65842 GENDER & CLIMATE CHANGE: 3 Things You should Know © 2011 The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/socialresilience E-mail: asksocial@worldbank.org All rights reserved. This volume is a product of the World Bank Group. The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank Group concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The World Bank Group encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone 978-750-8400; fax 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com. Photo credits—Abbie Trayler-Smith/Panos (cover); Simone McCourtie (p. 8); Margaret Arnold (p. 11); Curt Carnemark (p. 13); World Bank (pp. 3, 5, 6, 8). Gender and Climate Change: Three Things You Should Know Gender equality matters in its own right, and it matters for effective climate action The 2012 World Development Report makes the case that gender equality is intrinsically impor- tant to development, as well as being smart economics.1 The Bank sees gender analysis as integral to the social analyses that inform our lending. Gender analysis helps find ways to mitigate pos- sible risks that may exacerbate gender inequality, and highlights opportunities to enhance posi- tive outcomes. In the context of climate change, this has three key implications: Women are disproportionately vulnerable to the effects of natural disasters and climate change where their rights and socio-economic status are not equal to those of men, and where they have less voice and influence than men in shaping policies and prioritizing how climate finance is used. Women’s rights, socio-economic status and voice can all be strengthened through gender-sensitive and climate-smart development assistance. The WDR 2012 framework allows for a shift away from a singular focus on women’s and girls’ vulnerability and their role as victims towards emphasizing their agen- cy. This encourages a more nuanced and forward-looking approach to gender and cli- mate change. Empowerment of women is an important ingredient in building climate resilience. There are countless examples where empowering women to exercise leadership within their communities contributes to climate resilience, ranging from disaster preparedness efforts in Bangladesh, Indonesia and Nicaragua, to better forest governance in India and Nepal, to coping with drought in the Horn of Africa. There is also strong and mounting evidence at the country level that improving gender equality contributes to policy choices that lead to better environmental governance, whether through increased representation and voice of women within their communities, in society at large, and at the political level, or through increased labor force participation. Low-emissions development pathways can be more effective and more equitable where they are designed using a gender-informed approach. Billions of women around the world make decisions every day that influence the amount of carbon that is released into the atmosphere. This influence differs from that of men owing to women’s socially ascribed roles as home-makers (where decisions influence emissions e.g. from domes- tic cooking), as farmers (influencing soil carbon emissions), and as consumers (purchas- ing decisions influencing emissions from the entire lifecycle of production, consumption, waste disposal). Women’s and men’s choices can be expanded in ways that reduce carbon footprints, through gender-sensitive approaches to the design and distribution of im- proved cook stoves, advice on low-tillage agriculture, or product labeling and recycling, among many other examples. The strengthening of women’s political representation and leadership roles within wider society is likely to contribute to the kinds of institutional transformation that are required to put countries on low-emissions development paths. 2 | Yemeni woman drawing water from a cistern. The mainstreaming of gender-sensitive approaches is starting to happen across the range of climate actions, but much more needs to be done. The World Bank is working in 130 coun- tries to support climate change adaptation and mitigation. Both gender and climate change are priority focal areas for results under IDA16. The Bank is learning through its own work and that of others the ‘whys and hows’ of integrating the three key aspects related to gender and climate change mentioned above. The following pages expand on these lessons and make the case that gender mainstreaming is urgently needed both in dedicated climate finance and in approaches to climate-smart Official Development Assistance (ODA). | 3 Women and girls are often disproportionately vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change impacts where their endowments, agency and opportunities are not equal to those of men Growing empirical evidence supports the broad for women including primary responsibil- view that women’s overall lower access to as- ity for the care of children, the sick and el- sets, services and voice makes women more derly; social norms preventing women from vulnerable than men to the effects of natural leaving their homes or staying in cyclone disasters and climate change. Much of the shelters without a male relative; traditional documented evidence to date relates to the dress codes such as the wearing of sarees effects of natural disasters. A 2007 study of that can easily become entangled; and con- 141 natural disasters over 1981–2002 found cerns around privacy and safety in shelters. that when economic and social rights are re- Women also represented an estimated 61% alized equally for both sexes, disaster-related of fatalities in Myanmar after Cyclone Nargis death rates do not differ significantly for men in 2008, and 70% of those