2 in certain cities in developing countries), consume more energy by transported person than automobiles and, on average, 4.5 times more than in public transportation. EXAMPLE: MEXICO CITY- Mexico City is a particularly interesting example from the point of view of energy performance comparison, being one of the most polluted cities in the world. It has implemented since I 988 drastic measures to fight atmospheric pollution, but in 1995 the transport sector was still responsible for three quarters of the city's atmospheric pollution.Table 5 compares the distribution by transport mode and motorized travel in terms of pollution. It shows that automobiles that only account for 20% of the travel are responsible for 65% of the transport sector's atmospheric pollution. Proportions are practically reversed for general public transport, as their share in travel is 71% and they only account for 20% of the pollution. Within public transport, the advantage to large scale transport is even more noticeable: regular and extended buses with thermal engines cause 4 to 10 times less pollution per voyager per km than the "minibuses" and the "combis", and 20 to 40 times less than the automobile. Electric traction public transport (trolleybus, metro) account for a very small percentage of the pollution. 1 7'2 ?zesew- s AfA wd' RKUW&ud C'-'D'w .v tAe Phau-O, DoudAr * Dakr, Seel. -jte 26-28, 207 TABLE 5 Distribution, by transport mode, of atmospheric pollution by the transport sector and motorized travel in the Mexico City metropolitan area in 1995. Mode of transport Small Trolley Bus Bus Metro Microbus and Taxi Private cars Total l subway combis Travel (%) 0.2 1.4 8.4 13.2 47.8 8.7 20.3 100.0 Pollution (%) e e 1 e 19.5 14.7 64.8 100.0 Source: Mexico DDF 2.4 DENSITY,TRANSPORT MODE CHOICE AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION (ITIIS ThAT ARE THE MOST [(ONOMICAL IN T[RMS OF [N[RGY (ONSUM[D TO TRANSPORT P[OPL[ AR[ THOSE THAT AR[ TH[ MOST POPUJATION D[NS[ WH[R[ TU[ MAIN MODE OF TRANSPORT IS TU[ BICY(L-, BY FOOT AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION Energy used to transport people is directly linked to density and the choice of transportation (see table 6).The relationship between density and energy consumed proved by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy using a smaller number of sam- pled cities is therefore confirmed (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999; Kenworthy and Laube, 1999), when the amount of travel on bicycles, on foot and by public transport goes from 15% to 60%, energy consumption is divided by 4. Urban transport is more "energy devouring" in the U.S.A. than in Europe and 4 times more than in Japan. TABLE 6 Density, modal choice and annual energy consumption for transporting people Density Share of travel byfoot, Annual energy (inhabitants/hectare) bike and public transport consumption (megajouls/habitant) USA and Canada 18,5 14 % 51 500 Westem Europe 55 50 % 16 500 Asia (rich cities-) 1 34 62 % 11 000 Asia (other cIiIes I 190 68 % 6 000 Africa 102 67 % 6 500 Latin America 90 64 % 11 500 Modal Choice (% public transport + cycling + walking) vs Energy Consumption per inhabitants perYear (Megajoules) 120030 ADl cities 100000 USA o* , 80000 0; 60000 \ * E K ° 40000 Asia u + Westem Europe u 20000 44 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Copynght ISTP-Um Modal choice (% public transport - cycling - walking) Pr-Ee-e2sfia=4 ~,4(er 113 Rx IoK AM~~~~~~~~ Daka r, 200t .e More precisely, energy used for annual travel per inhabitant in developed countries is on average 60 000 megajouls in the U.S.A., 32 000 in Canada and the Pacific, 16 500 in Western Europe and I I 000 in the rich cities of Asia (Japan, Hong King, Singapore). In Latin America, in cities such as Mexico City, Sao Paulo or Curitiba, where motorization is high (approx. 200 automobiles for I 000 inhabitants) the energy consumption per inhabitant is closer to that of Western Europe. In developing countries, differences of I to 10 are noted following the amount of travel made on foot or by bike. 3. ECONOMIC GROWTH AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT MODELS 3.1 INCOME LEVEL, URBAN STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM INCOM[ GROWT[U DOB NOT IMPLY AN URBAN DP[VLOPM[NT MOD[L BAS[D ON TH1 AMJOMOBILI, DISP[RSION OFTUE D[NELLING AND ACTIVITI[S The comparison of cities in the U.S.A., Canada and the Pacific to those in Western Europe and the rich cities of Asia is most noticeable in this respect (see table 7).AII these cities are in developed countries where the average income per inhabitant varies from 15 000 USD to 50 000 USD, and for the majority of them the average income per inhabitant is between 20 000 USD and 35 000 USD.Yet, these cities have opted for very different transportation models. The rich cities of Asia have developed the opposite model from the States. It is space efficient, low dependency on the automobile, and high-density population encourages travel by foot, by bike and by public transportation. Of course, it was not only from a low cost travel perspective that these cities opted for urban concentration, Hong King and the Japanese cities had no other choice given their limited amount of terrain. It is interesting however to note how such cities have been able to limit so strictly automobile possession and utilization.All of these cities have strong rail systems, metro or trains.The scope of these systems is 4 times more than the road system. Use of non-motorized transport and public transport is dominant (52% in Sapporo, 68% in Tokyo and 83% in Hong Kong). TABLE 7 Revenue per person, population density, level of motorization, highway system density, ratio between scope of on site public transport and highway system and modal choice (developed countries) Region GDP/inhabita Density No, autos per Km of roads Km of on site Share of nt. (in US S) (in habitants/ I 000 per million public travel byfoot, hectare) inhabitants inhabitants transport! bikle and Km of public .__________ ___________ ____________ highways transport USAand 28 000 18,5 570 6.100 0,45 14 % Canada Westem 31 000 55 420 3 000 3,10 50 % Europe Asia (rich 34 500 134 215 2.400 3,85 62 % cities) In Western Europe, the cities have maintained their central density inherited from the 19th century. Immediate suburbs were developed around the rail system and have kept their high density. On the other hand, the American model that has developed over the last 20 years with its low populated outreaching suburbs results in automobile dependency.These observations however have to be modified according to the city. l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ReSZ Coec on SePnw.M-OS of L~w,ii iSb-S.aLz.tst A h B-, ;-. - D.ai~ jile4l* Jwwe. 26-2.j, 20'0 3.2 CHALLENGES FACED BY DEVELOPING OR EMERGING COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO CITY DENSITYANDTRANSPORT SYSTEM In conclusion,what challenges face developing countries whose motorization level is still low? In fact, these challenges go beyond that of air quality. STRONG TRAFFIC GROWTH IN DP/LOPING OR M[RGI6NG (OUNTRIlS CAN COMPROMIS[ (ONOMI( DEVELOPM[NT AND WORSEN LIVING (ONDMONS In several developing or emerging countries the growth rate of the private vehicle fleet (autos and 2 wheel motorized bikes) can reach 15% to 20% per year. Obviously, building of transport infrastructure is unable to keep up with this rate. As these cities are already threatened by congestion, general paralysis is not far away and it can even be said that Bangkok, Manila or Jakarta have already reached this stage for a large part of the day (see table 8). Unless the existing urban make-up is destroyed, i.e. the cultural and social heritage of the city, these cities are totally in adapted to automobile utilization. However Hong Kong and Singapore have succeeded in controlling the growth of the private automobile fleet and at the same time develop an efficient public transportation system, thus proving that vigorous economic development, maintenance of urban concentration and regular transportation improvements can be reached. The case of cities in Africa (excluding Cairo) and Brazil differ by certain aspects. Cities are less dense and the scope of the road system is better adapted to the existing vehicle fleet. It is more the insufficient road characteristics and the poor condition of vehicles that are at the origin of traffic congestion, pollution and accidents. However, the continuous and anar- chical urbanization expansion and growth of the vehicle fleet result in an economical and social cost that is unacceptable. Highway investment is unable to keep up and it is inconceivable that travel by the suburban poor by bus or minibus be made longer and increasingly penalized by traffic congestion. Cutitiba's example, however, shows that demographic and economic growth and improvement in transport conditions for city dwellers is not incompatible. Coordination between urbanization policies and transportation has channeled development along highways utilized by powerful and fast buses; travel time, costs and pollution have been maintained at acceptable levels. TABLE 8 Income per inhabitant, population density, level of motorization, density of road system, ratio of on site public transport scope and highway system and modal choice (emerging or developing countries) Region GDP/inhabitaA Denstiy Ao. Autosfor Km of roads Km of on site Travel share (in lISD) (inhabitant I 000 per million public byfoot, bike /hectare) inhabitants inhabitants transport / orpublic Km of transport highways Asia (other 4.400 190 90 600 1,15 (1) 68 % cities)__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Afnca 2.300 102 100 1.400 3,85 67 % Latin 6.300 90 190 1.450 1,00 (1) 64 % Amenca (I) not counting cities with no highways (with or without on site) 4. HOW CAN UTILIZATION OF PUBLICTRANSPORTATION BE ENCOURAGED?| 4.1 FIRST REQUIREMENT: IMPROVE SUPPLY, SPEED AND SCHEDULES OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT A correlation exists between public transport's share in the market and its competitiveness measured in terms of commercial average speed/ average speed on the road (see table 9). PUBLIC TRANSPORT'S SHAR[ OF THE1 MARK[T IN(R[AS[S WH[N ITS SP[[D IN(R[AS[S. ON SITE D[V[LOPM[NT IMPROV[S SPEED AND ON TIM[ P[RFORMAN([ Of PUBLI( TRANSPORT: THIS IS A DETERMINING FAC(OR TO ITS APP[AL. RDwfte at ic&od'r& Me . TABLE 9 The share of mechanized travel in public transport, average commercial speed of public transport/ average speed on the roads / itinery scope of on site public transport / scope of highway system Region Share of mechanized A verage commercial speed On site scope / travel in public transportc ofpublic transport Highway scope /average speed on the .________________________ raods (1) USA and Canada 5,9 % 0,575 0.46 Western Europe 25,9 % 0,79 3,12 Asia (rich cities) 42,2 % 1,08 3,83 (1) speed is calculated not including waiting times, connections and terminal issues In the States, outside of New York, public transport is not competitive with the automobile: speed is two times slower meaning that that door to door time, including terminal issues, waiting times and connections make it 3 to 4 times longer using public transport. In Tokyo and Osaka, trains and metro, which provide 90% of public transport, are faster than the automobile, even taking into consideration terminal issues, connections and waiting times. In Seoul, Hong King and Singapore, the metro is highly competitive but cars lead over buses. Public transport, generally speaking, is not really competitive with cars in Western European cities, but the difference is not as great as in the States or in the Pacific. Furthermore, door to door times using suburban trains and the metro are practically the same. Public transport in cities with sophisticated suburban train and metro systems competes closely with cars in terms of speed.Travel time is not the only factor competing for market share, but it is an important condition: public transport would not be chosen if it is noticeably slower than the automobile. 4.2 OTHER CONDITIONS FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT APPEAL Control of vehicle fleet growth by sales taxes on new cars, limited parking spaces in city centers, increase of average speed of public transport due to on site and rail development are favorable measures to promoting public transport utilization. The application of only one of these measures, however, does not suffice: the following examples from several cities in developed countries show that the success of public transportation is the result of global policy combining land planning, traffic and parking management and development of an efficient public transport system. TABLE 10 Share of mechanized by public transport, share of voyages x motorized km by public transport, population density, level of motorization, number of parking spaces in the center, ratio commercial speed of public transport / average speed on th e roads, share of seats x km p.a. by subway, metro and suburban rail Cities Share of Share of Ppopulation No. Cars per No. Parking Average Share of motorized I voeagers x density 1 000 spacesforr speed public seats x travel by motorized (inhabitants inhabitants 1 000 transport! annual km public Am by public per hectare) employees Average by subway, transport transpor? (CBD) speed on metro, roads (1) suburban _______________ _______________ ~~~~~~~~rail Hone-Kong 72' 7%o 320 45 35 0.85 16 % Tokvo 40% 57 88 305 40 1.55 91 % Singapore 35 t 40 % 94 115 235 0.70 18 % Vienna 40 % 25% , 70 375 210 0.90 55 % Copenhagen I8% I 8% 29 275 220 0,75 67 % Paris 27 % 25 % 48 420 140 0.85 77 % Munich 35 % SO 30o 56 470 270 1,05 71 % Milan 31 % 23 77 405 105 0.70 75 % Barcelona 35 35n 0 o 197 370 445 0.75 71 % Zurich 2S / 24 240 44 460 130 0.90 80 % London 24 % 27 % 1 59 330 120 0.95 65 % (1) speed calculated not including waiting time, connections and terminal issues 1 I r¸iL~t~ I,Re,oCaqlrm ,,"q* Ottt Pha&Out or tt . . % ~~~~~~~~~~DaxA,. Seneu: J t ie. 26 zg29.t 27 DURABL[ MOBILITY AND TU[ PROMOTION Of PUBLIC TRANSPORT R[QUIR[ APPLICATION OF AN INT[GRATED POLICY: URBAN D[V[LOPMENT, TRAFFIC AND PARKING CONTROL AND D[V[LOPM[NT Of DIFF[R[NT ON SIT[ PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYST[MS Tokyo is the only metropolis that combines all of the factors favorable to public transport utilization: high density (even though this is not a voluntary result of urban planning), moderate level of motorization in relation to the inhabitant's affluence, severe restrictions on parking in the city center, highly efficient and fast rail system. Hong King and Singapore have mainly focused on strict limitation of the vehicle fleet through sales taxes on new vehicles in conjunction with planned urban- ization, dense in Singapore and extremely dense in Hong Kong. In addition, in Hong Kong parking spaces are very rare and in Singapore there are tolls on urban roads.The metro is highly efficient in both cities, but only presently represents a small part of the public transportation supply. In those European cities that have managed to limit the global cost of travel to the community and to make public trans- port reasonably attractive, a strong development of the rail system is to be noted (tramways, subways, metros, suburban trains) with satisfactory speed close to that of cars going towards or in the city center. London, Zurich and Milan impose the strictest parking limitations in the centers, but generally speaking European cities are not as strict as Tokyo and Hong Kong in this matter. 5. SYNTHESIS For an urban development model that is more space and energy efficient and more respectful of the environment It is proven that In developed countries when density is divided by 3 (20 inhabitantslhectaore instead of 60): * the amount of daily travel done on foot, bike or public transport is divided by 3 or 4, * the total cost of trovel to the community increases by more than 50%/O, * energy consumpton, and greenhouse gas rejections due to transporting people are multiplied by 3, * occident related deaths increase by 50%, * occess time to urban activities for people relying on public transport increases from 50% to 100%. Unless urbanization and city use of cars is controlled, cities tend to lean towards vague constellations of enclosed non- dense zones surrounded by highways. Social links are lost little by little and all physical nearness is seen as an ordeal.The automobile is obviously the only means of transport adapted to these dispersed cities, it allows people to stay "home" and to avoid contact with "others" as is the case in public transport-The heart of the city dies and becomes a business center that is empty at night time, or a "museum" that people visit but where they do not want to live. City dwellers and policy makers have to choose between the benefits of individual space and unlimited extension of the suburbs with its resulting increasing dependence on the automobile, or durable development founded on more "compact" cities with an increased feeling of fellowship. 6. RECOMMENDATIONS For the development of more efficient and appealing public transport systems Public tansport has an irreplaceable role to play to provide all citizens, whether motorized or not, with access to their jobs, shopping, services and entertainment.This is the essence of economic dynamism and social cohesion. Public transport costs the community less than the automobile as soon as density exceeds 20 inhabitants per hectare, and also consumes less road space and energy and is more respectful of the environment and public health. * Promotion of public transport and "ecological" means of transport (walking and biking) should be included in a global urbanization and transport policy. In order to become a real alternative to the automobile, public transport must continue improving its speed. scheduling, on time performance and comfort. - -i{-.'6 a 117 Dakw~ar,ftgL~ : 0-. To meet the challenges faced by developing countries - high growth in transport needs, degradation of the environment and the poverty of a large percentage of the population, it is recommended that * limit car sales through sales taxes on new cars (the most efficient method but the hardest to be accepted) and/or severe restrictions on parking, * ensure bus priority (reserved corridors and their own sites) on the most congested routes.These measures should preferably be undertaken before automobile traffic becomes too developed, * build subways, metros (in large cities) and develop suburban rails systems: these investments are high initially but become cost effective in the medium term in high density cities where one metro line can transport more people than 10 3-lane highways, * Organize "informal" transport to rationalize operators' practices and allow bus priorities to be implemented, * Facilitate access of the poorest sector to public transport by special tariffs or direct help. A last recommendation is the diffusion of information and knowledge sharing. Communal sharing of experience and of collective studies on adapted practices in different local situations is a constant ambition of UlTP.We are ready to col- laborate with organizations sharing the same ambitions for Africa. I wish to thank the World Bank for having allowed us to impart this message. "MILLENIUM CITIES DATABASE" CAN BE OBTAINED FROM: PUBLICATIONS(cDUITPCOM Ra4.)t akrexr-- 0'e P hOata eofi w"AA 4 fr0 _a .di, 4 .zi *.tuue. Zr 7g. 200. SU((SSFUL PROGRAMS Of L[AD PD1M-O Caaf of oiIf/E C0UAtrisr Mkhel Muylle, Senior Gds Specidlist World Bdnk Washington, D USA Clean Air Initiative Content A Road Map to Lead Phase Out * Methodology A Few Case Studies 'Refining * Lessons Learned *Role of the World Bank Group Michel S. Muylle * Conclusions Dakar Conference, June 26-28, 2001 -I - -l2- The Perfect Road Map Analysis * Health impact * Oil industry (supply and distribution) * Vehicle fleet * Cost implications Consensus building * Octane pool and other fuel quality requirements * Fuel price policy (incl. kero and diesel) * Quality control mechanisms (fuels, vehicles, contamination) Communication * Stakeholders awareness (oil companies, transport, health....) * Public outreach and education Implementation ... -3 1 ,f ,;e,,,=E,,, MMM~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j L 1t Re~to,aJt Co;yr x&o&t, Phk-I 2001.~ ~ < Dka, Sea1ng.26g8 2001. -' ; .-- Decision Tree Review Octane Pool RequirementU Review Assess A Supply Regional O efinery? As Distribution Supply Refinery Mod's hannel Options .- . _ YES tYE ~~~~~~~mo Rep.ia Do_iaa-L a hs u t * /~~~~~ YES * * * w NO fl t s r~~~~~N Unleaded is a Consum r P:r Atact 991 Shell introduces Premium unlead i NO roe Private Enabling * To Enable7. Sector) * * * g * \/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Investment -(AS[ STUDIES: A RECAP WITHl A FEW LESSONS LEARNED. El Rep. Dominicana - Lead Phase Out Unleaded is a Consumer Product: - 1991e: Shell introduces Premium unleaded in Dom Rep - lUnleaded priced 20% above leaded gasoline -.larkvet share of 10% unleaded in little over one year - ain consumer classo : motorcycles ! Enablincr - 50%+ of country demand is imported 3 Tm/a - Single import facilitv allows for2 _ economies of scale ! - Reoulation allows 3 rd patiprs 1 7 - Region avails of hioh octane blends °~+ - Reduce octane pool to match Mar.90 Jan.95 Jan.96 Jan.98 Jan.99 refinerv configuration 120 . Reqwetazl Cnirwso,t .as P haeeoiitfLdAA!,LA M! * r i Dkuee Se .;Iww Z6 2,8 2001 UI Haiti - Lead Phase Out Unleaded Can Be Cheaper! Relative Pricing of US$/ BbI Med 0.15% Pb leaded gasoline vs. Rotterdam premium unleaded 1.50 1.00W\/ \ 0.50 0.00 -0.50 Enabli-ng _ 100%+ of country demand is imported -1 00 1 - 1iN%giUII avails ol ll 11i UUlUIIe Ulclelld Note: product pricing is not solely attected by octane and C Co rd ination W it distlributors lead but also by other speciications and supply & dernand panerns. The aboNe graPh s an Iliustration of how.two -1.50 -- si nilar products anppced elato In each other -6- 2 El Salvador - Lead Phase Out Chile - Lead Phase Out Urbanization: respiratory diseases Pollution in Santiago de Chile public health enemy No 1! Comprehensive emissions reduction strategy! Lead eliminated in less than one year - Transport responsible for 113 of PM emissions - Avoided investments in dual fuel supply systems - Catalytic converters most effective solution - Limited period of possible cross contamination - Complemented with efforts on regional harmonization c- NEED FOR LEAD PHASE OUT and vehicle emission standards Enabling Enabling - Thorough analysis of pollution was possible - Prices deregulated - Participatory and comprehensive approach - Downstream sector in private sector - Refineries world scale - Product imports Cost of lead phase out $ 0.01 / liter -1- -8- AAsPE1sZe& 121 t.t*a.u ireve.~ ~JwKZ-. 200. >1f r .~~~~~~~~I: : kevz.~LL ~-eu;e. .pt tii, :'T~SaWwtAt~w 1 Jamaica - Lead Phase Out Plan M Import Countries Commitment from heads of state at * Few if any constraints to phase out lead Summit of the Americas e Economic cost is small and relatively Change the octane grades simple to assess - Increasing proportion of Japanese vehicles - Timing / Phasing within own control - No benefit from higher octane gasoline Critical issues are - Adjust taxes on premium leaded gasoline regional supply options import terminal and distribution flexibility Enabling landlocked countries supply options - Car population enabled lower octane * limited competition / entrenched positions - Overall reduction of octane pool avoids investments vehicle fleet (current and future) - Attention to the fiscal regime public outreach / education commitment to environment & health = Refining Countries Refining Industry in SSA Scatter of very small to world scale refining * Refineries impose constraints on lead phase oUt * 15 refineries < 50 kBd * Economic cost complex to assess * RSA and Nigeria represent 68% of total capacity * Timing constrained by investment schedule * Performance worrisome * Political / Strategic role of refining * Sustained role of the public sector inhibits consolidation asset overstated Refining configuration Critical issues are * Light ends upgrading (reforming, isom, alkyl) 16% of CDU * small cale an configration o the reinery *capacity * small scale and configuration of the refinery * Excl. RSA & Nigeria, light ends upgrading only 84 kBd v product vields and qualities (a.o. sulphur) ' Low octane pool (primarily semi-regen reforming) * ownership and control of the refinery * High penetration of diesel governs crude runs * regulatonr regime and configuration * investment climate, availability of finance Regional supply options * demand growth and need for imports are enablers * Short in octane * Growing dependence on imports -11- -11- = Refining Issues Limited options for refineries * De-bottleneck semi-regen * Upgrade to CCR (world scale 20-30 kBd) * Isomerisation (front end boost) * Alk-vlation * Blending of high octane components Critical issues are * small scale and configuration of the refinery * crude diet, product yields and qualities (a.o. naphtha) * investment in product qualitv gives inadequate returns * ability to recoup investments through product pricing * can investment coincide with capacity growth * octane specifications too high ? -13- 122 RtqwLu Cn.fr.fw wt 6u,lst. PaOiM of afo M1~fAriJu5 AfiriLaE.4 2 ,, . . r - ->~~axa. (ene,u! 2628 20 , Z11 U Refining Industry in SSA Crude Distilling and Light Ends Capacity | CDU kBd 160.0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ----- Light Ends| Outside RSA & 140.0 Nigeria predominantly 100 semi-regen reforming; 100.0 80.0 60.0 1, 20.0 * Refining Industry in SSA kBd Processing Unit Capacity U Latin America 100 90 1l SSA excl RSA & l ~~~~~~~~~~~~Nigeria 80 70 60 50 - 40 30 H l l~ Informavo, as publicly avadable and not validated w-th relevant retineries ,V L,. 68 iV123 ~~~- - , fJ { i L.c:itktw& od F.Aa-lt ace La A'ijib Atr Dio We7Z1 j = '. ;. i 2007 Refining Issues L| A Few Lessons Learned Is it time to face reality ? Aggressive Time Schedules Possible * Negative economic rent from small refineries . One - two year horizon, not five! * No appetite to invest Question the octane requirements * Inability of public sector to sustain *aToo many, too few participation * Fit for purpose (vehicle fleet, driving conditions) * Uncertain political stability Reduce octane pool to avoid or delay investments * Limited sources of finance Let the Market Play * Regional supply options offer opportunities * Early introduction of unleaded as pure market play Consolidate refining AND supply options Leverage third party investments (e.g. in refining, distribution) -16- -11- U A Few Lessons Learned (cont'd) Role of the World Bank Group Time it Right * Multi-sectoral and regional organizations * Regional supply options - Transport * Combine investments in quality with refining capacity - Environment It's not only about lead or octane - Oil & Gas * Comprehensive view on pollution from transport * Policy support and capacity building * Fuel pricing policy (incl. kero and diesel) - Product quality * RVP, T50, Sulphur, Aromatics, ... - Pricing regimes and fuel taxation * Comprehensive supply & demand analysis for all fuel * Risk management Find a Champion! -Limited recourse financing * Oil Companies have the greatest leverage - Equity * Large or densely populated cities most to benefit - Partial Risk Guarantees -18- -19- z Conclusions E Clean Air Initiative *Get a champion A Road Map to Lead Phase Out * Bring the stakeholders together A Few Case Studies * Seek best practice in the sector *Assess critical issues but don't over-analyse * Consolidate small refineries and supply options * Leverage the private sector interests * Aim at early gains Michel S. Muylle Impossible, n'est pas fran .ais Dakar Conference, June 26-28, 2001 -20- -21- 124 l''fAz.4U:t¸ M2' -.e4 t O .5D , te4a. 26 .8, 20t WORKING GROUPS West Afrkc4 REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON LEAD PHASE OUT IN 1 G GASOLINE IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA . (Dakar, Senegal, 26 - 28 June 2001) The West Africa group is comprised of the following 12 countries: Burkina Faso, Cap Vert, Cote WEST AFRICA GROUP 4 d'lvoire, Gambie, Ghana, Guinee, Guinre-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritanie, Senegal, Sierra Leone. WORK SUMMARY Main refining centres are SIR in the Ivory Coast, Tor in Ghana and SAR in Senegal. -I --2 2. Work schedule Delegates from member countnes each had three I hour work * Cost and distnibution of plan of action; sessions, with the intention of establishing a preliminary plan to Lgsaiemaue change to lead free gasoline in thcir sub-region. Eight countries were Legislative measures present at these work sessions. abscntec countries were, Cap Vert, Fiscal measures Guinee-Bissau, Libena and Sicrra Leone. Madagascar also joined Gasoline specs. this group. Other technical aspects; The group established the following work plan: C * Situation of the sub-region -Data collection: Studies and research. - Identification of restinctions. Recommendations Analysis of options - Program of actions: -Plan of action timetable: -3- e -L k&~jW'WL cmi/&nJta o'i dse. P4siti~Lt 3. Synthesis of the work From this data it can be noted :in5fth8cotre(8-5) At the end of their work sessions the delegates reached the- Hihlacotnauoizdngalne(8I) following conclusions: - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Old and run down vehicle fleet (+60%/, to + 15 yrs) - 3..lPresnt Sitcuations Primarily gasoline run vehicles ( +60%). Data collection ~~~~~~~~~~Numbered data is given in the annexe. Data was collected for almost all countries on: Rsrcin - Inland countries dependent on refineries and coastal -Refining; countries ( Burkina, Mali); - Specs. On lead content in different countries; Cross country transport; - Gasoline consumption; High number of 2 wheel vehicles; - Vehicle fleet; Narrowness of the market. -Macro-economical situation. Analysis of these restrictions requires solutions at a sub-regional level. -5 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-6- 3.2. Analysis of the options - Program ofAction Subsequently the Group adopted the following timetable: *Time table , - 2001jlead content at 0,5 g/l; The group adopted the option of replacing octane content lost ini-20,la otn t01 / the lead elimination process during refining as the most viable option offering the most favorable factors to sub-regions to change - - 2005, lead elimination. over quickly to unleaded fuel: In 2000, TOR was at 0,2 gIlland SIR at 0,1 and 0,25, respectively - Technology exists; for gasoline with 87 RON and 95 RON. - All refineries in the sub-region have already comimenced - *Costs lead reduction action; The cost of this progressive lead elimiantion was estimated at: - Experiments were conducted in simnilar refineries throught - 4 $US per ton for the transition to 0,5 g/l, i.e. the world: approx. 2FCFA per liter; - SAR and SIR already began harmronizing their product-27$Sprtnfrherasioto0 5g/,.. specs. And proposals have already been made to UTEMOA - -7$Sprtnfrtetasto o01 /,ie -govemnments. approx. 16 FCFA per liter. -SAR, already established a lead elimination program that experts found to be technically viable and realistic. -7- -8- The delegates are convinced that this program offers high For total elimination, costs will be in function of the technical refining -financial returns as the expected economical gain will be superior option chosen. Delegates mandated the refineries to study the final to costs. choices. This choice should allow refinery competition to be * Legislation maintained and should be operational within a year ( 2002). . Unleaded fuel utilization should be implemented A.S.AP. Legislation harmonization could be achieved through sub- Regarding cost distribution, three parties were designated: regional organizations such as I'tUEMOA and CEDEAO by 2003 at the latest. Each country will take the necessary steps to Refineries ;comply with this legislation following a timetable determined Goverunments ;- sub-regionally. Consumers. * Fiscality Help from lenders will be necessary (World Bank, BAD, BOAD. Fiscal measures allow govemrnments to participate in the cost znd FEM. etc.) in order to mobilize funds to finance investment, act as an incentive to consumers to convert to unleaded fuel. Oil taxation should be harmonized at the sub-regional level. Participants estimated that 2003 is a realistic goal for completion. IJEMOA has already begun work on fiscal harmonization. 126 Pre&tw¸ztwv vktj 'rt':iV4~ f-a. RLqLwn.t CoC&& on d P .1eS'4 tItA.rduc Afruat - at ~~~~~~~~~~~dAv. ietal 2.6-2H. 20, Specifications.. Specifications ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' * ~Studies and Research These will be harmonized through sub-regional organizations and should be completed in 2002. Delegates consider the single grade ; Studies and research will be necessary option as the most viable for the sub-region and propose unleaded * To collect complementary data on the sub-region's blood gasoline at 93 RON. la ees .lead levels; Other technical aspects: * For epidemiological aspects; Delegates consider that adopting single grade gasoline will minimize * To evaluate implications on urban policies and investments at other sub-sector levels of the oil industry such as ., storage and distribution. Technical measures will have to be taken to . transportation; avoid any contamination of unleaded fuel. These should be * To evaluate existing blood lead levels; considered for the beginning of 2005 upon putting unleaded fuel on T the market. 4 * To identify contammabon sources and tracts (water, food, Communication and training : etc ) A plan for communication, public awareness and training will be . * To obtain a more in-depth analysis of the vehicle fleet implemented by 2002. This should guarantee the full participation in condition; the program and the support from the sub-region's population. These '9f actions should accompany the program's implementation. - . .. .. .-.I.I......---- .... "- 'A ''''''4--' -' --11- 3.3. Recommendations In order to guarantee the program's success, delegates recommend: t .That metereological forecasts be integrated to air quality data - Fast implementation of the program's pilot organizations, T t technical commissions and inter-state commissions. That technical inspections programs for vehicles be established That the program, even though this phase of it is oriented towards That sub-regional organizations be fully involved in this eliminating lead in gasoline, should have a global approach on air program, especially through their energy and environmental quality improvement (conceming benzene, sulfur, CO2 etc.) thus ' commissions avoiding repcated investments from refineries, a source of;-.. escalated expenses f n s That the program be multi-sectoral with the participation of e prvate society, industrialists, local communities, usual That impact studies should be conducted in order to identify pri negative consequences for the population and propose participants in the energy sector and all levels of preventative measures to be implemented; society who can contribute expertise That actions be identified in improving the vehicle fleet (renewal, That the program integrates the valorization and mobilization of disposal, etc) ; .Ta h rga tgae h aolalnadmbhano sub-regional experts through the establishment of a network for That the implementation of this program be accompanied by an evaluation plan for air quality, especially ozone, that should be air qualty, studies and research. implemented after the transition to unleaded fuel thus insuring regular monitoring of the program's efficiency and air quality; -13- P; es rk-eLS W/orkiN.J grovt': Wm' A6rci 127 I | R^j' CFi(IVC OktL P~ata-O -.WwaDt.4fr& WORKING GROUPS Nqeriaaid Nei5hborig co utries Group Report: Nigeria & Neighbors * No representatives from Chad Gasoline Technical Specifications: * Data on auto fleet population and ages of vehicles in each *Benin and Togo: 2 grades available - Regular @ 90 RON, country is very soft Premium@91 RON • Gasoline suppliers believed to be: *Nigeria: 1 grade available @95 RON *Benin: 100% from Nigeria with 80% via informal routes Smuggling of gasoline to neighboring countries is very attractive *Togo: Imports from Nigeria, Ivory coast and Ghana because gasoline is heavily subsidized in Nigeria and RON *Chad: Nigeria with small amounts from Cameroon. is higher *Niger: From Nigeria, with small quantities from Ivory Coast, Consumer acceptance: Not considered to be a problem because Mali. Burtuno Faso. of constant shortage of gasoline in the area and because *Nigena: 47-78% local: imports from Gabon, Ivory Coast only one grade is commercially available -I - -l- Course of Action: * Nigeria has refinery capacity to supply all the surrounding countri A. Immediate reduction of lead content of gasoline Additional smaller refineries are being planned (state-owned). from 0.7 g/l to 0.15 g/l Long-term goal is to tncrease export of petroleum products B. Complete phase-out of leaded gasoline between to other Afncan countnes 2003 and 2006 * 3 out of 4 refineries in Nigena are equipped to produce Specific Plans: lead-free gasoline 1. Each country should organize meetings & workshops * Current govemment eftort to pnvatize oil production can affect to develop a strategy for achieving the phase-out any program to phase-out lead from gasoline of lead from gasoline 2. Establish national contacts to take the lead on * Key Nigenan stakeholders were not present at the meeting implementing the various plans. including the NNPC. Ministry of the Environment, 3. Establish sub-regional coordinating committee with Ministry of Health. etc government representation from all the countries, World Bank, Industry, NGOs 4. Plan regional workshop after the various national meetings have been held -3- -. .:,- ,--::- J9F9 tO J: X 1129 I R§~A .~lC Ov1bt Ctere PoFOut Cf IX pA' C>'-JvSa-S4ArZJS An ia; * t'Lu: e4Al.~ZI~u26-29 200 WORKING GROUPS West Cetra Africal REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON LEAD PHASE OUT IN Summary of discussions GASOLINE IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA (Dakar, Senegal, 26 - 28 June 2001) - 1 - Data collection - 2- Site status in the region West Central Africa Group Work Sunmmary - 3- Refining timetable evolution - 4- Problems linked to vehicles and users -I- -2 Summar ofDscSummary of discussions Summary of Discussions Site status in the region Data collection - Four refineries in the region: Gabon, Cameroun, R.D. Congo, Congo Brazzaville * Three countries represented: Cameroun, Gabon, RD Cog,CogBrzail Three coutsrpreee , a , - Only one quality of fuel: 93RON, or 95 RON Rep.Dem. of Conao. e o - Old vehicle fleet: 70% over 10 yrs old * Much data to be completed: vehicle fleet specs - Mainly supplied by local refineries and prices of fuel, schema and schedules - Ex: Gabon refinery: exports to R.D. Congo, Zaire, of refineries Angola, Guinea,.. * Detailed knowledge required on import - Technical control centers: Gabon, Cameroun and export flows between countries - Legislation exists , no applicable decrees (or not (sources and destinations) applied) - No pollution measuring systems in the cities -3- -8- Workir,41- g so/4': K vv'- 6e < A%fa:s 13 1 RleqwA conkrma OP&AM & th t-)Vz7 f Summary of discussions Refining timetable evolution SummaryofdiscuSum Refn tProblems linked to vehicles and users - Consensus on plan by stages, minimum 5 yrs Mn - Preliminary: 2001 -0.5 g/l Mandatory catalytic converters for new vehicles - 2003 - 0.15 -0.20 g/ moved to 2005, as only one fuel disributed - 2005 - unleaded 0.013g/1) * For old vehicles after 2005: possibility of a - Octane level: first 93 then 95 RON potassium additive - Timetable finalized at end of 2001 after studies * Tax adjustment on new imported vehicles, dissuasive taxes for old vehicles (ex: Gabon) - Detailed solutions for adopting refining schemas S will be known at end of 2002 after studies) Py * Control the development of private diesel vehicles - Possibility of studying numerous options Alternatives to unleaded gasoline: CNG - Total time for adding a refining unity: 4 yrs minimum -5- -6- 132 w orkiutg grr Lro4: Vx6tS certv-u A.' e S , E~~~~~Dk,Saa -o 72- - . . < ~~~~~~~~Dal, Siwe *.i Z6-2g, 200? WORKING GROUPS Souider#t Afri4M Group Report ' Current Status Southern Africa Region * Unleaded gasoline introduced within region 0f in 1996 Current market penetrations Countries Represented: Angola, Namibia, I Certain metro areas up to 30-45% South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe - approx. 15% overall within RSA and Namibia I Fuel Reformulation Task Group studying Organizations: NAAMSA, SABS, WB, Oil future gasoline/diesel sulfur levels Industry, EJNF r * Octane Study currently being discussed -1- -l- Activities Activities * Motivation of Lead Phase Out R Pr *Raise Public Awareness Action: Action: - UNEP, WB, WHO assistance using conference outcome " - Oil Ind, NAAMSA, NGO's, Gov't Agencies, supported by EPAINSC provide Basic Info - NGO's, SADC-Energy Sector package covering - Fuel Reformulation Task Team . * Health, emissions, vehicle effects... * Regional Lead Phase Out Target Date - between 2003 - 2005 Action: ALL -3- w ThetzSVztLCV; Wor/(lig FVt~r~: S0 c/Vr A frcca 33 ,i re-a cit. t P'w6 .bowa ArC 4 *1 2008, ZOOt I Activities Activities (con't) . Allocate Responsibilities * Policy/Regulatory Intervention . Identify ALL Stakeholders * Integrate Various Processes - within & • Determnine Vehicle Park Requirements amongst countnes - e.g. SADC initiatives * Review Fuel Specifications * Identify Financial Needs and Support - WB role/Refinery Revamps * Valve Seat Recession Issue * Integration/Harmonization with Emission Controls -5- -6- Activities (con't) Activities (con't) • Inspection/Enforcement Take Cognisance of Related Issues • Identify Refinery Constraints - Diesel vehicles, fuel sulfur levels --Costs, options, timeframes * Conflict Resolution of Process * Monitoring Lead Phase Out Impacts - Air quality - Health/Body burdens - Other media * Distribution System -1- -8- Way Forward * Define and Design decision making framework and process at regional and national levels - Define Issues and Options - Identify Stakeholders (e.g. SADC) - Set Objectives - Set Date Create Implementation Plan -9- 134 - f.,.4g ".1'br ;rym<-p Ko~//ru PmwmzcostF,av, Ott ,he .vltasetozz Of Lu7r .C 2.0&ke RA_L -s t%u ...~e.-O~toJL&w..2 2 2. WORKING GROUPS STRATEGY/ACTION PLAN * Sub-regional follow-up meeting Identify key enablers: *Determine sub-regional follow-up committee *Who will make this happen? composition *Need working committee * Investigate appropriate role for UNEP progress *Paper presentation for key stakeholders: MOE, MOH, * Small investigation/survey of options with industry Industry/Trade Standards Body for way forward *IPIECA to contact industry players: provide data Consider pilot marketing study in Mombasa -1- -2 ACTIONS *2. Hold discussions between 1 a. Restrict imports to unleaded only *Ministry of energy/Govt. as owners lb. Explore options for reducing lead content in *Caltex existing KPRL output in advance of any refinery a investmentlreconfiguration IPIECA's role *Shell As facilitate to industry discussions on octane strategies. *BP owners/operators on future plans for KPRL. -3- 1 f-it-4o'iD;-5 aD H .''02X: -,4,- ';.-' 135 I |' ,=g DiLu~SeL, I:e' Jr. 26-2, 2007 WRAP-UP AND NW(f SlIPS Patri(k Bultyn(k, Senior Urban Transport [(onomist, World Bank Chantal Reliquet, Senior Urban Spe(ialist, World Bank Washington, D( USA Consensus Regional Conference on the Phase-out of Leaded Gasoline in SSA Africa Negative impact of lead on health and the envirQnment (children most affected) Urgency Need for cooperation at the sub-regional level; Wrap-up and decisions are made nationally Need for close collaboration with industry F o P No technical constraint on vehicles Conclusions et suivi * Overall strategy (institutional, financial, technical; public education) ,.,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 Clarifications needed * Choice of gasoline octane grade * Schedule for phasing-out (within each sub-region) * Harmonization of technical specifications at the sub-regional level (through SADCC, UEMOA, etc.) * Establishment of emission standards and I/M programs * Financial incentives * Policy on diesel fuel -3- Pvaseap aj{v, Ne&xtE tep: Stdy/k tp k eAi uzt 1137. ReqwoZ Co~.e,w o*td> Pha O(etof, se,Jb .:2-w. t&2282001x' NEXT STEPS National Oil WHO UNEP Africa USEPA MDP World Authority Industry Clean & Bank/ Bilateral Clean Air AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS (by Oct. 2001) (1) Website X X X X X X X (2) CD ROM X (3) TV X X X Documentary (4) Paper X X X X X X DATA BANK X X X X X By Nov. 2001 WORKING X X X X X X X X GROUPS Follow-Up by Dec. 2001 First Follow-up X X X X X X X X meeting June 2002 _ _ COUNCIL OF X X AFRICAN MINISTERS OF ENVIRONMENT Februarv 2002 __..__ REGIONAL X X CONVENTION ON URBANAIR POLLUTION REGIONAL X X X X X X X X CONFERENCE Johannesburg, September 2002 138.. .. R iotaL stI. 0n M P e ot Of L tJ .b:& t 4w L * r-rBc~a -. VDakar, fte-aa J 26-28, 2001 (LOSING ADDRESS Brian Doll, [merging Issues Advisor, ExxonMobil faidx, Virginid USA Honorable Ministers, Delegates, Ladies and Gendemen, Colleagues and Friends, I appreciate the opportunity to offer some brief closing remarks on behalf of ExxonMobil and IPIECA, the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association. When my colleague Frank Sprow spoke with us on Tuesday morning, he said,, "This (onferen(e is an opportunity to, (ooperatively, take an important step toward improving the quality of life for the (itizens of your (ountries, and we must not waste it." "We must take advantage of this opportunity and begin laying the groundwork that will result in (leaner dir, lower health (are (osts, and most important, hedithier and more produ(tive (itizens.i Well, if Dr. Sprow were here today, I am certain that he would commend us for taking that important step -- together -- and for seizing the opportunity provided by this conference.While this session marks the official end of this conference, it marks the beginning of a process of ongoing planning, networking and communications that will result in the phase-out of leaded gasoline throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. IPIECA stands ready to provide you with continued technical support, so please feel free to make use of that resource -- IPIECA can be reached on the internet at IPIECA.org. I want to once again thank the World Bank for their leadership in putting this conference together, particularly Patrick Bultynck and Chantal Reliquet -- and Eleodoro Mayorga-Alba for first inviting us into the process. I want to thank our hosts from Senegal.And I want to thank you on behalf of my industry colleagues for the opportunity to become your partners in the effort to phase out leaded gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa. We look forward to building on this partnership and working closely with you in the months and years ahead to achieve the goal of a lead-free Africa. I would like to close on a personal note, if you will allow me. Ever since I began working on this lead phase-out initiative, I have viewed it as something special -- something more than simply another project. I see this as an opportunity to leave a legacy that will pay countless dividends in human terms for years to come -- a legacy that each of us can look back on in future years and say, "I was there at the beginning. I helped phase-out leaded gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa. And I am proud of what I did." ? -CJi2i@St4 ,4 re¸: 5i t139 I I K -C I Rqwonzi Coqnfca,on. tke Fitasa oat qM&40Ji t i-z ns 4w WORK COUNTRY LMISTNKM PlRSI HANE JOB 1I1L1 DEPARTMNTH INSITMU1OH CIT W PUlONK fAX [MAIL Anvgola -- F--rertsNto' Jose Antontio - National Director - Sur-face Transp-ort Ministry oifTranspoirt Luand a 2442334427 2442334427 RATP Direction Belgium Amsnoer Yees Rere Antoine Expert detactre a l'UrrP Geerale U[TP Brsuxlles 3226636635 3226636623 yveeoamsiet~Auip.com Banque de Miniature des Affaires Deneloppeirent et Etrangeres -- Direction Belgium De Gertactie J.L Chef de Sernice de irnnrrenau ote ationae' Bruxelles 3225190522 3225190570 Bguri Flohic Michrel Public Affairs Manager Afnca/Middle East ExxonMobil Machelen 3227224488 322471mielfoicesc Belgium Heng Waster Directeur Recherches CEESE - ULB BUnversiteUo ed Bruxelles 3226503377. 3226504691 whecq@ulb.acbe Business Planning ard .Fuels Markeein gAtca stanley/g9rienga@em Belgiunm .Nenga Stanley - Analysis Mwie ME ExxonMobla Machelen 3227223123 3227223367 ailrnobsl.corn Analyst Business Fuels Markreting Afnica ohemimb Belgium Obihi Henry Planting and Analysis M E ExxstMobil Machelen 3227223136 3227223367 [lcore Fuels Marfkeling Aftica kerry_r_arl48emailrm Belgiumr Warki Kerry Regional Dirwcor ME ExxonMobil Machelen 3227223137 3227223367. obilcom Benin Begio Ayile Marcel Directeur General Agence Beninoise pour Ctnu29056 29053aeg~o.nntb l'Environnereent Ctoo22345 22343abgebwnnti - … - -- - - - jo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ecretariat@pdrn- Benin ESong Mbassi Jean Pierre ' Coordinator PDM Cotonou 229300-560 229301976; net.org Diecteur de Services Circonscription Urbaine ---- Senmn Gbaguidi Basile techniques Ville de Cotonreou de Cotonou Cotonou 239313520 2293t135201 gbdstcot@intnet,bj - - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ministere-de l'Ennironnement de Habitat et de Benin Grtacart1a -Luc Ministre l,Urbanisme _ Cotonour-- S enin Hounye Sedoor Cathenee Chef-Service Direction de l'Energie Cotonos -2293306514~ 2293t3546' Ministere de -- Direction de flEnvironnerenst de-mrlpi@itnic Benin Moralipsi ~~~Chats Sekie Chef de Service l'Environnereent -lHUanismete Cotlonou 229315596 223t31 -henri.gillesn@tstalfinaelf. Benin Moutsson Theonias Refining Mantagement Refining and Markethig totaffina Saint CloeS 33141357256 33t413531041com ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Solidarrte Intemationale our Ins Transports et ~a Bee Niaty-Mouamnba Maunnce Resdenttd'association Renrhenfru oton-io 2299002a/904703 229310133;n2m@avuuorg -- -- - … - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.Subsaharnenne- :Minwetre de Cortseiller Techntque a lEnnirontemenit de Conaniller Technique a I~Habotat et de Bener Woron Chabi Theophile l'Ernv'emrnnent l'Urbanismne Cotonou 2293t7795 22931tSOStIrvmhucab@intnet.bj Direceu des Services Direction den Services Maine de Burtuna Faso Dabligou Vincent Timbindi Techniques Municipaux Techniqeues Ouagadougou - uagadaugoI. 