Photo: Hong Sar/World Bank URBAN TRANSPORT IN YANGON Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding Myanmar Urban Mobility Overview Notes Y angon is the largest city and main economic powerhouse in Myanmar. The increased urbanization and economic activity in Yangon in the past decade may be potentially hampered by higher motorization and its negative impacts, particularly for the poor, including longer travel times to jobs and services, and increasing traffic-related injuries and fatalities and pollutant emissions. A forward-looking, actionable, and financially-viable strategy for sustainable urban mobility is a fundamental component to support sustainable and inclusive urbanization in Yangon over the next decade. The World Bank recently issued a report on ‘Urban Transport in Yangon and Mandalay’. The report calls for urgent actions to seize the window of opportunity brought by a growing economy and put forward actionable, simple, and affordable strategies aiming to provide efficient, equitable, clean, and safe mobility for the population in two major cities in Myanmar. This overview note presents highlights of the report for Yangon. It aims to support policy discussions on how to improve the urban transport sector performance and match with adequate funding and financing options suited to the bold vision for Yangon. This report has been co-funded by the Mobility and Logistics Multidonor Trust Fund (MOLO), managed by the World Bank Group and supported by the Governments of Switzerland (SECO), Germany (BMZ), and Austria (BMF). 2 Urban Transport in Yangon: Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding CONTEXT Yangon is the largest city and main economic Figure 1. Modal split excluding walking powerhouse in Myanmar, contributing to (YUTRA 2019) approximately 22 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). Yangon City Large bus: 28.4% has a population of over 5 million, while the region hosts nearly 7.4 million inhabitants. The Small and medium bus: 21% annual growth rate of the city population has Motorcycle: 7.2% been about 2 percent. Bicycle: 22.5% Water ferry: 2.5% Yangon is rather monocentric in its urban Car: 8.1% spatial structure. The city center has a high Rail: 1.1% population density. Most of the jobs are concentrated in central areas. Density in Taxi: 7.7% suburban areas is still low. However, population Other: 1.5% growth rates are accelerating in the peripheral, suburban areas. Since 2012, conditions for urban transport Yangon City’s public transport system is have started to decline rapidly in Yangon. diverse and includes public bus and rail With the economic recovery and relaxation of transport, as well as river transportation: restrictions on vehicular imports and licensing, • Bus transport contributes to nearly half of the number of private vehicles has increased. the trips in Yangon, and it is the dominant Restrictions on motorcycles and bicycles have mode across different socioeconomic severely limited the use of these two-wheeler groups. modes in Yangon City, albeit being increasingly used in nonurban areas of the region. At the • Yangon is the only urban agglomeration same time, motorization has increased almost in Myanmar with urban railway services threefold in the Yangon Region over 2010–2017. although it currently has a low modal share. Traffic congestion has emerged as an urgent • Water buses have been operated on three challenge undermining productivity and quality major river transport routes since 2017 of life for the city. but with low ridership and operational intermissions. Figure 2. Registered Vehicles in Yangon Region (RTAD 2018) There are about 1.9 million daily passengers using bus services in Yangon. Residents who 1,000,000 do not own private cars have the largest mode 800,000 share of buses across all income levels. For the car owner group, the mode share of car/ 600,000 van is the highest in almost all income levels, 400,000 although the modal share for buses is still 200,000 high, ranging from 18.2 percent to 24.1 percent across different income groups. Having such 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 a high modal share of bus transportation is an Passenger Car Truck (Light Duty) Truck (Heavy Duty) important advantage for Yangon in improving Bus Other Two Wheeler the urban transport system. Three Wheeler Trawlergi Heavy Machine Overview Notes 3 Vehicle registration growth has shown a Figure 3. Public Opinion on the YBS tendency to stabilize recently. However, in the (YSPS 2018) Yangon Region, the percentage of two-wheelers relative to the total vehicle registration has boomed. This particularity reflects that more How often do you use YBS? people outside central Yangon are able to access Everyday Sometimes Once a week Once a month low-cost two-wheelers and are potentially shifting from public transport to motorcycle. 63.6 20.2 12 3 If this tendency further consolidates, it could put service provision of public transport in the How long do you have to wait for the bus? periphery in a downward spiral, where reduced demand affects revenues and, consequently, <10 min 10-20 min 20-30 min 30-60 min >1 hour Don’t know gives way for service cuts. This phenomenon, 42.8 40.6 11.2 4 known as the ‘vicious circle of public transport’, has happened in many cities in Vietnam, Thailand, and North America, and it has proven How long does it take to get to your destination? difficult to revert the trend. 