dying during the and women. But when women’s rights and so- 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Banda Aceh, cio-economic status are not equal to those of Indonesia.3 men, more women than men die in disasters.2 This gender gap in vulnerability to the effects In Bangladesh, for example, of the 140,000 of climate extremes is not inevitable. By the people who died from the flood-related ef- time Cyclone Sidr hit Bangladesh in 2007­ — fects of Cyclone Gorky in 1991, women out- an event at least as severe as Gorky—the numbered men by 14:1. Contributory factors absolute numbers of people killed had fallen limiting women’s mobility and use of cyclone to around 3,000 as a result of better cyclone shelters were social norms and ascribed roles preparedness efforts. Between 1991 and 4 | Women in Colombia whose home is affected by flooding every year. 2007, Bangladesh had made great strides in as community mobilizers more likely to be hazard monitoring, community preparedness heard by other women, and creating women- and integrated response efforts. The gender only spaces in cyclone shelters. gap in mortality rates had also shrunk to 5:1 In Nicaragua, by contrast, more men than by specifically addressing the cultural rea- women died as a result of Hurricane Mitch sons why women were reluctant to use cy- in 1998. One community, La Masica, reported clone shelters, including paying particular at- no hurricane-related deaths, which was at- tention to engaging women in these efforts tributed to gender-sensitive community ed- | 5 Residents of Amauta-B shantytown in Peru work to build a retaining wall in their community. ucation on disaster preparedness and early “The unevenness of [disaster] impacts is of- warning six months prior to Mitch. Both men ten highly visible because of media attention, and women contributed to hazard manage- but the recovery process is potentially more ment activities, but women ended up contin- uneven, and it tends to be less visible, at uously monitoring the early warning system least to those on the outside, because their that made prompt evacuation possible.4 attention has turned elsewhere.�6 Violence and sexual harassment of women and chil- Just as natural disasters affect women dis- dren typically increase after a crisis when civil proportionately, response and recovery ef- and administrative structures are weakened. forts can also increase or reinforce existing Such risks are often overlooked by officials as inequalities.5 The World Bank notes that: social/cultural reluctance obstructs address- 6 | ing these issues. For instance, after the 2001 The World Bank has developed guidance for earthquakes in El Salvador, single women staff and country clients to integrate disaster insisted that the sheeting provided for tem- and climate risk management into communi- porary shelters be opaque and strong. In the ty driven development and social fund oper- past, it had been translucent, making it easy ations which includes a module to integrat- to see when they were alone. Given that it ing gender dimensions. It identifies critical could easily be cut with a machete, many entry points for integrating gender concerns women had been raped.7 in policy development and the project cycle; approaches to gender-informed M&E; prac- A lack of understanding of the gender dimen- tical tools for integrating gender issues in sions can impede equitable distribution of re- community-based disaster risk management; covery assistance. For example, entitlement and challenges in gender mainstreaming in programs have traditionally favored men post-disaster recovery and reconstruction over women, tenants of record, bank-account planning.9 The East Asia and Pacific regional holders, and perceived heads of households. department recently developed regionally Conversely, the specific needs of men have adapted guidance on integrating gender sometimes been left out, such as stress, al- issues in disaster and climate risk manage- cohol counseling, or developing the skills ment programs,10 which are being followed to cope with becoming a single parent; this up with capacity building and country-level can be a significant need given that women policy analysis initially focusing on Vietnam, comprise the majority of those who die in di- sasters. Damage and needs assessments can the Philippines, Laos, Indonesia and China. help ensure equity by disaggregating mortal- As with natural disasters, so the effects of ity and morbidity by gender, and taking into longer-term climate change may be felt more account losses suffered in the informal sector. acutely by women where their endowments, The recovery process offers specific opportuni- agency and opportunities are not equal to ties to promote gender equality by including or are more climate-sensitive than those of women in program design and implementa- men.11 New empirical evidence from Ban- tion as well as promoting land rights for wom- gladesh, for example, offers insights into en. Some World Bank projects have elevated gender-differentiated practices for coping women’s status in society by providing land with and adapting to flood, river erosion, and titles in the names of both women and men, drought.12 Strategies that are most gender- as was done in Aceh, Indonesia; Vietnam; differentiated include reducing food intake, and Gujarat and Maharashtra, India. After internal migration, and early marriage for the 1993 earthquake in Maharashtra, even girls. Early marriage reduces the family’s li- widows received houses in their own names ability and may increase protection of the and ex-gracia payments for lost relatives.8 bride against potential violence during and Indeed, it has become standard