226341174 2263t1ff87b nfocorn0fasovetl. bf Centre de Contiroi - - e Buritia Faso Dhallc, Mamvadou Directeur General Oeiee uagadougou 226384773 (4310i 226384207( tamnagada@fasonnt.bl - - - - - - - - l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ihilaire.kabore@cenatnrn Burkin Faso Kabore Hilaue Controleur Interre Direct ion Generale Ouagadougou 220436662 226430174i.bi Economlste en Direction Generale de Batles Faso Pare Artiedee Hydcatusres ( Energie Ouagadougou 307978 324441 dge0cenatrinbi -- - -. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Minisere des Buriuna Faso Zerbo Kanme Drecteur General Transports et do ugduo TisusreeGaadun Cabinet du Ministre de Burneld Nidabinye Disras Conseiller du Ministre l'Energie et des Mines Bujumebura 2572259091225t1Or 2572296241 Canenmon Motiaman Abbo SettieGnrlYao'uede 23723t1040 237226177: -- Ecole Nationale - - I Superieure Carremon Ngabrrien Hubert Enseijeant-Chrercheur - Palyte5hinique Yaounde 237318910 2373t034!ositrass@camnnetcmv - - jres~~~~mboup0dromaudaire.c CarneroDn Ngauesse Moboxn Pierr Direeur techniclue Commune cle Douala S Douala 23776t1762 23747304710 Land Transport Syndicat National d -es- Cameeroo Oumnarou Charge de Mision Departmfent_ _ Trantsporteusr Rosers Douala 237436741 237423248 btgh@0iccrnet.com (Sous-Drtection) Genie Communaute Urbaine Carremon Yartdinu raob Gecrges Chef de Departement Urbain de Douala Douala 23743649t 237402168 yamdjescre@yahoo.fr Dnecteur des Ministere des -2724t 23328 Camroouno Visarba JO5ue Transports Teetres_m Hydrocaroures Transports Yaounde 27215 27328 mregaisance@fhomtail.c Corngo Kalasi Ngay Gvy Avocat Berreau Pres la Cour Kinshasa 24399457758101t702 442085881691som Coned leon Bi Nagone zoro ~~~~~~~~~~~~u Agence des Tranports Ccle d Noire BiNagone Zom DGA ~~~~~~Urbains (AGETU) Abidjan 225050576387 32520217328 Ministtire dn biodio@africaonline.co. Core d Insure Blnu-Laine Gilbert Ministre rEnvirmneervet Abidjan 22520222350 22520222050 ci Directeur de Laboraroirn do Chimrie Core d Issure Gougaonut Kspieu lEnvimnnnemnent et du Atmespnerique FascuiteAidar250163 222045nsan@grlrg C-adre de Vie des SciencesAida222202 222249 aaontrerg Societe Inonenne do Coresd vosire Kanga Novas Directeur technique Raffinage Albidjan 22521237346 2252t275t49 Ppesonxsowemrail.m Corn d lvoire Sow Samba SHE Manager West Africa Cluster EosonMobil Wont Ai rica Abidian 22521271037 22521275915 obil.com Core d Issure Veh Sodet Foin Directeur General Agence des TranportsAbda20109 0175 Urbains (AGETU) Aida20149 0175 Ethiopian Petroleum pethomtenom-e Ethiopis Yigza. Mekonner General Manager Enterorse Addis Ababa 251 1510045 251 1 512036 o: Eazr&W7kts- WORK COUNTIRY LAST NAM[ f IRST NANL JOB TIlIU D[PARTM[NT INSTITUlON CITY W PUlONE FA (HAIL France Adniehoume Amnakoe Patrice Delegue General SjF3LASS Ancaeif 33147407268 33145475606,nrets.fr France Baudry Redlacteur en Chef Strtegic Plannring Aeplfnca) iins St. Ouen 33149486350' 8897960 pitrasriiao. BEICIP PRANLAS aB)cyaobir (Instltut Francars du RerlMalaion- 33170816 33470814oA France Cayrade Patrick Jean-Claude Directeur Degparternent Energie Pestrle) ReiMlasn 317810 317815f Laboratoir 'de Toxicologie et Unciersite Victor EdonoectCreppy0tox.u France Creppy Edmoed E. d'HygieneAppiqae Segalen Bordeaux 05 57571217 05 56986685 bordeaax2ftr Mkirsotere he - DiorecionNationle--------.---.: - - -- - France Monuner Joumaliste 0 'Envrarnnemrenrl Environnemsent St. Duen 33149486350 33149486356 peopletv@aol.core - - Geniral Mcorars Gen-eral Moto-rs Africa- olivierpinelftfopel.co France Pinet Olivier District Sales Manager . Overseas Opeations_ Argenteuil 33134263312. 33130766653 rm France Sanoag Jean-Nicolas Faculty Dean Refining Totalfina Paris 33141352127 3343204 ef.o Direct ear General Gabon Oren,ins Francnrs Adjoint Hfydrocarbures Libreville 241294217 241724990 Societe Gabonaise he Gabon Traoree Lamtoer, Ingenieur Raffinage Raffinage Port-Gentil 563445 5515289tondaiexctte.fc Department of State for Director of Technical Warks Cormmrunicalion Gamnra Leg- MustaLofa Services Transportat ion and Infomnation Kanifing 220375756 220375765, mleigh@qanetpnm Depa-rtmentonf Sta-te for Gov-ern-m-ent- of T-he . nyarinpenhie@tmaiL.co Gambia N~ Nfyang, Ecnomanist Fin. & Eco. Affairs Gamtbia Banful 227651 ' Manstry of Environment Science and Ghana \'ariev, Anna Deputy Minister Technology Accra 23321666049/662264 23321666828 Ghana Osary Be-iamin K E Techinical Manager GEP. Tema Oil Refinery Terma - 23322302881' 23322302884. ton@torcomn.gh Einvironmeental Ghana NOnr, er Deput Director EnvironmentalQualirty Protection Agency Accra 23331663465' 23321662690: owodoQyahooonn *Ministry of Mineral amadou.5.1ba@email.rn Guinea B. &k-roo,, Saio. Directeur General Liquid Fuel Resourcos arid Energy Conaklry_ 224465274. 224409206 obil.corn lnstitut National de Chimsie Sante Publique e Minisfece de la Sante ' nspgui8sotelgui.net.g Guinea La air.-anaa Dora Cnef Departerment Phaiamceulique Pubelgue Conakry 224430566 224465007n Direction Nationale Mines Geobogie EnirmnnementlMiries chndivbKodnetrminrnet 5ˇ'ea SC Sa,r-oa LaStic Fonctionnaire Envinrnnementee Environnemsent Conakty 224451589/464850 2244515/414913 netgnr PetroleumnMoektorinrg- - - -- . - Ke,ya a.xo J.ware,. Sencio Economrsst HeadUnrit Ministry of Energy Nairobi 2542330048 2542226314 dce*energymin.goke United Nations Programme Officer Diviion of Policy Ennirornment Kenya "xe: hCL urban Environment Development and Law Proramme (UNEp) Nairobi 2542624184 2542624324mnb.1ong@unepor Senor Dualrt Controlf Kenya Bureau of ketbsafnicaorelineci Kenya Otf h-o- 0ce-r Ouality Assarance Standards Nairobi 502210-9 2542503293e reconole@net2000ke.c Kerrya '--v, programme Officer Environmental Policy RECDNCILE Nakuru 44940/41-203 Ore Masacasca- A: -,Oe- Cotroe e Entreprise Pabliqae HOfficaigahur des Antananarivo 261202225291, nancyomh@cdtsmpn Maoaaascry O-~w, m-4. Antananamvo 2612040908/2241847i 261202241919, Coordinatear RLAH Mai Lo cc: rtarnAmo MALI RLAH Afrique Bamako 223224916 2232390671 Ministere die l'nduastnreDictoNaineds ds Commerce et des DietoNaonlds Vali F s~t 'a Directear Transport Truansports Transports- 13arako 22a898 Ministere chiarge de Ministere des Mines or tandia0energeesenice Mali, l3r a a-rx. Conseuller technique l'Energie do l'Energie 'Barrfao 234584/224184 222160 u.net.ml Centre d'Etudes et doeraeeperoh Ma.ai vv- .3-ra-.v Rawie. Crrernear/Formaleur CERPODANSAHI Rectieraeourn Bamakro 223223043/8066 223227831 ml M.44ri:a,a icric )n~~ .War-m c mae Co-aedler MHE Auto Ljmns (PtLt) Nmuakc-hott I 22291 2225259515 ahimos@samtaracozw Conseiller Ministre de i yabdoulayemrnryahoo Mauriania S. ucc. I E neie1NoLuakchott 2226301423 2225259515 h Namisia scrirW-ce.. r4v-r 546 Energy ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ministry of Mines ia12n62880 inghishoongle@mme. helEcnomist Directorate of Energy Energy Windhroek 26461284811 gonna8820 Namibia Mar~De~oy Director Enrgy Directorate MrinistryofMinesand mvonjentey@mme.gov. Naii o u-e-i EnemDecyDretr EnryDretrt Windhoek 264612841 11 264612848200 na Niger Mlara-r AC: Dire-clouf Hydrocaroures -- Niame-y - - - 227733769l 227732759 Niger Sausoo usDC .an LI-recie,i,r Direction de l'Energie Niamey -. 22113530 227732759- National Maritime tNiger a -';a-37 Susa C-el Tecinical OMtcer Pollution Authoty Apapa Lagnos_ National Automnotive amnjalaliohotmail.co N,.nrin Jc ~ Ai Directs' Policy and Planning Council Aba1a 23402344483 23492340904 rnan ones Occur: -sin h~~~~~~~~~-i n eeriCnief National Automnotive robiert.de lassus0totalf ~~~~en. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cstilOfficer ',sa Council Abuja 23492347820 23402340994ineff Orryucoc ri~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ou5,ing arce Guardian Newspapers norris Dr:ua: n-v-~~~~~~~~- A;ssistai! Director Environment L:C. -ao 31510 31548 timeyinCyahoo.corn Transport Coordination ass bnspwcorate Feaeral Ministry 01 tNigeria Osuin-ccy Sur-c Dric Eector Deniarmen: Transpor: Abuau 02347491 ReawndtC owiv:A i th& PkaaWa3t- WORK COUNTRY LAST NAH[ FIRST NAM[ JOBT11F D[PARTM[NT INST1IION col W PliONt FAX [HAIL Nigena Sredhar Mynepalli Professor Environmental Health University of lbadan 'Ibadan 23422410088n335 23428103043 amlda0kne Chef Bureau Etudes SenegalI Ba Elimane d'impact Dakiar 8210725 8324744 cetudOtelecomplus.sn 'Agence de Senegal Barry usa Direcreor technigue ~~~~Developpement Senegal Barry lssa Directeur technique ~~~Municipal (ADK Dakar 2218651 017 221 8259382 dabaiss@senboo.sn nrbasey@sonatelse Senegal Gassey0 Michael W Director International Programs The Rodale Institute i Dakar 2218240222 2218840529 ecloei Chef du Laboraloire Laotid natisnal de Controle Lao aoied des Medcmnt o Toulcologie - Facuhte Be Universite Cheikh Anta Senegal Ciss Mounirou Senegal Medicine Pharnnacie Diop 'Dakar 8219391/1124138t rnruftentoosin Senegal - Coiy Jacques E. Interprete - Freelance Coordiantison et Etudes Dakiar 22185272537: 2218272537 cetud@telecompluassn Agence Regionale de Developpement de Senegal Deme Papa Alassane Expert Combustibles PROGEDE Dakar Dakar 2218211571. 2218211568 papdemehotmnajIcoro Minislltre cOn Senegal Diugne Modou Fada Ministre l'Envoronenrent Daka Conference Interprete - Senegal D/itio Vildya Freelance Dakar 22182S7883 2438843875 v"yasentso.sn Brigade Enquetes et Inspectioons environnementalvs et -i SHOE Adviser onformautions isMna-dk-oal Senegal Diallo lsmaila (Transupsort Manager entvironnemenrales Mobil Oil Senegal Dakar , 2218321892 2218328059 emailmobil.comr Comie Naiona des Secretariat Permanent Senegal Dallo lbrahim Expert Petrolier HyComicatioalres du Comate National des Senegal Diallo Ibrahima Expert Petrolier flydrocarbares ~~~~Hydrocarbures Dakar 2218257336 2218257319 Pollution Control and Senegal Diarra Abdove Kuarn Joumaliste Entvironmental Health Le Matin Abuja 23484135971 23495234119 enemanjjytoo.com Consultant Sante em ISE Fac Senegal Diawi Demba Environnemnent -- Sciences.UCAD Dakar 2216382452' ddriaw@lmetissacana.sn Division Hydrocarbures Energy Regulation Senegal Deme Michel Chef division Direction Energie Goard Dakar i8228430 81348888 shibaienederb.orgzro Senegal Dieng Papa Meusa Evseignant Unwrsemte St. Louis Berger St. Laous 2129612201 2129618707 dieng2@cazamail.com Senegal Dieng Siky Directear de Publication Mei ore offa Dakiar 2216344800 229313548 sourceinto@yahoo.fr Senegal Diop Mar Joumailoe Eergy Department Minsotry of Energy Dakar 2218227977/8247823 2218227997 gashuza@hornaiL.com Epidemiology and Senegal Dios Abctou Docteur -ISE Facuhte Sciences Policy Cape Town 22168577500, 27214082088 adio5@hotmaiI.com Senegal Dop Abdoulaye Josmatinte Warr Zonal Office Diamnono FM Dakar 22168268879/8247023 53256564. vaofdelke@yahoo.com Senegal Dip YrmMnkUniversde Che/Ikh Ata aara yericlicip@htotmail.co Om Yerim Mbagn~~4ic Dioo Daa Coniseil Esecutif des Senegal Drouf lhou Ingenleur en Coel ~~~~~~~Transports Uribains de SenegoJ DW lbou Ingenieur en LaboChCrnie Dakar (CETUD) Dakar 859L4720/5, 8324744 ceud0telecomplus.son Seniegal Doiou Auadou Prof esseur Ag Toxicologie Diop Dakrar 8241381 8224445 amdiouf*refer.sn Seneal Mneme Actnce de FEA (Femme et ---r226-mainedofteis Seegl Oicl M my Develapperrnent Assaainissermnnt) Dkr21557260 224413990 mana.snof@ehu Ministere de l Sante et Senegal Deaut Gugigu Larnine Docteur Technical Department BleLa Prevention Dakar 22163427131 27118897973 qldiouf@yfoo.fr A Pesticide Action -- Senegal Dioul Henry Nene Progrm. Officer - - Netweorh(PAN) Alnca Dakaw 2218254314: 2318e251443 panafnn@0senroo.sr, ~ * Assistant clu Seceta,re ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~charleslmletissacana.s Sene(jal Ecle, Charles Executil Dakiarf 22181821027 23492340984n Cellule de Coordination Deuxieme Prolet Expert en Contractuel Projet IDA Sectoniel desrrrrrhricmpu. Transports rnrrteeopu. Senegal Fall El Hadji Birahmim Environnement 31853-SE (CELCO/PSTE) Dakat 2218257355, 2218256881n gayernolamadnou0car Senegal Gaye Mouhamadou Technicien Superinur AFfTR Wodd Bank - Nigena Dakar 2218372449, 23412628486/8 amnail.com kgnanzouficarmareil.co Senegal Gunanzo Koutoua Premier Secretairy Environmental Affairs Dakar 2218210183 2218223807 n Combustibles Derives Instita Al icain de Senegal Gueye Ndeye Fatou Diop Charge do Programnme do Petrol Gvation Urbaine Dakar 2218244424 2218250826, aguranCencasr, Senegal Hauoara Moulaye Al, General Manager MeobgvGinOifDakar 2218321882, 2218328059 icamLadrCmi.o Senegal Kane Abdoulaye Racine Conseiller Techinique Dakar 2218211894 - 22182124885 inirb-congo@rmaf.org Senegal Ndiaye Alioune Envirannemeentaliste RIAH Dakar 2218252450 2218281742 agnnat@enda.sn Senegal Ndiuyv Malick CTIMET Dakiar 27123103505 27123021167o jnnbz0zoep Faculte de Medecine ei Universite ChneSk Anta Senegal Nsiaye Bara Univers4luire or Pharmacie Diop Dakiar 2218552314 2218241381 nirouutsenroo.sn Sennyal Ndiayv Moosrapra Orecleur ~~~~~~~~~~~~Ministry of Mineral Senegal Ndjaye Mowapna D,,ecleu, ~~~~~~Resources and Energy Dakar 2218239322 2218218759 suimex@syntoo.sn Senegal Ndsisyr lbrahirna OGA Dakar 839 02 31 2218363115 inoiayeOagotip.sn Senegal Nimaga Mamacos Drecieur Tecrnique Raffinage Dakar 2218343805.. ,. Senegal Paris Isabelle PFC Daka, 8495040 8227903 iDaris@ifc.org. V.AAu. 5e4z4t4.zd .Jan&26-28, 2301. - WORK COONTRY LAST NAME OIRST NAME JOB T[ITLE DEPARTMENT INsflTnfoN (DY W PUON[ [AX EMAIL Secretariat Permanent Eapert Petrolier dau'Comaie National des Senegal Sagna Cattnello Robert (Directeur Ptojetj Hydrocarbares Dakar 2218257336 2218257319 Minioteri de Senegal Saldmo A. Ocesonuplr Miniotre l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IEgaipemnent et des Day Senegal Sakho A. Youssouph Minisim ~~~~~Transports as Senegal sall Mounarredoc Protesseur Facuhe de Medecine Dakar 2218224670 mgsall@hotmtail.com Guelaye Friends of the Senegal Seck El Hadji Flespovsable GIE Commerce Induotnie Environment Dakar 221 8342434 2218236277 aseckreotldbank.org Regional Programn for Economist APTEG tan Tradnional Energy Senegal Seck Awa Africa Region Sector (RPITES) WodS Bank D3akar 8495000 8485027 aseck@wcoddbank.org Cnef Division Sen Agro Senegal Seve Ndongo S0L6 Consult Dakaf 2218256634 2218247108 vdoo@sounoamail.sn Senegal Sieberi Michael Conseiller Technique Coordinateur GTZ Dakar 22181227072 2218238828 gtzenvl@sentoo.on Direction de Senegal sow lbrahima Chef de Divison l'Environnemere Dakar 2218210725 22t82262t7 ibsore@oento>o.sn Senegal Tham Abdoulaye joamatiste Prodact Engineenng Le Soleil Dakar 2216421104 2218598050 layethiamnsn@yatoo.fr Charge d'Etudeo/Economio.te Projet Sectonel den Senegal Tniaw Idnssa des TranoSDortS Tranoponts Dakar 237229694 237229705 idiecorOmetrissacana.sn Universite Cheikh Anta Senegal Thraw Code Ding Dakar 8388780 cthiaw@ucad.on Senegal Thior Mamaoso Journaliste RTS - Television Dakar 2216453771 thirn@hotmail.comn Senegal Tou, Kamadore Assistant Profeswr ~Instiutae for Heahth and Senegal Osuir Kamadom Assistant Professor ~~~~~Development (ISED) University of Dakar Dakar 22 1 824 9878 22 1 825 384 rsed0telecomgoluoo Easrom and Southern gmatonuQmdpesa.cu.z Senegal Turpin San, Josephine Interprete - Freelance Africa Dakar 2218271228 22t8271226 r Senegai Wade Malick Coiordivatear Regional RIAHI 22181362770 Depamtemenit de wanealpha@caramail.c Senegal Wane Aipha Chef de Service l'Energ e Dalar 221623399216t30109 237226177 o Environmental Jastice LegaJ Reors South Africa AncrewS Angela Arromey Project Center Cape Town 21481 3000 214230935 angelaOlrc.org.za caimrcrosse0mail.pent Sooth Africa Carnocrosa Eugene Senior Lecturer Physical Science PeninsuLa Technikon Bellvidle 27219598480 27219596165 ech.ac.za AFTIOS MELISSA Soarth Africa Ding Oussvnyou Program Coordinator program World Bank Pretoria 27123492994 27123492080 odiopl@woddblank.org South Africa Gelevoenhuys Elton SASS Pretoria 27124286234 GELDENE@sabs.co.za Prodact Engineering South, Africa Megnis Martin K. Regional Manager Services Caftex Caoe town Environmental Jast ice Soars Aftica Movie S.goovgile (ENetrie Frm Cage Town 272t83204361t 27214075733 stonb.e@ehotmail.com Sours Africa Mleinr1es Elsie Docteur SABS Pretoria 27124286412 2714-4288687 meintje@sabs.co.za NAAMSANFord Motor Fuel & Emissions Tech' company of Sciahero Sours, Alrica Rayner Stuart, Chairman Committee Africa Prelona 27128422438 27128423138 raynersmf ore co.za Environmental Justice Networking Formm South Aloca Wenrzei Shmreen ProuinciaiAaminstralor Westem Cape Cape Town 27214480144 272144801 45 snireen@einf.org.za Swctzerland Quane Fatonmata UNEP Geneva 41227973460 fouane@unep.cfh Occapational and Departmenr of Environment al Health Protection of the World Heafhh Switzerland Sonwela Dietricht Programmne Hamarn Environment Organization Geneva 41227914261 4t227914123 ochwela@fwho.inf Tanzania Noziala Rigererez President Car es Salaam 255222780859 25522278,0859 ieat@twiga.com Togo Aghosasu Komi Akpe Prof esseur sine 229284201 komagbosVtg referorg Toga Amesoiagoe Azzewoca Consewller technique Cabiner da Ministre Lome 228212897/257194 228210333 ametsia@hotmaFl cow Fuel and Environment Unitec Kingcomr Beclwith Paul Manager Global Retail Team BP P.1.c. London 442074964644 4420749647ff oeckwip@bp.cam ir emational Petroleum Indastry Eneironmental Operational lossues Conservalion Unitec K ngoom Ccx Robert T. Profect Manager Groag Associatin (IPIECA) London 442072212026 442072294948 ro8couxipreca.org Fuels Developmert Snell Intemalional stewart.s.kempsell@op Unired Kingdom Kempsell Stewart Manager Faels Groap Petroleumn Company London 4420793J15589 442079346014 conhell com United States of Manager of Public Edacation and ENvtironmnal Saer Counci America Alarcon-Yohne Mariela Health Outreach Center Washington 2029742473 2022930032 alarcon@nsc.org Un.itedc States of America Armstrong Jane U.SE.PA. Untec S:ates or bailey.marianve@epam America Badev Marianne L.S.E.P.A Wasnington ailepa gnu Un ed Statns or Foarres@,wordbzank.or America Barre-, Fann,; Program Assistant Wr$zrc Sank 47-42 Unrec: States 0l Seni,or Urban Transportpblyckwodak America Sult) nc, Patrick Economist AP-TU2 Afric.a Region Worlc Bank Wastrington 202.17345,49 2024730240pntnc@orcan. United StItealnopcywolbako America Ccoiey CnovotIne World Sank. Was,noton 2024731701 2§2Ei760970 cspemrdako Unilec Srates cl Amerca Courea Solc.a Programt Manager U.S.E.PA. Wasningron 2025646443 20250524:1 ccrrea.sylvia@ena.gov - - KaitL!-tal. awfar; on f%? PPha-OuzTt fa/-4 Ah -.; .L,: Ui, JeJtad Z Iwoe 26 2 'OC WORK(OUNTRY LASTNAME FRSTNAME JOBITITLE DEPARTMENT INSTITIUTION EIY W PHON[ FAX [MAIL United States of Emerging issues Eoo oi ra olexno UnitedStatesof Doll Brian Acvisor Refining and Supply Cororion Fairfax 7038462515 7038.462898 il.com United States of Instinuions and World Resources America Lissu Tundu Research Fellow Goverance Program 9nstue Was,hgon . 2027297645 2027297759 lissu2wrn.org World Bank Instfitute-- -- United States of .Sustainable 2026760977 smartinltworldbark.or America Martin Serge P. Consultant Development Group World Bank Washington 2024736922 /0978 9 United States of Leaod Petroleum Oil Gas and Chemicals - .emayorgaalsa@worlb Amenca Mayorga Alba Eleordom economist Department World Bask Washington 2024734295 2025220395 ankorg Unned States of Sr. Petroleum Oil Gas and Chemicals - .-. -rnrnuylle0worldbank.or Ameedca MuSylle Michel Specialist Department World Bank WashingtGn 2024587701 20252203952 g Unaed States of Environmental Health AUenca Nnagu Jemrme Professor Sciences Unive-sity of Michigan Ann Arbor 7349360706 7347649424 lnriagu@umich.edu United States of Amnenca Obeng Letitia Sector Manager Water and Urban World Bank Washington 2024734551 LobengOworldbank org United States 01 Education ted ~~~~~~~~~~~~National Safety Council. United States of Education and Environmenta Health- Amrenca Phoenix Janet Ontreach Center Washington World Bank tnstitute Unrted States of Sustainable 202676097 Amenca Posey Vanessa Program Assistant Development Group World Bank Washington 2024736395 i0978 vposey@worldbank.org United States 0f Urban- & Water creliquet0worldbank.or AUrenca Reliquet Chantal Specialist WBIEN World Bank Washington 2024736385 2026760977 9 AtlLance to End United States of Childhood Lead Amerca Rochow K.W. James Director International Programs Poisoning Washington 2025431147 2025434466 jrcxhovwaeclp.org United States ot Safety HeatthS Exxon Mobil nancy.d.munoz- Amenca Sprow Frank Vice President Environment Corporation Irving 972-444-1677 972-444-1633 maserCexxon.com United States o l tLance to End Childhood Lead Amerca Terrell JennderY. Research Associate International Programs Poisoning Washington 2025431147 2025434466 Iterrell@aeclp.org -- - -~~ -. ----~~~-- ~~-~~ --. -- ~- tva-udaine@wortdbank. United States of Sr. Municipal Finance vuam irdnk America Vaudaine Denise R Specialist AFTU2 Word Bank Washington 2024734108 org -Manager -- Other -- Energy Regulation Zambia Sichone Elijah C. Forms of Energy Regulatory Department Boand Lusaka 260123602,2 26012364 ecslchone*erb.org.zm Senior Vehicle Vehicle rInspection - - imnactoreatrica6rnline. Zimbabwe Mbenkunashe Jonathan Inspen or Department Harwe 2S34700991-6 2634726661 zw Ministry of Transport , zimactornatnrcasonine. Zimbabwe Samunderu Rangana: Roseline Pnncipal Admin Officer Traffic and Legislation. and Communications Harae 2634700991/9 2634726661 w This list provides parti(ipant information as given to the (onferen(e organizers. We dpologize for dny omissions. I PARTNERS I PARTNE1S Muiila Zral Ageciec ad Muni(ipal Development Program (MDP) United Nations [nvironmental Program (UN[P) World H eaIth Organization (WNO) £uroij.wta gery U.S. [nyironmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Biateral voiwrs- Belgian (ooperation Norwegian Agen(y for Development (ooperation U.S. Agen(y for Internationdl Development (USAID) Ngo5s aid Psearchk lo utdio s Allian(e to [nd (hild hood Lead Poisoning Mitigaling [nvironment [o(aIIy in Sub-Sdharan Afri(a (M[LISSA) National Safety (oun(il University of Brussels z"egramd oil & gu cwp4xie4 BP (alteX [xxonMobil TotalF[in aEIf PeiroLeasO IiuleuryY ODYezJd It oK- Internationdl Petroleum Industry [nvironmental (onservation Asso(iation (IPIE(A) Netwgrks of AfricaJi Cov# swdr Req i ondl N etwork of Afri(an [xperts in urban air pollution (AFRI (A([LAN) Solidarite Internationale sur les Transports et la Recherche en Afrique Sub-Saharienne (SITRASS) Sectr Prograu Inergy Sector Management Assistan(e Program ([SMAP) ote Partners Bei(ip-fran.lab Nationdl Asso(idtion of Automobile Manufa(turers and Assemblers of South Afri(a (NAAMSA) (ity of Montreal International Union of Public Transport (UITP) I I c-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - l>> ,itz .. .* t=fdz7z 21 .:j ~7x <;tU. .Dakis, Seva- 26-28Jwx 2001 L'Industrie de Raffinage en SSA Crude Distilling and Light Ends Capacity ECDU kBd _ Light Ends 1 60.0 ------ En dehors de la RAS 140.0 & du Nigeria, surtout |du reforming par 120.0-- semi-regen 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 100 20 6| ^ - dlE l r l *SSA kBd Processing Unit Capacity E Latin America 100 - * SSA excl RSA & 80 -- Nigeria 70- 60- 50- 40 - - 30 20°- _ ¢ CIOn apbila CCa n vld ih r e Information as publicly available and not validated with relevant refineries | coKftime en'w&Or g&wsrtl4Pxb D,aka, SS&gat - 26 7-Jus - Les Problemes de Raffinage Quelques Leqons Apprises Un calendrier agressif est possible Est-ce le moment de faire face a la realitk? Un horizon ~ un - deux ans pas cinq! Remettre en question les exigeances en octane * Lover economiquement negatif des petites raffineries Trop, pasoaussez * Aucun desir d'investir c* Approprit son usage (parc auto, conditions de * Le secteur public est incapable de soutenir la participation * conduirte) * StabiIite politique incertaine Reduire le taux d'octane pour eviter ou retarder les investissernents * Sources limitees de financement * Les options d'approvisionnement regionales offrent des Laisser jouer le marche opportunites * Introduction precoce du sans plomb purement comme Consolider le raffinage et excercise du marche les options d'approvisionnement .* Influencer les investissement des tiers (ex. dans le raffinage et distribution) -16- -Il- Quelques Lecons Apprises (cont'd) Le R6le du Groupe de la Banque Mondiale Un bon timing ' Les options d'approvisionnement regionales * Organisations multi-sectorielles et * Combiner les investissements dans la qualite avec la capacit6 de regionales raffinage - Transpon Ce n'est pas seulement une question de plomb et d'octane - Environnement * Une vision compr6hcnsive de la pollution emanant du transport * Politique de tarification des carburants (k&rosene et diesel compris) * Soutien des politiques et accroissement * RVP. T50, Soufre, Aromatiques, ...) des capacites * Une analyse comprehensive de l'offre et la demande pour tous les - Qualit6 des produits carburants - Les regimes de tarification et les taxes sur [es carburants Trouver un Champion! * Gestion des risques * Les compagnies petrolieres exercent le plus grand pouvoir - Recours limite au financcmcnt * Les villes importantes ou a forte densite beneficient le plus - Participation du secteur prive - Des garanties partielles pour le n.cque ConclusionsC * Trouver un champion Clean Air Initiative * Reunir les acteurs . Un trace pour 1'elimination de * Rechercher les meilleures pratiques dans le 1'essence avec plomb secteur * Evaluer les points critiques sans trop analyser * Consolider les petites raffineries et les o Quelques examples d' approvisionnement * Influencer les int6erts du secteur priv6 * Viser les gains pr6coces Michel S. Muylle Impossible, n'est pas francais ! DakarConference,juin26-28,2001 1:4, P.& tttiokt- AA . .-lO- -ll - e2 PrWotr-t MMy6le Nk,tkD, SbtyLat 26-28Juix,2001 . GROOUPES DETRAVAIL Afrique & k tu&et CONFERENCE REGIONALE SUR L' ELIMINATION DU 1. Presentation du groupe PLOMB DANS 1' ESSENCE EN AFRIQUE SUBSAHARIENNE Le groupe Afrique de l'Ouest est compose ( des douze pays ci-apres: Burkina Faso, Cap Vert, Cote d'lvoire, Gambie, Ghana, GROUPEAFRIQUE DE L'OUEST Guinee, Guinee-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritanie, Senegal, Sierra Leone. COMPTE RENDU DES TRAVAUX Les principaux centres de raffinage sont la SIR en Cote d'lvoire, la Tor au Ghana et la Mbareck DIOP, President de seance SAR au Senegal. Hilaire KABORE. RapDorteur -1- -1- 2. Deroulement des travaux o Couts du plan d'action et leur repartition; Les delegues des pays membres du groupe ont eu trois seances de it travail d'environ 1 H30mn chacune, en o Mesures Ilgislatives vue de I'elaboration d'un plan d'actions pr6liminaire pour le passage A M I'essence sans plomb dans leur sous-rbgion. Huit pays etaient effectivement representes A ces seances O Specifications de 1'essence de travail. Etaient absents, le Cap ae vert, la Guinee-Bissau, le Liberia et la Sierra Leone. Madagascar a o a Autres aspects techniques egalement rejoint ce groupe. C Le groupe s'est dote du canevas de travail suivant: * Situation de la sous-region o Etudes et recherches. O Collecte des donnees; o Idenbificaffons des contraintes. Ra t Sf'' *Recommandations * Analyse des options - Programme d'actions: o Calendrier du plan d'actions -3- Pri4e~~~~~~~'tta.ttoft& ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~roa/2e~~~~~~~ d& trtwz&l: Afri~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/t~~~~& de' 1.ou.e~~~~~~~~~~~~t Cjic rr r s r _ _ i ea /pb Daw, SeaZ *ffi-S2001 De ces donnees on peut retenir 3. .vnthese des travaux - Consommation de deux grades d'essence dans cinq des huit pays ( 87-95): Au terme de leurs travaux, les dlegu6s sont parvenus aux - Teneur autorisee en plomb dans 1'essence elevee (0,8g/1) conclusions eulvanles: 3.1. Situation actuelle - Parc d'automobile ge et vetuste (+60%. a + 15 ans) - 3. 1. Situation actuelle ~~~~~~~Predominance des vehicules at essence ( +60%). * Collectes de donnees Les donnees chiffrees sont jointes en annexe. Des donnees ont pu etre collectees pour la quasi-totalite des pays presents sur: . Le raffinage; Les contraintes * Les specifications sur la teneur en plomb dans les * Pays enclaves, tributaires des raffineries et dep6ts des differents pays; pays c6tiers ( Burkina, Mali): * La consommation d'essences; * Deplacements transnationaux: * Le parc automobile ; * Parc important de vehicules a deux roues * La situation macro-economique. * Etroitesse du marche. L'analyse de ces contraintes confirme la necessite denvisager des solutions au plan sous-regional. -5- -6- 3.Z Analyse des options - Programme d'actions * Le calendrier Le groupe a adopl6 l'option de remplacer les degres doctane perdus 2001, teneur en plomb de 0,5 gl A I'eliminabion OJu plomb au raffinage comme atant la plus viable el celle qui offre a la sous-region des facteurs favorables pour un passage rapide a 2003, teneur en plomb de 0,15 g/l 1'essence sans plomb: 2005, elimination du plomb. * La lechnologie existe En 2000, la TOR etait a 0,2 g9l et la SIR a 0,1 et 0,25, . Toutes les raffineries de la sous-re gion ont deja amorce des . respectivement pour Ibssence 87 RON et 95 RON. actions de reduction du plomb ; * Les coOts * Des experiences ont ete conduites dans des raffineries de meme : type a travers le monde , Les couts pourcettedemarche d'elimination progressive du La SAR et la SIR ont deja entrepris d'harmoniser les sp&cifcations plomb ont ete estimes a: de leurs produits et des propositions ont d6jA W faites aux gouvernements 4 $US par tonne pour le passage a 0,5 g/l, soit environ et a l'UEMOA. 2FCFA par litre; . La SAR a deja etabli un programme d'elimination du plomb que 27 $US par tonne pour le passage a 0, 1 5 g/l, soit environ 16 les delegues ont juge techniquement faisable et r6aliste. FCFA par litre. En consequence, le groupe a adopte le calendrier suivant: -1- -8- Pour l'elimination totale, les coOts seront fonction de l'option .La . gislation technique de raffinage qui sera retenue. Les delegues ont donne L 'adoption de I 'essence sane plomb deem se faire dans les mandat aux raffineries pour poursuivre les etudes necessaires meilleurs delais au choix final. Ce choix devrait permettre de maintenir la U harmonisation de Ia 1sgislation pourra se faire par le canal competitivite des raffineries et doit Qtre opere dans un d6lai d'un des organismes sous-r6gionaux que sont l'UEMOA et la an (2002). CEDEAO. Elle devra etre achevee au plus tard en 2003. Chaque Quant a la repartition de ces coOts, trois acteurs ont ete retenus: pays prendra les dispositions pour s'adapter a cette legislation, Les raffinerjes; . selon un calendrier en phase avec l'echeance sous regionale. La fiscalite Lee gouvernements; Les mesures fiscales constitueront pour les gouvernements Les consommateurs. . un moyen de participation au coOt et un moyen d'incitation a la consommation de 1'essence sans plomb. * Un appui dee bailleurs de fonds (Banque mondiale, BAD, .: * La fiscalite petroliere devra etre harmonisee dans la sous region. BOAD, FEM, etc.) sera necessaire pour Ia mobilisation des fonde Les participantsestiment que 2003 est une echeance realiste pour le financementades inveetissements. pour y parvenir. Des travaux d'harmonisation de la fiscalits pour le financement es investissements.petroliere sont dela en cours au niveau de l'EMOA. * Les delegues sont convaincusque ce programme a une tres bonne rentabilite economique (benefice economique attendu de ce programme sera superieur aux couts. 126.- . --:,xeatioPu de, t-mvad: 4ftii9 -10- *-D"-. fewtqaZ 26-28Juwt2001 Les specifications EVles feront l'objet d'une harmonisationa travers les Etudes et recherche organes sous-regionaux. Cette harmonisationdevra etre achevee en 2002. Les delegues estimentque l'option de Des travaux d'etudes et de recherche seront necessaire consommer un seul grade dans la sous-region est la plus viable Pour collecter des donnees complementaires sur la plombemie et ils proposent une essence sans plomb a 93 RON. dans la sous-region Autres aspects techniques Sur les aspects bpidlmiologicues Les delegues estimentque I'adoption d'un seul grade d'essence va minimiser les investissements pour les autres sous- Evaluer les implications sur les politiques uroaines et de secteurs de l'industrie petrolibre que sont le stockageet la transports; distribution. Des dispositions techniques seront toutefois Pour .valuer I 'impact du plomb deii present necessaires pour eviter toute contamination de 1'essence sans plomb. Elles devront etre envisagees pour l'horizon 2005, A la Pour identifier les sources et canaux de contamination (eau. mise de 1'essence sans piomb sur le marche. alimentation, etc .... ) * Communication et formation Un plan de communicationde sensibilisatioret de Pourapprotondir'analysedeletat au oarcautomobile formation sera mis en place d'ici 2002. 11 devra garantir une parfaite implication de la populationde la sous-region et sa pleine participationau programme. Ces actions devront accompagner la mise en ceuvre du programme. 3.3 Recommandations Que les previsions meteorologiques integrent les donnees sur * Pour garantir le succes de la mise en ceuvre de ce programme, les la qualite de I 'air; d6ldgu6s recommandent: * Que soit mis en place des programmes d 'inspection technique La mise en place rapide des organes de pilotage du programme. des des vehicules commissions techniques et des commissions inter-etats. Que les organismes sous-regionaux simplquent Oue le programme, bien qu'il porte en cette phase sur lV'limination du plomb, ait une approche globale de l'amelioration de la qualite de l'air (cas du pleinement dans ce programme, notamment a travers leurs benzene, du soutre, du CO, etc.) afin d'eviter les moditications a commissions energie et environnement repetition des raffineries, sources d'investissements intempestits: . . * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Que l'approche du prograrnme soot munlt-sectorielle, Que des etudes d'impact soient menees afin d'identifier les . consequences negatives eventuelles sur la population et proposer les avec la participation de la societe civile. des industriels. des mesures preventives a mettre en oeuvre; collectivites locales, des acteurs traditionnels du secteur de Que des actions soient identifiees en vue de I'assainissement du parc I'energie et toutes les composantes de la societe pouvant automobile (renouvellement, mise A la casse, etc.) ; apporter une expertise Que la mise en ceuvre de ce programme soit accompagnee d'un plan Que le programme integre la valorisation et la mobilisaton d'6valuation de la qualite de l'air, notamment de I 'ozone qui devra-se poursuivre apres le passage a 1'essence sans plomb en vue d'un suivi de 'expertise de Ia sous-region a travers Ia mse en place d'un regulier de Iefficacite du programme et de la qualite de 'air reseau pour la qualite de l'air, de groupes d'etudes et de recherche, etc. -13- -ll- PreZesitahfovi Sro s traz: ,4frMuie de- !,ot~ t 127 C# Ec&ret or2o,.xu, r aa. r dagts' lt'es.(es, XtAfd7e, j. - . ' Dakar, sucj ?a 26-28Juix,2001 GROUP[S DETRAVAIL N4eriaJetps t'ulsJ *Pas de reprdsentants dcuTchad *Le Nigeria poss6de des capacit6s de raffinage le rendant capable de fournir - Les donndes sur le pamc auto. le type et l'ge des vdhicules, pour chaque pays. sont vagues tous ses voisins. *Les fournisseurs d'essence sont prds.m6s dtre: *Eenin: 100% en provenance du Nig6na avec 80% passant par des routes inlormelles En outre, des ratfineries plus petites sont prevues (etatiques) LobJectif a *Togo: Importations du Nig,ua, de Cote d1voire et du Ghana long terme est d'accroltre les exportations de produits petroliers vers les *Tchad. Nigeria avc de petites quantitds venant du Cameroun. autres pays africains. *N,ger Du NMgeria, avec de petites quantitds venant de CWte d'lvoire. du Mali, du Burkino Faso * 3 sur 4 raffineries au Nigeria sont equipees pour la production d'essence *Nigena: 47-78% domestiques, importationsdu Gabon. de Wote divowre sans plomb. * Les Caract6ristigoes Techniques de I' Essence: *Leffort actuel du gouvernement de privatiser la production pctroliere peut *8emnn et Togo: 2 grades disponibles - Normal @ 90 RON. Premium @91 RON affecter tout programme destine a eliminer le plomb de l'essence. -Nig6ria: 1 grade disponible @95 RON *La contrebande de 1ressence vers les pays oisins est tres tentante car 1'essence est tonrement Les principaux acteurs nigeriens absents oe cette reunion etaient la NNPC, s.bvent,onndee le Ministere de I' Environnement. le Ministere de la Sanite, etc. au N,gdr,a et le tau. de RON est plus taevd - Acceptance par les consomrateurs: n'est pas consid&r6e comme un problmrne CLant donne les p4nunes constantes d'essence dans la region et puisqu'un seule grade est disponible sur le marco, Actions Recommand6es , Le plan d'action: . A. La reduction immediate du taux de plomb dans 1'essence de 0.7 g/l a 0.15 g/l B. Elimination totale de 1'essenre avec plomb entre 2003 et 2006 Les plans specifiques: 1. Chaque pays devrait organiser des rencontres et des ateliers de travail pour developper une strategie afin d'atteindre 1l'eimination totale de 1'essence avec plomb 2. Etablir des contacts nationaux qui prendraient les devants sur la mise en oeuvre des divers plans. 3. Etablir un comite sous-regional de coordination de 1'ensemble des pays, la Banque Mondiale, l'industrie, les ONG 4. Planifier un atelier de travail regional suite aux diverses rencontres nationales Remerciements aus rapporteurs: Marianne Bailey & Morakpai Chabi Seke . _ _ . _ _ . _ _~~~~~~~~~~goa es d, _ a -.- _ . .. .e.._ . ..a , e_q~s .... . ._.. ...... ._.. . C#rew reguIa. sur / /iIpob dai% ~ mAjfr tq-: rbaAayewiet t DIkr,- Se'vJ 26,28Juav 2001 GROVUP[S DE PUq- A,AIL Afristu& wit rade3 ocidden le1 CONFERENCE REGIONALE SUR Resume des discussions L'ELIMINATION DU PLOMB DANS L' ESSENCE EN AFRIQUE SUB-SAHARIENNE 1- Collecte des donnees (Dakar, Senegal, 26 - 28 juin 2001) 2- Etat des lieux dans la r6eion 3- Calendrier dX6volution du raffinage Groupe Afrigue Centrale Ocidentale 4- Problemes 1ies aux vehicules et usagers Compte Rendu des Travaux Resume des discussions Resume des discussions Etat des lieux dans la region Collecte des donnees * Quatre raffineries dans la region: Gabon, Cameroun, R.D. Congo, Congo Brazzaville Tois pays representes: Cameroun, Gabon, Rep.Dem; du Une seule qualit6 de carburant: 93RON, ou 95 RON COngo Parc automobile tres ancien: 70% plus de 10 ans Approvisionnement en grande partie de raffineries Nombreuses donnees a completer: parcs de vehicules, locales specifications et prix carburants, schemas et bilans des Ex: raffinerie Gabon: exporte vers R.D. Congo, raffineries Zaire, Angola, Guinee,. Necessite de connaitre en detail les flux d'importation et Centres de contr6le technique: Gabon, Cameroun exportation entre pays (sources et destinations) Legislation existe , pas de decrets d'application (ou pas appliques) Pas de sytemes de mesure de pollution dans cites -3- trod Pr~~~zta~~~~tio#vs kapg d travwYtd: ce4ta-odaetv~ L &ore rgw sl&ur iwva*~pob dEn1Pisb-rAArWtK Dakar, SYedgat z 26-28J"t 2UX? Resume des discussions Resume des discussions Calendrier d'evolution du rafTinage Problemes lies aux vehicules et usagers * Consensus sur plan par etapes. minimum 5 ans * Preliminaire: 2001 -0.5 g/l * Obligation de pots catalytiques pour vehicules neufs - 2003 -0.15 -0.20 g/I repoussee a 2005. car un scul carburant distribue - 2005 - sans plomb 0.0 I3g/1) * Pour vehicules anciens apres 2005: possibiiite dadditif au * Niveau octane: d'abord 93 puis 95 RON tsiu • Calendrier pr6cisd fin 2001 apres etudepoasu * aedie rcs fn20 p ue. * Ajustement des taxes sur vehicules neufs importes. * Solutions detaillees d'adaptation des schemas de raffinage taxation dissuasive sur vieux vehicules (Ex: Gabon) connus fin 2002 apres etudes) cNombreusesin202 opt s possibdes) - studir* Rigueur dans l'application des decrets et des contr6les • Nombreses optons possbles ~ tudier* Controler developpement des vehicules diesel particuliers * Temps total pour ajouter une unite nouvelle de raffinage: 4 ans minimum * Alternatives a l'essence sans plomb: CNG -5- -6- 132 - Pr64en#t ot f r o trezvzt: Ar6ce4ritra occikKtd | o gD5rf reyz*uR.F e.J.r4giLtt1 |zkAr, fieal 26-28Jwui2001 GROUPISBE TVAIL Group Report Current Status Southern Africa Region * Unleaded gasoline introduced within region in 1996 * Current market penetrations Countries Represented: Angola, Namibia, - Certain metro areas up to 3045% South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe - approx. 15% overall within RSA and Namibia * Fuel Reformulation Task Group studying Organizations: NAAMSA, SABS, WB, Oil future gasoline/diesel sulfur levels Industry, EJNF * Octane Study currently being discussed -1- -1- Activities Activities . Raise Public Awareness * Motivation of Lead Phase Out Action: Action: - Oil Ind, NAAMSA, NGO's, Gov't Agencies, - UNEP, WB, WHO assistance using . supported by EPA/NSC provide Basic Info conference outcome package covering - NGO's, SADC-Energy Sector * Health, emissions, vehicle effects... - Fuel Reformulation Task Team * Regional Lead Phase Out Target Date -between 2003 - 2005 Action: ALL Pri~ezstaStioiiv 4roues ad& travait: Afrique aas-trai& |- C & regwklsur t S/isi~onPb _ VDkai ¸st.ya Z6..2SJwt2OO1 va-..*a -, 2 8 a, .,,0- Activities Activities (con't) - Allocate Responsibilities * PolicyfRegulatory Intervention - Identify ALL Stakeholders * Integrate Various Processes - within & amongst countries * Determine Vehicle Park Requirements - e.g. SADC initiatives * Review Fuel Specifications * Identify Financial Needs and Support - WB role/Refinery Revamps * Valve Seat Recession Issue * IntegrationlHarmonization with Emission Controls -5- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-6- Activities (con't) Activities (con't) * Inspection/Enforcement * Take Cognisance of Related Issues * Identify Refinery Constraints - Diesel vehicles, fuel sulfur levels --Costs, options, timeframes * Conflict Resolution of Process * Monitoring Lead Phase Out Impacts - Air quality - Health/Body burdens - Other media * Distribution System -7- -8- Way Forward * Define and Design decision making framework and process at regional and national levels - Define Issues and Options - Identify Stakeholders (e.g. SADC) - Set Objectives - Set Date - Create Implementation Plan -9- 134 rtaroap'esO d5vo raiwd: 4friae aatuv¸tra& rCw'r4qe1wr 14So*/ie'p1zb /ai w&e*Afizb-;aare'fu DOka,r Sb?aL 26-29Jtwit2001 GROUPIES DEIRAVAIL Afriq&orieae~ STRATEGY/ACTION PLAN * Sub-regional follow-up meeting Identify key enablers: d Determine sub-regional follow-up committee *Who will make this happen? composition *Need working committee * Investigate appropriate role for UNEP progress *Paper presentation for key stakeholders: MOE, MOH, * Small investigation/survey of options with industry Industry/Trade Standards Body fomay forward - l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~for way forward *IPIECA to contact industry players: provide data *Consider pilot marketing study in Mombasa -1- 7- A CTIONS .2. Hold discussions between -I1a. Restrict imports to unleaded onlly imp'rts totunleaded OnlY *Mimstry of energy/Govt. as owners -lb. Explore options for reducing lead content in existing KPRL output in advance of any refinery investment/reconfiguration IPIECA's role *Shell As facilitate to industry discussions on octane strategies. B owners/operators on future plans for KPRL. -3- -i4- Pr6~eosento froup, d& trazvad:. fr2v ,orte#&iK 135 tDaar, SledeaL . 26-28Juiiv2001 (ON(LUSIONS L SUIVI Pdtri(k Bultyn(k, [onomiste Senior des Trdnsports Urbains, Bdnque mondiale (hdntal Reliquet, Urbaniste Senior, Bdnque mondiale Wdshington, D( USA Conference Regionale sur l'Elimination de Consensus l'Essence avec Plomb en Afrique Sub- S'Essence avechPlomben 'ASS'que Sub . * Impact negatif du plomb sur la sante et sur Saharienne (ASS) I'environnement (les enfants sont les plus affectes) * Caractere d'urgence * Besoin de coop6rer au niveau sous-regional; les Programmes de Bouclage decisions sont prises au niveau national et de Suivi * Besoin de collaborer etroitement avec l'industrie * Pas de contraintes techniques sur les vehicules Conclusions et suivi *Strategie globale (institutionnelle, financiere, technique; education du public) -1- -l- Clarifications indispensables * Choix du grade d'octane de l'essence * Calendrier d'e1imination (propre a chaque region) * Harmonisation des caracteristiques techniques au niveau local (a travers SADCC, UEMOA, etc.) * Etablissement de normes d'emissions et de programmes I/M * Incentifs financiers * Politique a l'egard du carburant diesel -3- Prta1ioRt,s Co,wsto#-Zs et s 8duw: B n et " e 1378 Dakar, Sebtga4 26a PROCHAINES Autorite Industrie OMS UNEP AFRICA USEPA MDP Banque ETAPES Nationale Ptroliere CLEAN & Mondiale/ Bilateral Clean Air CAMPAGNES de PRISE de CONSCIENCE (d'ici Oct. 2001) (1) Site web X X X X X x X (2) CD ROM X (3) Documentaire X X X Te1lvise (4) Journaux X X X X X X BANQUE DE X X X X X DONNEES D'ici Nov. 2001 GROUPES de X X X X X X X X TRAVAIL Suivi D'ici Dec. 2001 . Premiere Reunion X X X X X X X X de Suivi Juin 2002 CONSEIL des X X MINISTRES AFRICAINS de I'ENVIRONNE- MENT Fevrier 2002 _ _ CONVENTION X X REGIONALE sur la POLLUTION de I'AIR URBAIN CONFERENCE X X X X X X X X REGIONALE Johannesburg, Septembre 2002 138, .;et1 c4Pzr&r mia1&rr t a~iaLwui p@os a&its /l eJwbele zos@s ) UAJ~U f.Da; 26-28j 2001 gq .C1N DIE GOTU RIE Bridn Doll, Emerging Issues Advisor, ExxonMobil [6IUax, Virginia USA Honorables Ministres, Mesdames et Messieurs Les Delegues, Mesdames et Messieurs, Chers Collegues et Amis. J'apprecie l'honneur qui m'est fait de prononcer ce discours de cl6ture au nom d'ExxonMobil et de IPIECA. I'Association Internationale de l'Industrie Ptroliire pour la Protection de l'Environnement Lorsque mon collegue Frank Sprow a parle mardi matin, il a dit. << (ette (onferen(e est lO((asion de fdire un pds (Olle(tif impOadnt en vue d'ameliorer la qudlite de vie des (itoyens de vos pays, et nous devons surout pdS la laisser passer . << Nous devons profiter de (ette o((a sion et (ommen(er d&s maintendnt a prepdrer le terrdin en vue d'obtenir un air plus propre, des (outs de santW moins IQeVs, et, (e qui est le plus impotant, des (itoyens en meilleure sante et plus prodo(tifs.> Eh bien, si Dr. Sprow etait ici aujourd'hui, je suis sur qu'il nous f6liciterait de faire ce pas important -ensemble et de saisir l'opportunite procuree par cette conference. Bien que cette session marque la fin officielle de cette conference. elle marque surtout le commencement d'un processus de planification continue, d'etablissement de reseaux et de communications qui auront pour but l'elimination de l'essence avec plomb dans toute I'Afrique Sub-Saharienne. LIPIECA est prete a vous procurer de maniere continue le support technique necessaire, aussi n'hesitez pas a utiliser leurs ressources. LIPIECA peut etre jointe sur le web a IPIECA.org. Je souhaite encore une fois remercier la Banque mondiale pour sa direction efficace dans l'organisation de cette conference, particulierement Patrick Bultynck et Chantal Reliquet,ainsi qu'Eleodoro Mayorga-Alba pour avoir ete le premier a nous inviter a participer a ce processus.Je veux remercier nos h6tes du Senegal. Et je veux vous remercier au nom de mes coIlegues de l'industrie petroliere de cette opportunite qui nous permet de devenir vos partenaires dans cet effort d'elimination de 1'essence avec plomb en Afrique Sub-Saharienne. Nous sommes impatients de consolider ce partenariat et de travailler etroitement avec vous dans les mois et les annees a venir dans le but d'aboutir a une Afrique liberee du plomb. J'aimerais conclure sur une note personnelle, si vous me le permettez. Depuis que j'ai commence a travailler sur cette initiative d'elimination du plomb, je l'ai consideree comme quelque chose de special --quelque chose de plus qu'un autre simple projetJe considere cela comme l'occasion de laisser un heritage qui s'averera payant en termes humains dans les annees a venir -un heritage que chacun d'entre nous pourra contempler dans les annees a venir et dire < J'etais la au commencement. J'ai aide a eliminer l'essence avec plomb en Afrique Sub-Saharienne. Et je suis fier de ce que j'ai fait >> PrtaedLf7v d&cmtu&ve5r Voll 13.9 S.1 SINVdD)WVd SIG 11511 Dakar,~ &bc6, z 26-28faiteio2001 RAWP Direction Belgium Amnsler Yves Pene Antoine Expert detache a V'ITP Generale U IIP Bruneiles 2226636635 3226636623 yves.areser@.n1p.corn Banque de Ministere dens Afllaires Deneloppernent et Etranigeres -- Direction Belgium De Gerlaclie J.L Clint de Sereice ~~~Programmes dn Ia Cooperation Belgium De Gerlache J.L Chef de SeNice Environnementoan Intemationale Bruxelles 3225190522 3225190570' meicnel.p.tlohic@esso.c Belgiume Flohtic Mic1rel Public Affairs Manager Afnca/Middle East ExxonMobil MaCseien -22-27224M 3227224477?cm Universirte Libre do Belgium 'Heng _Walter Directeor Rochenrcnes CEESE - ULB Bruxelles Bruxelles 222656377 3226564691 wnecq@ult, ac.te Business Planning and Fools Marketing Africa StanleygngrengaVere Belgiam Nlenga Stanley Analysis Manager ME EKxonMobil Macneoen '2227223123 3227223367 a,lreooi.conm Analyst Busies Fuels Marketing Alnca henry_ boh4gernailmob Belgium Obih Henry PannadAuaysMEExxuonMobil Macneoen 2`27,223136 3227223367 Ii comre Fuels Marketing Africa keen, r warkisereail.m Belgium Wark Kenny Regitonal Director ME ExxaonMobil Macseien $22,7223137 3227223367 oo)Il.j5, Agence Beninoiso pour Benin Baglo A to Marcel Oirecteur General l'Environnereent Cotoinou -293C4556 229304543 abepigeilto-rintnetoli Benin ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~secretanattporm- Bes Elong Mbassi Jean Pierre Coordinator PCM Cotonou293C6 229361976 net.org Directear de Services Circonscrrption Urbaine Boron Gbaguidi Basile techniques Villn de Cotonou deoCotonou Cotoinois ",,.IO6 22931i3520 g1bdstcoti9ntnerob1 Ministore do l'Enirsnornneet do VHabitat 0l 00 Bonin Gsacadja 'Luc Ministre 7,Urbanism Cotonou BEnrin Houspe Seddor Catherine Chef-Service Direction do P'Energie Coronas21301 22937135:6 Misistere cOn Direction de rEnHaironnoent do srorakpaiennotmail.co Bores Morahpai Chabi Seken Chef do Service l'Envirnnnement Haitede Cotono. 