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DIRECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT
Managing the Marine and
Coastal Environment of
Sub-Saharan Africa
Strategic Directions for
Sustainable Development
Indu Hewawasam
THE WORLD BANK
Washington, D.C.



© 2002 The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433, USA
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing July 2002
1234040302
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author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors
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The World Bank cannot guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.
The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in
this work do not imply on the part of the World Bank any judgment of the legal status
of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
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Cover photographs: inset: coastal and marine resource users on Winneba beach in
Ghana, by courtesy of Joseph Ryan; background: Sandy Bay, Cape Town, South Africa,
by courtesy of Bernice L. Mclean.
ISBN 0-8213-5169-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hewawasam, Indu 1953-
Managing the marine and coastal environment of Sub-Saharan Africa:
strategic directions / Indu Hewawasam.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8213-5169-9
1. Coastal zone management-Africa, Sub-Saharan. 2. Sustainable
development-Africa, Sub-Saharan. I. Title.
HT395.A357 H49 2002
333.91'7'0967-dc2l                                       2002066392



Contents
Forew  ord  ...............................................v
Preface ..............................................                         vii
Abbreviations ..............................................                    ix
1. The Looming Crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa's
Coastal and Marine Environments ................................................ 1
Economic and Environmental Benefits from
Coastal and Marine Ecosystems ...............................................2
Threats to the Coastal and Marine Environment:
From Micro Decisions to Global Climate Trends .....................................4
New Approaches Needed ..............................................         12
2. The Need for Improved Coastal Management:
A Call to Action ..............................................              13
Pioneering Applications of Integrated Coastal Management
in Sub-Saharan Africa ...............................................        15
Moving from Piecemeal to Integrated Approaches .............................. 17
3. World Bank Support for Coastal and Marine
Resource Management: Achievements and Shortcomings ............... 19
4. Experience to Date with Integrated Coastal Management ................ 23
5. A Strategic Agenda for ICM ..............................................    27
Identifying Operational Goals and Principles ....................................... 28
Determining Priorities for Investment ..............................................   29
6. Implementing ICM        Programs: The Way Forward .............................. 33
Strengthening the Institutional Core ..............................................   34
Improving the Quality of Life in Coastal Communities ....................... 35
iii



iv  THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Promoting Sustainable Management of
Fragile Ecosystems ...........................................  36
Promoting Partnerships between the Public Sector,
the Private Sector, and Civil Society ...........................................   38
Conclusion: Tailoring ICM to
Country Development Needs ...........................................  41
Appendix A ...........................................       44
Appendix B ...........................................       46
Bibliography ...........................................     51
Notes ...........................................            56
Tables
1   Estimated Coastal Populations, Selected Countries
of East Africa, 2001 ............................................5
2   Criteria for ICM Interventions ...........................................  30
Boxes
1   The World's Coastal Ecosystems under Siege     .3
2   Threats to Fisheries and Biodiversity in East Africa .11
3   What Is Integrated Coastal Management? .13
4   Key Objectives of the African Process for the Development
and Protection of the Marine and Coastal Environment in
Sub-Saharan Africa .15
5   Main Recommendations from the 2001 Paris Conference
on the Sustainable Development of Oceans and Coasts .16
6   SEACAM's Guidelines for Coastal Activities .20
7   Distance Learning for Empowerment: The DLIST Initiative.   22
8   Strategic Environmental Assessment:
A Powerful Planning Instrument .35
9   Poverty Reduction through Sustainable Coastal Management
in South Africa .37
10   Promoting Partnerships for Sustainable Coastal Management
in Mozambique .40
Maps
1   Sub-Saharan Africa Coastal Urbanization .................................... 6
2   Africa: Population Growth ....................................8
3   East African Marine Ecoregion .39