practice to after natural disasters, but may increase her issue housing grants and housing and land vulnerability in the long run. The burden of titles in both the wife’s and husband’s names, reduced consumption and increased work- and to stipulate that widows receive houses loads often falls disproportionately on wom- in their own names after so many cases re- en, particularly in poorer households. Migra- sulted in positive social impacts. Other cases tion often brings positive benefits for women include post-tsunami reconstruction in Sri in terms of diversified opportunities, rights Lanka; and post-flooding reconstruction in and voice. However, for those with fewer Argentina, El Salvador, and Mozambique. skills to begin with, migration may increase | 7 the likelihood of exploitation in the form of capacity building support in Samoa, prior- low wages, forced marriages (for security and ity is being given to groups that can pro- access to housing), and risk of violence. vide gender-sensitive inputs to national- and local-level policy and planning processes. To address these issues, considerable attention Monitoring implementation progress using is now being paid to mainstreaming gender sex-disaggregated indicators and data will concerns into country-level Strategic Pro- grams for Climate Resilience (SPCRs) under be essential. In Bangladesh, the Northern the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience Areas Reduction of Poverty Initiative (or NARI, (PPCR). Mozambique, Nepal and Samoa which means ‘women’ in Bengali) provides are notable examples, in which gender- assistance to migrant women employed in disaggregated field consultations were car- the garment industry in overcoming the diffi- ried out and helped inform SPCR priorities. culties of migration and giving them a chance In selecting civil society organizations for to successfully adapt to a new life.13 Community meeting in Aurangabad, India. 8 | Empowerment of women is an important ingredient in building climate resilience Women can be powerful agents of change. build climate resilience emphasizes diversi- There are countless examples where empow- fying economic opportunities and empow- ering women to exercise leadership within ering people by enhancing their voice and their communities contributes to climate re- agency. In Nepal and India, for example, silience, ranging from disaster preparedness women’s participation in forest committees efforts in Bangladesh, Indonesia and Nicara- beyond a critical minimum threshold (around gua, to better forest governance in India and a third) has been seen to have a positive im- Nepal, to coping with drought in the Horn pact on forest regeneration and a reduction of Africa. There is also strong and mounting in illegal extraction of forest products.15 Evi- evidence at the country level that improv- dence is mounting that where women are ing gender equality contributes to policy empowered to create institutional platforms choices that lead to better environmental that expand their own, their families’ and governance, whether through increased rep- their communities’ endowments, agency and resentation and voice of women within their opportunities, this can serve as a powerful communities, in society at large, and at the springboard for building climate resilience political level, or through increased labor more generally. Good examples of how this force participation.14 can be done are seen in programs that seek to build climate resilience through gender- Women’s empowerment can provide a vital sensitive approaches to supporting rural live- springboard for addressing climate resilience. lihoods: The growing body of knowledge on how to | 9 • In India, the National Rural Liveli- ing food security. Women played an hoods Mission is scaling up a important leadership role, inspired model that has proven successful in in part by exchange visits across the Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, and other Kenyan-Ethiopia border. drought-prone states. The approach begins with empowering poor wom- • In Bolivia, recent work has high- en through their own self-help groups lighted the differences between ad- (SHGs) to progressively build experi- aptation strategies employed by men ence with savings and micro-loans. and women, and that investing in Conscious efforts are made to build women can improve adaptation out- capacity and social capital through comes. A study of seven rural com- financial inclusion. Over time, fed- munities found that whereas men erations of SHGs are supported that focus on adapting by such measures increase their bargaining power in as expanding agricultural production gaining access to a wide variety of (through increased land use), large- goods and support services on be- scale community interventions (e.g. half of their members. The same in- irrigation, river defenses), or migra- stitutional platform lends itself very tion; women tend to focus more on well to building climate resilience by practical and innovative improve- mediating access to specialized ad- ments such as seeking alternative vice regarding on-farm drought ad- water supplies, protecting assets, aptation measures; creating linkages planting new crop varieties or supple- with other government programs menting traditional incomes through such as the National Rural Employ- activities likes honey production or ment Guarantee Act that provides up handicrafts. These differences re- to 100 days of paid labor for eligible flect traditional gender roles and the households in public works includ- greater access of men to knowledge ing building watershed management resources, such as technical trainings. structures; and facilitating opportuni- Evidence