235 229317163 m r'Urbanasme Benin Moussnu Theonas Refining Manaerment Refining andaMarketing Totallina Saist C" 3nosn.35rlles33ot3531n4eco Solidante intemnatienale our les Transports 01 Ia Bonin Niaty-Mouamnba Maunce President d'association Recherche en Alrique Cotonron 2662945 229315133i n2re@anu.org - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Sussananenne Ministere do lEnvironnemrent deo Conseillor Technique a ~ ,Habitat or on Benin WorDU Clabi Theophile l'Environnement IlUrbanisme Cotoniou 72931 7795 22931 5081 reenucao@intrnelto1 Burkma Faso DaUgou Vinent Thbmdi Directeur des Services Direction des Services Maine de Oaao,o 23i7' 26l37ltcmfsnl.b BorhmnaFaao Dabilgon VniceetTimbndi Technsiques Municipaux Techniques Ouagadiougoau agauo 2317 2369 rosslonr.5 CenYtre de Controle BnkemaFoaw Diato Mamadou Dioteeff General Vehnicules Duagadougou 2263847731(43131) 22638429? tamagada@fasonet.bl Bwkina Faso i Kabore Hilaie Contmleur Inteme Direction Generale hiagaoegak 2bo36e2c2243617 Econotniste en .Direction Generale do BurlodtaFaw Pare Airnedee Hydrocarbures lIEnergie Ouagadougou 307978 32444 1 dgefternatrin.obf __________ . - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ministere des Burkma Faso Zerbo Karim Directeur General Transports et du Ougdgo _________ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~Tourismen ugouo Cabiinet da MminnIe de- Bununtdi !Nditabmrye Dismals Conseillerda minstr IrEnergieotdesuMines _Baiumb5u,r 257225909/225101 257229024: Canrmemon Meharsma Abbo 'Secretaire Generl Yaounde 237231840 237226177: Ecole Nationals Camemono Ngabmien Hubert Eseimgnant-Chercheur Superieure Yone27190 27134srs~antc - -~~~~ - -- -- - - - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~Polytechnique Yono27161 3301 ers@aettr moboup§droreadaire.c Cameroon Ngaessre Mobou Pierre Directeur technique Commune de Doaala S Douala 237761762 237473047 ore Miso Land Transport -~Synrdicat National des Camemoni Oumanrou Change do sio 'Departmrent Transporteurs RouJOers Douala 237436741 237423248 bglt@iccnet.com Cameroen iYarmdleuTiabo Georges Chef do Departement (Souis-Direction) Genie Commanauto Urbaine o ul 237436491 237402166 yamedjeucm@yahoo.fr Urbain cleDouala at Doecteur des ~~~~~~Ministere des Camroen ;Youmrba Josuie TmrtslportsTerrestres Hydroarbure Traresports Yaounde 237224115 237232238 reogasance@lhomtaii.c Conga Ke,asi Ngay Gay Avocat Barwus Pro la Cour Kinshas 2439945775/8101702 44208088168 1Ore Cote d neonr 'Bi Nagonre Zero DGA UrAieceds (GTrapo) Anidjan 22505057887 22520217328 Minist6me de biodiv@afncaonline.co. Core d eerie Bleu-Laind Gdbert Minestre lnioo nt Anidjan 22520222950 22526222050 ci Directeur do Laboratoire do Chimnie Cote d eeorie Geuganiou Kopieu l'Environnement 0l da Atmospherique Facufto Abidjan 22520210623 22520216495 rncajavonlitg.reler.org Cadre.cdo Vie des Sciences Soitleienod Cote d Ivoire Kange, Konan Directeur techniqae Raffinaeg Abidjas 22521237348 22521275149 pape.s_so,vereail.me Coto d voirm sore Samba 'SHE Maniager West Atnca Cluster ExxonMobil West Aftica Abidjan 22521271037 22521275915 oIil.corm Agence des Tranports Cote dleorie Veh Sodet Folio Directeur General Urbains (AGET1I) Abidjan 202160349 20217326 Ethiopian PetroIlo-r .n Ethiopia Vigzaw Meorkneon General Manager Enterprseo -at3"-sc :-;r- r6f srIrI. ni Liste- de¼ 'atrtiics WORK (OUNIRY LAST NAME FIRST NAME JOB TiEL DEPARMIM NI INSTITUTIONW CITY W PHONE [AX EMAIL France * Adocehooume Amnakroe Patrice Delegue General STRAnSS k'cueil 33147407,268 3314575606 amavead enf md - People TV (Business pieterbasson@o4asof.c France Baudry Redacteur en Chef Strategic Planning Africa) St. COon 331:9486350 387960 Om BEICIP FRANLAB ankcyae:p-, (institut Francais da Rua,!ramcv ca31yrace0d3heici15pJ France Cayrade Patock Jean-Claude Directeur Departement Energre Peiroiel ci-arrro 347810 317815A Laooratoere de Toxicologie et Univernite Victor Edmrond.CrepPy0tox.u France Creppy Enmond E. diHygrene Appliquee Segafen Bordeaux 05 $7571211 OS 5698668 bodenaux2.fr Ministern de Direction Nationale France Mouinier Jourrnafiste IEnvironnemest Environtenement St. Ouen 33149486350 3314948656 Deopletn@aol.comr :General Motors Generaf Motors Africa oliver.pinelelfr.nPel.co France Pinel Olinier District Sales Manager Oversea Ooerations Argenteuil 33134263312 33130766653 m learn- nricolas.sawlag0totalfir France Sabbag Jean-Nicolas Faculty Dean Refining Totalffna Pans 33141352127 33141352034 aed.comn Direceteor General Gabon Oreenuno Francois Adjoint Hydrocarpures LUbmo~ille 241294217 241724990 Societe Gabonaise de Gbaon Traoret Larnbert ingenieur Raffinage Raffinage Port-Gentil 563445 551 528 tonda@excde.fT Department of State for Director of Technical Woerks Comnmunication Gambia Leigh Mastapha Services Transoportation art Informration Kanifing 220375756 220375765 mlerghroaner gm Department of State for Government of The nyarngnie@hotrrtailco Gambia Njie Nyang Economist Fin. & Eco. Affairs Gambia Banjul 227651 m Ministry of Einvionment Science and Ghana Nyamekrye Anna Deputy Minister Technology Accra 23321666049/66226>4 23321666828 Ghana Osam Benjamin K.E. Technical Manager G-ERP Temna Oil Refinery Tema 233223028581 23322302884 toenstor cun go Enniroemental Ghana Owodo Harry Deputy Director EnveronmentaJ Ouality Protect ion Agency Accra 233216624655 23321662690 owodoC0rahoo-com Guinea Ba Amadw aidou Drecteu, Gneml Uquid F.el Ministry of Mineral 2A90 amnadue SOa0erraid m Soineit Ba Aenadva Saidon Direeteur General Liqoid Foel ~~~~Researces- and Energy Conakiry 224465274 220020 dvi.co5 Inst ut National de ChimieMiierdea Sante PulqenspgcuelsoteIgui.net.g Guinea Dia/bo Fatouroata GOury Chef Departenment Pfharamceutiqae Mubinitrgeu aSne Conaot 224430566 224465867n Direction Nationale Mines Geologie Erwironnemeenn/f.ires chmrvrrdnodne@m-niet. Guines Sow Bademnba Labso Fonctiornaire Envinonnemenit GEsvioniemn Coky 245184650 4554493etg - -Petroleumr Monitoring.nirneen_ Cnly 24559485 24t5t193neg Kenya Akuamu Jane Wanjiru Senior Economist Head Un4 Ministry of Energy Nairobi 25423300.08 2642220314 oceotenergymmgo.ke United Nation Programme officer . Division of PolicY Erneironment Kenya De Jong Rob Uroan Environment Development and Lam Programme (UNEp) Nairobi 2542624184 2542624324 rob jong@ounep.org Senior Quality Control ~~Kenya Bateau of keps0afncaorln.ci Kenya Michulc Raymono ~~~~~Senoffcr Oul_y_onro Quality Asusranco St_be Nairobi 502210-9 2542503293e reconcilernet:2000kie c Kenya Odera Thonnas Programme Officet Environmental Policy RECONCILE Nakuru 44940/41203 o Directeur Controle et Office Malgache des Madiagascar An-Lone Leon Nonrmalosation Entreprise Publique __Hydrocarflus Arntananaritvo 261202225291 oanicyorrhBOtismg Madagascar Rakotuansetra Hareiana Antfananannvo 26120140908/22418-47 261203241919 CoordirnateLr RIAH Mali Dianra Libfe Mamadoa RlAH Afnique Bamako 223224916 223239667 Ministere de lInitastrieDi ioNaonlde do Commerce eltdes DrcinNtoaein Mali Fomba Brehima Direct eur Transportl YOOOI Tranpoets BamaoaR 22a888 Ministere charge oe Miniotere des Mines et tandia@energieservice Mali Tandia Anmadon Conrseiller technique l'Energie de lEnergie Bamnako 234584/224184 222160 s.net.nil Centre d'Efudes et de hwreaielcerpod.inoan. Mali Wane Hamedou Rabby Chercheur/Formateur CERPODAINSAH RehBceara Smalko 2232203343806 223227831 ml Pocolation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Mauritania Saad Ebih Moharmed Hocen Conseitler MHE Auto Limits (Prt) Ltd. Nouaknchott 2225259515 22252599815 ahmniosamnara corw Corkseil let Ministre de Nouactdot 22630423n2255951hoo Mauritania Sy Apdoulaye lEnergieNakcot26313 22SSSS Chief Energy * Ministry of Mines and ingigshroongele@mme. Namibia Nghtshoogele mromanuefl cnms Diectorate ofEnergy Energy arhe I 241881 2618488gonna Energy Directorate_ Eneron_ iWindhoek 264612848111 264812848288Do Niger Mahanan Ado Direct eur HydrocartareS Niamey 2273389 227375 Niger Saicdou Abdoulkanm Directeur Direction de IlEnergie Nianney 227735530 22T732759 NatorraJ Maritime Nigena Asagreara Sooan Chief Technical Office Pollutiton Authortty Agapa Laogs National Automootive anmmnjalaf@hotroail.co Nigena Jalal Amrinu Director Policy and Planning Council Ahaf a 23482344483 23492240984 mo Engineer/Chief Nataioal Aatornotive robertide lasosustotalff Nigeria Odetoro Kof ape Inuta,fie Overseas Council Abuja 23492347820 23492348994inaeittif- Ornagoemi ~ ~ ~ ~ Idutia Ofce Heouiarg Guardian Nerespapers Nigeria Ureeamonro Ontsetimeyn Assistant Director Envrronmoent Ltd.Lga231598 244200aJtenfyhocor Transpott Coordinarson adnpctate Federal Ministry of Nigeria Osaj ygbe Bamiyo Jamnes Director =eprJr Transport Abuab 923474911 "otdrenocsn-dgionud&ar twsnc~~4o~ ~,rjtecr. bqw42 JJO8 vatkai fitt:ed -26-Zgjccisov2001 WORK OUNIRY LAST NAME FIRST NAME JOB 11111 DEPARTIENT INSTITUTION (Ift W PHON FAX [MAIL Nigeria Sridhar Mynepalli Professor Environmental Heul:n University of lbadan lbadan 23422410088 u3358 23428103043 mkcsndharctSkannet.c uOm Chef Bureau Etudes Senegal Ba Elimase d'Impact Dakar 82t,0725 8324744 ce:ud@teIecumplussa Agence de Senegal Barry ussa D,recteLr technique DevciploppeM)e Dat 221865t017 2218259382 daba,ssiosentoc sn mbiassey0sonatel.sen Senegal Bassey Michuel W. Director International Programs The Rodale Institute Dakarn 2218240222 2218640529 er.net Chef du Laboratoire Lbrtied national de Controte L rtied des Medsicaments du Toxicolngie - Faculte de Unriversite Chenikh Anta Senegal Gins Mounirou Senegal Medicine Pharnmacie Diop Dakar 821939118241381 nirau@sentnoosr Senegal Coly 'Jacques E. Interprete -Freelance Coordiantionent Etudes Dakiar 2218272537 2218272537 ceitud@11elecomplususn Agence Regionale de Developpement de Senegal Deme Papa Atassane EKperf Combuastibles PROGEDE Dakar Dakar 2218211571 2218211568 papcemefhtrnuif.com Ministtlre de Senegal Diagne Modou Fada Minostre l'Envirmnement Dakar Senegal Dialfe Vidya Cofereelnce Itrrt Dakarn 2218257883 2438843675 vidya@sentoo5sn Bngade Enquetes et Inspections eovironnementales et SHOE Acdviser Infornationis ismraila-diallo,- Senegal Diall Is smraila (Transpsort Manager) environeementafes Mobil Oil Senegal Dakar 2218321892 2218328059 emrailmsoif.coem Comie Naiona des Secretariat Permanent Senegal Dialo lbrahim Expert Perolier HyComicaronaures du Gomite National des Senegal Diaflo Ibrafrirna Eaperf Petrolier Ilydrocarberen f-lHydrocarburns Dakar 2216257336 2218257319 PsIllution Control and Senegal Dianra Abdou Karim Joumnalilste Environmental Heafth Le Matin Abauia 23494135871 23495234119 enremanjijyalsoo.com Consultant Sante et ISE Fac Senegal Diaw Demba Ennironnemeet Sciences,UCAD Dakar 2216382452 doiuwdmetssacana.sn Senegal Dieme Michel Chef division Direction EyrcabrsEergieeglaio Dakcar 8220430 8348668 sl1sbajeneCero.org.zm Unioersde Gaston Senegal Dieng Papa Meissa Enseignant Universite St. Louis Berger St. Louts 2129612201 2128616707. dieng2Ocazamnail.com Sene'gal Oleeg Sikny Directear dn Publication Media Source Info Dakrar 2216344808 229313548 sourceienfoyahroo.t Senegal Di opg Mor Joumaliste Energy Department Ministry of Energfy Dakcar 2218227977/8247023 2218227997 gashuzadhotmail.com -- Misi, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C,iin x Epidemiology and Senegal Diop Abdou Docteur -ISE Facalte Sciences Policy Cape Town 2216577500 27214882088 adioti6@hotmail.com Senegal Diop Abdoulaye Joumnaliste Warn Zonal Office Diamnono FM Dakcar 2216826879/247823 53256564 valodekeOyahoo.com Univernte Chreikhr Antaye dop ota.c Senega Dopg Yenm Mbiagnick O _ akar m Conesil Executif des Senegal Diaf lbou Ingeniear en Chef Transports Urbains de Dar 94215 547 oeu tleDrpusn _________________ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Dakar (CErUJO) Dkr 54702 8274 etatloploo Labo Chimie Ana- Universrte CheikhE Anta Senega Dcul Amnadou Professeur Ag Toxicologie Diga Dakiar 824t1381 8224445 amdioul@relersn -Actrice on FEA (Femme et - aemedoel@rnnetissa Sensga Dou Marieme Developpement Assainissement) Daktar 221 6557260; 224413998 aas Ministere dena Sante et Senegal Donus Gorgui Lamine Docteur Technical Department de la Prenention oaIar 2216342713 27118897973 gldiouf*yahnoofr Pesticide Acton 21214 aanOetos Senegal Dioul Henry Pene ProgramnOfficer Network fPANs)Alnice akaro 2218254314 21343pafn seroe .-.. Assistant du Secretaire chaniesOmetissacanas Senegal Eder Charles Executif Dakcar 2218216027 23492340984n Cellale de Coordtination Dnuoieme Ptojet Expert en Contrtactuael Projet IDA SeToriopods trasrusrortelecomplus.s Senegal Fall El Had1i Biralhim EnvironnemeInt 3183,-SE (CELCO/PSTE) Daltan 2218257355 2218256881n gayemohamadou@car Senegal Gape Mouhtamadou Technicien Saperlear AFMR World Bank - Nigenia Dakiar - 2218372449 234126264E5S66.amail.nom -- - - - - - -- - - - -- -- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~kgttanzouacaramail.co Senegal Gnatrzou Koutaua Premier Secretaire Enveonmental Affairs Dakiar 22181210183: 2218223807 m -- - - - - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Combustibles Deriveo lensOtAh ficain'dn Senegal Gay dy an ip Cag ePormed erlGsnul bin Dakar 2218244-424 2218250826 iagurae@enda.sn Mobil Oil 21289all haidara@ernaiLmoti Senegal 'Haidana Moalaye Ali General Manager SenegaViGuinene- Daltar 2218321894' 2218328059: l.m Senegal Kane - Abdoulaye Racine Conseiller Techni'qu- Dakiar 28184 22182124885' ont-congo@rnaf.org Senegal Ndiaye Alreune Environnementalaste RlIAH Daker 2218252450 2218261742 agesatrbenda.sn frrabuza@ozone.pwv.g Senegal Ndiaye Matick CTIMET Dakar 27123183505 2712302116700vzn Facuteo de Medecine et Univershe Cheikh Aknta Senegal 'Ndiaye Bara Universitaire de Pharmacie Diop Daltar 228534 28431 nronu@sentoo.sn Ministry of Mineral Senegal Ndiaye Mouotapha Directeur Resources arid Energy Daktar 2218239322 2218218759 suirnex@serntoo.soo Senegal Ndiaye Ibrahima DGA -.DaltrB3902-- ' 221836311 tindiaye0agetipsnt Societe Af6iaine One Senegal Nimaga Mareadoui Directeur Techniqtue__ Rafrinage Dalkar 2218343805 Senegal Pasis isabieDe IFC Dalkar 6495649. 8227993 iparis@dc.org - -1 -;; List& de,; Vattat ctefifreew& rdgina/ts-ar teLncscoti.e-bn .tnn,S tAU2ce. en .4frnoaeet a -u .tu *t.s,-, DakSr, Sbua * 26-2SJuif 200 t WORK COUNTRY LAST NAME FIRST NAME JOB TITLE DEPARTMENT INSTITUTION (IT' 'WI PHONE [AX EMAIL Eapert Petrol:er Se reranati Pemanent Senegal Sagna Caneilo Robeono (Drecteur Prolell arcoar tores d aar 22h:--2: 22tS25,2:9 Ministere de Senegal Sakho A Youssouo)h Ministre TranEoans Dabar Senegal Sal Mouhamadou Professeur Facuate de Mececie Dakaf - - mrsallmhotmail,com Gueiaye - Friends of the Senegal Seck El Had1i Responsable GIE Commerce nune Enronment Dakar 22 .43 2 223277aseck"vorldbank.org Regional Program for Economist AFTEG the Traoitional Energy Senegal Seck Awa Africa Region Sector (RPTESI World Bank Dakar * --;'^ 3 495027 aseckshworldbank org Chef Division Sen Agro Senegal Sene Ndongo SOLe Consult Daobr 22:S v 2.-.2.7:08 ndcs4sounoumall.sn Senegal Siebert Michael Consefler Teclniquae Coordmnateur GTZ Dakar 22326 ;tzenvi@sent¶o sn Direction de Senegal Sow Ibrahima Chef de Division lEnvironnement Dakar - :':i 25217 osowtsentoc.sn Senegal Thiam Abdoulaye Joumatiste Product Engineenng Le Soleil Dakar - --596C50 .ayetniarnsn@yahoO.Jr Charge Senegal Thia. Idrssa ~~d'Etudes/Economiste Plrojet Secdmiel den Senegal Thiaw Idrissa des Transprts Transports Dakar 7:-_9705 c,ecdt:metissacana.sn Unmersite Cheiknl Anta Senegai Thiaw Code Diop Dakar -- a cniawvucad sn Senegal Thior Mamadou Joumaliste RTS - Television Dakar 'ittrt hotmal.com Senegal Toure Kamadore Assistant Professor IDnstulte 1560) Un it f Doo h Doaor :g:. ? . 52 SAid secrSeiecernois.vn Eastern and Soutnern;atarrne.o Senegal Turoin Sanr Josephine Interprete - Freelance Africa Dakar r:: 2 v mdoesacoz Senegal Wade Malick Coordinateur Regional RIAH - Sn>. Departement de wracacrmi. Senegal Wane Alpha Chef de Service IlEnergie Dakar tS 'X Par 2ealc2a7carama c South Afnca Andrews Angela Attorney Em,ra nmenta Justice LegalResPurces CapeTown T4o. ,2 2230925angelaclrn.srgza daircrossetnamal pent South Africa Cairncross Eugene Senior Lecturer Physical Science PeninsulaTechnikon Bellville 2, 29crh 2: t9E-tESechz ATrES MEUISSA South Afrca Diop Oussenyou Pnogram Coordinator Program V/ord Bank Pretoria 2 . 21296; :7 -?w:92C80 oion1t@woeldbank.Org South Afnca Geledenhuys Eton SABS Pretona ? :4G96234 OELDENE@1saos.cc.za -- Product Engitreenng South Africa Megnin Martin K. Regional Manager Services CaEtex Cape town Environmental Justice South Afnca Mbele Sigbongile Networking Foram CaoeTown 2,2 it24 r 2.2 C732 stoele@rottal.com SouthAfrica Meinbjes Elsoe Docteur SABS Pretoria 27124256ur2 271t4286687 nneintjesabs.co.za Fuel , Ems NAAMSPFord Motor Sooth Afnca Ravner Start Chairman Fuel & Emtssons Tech Cgrnany of Southern SouthAfnu Raymer Stuart Chaiman Committee Africa Proeona 2712E.t2222M 2712E23139 raynersdford.co.za Environmental Justice South Africa Wentzel Shireen ProvincialAdminstrator Networking Forem Switzerland -Ouane Fatournata ~ ~~~~~~Westem Cape Cape Town 272to-t80cu 272t-u0.5Et shireen@e1nf.org.za Switerland Duane Fatoumata UNEP Geneva n222297973460 fouanetnep Ch - - -~ - COccupationalaand Departmentaof H Environmental Health Protection of the World Heafh Switzedfand Schweia Dietrich Programme Human Environment Organization Geneva 4122791g261 4:227914123 sctweiatSwno.int Tanzania Nshala Rugemeleza President Dar es Salaom 255222780859 255222780859 leat@twiga.com Togo Agbossou Kom, Akpe Professeur Lome 228264201 komagbosOtg.referorg Togo Ametsiagbe Adzewoda Conseillertechnique Cabinet du Ministre Lome 228212897/257194 228210333 ametsa@hotmail.com Fuel and Environment United Kingdom Beckwith Paul Manager Global Retail Team BP p.l.c. London 442074964644 442074964711 beckwip@bp.com Intemational Petroleum Operational Issues on#stryvEnironmental United Kingdom Con Robert T. Project Manager Groan Associabon (IPIECA) London 4420722t2026 442072294948 robcox@ipieca.org UieKno Ke slFuels Development Shell Intemational - stewan.sempsel5Op UniteodKimgnom Kempsell Stewart Manager Fuels Group Petroleum Company London 442079345589 4420793480t4 scshemlco o United States of Manager of Pubfc Education and National Safety Coancil Ameerica Aiarcon-Yohe Matiela HaTOueahEnvironmental Heafth America Aarcon-Yohe Manb Health Outreach Center Washington 2029742473 2022930032 alarcon@nsc.org United States of America Armstrong Jane U.S.E.PA. United States of bailey.manannetepam Amenca Bailey Marianne USE.PA. Washington alepaego United States of Fbanetat@wovlbank.or America Banne Fanny Program Assistant World Bank 473-4820 8 United States of Senior Urban Transport pbultynck@workdbank.o Amerrca Bultynck Patnck Economist AFTU2 AInca Region World Bank Washington 2024734549 2024738249 United States of ccopley@wondbank.or Amenca Copley Chnstine Worid Bank Washington 2024731781 2026760978 6 United States of Arnenca Conea Syfia Program Manager U.S.E.PA. Washington 2025646443 20256524171 correa.sylvia@epa.gov . 6t,t¸Prii1st &if ^rKc rFnA4 s;r w6 d>pCOlsDee ds&wtc -aRav evoo Oaoka, SM.?aeeo t 26-28juii,&2001 WORK(OUNTRY LASTNAME fIRST HAM[ JOBTITLI D[PARTM[NT INSTITUTION (ITY W PHOH[ FAX [MAIL Unmted States of Emerging saues E.na Mob, brray eouIl@e-vvr-o0 PAmerica Doll Brian Adiorlor Refining and Supply Corporation Fairfax 70384625t5 7038462898 I.Corn Unstitutbons and Word Resources United States L Tnd Research Fellow Govemance Program Institute Washmgton 2027291645 2021297759 Ssna@wri.org Worlr Bank Institute United States ol Sustainable 2026760977 smar,ri I0worldbank.or America Martin Serge P. Consultant Development Group World Bank Washington 2024736922 /067890 United States o1 Lead Petroleum Oil Gas and Chemicals emayorgaalba@worldb America Mayorga Alba Eleodoro Economist Department Word Batk Washington 2024734295 2025220396 anknrg United States of Sr. Petroleum Oil Gas and Chemicals mmuylle0worldbank.or America Maylle Michel Specialist Department Word Bank Washington 202457701 20252203952 g United States of Environmental Heatth America Nnagu Jerome Professor Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbon 7349366706 7347649424 inraguOumich.edu United1 States of' Amerdca Obeng Letitia Sector Manager Water and Urban Wond Bank Washington 2024734551 Lobeng@onrdbank.org National Safety -Council -- United States of Education and Environmental Health Amenca Phoenix Janet Outreach Center Washington World Bank Institute United States of Sustainable 202676097 AUnenca Posey Vanessa Program Assistant Development Group ivorld Bank Washington 2024736395 0678 vposey57 wordbank.org United Stares of Urban & Water cliquet@wortldbank.or America ResIuet Chantal Specialist WBIEN World Bank Washirngton 2024736385 2026760977 gcm Alliance to End United Staten of Cnildnood Lead Amerita Rochow K.W. James Director Intemoational Progrannt Poisoning Washington 2025431147 2025434466 jIrchow@aeclp.org United States of Safety Health & Exxon Mobil nancy.d munoz- Amenca Sprowi Frank Vice President environment Corporation lmiring 972dd4441677 972-444-1633 maser@exxnn.com Affiance to End United States of Childhood Lead America Termell JenniferY. Research Associate International Programs Poisoning Washington 202543t117 202543466 jerenell@aeclp.org United States of DnsR. Sr. Municipal Finanice dvaudainegworrdbank. Amenca Vaudaine DevrseR SpMcialist AFTU2 World Bank Washington 2024734108 .org Manager.-- Other Energy Regulation Zamba Sichone Bijah C. Forms of Energy Regulatory Department BoR Lusaka 2601236002. 2601236033 ecsichone@erb.org.zm Senior Vehree Vehicle Inspection zimactor0aafscaonline. Zimbabwe Mbenkunashe Jonathan inspector Department Harare 2634709991-6 2634726661 zw Ministry of Transport 7 imactorlaafricaornlae. Zimbabwe Samunderu Ranganai Roseline Principai Admin Oficer Traffic and Legislation and Communications Harare 2634700901/9 2634726661 zw (ette liste pro(ure les informations relatives aux parti(ipants telles qu'elles ont ete remises aux orqanisateurs de la (onferen(e. Nous presentons nos eX(USQS pour toute omission eventuelle. Li,ste~ des- PA~r PARTINAIRES Daka,-, seaia 26-28J}Ot PAR1INMRIIS Duttudt et orqait~s sudtnrawx Organisation MonM iaIe de Ia Sdnta (OMS) Progrdmme de D veloppement Municipal (PDM) Progrdmme des Nations Onies pour lI'nvironnement (PNU[) Aqeecc eronJjese,ae- U.S. Invironmental Pre (etion Agency (US[PA) Bad,te"rs dfinds blatirawx (ooperation BQI9Q (oopUrdtion Norvegienne U. S. Agen(y for International Development (USAID) ONCs- eisttens dei rek rck & Allian(e to Ind (hildhfood Lead Poisoning (AE(LP) (onseil nationdl de skcurite Mitigdting [nvironment Lo(ally in Sub-Saharan Afri(a (MELISSA) UniversitQ de Bruxelles Soci&if P6iroIrers rreges, B P (altex [ x x o n M o b i I Totd fin alf Orgair6atioPv d tri 4 pi ro lAre- Asso(iation Internationale de l'Industrie Petroliere pour Ia Sauvegarde de l'nvironnement (IPIE(A) Re.&eawcx de, conXsua1 & africauis Reseau R4gional d'Txperts Afri(ains sur Ia Pollution de l'Air dans les Villes (AFRI(A(L[AN) SolidaritO Internationale sur les Transports et Ia Re(her(he en Afrique Sub-Sdhdrienne (SITRASS) PrograMU e- £edriel Programme d'Aide d la Gestion du Se(teur de l'[nergie (PAGS[) AatreEsparteeiair Bei(ip-Frdnlab Ndtional Asso(iation of Automobile Mdnufa(turers and Assemblers of South Afri(d (Naamsa) Ville de Montri-l Union Internationale des Trdnsports Publi(s (UITP) fi.eecr6eowkir I2 wlti1ob d t4iiec& b-cakan5e-St & Dtaka, 2e?a 0 26-28Ju,2001 Jamaique - Un Plan pour l'Elimination du Plomb Les Pays Importateurs Un engagement des chefs d'Etats lors du Sommet des Peu sinon pas de contraintes pour eliminer le plomb .4nAeriques Le couit economique est relatisement bas et facile a evaluer Le timing / planification sous le contr6le de chacun Changez les taux d'octane! - Augmenter le pourcentage de v .hicules japonais Les points critiques sont: - PAsugmevanterlepourcentage dIessce v ictnes plu s evles options d'approvisionnement regionales - Pas d'avantage du a l'essence a octane plus eleve terminal d'importation et souplesse de la distribution - Reajuster les taxes sur l'essence super avec plomb les options d'appro isionnement pour les pays sans acces ala mer Facilitateurs concurrence limitee/ positions acquises - Le parc auto permet un octane moins eleve i le parc auto (actuel et futur) - Reduction generalisee du taux d'octane evite les information et ducation du public investissements engagement envers 1'enwironnement et la sante - Attention au regime fiscal -9- O- 1 Les Pays de Raffinage L'Industrie de Raffinage en ASS * Les raffineries imposent des contraintes sur Une fourchette de raMnage allanI de la petite echelle i l'echelle mondiale I'eimination du plomb * I15 raffineries < 4;k Bd l'~~~limination du p10mb ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . La R6publique d'Afrnque du Sud R -\Si,: Ic Nigzi&ia reprt~scntent 6S% * Le couit economique est difficile a evaluer de ia capacite totale de di'4il4n,in de -'rut * Le timing est affecte par le calendrier des * La pcrformance est nqu.itante investissements * Lc r61c soutenu du seceur public ucnr IJ consolidation * Les r6les politiques et strategiques des actifs de La configuration du ralfinate raffinage sont exagerees * Amrlioration de, liht end"' reforming. isomensation. alkvlation) equivalent a sculemcnt I ti' dle j capacre de distillation de brut Les points critiques sont: * A 1'exclhsion de Ia RAS ci du Nicra. lVamelioration des "light ends' * petite echelle et configuration de Ia raffinerie est sculemcnt de 84 kBd * Faible conmcnu en octane lurout dti rct ormin& avcc du serni-regen) * Ies rendements et qualites des produits (a.o. soufre) Fabconn eocneUrUdirirmnaecusmieen * Forte piendtraiiun de diescl gouscrne la conliguration et le rendement * propriete et contr6le de la raffinerie du brut * le regime des reglements Les options d'approvisonnement regional le climat pour investissements et disponibilite de financement * Limitation en octane * une demande croissante et le besoin d'importations facilitent * Une dependance croissante sur les imporns -11- .-ll- Les Problemes de Raffinage Les options sont limitees pour les raffineries: * Decongestionner les semi-regen * Investissement en CCR (echelle mondiale 20-30 kBd) * Isomerisation * Alkylation * Le mixage de composants en octane eleve Les points critiques sont: * petite echelle et configuration de la raffinerie * le regime pour le brut, les rendements et qualites des produits (a.o. naphtha) * investissements dans la qualite des produits donnent des resultats insatisfaisants * habilite de recuperer les investissements par la fixation des tarifs * l'investissement coincide-t-il avec le potentiel de croissance? ' les specifications en octane sont-elles trop elevees? -13- 122 ?r6~ei-drf.owLo Muay/.& CfireJwzr~wfu'./&ar I y ob(b dais ten b1ahrt r'ak,", SliiaL . 26-28JuK, 2001 Haiti - Elimination du Plomb Le sans plomb peut etre moins cher' Relative Pricing of USSI Bbi Med 0.15% Pb leaded gasoline vs. Rotterdam premium unleaded 1.50 1.00 - - ----- '-- * Posibi-t dereduirl'oct 0.0- .1. / -..--------- - T---- -..-.-- . 4' 4' 4' p4' 4' 4' 14'11 4' ' 04 41 4, 40 4 4' 4. 4~ 'OF l 4P\ 4' el t are 4 p VI' .o 4' 4 -0.50 Facilitateurs l 100%+ de a demande du pays est importie -1.00 -____ PossibiIit de reduire I'octane ________ eRgion beneficie des melanges en octane dIevi a - .50 Lsnsiens - Coordination avec les distributeurs !oby tr.s ..d an Y $ - -ssp.a produ- a dt, emaisson P, M El Salvador - Elimination du Plomb Chili - Elimination du Plomb Urbanisation :les maladies respiratoires sont 1'ennemi public La Pollution 4 Santiago de Chili No I! de la sante Une stratdeie d'ensemble pour la reduction des Le plomb est 6imini en moins d'un an! missionsd - Les investissements dans des svstemes doubles d'approvisionnement de carburants out eti ivitis - Transport responsable pour 1/3 des emissions PM - Une periode limitee de contamination croisee - Les pots catalytiques offrent la solution la plus efficace - ComplImente par des efforts d'harmonisation regionalle et par des normes d'emissions de vehicules *LE BESOIN D'ELIMP, ER LE PLOMB Facilitateurs Facilitateurs - Deregulation des prix - Une analyse approfondie etait possible - Secteur aval dans le secteur prive - Une approche comprehensive avec les participants - Les produits d'importations - Raffineries a l'echelle mondiale CoGt de l'elimination du plomb $ 0.01 litre -7- -8- Pr6setodho hit~yde -121 Organigramme de decisions Revue des Evaluation des ~ Ia chaine I Options NON mifne~' ~provlone n Dpovts onnem fafieon r6glonal e Rep. Dominica~oin rtto ElmNatOnNdu Premb Le sans plomb est u~~~~~~n prdi decnomain Facilitateurs~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~?usetu Re50+pd IaDemandicuaysnestEiinto d lm Le Istaslatimn unqesdiotatun perodet decnomain des d 6cnmiesdcheIpur1e saspobe2npupu 'na - Prigentialeionsoemmtlsipration s {moo-ycette - Re duie leau dem cande dupoures Intlacco iodraonfuiguediprtation des me rasffineries d'cel2 120 l'rtatu,prs~ RAlmnatoAemt#e morain Cova/z;r vX sv d ts±eiw& e Afriq~b-¸eIwi tM#et Dakar, te?ela - 26-28jui;t,2001 PRESENTATON DE PROGRAMMES REUSSIS iH LE PA SSAG[ UESSEN(E SANS PLOMB Cas retif As duesmys uiportat*s et exortaewes- dep6toe mwec> ow ;au a~eri&f~ Mihel Muylle, Senior Gds Spe(idlist, Bdnque mondidle Wdshington, D( USA Clean Air Initiative Contenu Un trace pour l'elimination de l'essence avec plomb * Methodologie * Quelques etudes de cas Quelques examples * Le Raffinage * Les Leqons Apprises * Le R6le du Groupe de la Banque Mondiale * Conclusions Michel S. Muylle Conf&Tence de Dakar. le 26-28 juin, 2001 -1- -2 Le Trace Parfait Analyse * Impact sur la sante * L'industrme p&troliere (approvisionnement et distribution) * Le parc automobile * Lcs implications des coats Reunir un consensus * Le taux en octane et autres stipulations sur la qualit& des carburants * La politique de tarification des carburants (kerosene et diesel y compris) * Les m6canismes de controle de qualit& (carburants, vehicules, contamination) Communication * Prise de conscience des acteurs (compagnies petrolieres, transport, sante, ...) * Information du public et 6ducation Implementation ... -3- Co;y+ere rle?wL& s9 idawp6kb ..LI t2i JcXse *LAfr& .U El * t9aka, S6i&d4at - 26r28Juiit 2oo1 * a consommaton d'6nergie et les rejets de gaz a effet de serre dus au transport de personnes sont mulhpfies par 3, * les d6ces dus aux accidents augmentent de 50 %/ , * le temps d'acces aux activitis urbaines pour les personnes captives du transport public est augment6 de 50 % a 100 %. Sans maitrise de l'urbanisme et de l'usage de I'automobile, la ville tend a evoluer vers une constellation floue de zones peu denses, fermees sur elles memes et entourees d'autoroutes. Le lien social se dissout alors peu a peu et toute prox- imite physique est ressentie comme une epreuve. L'automobile est evidemment le seul mode de transport adapte a cette ville dispersee: elle permet de rester (( chez soi >> et d'6viter la confrontation avec (< 'autre )) qu'impose le transport collectif. Le coeur des villes lui meme deperit pour devenir un centre d'affaires d6serte le soir venu, ou un (( musee que l'on visite mais ou plus personne ne souhaite habiter. Les citadins et les responsables politiques doivent choisir entre le gain d'espace individuel et 1'extension sans fin des agglomerations avec la dependance croissante vis-a-vis de I'automobile qui en resulte, ou bien le developpement durable fonde sur une ville plus << compacte )> et plus solidaire. Pour le d6veloppement de transports publics attractifs et performants Recommandations Le transport public a un r6le irremplacable a jouer pour assurer a tous les citadins, qu'ils soient ou non motor,ses. I'accessibilite a l'emploi, aux commerces, aux services et aux loisirs. C'est le dynamisme economique et la cohesion sociale quo sont en jeu. Le transport public coGte moins cher a la collectivite que I'automobile, des lors que la densite depasse 20 habftants par hectare, et il est aussi beaucoup moins consommateur d'espace de voirie et d'energie et plus respectueux de 1'ermronnement et de la sante des citadins. * La promotion du transport public et des modes << ecologiques >> (marche et velo) doit s'inscnre dans une politque globale d'urbanisme et de transport. Pour offrir une reelle alternative a l'automobile, le transport public doit continuer d'ameliorer sa vitesse, sa regularite et son confort. Pour faire face au defi rencontre par les villes des pays en developpement - croissance trus vive des besoins de uansport. degradation de 1'environnement et pauvrete d'une partie importante de la population, il est recommande de: * limiter l'acquisition d'automobiles par la taxation de I'achat de v6hicules neufs (c'est la methode la plus efficace mais aussi la plus difficile a faire accepter) etlou par des restrictions severes du stationnement. * assurer la priorite aux autobus (couloirs reserves et sites propres) sur les axes les plus encombres. Ces mesures de priorite devraient intervenir de prefrence avant que la circulation automobile ne soit trop developpee, * construire des lignes de m&ro leger, de m6tro (dans les grandes m6tropoles) et developper les services ferroviaires suburbains: ces investissements sont lourds mais s'av6rent rentables a moyen terme dans les villes denses ou une ligne de m&ro peut transporter plus de personnes que 10 autoroutes a 3 voies, * organiser le transport <( informel )> pour assainir et rationaliser les pratiques des operateurs et permettre la mise en oeuvre des priorites pour les autobus, * faciliter l'acces des plus pauvres au transport public par une tarification adaptee ou une aide directe. Une derniere recommandation est la diffusion de l'information et le partage des savoir-faire. La mise en commun des experiences et la recherche collective de pratiques adaptees aux differentes situations locales est une ambition constante de l'UITP. Nous sommes pret a nous coordonner avec les organismes qui partagent les memes ambitions pour I'Afrique. Je remercie la Banque mondiale de nous avoir donne l'occasion de faire passer ce message. ADRESSE E.MAIL OU SE PROCURER LA << MILLENIUM CITIES DATABASE)): PUBLICATIONS(1UITR.COM | L>trv ~~s, ,;'our/ ie.da.p/oss.b da, se Ieieb-rahrieiur Dkar, fbtezu - 26-28J2001 TABLEAU 10 Part des deplacements mecanises en transport public, part des voyageurs x km motorises en transport public, densite de population, taux de motorisation, nombre de places de stationnement dans le centre, ratio vitesse commerciale du transport public / vitesse moyenne sur le reseau routier, part des sieges x km annuels en metro 1eger, metro et chemin de fer suburbain Villes Part des Part des Densite de Nombre de Nombre de Vitesse Part des de;placements voyageurs x population voitures pour places de moyenne sieges x km mecanises en km motorises (habitants 1 000 parking pour transport annuels en transport en transport par hectare) habitants I 000 public / metro leger. public public emplois Vitesse metro et (CBD) moyenne chemin de reseau fer routier (1) suburbain Hong-Kong 72 % 73 % 320 45 35 0.85 16% Tokyo 40 % 57 % 88 305 40 1.55 91 % Singapour 35 % 40 % 94 115 235 0.70 18% Vienne 40% 25% 70 375 210 0.90 55 % Copenhague 18% 18% 29 275 220 0.75 67 % Paris 27 % 25 % 48 420 140 0.85 77 % Munich 35 % 30 % 56 470 270 1.05 71 % Milan 31 % 23 % 77 405 105 0.70 75 % Barcelone 35 % 35 % 197 370 445 0.75 71 % Zurich 28 % 24 % 44 460 130 0.90 800/o Londres 24 % 27% 59 330 120 0.95 65 % (I) vitesse calcul&e sans tenir compte des temps d'anente, de correspondance et de parcours terminaux LA MOBIUTE DURABLE [T LA PROMOTION DU TRANSPORT PUBLI( N[([SSITENT LAPPLIWATION D'UN[ POLITIQUE INTE6REE (OMBINANT: LAM[NAG6MNNT URBAIN, LA MAITRIS[ DI LA (IR(LATION [T DU STATIONNEM[NT [T L[ DEVELOPPEMENT DES MODES DI TRANSPORT PUB[I( [N SIT[ PROPRE Seule la metropole deTokyo combine l'ensemble des facteurs favorables a l'usage des transports publics: densite elev6e (bien que celle-ci ne resulte pas vraiment d'une politique volontariste d'amenagement urbain), taux de motorisation modere au regard de la richesse des habitants, restriction tres severe du stationnement dans le centre, reseau ferre extremement efficace et rapide. Hong-Kong et Singapour ont mise principalement sur la limitation tres stricte du parc automobile par la taxation de l'achat des vehicules neufs, conjuguee avec une urbanisation planifiee, dense i Singapour et extremement dense a Hong-Kong.A cela s'ajoutent pour Hong-Kong la rarete des emplacements de stationnement et, a Singapour, le peage routier urbain. Le metro est tres performant dans ces deux villes, mais il ne represente qu'une part encore minoritaire de l'offre de transport public. Dans les villes europeennes qui ont su limiter le coOt global des deplacements pour la collectivite et conserver une attractivite convenable a leur transport public, on observe presque toujours un fort developpement des modes ferres (tramways, metros legers, metros, RER et chemin de fer de banlieue) et une vitesse satisfaisante, proche de celle de I'au- tomobile sur les liaisons vers ou dans le centre. En matiere de limitation du stationnement dans le centre, les politiques les plus strictes sont appliquees a Londres, a Zurich et a Milan, mais, en regle generale, les villes europeennes limitent beaucoup moins strictement le stationnement dans le centre que Tokyo ou Hong-Kong. 5. SYNTHESE ET RECOMMANDATION | Pour un modele de developpement urbain plus econome en espace et en energie et plus respectueux de l'environnement Constat Dans les villes des pays d6veloppes, quand la densit6 est dMsee par 3 (20 habitantslha au lieu de 60): * Ia part des deplacements quotidiens effectu6s a pied, en veIo ou en transport public est divisee par 3 ou 4, * le coOt total des deplacements pour la collectivit6 augmente de plus de 50 O/, 1 <-^ Dar, SebtAza 2f,Z^ju0&2001 4. COMMENT INCITER A L'UTILISATION DES TRANSPORTS COLLECTIFS? 4.IUNE.PREMIERE EXIGENCE :AMELIORER OFFRE,VITESSE ET REGULARITE DESTRANSPORTS PUBLICS 11 existe une correlation entre la part de marche du transport public et sa competitivite mesuree par le ratio vitesse commerciale moyenne / vitesse moyenne sur le reseau routier (d . tableau 9). LA PART DI MAR(fl DU TRANSPORT PUBL[I [ST D'AUTANT PLUS FORT[ QU[ SA VIT[SS[ EST ELE[VE. lE D[V[LOPP[M[NT DES SITS PROPRES AMELIOR[ LA VIT[SS[ [T LA R[GULARIT[ DU TRANSPORT PUBLI(: ('ST UN fACT[UR DE(ISIF D[ SON ATTRA([IVITE. TABLEAU 9 Part des deplacements mecanises en transport public, vitesse commerciale moyenne du transport public / vitesse moyenne sur le reseau routier, longueur des itineraires de transport public en site propre / longueur du reseau autoroutier Region Part des deplacements Vitesse commerciale Longueur des sites propres mecanises en transport moyenne du transport / public public / Longueur du reseau Vitesse moyenne sur le autoroutier reseau routier (1) USA et Canada 5.9 % 0,575 0.46 Europe de l'Ouest 25,9 % 0,79 3,12 Asie (villes riches) 42,2 % 1.08 3.83 (1) vitesse calculee sans tenir compte des temps d'attente, de correspondance et de parcours terminaux Aux Etats-Unis, en dehors de NewYork, le transport public n'est pas competitif avec I'automobile: sa vitesse est deux fois moins elevee, ce qui signifie que les temps de parcours porte A porte, integrant les temps de parcours terminaux et les temps d'attente et de correspondance, sont 3 a 4 fois plus longs en transport public.. ATokyo et Osaka, le chemin de fer et le metro, qui assurent 90 % du trafic des transports publics, sont plus rapides que I'automobile, meme en tenant compte des parcours terminaux et des temps d'attente et de correspondance. A Seoul, Hong-Kong et Singapour, le metro est tres competitif, mais la voiture surclasse nettement I'autobus. Le transport public n'est en general pas vraiment competitif avec la voiture dans les villes d'Europe de l'Ouest, mais l'6cart n'est pas aussi favorable a l'automobile qu'en Amerique du Nord ou en Oceanie. De plus, sur les liaisons assurees directement par le RER ou le metro, les temps de parcours porte A porte sont tres proches. Ce sont d'ailleurs dans les villes oui les reseaux ferres lourds (metro et RER) sont bien developpes que le transport public rivalise le mieux avec I'automobile en terme de vitesse. La competitivite des temps de parcours n'explique pas a elle seule la part de marche du transport public, mais elle en est la condition necessaire le transport public ne sera pas choisi s'il est notablement plus lent que la voiture. 4.2 LES AUTRES CONDITIONS DE L'ATTRACTIVITE DU TRANSPORT PUBLIC La maitrise de la croissance du parc automobile par l'application de taxes sur l'acquisition des vehicules neufs, la limitation du nombre de places de stationnement non residentiels dans le centre, I'augmentation de la vitesse moyenne du transport public grace au developpement des sites propres et des modes ferres sont autant de mesures favorables a la promotion de l'usage des transports publics. Cela dit, I'application d'une seule de ces mesures ne suffit pas: les exemples suivants concernant plusieurs villes des pays developpes montrent que le succes des transports publics r6sulte d'une politique globale combinant l'amenagement du territoire, la gestion de la circulation et du stationnement et le developpement d'un reseau de transport public performant (cf. tableau 10). 116q PrkseerrtLat s Ar sl;r Caofre reyf isar £g1isztaio dw p1mb dae Lf seaw et A fr;c& suh-;aahrrens Daka, Sfj&&,dz 26-2 6' Juwz 2001 En Europe de l'Ouest, les villes ont toutes conserve un noyau central dense h6rite du 19 eme si&cle. Les banlieues de premiere couronne se sont souvent developpees autour du chemin de fer et ont conserve une densite moyenne, voire assez 6lev6e. Par contre, c'est le modele americain qui s'impose depuis une vingtaine d'annees pour l'urbanisation en periph6rie ou la d6pendance de I'automobile va de pair avec les faibles densit6s. Ces observations sont cependant a moduler selon les villes. 3.2 LES DEFIS DE LA MOBILITE DANS LESVILLES DES PAYS EN DEVELOPPEMENT OU EMERGENTS SELON LA DENSITE DESVILLES ET LEUR SYSTEME DETRANSPORT En conclusion, quels sont les defis qui attendent les villes des pays en developpement dont le taux de motorisation est encore faible? Ces defis depassent en fait largement celui de la qualite de I'air. LA FORTE (ROISSANC( D[ LA (IR(ULATION AUTOMOBIlE DANS L[S VILLES DES PAYS EN D[V[LOPP[M[NT OU [M[RG[NTS P[UT (OMPROMETTR[ LE D[VLOPPM[NTI [(ONOMIQUE ET DETERIORER LIS (ONDITIONS DE VIE DES (ITADINS. Dans plusieurs villes des pays en developpement ou emergents le taux de croissance du parc de vehicules prives motorises (automobiles et deux roues motorises) peut atteindre 15 % i 20 % par an. 11 est bren evident que la con- struction de nouvelles infrastructures de transport ne peut pas suivre un tel rythme. Comme ces villes sont deja men- acees de congestion, la paralysie generale n'est pas loin et on peut meme affirmer que Bangkok. Manille ou Jakarta ont deja atteint ce stade pendant une grande partie de la journee (cf. tableau 8).A moins de detruire le tissu urbain existant. c'est i dire l'heritage culturel et social de la cite, ces villes sont totalement inadaptees a I'automobile. Pourtant. les exem- ples de Hong Kong et de Singapour qui ont su maitriser la croissance du parc de vehicules prives motorises et develop- per en meme temps un reseau de transport public efficace, montrent que l'on peut concilier developpement economique vigoureux, maintien de la concentration urbaine et am6lioration r6guliere des conditions de transport des habitants. Le cas des villes d'Afrique (a 1'exception du Caire) et des villes du Bresil est different par certains aspects. Les villes sont moins denses et la longueur du reseau routier mieux adapte au parc automobile existant. Ce sont plut6t les caracteris- tiques insuffisantes des routes et le mauvais etat des vehicules qui sont i l'origine de la congestion. de la pollution et des accidents. Cela dit, 1'extension continue et anarchique de l'urbanisation et la croissance du parc automobile ont un cout economique et social qui n'est pas supportable. L'investissement routier ne peut pas suivre et il n'est pas concevable que les trajets effectues en bus ou en minibus par les habitants les plus pauvres de la peripherie soient de plus en plus longs et de plus en plus p6nalises par la congestion. L'exemple de Curitiba montre toutefois que croissance demographique et economique et amelioration des conditions de transport des citadins ne sont pas incompatibles. La coordination entre les politiques d'urbanisme et de transport a permis de canaliser le d6veloppement le long d'axes routiers parcourus par des lignes d'autobus puissantes et rapides: duree des deplacements, coOt du transport pour la collectivite et pollution ont pu etre maintenus i des niveaux tout i fait acceptables. TABLEAU 8 Revenu par habitant, densite de population, taux de motorisation, densite du reseau routier, rapport des longueurs du reseau de transport public en site propre et du reseau autoroutier et choix modal (pays emergents ou en developpement) Region PlBihabitant. Densite !Vombre Km de routes Km de sites Part des (en USD) (habitants/ d'automobiles par million propres deplacements hectare) pour I 000 d 'habitants transport a pied. en habitants public/ velo et en Km transport d 'autoroutes public Asie (autres 4.400 190 90 600 1,15 (1) 68 % villes) Afrique 2.300 102 100 1.400 3,85 67 % Amefique 6.300 90 190 1.450 1,00 (I) 64 % latine (I) sans tenir compte des villes sans autoroutes (avec ou sans sites propres) Prtatt~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Cofr eJw rdgwua1& r,r. ,: .'L<. v.sit .uLkaz d E s7, Daka, Sbeg1?aZ .-26;28Juit2001 120000 AI cities 100000 _ USA O 4 cm 80000 6000 E CD 60000 0. E j! *\ * *, ° \ a ; _ ~~~~~~~~Western Europe ui 20000- ',4.44 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Cpyight TP Modal choice (% public transport - cycling - walking) 3. CROISSANCE ECONOMIQUE ET MODELES DE DEVELOPPEMENT URBAIN 3.1 NIVEAU DE REVENU, STRUCTURE URBAINE ET SYSTEME DE TRANSPORT LA (ROISSAN([ DU REV[NU N'IMPLIQU[ PAS UN MOD[L[ D[ DEV[LOPP[MENT URBAIN FOND[ SUR LAUTOMOBIL[ [T LA DISP[RSION D[ r'HABIiTA [T DS AC[IVIJ[S La comparaison des villes des Etats-Unis, du Canada et d'Oceanie avec celles d'Europe de l'Ouest et avec les villes riches d'Asie est exemplaire a cet egard (cf. tableau 7).Toutes ces villes appartiennent A des pays developpes dont le revenu moyen par habitant varie de 15 000 a 50 000 USD et pour la majorite d'entre elles le revenu moyen par habitant se situe dans une fourchette assez resserree de 20 000 a 35 000 USD. Pourtant, ces villes ont adopte des modeles de developpement tres contrastes. Le modele de developpement des villes riches d'Extreme Orient se situe A l'oppose de celui observe aux Etats-Unis. il est econome en espace, peu dependant de l'automobile et les fortes densites de population et d'emplois incitent a la marche et a l'usage du velo et du transport public. Bien entendu, ce n'est pas seulement pour limiter le cout des deplace- ments que ces villes ont opt6 pour la concentration urbaine. Hong-Kong et les villes japonaises n'avaient pas d'autre choix pour se developper sur un territoire exigu. Cela dit, ce qui est interessant, c'est de voir comment des villes aussi riches ont pu limiter aussi strictement la possession de I'automobile et son usage.Toutes ces villes sont desservies par de puissants reseaux ferres, metro et/ou chemin de fer. La longueur de ces reseaux est 4 fois superieure a celle des reseaux autoroutiers. L'usage des modes de transport non motorises et du transport public est dominant (de 52 % A Sapporo, 68 % a Tokyo jusqu'a 82 % a Hong Kong). TABLEAU 7 Revenu par habitant, densite de population, taux de motorisation, densite du reseau routi- er, rapport des longueurs du reseau de transport public en site propre et du reseau autoroutier et choix modal (pays developpes) Region PlB/habitant. Densite Nombre Km de routes Km de sites Part des (en US S) (habitants / d'automobiles par million propres deplacements hectare) pour ) 000 d'habitants transport a pied, en habitants public! velo et en Km transport d'autoroutes public USA et 28 000 18,5 570 6.100 0.45 14 % Canada Europe de 31 000 55 420 3 000 3,10 50% I 'O uest__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Asie (villes 34 500 134 215 2.400 3.85 62 % riches) 114.9+ Pr6e4e&tt06 t.s CrO,ia47Xr; £ 'dplo Li,L ,..t o#. U_E# ODaka, S&vaL 26-28JLWv2001 TABLEAU 5 Repartition, par mode de transport, de la pollution atmospherique produite par le secteur transport et des deplacements motorises dans l'aire metropolitaine de Mexico en 1995 Mode de transport M6tro leger Trolley Bus Bus Metro Microbus et Taxi Voiture Total combis pariicuhere Deplacements (%) 0.2 1.4 8.4 13.2 47.8 8.7 20.3 100.0 Pollution (%) E C I E 19.5 14.7 64.8 100.0 Source: Mexico DDF 2.4 DENSITE,CHOIX DU MODE DETRANSPORT ET CONSOMMATION D'ENERGIE L[S VILLES LIS PLUS [(ONOMS [EN [NERGI[ D[P[NS[[ POUR LITRANSPORT DES P[RSONNiS SONT L[S V[LL[S l[S PLUS DHNSES OU L[S MOD[S DIETRANSPORT DOMINANTS SONT LA MAR(K, LIEVELO [T LI TRANSPORT PUBLI( La consommation d'energie consacree aux deplacements de personnes est fortement ijee a la densite et au choix du mode de transport (cf. tableau 6). La fameuse relation entre densite et consommation d'energie etablie sur un 6chantillon plus reduit de villes par Peter Newman etjeff Kenworthy est confirmee (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999; Kenworthy and Laube, 1999): lorsque la part des deplacements a pied, en velo et en transport public passe de 15 % a 60 %, la consommnation d'energie est divisee par 4. Les deplacements urbains sont 3 fois plus << energivores >> aux Etats-Unis qu'en Europe et 4 fois plus qu'au Japon. TABLEAU 6 Densite, choix modal et consommation annuelle d'energie pour le transport de personnes Modal Choice (% public transport + cycling + walking) vs Energy Consumption per inhabitants perYear (Megajoules) Densite Part des deplacements a Consommation annuelle (habitants/hectare) pied, en velo et en d'energie transport public (megajoules/habitant) USA et Canada 18,5 14% 51 00 Europe de l'Ouest 55 50 % 16 500 Asie (villes riches) 134 62 % I1 000 Asie (autres villes) 190 68 % 6 000 Afriaue 102 67 % 6 500 Arnerique latine 90 64 % 11 500 Plus precisement, dans les villes des pays developpes, 1'energie depensee pour les deplacements annuels d'un habitant est en moyenne de 60 000 megajoules aux Etats-Unis, 32 000 megajoules au Canada et en Oceanie, 16 500 megajoules en Europe de l'Ouest et I I 000 megajoules dans les villes riches d'Asie Japon, Hong Kong et Singapour). En Amerique latine, des villes comme Mexico, Sao Paulo ou Curitiba, ou le taux de motorisation est assez eleve (de l'or- dre de 200 automobiles pour I 000 habitants), ont une consommation d'energie par habitant proche de celle observee en Europe de l'Ouest. Dans les villes des pays en developpement, des ecarts de I 10 sont constates, selon la densite et la part des deplace- ments effectues a pied et en velo. G7fate4 osvr >'e&f uwddwpSi - J Oatka, Sbya~ 26-28Jtut LX' Les plus forts niveaux de pollution (plus de 15 000 kg/ha) sont rencontres a Mexico,Athenes et dans les villes d'Asie en developpement ou les performances des vehicules sont mediocres et oui la densit6 de population est elevee. Si les automo- biles sont les principales sources de pollution de l'air. les deux roues motorises peuvent aussi avoir un impact tres negatif comme en t6moignent les exemples de Ho Chi MinhVille,Taipei ou Jakarta. Dans ces villes, les consequences sur la sante des habitants sont tres serieuses, puisqu'on estime que la pollution de I'air est la cause de 500 000 deces prematures par an dans les pays en developpement Cette situation est d'autant plus preoccupante que la pollution de I'air augmente continument dans ces villes, alors qu'elle semble se stabiliser voire diminuer dans les villes des pays developpes. 