Foreword
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, set in motion a number of initia-
tives for the sustainable management of oceans and coasts. The past decade
has seen the adoption of many new international agreements bearing on
coastal and marine environmental issues, significant investment by donor
agencies, the development of national and local coastal management pro-
grams, and extensive research and scientific activity aimed at deepening
our understanding of coasts and oceans.
Despite these advances, an assessment of trends over the past 10 years
reveals a general decline in the health of coastal and marine ecosystems
throughout the world. As populations continue to expand and to cluster
in coastal areas, the pressures on coastal and marine resources increase.
Among the most threatened resources are coral reefs, sea grass habitats,
marine mammal species, fisheries, and coastal ecosystems such as man-
grove forests.
The trends toward social transformation and ecosystem degradation in
coastal and marine areas around the world are echoed and in some respects
magnified in Sub-Saharan Africa. Action by the global community is
urgently needed. During the past decade, the World Bank has responded
to many requests for assistance by client countries in the region as they
strive to alleviate the acute impoverishment in coastal communities and
to improve and maintain the integrity of the coastal ecosystems on which
these populations depend. Nevertheless, still greater efforts by the Bank
are needed, and larger and more coordinated investments are required to
deal with the growing crisis.
Efforts are under way in the Bank to mainstream environmental issues
into the overarching goal of sustainable development through lasting
poverty reduction. The Africa Region's environmental strategy provides a
framework for creating positive incentives and the enabling conditions for
improved environmental management through policy reform and through
capacity building in all sectors of society. Consistent with these strategic
initiatives, this book outlines an agenda to guide investment and capacity-
v



vi  THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
building support for sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa's
coastal and marine areas.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg pro-
vides an important forum, 10 years after the Rio conference, for heighten-
ing global awareness of the threats facing coastal and marine areas. It also
offers an opportunity to highlight the ways in which sustainable develop-
ment and management of coastal resources can help alleviate poverty and
increase food security in coastal communities. Much has been learned about
the issues affecting coastal and marine areas worldwide, and about the
resources and services that these areas provide. The time has now come to
take urgent, concerted measures for ensuring the health and productivity
of coastal and marine ecosystems and of the communities that depend on
them.
JAMES P. BoND
SECTOR DIRECTOR
ENVIRONMENTAL, RURAL, AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
AFRICA REGION
THE WORLD BANK



Preface
This report surveys the challenges facing coastal and marine environments
in Sub-Saharan Africa and describes the World Bank's strategy for sup-
porting sustainable development in the sector. It represents a contribution
by the World Bank Group to the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(Johannesburg, South Africa, August 26-September 4, 2002).
Social change and ecosystem degradation are affecting coastal and marine
areas around the world, not least in Sub-Saharan Africa. The crisis affect-
ing the region's coastal and marine areas requires an immediate and con-
certed response by the global community. There is significant scope for
larger and more coordinated investments to address the serious inequities
and impoverishment in coastal communities and to improve the long-term
viability of the coastal ecosystems on which these communities depend.
The World Bank Group's response to client countries' call for action is con-
tinually evolving in the light of advances in information and lessons from
experience. Environmental issues are increasingly being mainstreamed into
the overall goal of achieving sustainable development through lasting
poverty reduction.
The Bank's institutionwide environmental strategy provides overall
guidance for promoting sustainable development in Bank-supported pro-
grams. The environmental strategy of the Bank's Africa Region is intended
to supply a framework for creating positive incentives and the enabling
conditions needed for improved environrmental management by promot-
ing policy reform and capacity building within the public and private sec-
tors and across civil society. In line with these Bankwide and regional
strategies, this report outlines an agenda for guiding investment and capac-
ity building in support of sustainable development in the sensitive and
threatened ecosystems of Sub-Saharan Africa's coastal and marine areas.
This strategy paper was prepared by Indu Hewawasam, senior envi-
ronmental specialist, Africa Region Technical Department, Environmentally
Sustainable Development Division (AFTES), with the assistance of com-
ments and contributions from coastal management specialists within and
outside the World Bank. The author is particularly grateful to the peer
vii