also shows that women pre- ties for family members through la- fer adaptation strategies that employ bor migration.16 a more efficient use of existing re- sources.18 • Similar approaches have been shown to work within pastoral communities Gender-sensitive approaches can contribute of Kenya and Ethiopia in building to climate resilience in urban settings as well, resilience to drought, with a particu- as the following examples demonstrate: lar emphasis on empowering women to become agents of change.17 Live- • The ‘Girls in Risk Reduction Leader- lihood diversification made possible ship’ project, in Ikageng Township of through capacity building support to Potchefstroom, South Africa, sought women’s savings and loans groups to reduce the social vulnerability of helped communities better manage marginalized adolescent girls using the risks associated with the 2005– practical capacity-building initiatives 08 drought cycle by generating in- to increase individual and community come, preserving assets and enhanc- resilience to natural disasters. Girls 10 | Grassroots leaders from Nicaragua and Peru participate in international forum on disaster risk reduction. were trained in personal and public tion in their neighborhoods and to health, fire safety, counseling and di- report on any problems. Environmen- saster risk reduction planning.19 tal observatories have been created in the city’s 11 comunas, to promote • In Saint Louis, Senegal, local civ- public engagement in environmen- il society organizations including tal monitoring using a simple set of women’s groups, youth associations indicators known as the semaforos and dahiras (religious groups) have ambientales (‘environmental traffic been brought together by the NGO lights’).21 Enda-Tiers Monde to raise commu- nity awareness of the adverse health • In the slum settlement of Kalandar and other effects of flooding, includ- in Delhi, India, a commercially viable ing diarrhea and malaria. They help water kiosk, managed by a women’s dig and maintain drainage channels, committee, provides safe and afford- disinfect stagnant water, and place able water for the community. Com- sandbags to assist residents to safely munity mobilization and awareness move about the neighborhood.20 raising around poor water quality was undertaken by an NGO and a lo- • In Manizales, Colombia, 112 wom- cal research institute, and sought to en were trained as Guardianas de la engage women in the planning, man- Ladera (‘Guardians of the Slopes’) to agement and operation of the kiosk create and maintain slope stabiliza- as a community enterprise.22 | 11 Low-emissions development pathways can be more effective and more equitable where they are designed using a gender-informed approach Billions of women make decisions every day distribution of improved cook stoves, advice that influence the amount of carbon that is re- on low-tillage agriculture, or product labeling leased into the atmosphere. Owing to socially and recycling, among many other examples. ascribed gender roles, women do the lion’s share of domestic cooking around the world. Few studies estimate greenhouse gas emis- Their choices in terms of cooking fuel (where sions down to the level of distinct socio- they even have a choice), cooking technol- economic groups within countries, let alone ogy, and what foods to cook, all have an im- along gender lines.23 Most debate has cen- portant bearing on carbon emissions. Wom- tered on average per capita emissions at en also make decisions as land managers that country level, or perhaps urban versus rural affect how much carbon is released or stored per capita emissions. Household-level con- in agricultural soils and above-ground bio- sumption or expenditure data can be used as mass. And, particularly with rising incomes, proxies for GHG emissions up to a point, but women are consumers, who influence the are very difficult to attribute to individuals amount of carbon emitted in the production, within households owing to blurred distinc- distribution, use and disposal of the consum- tions among energy and fuel consumption er goods they choose to purchase. Women’s for personal consumption, for commuting and men’s choices can be expanded in ways to work to earn family income, or for care that reduce carbon footprints, through gen- work for other household members. A re- der-sensitive approaches to the design and cent study of single-person households in Germany, Norway, Greece and Sweden of- 12 | Kenyan women participating in an afforestation project. fers some insights into gendered per capita chasing decisions on household appliances carbon footprints, at least in Europe.24 In that that take energy efficiency into account. It is study, single-male households were found not clear how far such findings can be gen- to consume more energy than single-wom- eralized, but at the very least they point to en households, on average, by 6 per cent in the need to take gender into account in the Norway and 39 per cent in Greece, and these design of measures to reduce carbon inten- gender differences held true independently sity in the energy sector, and in urban and of age or income. transport development. There is mounting evidence, particularly in A recent World Bank study concluded that Europe, that women have different percep- energy sector interventions can have signifi- tions of the significance of climate change, cant gender co-benefits where interventions and behave differently as a result.25 They are are carefully designed and targeted based on more likely to undertake actions perceived a context-specific understanding of energy to benefit the environment, for example, scarcity and household decision-making.26 including