2.3.COMPARAISON DES PERFORMANCES ENERGETIQUES DE L'AUTOMOBILE ET DES TRANSPORTS PUBLICS [[S TRANSPORTS PUBLI(S (ONSOMM[NT 4 FOIS MOINS D'ENERGI[ PAR VOYAEIUR X KM QUE LAUTOMOB11[. Les transports publics, surtout lorsqu'ils sont trus frequentes, ont une efficacite energetique trus superieure a celle de l'auto- mobile qui est frequemment occupee par une seule personne (le taux d'occupation moyen est dans presque toutes les villes compris entre 1,2 et 1,8 occupant par vehicule). Cela dit, on observe des disparites importantes: le transport public consomme 1,6 fois moins d'energie que I'automobile par voyageur x km aux Etats-Unis, 3,7 fois moins en Europe et 10 fois moins au Japon dont la performance exceptionnelle s'explique par l'utilisation intense des deux plus puissants reseaux ferroviaires regionaux du monde aTokyo et Osaka (cf. tableau 4). TABLEAU 4 Consommation d'energie selon le mode de transport Region Energy consumption of public transport / energy consumption of private transport (per voyager x km) USAand Canada 0,432 Western Europe 0.285 Asia (rich cities) 0,141 Asia (other cities) 0,140 Africa 0,230 Latin America 0,227 Overall regions 0,237 Dans les pays en developpement, les resultats de la comparaison sont tres variables. Remarque: Les taxis, avec un taux d'occupation moyen de 0,89 sur l'ensemble des villes etudiees (de moins de 0,5 dans plusieurs d'Amerique du Nord et d'Europe a plus de 2 dans certaines villes des pays en developpement), consomment plus d'energie par personne transportee que les automobiles et, en moyenne, 4,5 fois plus que le transport public. L'EXEMMPLE DE MEXICO Un exemple particuliGrement interessant en matiere de comparaison de performances 6nerg6tiques est celui de Mexico, l'une des villes les plus polluees du monde. Mexico a mis en application depuis 1988 un programme drastique de lutte contre la pollution atmospherique, mais en 1995, le secteur transport est encore a Mexico responsable des trois-quarts de la pollution atmospherique produite dons ragglomeration. Le tableau S compare pour le secteur transport 6 Mexico la repartition par mode de transport de la pollution et des deplacements motorises. 11 en ressort que l'automobile, qui transporte 20% seulement des deplacements motorises, est responsable pour 65% de la pollution atmospherique du secteur transport. Les proportions sont pro- tiquement inversees pour les transports publics pris dons leur ensemble, puisque leur part du marche des deplacements motorisas est de 71%, et qu ils ne produisent que 20% de ta pollution du secteur transport. Dans l'ensemble des transports publics, l'avantage des modes 6 grande capacite est encore plus marque: les bus standards et articules 6 moteurs thermique provoquent 4 6 10 fois moins de pollution par passager x km transporte que les ?r microbus )) et les (f combis )), et 20 6 34 fois moins que l'automobile. Les modes de transport public 6 traction electrique (trolleybus, metro, metro leger) ne comptent que pour une part infime dons la pollution du secteur transport, alors que leur part modale dons les deplacements motorises atteint 23%. 1 '2. Co&ren rgroIs.;ar Vu*irip1as dt £ 4 e,t gx,bu-;aaste. Dakar, S6eagaL 26-28Jw 2001 Dans les villes des pays en developpement (cf. tableau 2), le transport est une fonction urbaine essentielle qui mobilise en general une part plus importante des ressources que dans les villes riches: frequemment, plus de 20 % du PIB de 'I'aire metropolitaine y sont affectes au transport de personnes, alors que ce pourcentage varie entre 8 et 15 % dans le reste du monde. Lorsque la part des deplacements a pied, en velo et en transport public et la densit6 sont elevees, comme dans certaines villes en developpement d'Asie du Sud-Est tres denses, la part du PIB consacree aux d6place- ments est moderee (moins de 8 % du PIB). TABLEAU 2 Repartition du co&it des deplacements de personnes pour la collectivite entre modes prives et transport public (hors congestion et effets externes) Region Couit des deplacements en Coiut des deplacements en Coiut des deplacements modes pnivs transport public (en % du PIB) (en % du PIB) (en % du PIB) USA et Canada 11,8% 0,7 % 12.5 % Europe de l'Ouest 6.7 % 1,6 % 8.3 % Asie (villes riches) 3,8 % 1,6 % 5.4 % Afrique 17,3 % 4,4 % 21,7 % Anurigue latine 11,7 % 2.6 % 14.3 %c 11 est interessant aussi d'analyser la repartition de la depense totale affectee aux deplacements entre <( transport public >) et (( modes individuels )». Dans les villes des Etats-Unis, du Canada et d'Oceanie ou la depense de transport est elevee, l'investissement routier et l'automobile absorbent la quasi totalite de cette depense. Par contre au Japon, a Hong Kong, a Singapour et dans des villes d'Europe comme Londres. Paris ou Vienne, le cout total de la fonction transport de voyageurs est modere et la repartition entre << transport public >> et << modes individuels >> est plus equilibree (entre 25 2.2. DENSITE, CHOIX DU MODE DE TRANSPORT ET POLLUTION DE L'AIR L[S VILLES OU LA QUALIT[ D[ ['AIR [ST LA MOINS AFF[CI{[ PAR LA (IR(V[ATION SONT L[S VILL[S D[ D[NSIT[ FAIBLE OU MOY[NN[ O ['USAG[ DE r'AUTOMOBILE EST MODERE 1T 0] LIS V[ I(CUL[S RESPEI[TNT DES NORMES S[V[R[S [N MATIEIR D'MISSIONS POLLUANTES. La pollution de I'air par les rejets de gaz de combustion d'hydrocarbures d6pend du kilometrage parcouru annuellement et des caracteristiques techniques des vehicules. Dans les pays d6velopp6s, les constructeurs doivent respecter des normes de pollution de plus en plus severes. Dans les pays en d6veloppement, ou le parc automobile est plus age et moins performant, le niveau moyen de pollution par vehicule x km peut etre 5 fois superieur au niveau atteint dans les pays developpes. Lorsque les vehicules neufs sont soumis a des normes strictes d'6mission de gaz polluants, le niveau de pollution par habitant depend essentiellement de l'intensite de l'usage de l'automobile et des conditions climatiques locales.Aux Etats-Unis, 265 kg de polluants par habitant sont rejetes chaque annee par les vehicules de transport de personnes (les automobiles en quasi totalite), 95 kg en Europe de l'Ouest et 31 kg dans les villes riches d'Asie (cf. tableau 3). TABLEAU 3 Densite, choix modal et pollution de I'air par les vehicules de transport de personnes Region Densite Emissions (CO, Emissions (CO, (habitants/hectare) . S02, Nox, C0 P)par S02, Nox, COV) par habitant (kg) hectare (kg) USA et Canada 18.5 14 % 237 3.950 Europe de l'Ouest 55 50 % 88 4.800 Asie (villes riches) 134 62 % 31 3.900 Asie (autres villes) 190 68 % 84 14.200 Afrique 102 67 % 148 8.600 Arneique latine 90 64 % 118 9.300 CctfireJwe rigio5kar /i&dm&p&wb .. AIIIS I itte eA -AfItt! ,.Lr :.aLUri$Li* )aka,L Seal * 26-28twie 2.'1 Europe de l'Ouest Amerique du Nord Moyen Orient Marseille Calgary Tel Aviv Nantes Montreal Teheran Paris Ottawa Riyadh Berlin Toronto Asie Francfort Vancouver Manille Hambourg Atlanta Bangkok Dusseldorf Chicago Beijing Munich Denver Hong Kong Ruhr Houston Guangzhou Stuttgart Los Angeles Shanghai Athenes New York Mumbai (Bombay) Bologne Phoenix Chennai (Madras) Milan San Diego _ New Delhi Rome S Francisco Osaka Turin Washington Sapporo Amsterdam Amerique latine Tokyo Oslo Buenos Aires Kuala Lumpur Lisbonne Brasilia Jakarta Barcelone Curitiba Taipei Madrid Rio de Janeiro Seoul Stockholm Salvador Singapour Beme Sao Paulo Ho Chi Minh Ville Geneve Santiago Oceanie Zurich Boaota Brisbane Glasgow Mexico Melbourne Londres Caracas Perth Manchester Sydney Newcastle Wellington En raison des difficultes de collecte de l'information, le resultat n'est evidemment pas parfait, mais c'est le recueil de donnees sur la mobilite le plus complet et le plus fiable existant A ce jour. La totalite des donnees recherchees a ete rassemblee dans 84 villes sur 100. Dans les 16 autres, le taux de collecte varie de 30% a 95%. Selon les indicateurs retenus le nombre de villes prises en compte varie donc de 84 a 100. 2. URBANISME, SYSTEMES DE TRANSPORT, ET CARACTERISTIQUES ENERGETIQUES DES DEPLACEMENTS 2.1 URBANISME, MOBILITE ET COOT DES DEPLACEMENTS l Croissance du l 1: Croissance des effets ngatlks -:, |~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6i'sic'de fft | Croissancede 2 ssanc sirenrnemn ga; ' ,| | amtrsation _ V /. .Augmentation de la congestion Baisse de la part modale des . -n transports collectifs Baisse des vitesses de circulation Cots dexploitation et tarifs plus levs des transports publics A _<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Dakar, Setgal 26-28jui&2001 STRAIGIES POLITIQUES Prowofdov da tnv rtrpuiibacs contr6& de& thui&atio& d sol et arbaxiswe- Yves Amsler, Expert, UITP Brussels, Belgium LA PROMOTION D'UN TRANSPORT PUBL EFFI(A(E PEUI-ELE[ (ONTRIBU[R A AMEIOR[R LA QUALIT[ DI LAIR DANS LIS VILLS? 1. INTRODUCTION L'UITP est une association internationale qui constitue a la fois le reseau mondial des professionnels du transport public. une reference pour ce meme secteur et un forum international pour les debats sur la politique du transportA ce titre, l'UITP a presente sur son site web la conference de Dakar et la d6marche << Clean Air Initiative in SSA )> de la Banque mondiale; L'UITP, c'est enfin un porte-parole du transport public, qui collabore avec de nombreuses organisations internationales dont la Banque mondiale, et c'est la raison de ma presence ici. L'expose que je vais vous presenter porte sur l'interet de promouvoir un transport public efficace pour am6liorer la qualit6 de I'air dans les agglom6rations. Cet expose s'appuie principalement sur les resultats d'un projet innovant conduit par l'UITP, intitule < Millenium Cities Database >), et en particulier sur I'analyse des resultats qu'en a faite Jean Vivier, Directeur des Programmes et des Etudes de l'UITP Ce projet de l'UITP a permis d'etablir, en collaboration avec les professeurs Jeff Kenworthy et Felix Laube de l'universite Murdoch (Australie), une base de donnees sur 100 villes du monde. Les donnees collectees concernent la demographie, I'e- conomie et la structure urbaine, le parc automobile, les taxis, le reseau routier, le stationnement, [es reseaux de transport public (offre, usage et coGt), la mobilite des individus et le choix du mode de transport, 1'efficacit6 du systeme de transport et ses effets sur l'environnement (temps et couts de transport, consommation d'energie, pollution, accidents...). Au total, 66 indicateurs bruts (175 indicateurs bruts elementaires) ont ete recherches dans les 100 villes selectionnees, en prenant pour reference l'annee 1995. La << Millennium Cities Database )) represente une avancee remarquable dans la connaissance de l'economie de la mobilite dans les villes du monde 230 indicateurs standardises par ville, permettant des comparaisons pertinentes entre villes et reseaux de transport, sont rassembles dans un CD Rom interactif commercialise par l'UITP Un echantillon representatif des villes du monde Les villes etudiees sont reparties dans tous les continents :35 en Europe de l'Ouest, 6 en Europe de l'Est, 15 en Amerique du Nord, 10 en Amerique latine, 8 en Afrique (dont Abidjan, Dakar, Harare, Johannesbourg et Le Cap), 3 au Moyen-Orient, 18 en Asie et 5 en Oceanie.Toutes les tailles d'agglomeration sont representees, depuis Graz en Autriche (240 000 habi- tants), jusqu'a la region m6tropolitaine de Tokyo (32,3 millions d'habitants). Sur les 100 agglomerations, 60 appartiennent a des pays developpes et 40 a des pays emergents ou en developpement TABLEAU I Liste des villes du Millenium Cities Database Villes Viles Vinles Europe de l'Ouest Europe de I'Est Afriaue Graz Prague Abidjan Vienne Budapest Casablanca Bruxelles Cracovie Dakar Copenhague Varsovie Tunis Helsinki Moscou Le Cap Lille Istanbul Le Caire Lyon Johannesbourg Harare M- 'IS', C tere rescoLur Mliwirdototb ds seeAfrysb-szatri e*o DazkAi, Se6regaL 26-29Ju&&2001 Un pro-ramme du tvpe > Elements pour une strategie regionale Industre n petroliene Industie Raffineurs. Automobile - Arnrlioration de la qualite des carburants: plomb. soufre. Distributeurs (aromatiqucs. olefines non prioritaire). - Mesures techniques liees aux v6hicules: obligation de convertisseurs Identfication des:mesures possibles catalytiques. nonmes de limitation des emissions *techriques moteurs. carburants -controle ientreten des v6hicules - Programmes de contr6le et d 'entretien *mesre onJecnnlqueseiAscaes _ - Harmonisation des mesures fiscales (exemple de I 'Europe) ------'efiracee-. Impact des mesures sur les oulectits - S 'appuyer sur un programme d '6tudes techniques du type deesures - Reduton Otenette nssons '< Auto-oil »> '~ ~ '~ '~ ''' ~ '~'~ ' *ReIstons emiss=is /quaidne ae rBrr u i Deflnit'on final& des objectfs iimtnes d-emssions - Etablissemerit d 'un ensemble integre de propositions a V I 'echelle rdgionale - -11- -12- Aspects essentiels d'une strategie regionale Organisation de la strat gie r gionale Programmne ' =D Ensemble de-pr9positions legislative Prog rijmi __ PrograArnme'i spcificati&nsd'essence1 et7diesel tp z~oi -Consolidation des irnmites d' emisons -. ... ..... Commissions *legishstionsur programesti/M ' techniques --poIfliques Cntresd'6alu tar dsfhlon ort~insPy' Oblecilts assoaes de reduct n d " '' 1 1| 1 ~~~~~~~~~~........................................... . 1 MIti- eret,- emissions . impiiques''_ *Contnbution aes auTres mesures - Industne Protection de Sante * gestion du Dsffic~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ndsne Prtctond *am-4eot on au transo i ; r petrol ere l'environnement pubirque _-carburants atterrnaiis -,,Industrie Municipalites Institut de Consommateurs automobile normalisation -13- Conclusions - Ncessite d 'une cooperation regionale, adoption de normes communes En particulier limiter les transferts illegaux de produits - Contr6ler les importations de vehicules tres anciens et polluants - Favoriser I 'adaptation des raffineries locales S inspirer de I 'evolution des normes Europeennes - Valoriser au maximum I 'assistance externe * Programmes de contr6le ,d'6ducation. d'entretien * appui technique et financier -15- g . - :1 2Dr6sevr2A>--Xts t'~~~~~~~~~~C~yevz & 107; Instruments economiques et fiscaux Incitations fiscales et taxes R6le des regulations - Role des taxes: - O0:ectif global: reduction des emissions R6 nr des tax *, * g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e!nerer des rexcenus pour I Et al - Solutions dependantes en grande partie du comportement des mais aussi modifier lc conmp ,ricrncnu dc accnru xono miques usagers - Taxe a I 'achat des vehiculcs * renouveler les voitures anciennes et polluantes * acheter des voitures ai technologie evolu6e amenc i acheteur L N oncntcr \er d autres modeles * utiliser un carburant propre et adaptd mais aussi a garder sa voiture plu Iongiemps * assurer un bon entretien du moteur - Taxe sur le carburant: aur mcnic d ,I lu km parcouru * limiter les ddplacements ........ !! aminnc l'usager a imitcr csplaccrrwra, - R6le limite des regulations mais aussia utliser unc nitue piN .'.nfl,mcn ,uI.r.nt . r6gulations appliqu&es sunout aux sp6cifications des carburants et - Baisse des taxes sur 1'essence sans plomb limites d'cmission favorise la p6n6rat,on pmndant ia pcn.dc dk :r.n.ut,m . ne peuvent agir sur tous les facteurs prncedents a montr6 son cfflcacite dAn, dc n,rnbrrel- N.! -5-6 Strategie nationale /eg.onal. pour ameho* la Mesures d'incitation fiscale qualito de 1.ss.nwa -Incitations fhscales: instruments disponibles pour l'Etat pour favoriser Normes de qualke . . Incitations fiscales: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~de Irair: Plons. Co. l'61imination du plomb et diminuer la pollution HC. NOx. PM.. Czone ! - Baisse des taxes sur I 'essence sans plomb * pendant la peiode de transition E co, H N PM | Z - Prime a la casse de vehicules tres anciens - * pour accdedrer le renouvellement du parc et deiminer les vehicules __ polluants X T*Chrke des - Reseaux de transport en cornmun Sesceficaeions . remboursement partiel du couit du systerme antipollution Octane, Plomb. RVPe S%, aromrnt.enzene. > - Taxe sur diesel AdaptVbon * ajustement de taxe sur diesel pour limiter l'augmentation des vdhicules diesel des particuliers (controle de pollution plus difficile) ,an es -1- -8- Plan pour l'elimination du plomb dans l'essence Obstacles a la realisation du plan - Necessite d 'un plan national regroupant tous les - La raffinerie locale (ou regionale) n 'est pas capable de acteurs impliques et traitant le probleme plus large de produire 100% d 'essence sans plomb la limitation des emissions polluantes - Les investissements pour transfornation de la raffinerie - Ldgislation nationale sur les specifications des necessitent une aide exterieure carburants - La part de I 'essence sans plomb est tres faible ou nulle au - Legislation sur les limites d 'emission des vehicules debut du processus - Legislation nationale sur les normes de qualite de - - Les stations services ne sont pas equipees pour vendre I 'air et les methodes de mesure plusieurs qualites d 'essence (pdriode de transition) - Mise en place d 'un programme d' incitations fiscales - Le parc de vdhicules est tres ancien - Programme d 'inspection et entretien des v6hicules, - Les reticences a I 'utilisation de I 'essence sans plomb controle technique 169 -10 106 Prt9gnatzor C~/ayar Coisfreiw r6gio 1sva 1u t i #sb tdenv rqr-sa Dakar, Yeital 26-28Juix2001 TARIFIWAION L REGLEMENTATION Mesuaref di.nti eiotwujti etfisir Rig/esswitatiow et iwrwe-: dlibrerb, Patrik (dyrade, Dire(teur, Bei(ip-Frdnlab/Institut lrdncdls du POtrole Paris, Fran(e Elimination du plomb dans 1'essence: Elimination du plomb dans 1'essence: r6le des acteurs incitations economiques et fiscales, aspects legislatifs Les constructeurs de v6hicules . vendre vdhicules performants. indice octane llev& plomb 0.15 -0.80 g!l - 1- R6le des acteurs et consequences Les raffineries * suivre evolution des moteurs. octane 6lcvd. plomb pour minimiser - 2- Instruments econorriiques et fiscaux invcstissemcnts - Les consommateurs - 3- Plan pour Ie1limination du plomb dans exicence de performance. octane dlev6, plomb dns lessence *ddfcnse de 1'cnvironnemcnt. associatIons pour prevention de la l'essence: aspects 1lgislatifs et obstacles pollution - Les Gouvemements - 4- Elements pour une strategie regionale conscience des effets nocifs. objectifs d'amelioration de la qualit6 de i'air. plans nationaux -I - -l2- Consequences de l'elimination du pomb Recherche d'une solution de compromis - Consequences majeures pour les raffineurs Interets contradictoires * compenser la suppression du plomb, investissement en * Fabricants de moteurs unites nouvelles. achat composants oxyg@nes (MTBE) - recherche performance. octane dlev6. pots catalyviques - Consequences pour les fabricants de moteurs - obligation de pots catalyriques et regIages couteux * octane plus faible. baisser taux de compression - Raffineurs - minimiser investissement ,octane bas pots catalytiques. coft 6lev, - la production d'essence sans plomb augmente la consommation de petrole - Consequences pour les consomTnateurs et les rejets polluants * prix plus eleve des voitures Solution de compromis * consommation d'essence accrue. cout au km plus eleve * Etude pour l'Europe: octane optimum a 95 (RON) Eurosuper - Consequences pour les Gouvernements Si octane superieur: surconsommation de petrole. augmentation des * controler lc processus par une legislation r6aliste couits de raffinage - Consequences sur emissions et sante Si octane infirieur consommation au km supdrieure * bilan global positif grace aux pots catalytiques * Pour I'Afrique possibilite octane inferieur (93'?) -3- -4 Cayra.J | 105 Coare regtaI&sur tloa darbs 6segta e:stAf ru -;akzneaa %, .; Daka,~ Ses26-28Jtrtii. 200! A quality assurance/qualiy control plan is essential for The following items should be addressed before going into a ensuring maximum credible use of results of a monitoring detailed network design: effort - WHO GEMS/AIR Nlethodolo-v Re-iew% lIandbook Vol. I * review of existing air qualitv/meteorological monitoring * understanding the objecti es to be met by the monitoring activities program *personnel trainina requirements * identification of appropriate sites for lead monitoring and * sampling methods their incorporation into a special lead monitoring network * sample handling enhancement of the existing monitoring networks to calibration standards * the frequency of calibration of monitoring devices measure *external performance and system audits I data acceptance criteria identification of agencies responsible for air pollution * data management and archia ing measurement/collection data review and evaluation * reconciliation of data reporting %%ith user requirements -O- -71- Recommendations Air quality monitoring should be conducted on a regular basis in order to assess the progress in phasing out lead Existing networks should be first reviewed and the best sites for monitoring lead identified -12- Preettatioiiu Jfcbhe1 103 Confre~t.r Kimzkszu- %i 'vdi4.p1oE .L bt'OJ '5 @ iD DakAr, s&e?at ' o20o0 Ground-based monitoring of Pb Objectives .bjectivs .Ground based air qualith monitoring should aim to attain the following objectives: Network design considerations Provision of data for public health warning Provision of data for decision making/initiating Additional factors protective measures Provision of data for model inputs/model verification Quality assurance/quality control and development Provision of data for human health studies to evaluate Recommendations evaluate effects of lead -IL- -15- Network Design Considerations Monitoring sites in urban areas are to be designed to A network for lead monitoring would start with local characterize exposures of the general population to meteorological and air pollution monitoring stations. ambient concentrations in environments ranging from residential-suburban to citv center, and to measure The minimum measurement set should consist of concentrations near specific sources such as highwav measurements of particulate matter, meteorological parameters and lead on a continuous basis power plants, and factories -16- -11- Important note: Additional factors which should be considered Lead is mostly on particles in the ultrafine range d in the design of monitoring networks: (aerodynamic diameter < 0.1 ,m). * objectives of the monitoring program Such particles enter deeply into the lower respiratory * spatial and temporal coverage tract, are not necessarily exhaled and are deposited there in the alveoli. detailed site information WH a performance specifications of the monitoring devices, (precision, accuracy, and temporal response) Guidelines for Concentration and Exposure-response siting of the individual monitors Measurement of Fine and Ultrafine Particulate : Matter for Use in Epidemiological Studies, to be * management of data published 2001 development of a quality assurance/ Internet: August 2001, www.who. int/peh/ quality control plan .:2"" . io.s-18- -19- 102.8 2rtatsen,aossc Cofteer6gioKal&ssur t2' dwpob dAnt . ersiei X fe =ju t4, v _ T . f , Daka, Sbcegal 26-28Jui 2001 Criteria common to Non-carcinogens and Carcinogens Procedure of deriving guidelines Available data on Risk assessment Sources, levels, routes of exposure: Air - Water - Food; Exposure-response relationships Urban, non-polluted rural areas, indoor, workplace; Lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level (LOAEL) Uptake by inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact. Kinetics and metabolism: Lowest-observed-effect-level (LOEL) Body-burden from long-term, low-level exposure; No-observed-effect-level (NOEL) Mode of toxic action; Metabolites with greater toxic potential than Uncertainty factors original agent. Averaging times -8- -9- Air qualitv guidelines for non-carcinogenic inorganic compounds Evaluation of human health risks "Classical" air pollutants * Baseline blood levels: 1-3 ag PbB/dl * Guideline value based on lowest value of health impact: 10 1ig PbB/dl Compound Guideline Averaging Inhalation of airborne lead significant for adults lag m-31 time Ingestion more significant for young children and infants Carbon monoxide 100 000 15 min I ,ag Pb/m3 directly contributes about 1.6 ag PbB/dl for adults 60 000 30 min * 1 g Pb/m3 directly contributes about 1.9 ug PbB/d3 for children 30 000 1 h In order to take into account pathways other than air it is assumed 10 000 8 h that I ±g Pb/m3 directly and indirectly contributes about 5 ig PbB/d Nitrogen dioxide 200 1 h If 98% of the population have blood levels below 10 ig PbB/dl, the 40 1 a median blood level is about 5.4 Feg PbB/dI 4 If the non-anthropogenic contribution is 3 jg PbB/dl, then 2.4 l.g Ozone 120 8 h PbB/dl is the contribution from air (direct and indirect) Sulphur dioxide 500 10 min The WHO air quality guidehlne for lead is 0.5 ±g Pb/m3, as an 125 24 h annual average 50 1 a .a -10- -11- Relationship of PM10 with different health effect indicators WHO Guidelines for Air Quality 20- : * Guidelines values for about 45 pollutants f / / - -Dailymortality with non-carcinogenic endpoints w 15 - Hospital admissions 15- :, / -Hospitaladmissions * Unit risks for about 30 pollutants with ec 1 / / - - -.. Bronchodilator use ' 10 - .i / / . -- Symptomcarcinogenic endpoints 10- -.Symptom i / -- Pexackerbations * Exposure-response relationships for PM v f. * Indoor air pollution 0' - f . . . * Air quality management 0 50 100 150 200 Literature update in 2001 PM,0 concentration l,g m-3] -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~13 - *ritdio ''' ' '' -ui 101 . . - - -' '' f-''- '''' '- --' ->' ''^ j3_ X 7 7 s j~~~ - .J, Dakar, SY&Pat .26-28Jam2001 Distinction between Criteria used in establishing air quality guidelines Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) Distinction between: absolute safety and and acceptable risk Air Qualitv Standards (AQS) Absolute safetv: detailed knowledge of Dose-response relationships; AQG: purely epidemiological/ toxicological Types of toxic effects elicited by specific (or environment-related) data pollutants; Existence of thresholds AQS are AQG promulgated through legislation Significance of interactions; in a country or community Variation in sensitivity and exposure levels within human population. AQS consider issues of technological feasibility, Acceptable risk: costs of compliance, prevailing exposure levels, Tolerated or unavoidable; social, economic and cultural conditions Not equally distributed within a population. -5- -6- S02 24 hour air quality standards and WHO guideline 800 700 600 } 400T 300 200- 100 . . .~~~ 5 .?.~z 100- Pr&~~~&Pttatioku ICA)- .- SU01VI DE LA QUALAII DE LAIR &&ruie relaft a jqmlie/de, a, et a'l op&fsu' Dr. Dieter S(hwela, Air Pollution Scientist, Occupdtiondl dnd [nvironmentdl Hedlth Proqrdmme, Orqdnisdtion Mondiale de Id Sdnt* Geneva, Switzerldnd Air quality guidelines & monitoring WHO Guidelines for Air Quality programme * WHO 1972: Air quality criteria and guides for urban air pollutants Dr Dietrich Schwela * WHO/EURO 1987: Air Quality Guidelines for World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland Europe - Updating procedure 1993-1996 Presentation * WHO/EURO 2000: Air Qualitv Guidelines for at the Europe Conference on Phasing-out leaded Gasoline * WHO 1999: Guidelines for Air Quality, Dakar, Senegal, 26-28 June 2001 Internet address www.who. int/peh/. Nature of air quality guidelines _- ~~~~~Aim: Protection of public health from adverse effects -1W31 *> -S -- ' id i; of pollutants Elimination or reduction to a minimum of contaminants Provision of background information for making risk management decisions Guidance to governments in setting standards Assistance in local, regional, national action plans -3- -A 6aSitrer(- 7;SaIw .i4pwa '.ss&xee ,s AL elat.4 :.ziw d ;'2ii Dtkr, S6?dgal ._2d;200t1 Nriagu,J.O (1979) Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere. Nature (London), 279, pp 408 - 411. Nriagu, J.O (1989) A global assessment of natural sources of atmospheric trace metals. Nature (London) 338, pp.48-49. Onianwa, PC and Egunyomi,J.K (1983). "Trace metal levels in some Nigeria Mosses used as indicators of atmospheric pollution", Environmental Pollution Series B 5, pp.71-81. Onianwa, PC. (1985), Accumulation, exchange and retention of trace heavy metals in some mosses from S.W. Nigeria. A Ph. D. Thesis, Chemistry Department, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Onianwa, PC (1993). Environmental pollution studies in an underdeveloped country: Heavy metal pollution in Ibadan, Nigeria. lnt.J. Env. Educ.And lnf. (Published by Environmental Resources Unit, University of Salford, U.K Osibanjo, 0. and Ajayi, S.0 (1980). Trace metal levels in tree barks as indicators of Atmospheric Pollution", Environment International. Vol.4, pp. 239-244 Osibanjo .O;Ajayi S. 0; Mombeshora C. (1981) Pollution studies on Nigerian rivers,Toxic heavy metals statute on surface waters in Ibadan city. Environmental International,Vol. 5 pp 45- 53. Osibanjo, 0. and Ajayi, S.0 (I 989).Trace metal Analysis of Petroleum Products by Flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Nigerian journal of Natural Sciences. 4:33-40. Shy, C. M. (1990), Lead in petrol:The mistake of xxth century,World Health Statistics Quarterly, 43, 168-176 Sridhar, M.K.C. (1986).Trace element composition of Pistia Stratiotes L in a polluted lake in Nigeria, Hydrobiologia. 131, pp.273-276. Sridhar, M;K.C. and Bammeke,A.O. (1986). Heavy metal contents of some solid wastes in Ibadan, Nigeria. Water,Air, and Soil Pollution.29, pp. 51 -56. Sridhar,M.K.C.(1988). Uptake of trace elements by water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes).Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol 16, pp. 3, 293- 297. Sridhar, M.K.C. and Okekearu, I. R. (1999), Exposure toindoor lead in Lagos Metropolis:ANigerian Experience, Epidemiology, USA, Vol. 10, No.4, 227p Sridhar Mynepalli,Adogame, L. and Olawuyi,j. (2000), Lead exposure in urban centres:A case study from Ibadan, Nigeria, Epidemiology,Vol. I l, No. 4, p. 862 Sridhar, M. K. C., Olawuyi,J. F,Adogame, LA., Okekearu, Osajie, C. O., and Linda,A. (2000), Lead in the Nigerian environment: prob- lems and prospects, in I I th Annual International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment (J. Nriagu, Editor), No. University of Michigan, School of Public Health,Ann Arbor, Ml (CD-ROM), Wallace, B. and Cooper, K. (1986).The citizen's guide to lead: Uncovering a hidden health hazard. NC Press Ltd.Toronto %,-,, 2Dakar, f at7 26-28Jui&2001 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS From the available data, it could be concluded that the lead concentration in various environmental samples: surface and ground waters, dust, soils and foods are relatively high as compared to other developed countries. Levels of lead in soils from risky environments such as battery industry, mechanic villages, petrol stations are much higher as compared to those soils from the residential environment. Residents near heavy traffic highways are at high-risk for Lead pollution. 'Harmattan' dust which is characteristic of most sub-Saharan cities carry considerable amounts of lead due to lead from moving vehicles. The following measures are therefore recommended: * Phasing out of lead from petroleum production and formulation of policies at National level to reduce the lead use and emissions, * Monitoring and evaluation of lead levels in the environment at regular intervals and maintaining data base, * Strengthening of laboratories in the region with adequate and up to date equipment to handle the environmental samples and to ensure quality assurance, * Monitoring of blood lead levels among populations particularly children in risk environments, * Educational programs for various population groups on the health and ecological effects of lead, * Exchange of information from West African region through networking and other modern media, * Periodic review of lead levels in the environment through regional conferences and roundtable conferences, * Involvement of Non Governmental Organizations and Activist Groups in campaigning against lead emissions. REFERENCES Agbo, S. (1997), Effects of lead poisoning in children, in Proceedings At aWorkshop on Vehicular Emission and Lead Poisoning in Nigeria, Edited by A.A. Falomo and C. C. Chikwendu, Organized by Friends of the Environment (FOTE), Lagos, pp. 20-28 Adeniyi, FA.A. and Anetor.j. I. (1999), Lead-poisoning in two distant states of Nigeria: an indication of the real size of the problem, African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 28, pp. 107-112 Anetor,J. l..Adeniyi, FA.A. and Taylor, G. 0. L (1999), Biochemical indicators of metabolic poisoning associated with lead based occupations in nutritionally disadvantaged comrnunities,African journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences., 28, pp. 9-12 Anon (1996), Lead pollution: A blight on the future,Africa Health, 18, p.7 Asogwa, S.E (1979).The risk of lead poisoning in battery chargers and the possible hazards of their occupation on the environment Nigerian Medical Journal. 9: 189-193. ATSDR, (1992). Case studies in Environmental Medicine - Lead toxicity. U.S.Department of Health and Human Services (September), pp. 1-21. Ayodele, J.T., Momoh, R. U., and Amin, M. (1996), Determination of heavy metals in Sharada Industrial effluents, in Water Quality Monitoring and Environmental Status in Nigeria. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Water Quality Monitoring and Status in Nigeria, Organized by Federal Environmental Protection Agency and National Water Resources Institute, Published by Federal Environmental Protection Agency, October 16-18, 1991, pp. 158-166 Ayoola, E.A. (1979). Lead Poisoning in Adults. Nigerian Medical Journal. 9: 185-188. John, H. Cheryl, H, Richard, S and Christine. S. (1991).Toxics A to Z - A guide to everyday pollution Hazards. University of California Press. Berkley. Los Angeles. Oxford pp.47-104 Ketiku,A. O.,Adeyinka, 0. (1999), Leaching of lead from imported and Nigerian earthenware pottery and ceramic household utensils into food and drink,West African Journal of Biological and Applied Chemistry, 44, pp. 18-20 Nasralla, M. M. and Ali, E.A. (1985), Lead accumultion in edible portions of crops grown near Egyptian traffic roads, Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment. 13, 73-82 Ndiokwerre, C.C (1984).A study of heavy metal pollution from motor vehicle emissions and its effect on roadside soil, vegetation and crops in Nigeria. Enviromental. Pollution Ser. B. 7, pp 35-42 Nriagu,J.O, Blackson, M.l and Ocram, K (1996) Childhood lead poisoning in Africa- a growing Public Health Problem, Science of The total Environment 181 (2): 93- 101. Nriagu,J.O (1978) Lead in the atmosphere in the Biogeo-chemistry of lead in the environment. Amsterdam, Elsevier-North, Holland; part A, Pp. 138-164. DaA, SMiag 220f28,0,201 BLOOD LEAD LEVELS AND POISONING In developing nations limited reports suggest the existence of serious problems of occupational lead exposure. Nasaralla and Ali (1983, 1985) observed that Pb accumulates in crops near Egyptian highways. In an earlier study they had expressed concern about the lack of data on Pb pollution in Egypt to enable estimation of Pb intake in the country. This is probably also true of Nigeria. There are also reports from Malaysia that progressive industrial activity has resulted in increased environmental pollution and attendant health problem. Lim et al (1983 not cited here) attributed this to the high alkyl Pb content of Malaysian petrol with associated automobile emission. The Pb content of Malaysian petrol is 0.84 g/l and one of the highest in the world. This may be comparable to the situation in Nigeria where high gasoline Pb content has also been reported (Osibanjo and Ajayi, 1989). Other reports have come from Jamaica, Northern Sudan, Zimbabwe and Korea. Asogwa (1979) studied 43 battery workers and 50 control subjects. Forty-nine of his exposed subjects had BLL below 40 pg/dl while only one had a value between 40 and 50 pg/dl out of the battery workers, I S had BLL below 40 pg/dl, 25 had BLL of between 40 and 80 pg/dl and 3 had values of between 80 and 120 pg/dl. Ayoola (1979) reported on 10 cases of Pb poisoning. He drew attention to the difficulty of the diagnosis of Pb toxicity and cautioned that with the rapid industrialization of Nigeria, doctors and other health workers should be aware of the possible increase in the incidence of plumbism. Ayoola (1979) also noted the long term consequences of Pb even after quitting a Pb-based occupation. Osibanjo and Ajayi (1989) reported that the highest level of Pb occurs in Aviation gas (91 5 pg/ml) and super grade gasoline, 600-800 pg/ml (with a mean of 700 pg/ml). The comparable maximum levels in United States and Britain (UK) being 200 pg/ml and 500 pg/ml, respectively (Osibanjo and Ajaiyi, 1989). The authors however reported that trace amounts of Pb (2-7 pg/mI) are present in diesel oil, kerosene and lubricating oil. Ndiokwere (1984) studied heavy metal pollution and its effect on soil, vegetation and crops. Okoye (1994) in a survey of Pb and other metal contents of dried fish from Nigerian markets remarks that the Pb content is high. He observes that the high Pb content in fish from Nigerian markets indicates serious Pb contamination in Nigeria. He attributes this mainly to heavy automobile traffic and the high lead content of the local automobile fuels. Anetor et al (1999) studied 137 subjects in Ibadan comprising of 86 Pb workers and 51 control subjects. They were matched for age, sex, socio-economic status and dietary intake. The Pb workers were classified into 3 exposure categories according to severity of exposure as low, moderate and severe. Blood and urine samples were collected from all subjects. In this study 95% of Pb workers had BLL >40 pg/dl (1.93. pmol/dl, the upper limit currently acceptable in occupational exposure), 60% of the Pb workers had BLL >55 pg/dl (2.70 pmol/l, a level indicative of severe poisoning). 38% of Pb workers had BLL 60 pg/dl (2.90 pmol/l) a level considered indicative of the need to exclude the worker from further exposure), only 4% of Pb workers had BLL below 40 pg/dl (1.93 p mol/l). In another study involving 880 occupationally unexposed subjects from Iseyin, Shaki, Ogbomoso, and Sokoto, indicated that occupationally exposed workers had higher blood lead levels. The levels correlated well with smoking, alcohol and salt intake (Adeniyi and Anetor, 1999). Omokhodion (1994) studied blood samples from 90 males and 47 females attending a general outpatient clinic over a period of I month in association with 24 tap water samples from 8 locations around Ibadan, Nigeria. Blood lead levels ranged from 3.0 - 27.6 pg/dl. The mean blood lead level for females and males were 11.40 ± 6.16 and 12.33 ± 5.68 (pg/dl, respectively. The water samples in all eight locations show lead levels <5 pg/l. Omokhodion and Osungbade (1996) made a questionnaire- based survey of automobile mechanics and allied technicians in Ibadan. A total of 300 people were interviewed. The ques- tionnaire sought information on health problems associated with work, the presence of chronic illness and where workers seek help when they fall ill. The interview was followed by hand examination for dermatitis. Musculoskeletal disorders were the commonest work-related health problems reported. Of the 50 respondents who recorded Musculoskeletal disorders, 27 (54%) had low back pain, 75 (25%) of them had signs of hand dermatitis, which was most common among panel beaters and welders. 96. Preta oti s ¸rhar Dakar, Se6eat 26-28Jui".2001 LEAD IN WATER| Samples of 36 surface and ground waters in lbadan indicated varying lead levels.The surface waters intended for domestic needs showed lead levels in the range of (mg/e) 0.41±0.5,1.25±0.2. and 0.39±0.5 for high, medium and low density areas. Similarly, most wells showed concentrations for Pb to be slightly but considerably higher specifically in high-density communities: 1.50±0.4, 0.5±0.5, and 0.7±0.6 in high, medium, and low density areas. A study in Lagos involving 33 surface water samples and 13 ground water samples revealed similar increased lead levels: for surface waters, 0.324±0.089, 0.030±0.046, and 0.346±0.389 mg/l for high, medium and low density areas. For ground waters, 0.022±0.09, and 0.363±0.028 were recorded in high and medium density areas. The source of lead in water is mostly from the drainage and surface runoffs.Areas where lead based activities are high contribute to the lead levels in the final recipients such as river, stream or wells.A study byAyodele et al (1996) while working in Kano reported that industries contribute a large quantities of lead through the discharge of effluents (Table 3). - Suspended Lead [ D is- led Lead Total Lead TABLE 3 Lead ; Source ot Eliluent mgl | mg I mg/l levels in some .Nla-DMaiS andustri a~~~~~~~~l -: - ..--..., ..-.Nean-SD %\lean-S D Mean-SD' Industrial . * 1flD Effluents at Sharada Industry I (n=10) 184.4-10.23 202.49-2.81 388.20-12.67 Industrial Industry 2 (n=l 0) 75.60-11.54 363.0-21.81 446.4-35.97 Estate, Kano Industry 3 (n= 10) 1.94-0.55 18.04-8.18 21.70-8.12 Subjects NunRz Subjects ~~~Mean Age (Years) Blood -lead level - TABLE 4 Blood Exposed Group (Battery lead levels industry, Paint industry, 56.3-0.95 ladon lEvlse Petroleum Depot, an 86 (26 - 97) amqong Exposed insecticide Company, and Unexposed Ibadan)) controls in Control Group I (Workers 30.1-1.47* Nigeria from Offices, Ibadan) 51 (10 - 58) Control Group II (People from Iseyin, Shaki, 28.8-1.22* Ogbomosho and Sokoto) 880 (15 - 63) LEAD IN SOIL| I Lead levels in soils vary depending on the location and nearness to lead based activities and vehicular density. A study in Ibadan (Sridhar and Adogame, 1997 unpublished data) showed that in residential areas, the levels ranged from (mg/Kg): 364.0 + 85.2 in high density area, 269.0±133.9 in medium density area and 307.0±161.3 in low density area. In mechanic's villages the values ranged between 292.3 and 491.2. Near petrol stations, the values ranged between 190.0 to 1029 mg/Kg on the top 1 0-cm level and 237.5 to 3,862.8 mg/Kg in I I to 20-cm layer. Near a lead acid battery industry, the soils showed values of 7,339 in the top 10 cm layer and 6263mg/Kg in the I I to 20 cm layer.The type of soil, composition and cation exchange capacity and pH will govern the fate of contaminated lead whether to bind or to leach down. A process was developed to decontaminate soil with lead levels of about seven grams per Kg using physico-chemical and phytoremediation (Sridhar and Johnson, 2000, unpublished data) Dakar, SB?aL . .26-28J-4v.2001 Yet, in another study by Sridhar and lfeanyi (1998 unpublished data), lead levels were measured in Lagos metropolis.A total of,72 various prepared ready to eat food samples were collected and analyzed for lead from the high (29), medium (18) and low (25) density areas.Varying ranges of results were obtained for all the three areas but high values were recorded for mixed food varieties consumed locally, like soup, 'Jollof Rice and 'Gari', and Eba (Cassava based) and 'Amala' (Yam based). LEAD IN AIR Automobile exhausts are believed to account for more than 80% of the air pollution in some urban centres in Nigeria. The level of lead in Nigeria's super grade gasoline is 600-800mg per litre (Onianwa, 1985; Osibanjo and Ajayi, 1989, Shy, 1990) which is much higher than permissible levels in some pollution conscious countries. In a 1975-76 survey of the level of some automobile related pollutants (excluding lead) in the atmosphere within the urban city of Ibadan, Oluwande (1979) found that the levels of sulphur dioxide, carbon-monoxide and particulate matter were close to the WHO long-term limits. In that study the levels of lead were not measured. But now data are available which agreed with that prediction. In another study from lle-Ife, among Nigerian traffic wardens, it was found that the mean blood lead level in Lagos wardens was 18.1 ± 6.4 pg/dl, which was significantly higher than the level of 10.2 ± 2.7 pg/dl in Ife wardens (Ogunsola et al, 1994). Nriagu (1992) reported dust lead levels in Lagos about 5pg/m3. He further estimated that about 10 to 30% of the children in Africa might be suffering from lead poisoning. A total of 35 'Harmattan' dust samples were collected over an 8-week period (Adogame and Sridhar. 1997 unpublished data). The mean lead values showed a range of 57.5 to 143.2 mg/Kg. The amount of dust is dependent on the density of the area. The trend followed a decrease from the high to medium to low density area.This phenomenon could be accounted for by the volume of traffic and human population with its attendant activities in such areas and dust particles could be more easily raised by moving vehicles and human activity when the soil is dry (Tables I and 2). TABLE I Lead Levels Source o f eLead, mg/Kg particulates in dust samples from various socio-economic High Density Area (n= 17) 125- 35.7 to 143.2-42.8 groups in Ibadan Medium Density Area (n=6) 54.6-35.1 to 83.9-29.3 Low Density (n= 12) 57.5-88.0 to 89.6-20.9 =~~~~~~~~~~~L3. me d k . RaEn . . .. Source of Sample .. Led. me z I Range -. r.-- :- - n~~~articulates !\lean -SD TABLE 2 Lead levels V. ,* .-:.a' ..u..e . . . e.n.-SD in Commercial Commercial Automobile Automobile Exhaust Exhaust (n=20) 0.043 - 11.40 3.01- 2.71 in a Selected Area in Heavy Duty Automobile Lagos Metropolis Exhaust (n=lO) 0.096 - 18.00 5.404-5.63 Private Automobile Exhaust (n=25) 0.038 - 11.20 3.064-3.09 In another study by Sridhar and Ifeanyi (1998, unpublished data) 52 indoor dust samples from high (18), medium (18) and low (17) density area showed varying lead levels. Nature of the building, wall paintings, degree of ventilation, elevation, nearness to heavy traffic and most especially contamination of dust samples with paint peelings off the wall influenced the values.The lead levels were: 0.19 - 388.80 mg/kg, 18.5 - 398.15 mg/kg, and 10.25 - 215 mg/Kg for high, medium and low density areas, respectively. These values were high in a few cases when considering the fact that outdoor urban road dust lead level was about 100- 5,000mg/Kg .The type of house has significant influence as evident from the results of dust analysis (mg/Kg): Bungalow, 94.06, Ground floor, 73.15, and First floor, 125.14. 94; Pr"evseao .... . Srr Dakar, SMigaL a 26-28Juii,2001 SUIVI DE LA QUALITE DE LAIR Teer e1o# b du vidsfr Mynepalli Sridhar, Director, Division of [nvironmentdl HedIth, UniversitO d'lbdddn Ibaddn, Nigeria INTRODUTION Lead is a common industrial metal that has become widespread in air, water, soil, and food. It is a naturally occurring element that has been used almost since the beginning of civilization.As a result of the many industrial activities that have brought about its wide distribution, lead is ubiquitous in the environment today. Wallace and Cooper (1986) have compiled a list of 120 occupations (e.g., auto-mechanic, painting, printing, and welding) that may involve exposure to lead. All humans have lead in their bodies primarily as a result of exposure to man-made sources (ATSDR, 1992). Studies have shown that the body lead levels of modern humans are about 500 times higher than those of pre-industral umes. Organic lead compounds (Tetraethyl lead and Tetra methyl lead) are extensively used as additives in petrol. It has been pointed out that Africa's con- tribution to global lead pollution has increased from just 5% in 1980s to 20% in 1996 (Nriagu. 1978. 1979. 1989,Anon, 1996). Some of the lead in the ambient air around urban centers is in the form of sub-micron sized particulate. More than two-thirds of the Nations in Africa have maximum lead levels above the world median value. In Egypt progressive industrial activity has resulted in increased environmental pollution and attendant health problems. South Africa, however, has introduced unleaded petrol in 1996. In Nigeria, the levels of lead in petrol are estimated at 0.7g/litre.The national consump- tion of petrol in the country is estimated at 20 million litres per day with about 150 people per car. It is therefore predicted that at least 15,000 Kg of lead is emitted into the environment through burning (Agbo. 1997). For children, the most impor- tant pathways of lead exposure are ingestion of chips from lead-painted surfaces, inhalaEion of lead from automobile emis- sions, food from lead soldered, plumbing, and medications in the form of folk remedies. Most people in nigeria are ignorant of lead and its toxicityThe main source of adult human exposure is food, which is believed to account for over 60% of blood levels; air inhalation accounts for approximately 30% and water of 10% (John et al, 1991).This paper presents the present sta- tus of lead levels in the environment in Nigeria in particular and other African countries in general. LEAD IN FOODS AND VEGETATION Several studies indicated that plants have the ability to concentrate lead (Sridhar, 1988). Leaf and root contain more lead than stem, and the contents of lead in different plant organs were positively correlated to the lead content in soils. Commonly the Pb does not concentrate in the edible fruited part of the plant . Urban trees also concentrate lead. In a study carried out by Ademoroti (1986) on Levels of Heavy Metals on Bark and fruits of trees in Benin city, Nigeria. Levels of lead deposits in all cases were found to vary according to traffic volume; high levels (58.3- 143.5(g/g) were recorded for areas of very high traffic volume and low levels (15.2-1 5.8(g/g) for areas of low traffic volume. Ketiku and Adeyinka (1999) reported that imported glazed ceramics (drinking mugs, soup bowls, and cooking pots) in Nigeria released lead up to 0.4 ppm as compared to those manufactured locally which leached only up to 0. I ppm. Okoye (1994) reported high lead levels in dried fish from Nigerian markets.A study carried out by Sridhar and his associates revealed that the lead levels in food var- ied among the communities whether they are living in high, medium or low density areas.The levels are (mg/Kg): smoked fish 0 to 9.7, 'Gari' a popular native cassava dish, 0 to 8.6, dried meat, 0 to 15.1, Suya (a meat preparation), 6.5, and ;Elubo' (a local preparation), 0 to 12.5.The foods sold in high density areas contained higher levels. Coefre.tc& r6gwik r (lt*lipdsp6Owb L.i, t.5 reze eli4e. ;.f p .I. LI, i-',' Dtzkar, featgaL 26-28Jauc2001 Dak.. . La technologie de raffinage est aujourd'hui mure pour produire des carburants de qualite sans composes de plomb; c'est une troisieme raison. Ces comnposes lourds se retrouvent, pour certains a la surface des particules, alors que les plus volatils emis en moins grande quantite sont presents dans la phase gazeuse La relation entre 1'exposition et le dommage est eablie sur base de relations doses-reponses. Celles-ci sont specifiques aux polluants, recepteurs et types de dommage. 