15-30 min 30-60 min 1-2 hours >5 hours Don’t know Between 2015–2017, the Yangon Regional 29 36.2 24.4 4 Government (YRG) implemented important actions toward improving its bus transportation system. The most important Is your bus safe and comfortable? step forward took place in 2016 with the Yes So-so No transformation of the Yangon Motor Vehicles Supervisory Committee (Ma Hta Tha), a legacy 48 34.2 16 institution, into the Yangon Region Transport Authority (YRTA). YRTA is designated as a dedicated transport authority in Yangon that Nevertheless, the new system faces technical has the mandate to regulate various transport and financial challenges that undermine its modes—bus, school bus, coach, water bus, and sustainability. Although YRTA’s institutional taxi-based transport—excluding rail-based setup is improving, it is still precarious, transport, which is overseen by Myanmar and capacity and staffing are constrained. Railways. Coordination between different agencies also becomes cumbersome, especially when the The Yangon Bus Services (YBS) scheme institutional setting is highly fragmented. was launched under YRTA’s supervision on January 16, 2017. It has advanced in the right Yangon Circular Rail (YCR) provides vital direction in the provision of public transport transportation service for the low-income services. The goal of the YBS was to reduce residents commuting in suburban areas and traffic congestion and commute time of about to urban centers. While its current modal 1.9 million passengers while improving the share is low (2 percent), Myanmar Railways is quality of bus service. In its early days, the implementing an investment plan to modernize new bus system reduced the number of bus YCR. It also intends to develop compact public lines to address the issue of multiple operators spaces around key stations with land value competing in the same major routes along capture and transit-oriented development arterial roads. YRTA also replaced a large part schemes to maximize the local accessibility of old and polluted buses with new ones. benefits of a mass transit system. 4 Urban Transport in Yangon: Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding PERFORMANCE REVIEW OF YANGON’S TRANSPORT SYSTEM It is critical to determine what aspects of of its heavily congested roads and sprawling Yangon’s urban transport system are in layout. In cities such as Kampala or Hanoi, the greatest need of improvement when deciding results can be much higher, such as 74 percent. on policies and financing allocations. It is, There is substantial room for improvement of therefore, important for Yangon to have a urban accessibility in Yangon, which would set of measurable and actionable indicators require improvement of public transport based that can allow setting targets and monitoring on robust accessibility analysis. system performance and overall progress toward achieving targets. This section provides Public transport modal share. The modal a summary of the performance review on share of public transport in Yangon is around Yangon’s transport system based on selected 50 percent (excluding walking), which is high indicators. Policy makers may consider applying when compared to other cities in the region. For a similar framework and potentially with a example, the modal share of public transport is broader set of indicators to trace strategic 20 percent in Bandung, 36 percent in Shanghai, goals for their transport systems, which should and 37 percent in Taipei, and among the best aim at lowering accident rates, travel times, performers, it is 51 percent in Tokyo and 66 and pollutant emissions and maintaining a high percent in Singapore and Seoul. If Yangon modal share of motorized trips done by public manages to keep the modal share of public transport. transport up while maintaining affordability and increasing service quality, the city could Commuting time. The average commute become a regional referent for public transport. time for bus users in Yangon (63 minutes) is comparable to that of Bangkok, Jakarta, or Sao Figure 4. Public Transport Modal Share, Paulo. Cities like Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Hanoi, Selected Cities (Urban Land Institute, and Beijing have average travel times in public Centre for Livable Cities, ADB) transport between 52- and 58-minutes, while Singapore averages 44 minutes. Accelerated motorization rates in Yangon will significantly Mandalay 3% worsen travel speeds unless priority measures Yangon 50% for sustainable transport (public transport and Ho Chi Minh 4% non-motorized) are put in place. Bandung 20% Urban accessibility. The World Bank standard Tokyo 51% analysis considers jobs accessible by public Taipei 37% transport over a 60-minute window. The Singapore 66% study team carried out an in-house urban accessibility analysis for public transport users. Shanghai 36% It is estimated that 21 percent of jobs available Seoul 66% in Yangon are accessible within a 60-minute 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 commute using public transport. In comparison, the Mexico City metro area scores a 22 percent job accessibility by public transport because Overview Notes 5 Affordability of public transport. The ‘affordability’ measure is concerned