consuming locally sourced foods, Most gender benefits of providing electric- recycling household waste, and making pur- ity and motive power occur because women | 13 tend to spend more time at home, and are women when accompanied by effec- responsible for tasks that can be carried out tive social marketing and financing more productively with electricity and motive to promote the use of time-saving power: technology. There is also an impor- tant body of evidence demonstrating • There can be very significant health that access to television has resulted gains, particularly for women and in lower acceptance of spousal abuse, children, from effective dissemina- lower son preference, more autono- tion of improved cook stoves or other my, and greater likelihood of sending modern cooking technology in rural girls to school in rural India.28 South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and of less polluting cooking and • Such gender co-benefits of electri- heating technology in China. fication can be realized with much lower carbon intensity through the • In the Lao PDR Rural Electrification promotion of incentives to adopt af- Project, it was found that female- fordable renewable energy technolo- headed households made up 43 per gies such as solar lamps, as the IFC- cent of poor households, who could sponsored Lighting Africa program not afford the upfront fees to con- seeks to promote through access to nect to the electricity grid. This led micro-finance. to a pilot project, Power to the Poor, which set up a revolving loan fund to enable female-headed households to There is also growing evidence in urban rede- finance the connection costs. velopment and in the development of public transport systems that gender awareness in • The Kuyasa Fund in Cape Town, the design of such programs can result in in- South Africa, provides microfinance novations that bring significant gender co- lending for housing, targeting the benefits, regardless of whether or not they most vulnerable groups, and women also seek to lower net carbon emissions: in particular. Sixteen per cent of the funds were spent on improving the thermal efficiency of housing.27 • In urban redevelopment in Bogota, Colombia, that among other things • In general, lighting and television aimed to reduce the carbon foot- are the first common uses of elec- print of the city, careful attention was tricity, accounting for at least 80 per to creating pedestrian spaces and cent of rural electricity consumption. well-lit public transport, and had a Electricity displaces more expensive dramatic effect in reducing gender- candles and kerosene lamps, thereby based and common violence. reducing indoor air pollution and fire and burn risk. Lighting and television • Measures to improve women’s safety help improve access to information, and thereby increase the acceptance the ability to study, and can extend of public transport by women, while the effective working day and im- indirectly reducing greenhouse gas prove public safety. Electrification emissions, were also undertaken in can have greater positive impacts on Montreal, Canada, and London, UK. 14 | These included on-request stops be- Integrating gender concerns into REDD+ tween bus stops at night, and raising readiness processes under the Forest Car- awareness of using unlicensed mini- bon Partnership Facility (FCPF) is also be- cabs, and led to dramatic reductions coming standard practice, although more in gender-based violence.29 needs to be done. In Democratic Republic of Congo, for example, the Readiness Prepa- A number of efforts have been undertaken to ration Plan (R-PP) made a concerted effort to integrate gender concerns into climate action. include gender considerations, and women’s A Strategic Environmental, Social and Gen- der Assessment (SESGA) was carried out for groups participated in provincial level REDD+ the Climate Investment Funds (CIFs) over- workshops during its preparation. A Technical all. This included specific attention to gender Coordination Group has been charged with analysis, for example in relation to renewable the task of mainstreaming gender concerns energy, transport, and land rights.30 The SES- throughout the REDD+ process, including in GA is being used to inform the harmonization community forest management and the dis- of the respective draft results frameworks for tribution of carbon benefits.31 The R-PP tem- the CIFs. A concerted effort will be needed plate was recently updated to make specific to monitor progress as CIF implementation reference to the need for gender analysis in is rolled out. all FCPF contexts. | 15 Conclusion The World Bank is making strides in main- and Social Assessment in the case of IL. Both streaming gender-sensitive approaches to gender and climate change are priority fo- climate action on the ground. Ensuring that cal areas for results under IDA16. In FY10, 88 men and women have equal access to edu- per cent of Country Assistance/Partnership cation, economic opportunities, productive Strategies (CAS/CPS) included strategies to inputs and equal chances to become social- address climate change. It is Bank policy that ly and politically active can generate broad all CAS/CPS are informed by gender analysis. productivity gains, and lead to more inclusive Increasingly, the nexus between gender and and greener development path for all. For climate change is specifically considered at the World Bank, gender analysis is an inte- the CAS/CPS level, as in the case of Bolivia. gral aspect of the upstream social analysis Gender mainstreaming is needed both in dedi- that is required to inform both development cated climate finance and in approaches to policy lending (DPL) and investment lending climate-smart Official Development Assistance (IL). It helps identify and suggest ways to mit- (ODA). In practice, the World Bank, jointly with igate possible risks in terms of exacerbating Regional Development Banks, supports gov- gender inequality, and highlight opportuni- ernments in blending climate finance (e.g. the ties to enhance positive outcomes for gender Climate Investment Funds (CIFs) or carbon equality. The entry points for such upstream finance) with ODA (including IBRD/IDA) and gender analysis include Poverty and Social using both to leverage the governments’ own Impact Analysis (PSIA) in the case of DPL, and other sources of funding. 