3 Comme l'indiquent les chiffres concernant les vehicules diesel, ceux-ci peuvent varier considerablement suivant les villes considerees et les methodes de calcul utilisees. REFERENCES BANQUE MONDIALE (1999): "Etude de la qualite de l'air en milieu urbain: Cas de Dakar et Ouagadougou". Rapports finaux - -Programme de politiques de transports en Afrique subsaharienne - 52 p. + annexes EC, 1999: "ExternE Project - Methodology 1998 Update Report",Vol. 7 - 518 p. EC, 1995: "ExternE Project - Externalities of Energy" - Vol. 2, Methodology., 571 p. FAVRELV. et HECQW. (2001): "External cost of air pollution generated by road traffic in the Brussels urban area' Accepte pour publication dans "International Journal of Vehicle Design" HECQ W., GILSON B. et FAVREL V. (1999): "Overview and Analysis of the links between "Models of Mobility' and "Models of Pollutant Emissions from Transport" in "Methods of Estimation of Atmospheric Emissions from Transport". European scientist network and scientific state-of-the-art -Action COST 319 final report pp 68-73 HECQ W(1998): "Contribution of fossil fuels and air pollutants emissions in Belgium since 1980.The role of traffic Catalysis and automotive pollution control IVA. Frennet & N.Kruse Editors. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis.Vol. 116 pp 5-22. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. HECQ W. dans LEDUC D. et al. (1997). "Relation entre pathologie respiratoire et pollution atmospherique urbaine: Etude dans un service d'urgence". Reanimation-Urgences,Vol 6 pp. 85-90. IBGE (2000): "La qualite de l'air en Regions de Bruxelles-Capitale". Institut Bruxellois pour la gestion de l Environnement - Mesure a l'Immission - Annexe - 54p. INFRAS/IVv'W (2000): External Costs of Transport - UIC - International Union of Railways - 305p. LOVEL M. (1999): "Eliminating a Silent Threat" - Word Bank Support for the Global Phaseout of Lead from Gasoline - World Bank - 20 p. SFSP (1996): "La pollution atmospherique d'origine automobile et la sante publique" - "Bilan de 15 ans de recherche internationale Societe francaise de sante publique - 251 p. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). (1985). "Costs and Benefits of Reducing Lead in Gasoline: Final Regulatory Impact Analysis". EPA-230-05-85-006. Office of Policy Analysis. Washington, D.C. WBI (2000): "Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa Cities" Work in progress - World Bank Institute - Sub Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program First Issue - 28p. WHO (2000): "Guidelines for Air Quality" 130 p. 92- PrA6& 4iwtivs H"eC f -5f,;, ~ D ,ak4 S6tea4L 26-28J1d, 2001 Une troisieme reglementation europeenne interdit definitivement la vente d'essence "plombee" A partir du I er janvier 2000. L'effet de ces mesures est visible sur la figure 1. La concentration annuelle de plomb dans l'air ambiant est tombee de 2.700 ng/m3 en 1975 A 1.600 ng/m3 en 1981 a la suite de la limitation de la teneur en plomb de 1'essence A 0,4g/1l. FIGURE I Evolution de la concentration en plomb dans l'air a Bruxelles (IBGE, 2000). 2500 2000 So 500 i::iL0 X CL L z 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 199S 199 1997 *998 1999 20w0 Cette concentration va ensuite baisser A 580 ng/m3 en 1987, annee de la mise en vente de l'essence A 0,15 g/l de plomb. Grace a la mise en vente progressive d'essence sans plomb, fin 80, la concentration en plomb dans l'air ambiant va encore progressivement diminuer pour ne plus s'elever qu'a 100 ng/m3 de plomb en 1988. La suppression definitive du plomb dans 1'essence mise en vente va enfin faire chuter la teneur en plomb de l'air A 50 ng/m3 en 2000, soit plus de 50 fois moins qu'en 1975. Par ailleurs, la mise en vente d'essence sans plomb A la fin des annees quatre-vingt permettra l'usage du pot catalytique sur les nouveaux vehicules et de se plier aux nouvelles normes Euro. La mise en circulation pro- gressive de vehicules munis de pot catalytique permet aujourd'hui d'ameliorer la qualite de l'air dans les villes europeennes comme c'est le cas pour le plomb au cours des vingt dernieres annees. 4. CONCLUSIONS I Les agglomerations urbaines d'aujourd'hui connaissent une triple croissance: celle de la population, celle des activites economiques et celle du trafic. La resultante environnementale de ces croissances est non seulement la pollution atmo- spherique, mais aussi la congestion elle-meme cause de pollution. Cette pollution affecte une population de plus en plus nombreuse, les batiments, les cultures periurbaines, etc. Les donnees disponibles sur les effets negatifs sur la sante et sur l'environnement, leurs couts le demontrent. Parmi les solutions pour enrayer le phenomene, des mesures touchant a: I'amenagement du territoire, ou le recours accru aux transports collectifs ainsi qu'a la mise en ceuvre de mesures techniques sont possibles. Si on se focalise sur les mesures techniques portant sur les carburants et les vehicules, trois elements importants sont a retenir. Ils concernent l'usage du plomb dans 1'essence. * Le plomb est une substance toxique pour la sante, c'est une premiere raison pour reduire son usage dans les carburants. * Le plomb nuit au bon fonctionnement des pots catalytiques, une technique aujourd'hui largement utilisee et qui permet de reduire tres significativement les rejets de trois categories de polluants qui posent de serieux prob- lemes d'environnemenc le monoxyde de carbone, les oxydes d'azote et les composes organiques volatils; c'est une deuxieme raison pour reduire son usage dans les carburants. Hecl 914 mais par la population, en general, 1'environnement, I'Etat et ce sans contrepartie 6quitable. 11 est donc utile de le connaitre. De plus, dans le cadre de la prise de decision par les autorites, le montant des dommages peut etre compare aux coGts des mesures i mettre en oeuvre (analyse couts-benefices). Par ailleurs, il est de plus en plus question, en vertu du principe de pol- lueur payeur, de faire supporter ces coGts par les usagers des transports et de ce fait. de faire jouer les mecanismes de marche. On peut, en effet esperer, qu'en integrant les coGts de pollution sous formes soit de mesures de d6pollution, soit de taxes differenciees suivant les modes de transport ou les carburants, orienter la demande vers une mobilite moins polluante tout en faisant prendre conscience du probleme par les acteurs. Deux cas illustrant l'utilit6 de connaitre les cooGs des dom- mages sont montres ci-apres. Le premier cas concerne le plomb. 11 s'agit d'une analyse coGts-benefices qui a justifie la decision de limiter l'usage du plomb dans 1'essence aux U.S.A.. Le second cas concerne les couts externes de differents types de motorisation, ce qui a permis de justifier les nouvelles normes europeennes et 1'effet benefique de l'introduction du pot catalytique. Dans le cadre de l'application de la loi sur la reduction des composes de Pb dans l'essence aux U.S.A., l'USEPA (USEPA, 1985) a etabli que la limitation de la teneur en TEL, de 0,3 g/l a 0,026 g/l, coGterait 500 millions de $ par an a l'industrie du raffinage du p6trole en 1986. En contrepartie, les avantages monetaires de cette reduction s'&everaient a: * 600 millions de $ en dommages evites chez les enfants (frais medicaux, retards scolaires); * 6 milliards de $ en reduction de cas d'hypertension chez les adultes; * 200 millions de $ correspondant a la diminution des coOts de catalyseurs prematurement detruits par 'misfueling" et d'impact des polluants sur la sante; * I milliard de $ sous forme de gains sur 1'entretien des vehicules. Soit, au total, plus de 6 milliards de benefices et meme si l'on considere l'incertitude de certaines relations "doses-effets" (hypertension), les benefices excedent les coGts avec une confortable marge. La demarche du deuxieme cas est suivie pour justifier les decisions politiques portant sur les nouvelles normes de reduc- tion du CO, NOx,VOCs et PM imposees sur les vehicules en Europe. Les chiffres repris dans le tableau 3 sont calcules par la methode "ExternE" (INFRAS/IVWW, 2000; FAVREL,V. et al., 2001; EC, 1999; EC, 1995). Couts en EUR par 1000 vkm Couts mar inaux de la pollution de l'air Total TABLEAU 3 Mode de transport Sante Materiaux Cultures Min Max Coets Zone geographique Moy. U.E. Moy. U.E. Moy. U.E. pe lutirne de Voitures la pollution Essence - norme pre Euro 35,3 0,2 0,4 36,0 45,5 atmo- spherique Essence - norme Euro 1 9.6 - - 9,6 12,1 dans les Essence - norme Euro III 8,3 8.3 10.5 agglomera- Diesel - norrne Euro I 24.8 24.8 31,3 tions (deux Zone geographique Bruxelles Bruxelles Bruxelles exemples). Diesel - norne pre Euro 663 58 144 3.605 Diesel - norrne Euro I 142 13 31 780 Zone geographique Moy. U.E. Moy. U.E. Moy. U.E. Motocyclettes 15,0 1,1 16,2 19,2 Comme on peut le constater, l'introduction des normes Euro I permet en comparaison avec la norme pre Euro, de reduire significativement les coots externes * pour la sante et ce grace a la suppression de l'essence plombee qui autorise l'usage du pot catalytique sur les vehicules. Sur bases de toutes ces analyses sanitaires, environnementales et economiques, des mesures pour reduire le plomb dans 1'essence ne se sont pas fait attendre.Ainsi dans l'union Europeenne et en Belgique, en particulier, trois trains de mesures ont et prises (HECQ W., 1998). * Une reglementation europeenne limite la teneur maximale de plomb dans 1'essence a 0,4 g/l des le I r janvier 1981. * Deux reglementations, l'une europeenne et l'autre belge, abaissent la teneur maximale de plomb dans l'essence a 0,1 5g/1 des le I er janvier 1987 et autorise la vente d'essence sans plomb des le I er octobre 1989. Cette vente ne cessera de croltre grace a une fiscalite differentielle en faveur de 1'essence sans plomb. .9 . rietz e C&6w#tf&r eL rdisew Sindptomb s&seicc&eriqu&;eaArtb-su at 'ak e 26-29Jswv 2001 ENIISSIONS POLLUANTS IMPACTS Il NPACTS Court terme Long terme Oxydes de soufre Aerosols ? Mortalite respiratoire et d'azote__ COVs et oxydes 03 Troubles respiratoires et maladies Maladies respiratoires et d'azote des veux | asthme COVs et oxydes 03 Pertes de rendements aux cultures agncoles d'azote COVs et oxydes 03 Destruction. d&coloration d'azote [| des materiaux Dioxyde de soufre S02 Pertes de rendements aux cultures agricoles Oxydes de soufre Acidite/nitrification Pertes de rendements aux et d'azote cultures agncoles Oxydes de soufre Acidite/nitrification Forets ? Mortalite des arbres et d'azote Oxydes de soufre |Acidite/nitrification Ecosystemes ? Destruction et d'azote Oxydes de soufre Acidite - Diminution des p&ches et d'azote (Eaux de surface) Oxydes de soufre Acidite - Degradation (Materiaux) et d'azote Matieres PM IO, PM2.5 - Salissures des facades particulaires Oxydes de soufre Aerosols - Salissures des matenaux et d'azote Gaz A effet de C02, N2o, CH4, 03 Rechauffement global Varies serre Seules les villes d'une certaine importance disposent d'un reseau de mesures du trafic, de mesures meteorologiques et de la pollution, de statistiques sur la population, les batiments et peuvent etablir plus ou moins correctement des bilans de pollution par le trafic. Dans ce domaine, des evaluations partielles, y compris economiques, ont ete realisees sous l'egide de la Banque mondiale pour des villes africaines comme Dakar, Cotonou (WBI, 2000; Banque mondiale. 1999). 11 serait interessant que ces etudes puissent aboutir a quantifier 1'ensemble des dommages et en mesurer leur importance. QU[LS SONT LES DOMMAGES AUXQUS ON DOIT S'ATTENDR[ ? Une synthese des etudes menees, a I'heure actuelle (INFRAS/IWW, 2000; FAVREL,V. et al., 2001; EC, 1995; EC, 1999), montre que les dommages concernent en grande partie la sante humaine avec diverses pathologies respiratoires (HECQ, W.,1997), des troubles ophtalmologiques et des cas de mortalite precoce par asthme, affections respiratoires, cardio- vasculaires, ceci, pour des expositions a court terme.A long terme, il faut ajouter a cette liste, des cancers (Tableau 2). En ce qui concerne les batiments, la degradation des materiaux sensibles: calcaires, gres, zinc ainsi que le noircissement des facades des batiments sont observes (FAVREL,V. et al., 2001). Enfin, les cultures agricoles, les forets, peuvent souffrir d'etre exposees a l'ozone, aux oxydes de soufre et d'azote (EC, 1999, EC, 1995). * The relationship between exposure and damage is established through dosage-reaction that is specific to pollutants, receivers and types of damages. 3. LE COUT DES DOMMAGES L'ensemble de ces dommages est actuellement chiffre dans de nombreux pays dans le but d'en conna^itre le coiut economique (INFRAS/IWWV, 2000; FAVREL,V et al., 2001). L'objectif de ces evaluations est connu. Les dommages issus de la pollution atmospherique provoquee par les vehicules constituent un cout pour la soci&e. Le cout est appele "externe" car il n'est pas supporte par les usagers des vehicules Pr6seKtaf:Lor,s *H 8. - Dakar, smejti * 26-28JJiP2001 2. LES DOMMAGES ET LEUR QUANTIFICATION Les transports sont donc une source importante d'emission de polluants dans l'air comme le Pb, CO, NOx. PM IO, SO2, C02,... Les emissions de ces substances causent divers dommages qui concernent un large echantillon de recepteurs: I'homme, les materiaux, les cultures agricoles, la flore et la faune sauvages, le climat etc... L'importance des dommages occasionnes par la pollution atmospherique issue du trafic n'est a I'heure actuelle que partiellement connue. De nom- breux programmes de recherches sont menes afin de chiffrer ces dommages. Quelques considerations sur des etudes menees et qui sont encore en cours sont reprises ci-apres. r'APPRO(C[ (LASSIQU[ POUR (UIF[R[R ([S DOMMAG[S [ST LA QUANTIFICATION D[ LA S[QU[N(E: TRAFI( - [MISSIONS - DISP[RSION - DXPOSITION - DOMMAG[S - (OUS DES DOMMAG[S (EC, 1995, EC 1999). Dans cette sequence, appelee chemin d'impact, le trafic est chiffre a I'aide d'un premier type de modeles qui fournit le flux de trafic suivant les heures de la journee sur le reseau routier. Les resultats des modeles de trafic permettent de chiffrer la consommation de carburants et les emissions de polluants du parc des vehicules a l'aide d'un deuxieme type de modeles, ceux d'emissions (HECQ,W. et al, 1999). Les resultats des modeles d'emissions sont alors introduits dans troisieme type de modeles, ceux de dispersion des differents polluants. Les resultats de ces trois modeles permettent de chiffrer l'exposition de recepteurs (population, batiments, cultures agricoles,..) aux polluants. Des donnees d'exposi- tion permettent, ensuite, de quantifier les dommages a l'aide de fonctions de dommages en terme physique a I'aide d'un quatrieme type de modeles doses-reponses. IL [ST POSSIBL[ [HrIN DI (HIFFR[R LIS DOMMAG[S [N T[RM[ MON[TAIR[, SOIT PAR D[S M[IODES DIR[(TIS, SOIT INDIRECI[S. Pour evaluer cette sequence, de nombreuses informations sont necessaires. Pour chiffrer les emissions, il faut disposer d'infor- mations sur les deplacements et sur le parc des vehicules utilises. 11 faut ensuite connaktre la typologie de la ville et disposer de donnees meteorologiques, des reseaux de surveillance de la qualite de l'air pour calculer la concentration des polluants dans l'air. Pour 1'exposition, il faut enfin connaltre la distribution de la population, du stock de materiaux, de cultures sensibles exposes. Pour les dommages, il faut selectionner des fonctions de dommages* et puis appliquer des methodes de calcul des coOts. L'ensemble de la demarche peut etre tres long et complexe, tout depend du degre voulu de precision des estimations. 11 est aussi utile d'en evaluer les marges d'incertitudes TABLEAU 2: Impact on urban traffic EMISSIONS POLLUANTS IMPACTS IMPACTS Court terme Long terme Plomb Plomb Troubles neurologiques, et composes affection cardiovasculaire Monoxyde CO Mortalite cardiovasculaire et autres - de carbone Matieres PM 10, PM2,5 Maladies respiratoires Mortalite respiratoire particulaires et cardiovasculaires et cardiovasculaire Mortalite respiratoire Aldehydes Formaldehyde Fonction respiratoire, troubles des Leuc6mies, autres cancers yeux Benzene Benzene - Leuc6mies 1,3-butadiene 1,3-butadiene - Cancers respiratoires et autres Hydrocarbures HAP Cancers respiratoires, polyaromatiques autres cancers Dioxyde d'azote NO2 Maladies respiratoires, asthmes Dioxyde de soufre S02 Maladies respiratoires, Mortalite respiratoire asthme, mortalite respiratoire eosiwre refg/s4ur weaWevpOtb datg t;edsje& &v Afyr¸b-YiareJv Dakar, Sb,aZ 26-28Jfiit.2001 issus de la combustion dont certains ont des proprietes cancerigenes (WHO, 2000). Dans ce cas encore, on doit s'attendre ,a des effets negatifs pour la sante publique compte tenu de ce qu'indiquent les relations exposition-effets de l'OMS (absence de seuils). 1.2 LES DOMMAGES A L'ECHELLE URBAINE ET REGIONALE A c6te des polluants precites, figurent egalement d'autres polluants urbains: les oxydes de soufre (SO2) et d'azote (NOx), des composes organiques (volatils) COVs et des polluants photochimiques secondaires (ozone, 03; peroxy- acetylnitrate, PAN). Certains de ces polluants issus du trafic dans les villes, se deplacent hors des villes et se transforment. Durant leur sejour dans l'atmosphere. deux phenomenes de pollution apparaissent les dep6ts acides (sulfates et nitrates) ainsi que la presence d'ozone tropospherique et d'autres oxydants, le tout sur de larges zones geographiques (jusqu'a des centaines de km) et pour des periodes variables (jusqu'a plusieurs mois). Les dep6ts acides Le dioxyde de soufre (SO2) produit par la combustion du soufre residuel dans les carburants et les oxydes d'azote (NOx: NO, NO2) issus de l'oxydation de l'azote de l'air sont egalement agressifs vis-a-vis des tissus vivants et des mat6ri- aux de construction. Dans les villes des pays en voie de developpement, la situation est parfois inquietante, des concentrations moyennes horaires superieures a 350 pg/m3 peuvent etre observees a Dakar (Banque mondiale, 1999). En d'autres endroits, des concentrations moyennes annuelles dans l'air ambiant peuvent atteindre 300 pg/m3 de SO2. Ceci peut entrainer en conjonction avec des matieres particulaires fines des problemes respiratoires chez les personnes sensibles (WHO, 2000). Par ailleurs, des mortalites precoces sont correlees avec la presence d'oxydes de soufre et de matieres particulaires. Le dioxyde d'azote (NO2), egalement, peut entrainer comme le dioxyde de soufre (SO2), apres inhalation, des reponses bron- cho-constructives chez les personnes sensibles (asthme). Dakar connait des concentrations moyennes horaires en NOx de plus de 700 pg/m3 (Banque mondiale, 1999). Les concentrations annuelles de NO2 peuvent atteindre jusqu'a 90 pg/m3 et les valeurs horaires peuvent s'elever jusqu'a 1000 pg/m3 dans certaines villes des pays en d6veloppement. 11 en resulte que les valeurs guides de l'OMS sont regulierement depassees pour le SO2 et le N02 (WHO. 2000). Les oxydes de soufre et d'azote sont transportes A de longues distances. Ils subissent des transformations dans l'atmosphere et leurs dep6ts (sulfates, nitrates) degradent les cultures agricoles et acidifient les eaux de surface et les sols. Les charges critiques de ces dep6ts peuvent etre depassees dans les zones geographiques exposees. La pollution photooxydante Cette pollution resulte de polluants secondaires, parmi lesquels l'ozone (03) et le peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) figurent comme des agents oxydants agressants. L'ozone est formen sur base d'un mecanisme complexe de formation-destruc- tion A partir de NO2 + NO et de l1ensoleillement. Le NO2 est reg6nere grace a des hydrocarbures volatils et de len- soleillement. La concentration d'O3 crolt partout dans le monde, or ce gaz agresse les tissus vegetaux et animaux. Si les concentrations de fond de l'ozone s'elevent entre 40 et 70 pg/m3 en moyenne horaire, dans les zones peri-urbaines, sous le vent, ces concentrations peuvent atteindre 300-400 pg/m3 et les effets negatifs sur le systeme respiratoire peu- vent etre attendus. Les valeurs guides de l'OMS sont regulierement depassees dans ces zones (WHO, 2000). 1.3 LA POLLUTION A L'ECHELLE MONDIALE Le principal produit de combustion des carburants: le dioxyde de carbone (CO2), puis le protoxyde d'azote (N20), le methane (CH4), I'ozone tropospherique (03) participent au rechauffement climatique. En consequence, une elevation du niveau des mers, la disparition des zones c6tieres, des modifications du climat (pluies ou secheresse, etc) sont attendues. Les trois types de pollution mentionnes engendrent une serie de dommages A la sante publique, aux batiments, aux cultures agricoles, aux forets, etc. *r-;e~ ]87 t3akar, 1b&at - 2r,28Ju,i&2001 TABLEAU I Pollution de I'air et trafic automobile dans les zones urbanisees - Sept exemples de problemes environnementaux LEVEL POLLUTANTS EFFECTS, ._e TRAFFIC CONFORMITY WITH WHO . CONTR;BIF. O GUIDE-VALUES _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _O N LOCAL & Pb HEALTH MAJOR NO URBAN CO HEALTH MAJOR NO HEALTH MAJOR N.A. ., PMIO, PM 2,5 MATEJAL Hydrocarbons HEALTH N.D. NO , .,: .-~ f-: incl. Aromatics, -.aldehydes, HAP.. ACID DEPOSITS, 5 60% ACCORDrNG TO THE AREA R-EGIONAL HEALTH, MATERIALS, ,,_._____. CULTURES 03 PHOTOCHEMICAL 70% (NO2) YES EXCEPT FOR EPISODES (NOx, COVs, POLLUTION 20% (COVs) I PERIURBAN AREAS CO) HEALTH, MATERIALS, CULTURES GLOBAL C02, N20, 03, GREENHOUSE 30%-- CH4, CFCs EFFECT CLIMATE (HECQ,W.; 1998) peuvent s'elever a des valeurs superieures aux valeurs-guides de l'OMS (WHO, 2000). Mais, dans des con- ditions normales et pour certaines villes comme Ouagadougou, ces valeurs-guides peuvent ou pourront ere depassees a l'avenir (Banque mondiale, 1999) et menacer (a sante publique. En effet, il est connu que compte tenu de son affinite pour I'hemoglobine du sang (plus de 200 fois celle de l'oxygene), le CO presente des dangers pour les populations a risque: insuff- isants cardiaques et du systeme respiratoire, jeunes enfants et femmes enceintes, etc... (SFSP, 1996). La pollution particulaire (PM IO, PM2,5) Les particules fines font partie des fumees noires, elles tirent leur origine des imbrGles organiques et des residus mineraux dans les carburants. Les etudes actuelles montrent que ce sont les particules fines produites par les vehicules diesel et a essence qui posent des problemes. En effet, leur temps de residence dans l'air urbain peut ere assez long (jours, semaines) et elles peuvent donc s'accumtler. Comme ces particules sont fines (diametres inferieurs a 10 pm ou inferieurs a 2,5 pm), ces particules penetrent partout, dans les maisons mais aussi dans le systeme respiratoire de Ihomme. Les etudes toxicologiques et epidemiologiques mentionnent les particules fines comme un facteur d'ac- croissement de maladies respiratoires chroniques et de mortalite precoce (SFSP, 1996). De ce fait, I'OMS ne mentionne pas de seuils de protection, mais considere 1'exposition aux particules fines comme un facteur de risque sans seuil de protection sanitaire (WHO, 2000). Or, dans les pays en developpement, les concentrations annuelles en PM peuvent depasser 100 pg/m3. If faut ajouter que les particules sont egalement responsables de salissures qui enlaidissent les facades des batiments. La pollution par divers contaminants de I'air A l'echelle urbaine toujours, on doit relever encore une serie de substances polluantes organiques: comprenant des alcanes, alcenes, des aromatiques monocycliques, notamment benzene et toluene et des composes oxygenes (aldehydes, acides, cetones, ethers) issus de la combustion ou de l'vaporation des essences, et encore des HAP (hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques, comme le benzo(a)pyrene, le benzo(k)fluoranthene, le benzo(b)fluoranthene, le benzo(g,h,i)peryl&ne et le benzo(a)anthracene)* ...- DaAa.r, S1tiaL 26-28Juif2001 EMISSIONS DE VEUI(LES Re/aow exte a iuitde, [air et l esRsoKs de mpiacts: 1 sur les co(ds Dr. Wdlter flqe Professeur,, UniversitO de Bruxelles Bruxelles, Belgique DES [MISSIONS DIS V[fI(UL[S A LA QUALITE E LAIR, DES DOMMAGES AUX (OUTS DES DOMMAG[S. Cette presentation debute par un rappel de la contribution du trafic aux grands problemes de degradation de la qualite de I'air. La deuxieme partie porte sur la quantification des polluants presents dans l'air ambiant et de leurs effets associes. Enfin, la troisieme partie donne un apercu sur le cout economique des dommages. Dans ce but. je me refererai a des etudes recentes effectuees tant en Afrique qu'en Europe ou aux USA La degradation de la qualite de I'air relative au trafic est etroitement liee a l'utilisation d'energies fossiles. On peut classer cette degradation en trois categories (tableau 1) suivant la portee geographique de la pollution: - pollution a l'echelle locale et urbaine, - pollution a l'echelle urbaine et regionale, - pollution a l'echelle globale. 1. DES EMISSIONS A LA QUALITE DE L'AIR 1.1. POLLUTION A L'ECHELLE LOCALE & URBAINE Cette pollution est essentiellement une pollution de proximite. Les polluants rencontres sont nombreux : relevons des composes de plomb (Pb), le monoxyde de carbone (CO), des matieres particulaires fines (PM 10, PM 2,5), et des contaminants. La pollution par le plomb (theme de cette conference) Le plomb est ajoute dans 1'essence sous forme deTEL (plomb tetraethyl) etTML (Plomb tetramethyl) pour ajuster l'indice d'oc- tane. Des composes de plomb sont rejetes dans l'air ambiant avec les gaz d'&happement des vehicules. L'exposition au plomb peut survenir au travers de multiples voies comprenant l'inhalation d'air contamine par les rejets des vehicules a essence, mais aussi par ingestion puisque le plomb depose sur le sol entre dans la chaine alimentaire. Le plomb s'accumule dans les tissus vivants et peut, a des doses excessives, entrainer des dommages neurologiques (voir autres ses- sions de ce Colloque). Le metabolisme et les effets toxiques du plomb sont connus: sur le sang, le systeme nerveux peripherique et central, sur les reins etc... 11 semble que ce soit chez l'enfant que la toxicite neurologique du plomb soit des plus preoccupantes car elle retarde leur developpement psychomoteur.Actuellement, la valeur-guide de l'OMS (0,5 pg/m3, en moyenne annuelle) n'est pas respectee dans de nombreuses agglomerations des pays en voie de developpement (VVHO, 2000) ou 1'essence plombee est utilisee. En effet, des concentrations annuelles moyennes peuvent atteindre des valeurs de 1,5 a 2 pg/m3 dans I'air ambiant (Lovel, M., 1999). Le monoxyde de carbone (CO) Le monoxyde de carbone est un produit intermediaire de combustion issu en grande partie du trafic. Les mesures de con- centration de CO sont ues correlees a la densite du trafic, d'autant plus que les rejets sont les plus importants lorsque les vitesses moyennes des vehicules sont faibles (indicateur de congestion du trafic).Ainsi, dans les agglomerations, lorsque les conditions sont defavorables (mauvaise dispersion), dans les tunnels, les parkings souterrains, les concentrations moyennes Heeq 5 Dakar, Sde?at * 26-28Jmt L-t REFERENCESL Mamadou DIALLO: Le niveau d'implication des vehicules a moteur dans la pollution de l'air - jurn 1999 (The impact of motorized vehicles in air pollution- june 1999) Normes Senegalaises N.S - 060 fevrier 1999: Emission des gaz d'echappement des vehicules terrestres a moteur -valeur limite admissible et procedures de contr6le (Senegalese Standards N.S - 060 February 1999 : Motorized Land Vehicles Exhaust Fumes Emissions - the Allowed Limit and Control Procedures) Mamadou DIALLO : Evaluation des gaz a effet de serre dans le secteur des transports au Burkina Faso - decembre 1998. (Estimation of Green House Effect Gas andTransportation within Burkina Faso- December 1998) Serge SANWIDI : La pollution atmospherique generee par les transports urbains motorises a Ouagadougou - octobre 1999. (Air Pollution Engendered by Urban Motorized Transportation in Ouagadougou - October 1999) SONABHY : Specification sur les carburants SPECSXLS (Specifics to SPECSXLS types of fuel) Cw&re rena.1isr swwivdt p1o&b d.at 6'e;se, MAfiiqts S;h-¸~ari&tet 5.. akar, iegaL* 26-28Juii&2001 EMISSION DE NO1 2 Roues 4 Roues Pointe diu natin 12 % 88 % Pointe diu soil 7 % 93 % EMISSION DE HC 2 Roues 4 Roues Pointe du matin 12 % 88 % Pointe du soir 7 % 93 % 11.4 SPECIFICATIONSTECHNIQUES DU CARBURANT DISTRIBUEAU BURKINA Type dessence Teneur en plomb Teneur en soufre (g/l) (% poids) Essence regular Max. 0,8 Max. 0,25 Super Max. 0,8 Max. 0,25 Gas-oil Max. 1,0 DDO Max. 1,5 * L'essence et le super ont la m6me teneur en plomb * Le pourcentage d'huile 2 temps prevu par les fabricants est de 4% * Le melange est de 8% servi a la pompe; * L'essence super est beaucoup consomme par les vehicules 2 roues motorises de cylindree > 50 CC. CONCLUSION | En limitant les rejets importants de polluants dus au melange 2 temps, on reduit du meme coup les rejets dus au plomb contenu dans l'essence. Le cas particulier du Burkina merite qu'on y prete attention pour la raison suivante: * 11 possede un fort taux d'equipement des menages en vehicules 2 roues motorises, soit 150 deux roues pour 100 menages contre 22 voitures pour 100 menages. Par cet exemple, on constate qu'il est preferable de developper le transport collectif en lieu et place du transport individuel qui expose 1'ensemble des enfants a la menace des rejets dus a la consommation du plomb dans 1'essence. Pr~e,sa±~ons t7J, 83 Crn>treJL& eWK1&3' s twakLzfdt4.otr .Lv,rI ?L3j X,c o..frzue ;.¢ .ijL. F. DaXk, a e&yzZ 26-428jkl.2001 11. CAS DU BURKINA Selon les previsions disponibles, la population a ]'horizon 2010 de l'agglomeration de Ouagadougou serait de l'ordre de 1,5 a 2,5 millions d'habitants et celle de Bobo-Dioulasso a I million d'habitants. Ce developpement demographique s'explique en grande partie par le fait que ces deux villes et particulierement Ouagadougou (qui concentre 2/3 de l'industrie et 60% de l'activite salarie moderne) constituent les centres administratifs politiques et economiques du pays. Dans ce contexte et dans l'immediat, le probleme des transports urbains se pose tout particulierement a Ouagadougou. Elle revele veritablement un spectacle inquietant tant du point de vue de la congestion que de celui de la pollution. II.ILA PLACE DES 2 ROUES MOTORISES A OUAGADOUGOU Dans la repartition modale des deplacements a Ouagadougou, les 2 roues occupent une place de choix avec 39 % contre 06% aux voitures particulieres et 03% aux transports collectifs. Dans le meme ordre, on constate une predominance des 2 roues motorisees dans l'utilisation des modes de deplacement aux heures de pointe soit 45% a midi et 50% le soir contre 8% et 5% pour les voitures particulieres et 4% et 3% pour les transports collectifs. 11.2 L'IMPORTANCE DE LA CONSOMMATION D'ESSENCE COMPARATIVE TABLE: The Rate of Fuel Consumption and the Rate of Pollutant Emissions (1994) Tableau comparatif du niveau de consommation et de rejet de polluants ( 1994) QUANTITE . QUANTITE DE TYPE DENGINS NOMBRE ~CONSOMMEE TM REJET (Gg) VL + 2R + TRC 263.831 62.406 191.8106822 (essence) VU + PL (gas-oil) 24.077 33.704 107,0848739 TRAIN (DDO) 26 3.085 9.801710064 AVION (jet) - 8 542 26,96114151 TTAL < . .; - - . . 335,6584077 En analysant ce tableau, on constate que l'essence constitue la premiere source d'energie (57,9%) avec une quantite de rejet de polluants de 191,81 Gg. Ce taux reflete aussi une importante quantite de rejet du au plomb quand on sait que le parc est essentiellement com- pose de vehicules 2 roues motorises. 11.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM 2-WHEEL MOTORIZED VEHICLES En analysant ces trois tableaux, on constate que les rejets dus aux 2 roues sont considerables aux heures de pointes et particulierement les emissions de HC dues essentiellement a la nature du combustible. EMISSION DE CO 2 Roues- 4 Roues Pointe du matin 81 % 19 % Pointe du soir 69 % 31 % CokJHJe~ R4ioit&Z S LIi vdPLit dA4 HS L QyWbe' D J.;JLL d it> Dakar, Ie?4aL - 2628Jut2001 [MISSIONS DE VWIHO[LES CoKttrl&ds de4 ssds;ifud& PM&cd Mamddou Didllo, Dire(teur Generai, (entre de (ontrole des Whicules Ouadqadougou, Burkina haso Les vOhi(uIes deux roues a deux temps et la probIemdtique de l'Olimination du plomb dans IIessenWe: << (ds du BurkinA et des pays de I'AFique de l'Duest utilisdnt les deux roues>> INTRQnnUT4N | Le choix et l'utilisation des carburants destines aux differents modes de transport motorises reste de nos jours une equation a resoudre dans les pays ou l'usage des vehicules 2 roues a moteur 2 temps reste majoritaire. Le choix du carburant peut etre determinant dans la lutte contre toute forme de pollution si et seulement si, ce choix est approprie et convient au type de moteur. La technologie du moteur 2 temps doit aussi guide les distributeurs de carburant dont la meconnaissance de cette technologie rend encore difficile la distribution du carburant dont la qualit& peut varier d'un client a un autre. I I A PAflRI FMATIOQ IF nil I C IIy nil CARRIJRANT FACF AtI RFJFT ntl iOMR Lobjectif de cette communication est de rappeler la question de l'utilisaion incontr6lee du melange 2 temps dans les vehicules 2 roues motorises. La problenatique reside dans le fait que du carburant contenant du plomb est uilise dans un moteur dont les parametres de com- bustion ne sont pas ma^rises et engendreraient des rejets de pollution considerables et surtout toxiques en ce qui conceme les rejets dus a 1'essence super. 1.1 LES LIMITES DU MOTEUR 2TEMPS * La qualite du carburant (melange 2 temps) ne favorise pas une bonne combustion. La mauvaise combustion etant tributaire du pourcentage d'huile utilise pour faire le melange; plus le pourcentage est eleve et plus la combustion est mediocre; * La mauvaise combustion est aussi d'origine technologique. Le taux de compression 6tant faible, meme si le melange est correctement effectue la combustion sera de l'ordre de 50%; * Le systeme du doseur incorpore n'est pas etendu i tous les vehicules 2 roues motorises. S'il en existe, son reglage est accessible i l'usager. 1.2 LE COMPORTEMENT DES USAGERS DESVEHICULES 2 ROUES MOTORISES Si les rejets des polluants sont important au niveau des 2 roues motorises, cela est do: * A la meconnaissance du principe de fonctionnement du moteur 2 temps; * Au dosage abusif de l'huile 2 temps impose par l'usager des 2 roues; * A l'utilisation incomprehensible du super dans les vehicules 2 roues motorises (cas du Burkina); Prdetaiio/ Duzt/ Q81 nvP>e,,^,,, n,// Q8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'Z Cwtfirenio r6gwnas r eawtdot ( ds21oe ..Qr t/a&'c& Afriqse * i.vi v r> Dakar, Siata *26-28Juiwt2001 MMT? Non Merci! Conclusions/Lecons a tirer (1) Catahlseur bouchd: aprds 83, 000 kms d opdrauon en Afriquc dii Sud avec Ic carburant dop, au MMT * Le manque de distribution a double niieau est la "cause prinCipale" de la disponibilite restreinte de ['essence sans plomb dans le SADC. mais nest pas necessaire i la realisation de 1'elimination du plomb. * L'elimination du plomb peut etre atteinte avec un minimum d inconvenients au consommateur. . Maintenir/introduire l'essence sans plomh au niveau d'octane de 1'essence "ai-ec plomb" ou plus eleve. 6vitera les changements dans la calibration des v;hicules. Afin de solidifier les futurs *ehicules europeens ainsi que la legislation des emissions. un RONAION de 95/85 est n5cessaire. Conclusions/Leqons 'a tirer(2) * Les limites des emissions des pots d'echappement de Euro Stage 1 (ECE 83.01) assurera un equipement en p6t catalytique efficace et une reduction majeure dans les emissions des p6ts d'echappement. * La mise en oeuvre d'une legislation des emissions apres- plomb doit permettre un delai suffisant pour l'introduction des nouveaux modeles de vehicules (equipes pour limiter Ies emissions). * La qualite des carburants doit au moins etre au meme niveau que les standards des emissions et la technologie des nouveaux vehicules qui entrent sur la marche. * II faut introduire des contr6les de service pour assurer que les gains en emissions sont realises et maintenus. -Is- 80 xS.XtS | DaLy, Seiti5az 26-2SJw,200t, L'Evolution des L' Evolution des Emissions Q Emissions (Contd) A o 010 l , Standards 0 -i o @ 80 < ECE 1 ECEuropens -_ 100 StagSandards Europeens _ 0 - O ECE 15/03-----' -- * 80 Standards Japonais $ 6- Standards ° o Qa Jappnais () 60 .taz el _ 40 Go IA40/ Ut, 20mStandards E.U. EC Stage I 20 Standards E.U. ULEV E UE ° 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 ' Ann6e du mod6le ~~~~1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 Annee du modele -11- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-12- Niveaux EC des technologies d'emissions Pourquoi l'Euro 1 pour (Slmpizfic) * * ___ _____ ______fi_ l) 'Afrique du Sud? LEVEL Technology ECE Regulation (EC Directive) Stage 1 3 Way Cat ECE 83.01 * Am6liore les 6missions par ordre de (91/441 EEC) magnitude. * La qualite locale de l'essence ne peut Stag 2 3WayC/copCat + Diesel Cat E supporter des mesures plus nrgoureuses. Cat +Diese Cat (94112/EC) Stage 3 3 Way C/coupled ECE 83.05 Cat + Diesel Cat+ (98/69/EC) -13- Emissions - Contamination des pots Emissions: implications pour catalytiques I' octane - Le plomb peut rester dans le systeme de distribution pendant longtemps, des niveaux aussi bas que 0.005g/l * 'US' Whicules = 91 RON minimum peuvent endommager un p6t catalytique. * Vehicles 'Europeens' = 95 RON minimum * Un systeme a 2 niveaux d'essence avec et sans plomb (utilise en S Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland) est 'Eurograde 95' sujet au risque de cross-contamination . * La disponibilite de Sub-95 RON vehicules * Additifs de remplacement comme le phosphore peuvent aussi endommager le pot catalytique. 'Europeens' devient de plus en plus * Le compose d'augmentation d'octane MMT base sur restreinte. I'eIlment de Manganese ne devrait pas etre utilise car il peut egalement endommager les pots catalytiques. -15- -16- ?,¢rggeXt,Asu G.45 79 C~&robere riDn r 'diondspr d n ds / a e, f iqaf n ah-.Akriete- Doak,v S&e?al 26-28 JwK 2001 SADC Disponibilite de 1'essence sans plomb 80% des vehicules de .> "> - I'Afrique subsaharienne r.o = ^c * Angola N?' * Namibia Y Couvert par 3 secteurs de - * Botswana Y * Sevchelles Y raffinenie. F* DR of Congo N * South Africa Y Seul le 'sans plomb' est Kenya N * Swaziland Y obli-atoire en S. Africa Planification de controle * Lesotho Y * Tanzania N des emissions S Africa -* Malawi N * Uganda N & [le Maurice * Mauritius N? * Zambia N . Mozambique N * Zimbabwe Y? -5- -6- L'Elimination de l'Essence avec Les etats "seulement avec p1omb": Plomb (1) SADC Implications pour les vehicules * Option l:(NIVEAU UNIQUE INFRASTRUCTURE * Restrictions de Voyage/Tourisme aux frontieres. comme dans tous les etats "seulement sans plomb" du * Commerce de vehicules, restrictions des modeles SADC. neufs. * Remplacer le plomb par un additif de recession soit au * Continuation de la technologie ancienne associee centre de distribution ou (vente en bouteilles)a la aux consdquences ndgatives de performance et pompe jusqu'a ce que le parc auto autorise la d'economie d'essence. suppression. * Operation commune des vehicules Cat sur 1'essence avec plomb. * Additifs bases sur le sodium, Potassium* ou Phosphore • Pas de contr6le des .missions, .missions . lev6es. peuvent assurer une protection adequate des moteurs. *NAAMSA recommandc Ic Potassium comme le moindre endommageant de ces additifs. -1- ..... -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~8- L'Elimination de l'Essence avec Les Emissions de Vehicules Plomb (2) * L'elimination du plomb entraine souvent le * Option 2: (INFRASTRUCTURE A 2 NIVEAUX) contr6le et la lgislation des emissions de Reduire le contenu de plomb dans l'essence avec plomb a vehicules. 0.05g/1. * L'equipement retroactif des pots catalytiques n'est * Maintenir et egaliser les niveaux d' octane dans 1'essence ni efficace ni pratique. A 95 RON. * L'essence sans plomb devrait etre taxee moins afin * Tandis que l'utilisation de 1'essence a plomb a d'encourager son utilisation dans les vehicules qui entrame la commercialisation de modeles peuvent l'utiliser. specifiques dans ces pays, l'introduction de * Bannir le plomb quand le parc auto le permet (10 - 15 controles des emissions des vehicules oblige ces ans) et, ou possible, avec un preavis suffisant au secteur vehicules a etre rempla,cs et de nouvelles de raffinerie pour effectuer les changements necessaires. variables a &re etablies. Cela prend du temps, * Envisager l'introduction d'un "2eme index" d'octane surtout sur les petits marches. pour l'essence premium sans plomb ou le carburant LRP 78- Prd-;etaa.irt R {>° An E stokage. LU 0~~~~. 0 > -1- -8- Republique Dominicaine Jamaique - Plan d'elimination du plomb Essence normale: A la place d'une seule essence a 95 RON -disponible -Reduire l'index octane de 92 RON a 89 RON. avec et sans plomb- introduire deux types: - Essence Ordinaire avecplomb de 87 (R+M)/2 Octane -D'ici 1/1/98 enlever 2/3 du plomb ajoute. avec un contenu en plomb A reduire progressivement. -D'ici 1/1/99 completer l'elimination du plomb. - Essence Premiuim sans plomb de 91+ (R+M)/2 Octane, proche de l'essence A 95 RON djai en vente. 3- Mar. 90 Jan. 95 Jan. 96 Jan. 98 Jan. 99 0 mid. 97 Jan. 98 Jan. 99 Jan. 2001 Essence Premium: - conserver le meme 95 RON sur le marche. -9- -10- 72- Prtaetonv MAaaorJa>-A1bRv .Daka, fete?gaJ - 26-28Jw1&2001 .>- rtRS DES OPTIONS [(UNIQUE5 POLUiTQU[S REGLEMENTAIRS L41TIVES AU PASSAGE A L1ESEN([ SANS PlOMB DANS LES STRATEGIES DE REDIUCION DE [ POLLUTION ATMOSPU[RIQUE Eleodoro Mayorqd-AIbd, Lead Petroleum [conomist, Bdnque mondidle Washington, D( USA Contenu La B anque m ondiale L limination du plomb dans I essence est le point de L'integration de 1'elimination du plomb d part -viable techniquement et conomiquement- des plans dans les programmes de reduction de la pour r duire la pollution de I air dans les villes. pollution de l'air * Impact sur la sante * Les aspects techniques et economiques a prendre en consideration pour la formulation des programmes d'elimination du plomb * Le progres mondial de 1'elimination de plomb * L'integration de 1'elimination de plomb dans Eleodoro Mayorg-a-Alba 1'essence dans les strateaes de reduction de Conference R&gionale de Dakar. 26-28 Juin. 2001 pollution atmospherique * Necessite d'une approche multisectorale -I- -2 Impact sur la sante' La plombemie dans la population * La degradation de la qualite de l'air provoque des pertes economiques importantes dans les pays en 25 voie de developpement (estimees 0.5 to 2.5% du PIB). 20 Limite * Les emission de vdhicules contribuent de maniere 15 propos6e importante a la pollution atmospherique par l'OMS * Dans les grandes villes des pays en voie de 10 developpement, deux polluants meritent une 5 attention particuliere: - Plomb: connu pour impacter negativement la sante. meme U.S.A M& c C. M-Mvd- S..Jose en petites doses. 1990 1984 1986 1994 1992 1995 - Particules: plus petit que plusieurs microns (PM IO - PM2.5) sont une cause principale de maladies respiratoires. .____.._.._...._ .......... -3e 1 -A 7- Pre-e8d ov ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Maoyrga-Albz, 71- Da.k-AY, g 26,2J8wt 2 FABRICATION DES ESSENCES PROGRAIMME DELINMINATION Dl PLOMB ___NO _ Annee Teneur en plomb (g de pb/l) Butane 0 - 5 92 2001 0.5 Essence liegere 10 - 30 70 - 75 Naphta 5 - 10 S5 - 60 2003 0.15 Reformat 60 - 80 93-98 20 L 1 ~2005 -5- -6- CONTRAINTES ET REMODELAGE DES RAFFINERIES 2001 2001 2003 2005 g de pb/I 0.8 0.5 r 0.15 0 Changement des Consommation de Consommation de conditions BASE A HAUT NO + BASE A HAUT NO ACTIONS operatoires (Haute investissement + investissement severite reforming) logistique unites Raffinage 0 Unites * Augmentation * Segregation du d'isom6risation de la systeme de (3 Unites consommation stockage et d'alkylation de combustible d'expedition de (3 Reforming a EFFETS * Regeneration l'essence sans regeneration frequente plomb continue Distribution (3 Dualforming * Segregation du E) Dualforming systeme de plus stockage * Creation des points de vente sans plomb COUT 4 $/t 27 S/t (pour la c6te Depend de la Ouest Africaine) solution choisie 70 Pr&entatiokt Costre& r4eyKIw £wo 1 ~p 'b Ae &ts¸sn Dakv,. SgaaL * 26-28Jai4K2001 PROBLEMIS DE RAFFINAG[ If DE DZjST4RIi N DS(AR O RANTS Recottgu*rntiotdes rderI MdmadOU Nlmdqd Dire(teur, Sodete Afriudne de Rdffindge Dakdr, S0ndgal EVOLUTION DU MARCHE SENEGALAIS EN CARBURANTS Consommation carburants au Seneoal ANNEES 1995 1 99 1997 1998 1999 2000 SUPERCARUilRANT 44 618 47 554 47 224 47 079 47 504 i S ESSENCE ORDfNIRE 24 040 26 730 29 610 34 599 34 059 34 241 * __ ___ GASOIL 1758121196672 216 510 237378 2653678331681 .~~~~~~~Sp -1- -l- _-.TIUATlN DES VEHICW E - ESSBCF IMAT99C1LES ET RENOIJELES DU _E * E - exeDGM AIJ _WQW Onion.u 20U 1 1 0 12000 W_Rt.- 10000 DISTILLATION .... .t'800 HJ,,........... -4000 C4 ? , NIphO - - 20 ,, . FABRICATION DES ESSENCES -3- -L- Presedd iorz A / ~~~~~~~~~~~69': I rdˇal&a Ir wzt#vdw /n dans Ibe scc&n Afts qeb ;gruh-;aka-rczr Dakar, S&tgrL '26-2SJzdn. 2001 La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb - Expdrience La Transition vers l'Essence sans Plomb - Experience * Thailande -1991 3 1996 Philippines - Janvier 2001 Le :6usernement a mand3te la r.duction de 0.6 a 0.15 g Pbicc d'ici 1994. * Ln mandat gouvernemental pour 1'1eimination de [essence aver plombh L'essence sans plomb est introduite solontairement par les compagnies avant 1996 i cause des preoccupations des effets du plomb sur la sJnte: pktrolibrcs en 1994: les campagnes publicit3ires r les avantages en prih coopdration de la pan des compagnics pttrolires. n 'onr pas convaincu les consommateurs d'opter pour Ic carburant sans * En 1996. suite aux prOoccupations concernant la recession des siiges de plonmb. soupape (VSR). un autre grade d'essence avec additif etait cxigd par la * La loi sur ['Air Propre en 1999 exige 1'essence sans plomb partout dans Ic MOC: annule par la suite lorsque les preoccupations se sont estomptes- pays d'ici la fin de 1'3nner 2000. * Suite au programme transitionel speeifique d';imination. Ics problemes DOE conduisit des virifications ponctuelles pour s'assurer de la conforniiie. d'approvisionnement. de logistique et de distribution furent minimes. * Un investissement important de raffinage n'a pas ete entrepris - des stocks * Le public a assez bien accepte Ic programmc et l'llimination fut rapide. cc de m6lange a haute teneur en octane ont ete imponcs; les problimes de qui a permis aux voitures kquip6es de p6ts catalytiques d'amtliorer svst&me de distribution sont restes relativement mincurs. davantage la qualite de l'air. * Les Divisions gouvernementales ount des difficultis a mettre en place toute' * Les problOmes initiaux de "driveability" furent risolus grice a la Ies stipulations de la loi suite aun carences d'allocations budg,taires. reformulation utilisant les stocks en melange plus liger. Commentaire: La Banque Asiatique de Developpement accorde des prist pour Commentaire: introduction d'un grade lechniquement -non indispensable" avec I'acahat de voitures ai esence sans plomb: aucune specificiti requise additif de VSR Besoindces'assurcr qucele carburant est formulk pour les emissions des "ihicules a moteur pour l'instant: la tentative d'und manider approprine pour un bon fonctionnement d'essai d'amelioration de la qualite de ]'air par Ia r&giemcntation du (92RON et 95RON mandates en l'an 2000) carburant n'et pas rentable -11- -IZ- La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb - Resume Mise en Place- * Suggerer que l'essence sans plomb soit rendue obligatoire par une date spOcifique avec peu ou prou de phase de transition * Les incentifs de prix/tases sont-ils n6cesaires? Oui. * Assurer coopiration. coordination Ct communication entre les differents * La contrebande de carburants sera-t-elle un probleme? Probablement. groupes concerncs - dOpartements du gouvernement . industries automobiles. * Est-ce qu'un additif de remplaaement du plomb ou de LRP pour la petroliOres. public protection du sicge de soupape s'avOrc nlcessaire? Non. * Communiquer les bencfices afin de gagner la comprehension et le soutien du -Rendre disponible ls produits postmarche auprOs des principaux points public et afin de rendre inoffensifs les mvthes relatifs a Ia qualiti infiricure de de vente. 1'essence sans plomb * Les arbmatiques et le benzene sont-ils un probldme? Non. * Ne pas se laisser disperser par d'autres issues telles que Ia reession du siege de -Les benefices de l'climination du plomb plus que compensent cette issue. soupape. la prloccupation concernant le benzene. Ia teneur en octane trop -L'introduction de pots d'echappement catals-tiques doit Otre rapide. ilevie Besoin d'aide de la pan des agences gouvernementales * Etablir des specifications pour le carburant qui soient rentables. toot en -Commerce reconnaissant que Ies modifications du tvpe "hardware" ont un plus grand -Finance - Douanes. Impots impact sur la qualite de I'air que les modifications de carburant. -Environnement et SantO * Developper un plan d'ensemble pour 'amdlioration de la qualiti de l'air -Industrie Le besoin de communiquer que l'essence avec plomb et un taux o levO Caltex soutient fortement l'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence d'octane ne signifient pas plus de puissance! -13- -Ih- Mrv S |67 Cztereyz tebr wtato~ w post ~ we&rsQ-sa- arien Dak.i; 5ebeeal 26-28J"wc 2001 La Transition vers l'Essence sans Plomb- : L La Transition vers l'Essence sans Plomb - Issues De l.a perspective du Raffineur- * Les Raisons Principales justifiant I'Elimination de Les co6ts pour maintenir les proprietes des carburants l'Essence avec plomb: - Octane. Volatilite, Densite * Sante - Sources alternatives de melange d'octane pour maintenir * Technologie des Vehicules de bonnes caracteristiques de volatilite * Objectifs futurs - - Disponibilite des stocks importes de melange ou d'essence raffine * Inventaire des emissions - Investissement necessaire A l'interieur du pavs en matiere * Les normes de ia qualite de l'air de ramfinage * Les normes des emissions de vehicules - Prix des carburants/balance des paiements * Les specifications de la qualite des carburants > Vehicules anciens / Vehicules neufs * Balance vehicules anciens / vehicules neufs - Alternatives possibles pour le plomb -5- -6- La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb - Experience E.U. - pour les voitures de l'annee 1974 La Transition vers l'Essence sans Plomb - Experience * Demandee par les constructeurs d'automobile (GM) en reponse aux Australie - Janvier 1986 exigences d'emissions des vehicules (besoin des catalyseurs d'echappement) * Besoins varies mais significatifs en investissement de raffinage * Directive gousernementale pour le resserrement des normes d emissions des *Taux d'octanes multiples d'essece avec plomb maintenus vehicules; sans plomb (91RON) n&ccssairc pour les pet. cataI tiquec: *Evolution des taux multiples dc carburants sans plomb ainsi que ceux a 'elimination du plomb par phases faible teneur en plomb Pas besoin d'investissement car le choix en octane est suffisament c0es : *Reglementation differente pour les petits raffineurs l'octane de l'essence avec plomb est diminu0 de 98 a 96 RON par consensus *Systkme d'&change de credits de tenenr en plomb Prix dilfirentiels par Ic biais des taxes pour encourager Ics unlisateurs de * Elimination en cinq phases -essence avec plomb intcrdite cn 1996 I'essence avec plomb a changer dc carburant (effectivement en 1986) Les besoins du svstcme de distribution - transition dc lonaue durec * Systemes separks pour 1'essence avec et sans plomb *Introduction precocc de la dilution *Petites lances pour les voitures au carburant sans plomb *Petites lances pour 1'essence sans plomb *Utilisation duale de 1a dilution et du nettoyage des rservoirs *Utilisation duale de la dilution et du nettovage des rescrnoirs * Pas de diff6rence signinicative de cout * Communications par l'industrie/gouvernement *Lniquemcnt du a la demande en voitures neuves * LRP introduit en 2000: 1'essence asec plomb compltement eliminee depuis * Pas d'introduction d'essence avec remplasement du plomb (LRP) janvier 2002 (plus tut dans certains Etats) *Respect des riglementations assure par les agences etatiques Le sans plomb domine la part du marche du LRP apr6s sculement 4 mo.i Commentaire: Etapes et produits multiples nc sont pas les meilleures facons d'introduire Ie carburant sans plomb. -1- -8- La Transition vers I'Essence sans PloMb - Exp.rience La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb - Experience Hong Kong - Avril 1991 Singapour - Janvier 1991 - 1996 * Directive du gouvernement sur la mise en place en 18 mois; 95RON * Les compagnies petrolieres ont reau une date butoir apres laquelle min. et 0.013 mg/litre Pb. seule la vente de carburant sans plomb serait autorisee dans Ies * Tout le carburant est importe; les sources multiples stations d'essence. d'approvisionnement ne posent pas de probleme. Le carburant sans plomb etait fourni par 1a rafrinerie bien avant la * Les differences de prix par le biais des taxes ont encouragees date limite afin d'ajuster le 'heel- des reservoirs dans les terminaux ct l'utilisation du sans plomb. les stations. * Les besoins du systeme de distribution * Pas de probleme significatif. *Distributeurs de produits multiples *Nettoyage des reservoirs lorsque la rotation des stocks est Malaysie - 1991-1999 insuffLsante. * Communications par l'industrie/gouvernement. * L'elimination a ete commenee en 1991, et s'est achevee en 1999. * Suite a une acceptation par les consommateurs de seulement 50%, * L'industrie et le ministere ont travaille etroitement ensemble etant introduction d'une essence nouvelle a 98RON pour promouvoir la donne que la Petronas est une compagnie petroliere d'Etat. "qualite et la puissance" du sans plomb * Le prise de position du gouvernement sur l'ensvironnement par le gouveroemene s'est avere on hech It faible controle de la s olatilite a Commentaire: techniquement non nmcessaire", le carburant 98RON fut gouveonem preptaio dt qite nfarle l'esstocdesan o1tlba introduit~~~~~~~~~~ en rasnd.ase ocptosd 'srtd mene a une perception de qualite inferieure de 1'essence sans plomb. introdumt en rainon de fausses conceptions dans espnt do * Super" sans plomb introduit pour vaincre les perceptions des clients. co nsom mateour ... ...... .......