with the ability of low-income persons to use public transport services. It is estimated that an average low-income person spends less than 10 percent of his/her monthly income on public transport in Yangon. This benchmark is low compared to other cities (Manila 17 percent, Mexico City 19 percent, Chennai 19 percent, and Mumbai 23 percent). Overall the current public transport fares in Yangon are relatively affordable. Meanwhile, revising the fare structure without appropriate district-level household survey data on accessibility and detailed assessment on the affordability of public transport is not recommended. Traffic fatalities. Myanmar has one of the highest road crash-related fatalities in the region, estimated at 19.9 fatalities per 100,000 inhabitants (WHO 2018). Road fatalities in Yangon are higher with around 39 fatalities per 100,000 population. Pedestrian and cyclists account for almost half of road fatalities in urban areas in Myanmar. This compares unfavorably to global road traffic deaths. Yangon should take urgent actions to improve road safety and invest in actionable, affordable, and straightforward Vision Zero strategies, which introduce infrastructure, vehicle, and behavior improvements to minimize road safety risks, particularly for the most vulnerable road users. Figure 5. Road Fatalities per 100,000 Inhabitants (WHO 2018) Myanmar China Cambodia Laos Indonesia South Korea Japan Singapore 0 5 10 15 20 25 6 Urban Transport in Yangon: Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding Air quality. Studies indicate that Yangon has actionable, affordable and straightforward one of the highest PM10 concentrations in the Avoid, Shift Improve strategies as part of air in the region. Available sources indicate its efforts to improve air quality and reduce that PM10 levels in Yangon are higher than the pollution-related health risks. WHO interim target of 70 µg/m3, but it is in the average range of 89.5 µg/m3 of 230 cities (CAI- The review indicates that Yangon needs to Asia Center 2010). Considering the time that make improvements to be at a level closer to its has passed since the collection of these data peers, particularly when it comes to air quality and the high motorization rates and industrial and road safety. On the positive side, Yangon’s growth over the past decades, it is likely that public transport fares and average commuting in terms of air quality, Yangon may already travel times compare well with other similar be in the critical zone. There is potential for cities. However, if left unchecked, travel times improvement; 44 percent of cities in high- and congestion will tend to increase and income countries have managed to achieve disproportionately affect public transport air quality levels within the WHO standards users. for PM10 (WHO 2018). Yangon could introduce Figure 6. Air Pollution in Selected Cities, Figure 7. Summary of Performance Review: PM10 Concentration. Yangon ADB 2015; WHO 2016 100 Commuting travel time Moderate 90 (microgram per cubic meter) 80 Urban accessibility Moderate Annual mean PM10 70 60 Public transport affordability Good 50 Public transport modal share Good 40 30 Traffic fatalities Poor 20 10 Air quality Moderate/Poor 0 Jakarta Kuala Mandalay Yangon Metro Singapore Bangkok Lumpur Manila Overview Notes 7 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations summarized in this note are based on a detailed analysis of the main report: Urban Transport in Yangon and Mandalay. They are organized into three strategic areas: (i) urban transport institutions and policy, (ii) urban transport financing and expenditures; and (iii) and urban transport funding, aiming to provide actionable urban mobility solutions and corresponding financing and funding options to advance towards sustainable urban mobility in Yangon. I. Urban transport Institutions & Policy Incomplete decentralization in Myanmar has so far led to institutional fragmentation, Further strengthening of the overlapping functions, and disjointed institutional framework in Yangon is accountabilities in the transport sector. This needed to support financially viable particularly affects the ability of subnational plans for better urban mobility systems. governments to raise financing and funding for the sector, integrate different transport modes, The Yangon Region could consider and advance on high-level policies toward supporting the YRTA’s higher-level a sustainable urban mobility system. Poor strategic planning activities by establishing coordination and fragmented responsibilities a Yangon Urban Mobility Board (YUMBo), undermine the possibilities of advancing integrated by delegates from the YRG, toward an integrated, efficient, and sustainable Yangon City Development Committee urban mobility system. (YCDC), and Myanmar Railways, with chairing or coordination by YRTA. In Yangon, the establishment of YRTA introduced a new era for the public transport agenda, albeit important actions are still YUMBo would hold public transport fare pending. YRTA oversees road and water public setting authority and lead higher-level transport modes (excludes rail) and could sustainable urban mobility policymaking. further develop as a modern and integrated It could also provide the space for vital non- urban mobility authority in Yangon. An updated government stakeholders to oversee the bus network and service scheme branded under planning, implementation, and management the YBS has improved the quality of public of an integrated public transport network that transport services. The new system, however, meets the needs of commuters in an efficient, faces technical and financial challenges that cost-effective, and sustainable manner. undermine its sustainability and the city’s Moreover, YRTA’s regulatory roles should capacity to embark on more ambitious urban be strengthened and complemented with a transport investments. commercial focus and use a business-like approach to maximize non-farebox revenues and minimize costs within the framework of affordable fare setting led by the YRG or YUMBo. 