viii THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
reviewers: Marea Hatziolos, senior coastal and marine resource management
specialist, Environment Department (ENV), and Jack Ruitenbeek, consul-
tant. Others who made valuable contributions include Francois Falloux,
formerly of AFTES; Jan Bojo, lead environmental economist, ENV; Agi Kiss,
lead ecologist, AFTES; Jean-Roger Mercier, lead environmental specialist,
ENV; Gayatri Acharya, environrmental economist, World Bank Institute;
and consultants Miriam Balgos, Anders Ekbom, Olof Linden, and Bernice
McLean.
Special thanks go to the external coastal and marine resource manage-
ment experts who reviewed the various drafts of the report: Biliana Cicin-
Sain, director, Center for the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware;
the late Robert Knecht, also of the Center for the Study of Marine Policy;
Stephen Olsen and Mark Amaral, Coastal Resources Center, University of
Rhode Island; Chua Thia-Eng, manager, Regional Program for the
Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas;
and David Moffat, at the time senior adviser to the Secretariat for Eastern
African Coastal Area Management (SEACAM).
Ella Hornsby, program assistant, AFTES, provided processing support
and organized the seminars at which key themes were discussed. Working
drafts of the report were presented and discussed in international forums,
including the Global Conference on Oceans and Coasts at Rio+10, held in
Paris in December 2001 in preparation for the World Summit on Sustainable
Development. The comments and contributions received were drawn on in
preparing this final version.
The report is being published under the leadership of Richard Scobey,
sector manager, AFTES, Hans Binswanger, former sector director, and James
P. Bond, sector director, Environment, Rural Development, and Social
Development, World Bank.



Abbreviations
ACOPS        Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea
CMBMP        Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management Project
CMR          Coastal and marine resources
CORDIO       Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean
CSMP         Center for the Study of Marine Policy, University of
Delaware, United States
DEAT         Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, South
Africa
DLIST        Distance Learning Information Sharing Tool
FAO          Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations)
GEF          Global Environment Facility
ICM          Integrated coastal management
IDA          International Development Association
IFC          International Finance Corporation
IOC          Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
IPCC         Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IUCN         International Union for Conservation of Nature (World
Conservation Union)
MPA          Marine protected area
NGO           Nongovernmental organization
PACSICOM      Pan-African Conference on Sustainable Integrated Coastal
Management
SEA          Strategic environmental assessment
SEACAM       Secretariat for Eastern African Coastal Area Management
UNCED        United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development
UNDP         United Nations Development Programme
UNEP         United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO       United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization
WRI          World Resources Institute
WSSD          World Summit on Sustainable Development
WWF          World Wide Fund for Nature
ix






1
The Looming Crisis in
Sub-Saharan Africa's Coastal
and Marine Environments
During the late 20th century, coastal areas worldwide underwent unprece-
dented economic and social transformation. More than 40 percent of the
world's population now lives within 100 kilometers of the coast, in areas that
occupy, in all, only about 20 percent of the planet's landmass (WRI 2001b).
About 2.2 billion people rely on marine habitats and resources for their
basic needs, including nutrition, living space, agriculture, and recreation.
By 2025, coastal populations are expected to make up 75 percent of the total
world population (United Nations 2001). More than 70 percent of the world's
megacities (cities with more than 10 million inhabitants) are located in
coastal areas. In Sub-Saharan Africa the metropolitan area of Lagos, Nigeria,
has 13 million inhabitants and is projected to grow to more than 20 million
by 2015 (United Nations 2001).
The 1999 Hangzhou Declaration on Sustainable Solutions for Resolving
Problems Associated with Urbanization of Coastal Areas noted that mas-
sive migration to coastal areas and the emergence of coastal megacities as
major centers of population and economic growth offer many opportuni-
ties but also pose serious challenges. The coastal megacities are focal points
of economic, social, and cultural opportunity. Yet they are also often cen-
ters of high consumption and poverty, both of which exert increased pres-
sure on the natural resource base. The strain that these megacities will
place on existing infrastructure and on coastal and marine ecosystems
could have serious impacts on local and national economies in the form of
lost opportunities and wasted investments, poor health and productivity
of urban populations, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters.
Among the potential consequences are significant loss of mangrove forest,
depletion of fisheries, degradation of habitat, intensified coastal erosion
through shoreline modification, and damage from storm surges and flood-
ing (see Box 1). Urbanization and the growth of megacities may spawn
social problems: escalating poverty, as a result of competition for and loss
of access to common-property resources; damage to public health; and
increased conflict among resource users (United Nations 2001). Improper
management of coastal and marine resources may lead to irreversible
1