-9-n-10 &oreyioftaL4sr £dJ{JAiO#!, dplo&rb daS tsow es4fria,u&¸ab-;aJzaiewne& .akar, Yebtqal 26-28Juit,2001 PROBLEM[S D RFFINAGE E DE DISTRIBUTION DES CARBURANTh Aew&c&1aes de, to e/reftrwAZaiio des carburanty Mdrtin Meqnin, Regiondl Mdndger, (altex (dpe lown, South Ahfi(d Vue d'Ensemble de la Societe Caltex La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb: * Entreprise commune entre Chevron et Texaco Issues et Experience depuis 1936 * Societe americaine de Raffinage et Commercialisation Initiative sur la qualite de I'air - Conference Regionale *Siege social au Delaware sur l'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence Bureaux principaux i Singapour *Environ 7.000 emplores en Afrique sub-saharienne * Produits distribues dans plus de 60 pays 26-28 Juin, 2001 *En Afrique du Sud-Est. Nlo%en Orient. Austral .lise. Coree Dakar, Senegal et Japon Martin K. Megnin *Environ 7,000 points de sente Regional Manager - Product Engineering Services *Affilie avec plus de I0 rafrnneries Cape Town, South Africa -Capacitk de rafTinage d'en% iron Imm BPD * Chevron et Texaco sont actuellement entrain de fusionner } ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~La Transition vers l'Essence sans Plomb . La Transition vers I'Essence sans Plomb - Issues De la perspective du vehicule - * La Qualite de l'Air et la Sante Publique - * It y a beaucoup d'emissions de polluants qui peuvent affecter de * Fonction des additifs de promb ,air s_nfctv ,a ,at,ubiu *Fournir de l'octane et proteger les sieges de soupape :maniere significative ia sante publique * Exigences en octane du parc automobile * Le plomb est un poison connu qui affecte le developpement du cerveau chez l'enfant et a des effets negatifs chez l'adulte * Configuration du parc automobile *Type et age * Comprendre les niveaux de contamination et les sources du plomb * Conditions de conduite typiques * La plupart des pays ont deja interdits ou sont en train d'interdire *Vitesses et chargements l'utilisation du plomb dans les carburants automobiles * Alternatives possibles au plomb * Le besoin de developper un plan d'ensemble pour *MMT, Valvemaster ameliorer la qualitei de l'air * Exigences de volatilite *-Driveability" Index -3- - ?rtat~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 65~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ regu/ssur . .e ~~~~~~~~~~..;, ,,_ Dakvar, JWgatL .26.-2$Juiv2001 L' INFRASTRUCTURE DES STATIONS SERVICE 3 SCENARIOS: 1. MARCHES DEPENDANT DES IMPORTATIONS A 100% Aucun probleme pour le marche de grade 1 ou 2 -Vidanger 1'essence avec plomb avec le carburant sans plomb (Epuiser les stocks d'essence a plomb et remplacer par le carburant sans plomb) 2. MARCHES DEPENDANT DES RAFFINERIES - 2 grades d'essence Si un minimum de 2 grades existe, cela peut etre change rapidement au moindre coat Ncessite un calendrier reflechi CLE - Substitution (ne pas ajouter un grade) 3. MARCHES DEPENDANT DES RAFFINERIES - 1 grade Complique et difficile Depend de la conversion/amelioration des raffineries ou de l'option coCuteuse d'ajouter un grade 11 s'agit seulement du Nigeria; cela n6cessitera une etude adequate LE CALENDRIER ET LES COUTS TRANSITION A COURT TERME Tous les pays totalement fournis par les importations etrangeres peuvent etre convertis rapidement au moindre cout. Le calendrier du changement est affecte par les delais de 1egislation, le planning des compagnies locales p6trolieres et le temps de physiquement 6puiser les carburants a plomb dans la chaine d'approvisionnement Un coOt suppl6mentaire d'environ $0.002/1 pourrait avoir lieu pour les additifs Anti-VSR A LONG TERME Dependance de la production des raffineries -l3- 61- retai*so6d Coen~ rd4w srHia i 6bk-;u 1e~LtaLzoH a.1b daJeu reie Dakax, ie*a- 26-28jai.t 2oo1 BESOINS EN APPROVISIONNEMENT ALTERNATIF - (Suite) 3. IMPORTATIONS EN PROVENANCE DES RAFFINERIES LOCALES ET DE L' ETRANGER Les besoins en importations dependront des mesures prises par les raffineries locales Quand la logistique le permet, I'importation d'essence sans plomb peut etre possible 4. LES MARCHES TOTALEMENT SITUES A L'ETRANGER Ces pays sont des candidats ideaux pour la conversion immediate a l'essence sans plomb Etant donne le pourcentage g6n6ralement eleve de vehicules anciens, des additifs Anti- VSR seront necessaires Des etudes recentes sur les sieges de soupapes "ramollis" et l'essence aplomb indiquent que 0.02 - 0.05gPb/1 d'essence est suffisant pour la lubrification des valves. Des etudes diverses evaluent /e cout pour remplacer le plomb comme additif lubrifiant dans 1'essence; il sera de $0.002/1 L'utilisation d'additifs sans plomb dans les pays ayant une proportion eleve de vehicules a sieges de soupapes v ramollis a ete determinee comme etant l'option la moins chere pour 1'elimination du plomb -20- BESOINS EN APPROVISIONNEMENT ALTERNATIF - (Suite) 4. LES MARCHES TOTALEMENT SITUES A L'ETRANGER - Suite La ou la dualite des grades d'essence existe, le carburant sans plomb peut remplacer un des grades, a condition que l'on fasse attention a la contamination - ceci n'ajoutera au coat que de fa ,on minime 11 n'y a pas besoin de grands investissements pour l'utilisation La ou seulement un grade d'essence existe ou bien la ou le carburant sans plomb est introduit comme grade supplementaire, il y aura des frais eleves Cette option n6cessitera des investissements en matiere de pompes et de lances speciales afin d'eviter la contamination Des investissements supplementaires en matiere de citernes a stockage et pipelines (terminaux et stations services) Une teneur unique en octane reduira les besoins d'infrastructure Des incentifs de prix/differenciation fiscale sont necessaires pour encourager les consommateurs a faire la transition vers 1'essence sans plomb De grands investissements en capital seront necessaires -2!- obi, 63 comftrenLe~ reixwn&ar 1iswwo p6b ev h p wt4AIlesub-sanwvt& DakAr, fta4 26.-28Ji& 2001 LES OPTIONS POUR ArTEINDRE LES EXIGENCES DE | uPONIBILITE DE-SGRADES L'ESSENCE SANS PLOMB D'ESSENCE Ence Atgradce DESSE_, Marches cOepedanl aenleerement VI|*/ J xg I \ M ! des -perltwlons_ P ImporltatIons des-a e eSlocales 1- 1 0 ft| ImpolRa llaeteui s .aa so ', Raftweies. Imponwaions IQc,.>6 _t T ' Clages A Se subv,eeneel al Arique cc Sud N/A T elles-esemes GaDoe _______1) a I icales) Cte d'l,.,,e O Twasd I /G ace suppleere- .,e C N F TresIon ndcesnte see d-eual,on F- _ S !3 Transtion grade scppl6emenla- - dficle L .I -11- -18- BESOINS EN APPROVISIONNEMENT ALTERNATIF 1. AUTO SUBVENANCE EN CAPACITE DE RAFFINAGE (Afrique du Sud, Cote d'Ivoire et Gabon) Les problemes d'octane et d'additifs sont trait6s au raffinage 2. SUPPLEMENTARITE DU RAFFINAGE LOCAL ET DES IMPORTATIONS ETRANGERES Problemes de raffinage onme pour le point no. 1 ci-dessus. Importations* peuvent etre sans plomb a condition que l'on trouve des multi-grades d'essence sur le march6 - (Dans la plupart des pays sauf le Nigeria) De plus, les importations peuvent etre utilisees pour augmenter la teneur en octane lorsque la capacite de raffiner l'octane est insuffisante Note: les additifs Anti-VSR (Valve Seat Recession) seront normalement necessaires partout en ASS a part I'Afrique du Sud -19- 62- .Pr geetatot obiA K.i v. .14 .akuw, s ?atea 26-2sJowf,2oo1 PRINCIPAUX TERMINAUX COTIERS ET VOIES DE | TRANSPORT ROUTIER ET RESEAUX PIPE NES ESPRODUode IT,aI tt nsoOt ouvtn 50% 9. - , , '' ' 9 qt S {> m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ouvotemems tte lassaseso e tc Ctt oo_ _0 _ __ _0 Un 0on rsn 2auSeenoan sw 7 m-l1ons KIs, 1ne a/n j\ > \ <& ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~marcOOs plmnsDaut. granoes criles 01 cormmnauwes :Z', ge P,eseaurou.e et1 t coauo - , ,,__ san } oOe P;/ /,>- D ear Ins g0tuo0,flm0n1s g ~ ~ ----- 60% du rls,a- 5 odteole a ca,se 0<0 erIret_r _ e z~~~~~ _ x X / / pe~~~~~~~~~ncacr: Idcu,s 0r0000 ar,noru,eseau est -o n rje *% + ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ mnccsscrlae pendant la sosnon des *tle s _- PIeo ca- orne Ps pralnsnneot des rsFow~~~~~~~~~~*2tca' pr*OdUrtS *spener, _ Des ter-/naux be,, faces, aubrge de bla < 5 P-r . auto .r.t..e a :8 tOns__ cote et un reseau aslu cieux de / r' _C1 t Al Molests rssence eMsornlect 70% Os *ar auto _ _ Sr. ppelires faCe b dis*nbut e Pouetag otan 0 ecnnogss d -g. - J I essence dens la sous-region \ ra, Oet5 ana tupe,lmofl lu P nPses 5._8.. a L deo-oapac 1520%)._ _ ° sJ O<>5$ 2t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P.mptaoenten lent ass ancwrns cehOcuies p m , _ _ 0$ a~........ -_ | _ Plvesmes 5 5e t e ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Crolssance Des odnicules ,ntluonce wa la ccnsnarnce T-11- .I.-. -t- | DISTRIBUTION DES STATIONS l | INFRASTRUCTURE/FACILITES SERVICES _ Environ 17.500 stations servIce en ASS distrIbae,t des carburants -Dlancs" Nombre toyen de poopes a essence et citernes sote,ratnes par station - 2 No-bre noyen de lances a essence pat statlo- 4 86% de la chaine appartient aux grandes compagnies petrolieres et 68% aux ., . h s independantes: independants, 18%: compagnoes etatiques. 14% Plus de 400 depots/terminaux a l'iteneur des tesTes NoMrre moyen de cerr,nes a essence par temnioal - 2 ____________________________ _ t ' : 55 terminaux de citernes/ocean btotal aomo tenor et500 | eSlie - tS .15 Typiquement. 1 cdenea grande capactIS estinstallee post 'essence POINTS t,10 ENTE Plus de 10,000 kms de pipelines pour la reception et le transport des produits Ez 3.500 V 1 RJ . La plupart du tem ps. aes syste ,tees od sont pas separes. et la comtam natvon reste pOSsible 3,5 t00 ; 1 800 =. -13- -lle- DISTRIBUTION DU PARC | . AUTOMOBILE _ ,,DES VEHICULES La prqjectin as parc AUEeroe .eASS est de 1t so2 80% 15-20% ;1- -r.- 5 % i m | 0 fNC. LEG * + Pr64eJ1±Iztio~ 1Obdz .6-- - ~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~-~~~ - - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- - ~~~~~~~~~-~ ~ ~~ i5 -16 1~~~~~~~~~cy0 CO%trrgw .oir fur tVeL0iw .utlbSSUz.eb ti .;i'5 !i' wVLVL - I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MODELE D'APPROVISIONNEMENT EN I LA CONSOMMATION TOTALE EN ESSENCE EN ' ESSFNCE 2000 - 150MBbis = 76% :.1. ft-0, 1-i. w d. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Von.los l. 11 .05e ssecee ASS i ISO * n.nionn. oleno.,,. .nl.010,n.M1-soo____e ow - -5- -6- LES NY EAUX DE SPECIFICATIONS DU PRINCIPAUX CENTRES DE RAFFINAGE - Niveau sous-r6gional ;wS- Y\ '-' ~~~~~~~~~su54IeGJoa''~I04I - 'Coumwu -- I RO' CE 'I > _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. MOo.| as 11101 I.6fo,Cor 00. .1. ShO en.G . CoeeNl. * 01.1 han. .6 MBbM ~ ~ ~ ~ t,. O 500.. 50. PLM AS _LESN N P '''./Iva Cnsous-rgoa e_o Q gS _\J~~~~~~~~~~ t . Wasl~~~..4 Ceololl 11000 Detoonolgobee 01 Con l o Egoun, ta Congo iE Essence s;ns plomb 0s S outh.m ASI. en Dun.? o enne.u Ca0? u,.gO Angel.. Souls 01110. G-on b-6le . Lt - tl. MOeo. Soon I lean.. S -.On L-t. oOo. En.. 411. bet.En.los.504On. 40 ey [.W~De-s. . Roms. oo . . Counu Es.~ G.. _ O Z 0 70 &;f b ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- E his! a S.ra T-rs7 " P MM - Pbr,esf040e 80 Ce- ll e A Le76%W/ de la demande en essence dans _ Cl 0.405. 0 80 _I. l la sous-region etle reste est sailt,sfa,t par des importations d'essence finhe. ... D . . ...__ ., ... .D... B-4 E---. f-- D.,-. fy. K............... -1- CENTRES DE RAFFINAGE EN AFRIQUE SUB- L'INFRASTRUCTURE DE LA DISTRIBUTION EN AFRIOUE SUB-SAHARIENNE (ASS) SAHARIENNE (ASS) ,l- _ - >\< > X 4 x w s - | 25 Rafteries 1000D0 Kms deo-i. deo pielins 400 D6p&s iM&e11111 0 00Tri0 00 wkelocO n s S M-0onIKs doe rn6s ....1000 cenmos o,t-es I~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~P10 IM on SOOSOoSeII L a de-dne dJe Wm*ol eASS: sOt ) 1( - - / 9 -10- 60 , Prkeptatiott obo coptrf er re g sar fw dw4p6gb iaos tssze ex ys;-av Dakar, Seteal *26-28Ju2001 ' ~~~~t> 'u ^'b 5'TR I0'- -aBUTION DE RU;;^- Log&et itfrsutvrduref de& riba4ih& d cadbureuai Uenry Obih, Analyst Business Planning and Analysis, ExoonMobil (hemi(al Middle East & Aki(a Brussels, Belgium |O0JECTIF| Defn,fion d'une chaine distribution/Iogistique au meilleur prix pour la transition de l'essence a L ogistiques et Infrastructure de l a plomb vers lessence sans plomb en Afrique Subsaharienne (ASS) Distribution des Carburants I PARAMETRES Off re et Demande Niveaux des specifications en plomb par . Conference Regionale sur I'Elimination de l'Essence sous-r&gions a Plomb en Afrique Sub-Saharienne Centres deraffinagedes Moyens de Distnbution de Carburants Dakar, Senegal Parc automobile 1*' -. 26 au 28 juin, 2001 Opbons de conformite aux exigences de Henry Obih Le Timing et les Couts - Les Defis de l Elimination du Plomb en ASS -1- -2- ASS SOUS-REGIONS - SOURCES D'APPROVISIONNEMENT DE .Noyaux - tL'ESSENCE . 6 9 CE] 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 2t0% 2 Y 2 771 Ouesl t- ( 6s% 3s% 2\r N.geria el ses vo0,s 3SJ 47% 22 =1Oues ItGe,lral 7 _ Sud I __._____ _s ____r_______ -3- -l- obi. 59. 4'b' ' Co~tfre wr6wtAL& sarL uEidsylom dasx ^ ttftfetusbarite akar, Ymeigat - 26;-284.j.,r Additifs anti-recession du siege de Additifs anti-recession du siege de 0.0- soupape - resultats types 0.2 soupape - resultats-types |0.06 - _Vehicle Essence Substitut E 0.06 1 1 -Vehicle , t E 0.15 sans du plomb 0)E j -Vehicle sansE / E plomb p10m* * > 0.04 p pomb nf > /0.10 > 0.02 ^ ' /Essence A plomb 0.0 Substitutdu plomb 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Distance (000 kmi) Distance (000 km) -11- -18- Conclusions Questions-cles relatives a • ld Ctane cl6riv6e usilomb peutI'erelimination du plomb * La qualite d'octane durivee du plomb peut tre achevee Conditions pour l'utilisation d'additifs anti-recession par une ameliorathon du procede de raffinage de siege de soupape: * Lors de conditions de conduite difficiles, certains * Est-ce que le vehicule est sensible a la recession du vehicules peuvent souffrir d'une recession du siege de siege de soupape? la soupape d'echappement en I'absence de plomb -Est-ce que les conditions de conduite sont * La fonction protectrice du plomb peut etre reproduite suffisamment severes pour causer la recession du siege par des additifs alternatifs ayant fait leurs preuves de soupape? * 11 y a un certain nombre de questions-cles de nature technique qui pourraient etre adressees pour assurer Niveaux d'Octane: une transition optimale de l'essence contenant du plomb a l'essence sans p1omb * Niveau d'octane requis pour le parc automobile actuel? * Niveau optimal d'octane requis pour 1'essence sans plomb et les vehicules neufs? -19e- -20- 58- PrtoefahotsB Cotfire ryozk,pr lt dw~s,os daucg L eQrw esc Afrc su;b-r sei I kvaka Sekal 26-28fi 2001 L' "Utilisation Rationnelle des Carburants dans les Transports" Consommation * Considere la voiture et le raffinage comme un seul brute optimale systeme * Base sur la conception que: * Un taux plus eleve dc compression augmente Fefficacite du E carburant ° * Un taux plus eleve de compression demande une essence a c teneur plus dlev6e en octane n * Une essence a teneur plus 6lev6e en octane requiert un - 0D proc6d6 de raffinace plus intense - ce qui amine a une plus grande consommation d'6nergie dans la fabrication du carburant E c * Equilibre I'augmentation en consommation d'energie de raffinage avec l'amelioration de la consommation Research Octane Number en carburant des vehicules Souce 2UF1 StuOv Eu,ope S5. RUFrr Suy E-.m -11- -Il- Causes de Recession du Siege de la Soupape d'iechappement * Considerations techniques S.*udurc lcahl'ee de la S(upape d'shapp-ement au siege de soupapei * Recession du siege de soupape et sa prevention hautes tempvraturcs des niveaux d'octane ~~~~~~~~~~~~~L'ou%erture de la soupape arrache de • Ajustement des niveaux d'octane ril tcs parlicules dc matdC riau au siege . @," Sl/ .t ' 6 r de oupapc t* * D panricules dures d'oxydes de fer endommagent d'avantage le si&ee de s'upap. en raison de choc repeit t a^t 3-,, ' /" Rz * Avcc le remps. le siege de soupape est rongce par un m.canismc de mculagc. - L _i;, * | | reduisant I'ecarnement dc la soupape !; W ,, , = l * ~La pertc dc l'ccarimcnt de la soupapc si non rectifide. conduit a la bruilure de soupape et i la perne de compression -13- Facteurs influencant la recession du siege Protection contre la Recession du Siege de soupape avec I'essence sans plomb de Soupape avec 1'essence sans plomb Materiau du siege de soupape Les vdhicules avec des tdtcs de cvlindre eni fonte et des stages de soupape en fonte sontI le * Le plomb procure une couche protectrice entre la plus susceptibles d'cxprimnntcr ceuct rdcession soupape et le siege, empechant ainsi la recession de Les siegec de soupape en fontc dans Ils tEtes de cylindre en alliage sont aussi suscepuibles ce demier de ricession Utilisation d'unc gamme de materiaux renfore6s de si&gede soupape qui elimine * Des technologies alternatives d'additifs ont ete efficacement la necessinn du siege de soupape t' =fficacetneni Ia rdcession du siege de sopape developpees pour la protection du siege de soupape Habitudes de conduite * Ces alternatives ont fait leurs preuves sur les marches 11 y a presque une relation exponentielle avec ia vitesse de conduite Influence aussi des charges lourdes qui augmentent la temprrature du siege de soupape mondiaux: Une conduite continue i vitesse dlev&e avec de charges lourdes provoquent les conditions * Essence pre-melangee de remplacement du plomb (LRP) les plus severes Un style de conduite diversifi6 rdduit le taux d'usure de facon significative * Additif en bouteille utilise en conjonction avec 1'essence sans plomb Historique du plomb L'6vidence demonure que le fonctionnement pric6dent avec ['essence contenant du plomb * Les voitures modernes ont des pieces de sicre de procure une protection pour une ccnainc pdriode (en fonction des conditions de conduite) soupape renforcees et ne sont pas sensibles a ce probleme -15- -16- PedUQ+ s57 Co'eee&r6gioni#PJUr I i- sur a1. .dbt ChZ ek us t7 C eVluz wr; IaJL o-, DkaIcj, Sbs.CaL z 8 v Caracteristiques du Plomb et de I'Octane en Afrique 1 Superavec GrAe plus eleve Gr. le plus bas Spec. type. Gain typique de I'octane a partir plomb. du plomb RON 97 90 93 100 Lead tvDicailv Drovides 6 -8 RON at 0 4 Q/i Plomb (gA) 0.85 0.40 0.40 _6 I 97. RF.ON Specification *ck* I E 95 - _ Ordinaire avec Grade le plus Grade le plus Spec. type. z |I Cl- (k, plomb eleve bas C 90 RON 90 83 83 o 4|0 Plomb (gA) 0.85 0.4 - s85 - -. Sans plomb Gr. le plus Gr. Le plus bas Spec. type. d 80 eleve 0.84 0.50 0.40 0o30 0.15 RON 95 93 93 Gra-..es * S----. - -. S. C. SAE ALUSTRA,ASiA FUELS A LL __- Principales alternatives au plomb pour I'augmentation de l'octane: Principaux facteurs a considerer Procede de raffinage . Investissement Alternatives d'amnlioration d'octane Controle du contenu en benzene * De toutes les options. Ia moins conccmcv par des 'oucis techniques et d'environnement Autres additifs metalliques (e.g. NIN T. Ferrocene) * Impacts sur la sante et sur 1'environnemcnt * Impact sur la performance des moteurs et des .s smcmes de traitement ulterieur MTBE * Contamination des eaux de surface Ethanol * Efficacite des coCts -1- -8- Co'ut de l'octane dans les principales solutions d'am6lioration de l'octane Considerations economiques .0 Cout de I'augmentation d'octane C 2Z6/0i1 so Optimisation de la consommation d'nergie . *9 ~~~~~2.2 ',~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . 18 2.o 1.0 Solutions d'amelioration de l'octane -9- --10 .6 reeja.0 ecwtz 601y'r-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~u~ sre Dakar_fmeea - 26 28f-iwt2001 PROBLEM[S 1T[NIQU[S FINHA(IRS RELAI1[S AU PASSAGE A rISS[N([ SANS PLOMB c6wburao& Paul Bekwith, FueIs and Environment Mdndger, BP London, United Kingdom Sommaire Elimination du Plomb dans I Essence * Origines de l'utilisation du plomb * Alternatives d'amelioration de l'octane Paul Beckwith Fuel and Environment Manager. BP Global Retail Tcamn * Considerations 6conomiques _AA -* Considerations techniques - Conclusions * Quelques questions-cles devant etre resolues 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . _;.@ Contexte de I'utilisation du plomb dans 1'essence Transition vers l'essence sans RiEstorique * Inconveniknts du Plomb Inscurd en 192-1 par Thomas Midgely Le plomb dans lessence nest pas p om b La piupart dcs prc)dds de raffinage pour compatible avec cs pots d chappement , M s ^ , ea , - I'amlioration de Ioctane furent ddveloppds catalyfiques utilis6s sur les vdhicues apfi5 ention du plomb mode=es D faibe 6mission. d A Inqui&usdes quant aux cons6quences sur la Avantages du Plumb sant6 Option la plus rentable pour 'augmentafion du taux d'octane dans Position aeselle de l'essence avec piomb - 'essence L*s ventes d'esscnce avec plomb declinent Meilieure lexibilite de maffinage globalement a b I'heure acruelle . Faible intensitd d'energie deprdscritent mains de 5% des ventes ^ - Prorection contr- la Tcession du si6gc de .dessencc de BP Protctio conrn I rEessin dusiEg de Les principaux march6s d'essence avcc- soupape dans les sehicules dont les siig4c p iso pnn'ique et dcrtaine aves de soupape sont -ramollis" plom sont lAfnque et certaines parues , ,, d'Asic. du Sud Est Asiatique et d'Arnrique * o s du Sud. ~uu na~ o~-mrnus.m 3V - _ -3. -'5 cof yisr e zoedwp1sur td , Asex eivAf rit4u & sb-;aAari .Dazr, SeQtgSa 26-28Jaii& 2001 Am6lioration des 6conornies de Mise en oeuvre carburant * Le diametre des becs de tuvaux de * Augmentation de l'energie de l'essence distribution d'essence a ete diminue pour le grace a sa transformation plus poussee carburant sans plomb * Diminution de l'encrassement des bougies * Les reservoirs d'essence des voitures a pots d'allumage d'echappement catalytiques furent equipees * Une etude faite par Exxon a trouve une avec des reducteurs de aoulet amelioration de l'ordre de 1% a % IoEPA "COE PA Conformite et mise en Problemes rencontres lors de la mise application en application * Les stations d'essence furent inspectees * L'essence contenant du plomb est moins * Les becs des tuyaux de distribution chere que 1'essence sans plomb d'essence furent mesur6s * Les conducteurs etaient convaincus que * Amendes pouvant monterjusqu'a $10,000 l'essence contenant du plomb donnait une par jour meilleure performance QEPA gcloEPFA -13- -Ih Pre,asnzofv ,4Armtrog 53' Cz$'ejtc& r6egu)t1&;w- t *r dl"abp aAb dar ute, Dakar, Ye?at 26-28Juvft2001 Recession du siege de soupape ~~~~Bene ices lie's 'a 1'entretien soupape * Les voitures fonctionnant dans des du vehicule conditions normales d'utilisation ne montrent qu'une 1egere usure du siege de * Systemes d'echappement des gaz soupape * R6glages * L'armre n'a trouve aucun problme avec D les jeeps, camions, tracteurs, motos, ou * Vidanges des huiles vehicules de combat 8 EPA w^wEPA -5--6 Systemes d'echappement des gaz Reglages * Le oaz d'echappement de 1'essence contenant du plomb est plus acide que celui de 1'essence sans * Les dep6ts de plomb sur les 6lectrodes plomb raccourcissent la vie des bougies * Accelere la corrosion du silencieux et de d'allumage I'extremite du tuyau d'echappement * L'essence sans plomb rallonge la vie des * Les silencieux ont une duree de vie deux fois plus bougies d'allumage d'environ 80 % longue avec les carburants sans plomb iIEPA sEPA -1- -8- Vidanges des huiles Performance amelioree des gaz * Les dep6ts de plomb provoquent la corrosion d echappement * L'huile de moteur recueille les debris duis A la * Le carburant sans plomb a rendu possible corrosion l'apparition de voitures a pots catalytiques * Des vidanges d'huile plus fr6quentes sont * Les hydrocarbures ont aussi diminue grace necessaires pour maintenir une bonne a une presence amoindrie des depots de la performance chambre de combustion '? EPA wXoEPA g- -10- 52 PrwAtfi,-.#tz A4rXtroKj | eCr4osyi'en ur r iZloM Liaur se e Aft iu ;;h-rteut -Da $aX, feL-a 26-28Jwf2001 PROBLMu[H UNI~V S f1 fAN(i[S REAiA rA' LTESSEN[ SANS PLOMB Norwa ie ios da &atia Jane Armstrong, Senior Poli(y Advisor, U.S. [nvironmentdl Prote(tion Agen(y Detroit, Mi(hiqdn USA Introduction Experience Americaine * Dans les annees 70, les concentrations en d'Elimination du Plomb plomb dans les villes am6ricaines 6taient a des niveaux dangereux Jane Armstrong * Les Etats-Unis desiraient aussi introduire U.S. Environmental Protection des vehicules propres avec des pots 5& EPA Agency d ' echappement catalytiques EEPA -1- -2 Normes du plomb dans 1'essence Recession du siege de * La teneur en plomb a ete diminuee de 2.4 soupape granmues/gallon en 1974 a 0.1 grammes/gallon * Les dep6ts de plomb sur les sieges de d6s 1986 soupape evitent l'usure abrasive * Le plomb fut banni en 1995 suae6ietluuearsv • Lateneurep1m fut mba moyenne 1995 le sanc,-* Certains moteurs plus ages peuvent avoir * La teneur en plomb moyenne dans le sang des sieges de soupape a metal plus mou baissa de plus de 85 % w@EPA >EPA -3- -l- JA Cor-eKrdgioiwkr .. b~ "a . .. s'&it .tL Ua' ie?2C&ei Afrrq .4& .;) Lt* tazai~SMgez .28ftwvm2001 Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Alliance pour 1'Eradication du Saturmsme Infantile R6alite: Mythe #5: L'elimination progressive de 1'essence au plomb s'inscrit Mythe #5: ~~~~~~~~~dans une logique economique L'elimination progressive de I'essence au plomb coute trop cher Les couts a court terme, une "analyse partielle' Technologie nouvelle rempla9ant technologie ancienne Realite: La Banque Mondiale considcre le passage du carburant avec plomb au carburant sans plomb un investissement L'6limination progressive de l'essence au intrinsequement bon plomb s'inscrit dans une logique L'essence au plomb coQte bien plus en sante et en entretien du economique vehicule que ne coute son elimination -11- -18- Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Alliance pour l'Eradication du Satumisme Infantile Realite: Mythe #6: Les pays en voie de developpement profiteraient L'elimination progressive de 1'essence au plus d'une elimination immediate de l'essence au plomb n'est pas pratique pour les pays en plomb voie de developpement Tirer des lecons de 1'experience et ne pas repeter les erreurs des pays developpes R6alite: Briser la 'Paralysie de la politique du cercle- Les pays en voie de developpement Modeles d'experience profiteraient plus d'une 6limination immediate Opportunites dinvestissement et de developpement social de 1'essence au plomb Soutien disponible de la part des organisations et agences intemationales, nationales et regionales -19- -lO- 50' Prtse4Ma$o*ts ch Dakar, SletaL '26-28JuiKt2001 Alliance pour l'Eradication du Satumisme Infantile Alliance pour l'Eradication du Satumisme Infantile Mythe #2: Realite: L'essence au plomb ne provoque pas le La relation directe entre l'utilisatian de 1'essence au plomb Llessence a tuplrnbsneprvqe asl et la presenice de plomb dans le sang est bien documentee saturnisme Des etudes definitives ont prouve la relation directe entre l'utilisation de 1'essence au plomb et les teneurs en plomb dans le sang des populations L'existence d'autres sources ne diminue aucunement 'importance de 1'essence au plomb Realite: La correlation ne varie pas de tagon significatnce de pays a pays La relation directe entre l'utilisation de 1'essence au plomb et la presence de plomb dans le sang est bien Le "perfectionnisme des donnees" est a 1'oppose d'une approche documentee preventive -11- -ll- Alliance pour l'Eradication du Satumisme Infantile Alliance pour l'Eradicaton du Satumisme Infantile Mythe #3: Certains veihicules, notamment les Rda,itL& Ce anvehiculesages, nectastent lToutes les voitures peuvent fonctionner avec du carburant sans vehicules ig6s, necessitent le plomb recours au carburant contenant du Toutes les voitures peuvent fonctionner avec du carburant sans plomb plomb La 'recession du siege de soupape" est un mythe, une legende urbaine" Passer du carburant contenant du plomb au carburant sans plomb est Realite: valable pour tous les vehicules Toutes les voitures peuvent fonctionner Des economies significatrices dans 1'entretien et l'efficacite du carburant avec du carburant sans plomb -13- -- Alliance pour I'Eradication du Satumisme Infantile Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Mythe #4: Realite: La plupart des alternatives disponibles sont plus La seule alternative au plomb est le inoffensives que l'essence au plomb Benzene - un carcinogene connu "Dichotomies fausses" Faux choix entre le plomb et le benzene Realite: C'est le "Choix Intelligent" qui est l'issue La plupart des alternatives disponibles sont plus inoffensives que I'essence au plomb Le carburant sans plomb rend possible l'utilisation d'adapteurs catalytiques, et non pas l'inverse "sens dessus dessous" -IS-rP2frXfre6f .r ^7 r>r-16- Coftrenee r6gy'A1m 1sWurOt dPxt1o. s ew tvmtae *.4 . .SL f. - Dakar, ;bte?a4 .-2$t-48Ji2001 J pour E d o d Alliance pour l'Eradication du Satumisme Infantile Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Objectifs Globaux du Reseau en matiere de Plomb Raisons pour une elimination immediate de l'essence contenant du plomb * Continucer l'changc d'information et la collaboration entre les Etats-Unis ct lcurs Les donnees ne sont plus necessaires homologues intemionaux Benefices prouves dans le domaine de la sante * Encourager une coordination intcrdisciplinaire Benefices prouves dans le domaine de 1'entretien * DNvelopper et evaluer les politiques de prevention, les solutions innovatnices. et de Experience instructive mcilleurcs habitudcs * Catalyser Ic developpement de plans d'action narionaux en martire de presention Etats-Unis et autres pays * Promouvoir des rnodeIs d'approchc collective adaptables a d'autres Alliances pour Benefices exponentiels I'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Augmentation mondiale du kilometrage des vehicules et de l'utilisation de carburant Prevention de la pollution residuelle permanente engendr6e par le plomb disperse dans le sol -5- -6- Alliance pour l'Eradication du Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Satumisme Infantile Engagements sur le plomb par des accords internationaux cl6s La Prevention signifie le Contr6le de la Source Commission des Nations Unies sur le D6veloppement (1994 & 1995) Commission des Nations Unies sur les colonisations humaines (Habitat *Elimination des usages actuels et non II. 1996) indispensables du plomb Organisation pour ia Cooperation et le Developpement Economique * Trouver un remede au plomb present dans (D4daration Ministerielle, 1996) Sommet des Ameriques (1994, 1995, 1996) 1'environnement en raison des utilisations qui en Direction de l'Environnement du Sommet des Huit (1 997) ont &6 faites par le passe Session Speciale de l Assemblee Generale des Nations Unies (Sommet sur la Terre + 5, 1997) -7- -8- Alliance pour I'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Alliance pour I'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Realite: Mythe #1: Les cons6quences du plomb sur la sant6 sont severes et L'empoisonnement par le plomb n'est pas un indisputables probleme A tous les niveaux d'exposition 1[empoisonnement par le plomb cause de severes effets adverses dans le domaine de la sante Realite: Preuve bouleversante des effets prejudiciables Les cons4quences du plomb sur la sante sont severes et indisputables Le satumisme est un symptame classique de developpement qui ne peut itre soutenu .. \| . ... ~~~~~-9. ..- --(0, ... . --- ------I -. - Dtakar, SM"t 26-28Jtiis2001 L'[SS[NH[ AV[( P10MB: M-NYTES IT RALITES L'essea&121oi: yeet rdalit64 Jdmes Ro(how, Dire(tor of International Progrdms, Allidn(e to [nd (hildhood Ledd Poisoning Wdsington, D( USA MYTHES ET REALITES ALLIANCE POUR L'ERADICATION DU SATURNISME INFANTILE DE L'ELIMINATION DE L'ESSENCE A PLOMB 227 Massachusetts Ave., NE Suite 200 par Washington. DC 20002 K.W. James Rochow TELEPHONE: (01)202-543-1147 Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme FAX: (01) 202-543-4466 Infantile E-MAIL: aecIp@aecIp.org -1--l Alliance pour I'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Alliance pour l'Eradication du Saturnisme Infantile Publications intemationales d'une alliance-cle Dimensions GIobales de lEmpoisonnement par lePlomb: Une . nalse Initiale Reseau Global sur le Plomb (1994) Rapport Final de "Dimensions Glohales de I Fmpoisonnement par le Plomh: La Premiere Conference Internationale de Prevention (I 994) Pland 4ctionlnternationalpourlaPrevention duSaturnisme(1997) *< w glb ledt Mvthes et Realites de I'Eliminationi deLI'E.ssence o Plon b(1997). Prevention de 'Empoisonnement par Il Plomb: Uz .4ppel a / 'Action (1999. -3- -l- p,eeJv Q b47' co f irezx rigo Ta * @ .LI? ix e t.. .*pi&L,*,, Vaka, fmJsi4 2001, INSERM (Unite de Recherche en Epidemiologie).- Surveillance de la population francaise vis-a-vis du risque saturnin. Rapport final, Decembre 1997. LANPHEAR BR BURGOON DA, RUST SW, EBERLY S. GALKEW. Environmental Exposures to Lead and Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels. Environ. Res, 1998; 76: 120 - 130 MARKOWITZ M.E., CLEMENTE I., ROSEN J.F (1 997).- Children with moderately elevated blood lead levels: a role for other diagnostic tests ? Environ. Health Perspect; lOS (10), 1084-1088. MIELKE H.W.,ADAMS J.L, REAGAN RL., MIELKE RW. (1988).- Soil-dust lead and childhood lead exposure as a function of city size and community traffic flow : the case for lead abatement in Minnesota. Lead in soil, issues and guidelines. Environ. Geochem. Health :9, 253-229. MIELKE H.W., REAGAN RL (1998). Soil is an important pathway of lead exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 106 (I). 217-229. NEAL R.,YANG P, FIECHTL J.,YILDIZ D., GURER H., ERCAL N. (1997).- Pro-oxidant effects of delta-aminolevulinic acid (delta-ALA) on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells.Toxicol. Lett.; 91, 169-178. NRIAGU J., BLANKSON M.L, OCRAN K. (1996).- Childhood lead poisoning in Africa: a growing public health problem. Sci.Tocal Environ.; 181 (2), 93-100. NRIAGU J.,JINABHAI C.C., NAIDOO R., COUTSOUDIS A. (1997b).- Lead poisoning of children in Afnca. 11. KwazuluiNatal. South Africa.Sci.Total Environ.; 197 (1-3), 1-11. NRIAGU J., OLERU N.T., CUDJOE C., CHINE A (I 997a).- Lead poisoning of children in Africa. 111. Kaduna. Nigeria. Sci.Total Environ.; 197 (1-3), 13-9. SHALTOUT AA GUTHRIE R, MOUSSA M, KANDIL H, HASSAN MF, DOSARI L, HUNT MCJ. FERNANDO NP Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin Screening for Lead Poisoning in Bedouin Children.A study from KuwaitrJTrop. Pediat. 1989.35 87 - 91 SCHULTZ A, BARREGARD L, SALLSTEN G.,WILSKE J, MANAY N, PERREIRA L, COUSILLAS ZA. Blood Lead in Uruguayan Children and Possible Sources of Exposure. Environ. Res, 1997; 74: 17 - 23 UNICEF L'intoxication des enfants par le plomb -Information visant a susciter le plaidoyer et l'action.Unicef 1994 . 19 p 46 Preetrov & hr>w&r6gwJsaw wr&ap/om u.tal r¢x> -s4fvi.4 oN. ;L< tt; % Daktz,~ .riat . 26-28Jai62001 Retard de croissance D1eficit ponderal Emaciation T(A) P(A) P(T) Gar,ons (85) 8 18 i8 Filles (88) 3 4.5 12.5 Total (i73) 6 1 i 36 Tableau III: Prevalences (%) de la malnutrition Les plus fortes proportions d'enfants anemies (63,9 %) sont retrouvees dans le groupe des enfants dont les plombemies sont superieures a 100 pg/l. 11 y'a un effet plomb sur le taux d'hemoglobine (p=0,01). De la meme maniere, les filles impregnees ont plus d'anemie que celles qui ont des plombemies inferieures a 100 pg/L (p=0,03). Le calcul du coefficient de correlation (r = -0,047; p = 0,05) entre le plomb et I'hemoglobine, a montre que la plombemie a un effet negatif sur le taux d'hemoglobine des enfants, quand la plombemie augmente, le taux d'hemoglobine diminue. Nous avons evalue la prevalence de I'anemie et de la carence en fer au niveau des enfants et 54 % des enfants sont anemies, avec 17,4% d'enfants qui souffrent carence en fer. Ces resultats sont au -dessus de la prevalence de I'anemie chez les enfants d'age scolaire qui est estimee a 49,8% en Afrique (25). lIs sont largement superieurs a ceux retrouves par l'etude portant sur l'anemie en milieu scolaire, qui est de 33,46% (21). La plombemie est probablement un facteur favorisant de l'anemie parmi les enfants de notre etude. Ici la plombemie influe sur le statut nutritionnel des enfants par l'intermediaire de l'anemie, surtout celle par carence martiale. L'anemie par carence en fer peut entrainer de faibles per- formances scolaires dues a une baisse du developpement cognitif, de l'attention et de la capacite de concentration (26). De ce fait elle peut augmenter la susceptibilite i l'impr6gnation saturnine en favorisant la fixation du plomb au niveau des globules rouges. Cette etude aura permis de mieux evaluer les sources d'expositions par le plomb au Senegal. Nous avons pu mettre en evidence, a travers les taux eleves de plombemie obtenus, une impregnation importante des populations infantiles sene- galaises. Ceci confirme bien 1'existence d'un probleme de sante publique non negligeable, pouvant etre certainement con- trole par la mise en place de reglementations visant a diminuer le taux de plomb dans 1'essence. REFERENCES CAPRIO RJ, MARGULIS HL.JOSELOW MM. Lead absorption in children and its relationship to urban traffic densities.Arch. Environ. Health 1974; 28: 195 - 197 CEZARD C., HAGUENOER J.M.- Toxicologie du plomb chez l'homme.Technique et documentation. Lavoisier, Pans, 1992. CHENGY,WILLETTWC, SCHAWARTZ J. SPARROW D,WEISS, HU H. Relation of Nutrition to Bone and Blood Lead Levels in Middle-aged to Ederly men.Yhe NormativeAging Study.Am.J. Epidemiol 1998, 147:1162- 1174 COSTA CA.,TRIVELATO G.C., PINTO A.M.R, BECHARA EJ.H. (1977). Correlation between plasma 5-aminolevulinic acid concentrations and indicators of oxidative stress in lead-exposed workers. Clin. Chem.; 43 (7), 1196-1202. DE BENOIST B, LINGYAnaemia in school-aged children. SCN. News. 1998; 16:7. DIOUF A,SARR MM, NIANE B, GUEYE A, BA D, CISS M.Air pollution by lead emitted from vehicles in the Dakar region. Dakar Med. 1995;40: 117- 121 GRAZIANO JH.Validity of Lead Exposure Markers in Diagnosis and Surveillance. Clin. Chem. 1994,40: 1387 - 1390 GUEYE A. Prevalence de l'anemie en milieu scolaire : etude representative aupres des ecoles elementaires publiques du departement de Dakar, Memoire DEA [n° 4] UCAD. 1999. GUIRO A T, DIOP B, BOUCHE-OSOCHOWSKA M. Evaluation de la situation nutritionnelle et alimentaire du jeune enfant senegalais (0- 5 ans ) : influence des facteurs socio-economiques et culturels. UNICEF (Dakar), Mai 1990, 125p. HAYES E.B., McELVAINE M.D., ORBACH H.G., FERNANDEZ A.M., LYNE S., MATTE TD. (1994). Long-term trends in blood lead levels among children in Chicago : relationship to air lead levels. Pediatrics ; 93 (2), 195-200. HEINZE I., GROSS R., STEHLE P., DILLON D. (1998).- Assessment of lead exposure in schoolchildren from Jakarta. Environ. Health Perspect.; 106 (8), 499-501. HERCBERG S. Les anemies par carence en fer et en folates. Lenfant en milieu tropical ; Centre international de 1'enfance, Paris, 1 990 [n° 186]. INSERM (Expertise collective).- Plomb dans 1'environnement. Quels risques pour la sante ? Les editions INSERM, Paris, 1999. Pr~esentahov Viotif .4S7 Dakar, S&te?a* 26 .-28y wJ, - La moyenne de selenium serique observee chez les enfants non exposes (n = 132) est de 108,13 pg/I ± 33,54.alors quelle est beawcoup plus faible chez les enfants exposes (n = 148), soit 66,57 pg/l ± 18,58 (figure 6). La SOD La l6gere diminution, cependant non significative (p=0,076) de I'activite de la SOD chez les enfants exposes s'expliquerait par une consommation importante de cette enzyme pour lutter contre la production accrue d'O2Y- lors d'un phenomene de stress oxydatif. Ceci corrobore la plupart des donnees de la litterature selon lesquelles l'activite des enzymes anti-oxydantes (SOD, catalase, GPx, GR) etait experimentalement inhibee par une exposition au plomb (I I).Toutefois, il a deja ete remarque, suite a une exposition au plomb, une augmentation de I'activite de la SOD (COSTA et al., 1997). De plus, aucune corr6lation n'a ete notee entre I'activite enzymatique de la SOD et la plombemie.Ainsi, dans cette etude. les variations de l'activite de cette enzyme ne peuvent ere correctement explicitees, du fait de la non significativite des resultats. La GPx Nous avons observe que I'augmentation de l'activite de la GPx etait significativement plus faible chez les individus exposes (p=0). Comme pour la SOD, ceci semble egalement s'expliquer par une consommation accrue de 1'enzyme pour detoxifier l'H2O2 produit A partir de 1'02X- en cas de stress oxydatif intense. La GPx necessite comme cofacteur le GSH, or, ce dernier etant en teneur plus faible chez les enfants exposes (compte tenu du rapport plus eleve), 1'enzyme ne peut donc pas fonctionner normalement. De meme, comme le taux de seleni- um est significativement plus faible chez les enfants exposes (p=0), il est logique d'observer une diminution de l'activite de la GPx, puisque le selenium est un autre cofacteur indispensable a cette enzyme. 11 existe 6galement une correlation significative entre la plombemie et la GPx, mais egalement entre la plombemie et le selenium. La diminution de l'activite de la GPx et du taux de selenium est ainsi en relation avec l'augmentation de la plom- bemie. Ces deux parametres, GPx et selenium, sont donc assez interessants comme marqueurs d'effet du plomb sur le stress oxydatif. La GR Contrairement a l'inhibition observee pour l'activite de la GPX, nous avons obtenu, chez les enfants exposes, une activite significativement plus elevee pour la GR (p = 0). 11 a et montre que chez des sujets exposes en milieu professionnel, I'activit6 de la GR 6tait 6levee, suggerant un mecanisme compensateur a la perte de groupements thiols (-SH), qui sont apportes notamment par le GSH et qui sont responsables de l'activite anti-oxydante (I I ).Ainsi, la GR semble etre sollicit6e, a ce stade du stress oxydatif, pour regenerer le GSH dont le taux est diminu6 chez les enfants exposes au plomb. Enfin, nous remarquerons la correlation tres significative (p = 0) entre la GPx et son cofacteur, le selenium, ce qui confirme les hypoth6ses que nous avons formul6es concernant ces deux parametres. De plus, il existe 6galement une corr6lation entre le selenium et la GR dont l'activite est coupl6e a celle de la GPx. Les prevalences que nous avons obtenues montrent que la malnutrition proteino-energetique est un ph6nomene qui s6vit dans cette tranche d'Age. En rapport avec les etudes anterieures faites chez les enfants ages de 0 A 5 ans (6 ), la situation nutritionnelle dans le milieu urbain et sa periph6rie continue de se degrader. Une etude recente en milieu scolaire a retrouve des taux comparables a notre etude avec 10,4 % de deficit ponderal et 5,0% de retard de croissance chez les ecoliers (21), contre respectivement I I % et 6% pour notre etude. Notre etude confirme les r6sultats trouves chez les enfants en milieu scolaire. Nous avons calcuIl le risque relatif (RR) d'etre malnutris pour les enfants exposes au plomb. Le test est significatif pour les enfants souffrant de deficit ponderal (RR= 0,34; a 95 %, p=0,02), alors que les probabilit6s sont superieures a 0,05 pour les deux autres types de malnutrition rencontres chez les enfants de l'etude. CoHtkrei. rd4tzskar £e ta, t6er.e,we ,ii : 4i<& w*ai]~., -- Dzka~ feKAgat/, -26-28Juiw200? PARAMETRES D'EFFET SUR LE STRESS OXYDATIF Correlations entre la plombemie et les diff4erents parametres A I'aide de la regression de Spearman, nous avons effectue des correlations entre la plombemie et les parametres &tudi&s. dont les seuils de signification des correlations sont representes dans le tableau IV. ALA PPZ SOD GPx GR Se GSSG/GSH NS NS NS NS P1ombemie p<0,001 p = 0,380 p = 0,215 p<0,001 p = 0,143 p<0.001 p = 0.870 Tableau I: Correlation entre la plombemie et les parametres etudies : significatif, p<0,001 **:significatif, p<0,01 *:significatif, p<0,05 NS: non significatif, p>0,05 Les droites de correlation correspondantes sont representees sur la figure 10, elles ont ete realisees a partir de logarithme des valeurs, et donnent le coefficient de correlation r2. Correlations entre certains parametres du stress oxydatif Nous avons egalement realise des correlations entre differents parametres du stress oxydatif.dont les seuils de signification sont donnes dans le tableau V. GR Se GSSG/GSH GPx NS NS p 0,556 p 0 p = 0.268 GR p=02NS GR I p = 0,002_ p = 0.830 Tableau II: Correlations entre la GPx, la GR, le selenium et le rapport GSSG/GSH Glutathion reduit et oxyde Nous avons determine le rapport GSSG/GSH, la moyenne des rapports obtenus chez les enfants non exposes (n = 70) est de 2,21 ± 3,1i1 tandis que celle des rapports obtenus chez les enfants exposes (n = 65) est de 2,49 ± 5.38 (Figure 5). Le rapport GSSG/GSH est donc plus eleve dans la population exposee, cependant, nous remarquons egalement des ecarts types eleves. Le rapport GSSG/GSH est plus eleve chez les individus exposes, avec une difference significative (p=0,043); ceci implique une augmentation du taux de GSSH et une diminution du taux de GSH. Ce resultat corrobore i'hypothese qu'en cas de stress oxydatif, le GSH est consomme de fa,on excessive pour lutter contre I'apparition de radicaux libres (02y-, H202), le GSSG est ainsi forme en grande quantite par oxydation du GSH sous I'action de la GPx. De plus, il a deja ete montre que le plomb etait responsable d'une diminution du GSH ainsi que des groupements thiols (-SH) (I1). Enzymes anti-oxydantes et selenium Les moyennes des differentes activites enzymatiques dans les deux populations ont et representees sur des histogrammes. La moyenne obtenue pour l'activite de la SOD est de 1132,65 U/g d'Hb ± 232,57 chez les non exposes (n = 109) et delO83,62 U/g d'Hb ± 230,62 chez les exposes (n = 148) (Figure 2). Pour la GPx, nous observons egalement une baisse de I'activite enzymatique chez les exposes, les moyennes etant de 145,06 U/g d'Hb ± 56,50 chez les non exposes (n = 109) et 115,95 U/g d'Hb ± 38,53 chez les exposes (n = 148) (Figure 3). Par contre, pour la GR, l'activite enzymatique est plus elevee chez les exposes (n = 148) soit 7,20 U/g d'Hb ± 2,54 contre 5,96 + 2,25 chez les non exposes (n = 109) (Figure 4). t f 3 coptn ree, regwf4e s4ar dwiv dpok$(b dais L4e&eJtcfri,-saAa e Daka, S5 26a28 2001 11501 1 1001 D° os i | >8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10- -_ 1050} 4oso! e.,, e01 , :,' 1 :0 I/, , 42°ol o' ~~''"'~''~' '''' J2 1 000 0- Non exposes Exposes Non exposes Exposes n= 109 n= 148 Figure 2: Activite de la SOD Figure 3: Activite de la GPx chez les non exposes et les exposes chez les non exposes et les exposes 8 3 7- ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 6- 5 - 2 4-~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3~~~~~~~~~~ 0: 0* Non exposes Exposes Non exposes Exposes n = 109 n= 148 n = 70 n = 65 Figure 4: Acffvite de la GR Figure 4 Activitide la GRFigure 5: Rapport GSSG/GSH chez les non exposes et les exposesFiue5RpotGG/H chez les non exposes et les exposes 120 ,_ 100 380 601 '2 40i 20] Non exposes Exposes n = 148 Figure 6: Taux de seIlnium chez les non exposes et les exposes 42 P.imeteitmiotz Coreire r6gu sa1& giaWDb adw o~azb ,&,ji £;e,' t fir ru>u-aArztg D e, L&t&iu - 26-23Jwirf 2001 Dans une etude similaire, ['exposition d'enfants au plomb. evalu6e par la plombemie, a ete directement mise en relation avec les concentrations trouvees dans les poussieres et le sol, ceux ci etant directement en relation avec la taille de la ville dans laquelle les enfants habitent et avec la densite du trafic automobile (17, 18). De plus, dans de nombreuses etudes. la diminution de l'util- isation de 1'essence au plomb a ete correlee avec une diminution des taux moyens de plombemie (10). En ce qui concerne les parametres d'effet sur la synthese de l'heme, la moyenne de l'ALA urinaire obtenue dans la population totale (n = 292) est de: 5,31 mglg de creatinine ± 4,58. Chez les enfants non exposes (n = 139). nous constatons une moyenne de 4,77 mg/g de creatinine ± 4,24, tandis que chez les enfants exposes (n = 153). la moyenne s'eleve a 5.80 mg/g de creatinine ± 4,80. Remarquons que la dispersion des valeurs semble etre importante. puisque que les ecarts types sont presque aussi grands que les moyennes. Selon le test non parar-:ietrique U de Mann-Whitney, la difference entre les deux populations est significative lp < 0.001). Nous observons une diffrence significative (p = 0) entre comparant les taux d'ALA urinaire chez les enfants exposes et chez les non exposes, de plus, la correlation entre la plombemie et l'ALA urinaire. dans la population totale. est bonne et positive (p = 0). Nous savons que l'ALA-Deshydratase (ALA-D), qui catalyse la condensation de deux molecules d'ALA pour donner le porphobilinogene, est 1'enzyme la plus sensible a I'action du plomb. l'inhibition de cette enzyme entrai- nant une accumulation d'ALA dans le plasma et une excretion urinaire de ce compose (13). Des etudes recentes ont suggere que les dommages induits par le plomb pourraient avoir en partie pour or?gine le stress oxydatif dO a l'ALA, qui en s'accumulant, pourrait generer la formation d'ion peroxyde (14). Dans 1'etude de NEAL et al. (1997), I'administration d'ALA in vitro a des cellules de hamster CHO (Chinese Hamster Ovary). a montre une diminu- tion du GSH parallelement a une augmentation du GSSG, suggerant ainsi 1'existence d'un phenomene de stress oxydatif. Ainsi, l'ALA urinaire semble etre un bon marqueur pour evaluer une exposition au plomb. Cependant. compte tenu de 1'existence d'une susceptibilite inter-individuelle et des possibles fluctuations (en debut ou en fin d'exposition au plomb), I'ALA urinaire n'est pas toujours considere comme un parametre adequat d'evaluation de la toxicite du plomb. Concernant les PPZ, la moyenne des PPZ erythrocytaires obtenue dans la population totale (n = 281) est de 3.60 pg/g d'hemoglobine ± 1,66; cette moyenne est de 3,71 pg/g d'hemoglobine ± 1,96 chez les enfants non exposes (n = 130) et 3,50 pg/g d'hemoglobine ± 1,35 chez les exposes (n = 15 1). Pour les PPZ, le test non paramtnrique U de Mann-Whitney n'a pas montre de difference significative entre les deux populations (p = 0,617), nous n'avons pas observe de difference significative entre les populations exposees et non exposees (p=0,617), de plus, la plombemie n'est pas correlee avec le taux de PPZ.Toutefois, ce resultat n'est pas etonnant, puisque les PPZ s'eleveraient dans le sang seulement pour des valeurs de plombemie importantes (de l'ordre de 250 pg/l).Avec la valeur seuil actuelle de plombemie chez les enfants de 100 pg/l, la valeur predictive des PPZ n'est pas suffisante pour depister les enfants a risque; la mesure des porphyrines erythrocytaires ne suffirait pas pour detecter des valeurs de plombemie inferieures a 100 pg/l (MARKOWITZ et al., 1997). De plus, la sensibilite du dosage diminuerait rapidement quand la plombemie serait inferieure a 450 pg/l et deviendrait inferieure A 50% pour une plombemie en dessous de 200 pg/l (2). Le dosage des PPZ n'est donc pas un tres bon indicateur d'une exposition a un faible taux de plomb (HEINZE et al., 1998). Ce dosage est egalement considere comme peu specifique du saturnisme infantile, en particulier a cause des risques d'anemie chez les enfants (on constate une augmentation des PPZ au cours d'anemie ferriprive) (2). >22. 