8 Urban Transport in Yangon: Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding Yangon should also prioritize digital Global evidence shows that promoting social infrastructure to leapfrog and transform into inclusion and reducing inequality can make a smart city to overcome the current lack of growth more resilient. Social stratification and accurate and reliable transport and urban exclusion from basic services, infrastructure, data. An updated and comprehensive urban and economic opportunities can constrain transport survey would help better understand productivity and trap marginalized groups in the citizens’ travel behaviors. Public bus poverty. information such as geo-coded routes, frequencies, speeds, and bus fares is neither Yangon could advance toward inclusive urban updated regularly nor available in accessible mobility addressing transportation needs digital format. Data must be considered as an and constraints of excluded and vulnerable infrastructure—such as roads and rails—on population groups, such as the poor, women, which additional urban services can be provided elderly, PwDs, ethnic groups, and migrants. using insights from transport analytics. Such a Safety, security, accessibility, convenience, ‘data-as-infrastructure’ approach, if executed and affordability for all population groups are properly, will not only be equitable but can also critical considerations in developing inclusive bring financial growth due to economies of urban public transport services. These scale. considerations should feature across all levels, including the policy and strategy framework, Transport and Social Inclusion in budget allocation, and institutional capacity Yangon development. It requires policy-level actions through understanding the specific mobility Spatial inclusion remains a challenge in needs of vulnerable groups and integrating urban areas of Myanmar, given high land and this analysis into urban transport policies housing costs and the overall poor quality of and financing to support the development of basic infrastructure. Ethnicity, cultural norms inclusive urban transport infrastructure and and spatial exclusion may disproportionately services. affect the mobility of marginalized groups. Overview Notes 9 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS: URBAN TRANSPORT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS Issues and Gaps Short Term (1–2 years) Medium Term (2–3 years) Long Term (3–5 years) YRTA has limited √ Enhance and √ Establish YUMBo, √ Advance with non- regulatory power explicitly define the composed of delegates fare revenue lines and and capacities over regulatory functions from the YRG, YCDC, use a business-like operations and of YRTA. and Myanmar Railways, approach to enforce control over system √ Enable YRTA with chairing or adequate levels of revenues. to structure coordination by YRTA/ service, maximize and manage YRG. user satisfaction, and performance-based minimize costs within public transport the framework of concessions. strategic policy set by the YRG. Different √ Identify higher- √ Implement an √ Oversee the planning, authorities have level regulatory and integrated, unified implementation, and control over strategic planning fare collection system, management of an different public activities that should defining indicators and integrated public transport schemes. be supported by payments. transport network As a result, a metropolitan √ Prioritize digital that meets the needs public transport transport regulatory infrastructure to of commuters in an service delivery is agent. leapfrog and transform efficient, cost-effective, fragmented, mainly into smart cities to and sustainable manner. between rail-based overcome the current transport and lack of accurate and buses. reliable transport and urban data. Transport systems √ Encourage and √ Enact policy-level √ Integrate fully should be inclusive support research to actions to improve inclusiveness analysis to and serve the needs understand specific public transport urban transport policies of different groups, mobility needs and safety, such as anti- and investments; including socially issues affecting harassment laws and vulnerable groups. vulnerable groups. enforcement of these laws, well-designed and easy-to-reach complaints, and grievance systems. 