2   THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
damage to ecosystems and ecosystem services and to reduced develop-
ment opportunities.
Economic and Environmental Benefits from
Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 90 percent of
the world fish catch comes from the marine environment.1 Coastal ecosys-
tems account for about 25 percent of global biological productivity-the
total amount of living matter, or biomass, produced over a given period.
These ecosystems harbor the greatest biodiversity of the oceans; coral reefs
alone house nearly a million species and are the Earth's largest biological
structures (Reaka-Kudla 1997). Over 500 million people worldwide rely on
coral reefs for food and income, and reefs contribute US$375 billion to the
world economy annually, with the bulk of this amount coming from tourism
(Wilkinson 2001).
Travel and tourism is the largest industry in the world, yielding US$3.5
trillion in revenues in 1999 (WRI 2001a). Coastal tourism is especially impor-
tant for small island states. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration estimates that the oceans and coasts provide 25 to 30 per-
cent of world energy supplies and that 90 percent of international trade is
carried by sea (Bernal and Cicin-Sain 2001)
All these benefits and opportunities depend on the proper functioning
of coastal ecosystems. As multiple-use areas, coastal ecosystems are vul-
nerable to pollution, damage, and destruction by improperly managed
human activities that may ultimately reduce their value. To realize and sus-
tain the benefits and development opportunities provided by coastal areas,
the true value of the goods and services they provide needs to be recog-
nized and appreciated.
Apart from their direct benefits-including commercial and subsis-
tence food production, raw materials, transportation, tourism, recreational
opportunities, and waste disposal-coastal ecosystems yield a number
of indirect benefits that have not been assigned a value or are underval-
ued. These services include erosion control; shoreline protection and
buffering against storm surges; nutrient recycling; filtering and process-
ing of wastes by coastal wetlands; climate regulation; and important life-
support functions. Estimating the monetary value of the benefits provided
by coastal ecosystems is a complex process. Undervaluation usually results
in overexploitation because policymakers, users, and the general public
are ill informed about the consequences of unsustainable use. The chal-
lenge, therefore, is to identify economic opportunities that will maintain
the natural integrity of coastal areas and increase the benefits derived
from them.



THE LOOMING CRISIS IN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS                 3
Box 1. The World's Coastal Ecosystems under Siege
The many and diverse activities carried on in oceans and coastal areas are
placing increasing pressure on the integrity of coastal and marine ecosys-
tems worldwide. Many coastal and marine resources are threatened by
overexploitation, as the following examples illustrate.
* Fisheries. Forty-seven percent of global fisheries are being fished to capaci-
ty, and 28 percent are overutilized. Urgent measures are required to
freeze or reduce fishing capacity in 75 percent of the fisheries (FAO 2000).
* Marine mammals. Of 126 species of marine mammals, 88 are on the Red
List of Threatened Species kept by the World Conservation Union
(Marsh and others 2001).
* Coral reefs. Even before the 1998 El Ninio climate disturbance, 11 percent
of coral reefs had been completely destroyed. An additional 16 percent
experienced severe damage as a result of the sea surface warming asso-
ciated with this event, and another 20 to 30 percent will be under
threat in the next 10 years because of stress related to local human
activity and climate change. Current projections indicate possible loss-
es of 50 to 60 percent within 30 years (Wilkinson 2001).
* Man groves. It is estimated that worldwide, 50 percent of the mangrove
forests that existed before people began to alter coastlines have been
lost. Indeed, some countries, such as Thailand, have lost nearly 85 per-
cent of the original extent of their mangroves (WRI 2001a).
* Sea grass habitat. Important sea grass habitats, covering more than 600,000
square kilometers, are rapidly being destroyed. In Southeast Asian coun-
tries, 20 to 60 percent of sea grass beds have been lost (Fortes 2001).
* Invasive species. Each year, 12 billion tons of ballast water containing, at
any one time, 10,000 marine species are carried by ships around the
globe, spreading alien and invasive species (Bax and Aguero 2001).
* Flooding. Projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) note that continued use of fossil fuels will exacerbate
global climate change, with severe consequences for oceanic and
coastal ecosystems. Every year, 46 million people are threatened by
flooding caused by storm surges. In Bangladesh a 1-meter sea level rise
could displace tens of millions of people if adaptation measures are not
taken (IPCC 2001).
* Health of coastal ecosystems. The ecological health of an estimated 51 per-
cent of the world's coasts is under moderate or high threat from devel-
opment-related effects, including habitat destruction, sewage and
industrial pollution, species introductions, and overexploitation. An
estimated 30 percent of the coastal land area has been altered or
destroyed, and 70 percent of the beaches studied over a 10-year period
had been eroded (WRI 2001a)
Source: Based on Bemal and Cicin-Sain (2001).