41 120 __ 120 I 10- oo T oo_ I 8-~ E 60- 60 40- 4 20- 20- 0 0- Non Exposes Exposes Garaons Filles n= 139 n= 153 n 144 n= 131 120/ T ^ 120 - 100l 410 E 80- Non Exposes EE ~60 - 0~~~~~~~~~~~~ 40- 40 20 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _201 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ n 68 n=76 n=64 n=67 Figure 1: Plombemies (moyenne et ecart-type) a en population totale non exposee et exposee b chez les garqons et chez les filles c chez les garaons non exposes et exposes d: chez les filles non exposees et exposees 10 Pr4estations Dko Cot r yisur t SUi~tdwp1os4b dit en F qs a u Dakai, fed~t~afL 26-29Jcutw,2007 111. RESULTATS ET DISCUSSSION En ce qui concerne le parametre d'impregnation la plombemie (figure I), nous avons observe une difference tres significative (p = 0) entre les plombemies observees chez les enfants vivant en milieu urbain (moyenne = 106,6 pg/I) et ceux vivant en milieu rural (moyenne 68,1 pg/I). On peut constater que chez les enfants de Dakar, la plombemie moyenne est superieure a 100 pg/l, qui est le taux maximum de plombemie tolere chez 1'enfant par le CDC, depuis 1991. 11 est important de remarquer que ces valeurs elevees de plombemie sembleraient avoir essentiellement pour origine le plomb d'origine automobile. En effet, il n'existe pas sur notre lieu d'etude, d'industries susceptibles de relarguer du plomb dans I'atmosphere. Malgre l'absence de donnees sur la contamination possible par les peintures, on estime que cette source serait reduite, essentiellement compte tenu du type des habitations surtout en milieu rural. Concernant la contamination par l'eau, il pour- rait exister encore des tuyauteries en plomb au senegal, cependant, d'apres I'enquete, les foyers des enfants concernes dans l'etude n'en possedaient pas, de plus, cette source d'exposition semble etre ecartee en milieu rural. Si on compare les resultats obtenus avec ceux d'autres etudes realisees en Afrique, on constate que les valeurs sont assez proches. NRIAGU J., 1997 a conduit deux etudes : la premiere au Nigeria, dans la ville moyenne de Kaduna. Ia plombemie moyenne d'enfants ages de I a 6 ans etait de 106 pg/I; dans la deuxieme etude realisee en Afrique du Sud. chez 1200 enfants ages de 3 a 10 ans. Ia plombemie moyenne des enfants vivant en milieu urbain eait de 100 pg/l et celle des enfants vivant en milieu rural de 38 pg/I (NRIAGU, OLERU et al., 1997a; NRIAGU,JINABHAI et al., 1997b). Nous pouvons egalement ajouter que les valeurs obtenues dans notre etude sont tues elevees en comparaison avec les taux de plombemies retrouvees chez des enfants vivant dans des pays industrialises.Aux Etats Unis, d'apres 1'enquete NHANES realisee par le CDC. en 1997, la plombemie moyenne chez des enfants de I a 6 ans etait d'environ 27 pg/I de 1991 A 1994, sachant qu'elle emit d'environ 40 pg/I de 1988 a 1991 et d'environ 150 pg/l de 1976 a 1980 (13). En France, la plombemie moyenne a e&e estimee en 1995 a 36 pg/l chez des enfants de I a 6 ans, avec la prevision d'atteindre 25 pg/I en 2000 (14). La diminution des valeurs moyennes de plombemie dans ces pays industrialises depuis les annees 80 est liee a la mise en place de la politique 'sans plomb", qui a debute plus t6t aux Etats Unis qu'en France. 11 est 6galement interessant de comparer les plombemies obtenues chez les gar,ons et chez les filles, comparaison pour laquelle nous observons une difference significative (p < 0,005): les garqons presentent des aux de plombemies plus eleves. dont la moyenne est de 98,00 pg/l alors qu'elle est de 78,90 pg/l chez les filles. De plus, si on compare les moyennes en fonc- tion des regions et des sexes, on atteint des plombemies elevees pour les garSons vivant a Dakar, la moyenne eant de 120 pg/l. Cette difference de plombemie observee entre les garqons et les filles s'expliquerait par le fait que les garSons seraient plus exposes au plomb dans 1'environnement puisqu'ils passent plus de temps a jouer et a courir i 1'ext6rieur. De plus, il a et remarque que de maniere generale, Ia plombemie etait nettement plus elevee chez les hommes que chez les femmes (12). Enfin, d'apres l'analyse des variances qui montre que la plombemie varie significativement a la fois en fonction de ]'exposition et du sexe, nous pouvons dire que le sexe represente un facteur confondant a 1'exposition au plomb. vrR Ssif 3.9 CZKfL reati su G ap;wb tnwt e Ai7,i. in. Dakar, S&te?aJ, .'Z6-28j&wm2001 aux enfants vivant en milieu rural ( plusieurs villages de Khombole dans la region deThies). La selection des enfants participant a l'etude a et realisee au hasard ; des qu'un parent etait consentant, son enfant etait selectionne. Cependant, certains criteres ont &e respectes: * Criteres d'inclusion les enfants doivent etre ages entre 8 et 1 2 ans et resider dans la zone d'etude depuis leur naissance. * Criteres d'exclusion tout enfant ayant un etat pathologique cliniquement declare sera exclu de l'etude. L'enquete a debute le 26 fevrier 1999 et s'est terminee le 19 aout 1999. Un questionnaire a et rempli aupres de chaque famille dont l1enfant participait a l'etude, notamment dans le but d'obtenir des renseignements sur d'eventuelles sources d'expositions. 11 a ete realise des prelevements sanguins, de sang veineux preleve sur EDTA, ainsi que des prelevements urinaires. La con- servation des echantillons a ete realisee par congelation a -20°C puis a -80°C. DETERMINATIONS BIOLOGIQUES Le plomb a et dose par Spectrometrie d'Absorption Atomique (Perkin Elmer 5100 Z AS-60) avec four a graphite et correction Zeeman. La limite de detection etait de 0. I Opg/dl avec une precision egale 0.01 Spg/dl. Les analyses repetees de solutions standards ont servi a confirmer la precision de la methode. Les resultats obtenus ont ete exprimes en pg/L. Les concentrations de ProtoporphyrineZinc (PPZ) sont mesurees par fluorimetrie (excitation 415nm, emission 595nm) dans le sang total. Les concentrations urinaires de I'ALA sont mesurees par spectrophotometrie (X=546nm) Quant aux marqueurs de stress oxydatif, les determinations sont specifiees pour chaque parametre: GST (urine) Enzyme Immunoassay test (ELISA); MDA (plasma): HPLC separation UV detection; GR, GPX, SOD (sang total) Fara Cobasil; GSH, GSSG (sang total): HPLC Detection electrochimique. EVALUATION DU STATUT NUTRITIONNEL Mesure du poids: Le poids des enfants a et mesure avec une balance electronique OHAUS (1- 10 Modele IS 1OOA, Allemagne) de port6e maximale egale a 150 kg et d'une precision de 50 g. Mesure de la taile: La taille des enfants a et mesuree avec une toise en bois munie d'un ruban metre d'une precision de 0, I cm. Les indices poids selon l'age P(A), taille selon l'ageT(A) et poids selon la taille P(T) ont ete calcules en fonction des don- nees de references du National Center for Statistic and Health (NCHS) adoptees par i'OMS comme base internationale. Le programme EpiNut du Logiciel Epi Info version 6.0 a permis le calcul des indices et leurs expressions en Z scores. Tout indice inferieur a -2 Z score a ete considere comme inferieur au seuil de la normalite ANALYSE DES DONNEES Logiciel Epilnfo, version 6 (The Division of surveillance and Epidemiology - Epidemiology Program - Office Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) a ete utilise pour les analyses statistiques Moyennes et deviations standard ont ete calculees pour chaque variable et les variations entre les differents groupes ont ete analysees en utilisant l'analyse de variance (ANOVA) et le test de student Les differences sont considerees comme significatives lorsque le p<0,05. 38 ?tif Corn a&ft4tcr tMmataiufp1sb dw tse e A-¸aAarLeJeA Dakar g epal 26-28JuLt,2001 TM U DE LSSEB([ AV[( PLOMD Le, cas da, Dcart Dr. Amadou Diouf, Professeur, Universith (heikh Anta Diop Ddkdr, Seneqdl P. Shirali, C. Thidw, G. Gdr(on, Y. Diop, M. Fdll, M. FIll, B. Ndidye, T. Siby, D. Zerme(k Ba, J.M. Hdquenoer NIVEAU D'EXPOSITION AU PLOMB ELIMI NE PAR LA (IR(ULAIION AUTOMOBILE - IMPAC( SUR [E STR[SS OXYDATIF [I [[ STATUT NUTRITIONNEL D[S [NFANTS SENE6ALAIS INTRODUCTION| Aujourd'hui, l'usage de vehicules a moteur a considerablement augmente dans le monde entier. Cependant au cours de ces dernieres decennies le taux de croissance s'est ralenti dans les pays hautement industrialises, alors que la croissance demo- graphique ainsi que le developpement urbain et industriel ont accelere l'utilisation des vehicules a moteurs notamment dans les pays en developpement. Ainsi,Au Senegal, comme dans la plupart de ces pays, on observe une croissance rapide et non maftrise du parc automobile pouvant etre a l'origine d'effets negatifs sur la sante particulierement dans les villes. Plusieurs etudes ont montre la relation etroite entre la densite du trafic automobile, I'utilisation de l'essence plombee et les teneurs de plomb dans l'air et le sol en milieu urbain (I, 3, 4, 1 1, 15). Une etude realisee a Dakar a montre que les teneurs de plomb dans les ecorces d'arbres bordant les arteres de la ville sont correlees a l'intensite du trafic (6). Ces resultats montrent ainsi que l'utilisation de ['essence au plomb est la principale cause de contamination de I'air ambiant et pourrait etre l'une des principales sources d'exposition de la population notamment des enfants qui constituent le groupe plus vuln6rable. Les effets adverses du Pb sur le developpement neurocomportemental des enfants sont observes meme a des concen- trations sanguines faibles. Les enfants peuvent aussi developper des sympt6mes d'intoxication aigue avec encephalopathie generalement irreversible avec des niveaux de plombemies depassant 800pg/l( 13). Pour prevenir ces effets nefastes, un depistage des enfants d'age prescolaire a ete recommandee par les Centres Americains pour le Contr6le de la Maladie et l'Academie Americaine de Pediatrie. Par la suite, des Organismes des Nations Unies (PNUE et UNICEF) et l'Union Europeenne ont reconnu 1'exposition au plomb present dans l'environnement comme etant un risque majeur pour la sante et ont appele a des actions appropriees pour reduire les niveaux de plomb sanguin en dessous de I OOpg/1 et de supprimer le recours de ce metal dans 1'essence (25). Seulement ce probleme n'est pas reellement connu au Senegal ou des donnees portant sur le niveau d'exposition des populations ne sont pas disponibles. Ces considerations nous ont conduit a realiser cette etude chez des enfants senegalais pour Mesurer le niveau d'impregnation par le plomb elimine par les gaz d'echappement; Etudier les niveaux biologiques des marqueurs precoces; Etudier les relations possibles entre le plombemie et les marqueurs du stress oxydatif; Evaluer le statut nutritionnel des enfants exposes au plomb a travers la circulation automobile de Dakar. I 1. METHEDOLOGIE POPULATION D'ETUDE Cette etude a ete realis6e en Afrique de l'Ouest, au Senegal. 11 s'agit d'une enquete epidemiologjque transversale comparant deux populations, les exposes correspondant aux enfants vivant en milieu urbain (ville de Dakar) et les non exposes correspondant 3 37 &oreregrk- ur ItaidwpLoSbd~e lSxezeArsb Daka,v S"atL 26-28juav 2001 L'elimination du Plomb dans 1'Essence Resultats en Australie Figure 3: Results from hospital based children's opportunistic studies superimpased with leaded petrol sales (1979-1999) 18000 - T 12 160 A 16000 * * a -J 10000 i 14 000 C ! e 12000 8 CA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C 10000 O S-6 .- 1 8000 16 a- 6000 '4 4000 0. 2000 U --------- 0 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 Month/Year | Nat. Leaded Petrol Sales A Opportunistic Studies 1 -19- L "Environmental Health Center" soutient le peuple senegalais * EHC est experimente dans la gestion et la coordination de programmes educationnels internationaux, nationaux et communautaires rsur le plomb * EHC peut procurer un support technique et apporter une expertise sur une serie de problemes relatifs au plomb * EHC peut vous mettre en contact avec des experts en plomb dans le monde entier * Nous sommes impatients de travailler avec vous en vue de creer un environnement sain et sans plomb pour tous les Senegalais. -3O- 36 ?.:S,i4n-zDie¸ NwOeVU,x A cjie& ryo&~ s lnupLom ds,t ts e Af ryuea ;ub-;aAzries Da"kr,Aj Sbteat 26-28Ju2001 Trends in Air lead in Mexico City during leaded gasoline phaseout. 1988-1998 3 - 0 1+ , >^W t2dL t LT1 I ,;;; _I0- J 1' *i c ,AA a Downtown 0 'bC3 ' 41vstakdfo?LTz , ,, O ' a{3 ' ?sw*=z.3 gpl Im c-L I ~~: .:. . N 5 c -* * 2 a | 024.1 :ra/gg(joK~~~~~~~~I I .5 a 93 91 t2 93 94 9, 9S Calendsr yeu' -11- Lead Exposure from Lead Smelters, Jamaica Li . o - o 50 ~ 101 0 ,0 1,0 0,0 so~~~~~bsi-ae pn is~~~~~0 00 co ZS 0 ........ fog. 0 ) 0.7 .7fSOPs -~~~~~~~~~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ N 3 0 10 ~ ~ ~~0 100 l 0, Psal-a4reaS w p7* * -18- Phewex3 35 ¸'200.1.4e- : Sources du Plomb en Afrique Empoisonnement par le plomb au Senegal L'essence dans la plupart des pays africains n contient 0.5-0.8 g/l de plomb L'empoisonnement par le plomb peut etre Les concentrations moyennes en plomb dans I air pr6venu urbain, en milieu rural vont de 0.5 a 3.0 mg/m3 b ~La reduction de sources du plomb telles Le Plomb dans le sol et laupoussi6re dpasse que 1'essence ameliorera la sante de toute frquemment 1000 ug/g la population et surut celle des enfants L'industrie d'6nergie, le bruGlage de papier, de caoutchouc, de pile et de bois peint sont des sources domestiques de plomb' Tong, S, YE von Schimding. T Praparnontol, Env ironmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 78(0),2000. -ll- -13- L'Ulimination de l'Essence avec Plomb Niveaux Mov ens de Plornb dans le Sanc, aux Etats-Unis 198os- 1990s T 120 18 40 i 16 31.. 100 14 80 ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~12 % 2 . 4.7 (1990-1997) ~ lo 4 *20~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L2 ~60 0 E 040~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 50 - -- 0 .0 C * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~m m 8 0 . != - c3 r- t-. r- r-. co .o. . .. no n .o .. o. c.. o .= co m o C`Na It osl 2~ OO 2~ Fi lc l, csO n o 0 > co6E - vs.3-<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ cosdEK Ph co; -Vehicular Lead Emissions -Median Blood Lead Levels no Change in mean blood lead levels among 1 st grade schoolchildren in Mexico City 15 ~~(1990-1997) 1 0 5 0 90 91 92 97 3e Pr&evtttrokt CotereJw io swr r w~id24D datAsa ltess~e- ~Afru&¸!.t -saArei- Dak", f"rtt - 26-28Juiii 2001 Les contributions en charge Les contributions en charge de de plomb sur un corps d'enfant plomb sur un corps d'enfant eL'u j Water and other so u e Bebes et jeunes enfants rampent. explorent et mettent --- } _imains et jouets dans leur bouche. ce qui les expose [ Laijr A-. 15% - } _80 au plomb present dans la terre et la poussiere -70 -, Le plomb dans la poussiere. le sol ou sur les mains et {N | Food200%6 { r . t60 - les jouets sera accidentellement man26 _ 50 0 Les enfants absorbent jusqu' a 50% du plomb tandis . ~ 3 ~ i'40 =' que les adultes absorbent seulement 8-30%. DiuietslSoil'55% - Les cerveaux des enfants sont a un plus grand risque et terre parce que la barrimre de cerveau et de sang n'est pas - - w __. entierement formee; le plomb absorbe plus 10 facilement endommage le cerveau. -6- -1- Les contributions en charge de Sources du Plomb au Senegal plomb sur un corps d'enfant Les voitures On peut remedier a certains mais non a tous les Raffineries de petrole, le plomb de dommages du cerveau d'un enfant en bas age manufacture tetra-6thylique La prevention est le meilleur traitement Le caoutchouc manufacture Eliminer et reduire la teneur en plomb dans L'extraction simple ou par fusion du plomb, 1'essence est un acte simple que vous pouvez de l'argent et du zinc faire pour ameliorer la sante de votre population, ,Centrales, mncmerateurs et manufactures particulierement celle de vos enfants u metallurgiques Sources du Plomb au Senegal Sources du Plomb au Senegal La peinture a l'usage des r6sidences, des Les soudures et les tuyaux d'eau sont faits industries, des bateaux, du marquage au sol en plomb des routes et des panneaux de signalisation Le plomb dans la nourriture et la boisson Le PVC et les matieres plastiques Le plomb a contamine nourriture et 6pices contiennent du plomb Le plomb sert a glacer les ceramiques I1 y a des pigments de plomb dans les Le plomb dans les cosm6tiques pour le colorage revetements des cables des yeux et dans les medicaments traditionnels I1 y a du plomb dans le cuivre et dans les Le plomb dans les jouets et les produits de alliages de m6taux. consommation -10- -1-j Pkoe,e | 33 - ct9&rvi jregsw" r sw diiz dgp&w u vakar, s&eta4 Z6-28Jt, 2oo Lcod Con.:entration Mort Children 4 in Eslo 9 Adult- Encephalopathie i50 Nephropathie Death -s et anemie franche 100_ Enccph:zlopathy Colique Erncphalopathy _ F n Am r.Jphropa.thy -jj --Frank Arcn-i. synthese Frank Ankmi% _ d'hemoglobine colic Dccr d Longevity _ _ Hcmoglobin Synthc5ic * Le metabolisme r Pcriphcril N-rop.thic de la vitamine D Hemoglobin Synthcif t _ 40 nertlity(Mrc) !I _Sy,tc,lic Bloo.d Prce~urc4 La diminution de Vitamin 0 IVIctQboliirnm 3 _S0 (MhE) velocite Hcoring Acuity * de conduction I -Erythocyte Protoporphyrin du nerf Ncrvc Conduction * 20 (Men) du nerf ~~Velocity20 Toxicite Protoporphyrin _-Erthrocytc Protoporphyrin developpementale Vitamin D (Womcn) 4 aQl di i'Outeion- Toxicity I10 tO_ Hypertencion (?) 4 Ql, de l'Ouie, ~~Hearing et de la Growth J Croissance Trmn.pplocent,l TrQnsfer -_- Transfer transplacental 4 Incracdcl function I D"creaced function Adopted from ATSDPRToxicological Profile for LcQd (1383S S- _ '; S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'.-"o''_=':o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~":~-. Respiration Manger, boire et fumer absorption par ii I~~a peau absorption ' - transplacentale no Ii' / de la mire ! r , fi, < ^ @Source- au1 foets . ;~ - \ .. .New South Wales Environment Protection -' c,b, >, \Authority Lad bI te bItgym whom Itgo n.ea F-I 4% 9otu1h * \\-W \ brain. Ierw kIdned N L1I% Blood 32 Preio_t-a_O; PeX , ~ rn e... A.:. ':,:.-..?. e. r 3 .. ' -i m- v &ofegLOkya' Lw'lWUeplOMb 71, XeeJCt AVi. t2 A. L.@.H Dakar, Se?eal - 26-28JwJt2001 ETfIS DE U[BSSNC[ AV( PLOMB Effeity sur tP&wwowwkie$W et L.v saiit& d4u le*xiuts Dr. Janet Phoenix, Manager of Publi( fealth Progrdms, Ndtiondl Safety (oun(il Washinqton, DUSA Plomb et Sante des Enfants Objectif du CDC pour la reduction au Senegal du plomb dans le sang des enfants Dr Janet Phoenix Environmental Health Center 60 National Safety Council 30/d 2 5 "N ug/di _l04 1 +LO 44. 1960- 1970- 1985- 1991- . dh 1970 1985 1991 'Emphasis is on pnmary prevenon e Uor (i.e. elimination of lead hazards before children are psoed) Expositions au plomb et voies de transmission Industrie, e ains Exploitation de mine v Pesticides et Air Essence _ . . |Peinture Peuwacy or brest feeding | Poussiere | Poor diet | .ourit h iron and ce ai Nourriturem Pi aP the habit > ne sont pas influencees par la circulation sur des routes plus distantes. 11 n'a pas ete trouve d'effets sur la reproduction des oiseaux.ayant des nids pres des routes a grande circulation. Des cons6quences toxiques ont ete observees chez les pigeons des zones urbaines; leurs reins sont les organes le plus frequem- ment affectes. Des incidents a repetition de morts massives d'oiseaux, dans les estuaires proches de plants industnels fabriquant des composes anti-detonnants a base de plomb, ont ete observes. La teneur totale en plomb de leurs foies etait suffisamment haute pour entrainer la mort: le plomb etait principalement present sous sa forme alkyl. CONCLUSIONS Les effets du plomb sur la sante de la population globale ont e l'objet de debats et de controverses considerables. Le souci le plus important est celui rapporte par les etudes des populations concernees par I'absorption de plomb et concernant les rapports entre le plomb et la mesure de l'intelligence chez les enfants. Chez les adultes il y a peu de materiau attestant d'un lien de cause a effet certain entre le plomb et la tension arterielle. Quoiqu'un tel lien ne puisse etre observe sans reserve. les decouvertes des etudes epidemiologiques attestent avec une grande consistance et une non moins grande coherence de la toxicologie du plomb sur les animaux de laboratoire et suggerent un certain effet negatif a la fois sur les Ql des enfants et sur la tension arterielle des adultes. En raison de cela. il a ete recommande par l'OMS d'eliminer toutes les utilisations encore existantes du plomb et de ses composes dans les combustibles des moteurs et de reduire 1'exposition au plomb dcue a d'autres sources (OMS 1995). Les indications de l'OMS en matiere de qualite de l'air et concernant la presence de plomb dans ce dernier sont de 0.5 ,ug/m3; en raison meme des autres moyens d'exposition au plomb, les indications relatves a la qualite de I'air en relation avec la presence de plomb devrait etre accompagnees de mesures preventives additionnelles (OMS 2000). Afin de prevenir une croissance plus grande de la teneur en plomb des sols et des sediments et une exposition croissante des generations futures, les niveaux de plomb dans l'air devraient etre maintenus le plus bas possible. REFERENCES Romieu 1 1999 Epidemiological studies of health effects. In: Urban Traffic Pollution. Eds. D. Schwela, 0. Zali, E & Spon, Cambridge. Wadge A 1999 Lead. In:Air pollution and Health. Eds. S.T Holgate,J.M. Samet, H.S. Koren, R-.L Maynard, Academic Press, New York WHO 1989 Lead - Environmental Aspects. Environmental Health Criteria 85.World Health Organization, Geneva. WHO 1995 Inorganic Lead. Environmental Health Criteria 165.World Health Organization, Geneva. WHO 2000 Guidelines for Air Quality.World Health Organization, Geneva. Internet address: http://www.who.int/peh/. 30 Pr6vsetaoSts Confre. wrdwWeg :ar l ibl iddwpLob da.i cf CseneAub- zAa-srt Daka Yist,aL *26-28Juf2001 Les resultats d'experiences sur la toxicite des sels de plomb sur les invertebres aquatiques sont difficiles a interpreter etant don- nees les variations dans les conditions experimentales et le manque de methodes standardisees pour d6terminer les concen- trations de plomb dans l'eau. Dans la plupart des etudes, les concentrations de plomb dans l'eau sont nominales; la contribution a la toxicite de facteurs tels que le pH, la calinite de 1'eau, ies anions. et autres agents complexes ne peut etre pleinement eval- uee. Dans certaines communautes, des populations d'organismes sont plus sensibles que d'autres. et la structure de la commu- naute peut etre affectee negativement par la contamination du plomb. Cependant, des populations de zones polluees peuvent afficher plus de tolerance au plomb que celles de zones non polluees. Dans d'autres organismes, I'adaption aux conditions hypox- iques peut etre genee par des teneurs elevees en plomb. La toxicite de l'eau contaminke par le plomb sur les poissons varie considerablement selon la disponibilite et l'absorption des ions de plomb. Les facteurs qui affectent cette disponibilite sont la calinite de l'eau (prevalence d'anions divalents), son pH, sa salinite et la matiure organique. Uabsorption est affectee par la presence d'autres cations et par le contenu en oxygene de l'eau. Le plomb organique est absorbe plus facilement que le plomb inorganique. La 96-h LC50 (concentration fatale qui tue plus de 50% de la population) pour le plomb inorganique dans des especes sensibles peut etre aussi bas que I mg de plomb dissout par litre; les concentrations nominales sont jusqu'a 10 et 100 fois plus hautes que pour le plomb non organique. Lexposition a long terme des poissons adultes au plomb inorganique provoque des effets sub fatals sur la morphologie, I'acide amino levulinique deshydratase (delta-ALAD) et autres activites enzymatiques, et un comportement d'evitement a des concentrations de plomb disponible de 10 a 100 mg/litre. Les stades juveniles sont generalement plus sensibles que les stades adultes, mais les ceufs sont souvent moins sensibles parce que le plomb est absorbe sur la surface de l'ceuf et exclu de l'embryon. 11 a etd prouve que les oeufs de grenouilles et de crapeaux sont sensibles aux concentrations nominales de plomb: de moins de I mg/litre dans l'eau stagnante et 0.04mg/litre dans l'eau courante; on a aussi constate un arrkt de croissance du developpe- ment et une pondaison tardive. Pour les grenouilles adultes, il n'y a pas d'effets significatifs en-dessous de 5mg/litre dans les solu- tions aqueuses, mais le plomb dans l'alimentation a I Omg/kg de nourriture a eu quelques effets biochimiques. L'ABSORPTION PAR- ET LATOXICITEAUX- ORGANISMESTERRESTRES Dans les bact6ries, Ia majorite du plomb present se trouve dans le tissu cellulaire. Un phenomene similaire est aussi observe dans les plantes superieures. Du plomb qui passe dans les cellules de la racine de la plante peut se combiner avec les nou- velles cellules du tissu cellulaire et par consequent etre deplacees du cytoplasme au tissu cellulaire. On trouve peu de preuve d'un eventuel deplacement du plomb subsistant dans la cellule de base vers d'autres parties de la plante. parce que la con- centration de plomb dans le bourgeon ou dans le tissu de la feuille est generalement plus basse que dans la racine. 11 arrive que le feuillage absorbe du plomb, mais seulement dans une mesure tres restreinte. Chez les animaux, il y a definitivement une correlation entre les concentrations de plomb dans la nourriture et le tissu cellulaire, quoique les concentrations dans les tissus soient toujours plus basses. La distribution du plomb chez les animaux est etroitement associee avec le metabo- lisme du calcium. La forme organique tetravalente du plomb est en gendral plus toxique que la forme inorganique divalente. et sa distribution dans les organismes peut ne pas specifiquement suivre le metabolisme du calcium. La tendance du plomb inorganique a former des sels hautement insolubles et des composes avec divers anions, sans oublier son lien dtroit avec les differents terrains, reduit dramatiquement sa disponibilite pour les plantes terrestres via les racines de ces dernieres. Dans les plantes, le deplacement du ion est limitd et la plupart du plomb lie aux sols demeure a la racine ou a la surface de la feuille. 11 en resulte que, dans la plupart des etudes expdrimentales sur la toxicite du plomb. de hautes teneurs en plomb de l'ordre de 100 a 1 000mg/kg de terre sont requises pour causer des dommages toxiques visibles sur la photosynthese, la croissance et autres parametres. Ainsi, le plomb n'affectera seulement que les plantes poussant a des endroits connaissant de trus hautes teneurs en plomb dans l'environnement. L'ingestion de bacteries et de champignons (fungi), contamines par le plomb, par les nematodes, a pour consdquence une reproduction affaiblie. Les cloportes tolerent d'une faSon inhabituelle le plomb, dans la mesure ou une exposition prolongee a de la terre ou a de I'herbe contenant des sels de plomb rajoutes en surface n'a eu aucun effet. Des millepattes maintenus sur un regime alimentaire contenant des sels de plomb ont manifeste des sympt6mes de toxicite ayant pour consequence une croissance et une reproduction diminuees. Linformation est trop mince pour quantifier les risques encourus par les invertdbres pendant la decomposition de terreau (fumier) contamine par le plomb. Les sels de plomb sont toxiques pour les oiseaux s'ils contiennent une forte dose (I 00mg/kg ou plus).Tous les travaux experi- mentaux ont etd faits sur des poulets et autres gallinacees. L'exposition des cailles, de l'eclosion jusqu'a l'age adulte, a produit des consequences sur la production d'ceufs a des niveaux d'absorption du plomb par les voies alimentaires de 10mg/kg. Quoiqu'un certain nombre d'effets, ayant lieu apres absorption de tres fortes doses de plomb, ont pu etre constates, la plu- part peuvent etre expliquds comme une consequence principale de la consommation de nourriture. La diarrhde et le manque d'appetit, conduisant l'anorexie et l la perte de poids, sont les effets principaux produits par les sels de plomb. Etant donne Pr6seti7o0t& ¸cA , 29 ccw&y6e regtz s~ar w dsy1^b ds tsref e& tyosh sr Dakar, rkiat - 26-28Jaiiv,2001 Population Moyen Enfants Addtes d'Absorption Airb 0.09 .mol Pb/litre pour ,ug 0.079 lmol Pb/litre pour ug Pb/m3c Pb/m (1.92 9g Pb/dl) (1.64 jig Pb/dl) Eau 0.003 utmol Pb/litre pour ug Pb/litre (0.06 >9 Pb/dl) Nournture 0.01 l.mol Pb/litre pour jig 0.002-0.003 ,umol Pb/litre pour ug bPb/jour (0.16 ,ug Pb/dl) Pb/iour (0.04-0.06 jig Pb/dl) Poussiereb 0.09 jimol Pb/litre pour 1000 b 9 Pb/g (1.8 9g Pb/dl) Terreb 0.11 gimol Pb/litre pour 1000 g Pb/g (2.2 jg Pb/dl) TABLE 1. Rapports representatifs entre le niveau moyen de plombemie et le moyen d'absorption du plomb dans la population globale. a Ces donnees ne sont offertes que dans le but d'illustrer notre propos, et reconnaissent que les rapports sont de nature curvilineaires et ne sont que des indications qui ne s'appliqueront pas a des niveaux plus bas ou plus 6leves d'exposition. b Une valeur se situant entre 0.144 et 0.24 ,umol Pb/litre ou 3-5 ug Pb/dl pour ug/m3 est obtenue lorsque l'on prend en con- sid6ration lea apports indirects par la terre/poussiere. c Le rapport entre I'air ambianms sur les lieux de travail et la plombemie est le mieux d6crit par un graphe curvilineaire mon- trant des courbes entre 0.02 et 0.08 ,g/m3 d'air. La courbe est variable mais plus basse que celle concernant la population globale dans 1'environnement global, qui est, quant a elle, entre 1.6 et 1.9 jig/m3 LES EFFETS DU PLOMB SUR L'ENVIRONNEMENT) GENERALITE Dans les ecosystemes aquatiques, andaquatiques/terrestriels, le rapport entre les producteurs principaux et les consommateurs principaux semble etre determine par la biodisponibilite du plomb. La biodisponibilite est generalement moindre lorsque des materiaux organiques, du sediment ou des particules minerales (ex. argile) sont presents. Dans beaucoup d'organ- ismes, il n'est pas clair si le plomb est absorbe sur l'organisme (absorption sur la couche externe) ou par lui (absorption interne). Les consommateurs absorbent le plomb A travers leur nourriture contaminee. souvent a des concentrations importantes mais sans biomagnification. En general, les composes inorganiques du plomb sont moins toxiques envers les microorganismes que les composes trialle- ou le plomb tetraalkyl. Le plomb tetraalkyl devient toxique par la decomposition en plomb trialkyl ionique. Un des facteurs impor- tants qui influence la toxicite aquatique du plomb est la concentration libre ionique, qui affecte la disponibilite du plomb pour les organismes. La toxicite des sels de plomb inorganiques depend fortement des conditions environnementales telles que la calinite de l'eau, son pH, et sa salinite. 11 y a des preuves de l'existence de varietes tolerantes de microorganismes et que cette tolerance peut se developper ailleurs. L'ABSORPTION PAR - ETTOXICITEAUX - ORGANISMESAQUATIQUES L'absorption et I'accumulation du plomb present dans 1'eau et les sediments par les organismes aquatiques sont influencees par divers facteurs environnementaux tels que la temperature, la saiinite et le pH, ainsi que le contenu (en acide) humique et en acide alginique. Dans les systemes aquatiques contamines, quasiment tout le plomb est troitement lie au sediment Seule une fraction minime est dissoute dans l'eau, meme dans 1'eau interstitique. L'absorption du plomb par les poissons atteint un equili- bre seulement apres quelques semaines d'exposition. Le plomb s'accumule principalement dans les ouies, le foie, les reins et les aretes. Les aeufs de poisson montrent des niveaux de plomb croissants avec une concentration d'exposition accrue, et l'on sait que le plomb est present sur la surface de l'oeuf et Meimin rapidement dans 1'embryon. Au contraire des composes de plomb inorganique, le plomb tetraalkyl est absorbe rapidement par le poisson et elimine rapidement a la fin de 1'exposition. 11 existe peu de preuves des effets du plomb sur les plantes aquatiques a des concentrations se situant en-dessous de I 15mg/litre. Beaucoup d'etudes faites sur les plantes aquatiques ont et menees dans des systemes sans sediment Cependant. I'addition de sediment non contamine diminue la toxicite du plomb sur les plantes aquatiques par reduction de la disponibilit6 de ce dernier. 2,., _ r t~ Daksv, ("L 26-28J1aA.2001 L'EVALUATION DES RISQUES DE SANTE CHEZ LES HUMAINS Le plomb affecte negativement divers organes et leurs systemes: les changements subcellulaires et les effets neu- rodeveloppementaux sont les plus sensibles. Une association entre le niveau PbB et l'hypertension arterielle a ete constat6e. Le plomb produit maints effets sur la reserve de sang (haem) dans le corps et en affecte la synthese. Cependant. quelques-uns uns parmi ces effets ne sont pas consideres comme etant negatifs. LU homeostase de calcium est affectee, et provoque donc une interference avec d'autres processus cellulaires. a) L'evidence la plus substantielle tiree des etudes prospectives et transversales chez les populations ayant un niveau PbB generalement en dessous de 1.2gmol/litre (25pg/dl) se refere aux decrements dans le quota d'intelligence (IQ). 11 est a noter que de telles etudes d'observation ne peuvent fournir de preuve definitive de 1'existence d'un rapport de cause a effet avec 1'exposition au plomb. Cependant, la taille de 1'effet IQ apparent. comme elle a ete evaluee chez les enfants de 4 ans et plus, presente un deficit de 0 a 5 points (sur une echelle avec une deviation standard de 15) pour chaque increment dans le niveau de PbB de 0.48p.mol/litre (I Opg/cdl),avec un effet probable de taille d'entre I et 3 points. Aux niveaux de PbB se situant au-dessus de 1.2pmol/litre (25pug/dl), les rapports entre la PbB et le IQ peuvent differer. Les evaluations de la taille des effets sont des moyennes de groupe et s'appliquent seulement a I'enfant individuel de maniere probabilisable. Les etudes epidemiologiques existantes ne fournissent pas d'evidence definitive d'un seuil. En-dessous de la gamme PbB de 0.48-0.72,umol/litre (10-1I 5g/cdl), les effets des variables confondantes et des limites de precision dans les mesures analytiques et psychometriques augmentent l'incertitude qui accompagne toure estimation des effets. 11 existe, cependant, des evidences d'association en-dessous de cette gamme.. b) Les etudes chez les animaux soutiennent l'idee d'un rapport de cause a effet entre le plomb et les consequences sur le systeme nerveux, constatant des deficits dans les fonctions cognitives a des niveaux de PbB aussi bas que 0.53- 0.72gumol/litre (I I - I 5,ug/dl) qui peuvent persister bien au-dela de la cessation de 1'exposition au plomb. c) Une diminution dans la velocite de transmission des nerfs peripheriques peut se produire avec des niveaux de PbB aussi bas que I .44u.imol/litre (30ptg/cdl). De plus, la fonction motrice sensorielle peut etre affaiblie avec des niveaux de PbB aussi bas qu'environ 1.92pjmol/litre (40pg/dl) et le systeme nerveux autonome (electrocardiographique R-R intervalle vari- able) peut etre affecte avec un niveau moyen de PbB d'environ 1.68gmol/litre (35pg/dl). Le risque d'une nephropathie liee au plomb est augmente chez les ouvriers dont les niveaux de PbB se situent au-dessus de l.8umol/litre (60pg/dl). Cependant. des etudes plus recentes utilisant des indicateurs plus sensibles du fonctionnement renal suggerent que des consequences sur ce dernier a des niveaux plus bas d'exposition au plomb. d) L'exposition au plomb est associee a une petite augmentation de la tension arterielle. L'ordre probable de magnitude est que pour toute augmentation doublee du niveau de PbB (ex. de 0.8 a I .6gmol/litre, soit de 1 6.6pg/dl a 33.3pig/dl), il y a une augmentation reelle de I mmHg dans la tension arterielle systolique. L'association avec la tension arterielle dias- tolique est similaire mais moindre. On doute cependant que ces associations statistiques soient reellement dOes aux effets de 1'exposition au plomb ou a des facteurs confondants. e) Certaines etudes epidemiologiques montrent 1'existence d'une relation qui repose sur la dose de plomb absorbee, entre les accouchements prematures et quelques indices de croissance et de maturation foetales a des niveaux de PbB de 0.72g.mol/litre (I S,g/dl) ou plus. f) 12vidence de la carcinogenese du plomb et de divers components inorganiques du plomb chez les humains est insuffisante. g) Les effets du plomb sur un nombre de systemes enzymatiques et de param6tres biochimiques ont ete prouves. Les niveaux de PbB, au-dessus desquels leurs effets peuvent etre ddmontr6s en utilisant des techniques actuelles pour les parametres ayant une signification clinique, se situent tous au-dessus de 0.96gmol/litre (20,ug/dl). Des effets sur les enzymes peuvent etre trouves a des niveaux de PbB plus bas, mais la signification clinique est incertaine. h) Des etudes de population menees chez les enfants et chez les adultes qui ne sont pas exposes au plomb du fait de leur profession, indiquent un rapport entre I et 3gg PbB/dI pour I pg/m3 de plomb dans I'air. Les evaluations des rapports entre le plomb suspendu dans I'air et la plombemie, qui comprennent la contribution totale de I'air par la consomma- tion indirecte de poussiere et de terre ainsi que l'inhalation directe, sugg&rent une valeur entre 3 et 5 ,ig PbB pour ,ug/m3. Les rapports representatifs du niveau moyen de plombemie suite a I'absorption de plomb par diverses voies dans la population g6nerale sont montres dans le tableau 1. Sc5v-e1.s h 27:= &cfrrdgwswkar ta ov WtAP&ds#mb riqsuc-sr Dak4r, S&ega * 26-28JuiPt,2001 Pour des raisons neurologiques, metaboliques et comportementales, les enfants sont plus vulnerables aux effets du plomb que les adultes. Des etudes epidemiologiques prospectives aussi bien que par echantillons ont ete conduites pour evaluer jusqu'a quel point 1'exposition au plomb present dans 1'environnement affecte les fonctions psychologiques basees sur le CNS. II a ete demontre que le plomb est lid au fonctionnement neurocomportemental diminue chez 1'enfant.Voir les figures 3 et 4 qui illustrent ces decouvertes. A META-ANALYSIS OF THE CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES '-*X-( Lavrion '-*X--| Edinburgh I .I X _Greenwich X ,~ - ~ Bucharest X- * -I Budapest X Modena X- I Sofia Dusseldorf 1 Dusseldorf 2 i Zagreb combined evidence -15 -10 -5 0 +5 +10 FIGURE 4 Estimation du changement moyen du Ql pour une augmentation du niveau de plomb dans le sand de 0.48 a 0.96 JJmol/litre (10 a 20 gg/dl) dans les etudes par echantillon. La diminution des fonctions psychologiques et neurocomportementales a et constatee apres une exposition a long terme au plomb chez des ouvriers. Des parametres electro physiologiques se montrent etre des indicateurs utiles des effets subcliniques dans le CNS. L'on sait depuis longtemps que la neuropathie peripherique est causee par une exposition a haut niveau et a long terme sur le lieu de travail. Le ralentissement de la velocite de transmission des nerfs a ete constate a des niveaux plus bas. II a ete decouvert que ces effets sont reversibles apres que 1'exposition cesse, selon I'age et la duree de celle-ci. L'effet du plomb sur le cceur est indirect et passe a travers le systeme nerveux autonome; il n'y a pas d'effet direct sur le myocarde. Les resultats collectifs retenus des etudes de population chez les adultes indiquent de tres faibles associations entre la concentration de PbB et la tension arterielle systolique ou diastolique. Etant donnees les difficultes qui se presen- tent si l'on veut tenir en compte des facteurs contradictoires appropries, des rapports causals ne peuvent etre determines a partir de ces etudes.Aucune evidence ne ressort qui suggere qu'une association entre la concentration de PbB et la ten- sion arterielle soit d'importance majeure pour la sante. L'on sait que le plomb provoque des degats renaux tubulaires proches, qui se caracterisent par une aminoacidurie generalisee, une hypophosphatemie avec une hypophosphaturie relative et une glycosurie accompagnee de corps d'inclusion nucleaire, de changements mitochondriaques et une cytomegalie des cellules epitheliales tubulaires proches. Les effets tubulaires sont constates apres des temps d'exposition relativement courts et sont normalement reversibles, alors que les changements sclerotiques et les fibroses interstitiques provoquant une diminution du fonctionnement r6nal et eventuellement une defaillance de ce fonctionnement, necessitent une exposition chronique a des niveaux eleves de plomb. De tels effets renaux ont ete constates recemment dans la population generale lorsque des indicateurs plus sensibles de fonction- nement ont ete mesures. Les effets du plomb sur le systeme reproductif male sont limites a la morphologie et au compte du sperme. Chez la femme, des fausses couches ont ete attribuees au plomb. Le plomb ne semble pas avoir d'effet nuisible sur la peau, les muscles ou le systeme immunitaire.A part chez le rat, le plomb ne semble pas avoir de rapport avec le developpement de tumeurs. 26:~~to~f/wa &reka rego isu owda -p~kd dA' t;~e/ ekvAfrt?tt& soA-aYi.uir vazkar, S&v?a- 26-28]Jur.2001 a feu). La nourriture, I'air, 1'eau et la poussiere /terre sont les sources principales d'exposition des bebes et enfants en bas age. Pour les nourrissons de 4 ou 5 mois, le lait maternel, le lait commercial et 1'eau sont des sources significatives d'exposition au plomb. Les niveaux de plomb trouves dans l'air, la nourriture, I'eau et le sol/terre varient beaucoup dans le monde et dependent du degre de developpement industriel, d'urbanisation et des conditions de vie. On a enregistre des niveaux de plomb I'air ambiant au-dessus de I O.tg/m3 dans les zones urbaines proches d'une fonderie, alors que des niveaux en-dessous de 0.2ptg/m3 ont ete enregistres dans les villes ou 1'essence avec plomb n'est plus utilisee. La p6n6tration du plomb par I'air peut donc varier de moins de 4Lig/jour a plus de 2OO,g/jour. Les niveaux de plomb dans 1'eau potable releves a la source sont normalement en-dessous de 5gg/litre. Cependant, I'eau prise au robinet dans les maisons ou le plomb est present dans la plomberie peut contenir des niveaux en exces de IOO,g/liure, surtout si l'eau est restee stagnante dans la tuyauterie pendant plusieurs heures. Le niveau de l'exposition alimentaire depend beaucoup des facteurs lies a la facon de vivre, tels que la nourriture consommee, la technologie de conservation, l'utilisation de plomb de soudure, des niveaux de plomb dans I'eau et de l'uiulisarion de ceramiques vernies au plomb. LES EFFETS DU PL0MB SUR LA SANTE Chez l'etre humain, le plomb peut causer plusieurs effets biologiques selon le niveau et la duree de 1'exposition. Des effets au niveau subcellulaire tout comme des effets sur le fonctionnement general du corps ont &e remarques et vont de l'inhi- bition des enzymes a la production de changements morphologiques importants et a la mort Ces changements s'etendent sur une gamme etendue de doses, I'ktre humain en developpement est g6neralement plus sensible a ceux-ci que I'adulte. 11 a ete drmontre que le plomb affecte beaucoup de processus biochimiques; en particulier, les effets sur la synthese du sang (haem) ont ete etudies en profondeur. Des niveaux accrus du serum erythrocyte protoporphyrin et une activite d'execra- tion urinaire plus forte du coproporphyrin et de I'acide a-aminolaevulinique sont constates quand les concentrations en PbB sont elevees. L'inhibition des enzymes d'acide G-aminolaevulinique deshydratase et de reductase dihydrobiopterine est constatee a des niveaux plus bas. Les effets du plomb sur le systeme hemopoietique causent une synthese d'hemoglobine reduite et l'anemie a et observee chez les enfants a des concentrations PbB au-dessus de 1.92gmol/litre (401g/dI). A META-ANALYSIS OF MEAN BLOOD LEAD AND FULL-SCALE IQ (MEAN CHANGES AND 95% CONF. INTERVALS) - X | | Boston Cincinnati Port Pirie I )( - I Sydney combined evidence -15 -10 -5 0 FIGURE 3 Estimation du changement moyen dans le Ql pour une augmentation du niveau de plomb dans le sang de 0.48 a 0.96 pmol/litre (10 a 20jg/dl) dans les etudes prospectives. Scwe& 625 Corji&e r arrdwu&b t /Afri b-sa r Oakaw, Sbteial .26-28jswit2001 Les concentrations qui depassent I [iglm3 sont enregistrees dans les villes de pays en voie de d6veloppement qui sont encore de grands utilisateurs d'essence avec plomb. Les niveaux secondaires de plomb dans le sol varient entre 10 et 70mg/kg et un niveau reel pres des routes de 1 38mg/kg a et enregistre. Les niveaux actuels de plomb dans l'eau depassent rarement quelques microgrammes/litre: la concentration naturelle de plomb dans l'eau de surface est estimee A 0.02,ig/litre. LETRANSPORT ENVIRONNEMENTAL DU PLOMB, SA DISTRIBUTION ET SATRANSFORMATION Le plomb suspendu dans l'air peut se deposer sur le sol et dans l'eau, et atteindre ainsi 1'etre humain par la nourriture et 1'eau potable. Le plomb trouve dans I'atmosphere peut aussi s'averer une source importante de plomb dans la poussiere menagere. Le transport et la distribution de plomb A partir de sources fixes, mobiles et naturelles se passent essentiellement par l'air. La plupart des emissions de plomb sont deposees pres de la source, bien que quelques particules (<2mm en diametre) soient transportees sur de longues distances et entrainent la contamination de sites isoles tels que les glaciers arctiques. Le plomb suspendu dans I'air peut contribuer A 1'exposition humaine par la contamination de la nourriture, de l'eau et de la poussiere, ainsi que par l'inhalation directe. De grandes quantites de plomb peuvent etre dechargees dans le sol et dans l'eau. Cependant, de tels materiaux ont tendance A rester localises a cause de la solubilite difficile des composes du plomb dans 1'eau. Le plomb depose dans l'eau, que ce soit par l'air ou par la terre, se met rapidement en particule entre la phase sedimentaire et la phase aqueuse selon le pH, le contenu en sel et la presence d'agents organiques chelatants.Au-dessus du pH 5.4, 1'eau calcaire peut contenir environ 30gg de plomb/litre et 1'eau douce environ 500 jig de plomb/litre.Tres peu du plomb depose sur le sol est transporte sur les eaux de surface ou en eaux profondes a part par l'erosion ou les elements climatiques geochimiques ; ce plomb est normalement etroitement lie (chelate) A la matiere organique. LES NIVEAUX DE PLOMB DANS L'ENVIRONNEMENT ET L'EXPOSITION HUMAINE Parmi la population generale non-fumeuse, 1'exposition majeure emane de la nourriture, de la poussiere et de 1'eau comme le demontre la Figure 2 EPA (I 986) FDA (1 990) FDA (I 990) 2-year infant 2-year infant Female child-bearing age Soil Water Food Air WaterWa r 1/% 6% 16% 1% 7 Water Food Foo 22%~ |0 O~ 3 47% Om 43% W D~~~~~Dust us -Dust Air 45% 75% Air 1% 4% FIGURE 2 Pourcentage d'absorption du plomb par la nourriture et par d'autres sources, chez les enfants de 2 ans et chez les femmes en age de procreer, aux Etats-Unis Le plomb suspendu dans 'air peut contribuer de fa,on significative a 1'exposition, en tenant compte des facteurs tels que le tabag- isme, le travail, la proximite des voies routieres, des fonderies de plomb, etc., et des loisirs (ex. artisanat. entrainement aux armes 2- 1 , & tatot Corew YWKd& fur Lsut witif d PtXb dvus Lne'te A Vakax, r(MegaL 26-28Juw,2001 gi i - L Jr. tL Li AV L 01L B Effe ssur tenowwoe taSan u s Dr. Ilter S(hwela, Air Pollution Sdentist, Oc(upationdl and [nvironmentdl Nedlth Progrdmme, Oradnisdtion Mondidle de Id SdntQ INTRODUCTION| Genevd, Switzerldnd Depuis l'introduction de plomb tetraethylique comme agent anti-detonnant dans 1'essence, le plomb vehiculaire a fait une con- tribution importante a 1'exposition au plomb de la population generale, ce qui, avec d'autres sources d'emissions de plomb, a ete associe a des effets negatifs sur la sante humaine. Le plomb est considere comme un polluant qui persiste dans tous les milieux de 1'environnement. Une fois absorbe par le corps humain, il peut resider dans les tissus et les os pendant longtemps. Les legislateurs dans de nombreux pays sont a present conscients des consequences insidieuses d'une exposition cumulative de bas niveau au plomb, notamment des decrements dans le developpement neuro-comportemental des enfants. Pour ces raisons meme, beaucoup de pays ont aboli ou abolissent le plomb. Cependant, dans les pays qui n'ont pas encore entame ce processus d'elimination du plomb en tant qu'agent anti-detonnant, la majorite du plomb present dans leur environnement emane des emissions de vehicules. Dans ces pays, I'addition de plomb tetra6thylique aux carburants est estimee responsable de 80-90% du plomb dans l'air ambiant. Le degre de pollution du a cette source differe d'un pays a I'autre, selon la densite de circulation des vehicules a moteur et selon 1'efficacite des efforts a reduire le contenu de plomb dans 1'essence. Cette vue d'ensemble des effets du plomb sur la sante humaine et 1'environnement est basee sur des documents prepares par l'Organisation Mondiale de la Sante (WHO 1989; 1955, 2000) et des rapports recents de Wadge (1999) et Romieu (1999). LES NIVEAUX DE PLOMB LIES A LA CIRCULATION SOURCES DE L'EXPOSITION HUMAINE Des concentrations de 50pg/m3 de plomb dans I'atmosphere ont ete constatees dans des endroits isoles. Dans les pays develop- pes, ou la plupart de 1'essence vendue est sans plomb. les concentrations typiques annuelles moyennes sont entre 0.1 et 0.24g/m3 dans les zones urbaines et entre 0.01 et 0.05 gg/m3 en zone rurale. Des concentrations annuelles moyennes plus elevees sont constatees dans les environs des sites industriels, se situant entre 0.2 et I gg/m3. Durant ces 25 dernieres annees, les niveaux de plomb suspendus dans l'atmosphere ont considerablement baisse suite aux reductions progressives des taux maxima de plomb autorises dans l'essence et grace a l'utilisation accrue d'essence sans plomb. Un exemple typique de la reduction en con- centration de plomb en zone urbaine est presentee dans la Figure I. 3 FIGURE I _ Point Source Sites (33) 0 Urban Sites (202) Comparaison de la tendance nationale ' 2.5 (Etats-Unis) dans E la composition 0. 