10 Urban Transport in Yangon: Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding II. Urban Transport Expenditures The rationale for public sector intervention in Review of sector expenditures indicates that public transport has a sound basis in economic the public spending level in urban transport theory. Private car users do not consider the is not enough to meet the high demand costs they impose on other road and non-road for transport service delivery. Doubling of users in terms of increased congestion and expenditure on roads as a share of regional pollution. There is a role for governments in GDP, from the current 0.7 percent to around 1.5 correcting these negative externalities through percent, is recommended in the medium to long increasing the price of road use and through term. The impact of underspending can damage subsidies to public transport, which is more the heavily urbanized and fast-growing Yangon efficient in its use of road space and less where road traffic congestion is worsening as polluting on a per passenger basis. citizens with growing incomes turn to private cars. Yangon has a comprehensive urban transport master plan called the Comprehensive Urban Alongside increases in expenditure on urban Transport Plan of the Greater Yangon (YUTRA). transport, efficiency improvements will be YUTRA is comprehensive and recognizes the required for budgeting and public investment level of ambition behind the implementation of management. Efficiency improvements alone proposals, which forecast costs over US$23.7 will not close the significant gap in urban billion to the public sector during 2017–2035. transport infrastructure and services but Expenditure at this level is seen as requiring getting more outputs from a given expenditure a massive political commitment at the city, will nevertheless play an important part in regional, and union levels and would need to making expenditure increases go further in be backed by significant reforms of urban delivering better outcomes in terms of more transport management and regulatory systems. productive cities and improved mobility for the population. Interim solutions may be required to prioritize spending for the immediate needs of the city The use of public-private partnerships (PPPs) based on available financing and funding may unlock financing for improving and space. The current financing and funding expanding urban transport infrastructure and capacity is constrained, and there are significant services. PPPs are still public projects, even institutional and capacity weaknesses on if the procurement and financing modality project appraisal and preparation. Therefore, is different; therefore, they should not be robust prioritization of investment is important. tagged as a panacea but must be treated The government may consider prioritization with caution because significant specialist of investments on public bus transport, traffic skills are required to negotiate a good deal on management, and institutions, which could behalf of the public sector. PPPs can also pose serve the immediate needs of the sector with a significant fiscal risk, explicitly or implicitly. high benefit potential. Priority should also A poorly performing project from a societal be given to preserving current assets and perspective will remain unviable independently improving the maintenance of roads by putting of the delivery mechanism. PPPs should be in place a functioning asset management subject to the same tests as any other public system. Major investments in infrastructure investment project to determine whether they upgrading should be carefully considered in will deliver net welfare benefits to society. terms of public spending and matched with realistic financing and funding capacity and instruments. Overview Notes 11 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS: URBAN TRANSPORT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS Issues and Gaps Short Term (1–2 years) Medium Term (2–3 years) Long Term (3–5 years) Fragmented √ Institute more √ Adopt a comprehensive √ Remove the gaps in responsibilities in systematic data view of urban transport the legislative design sector financing collection on volume expenditures planning of the decentralization and expenditure and quality of - treating it as a unified to achieve a clearer planning outputs from public policy area, rather than distribution of fiscal expenditure on devising policies mode by responsibilities in the urban transport, as mode. sector. a starting point for a √ Improve the alignment √ Strengthen the fiscal stronger efficiency between the urban responsibilities for the orientation. transport sector sector at the subnational expenditure and revenue level, remove the assignments. duplication and dual reporting lines. Constrained √ Prioritize road √ Introduce formal √ Gradually increase public fiscal capacity maintenance procedures and rigorous expenditure on urban compared with expenditures and analysis methods for transport by up to 1.5-2.0 high financing improve efficiency appraisal of major urban percent of regional GDPs. needs in maintenance transport projects. √ Develop appropriate practices. √ Improve capacities to institutional √ On capital expendi- apply investment appraisal arrangements and tures, prioritize those procedures and methods. technical capacities for projects which can √ Leverage private sector PPPs to enable private relieve or forestall financing by piloting financing for major PPPs traffic congestion first; risks related to such in the sector. with lower cost as transactions should be traffic engineering carefully considered in and traffic manage- deciding PPP