4   THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Threats to the Coastal and Marine Environment:
From Micro Decisions to Global Climate Trends
Rapid population growth, combined with industrial and urban develop-
ment, causes formidable environmental stress and displacement of tradi-
tional livelihoods. Increased deforestation and land clearing, uncontrolled
fishing, pollution from domestic and industrial sources, and conversion of
wetlands and fragile ecosystems for development all result in degradation
of coastal areas and their resources. Proper planning for growth in the
coastal zone is critical for poverty reduction and sustainable development.
Competition for natural resources and living space by the increasing
numbers of coastal communities, along with large-scale pollution from
domestic and industrial waste, is exacerbating the strain placed on Sub-
Saharan Africa's coastal and marine habitat by the rapid transformation of
vast areas for economic growth. Many African coastal nations are pursuing
aggressive industrial growth strategies. These efforts may encourage or
permit the proliferation of improperly planned and managed settlements
and of coastal tourism, leading not only to shoreline erosion and ecosys-
tem degradation but also to forfeit of the economic gains that well-planned,
socially and environmentally sustainable private investment could yield.
The absence of appropriate policy, regulatory, and institutional frameworks
for urbanization and of governance arrangements for coastal access and
resource use; deficiencies in education on environment and hygiene; and
inadequate incentives for conservation and environmental management-
all these are root causes of coastal degradation and of negative socioeco-
nomic impacts (World Bank 1996).
Urbanization and Population Growth
Sub-Saharan Africa has the world's highest urban population growth rate,
more than 5 percent (United Nations 1995). Rapidly expanding coastal cities
such as Lagos, Nigeria; Accra, Ghana; Abidjan, C6te d'Ivoire; Dakar, Senegal;
Mombasa, Kenya; and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, have annual growth rates
of 4 percent or higher. The population of Lagos grew from 3.3 million in
1975 to over 13 million in 2001 and now represents approximately 10 per-
cent of the national total. Ghana's coastal districts, which make up about 6.5
percent of the total land area of the country, are home to 25 percent of the
nation's population (World Bank 1997). In Moree-a typical coastal village
in Ghana's Central Region-33,600 people live on a land area of 9.2 square
kilometers (World Bank 1997).
Within Sub-Saharan Africa, West Africa is the farthest along in the urban
transition; almost 40 percent of the population lives in coastal cities (see
Map 1). The area between Accra and the Niger Delta is likely to become a



THE LOOMING CRISIS IN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS          5
continuous urban megalopolis, with more than 50 million people inhabit-
ing 500 kilometers of coastline (World Bank 1994).
Although population densities along the coasts of East and southern
Africa are not as high as in West Africa, coastal cities in the east are also
experiencing high growth rates. The shoreline of East Africa, including the
island states, extends a total of 11,000 kilometers and is inhabited by 30
million to 35 million people (Linden and Lundin 1997). (Table 1 presents
estimates for representative East African countries.) Perceptions of eco-
nomic opportunity act as a magnet for migration to the coast. In some East
African states, at least 80 percent of the population is considered to be
coastal. Dar es Salaam, the capital of Tanzania, on the Indian Ocean, has a
very high population density of more than 1,210 people per square kilo-
meter. Of Tanzania's estimated 1996 population of 30.5 million, 8 million
lived in the coastal regions of Tanga, Dar es Salaam, Coast, Lindi, and
Mtwara. Whereas the population growth rate for the country as a whole is
2.8 percent, the rate for these areas ranges from 2 to 6 percent (Ngoile and
Daffa 2001). In South Africa's Western and Eastern Cape Provinces, approx-
imately 80 percent of the population resides within a narrow coastal strip.
Map 2 depicts the trends in population growth from 1960 to 1991 and pro-
jected growth for 2020. Estimates show that much of this growth is going
to be concentrated on the coastal areas of Western and Eastern Africa.
Pollution
Urbanization along the West African coastline has increased pollution in
coastal and marine ecosystems to alarming levels. Particularly in Cote
d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Nigeria, these coastal areas are locations for an array
of industrial activity ranging from textiles, leather, and food and beverage
processing industries to extraction and processing of petroleum, natural
gas, phosphates, and other minerals (World Bank 1996). Major watersheds
encompassing river systems in The Gambia, Niger, and Senegal are seri-
Table 1. Estimated Coastal Populations, Selected Countries of
East Africa, 2001
Total population  Estimated coastal  Coastal population as
Country          (millions)   population (millions)  percentage of total
Kenya               30.0             2.7               9
Mozambique          19.6             6.6              34
Somalia             9.9              3.8              38
Tanzania            33.5             8.4              25
Source: WWF (2001).