2- moyenne des 2 concentrations trimestrielles 1.5 NAAQS maxima de plomb tA dans des sites urbains et orientes C: 1 (D vers la source. 0 C: o 0.5 0* 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 ¸4ate& x23 Corene& regwiWA¸r tus. &dap#owb da Auevteiqu-sab-saanrvut& Vak, -eiu?d 26-28wJt& 2001 Les premieres conclusions Le role de la Banque mondiale * Fixation d'une date butoir de passage a * Promouvoir un partenariat elargi 1'essence sans plomb * Un passage rapide est possible * Sensibiliser; encourager 1'engagement * Le cout de la transition (modification des local specifications. etc.) est d'environ 1-2 cents $ US/litre * Prets - Les vehicules ne necessitent pas de modification * Assistance technique technique * Expertise trans-regionale et trans- * Recourir a des incitations fiscales et financieres sectorielle * Importance des campagnes d'education publique * Disseminer l'information * Mecanismes de mise en % igueur et de controle * Suivi -13- IV. Conference regionale sur le La situation 'a l'annee 2001 passage a 1'essence sans plomb * Finalite Pres de 85% de l'essence vendue dans le * Objectifs monde est sans plomb I/ Sensibiliser aux problmes du plomb L'Afrique sub-saharienne constitue 2/ Etablir un consensus au niveaux technique, reglementaire. institutionnel et economique la plus grande exception 3/ Elaborer des plans d'actions preiminaires * Resultats attendus et sui'.i -15- -16- Conference sur le passage a Methodologie I'essence sans plomb Re'sultas attendus * Resultats: plans d'action * Strategie au niveaux national et regional, y compris * Role des groupes de travail sous- les options et les instruments de politique Ina * Outils de suivi et d'evaluation regionaux * Agenda de mise en oeuvre * Questionnaire technique * Reseau regional: AFRICACLEAN * Duree des presentations * Engagement (aux niveaux regional et national) * Lancement de campagnes de sensibilisation et d'education -11- -18- Coaw erdgww sur tduvifah«dwp ^ fa~ tb~ & MAfb-QA esJ DakAr, Sbtegla * 26-26J' 2001 L' experience de la Banque mondiale sur le passage a 1'essence sans plomb Afrique, Asie, Europe p. Rc: .1r Country C5V Proqam Eleents AFR Senegal F F F F EAP Ch,na Guangzhou X Laoo-g X Sharga X X Shijiazhuarg F F Uru,,q,., F F F J.dores,a Jakana X X Malaysia Kuala Lumpur X X Philippines Manila X F F Tha,lard Bangkok X X X SAS Bangladesh Dhaka X X x India Mumbag X F F F Nepal Kathmando. X Sri Lanka Colobo X X ECA Bulgaria X Hungary BuSapest X X X Russ.. V.- e, F F Slnakea X _ MunaEgypt Xa,FoFX passage al 'essence sans plomb: Amerique latine W3B Rc-i H Country Cnay Pa ram Elemen ts Russia~~~~~~~~ MOCO Fu F LAC Antigua & Barbuda Argentine Buenos Aires X X Bahamas X Bolivia X Brazil Belo Horizonte X X X X Recife X X X Rio X X X X Sao Polo X X X X Chile Santiago Xd X X X Colombia X Costa Rica X Dominican Republic X Ecuador Quito X X El Salvador X X X Guatemasa X Haivi X Honduras X JamacaR X X Mexico Mexico City X X X Neth. Antilles X NCcaragua X Panama x Paraguay X Peau Lima X X Trinidad & Tobago X Uruguay X Venezuela X. X: program initiated or completed: F: future project in preparation -I?- : e.u-, p .z 8.. Blydc et ReAqu6± ,.21.' CobefireJwr6dwiAL&ur U Zlida>lonb da, ee rei Sub-sAAi vit Dakar, fMgat - 26-28J2001 II. L' initiative sur la Qualite de Objectifs I'Air en Afrique sub-saharienne _ - * Sensibiliser * Objectif: reduction de la pollution Definir et mettre en oeuvre atmosherique d'origine motorisee des plans d actions pour _.ig. ^.* reduire la pollution. * Premier programme a prendre en 1'elimination du plomb etant compte ntera entre tranune premiere priorite compte l'interface entre le transport a 4#YEry * Renforcer l'expertise et la et 1'environnement en Afrique cooperation locale et regionale * Partenariat -5- -6- Le passage a l'essence sans plomb: Realisations - Prochaines etapes un pas majeur vers une strategie * Cas d'etudes et seminaires de de gestion de la qualite de l'air en sensibilisation au niveau national Afrique * Documentation et echange -: Un ensemble complet de mesures d'information Reseau d 'expert snformapollution wtechniques, institutionnelles et * 1Reseau d'experts sur la pollutionilementaires sera nptessaire de l'air au niveau regional rig * Lancement d'un programme de - pour atteindre l'objectif a long terme de passage a l'essence sans plomb reduction de la pollution atmosherique dans les villes d'Afrique sub-saharienne -1- -8- III. Le r6le de la Banque mondiale Raison d'e^tre et strate'gie dans le passage a l'essence * Le passage a l'essence sans plomb: premier pas sans plomb vers un programme global de reduction de la sans plomu pollution * Raison d'etre et strategie * Partenariat . Initiatives regionales * Appel a l'elimination complete de l'essence * Le role de la Banque avec plomb (1996) mondiale rr * Appui a la preparation d'etudes de faisabilite . Premieres conclusions Preparation de documents de strategie _E=^ -- ) i -! *Composantes de projets Initiatives regionales I .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 20 rIfeatv .~~'x .... ,,,, . Corev1&;ur ~ c1b d eBriqa %A1vesut Dakar, Se,rzgL -26-28Jui.'t 2001 Li~~ -N L'Thdiiati& ;aur 1'a uatd d&e tawu dat 1es vd1es dAfrqu&s-ub-s-ouw esii Pdtri(k Bultyn(k [conomiste Senior des Transports Urbains, Banque mondidle (hdntdl Reliquet, Urbdniste Senior, Bdnque mondidle Washinqton, DC USA Passage a l'essence sans plomb Sommaire en Afrique sub-saharienne * Pollution atmosherique urbaine en Afrique Introduction a la conference regionale * L'initiative sur la qualite de I'air en Afrique Dakar 26-28 Juin 2001 sub-saharienne *Le r6le de la Banque mondiale dans le passage a Patrick Bultynck, Chantal Reliquet 1'essence sans plomb au niveau mondial Banque mondiale * La conference et les defis a %enir -I- .7 La Pollution de I'air en Afrique I. La Pollution de l'air en Afrique Un probmine environnemental * Pollution essentiellement due au transport motorise crofssant * acccroissement des emissions de C02 de 20% entrel980-1994 * Tous modes de transport * Une situation qui se deteriore rapidement * Proportion elevee de vehicules 2-roues motorises * Forte croissance urbaine (>7% par an) * Mauvaise qualite des carburants (contrebande. * Motorisation croissante essence frelatee) Effets sur: * Vehicules usages; manque d'entretien San (notamment les plus d6munis) * Insuffisance des contr6les d'emission et de mise*Conditions de vie vigueur des reglementations * Environnement * Croissance urbaine * Productivite * Gestion de la circulation insuffisante Dakar: 2.7% PNB Ouagadougou:1.6% in 1998. 2.5% in 2005 * Effet de serre -3- 4 Coky ZeKcz regi -Ur edwwaszo p1ob ';b-. Dakar, S agaL - 26-28-j2OO1 reglementation adequate ainsi que des stimulants fiscaux et tarifaires peuvent avoir une repercussion primordiale dans la realisation en temps voulu des etapes. Une equipe de football couronnee de succes 1'est parce que tous ses joueurs jouent en partenariat. chacun ayant un role important sur le terrain. Nous sommes aujourd'hui sur le point d'etablir une nouvelle equipe ou un nouveau partenariat dans laquelle ou lequel tous les talents representes auront un r6le-cle a jouer.Au fur et a mesure que nous appliquerons les quatre lecons precedentes, nous nous constituerons en une equipe formidable dans le but d'atteindre notre objecof. La Banque mondiale est prete i eutre partie de cette equipe ou de ce partenariat. Quel r6le pouvons-nous jouer et comment pouvons-nous contribuer i atteindre l'objectif d'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence et de reduction de la pollution due au plomb en Afrique? Dans cette for-me de partenariat, la Banque peut etre un facilitateur et un catalyseur. en aiiant les Gouvernements: i determiner le niveau de priorite assigne a la reduction de 1'exposition au plomb: a concevoir et adopter les reformes et politiques necessaires au soutien de l'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence; et a faciliter la mise en applicaton des politiques en question. Le Projet de Mobilite Urbaine au Senegal facilite la reforme du secteur petrochimique et commence a demontrer la valeur du travail en partenariat sur ce type de reforme. J'aimerais aussi profiter de cette occasion pour reconnaTtre et exprimer n6tre appreciation de la cooperantion deqa entrepnse avec l'industrie p6troli6re, ce qui nous permet de marquer un point, ainsi que pour leur co-parrainage dans l'organisation de cette conference. J'aimerais insister sur le fait que chacun au sein de cet important groupe multidisciplinaire de participants peut alouter a Ia valeur du travail qui nous attend. Pour reussir, nous avons besoin de l'expertise, du savoir et de la volonte de chaque poueur de mise, africain et non-africain. Cette conference est l'occasion de lancer AFRICACLEAN, le reseau d'experts africains dans le domaine de la pollution aerienne. De par son nombre grandissant et de facon plus importante de par son experience. on attend d'un tel r6seau qu'il propage les messages, renforce les capacites locales et regionales et coopere a la construction d'un meilleur avenir pour les villes africaines.J'aimerais pouvoir, dans 10 ans ou peut-erue meme seulement dans 5 ans, regarder en amere et revoir les debuts du programme AFRICACLEAN sans plomb. Je souhaiterais voir que le programme a reussi en raison meme de ce fort reseau de professionnels et de partenaires devoues, determines a voir aboutir le reve d'une vie libre de tout plomb. Ceci m'amene a mon commentaire final: l'Initiative sur la Qualite de l'Air dans les villes africaines sub-sahariennes avait ete lancee par le Groupe Banque mondiale en 1998 en partenariat avec beaucoup d'entre vous representes ici aujourd'hui. qui partagiez un souci commun, I'augmentation des consequences nefastes de la pollution atmospherique engendree par les tansports motorises. L'elimination u plomb dans l'essence apportera une contribution significative au travail de cette Initiative, laquelle est a son tour reliee i d'autres telles que le SSATP, un partenariat etabli depuis longtemps et couronne de succes. Uavancee vers la realisation du projet sera peut-etre longue et demandera une combinaison prudente de mesures techniques, reglementaires et institutionnelles ainsi qu'un certain financement Mais nous devons commencer des aujourd'hui a travailler au plan regional pour faire que les villes africaines soient plus "vivables" et, ce qui est tout aussi important, "bancables". attirant les investissements etrangers directs, pour aider au developpement soutenu et A la croissance economique. J'espere sincerement que pendant notre temps ensemble ici nous developperons et partagerons une vision commune d'une Afrique libre de tout plomb et par I'apport de nos experiences individuelles et collectives respectives, commencerons A travailler ensemble efficacement afin de faire d'une vision une realite. Je vous remercie pour votre attention et nous souhaite A tous une conference productive et courconnee de succes. 18> . or6~e#tatA f CAdzcatlt: ob&Kg Dakar, fS,aL - 26-28Juii,2001 ALLOCTrEC I Letitia Obeng, Directeur Se(toriel, Bdnque mondiale Washington, D( USA Messieurs les Ministres, Delegues, Mesdames et Messieurs, J'ai le tres grand plaisir d'ouvrir cette conference regionale sur l'elimination du plomb dans ['essence en Afrique sub- saharienne. C'est la premiere de ce genre, et, je l'esp6re sincerement, elle ne sera pas la derniere. J'aimerais partager avec vous quelques pensees preliminaires sur le suiet qui va nous occuper ces prochains jours -travailler ensemble a aider I'Afrique sub-saharienne a se liberer du joug du plomb. Permettez-moi de poser une question de base. Pourquoi la presen(e du plomb dans I'essen(e nous (on(erne-t-eIle dutdnt? Des etudes ont clairement demontre que dans les pays en voie de developpement. Ia plupart du plomb trouve dans 1'environnement provient d'emanations produites par les vehicules: la circulation routiere est la plus importante source d'exposition au plomb dans les zones urbaines.Je suis sOre que nous sommes tous au fait des statistiques sur la vitesse a laquelle le continent africain s'urbanise. Des estimations prudentes prevoient qu'en l'an 2025, la moitie des personnes vivant sur ce continent habiteront dans des zones urbaines. Cette urbanisation rapide associee a une non moins rapide motori- sation de l'Afrique sub-saharienne signifie que les problemes de pollution aerienne que nous observons actuellement vont empirer plus t6t que prevu, a moins que quelque chose ne soit fait. Le plomb affecte notre sante, endommageant les organes et ayant des consequences nefastes sur l'intelligence des enfants. Ceux qui sont le plus touches sont les personnes qui travaillent, vivent ou jouent dans la rue, et plus particulierement les enfants en age scolaire. Une recherche detaillee et complete menee a Dakar en 1999 confirme 1'effet devastateur du plomb engendre par la circulation routiere sur les enfants. Nous en apprendrons plus sur ce sujet pendant la conference. La pollution par IQ plomb est une menad( silen(ieuse pour la vie et doit etre enrdyee. Qui peut vaincre cette menace? Nous, la communaute internationale; 4. nous, les banques de developpement; nous, autorites locales et 75 nationales; nous, industrie petroliere, agences d'etudes et de recherches, ONG, secteur prive ....Nous, etres humains travaillant * ensemble, chacun apportant a la table commune ses propres forces et ses talents, pouvons travailler de concert a eradiquer la menace silen- O - : cieuse qu'est le plomb en Afrique. Que devons-nous faire afin de reussir a supprimer le plomb dans l'essence, sur le seul continent au monde qui utilise encore du carburant plombe? Peut-etre pouvons-nous tirer des lecons d'autres experiences internationales. Qu'avons-nous appris des experiences en Thailande et au Costa Rica? En premier lieu et le plus important, il est essentiel de batir un partenariat et un consensus general par un dialogue intersectoriel. En deuxieme lieu, l'information du public, sa prise de conscience et son education sont des cles pour la reussite du projet. En troisieme lieu, un tel programme demande un plan d'execution realiste, des dates-butoirs et des etapes clairement definies afin que les differents partenaires puissent travailler ensemble vers un but commun. Enfin, une Pre±sewt AUoczttion: Obe4.liJ 'w a-iv ;r;yizore ak;r I' ondwpwoirt rv £ssest estAfr&¸¸aAAn&vt D.Arz, ie.taYz *26-29JwJv200i Ce qui m'amene au r6le que l'industrie petroliere peut jouer pour aider a faciliter l'6limination du plomb dans vos pays respectifs.Je crois que ce processus peut etre mis en ceuvre d'une maniere efficace s'il existe un partenariat entre gouverne- ment, industrie et banques de developpement. Une compagnie ne peut faire cela toute seule. et meme si tous les membres d'IPIECA travaillaient ensemble, ils ne le pourraient pas. 11 y a beaucoup d'autres compagnies de raffinage, d'importation vers- et de distribution d'essence a plomb en Afrique. locales ou nationalisees, qui doivent devenir partie prenante a cette solution. Plus important encore, et je suis sur que nous sommes tous d'accord, c'est a chaque gouvernement respectif d'etablir les regles gouvernant la teneur en plomb de 1'essence dans leur pays, teneur avec laquelle la population de leur Etat devra vivre, et c'est aussi a eux de faire respecter ces regles. Les autorites gouvernementales de chaque pays connaissent et comprennent mieux que personne les nombreux defis auxquels doive faire face leur pays respectif. Ils sont responsables de la distribution des ressources necessaires et de l'etablissement des etapes temporelles pour la mise en ceuvre des solutions. Nous les encourageons a mettre I'elimination du plomb en haut de la liste de leurs priorites. IPIECA et ses compagnies membres sont pretes a travailler avec les gouvernements de plusieurs fai;ons. Nous pouvons donner des conseils sur la meilleure maniere d'atteindre les buts d'elimination du plomb etablis par les gouvernements. Nous pouvons definir un eventail d'options de raffinage et d'approvisionnement, procurer des donnees de coUt. demontrer les consequences de l'utilisation de differents carburants sur le parc automobile et estimer l'impact du changement de carbu- rant sur la qualite de I'air local. Par exemple, IPIECA a travaiII avec la Banque mondiale a la mise en place dans le monde entier d'ateliers de travail sur la gestion de la qualite de I'air. On a developpe un kit de travail qui peut. en lespace de quelques semaines, aider les gouvernements locaux a ordonner leurs priorites de solutions de gestion de qualite de lair. De tels conseils issus de notre industrie peuvent faciliter la rationalisation du processus d'elimination. eviter les interruptions d'approvisionnement du marche, minimiser les couts sur les citoyens et ameliorer la qualite de l air. La Banque mondiale continuera aussi a jouer un r6le-cle en procurant ressources financieres. primes. conseils de politique et soutien. Avant de conclure,je voudrais vous presenter mes excuses parce que je ne pourrai pas assister a l'integralite des trois jours que dure cette Conference. Plusieurs de mes collegues d'ExxonMobil continueront a participer. dont Henry Ob;h du Nigeria, qui parlera cet apres-midi de l'approvisionnement en carburant et de la logistique. et Kerry Wark qui est responsable de la chaine de gestion pour toutes les activites de raffinage, de distribution et de marketing d'Exxon et de Mobil sur I'Afrique Mon emploi du temps m'envoie au Tchad et au Cameroun pour superviser les facilites de production et les voies de canali- sation que nous sommes en train de construire afin de transporter vers le monde exterieur le petrole brut du Tchad. Je pense qu'il est important de noter que ce projet de 3,5 milliards de dollars sur 4 ans est un effort qui reunit conjointement ExxonMobil, Petronas, Chevron, la Banque mondiale et les gouvernements du Tchad et du Cameroun. Ce projet promet d'augmenter le Produit National Brut du Tchad de 50% lorsqu'il deviendra operationnel en 2004. Le gouvernement du Tchad a etabli un mecanisme de partage des revenus unique. Ce mecanisme assure que les profits futurs ainsi generes amelioreront la qualite de vie de tous les citoyens du Tchad, par 1'etablissement de meilleurs services de sante, d'education, d'agriculture et d'infrasrructure. Ce projet montre ce qui peut etre accompli lorsque le gouvernement. 'indus- trie et la Banque mondiale travaillent ensemble dans un but commun a saisir une occasion qui aura pour resultat un bene- fice mutuel de toutes les parties interessees. De la meme maniere, cette Conference est l'occasion de franchir, de maniere collective, un pas important vers l'amelioration de la qualite de vie des citoyens de vos pays, et nous ne devons pas la gaspiller. Nous devons profiter de cette occasion et commencer a poser les bases d'un air plus propre, de couts de sante moins eleves et, ce qui est le plus important, de citoyens plus productifs et en meilleure sante. L'industrie petroliere internationale est prete a aider a cette realisation. Pour conclure, je voudrais remercier la Banque mondiale pour sa direction efficace dans l'organisation de cette Conference. Je veux remercier nos hotes du Senegal. Et au nom de mes collegues d'IPIECA,je souhaite vous dire que nous sommes impa- tients de travailler avec vous non seulement pendant ces trois prochains jours mais aussi dans les mois a venir afin de faire avancer cette initiative. Pre#stta.ttEop v 't$WV: SD DY¸.9 15 DakJ-a, fevit -Jw1& 26-28, 2001 Une etape-cle dans la planification de ce processus de fusion fut la definition de valeurs et de normes que nous partagerions en tant que compagnie fusionnee. Nous adoptames une serie de normes de conduite des affaires pour I'administration de tous les aspects de nos operations -ces normes sont entrees en vigueur des le premier jour de la fusion dans toutes les branches de chaque compagnie, et ce, dans le monde entier. Quand nous avons examine nos operations communes a la lumiere de ces normes, nous en avons tout simplement conclu que la vente d'essence a plomb n'etait pas compatible avec ces valeurs. POURQUOI NIVOULONS-NOUS PAS VENDRED[SS[N AVE[ PLOMB? Deux raisons. En premier lieu, l'utilisation d'essence avec plomb perpetue la pollution aerienne provenant des vehicules a moteur parce qu'elle abime les pots d'echappement a convertisseurs catalytiques et empeche la generalisation de leur usage. Les vehicules modernes aux Etats-Unis et en Europe sont moins polluants a 98% qu'ils ne l'etaient il y a 35 ans, et ce, grace aux pots d'echappement catalytiques. De tels benefices pourraient, a echeance, devenir disponibles en Afrique par I'apport dans le parc automobile, de vehicules equipes de pots d'echappement catalytiques, soit neufs, soit d'occasion - mais pas avant 'elimination du plomb dans l'essence. En deuxieme lieu, de nombreuses etudes scientifiques d6montrent que 1'exposition au plomb a des consequences sur la sante, notamment chez les enfants. Nous ne tentons pas de faire de 1'exposition au plomb une priorite par rapport a d'autres prob- lemes de sante. La malaria, le SlDA/seropositivite, les troubles sociaux et bien d'autres facteurs jouent certainement un role bien plus important dans la sante publique de beaucoup de pays d'Afrique que le plomb trouve dans 1'essence. Neanmoins, I'essence est notre produit, et en extraire le plomb qui s'y trouve est clairement benefique a l'interet general du public. Et, ce qui est le plus important, c'est un probleme dont on connait la solution, laquelle, avec une cooperation adequate, peut ure efficacement mise en place. C'est pour cela que nous concentrons nos energies a encourager tout pays encore utilisateur d'essence a plomb a l'eliminer rapidement d'ici une date-butoir. Nous avons redouble nos efforts a travers IPIECA et en partenariat avec la Banque mondiale, laquelle avait deja mis en oeuvre un effort convergent D'autres membres d'IPIECA ont probablement suivi des chemins differents dans l'tablissement de leurs positions respectives sur 1'essence a plomb, mais nous sommes tous arrives au meme point de vue lors de I'adoption de la position suivante de notre industrie. Permettez-moi de citer: ELiMoiaMeddwPlowb dsu L'Ess-e&. Dr. Frdnk B. Sprow, Vice Prfsident, FxxonMobil Irving, lexds USA Messieurs Les Ministres, Mesdames et Messieurs Les Delegue(e)s, Mesdames et Messieurs, je suis tres heureux de partager cette session d'ouverture avec Monsieur le Ministre Sakho de notre pays d'accueil, le Senegal. et avec Madame Letitia Obeng. de la Banque mondiale, sponsor de cette Conference. Je me tiens devant vous aujourd'hui en tant que representant de l'Association Internationale de l'Industrie Petroliere pour la Preservation de l'Environnement, -IPIECA-, et mon message est trus simple --Nous voulons voir l'elimination de 1'essence a plomb dans tous les pays du monde, et nous sommes prets a faire ce que nous devrons pour cela. Pour renforcer mon message, je veux dans un premier temps vous decrire les organisations que je represente afin de vous donner une meilleure idee de la largesse et de la profondeur des ressources et du soutien que nous apportons a cette tache. Ensuite, je voudrais vous expliquer en quoi cette question est importante pour notre industrie. Enfin, je veux discuter le r6le specifique que l'industrie du petrole peut jouer pour faciliter l'elimination de 1'essence a plomb dans vos pays respectifs. Mais tout d'abord, qu'est ce que IPIECA ? IPIECA comprend de nombreuses compagnies petrolieres privees et d'Etat, ainsi que de nombreuses associations de commerce international, regional ou national du monde entier. IPIECA beneficie d'un statut consultatif formel aupres des Nations-Unies en tant qu'organisation non-gouvernementale. Son but principal est d'aider ses membres a apprehender les defis a long terme concernant 1'envi- ronnement global en facilitant la discussion et 1'echange d'information. Les autres conferenciers de l'industrie p6troli&re que nous &couterons aujourd'hui sont eux aussi issus de compagnies membres d'IPIECA. Je suis aussi ici aujourd'hui comme representant de ma compagnie, ExxonMobil, qui est mieux connue dans la plupart de vos pays sous le ; - u --': nom d'Esso ou encore de Mobil. Notre presence en Afrique est con- sequente, en termes commerciaux comme en termes humains. C'est pour cela que nous partageons le meme desir 4:- - i - , 1l Si_ que vos gouvernements de voir vos economies Ila 8 ~ ~; ~~ ¢2r ffcroftre et vos peuples prosperer --vos citoyens M6 . c-,- F^ ' ' sont nos clients, nos employes et nos voisins. Nous vendons des carburants et des lubrifiants - ..5g * ' 0 \ - Xid / - >- dans approximativement 45 pays africains et nous sommes partenaires dans des raffineries de 4 --2-- t _r--> t -pays de I'Afrique Sub-Saharienne. Nous avons aussi des activites de production de petrole et de gas en rapide expansion en Afrique -elles s'eten- dent sur une douzaine de pays. Vous devez peut-etre vous demander pourquoi une compagnie petroli6re americaine vient promouvoir l'elimination du plomb en Afrique Sub-Saharienne. Laissez-moi vous expliquer cela avec une histoire --une histoire vraie-- 11 etait une fois deux compagnies p6troliires qui s'appelaient Exxon et Mobil. 11 y a quelques annees elles deciderent de fusionner pour former ExxonMobil, ma compagnie. Pendant des annees, ces compagnies avaient, chacune de son c6te, poursuivi I'elimination du plomb dans diverses parties du monde -d'abord aux Etats-Unis, ensuite au Japon, en Europe et ailleurs. - M a~~~~j. L.SF H*& ~~~ SNOIV1N,I noas,akd~~~~~~ Ca &rywfosu;r 1C H/4i &'pobb dtg tessebe-nzqsarieivi . .kaJ, Yiepgtz 26-28Juiq,2001 Jesdt28Jidii,2001 Horaire | Theme Intervenant Moderateur 8h30 - 9hl5 15. Presentation de programmes reussis sur M. rbrahima Sow le passage a 1'essence sans plomb (Ministere de Cas relatifs a des pays importateurs et - M. Michel Muylle (BM) I'Environnement exportateurs de petrole, avec ou sans Senegal) raffinenes 9hl5 - lOhOO 16. Panel-discussion sur les questions M. J-P. Elong-Mbassi fondamentales relatives au passage a - Membres du panel (Programme de I'essence sans plomb developpement municipal) lOhOO -10h30 Pause _ _.,._ 10h30 - 12h30 17. Groupes de travail Preparation de programmes d'actions et - Rapporteurs des groupes ._______________ recommandations concernant le suivi 12h30 - 14hO0 Dejeuner 14h00 - 15h30 18. Presentation des plans d'actions - Rapporteurs des groupes M. Maurice Niaty- preliminaires par les rapporteurs Mouamba (SITRASS) 15h30 - 16hO0 19. Conclusions et suivi - Mime. Chantal Reliquet (BM) - M. Patrick Bultynck (BM) 16hO0- 16h30 Pause ..._-_. 16h30 - 17hO0 20. Ceremonie de cloture - Dr. Amadou Diouf (Univ. CAD, Dakar) - M. Brian Doll (ExxonMobil) - Mme. Letitia Obeng, (BM) - M. Luc Gnacadja (Ministre de I'Environment, Habitat et Urbanisme, Benin) - M. A. Youssouph Sakho (Ministre de l'Equipement et des ._____________ I_ _Transports, Senegal) 19hO0 - 21h00 Caucus des ONG . , . AECLP Veudred 29JUIn12001 Initiative sur la qualite de l'air dans les villes d'Afrique sub-saharienne Steering Committee - Premiere reunion Horaire Theme Intervenant lOhOO - 10h30 Presentation du modus operandi propose - M. Patrick Bultynck (BM) - Mme. Chantal Reliquet (BM) IWh30 - I Ih15 Panel-discussions I lhl5 - I Ih30 Accord et remarques de cl6ture - Mme. Letitia Obeng (BM) Co&rdrgwLwosr is dE 6o~ dlAft&b-¸aAariestit& Dakair, SetdaL 26-28J t-200t Mercret27juin1 2001 Horaire Theme Intervenant Moderateur 8h30 - 9hOO 8. Aperau des options techniques, politiques - M. E. Mayorga Alba (BM) et reglementaires relatives au passage a I'essence sans plomb dans les strategies de reduction de la pollution atmospherigue 9hOO - lOhOO 9. Emissions de vehicules * Elimination du plomb et contr6le des - M. Stuart Rayner (NAAMSA) emissions: Experience de l'industrie Mme. J. Akumu automobile en Afrique australe (Ministere de l'Energie, * Contr6le des emissions de vehicules - M. Mamadou Diallo (Burkina Kenya) Faso) * Relations entre la qualite de l'air et les - Prof. (M.) W. Hecq (Univ. de emissions de vehicules; impacts sur les Bruxelles) coats lOhOO- lOh30 Pause lOh30 - I IhI5 10. Suivi de la qualite de I'air * Teneur en plomb des villes africaines - Prof. (M.) M.K. Sridhar (Ibadan Mme. H. Univ.) Rakotoarisetra * Facteurs de risques d'exposition des - Prof (M.) J. Nriagu (Univ. Du (Ministere de enfants au plomb en Afrique Michigan) l'Envirorment, * Criteres relatifs a la qualite de l'air et a - Dr. (M.) D. Schwela (OMS) Madagascar) son suivi Madagascar) I Ihl5 - 13hOO 11. Groupes de travail Analyse des options et implications par - Rapporteurs des groupes sous-regions 13hOO-14h30 Deieuner - -_. 14h30- 15hOO 12. Tarification et reglementation * Mesures d'incitation economique et - M. Patrick Cayrade (BEICIP) M. Ousseynou Diop financiere. Reglementation et normes: (MELISSA) equilibre acceptable 15hOO -15h30 - Pause .^ -_-_. 15h30- 17hOO 13. Strategies politiques * Promotion des transports publics, - M. Yves Amsler (UITP) Mme. Fatoumata Ouane contr6le de l'utilisation du sol et (PNUE) urbanisme 17hOo -17h30 14. Recapitulation des conclusions de la M. Patrick Bultynck (BM) journee 20hOO Diner , Ou oi & aiwjo~J C,,y reyizu. =.tdaip&doib d t4fr sa6-¸a -A-:, SD&Jte?gz 26-28Juii2001 ORDRE DU JOUR Mardi26Juif&2001 Horaire Theme | Intervenant | Moderateur 9hOO- lOhOO 1. Seance d'ouverture I * Ouverture - Dr. Frank Sprow (Vice-President. Securite, Sante et Environnement. ExxonMobil) * Allocutions - Mme. Letitia Obeng (Directeur Sectoriel, Banque Mondiale l - M. Bleu Laine (Ministre de I'Environnement, C6te d lvoire) - M. Modou Fada Diagne (Ministre de l'Environnement. Sencgal _ lOhOO-lOh30 Pause lOh30 - I IhOO 2. Presentation du cadre de la conference * Documentaire sur le passage a l'essence sans plomb en Afrique sub-saharienne M. J-P. Elong-Mbassi * L'Initiative sur la qualite de I'air dans - M. P. Bultynck (B.Ml (Programme de les villes d'Afrique sub-saharienne - Mme. C. Reliquct (B\i developpement * Objectifs et methodologie de la municipal) conference I lhOO -12h30 3. Effets de 1'essence avec plomb * Effets sur l'environnement et la sante - Dr. (M.) D. Schwela (OMS) et des adultes et des enfants Dr. (Mme.) J. Phoenix (N SC) M. Baglo (ABE, Benin) * Le cas de Dakar - Dr. (M.) A. Diouf (Univ. CAD. Dakar) * L'essence avec plomb: mythes et - M. J. Rochow (AECLP) realites 12h30- 14hOO Dejeuner 14hOO - 14h45 4. Problemes techniques et financiers relatifs au passage a l'essence sans plomb * Normes d'emissions des vehicules - Mme. Jane Armstrong (USEPA) M. E. Creppy (Univ. de * Carburants - M. Paul Beckwith (BP) Bordeaux) 14h45 -15h30 5. Problemes de raffinage et de distribution des carburants * Logistique et infrastructures de - M. Henry Ikem Obih distribution des carburants (ExxonMobil) M. [bou Diouf (CETUD, * Remplacement de - M. Martin Megnin (Caltex) Senegal) l'octane/reformnulation des carburants * Reconfiguration des raffineries - M. Mainadou Nimaga (SAR, Senegal) 15h30-16hO0 Pause 16hOO - 17h30 6. Groupes de travail, par sous-regions Introduction des groupes, nomination - Rapporteurs des groupes des rapporteurs de groupes, revue des donnees disponibles, resume de la situation par sous-regions 17h30 - 18hOO 7. Recapitulation des conclusions de la - Mme. S. Correa (USEPA) M. E. MayorgaAlba journee (BM) 19hOO - 20hOO Cocktail de bienvenue ofd -e d2.,-52.o |-. z27 = = %(sreiatwe.aI&;r Lfd/i t d,tgt lsez >wz-a Dar, &iJ(ba1 26-28Jiw2001 DEIARAON DE DAKAR Les partiipdnts de 25 pays dAfriquesubsahdrienne, represetnt IQS gouvemements, I'industrie et la so(iktO (ivile et des orgdnismes intemationaux qui ont pris par a la (onfrren(e regiondle sur l'limination du plomb dans 1essen(e (Ddkar, 26-28juin 2001), dydnt (onsidere: * Les recommandations et les resolutions de l'OMS, la BM et du PNUE declarant que le caractere prioritaire de 1'elimination du plomb a travers le monde; * Que les enquetes sur les niveaux de plombemie dans ies villes de l'ASS demontrent souvent que les parametres de l'OMS sont depasses, mettant surtout en danger le developpement et la performance intel- lectuelle chez 1'enfant; * Que les retards apportes a l'utilisation de 1'essence sans plomb empechent l'introduction de vehicules equipes de pots catalytiques et donc le developpement des politiques de qualite de I'air dans les villes en expansion de I'ASS; * Le soutien exprime par l'industrie petroliere et les ONG en faveur d'une action gouvernementale rapide relative a l'6limination du plomb dans 1'essence; Sont (onvenus de: I. joindre leurs efforts afin d'accelerer la formulation et la mise en oeuvre de programmes destines a totalement eliminer 1'essence a plomb dans tous les pays de I'ASS le plus tot possible. et au plus tard d'ici 2005. 2. Recommander aux gouvernements de reduire le contenu en plomb dans 1'essence - actuellement 0.8g/litre dans la plupart des pays de I'ASS - a une moyenne au plus de 0,4g/litre en 2002 et a une moyenne au plus de 0.2g/litre en 2003. 3. Encourager les pays ayant des installations d'importation independantes d'accelerer leurs programmes respec- tifs d'elimination du plomb. 4. Harmoniser les valeurs normatives de 1'essence sur les marches sous-regionaux afin de promouvoir le com- merce et le trafic interregional; et demander a l'IPIECA, en collaboration avec les compagnies petrolieres nationales et internationales et les representants de l'industrie automobile, d'assister a la formulation d'une gamme complete de specifications techniques des carburants. 5. Finaliser dans les 12 mois a venir les plans d'action sous-regionaux encadrant les programmes nationaux de qualite de I'air. 6. Demander aux operateurs de la cha7ine d'approvisionnement pet-olier d'ameliorer leurs installations de production, stockage et distribution en accord avec les objectifs d'elimination du plomb vises. 7. Demander a l'OMS, BM et PNUE et aux agences environnementales bilaterales telles que l'USEPA de soutenir l'ASS dans le developpement des capacites de mise en ceuvre des programmes d'elimination du plomb dans le cadre de la gestion de la qualite de l'air. 8. Developper une campagne d'information du public adequate, avec la participation active des ONG. 9 Demander a la BM et autres agences internationales d'accorder une haute priorite a l'OIrmination du plomb dans leurs dialogues sur les politiques economiques avec les gouvernements de I'ASS et de continuer a soutenir les programmes d'assistance technique et de contribuer au financement d'investissements viables. 10. Solliciter aupres de l'OUA et a d'autres organisations regionales (CEDEAO, UEMOA, SADCC, CEMAC, etc.) l'inscription de 1'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence dans leurs programmes prioritaires ainsi que leur contri- bution a l'harmonisation des normes et specifications techniques. V~~~~~~~~~~~~dew~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~zti~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ d& Vak~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~zr 3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. rejw&r6gw sw.&r u, lia omb Ga6 Dakax, Y&a4 - 26-28jw*2001 RESULTATS Un consensus est apparu sur: * L'impact negatif du plomb. les enfants etant les plus affectes * Le besoin urgent d'eliminer le plomb dahs 1'essence * Le besoin de cooperation au niveau sous-regional, y compris l'harmonisation des caracteristiques techniques * Le besoin de collaboration avec les industries automobiles et petrolieres * Le manque de contraintes techniques additionnelles pour les vehicules existants. * Le besoin d'une strategie de mise en oeuvre d'ensemble (information technique, institutionnelle, financiere et du public) Le resultat-cle de la (onfe[en(e fut la formulation d'une De(laration, a((eptee par toutes les partiesi qui affirme que le plomb sera (ompletement elimine de 1'essen(e dans tous les pays de lAfrique Sub-Saharienne le plus tot possible, et au plus tard en 2005. * PLANS D'ACTION: GROUPES DETRAVAIL SOUS-REGIONAUX: Chaque groupe sous-regional a produit un "plan d'action" preliminaire pour l'elimination du plomb dans l'essence. Chaque region -determinee par la configu- ration de son approvisionnement en essence- a soumis des etapes techniques et des echeanciers specifiques pour cette elimination. Quoique le detail des recommandations variat, toutes les regions furent d'accord que 1'elimination totale du plomb etait faisable d'ici a 2005. En consequence la "Declaration de Dakar" fut redigee et signee par toutes les parties presentes. Le challenge residera dans I'acceptation de tels plans par les gouvernements nationaux, et dans leur mise en oeuvre effective en accord avec l'echeancier prevu. * CREATION D'UN RESEAU: La creation du reseau de praticiens de la qualite de l'air (a tous les niveaux) AFRICACLEAN a la fois a travers la region ainsi qu'au plan international est un des resultats de la conference. La diversite des participants a montru le hautniveau d'interet apporte aux problemes de gestion de la qualite de l'air, et la formation d'un tel reseau a et soulignee comme etant un point cle de l'Initiative sur la qualite de l'air dans la region. * GESTION DES CONNAISSANCES: L'annonce initiale relative a l'Initiative sur la qualite de I'air et a la Conference a atteint plus de 400 participants potentiels, et a elle-meme souleve une prise de conscience des prob- lemes dans la region. Une video et un Cd-rom ont et produits avant la conference, detaillant les problemes et les soucis relatifs au plomb dans les carburants et a son elimination. De nombreux documents de soutien avaient ete prepares en anglais et en fran,ais et mis a la disposition des participants. PRO(NAIN[S [TAPES Une serie d'actions est requise pour faire progresser l'elimination du plomb et pour developper a la fois le reseau et le mecan- isme de gouvernance: * PLANS D'ACTION: des groupes de travail sous-regionaux ont ete etablis. La Banque mondiale devra contr6ler le progres et le developpement, et diffuser les premiers succes. * CAMPAGNE DE PRISE DE CONSCIENCE: une campagne coherente par des partenaires divers. La Banque mondiale procurera une fonction centrale a travers les sites Internet : www.worldbank.org/cleanair et www.worldbank.org/afr/ssatp. * BANQUE DE DONNEES: bien plus d'informations sont necessaires a la mise en oeuvre efficace de l'elimination du plomb. L'apport de l'industrie petroliere est ici envisage comme etant primordial. * Conference Regionale: Une conference de suivi aura lieu lors de a Rio + 10 )> prevu a Durban,Afrique du Sud, en Septembre 2002. * DES PARTENARIATS RENFORCES: les partenariats entre les organisations et reseaux internationaux et regionaux, les gouvernements nationaux et regionaux, et le secteur prive seront renforces. 2 Cfordgio.naItar sElitirdrpwb diacs Ceenr b.7-¸raharLiu .Daki, Sbti5g* 26-28Juii& 2001 RESUME Le plomb dans 1'essence est la plus grande source d'exposition au plomb que connaisse l'homme. Les consequences d'une telle exposition au plomb sur la sante sont serieuses, affectent le developpement mental et physique des enfants et sont la cause de l'elevation de la tension arterielle, de maladies cardio-vasculaires, neurologiques et renales chez les adultes. Alors que 80% de 1'essence vendue dans le monde est a present sans plomb, I'Afrique demeure 1'exception. Le passage rapide a une essence sans plomb est considere comme le premier pas vers la reduction de la pollution de I'air en Afrique, ameliorant par la meme la sante et la qualite de vie de millions de personnes, en particulier celles defavorisees en milieu urbain, qui souffrent de maniere disproportionnee d'une telle exposition aux polluants de I'air. Une Conference sur l'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence en Afrique sub-saharienne a ete organisee par la Banque mondiale, sous l'egide de l'initiative regionale sur la qualite de I'air, et s'est tenue a l'H6tel Meridien President, a Dakar, Senegal, du 26 juin au 28 juin 2001. Les objedis spQ(ifiques de (tte (on*ren(e rqiondle Qtaient les suivdnts:: 1- Augmenter Id prise de (ons(ien(e des effets dommdgedbles du plomb ddns lessen( sur Id sdntQ et Qtdblir un (onsensus entQ eles prfn(ipdles pdrties prenantes sur les probIWmes te(hniques, r~qlementaires, institutionnels et konomiques, et les prio*ts h*S au passage a Iessen(e sans plomb. 2- Mettie en oeuvre des plans d'ations pour Iltimination du plomb dans 1essen(e suivant un kheandier et des indi(ateurs de (ontrole prQQtablis. Pres de 200 participants en provenance de 25 pays differents ont participe a la Conference, representant un eventail varie d'agences gouvernementales nationales et locales, d'institutions academiques et de recherche, d'ONGs et d'organisations internationales. Durant trois jours, les presentations ont traitees des consequences de l'utilisation du plomb dans 1'essence sur la sante, 1'environnement et l'economie, et des principaux aspects des strategies techniques, financieres, reglementaires et poli- tiques requises pour aider a la mise en oeuvre de l'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence. Plusieurs experiences fructueuses d'elimination du plomb dans 1'essence en Amerique Latine et en Asie ont ete presentees. L'approvisionnement en essence en Afrique sub-saharienne est realise par des raffineries locales et complemente par des importations. Ce schema d'approvisionnement peut etre subdivise en cinq sous-regions geographiques, chacune dominee par des centres de raffinage preponderants.Au cours de la conference, un groupe de travail a ete forme pour chacune des cinq sous-regions, et un temps de discussion a ete allou&, dans le but de formuler des plans d'actions pour l'6limination du plomb dans 1'essence dans la region consideree. Sous-Regions Pays Centres de raffinage clIs Afrique de l'ouest Burkina Faso, Cap Vert, C6te d'lvoire, Gambie, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Ghana, Guinee, Guinee-Bissau. Liberia, Mali, Senegal Mauritanie, Senegal, Sierra Leone Nigeria et pays Benin, Niger, Nigeria, Togo Nigeria voisins Afrique centrale Cameroun, Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, Guinee Cameroun, Gabon, occidentale equatoriale, Republique centre africaine, Republique Republique democratique democratique du Congo (Kinshasa), Sao Tome et du Congo (Kinshasa) Principe, Tchad Afrique australe Afrique du Sud, Angola, Botswana, Comores, Afrique du Sud, Angola Lesotho, Madagascar, Maurice, Mozambique, Namibie, Seychelles, Swaziland, Zambie, Zimbabwe Afrique orientale Burundi, Djibouti, Eritree, Ethiopie, Kenya, Malawi, Kenya D n r_____________ - Ouganda, Rwanda, Somalie, Soudan, Tanzanie SOMMAIRF 4.8 EMISSIONS DEVEHICULES Elimination du plomb et contr6le des emissions: Experience de l'industrie automobile en Afrique australe - M.Stuart Rayner, NAAM&A 77 Contr6le des emissions de vehicules - M. Mamodou Diallo, Centre de Controle des Vehicules, Burkina Faso 81 Relations entre la qualite de lair et les emissions de vehicules; impacts sur ies couts - Prof W Hecq, Universite de Bruxelles 85 4.9 SUIVI DE LA QUALITE DE L'AIR Teneur en plomb des villes africaines - Prof M.K Sridhor, Universite d'Ibadan 93 Criteres relatifs a la qualite de l'air et a son suivi - Dr. D. Sdhwela, OMS 99 4.10 TARIFICATION ET REGLEMENTATION Mesures d'incitation economique et financiere - M. Patrick Cayrade, Beicip-Fronlab 105 4.11 STRATEGIES POLITIQUES Promotion des transports publics, contr6le de l'utilisation du sol et urbanisme - M. Yves Amsler, UITP 109 4.12 PRESENTATION DE PROGRAMMES REUSSIS SUR LE PASSAGE A L'ESSENCE SANS PLOMB Cas relatifs a des pays importateurs et exportateurs de petrole, avec ou sans raffinenes - M. Michel Muylke, Banque mondiale 119 4.13 GROUPES DETRAVAIL Afrique de l'ouest 125 Nigeria et pays voisins 129 Afrique centrale occidentale 131 Afrique australe 133 Afrique orientale 135 4.14 CONCLUSIONS ET SUIVI: Mme. Chantal Reliquet et M. Patrick Bultynck, Banque mondiale 137 4.15 SEANCE DE CLOTURE: M. Brian Doll, ExxonMobil 139 5.0 LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS 6.0 PARTENAIRES SOMMAIR[ 1.0 RESUME 2.0 DECLARATION DE DAKAR 3.0 ORDRE DU JOUR 4.0 PRESENTATIONS 4.1 SEANCE D'OUVERTURE: Dr. Franck Sprow, Vice-President Seurite, Sante et Environnement, ExxonMobil 13 4.2 ALLOCUTION: Mme. Letitia Obeng Directeur Sectoriel, Banque mondiale 17 4.3 CADRE DE LA CONFERENCE L'initiative sur la qualite de l'air dans les villes d'Afrique sub-saharienne - M. P Bukynck et Mme. C Reliquet Banque mondiale 19 4.4 EFFETS DE L'ESSENCEAVEC PLOMB Effets sur lenvironnement et la sante des adultes et des enfants - Dr.D. Schwela, OMS et Dr.j. Phoenix, NSC 23 Le cas de Dakar - Dr A Diouf Universite CAD, Dakar 37 L essence avec plomb: mythes et realites - M.J.Rochow,AECLP 47 4.5 PROBLEMESTECHNIQUES ET FINANCIERS RELATIFSAU PASSAGE A L'ESSENCE SANS PLOMB Normes dcemissions des vehicules - Mme.Jane Anmstrong, USEPA 51 Carburants - M. Paul Beckwith, BP 55 4.6 PROBLEMES DE RAFFINAGE ET DE DISTRIBUTION DES CARBURANTS Logistique et infrastructures de distribution des carburants - M. Henry lkem Obih, ExxonMobil 59 Remplacement de l'octane/reformulation des carburants - M. Martin Megnin, Cakex 65 Reconfiguration des raffineries - M. Mamadou Nimaga, SAP, Senegal 69 4.7 APER,U DES OPTIONS TECHNIQUES, POLITIQUES Er REGLEMENTAIRES RELATIVES AU PASSAGE A UESSENCE SANS PLOMB DANS LES STRATEGIES DE REDUCTION DE LA POLLUTION ATMOSPHERIQUE - M. E Mayorga-Alba, Banque mondiale 71 AVANT-PROPOS LAFRIQUE SUB-SAHARIENNE S URBANISE PLUS RAPIDEMENT QUE N'IMPORTE QUELLE AUTRE REGION DU GLOBE; CETTE SITUATION GENERE UNE AUGMENTATION IMPORTANTE AUSSI BIEN DES DISTANCES QUE DU NOMBRE DE VOYAGES EFFECTUES PAR TRANSPORT MOTORISE. LES EMBOUTEILLAGES DOS A LA CIRCULATION EMPIRENT, AFFECTENT LA PRODUCTIVITE URBAINE ET SONT LA CAUSE D'UNE REELLE MENACE SUR LA SANTE. LAFRIQUE SUB-SAHARIENNE EST L UNE DES RARES REGIONS DE NOTRE PLANETE A ENCORE UTILISER DE L ESSENCE CONTENANT DU PLOMB, CE QUI CAUSE D'IMPORTANTES CONCENTRATIONS DE PLOMB DANS LATMOSPHERE, LESQUELLES ONT, A LEUR TOUR, UN IMPACT SIGNIFICATIF SUR LA SANTE HUMAINE, LES ENFANTS ETANT LES PLUS AFFECTES. LEUMINATION PROGRESSIVE DU PLOMB DE LESSENCE EST UNE PREMIERE ETAPE VITALE VERS UNE STRATEGIE GLOBALE DE GESTION DE LA QUALITE DE LAIR URBAIN, QUI, EN OUTRE, PRODUIT DES BENEFICES IMMEDIATS SUR LA POPULATION. LINITIATIVE SUR LA QUAUTE DE CAIR DANS LES VILLES D'AFRIQUE SUB-SAHARIENNE, LANCEE PAR LA BANQUE MONDIALE EN 1998, A POUR BUT D'ABORDER CES QUESTIONS-CLES AU MOYEN D'EFFORTS CONCERTES. CES DERNIERS NE REMPLACENT PAS LES EFFORTS DES GOUVERNEMENTS ET DES INSTITUTIONS FINANCIERES, MAIS LES COMPLEMENTENT PLUTOT, EN SUSCITANT DE NOUVELLES FORMES DE PARTENARIAT ENTRE LES VILLES, LE SECTEUR PRIVE, LES INSTITUTIONS ENVIRONNEMENTALES ET LES AGENCES DE DEVELOPPEMENT, LES FONDATIONS Er LES ORGANISATIONS NON-GOUVERNEMENTALES, EN VUE D'AMEUORER ENSEMBLE LA GESTION DE LA QUALITE DE LAIR URBAIN POUR LE BIEN-ETRE DES POPULATIONS. EN 2001, CACTIVITE PRINCIPALE DE LINITIATIVE SUR LA QUALITE DE LAIR A ETE LA TENUE D UNE CONFERENCE REGIONALE SUR L'ELIMINATION DU PLOMB DANS L'ESSENCE. A DAKAR, SENEGAL, ENTRE UE 26 Er LE 28 JUIN. LES ACTES DE LA CONFERENCE CONSIGNES ICI EN PRESENTENT LES CONCLUSIONS,AINSI QUE LES PRESENTATIONS QUI ONT ETE FAITES, POUR LEUR VALEUR INFORMATIVE Le r6sultat prin(ipal de la (onfOren(e de Ddkar fut Id formuldtion d'une DO(lardtion, ddoptOe par toutes les pdries, qui enon(e que l'essen(e d plomb sera (ompletement hlimin0e dans tous IQs pays dAfrique sub-sdhdrienne dos que possible et d'id 2005 du plus tdrd. MICHELE E. DE NEVERS MANAGER ENVIRONNEMENT ET - ~~ -.=. RESOURCEs NATURELLES INSTUT DE LA BANQUE MONDIALE -LETITIA A. OBENG DIRECTEUR SECTORIEL . " -- _ ffi _ G __ _ ~~~SECTEUR EAu ET DEVELOPPEMENT URBAIN AFRIQUE CENTRALE ET DE L'OUEST REGION AFRIQUE La Banque mondiale et ses partenaires, y compris ESMAP (Programme d'aide a la gestion du secteur energetique), la Cooperation beige, le Fonds fiduciaire norvegien pour le developpement durable et l'industrie pftroliere, se sont engages aupres de i'Initiative sur la Qualite de I'Air et de ses activites, et sont desireux de cooperer avec les villes de i'Afrique sub-saharienne dans leurs efforts de gestion de la qualite de I'air en milieu urbain. (oordination du proqramme d'Initiative sur la qualite de I'air ddns les villes d'Ahique sub-sahdrienne: Patrick Bultynck, Economiste senior des transports urbains, Banque mondiale pbLikynck@woldclbank.org Chantal Reliquet, Urbaniste senior, Banque mondiale creliquet@worldbank.org www.worldbdnk.org/leanair www.worldbdnk.orq/afr/ssatp Ave( le (on(ours findn(ier appote d Id (onferen(e pdr: La Cooperation belge La Cooperation norvegienne Le Programme d'aide a la gestion du secteur de 1'energie (PAGSE) U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) E*(onMobil BANQUIE MONDIALI. WAS11INGTON DC 20433 USA - -' -wBanque mondiaI7 . F f - - - ~ Initiative sur la qualite6 6deN'8air dans lestviI d'Afriq b-saha irew bo - e N 0 7~~~~~~~~~~~~0 (onf&enic egRiona~ Sur LihmintiOn uv Om dns ssenc -e Ariqu u u-dhdrienne _ . - aa, Se n t sur~~~~~~~~~~~~~~62 Juliiain 200 D~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~%0 1 fiu 5u-aA".n