16 | Climate financing mechanisms are begin- Programs of Action (NAPAs) and Na- ning to adopt gender-sensitive approaches in tionally Appropriate Mitigation Ac- program design and results frameworks, but tions (NAMAs). The lack of sex-disag- more needs to be done. What more can be gregated data is often a constraint in done to better match current climate financ- monitoring and assessing results. ing options with women’s needs, capabilities and aspirations? • Last, but by no means least, it is essen- tial to promote gender-balanced par- • First, funds need to be earmarked for ticipation in stakeholder discussions capacity building of grassroots wom- on climate change finance. This will en’s organizations, NGOs, and net- help ensure that, wherever necessary, works, to assist women in developing financing instruments are tailored to and implementing their own climate- address men’s and women’s different related actions. In some cases it may experiences of climate change, and also be appropriate to earmark fund- their different capacities to respond ing for gender-targeted programs, to it. both at national and community lev- els. Much can be done to improve the effective- ness of climate finance and actions on the • Second, it is important to build in- ground by ensuring that gender relations are country institutional capacity within taken into account in design, implementa- central and local government bod- tion, and measurement of results. But this ies, ministries and agencies, in order can only be achieved through a concerted to better equip them to address the effort to apply a gender lens in climate fi- gender dimensions of climate change nance mechanisms. It matters for develop- in their own analyses and response ment, and it matters for effective action on plans, such as National Adaptation climate change. | 17 Endnotes 1. World Bank (2011a). World Development Report 2012 Gender Equality and Development. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 2. Neumayer, Eric, and Thomas Plümper (2007). 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Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP) (2003). Partici- pation by Crisis-Affected Populations in Humanitarian Action: A Handbook for Practitioners. London: Overseas Development Institute. 8. World Bank (2006). op cit 9. World Bank (2010). Building Resilience Communities: Risk Management and Response to Natural Disasters through Social Funds and Community Driven Development Operations. Washington DC: The World Bank. 10. World Bank (2011b). op cit 11. World Bank (2011c). Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions: Synthesis Report. Washington, DC: The World Bank, Social Development Department; World Bank (2011d). Area-Based Development, Local Institu- tions and Climate Adaptation: A Comparative Analysis from West Africa and Latin America. Washington, DC: The World Bank, Social Development Department. 12. Ahmad, Nilufar, et al. (forthcoming). ‘Gender dimensions of climate change adaptation in Bangladesh’. 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Thematic report prepared for Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on Human Settlements 2011. http://www.unhabitat.org/grhs/2011 24. Räty, R., and A. Carlsson-Kanyama (2010). Energy consumption by gender in some European countries. En- ergy Policy 38:646–9. 25. European Commission and European Parliament (2009). European’s attitudes towards climate change. Special Eurobarometer 313, Brussels. 26. Köhlin, Gunnar, Erin O. Sills, Subhrendu K. Pattanayak and Christopher Wilfong (2011). Energy, gender and development: What are the linkages? Where is the evidence? Background paper prepared for WDR 2012. Policy Research Working Paper 5800. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 27. UN Habitat (2008). Gender Mainstreaming in Local Authorities: Best Practices. Nairobi: UN Habitat. 28. Jensen, Robert, and Emily Oster (2009). The power of cable TV: cable television and women’s status in India. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124(3): 1057–94. 29. UN Habitat (2008). Gender Mainstreaming in Local Authorities: Best Practices. Nairobi: UN Habitat; CEMR (2005). The Town for Equality: A Methodology and Good Practices for Equal Opportunities between Men and Women. Brussels: European Commission, Council of European Municipalities and Regions. 30. http://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/sites/climateinvestmentfunds.org/files/SEA%20Issues%20ma- trix%20for%20posting_EnvSocGender%20Metrics%20for%20CleanTech-June%2028_0.docx 31. Peskett, Leo (2011). Benefit Sharing in REDD+: Exploring the Implications for Poor and Vulnerable People. Washington, DC: The World Bank and REDD-net; Peach Brown, H.C. (2011). Gender, climate change and REDD+ in the Congo Basin forests of Central Africa. International Forestry Review 13(2): 163–76. | 19 The Social Development Department The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington D.C. 20433, USA www.worldbank.org/social resilience asksocial@worldbank.org