6    THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
MAURITANIA
IMALI
BSENEAL    UIE
THE GAMBIA                    \     - 
SIERRA  L|| &ytoIRJ D t!&O iG$        IA        .
GUg >IN;'4, ERON     AFRICFE
EC1UATORtAt GUINEA
C6TE ~    SA   NIGERIA
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GASON )CONGO
Kinshasa
IANGOLAI
s o u T H                                 ,
ANGOLA
A T L A N T I C                             4
0 C E A N1
ATLANTIC     ~         ~         X .. 
NAMIBIA
WS I
This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
The boundaries, colors, denominations and anyother information shown
c    on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any  %,
7    judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or
o    acceptance of such boundaries.
0



THE LOOMING CRISIS IN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS         7
Map 1
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
COASTAL URBANIZATION
PERCENTAGE OF COUNTRY'S
POPULATION LIVING WITHIN
100 KILOMETERS OF THE COAST
\IZ I 0%-20%
\>  r,,,20%-40%
-- 72-40%-60%
7    1   45 60%-80%
BO%-100%
ERITREA  ()  CITIES WITH OVER 5,000,000 PEOPLE
SUDAN  2    - --- INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES
S U D AN  J  QDJIBOJT _
i'    o
ETHIOPIA,
if  i  KENYAi 
%AND2CJI5s      if    INDIAN     OCEAN
VAND         e't
.p   BURUNDI 80</
30     TANZANIA g°
SEYCHELLES
--J ''--  MAkWI     q COMOROS
kMBIA
|MC   IQUE 
ZIMBABWE  _ 
D.  ) [   SADASCAR  nMAURIus
C AZIUU9D
(F,)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
(LESO



8      THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Map 2
AFRICA
POPULATION GROWTH
25,000 PERSONS
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES
No,.: Dot- or o-nly d,s,rib-td, hus representing or-rog. den..ily aiti each country.
Son..: U.S Bureau af the C Re.,. Bepart WP/91, Wartd Pap.lai-a Profl.: 1991.
U S Ga.-r.nonr Prii9Of Oice W.ehing,  SC, 1991.
1 991
1         6



THE LOOMING CRISIS IN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS                                                                   9
IBRD 25719RI
2020
Tho. ,,p o.p~od-dn by h. Mop Deogn Unit of Th. WoHd BonA.
Th. b-odoe.no,,- -no,n,o,ed -nyowhn W-in(,nnn ehoo
-n hh .~p do .o) hopty on lhe P., o The Wodd Bo-h GrooP. any
o.dgn,e o- the legal~ ,tn -o fy tennto,y, on any -nd--n,eto
-oop- oef,oohhoo-dani-
JUNE 2002