projects. ment solutions. III. Urban Transport Funding and Financing Strategies Modernization of urban transport infra- • To develop resource mobilization plans for structure and services in Yangon require the urban transport system. Such plans dedicated revenue streams for the region and can review types of instruments in place to city governments that are relatively stable finance and fund different urban transport and predictable over the long term. Long- system components, review them from the range capital plans are only useful and practical perspective of the revenue level, financial when revenue and budgets for infrastructure and transport sustainability as well as the development are relatively stable and reliable type of beneficiaries. and come from dedicated revenues sources such as property taxes, parking charges, fuel- • To use the existing funding instruments to related taxes, long-range union, or regional enhance funding capacity at subnational infrastructure spending programs. Yangon levels. Yangon could start with mobilizing could consider the following to enhance funding for urban transport systems funding for the improvement of its transport through the existing funding instruments systems. such as property tax, wheel tax, and parking fees. Conservative estimations indicate that 12 Urban Transport in Yangon: Institutions, Expenditures, and Funding Yangon has the potential to generate over • To prioritize new infrastructure projects US$1.8 billion between 2020 and 2035 based on their social and economic benefits with the existing funding instruments to and potential to generate revenues to fund urban transport systems. Revenues finance capital and operational costs. The generated from these instruments could prioritization needs to consider the financial help support the immediate priorities. viability of the projects, which involves an assessment of the cost management and • To explore new funding instruments with revenue generation of the projects. Revenues sufficient assessment of benefits and generated from urban transport projects risks. New instruments such as fuel excise include road tolls, fare revenue, and non-fare tax or land value capture schemes can be revenues generated from advertising, land potentially considered to expand the urban leasing, and so on. transport funding space. Regarding fuel excise tax, a thorough feasibility study can By focusing on wise investments and be implemented to analyze the economic and establishing the appropriate sets of social impacts, proper apportionment scheme funding instruments, the cities can design a to the region and city, consideration of the comprehensive financing strategy for urban profile of consumers, and minimizing of the transport projects. Demand for urban mobility negative impact on the poor and vulnerable and transport services is rapidly growing groups. For land value capture, subnational in Yangon, while the fiscal capacity of the governments could consider establishing a government is constrained. As public budgets framework with institutional and regulatory must respond to diverse public service needs, coordination that enables operationalizing the governments should identify various funding and piloting such a mechanism as part of sources and instruments for the urban transport the investment plans of urban transport sector, to advance towards sustainable and development. Operationalizing land value inclusive urban transport system to serve the capture requires defining the links of the needs of all groups of the population. allocation of land development to the urban transport infrastructure and service delivery. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS: URBAN TRANSPORT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS Issues and Gaps Short Term (1–2 years) Medium Term (2–3 years) Long Term (3–5 years) Inadequate √ Develop resource √ Use the existing non- √ Explore new funding funding results mobilization plans fare funding instruments instruments for the in deteriorating for the urban (wheel tax, property tax, sector such as land value quality of transport system and special goods tax on fuel, capture and fuel-based urban transport improve institutional and parking charges) to taxes and surcharges with services. coordination enhance funding capacity support from the national While mobility required for resource for the sector at the government on supportive demand is mobilization. subnational level. fiscal policies and growing, √ Prioritize new √ Consider establishing a institutional coordination. resources urban transport mechanism of revenue √ When considering new remain projects based on allocation from the revenue sources such as insufficient to their potential to abovementioned fuel tax, carry out detailed maintain and generate revenues to instruments to urban analysis of their economic improve the finance capital and transport development, and social impacts and urban transport operational costs. with supporting fiscal options to reduce negative system. and budget policies from impacts on the poor the national government. Overview Notes 13 Report No: AUS0001291 © 2020 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Photos, including cover picture: World Bank, 2019 Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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