10 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
ously threatened by ecosystem degradation, and globally significant bio-
diversity is at risk.
Most industries in East Africa are based on agriculture, and the organic,
nutrient-rich wastes are commonly discharged to sewers or directly into
the ocean or rivers. Msimbazi Creek in Dar es Salaam is heavily polluted by
industrial effluents. Other areas of heavy pollution include Tudor and
Kilindini Creeks in Mombasa, Kenya; Mogadishu Harbor in Somalia; the
Matola River in Maputo, Mozambique; and St. Louis in Mauritius.
Oil pollution is significant in waters adjacent to oil refineries in Mombasa,
Dar es Salaam, Maputo, and Tamatave (Madagascar). Increased oil tanker
traffic off the East African coastline poses significant threats to the health
of the coastal ecosystem. The same is true of diamond mining offshore and
in the coastal areas of South Africa and Namibia; excavated sand, gravel,
and debris are carried by waves and wind, causing serious damage to
coastal estuaries and bays and disturbing the ecosystem services of impor-
tant wetlands.
Degradation of Fisheries and Biodiversity
In both West and East Africa, growing in-migration and the incidence of
poverty in coastal communities are multiplying the "open access" situa-
tions that can result in overexploitation of common-property resources.
Increased fishing effort, the introduction of modern fishing fleets, and the
use of more efficient processing technologies are putting pressure on fish-
ery resources. The FAO has warned that the evident overexploitation of
important fish stocks, modifications of nursery and habitat, and interna-
tional conflicts regarding fisheries management and the fish trade pose
threats to the long-term sustainability of regional fisheries. FAO estimates
indicate that fish catches in East Africa have declined to about 40 percent
of the 1990 level and that around 50 percent of East African fishers may
become unemployed over the next 10 to 20 years if present trends continue
(WWF 2001). In Tanzania fish catches dropped 32 percent between 1990
and 1994 (WWF 2001). Box 2 highlights the alarming degradation of fish-
eries and biodiversity in East Africa and describes some of the principal
causes.
Beyond National Borders
Global issues such as climate change are projected to have devastating
impacts on coastal resources and areas. Climate change is likely to affect
coastal areas directly in four ways: through a rise in the sea level, leading
to erosion and inundation; through more intense cyclones and storm surges;
through possible shifts in ocean currents and upwellings, with significant



THE LOOMING CRISIS IN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS              11
Box 2. Threats to Fisheries and Biodiversity in East Africa
East Africa's coastal and marine resources are under mounting pressure
from human activities and transboundary climate events. The effects on
biodiversity and on the region's economic prospects are matters of intense
concern. Some examples of the main threats are outlined here.
* Significant reductions in fish catches from coral reefs along the coasts of
Kenya and Tanzania. Causes of the 30-40 percent decline include
destructive fishing methods such as the use of dynamite and small-
meshed nets, extraction of living and dead coral for producing lime,
and by-catch of large quantities of juvenile fish by shrimp trawlers and
other large fishing vessels.
* Overfishing of many marine mammals, sharks, and other species beyond
their natural recovery rates. Dugongs may become extinct within the
next 50 years. Only a few hundred dugongs are believed to exist in the
entire region, and sea grass beds, their primary feeding grounds, are
being depleted. Six of the world's seven species of marine turtle are
considered endangered or critically endangered. Turtle eggs and meat
are sold for consumption despite bans on such sales. Unplanned con-
struction, sand mining, and beach erosion are leading to loss of turtle
nesting sites.
* Decline in offshorefisheries. One reason for the decline in fisheries is the
significant increase in fishing effort. In Mozambique alone, the indus-
trial and semi-industrial fishing fleet exceeds 150 vessels.
* Decline of mangroves as a result of uncontrolled harvesting for timber
and fuelwood, construction of salt pans, construction of hotels, and
pollution from oil and industrial waste in and around major ports.
* Degradation of coral reefs. Among the causes of coral reef degradation
are use of coral for construction purposes and pollution from untreated
domestic sewage and from shipping and oil terminals. (A large propor-
tion of oil exports from the Gulf region passes through the coastal seas
of East Africa, and serious oil spills have occurred around Mombasa
and Maputo.) On a global scale, increased sea surface temperatures
resulting from El Nino climate disturbances are implicated in coral
bleaching.
Source: WWF (2001).
impacts on fishery productivity; and through higher sea surface tempera-
tures that harm coral reefs.
Global warming and the associated sea level rise could have significant
implications for communities and establishments along the shoreline. In
several countries along the Atlantic Coast, from Senegal to Nigeria, coastal



12 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
erosion is already severe (World Bank 1996). Most capitals, major towns,
and industrial centers-and all ports-are situated near sea level and are
vulnerable to the impacts of sea level rise. Lagos and Port Harcourt in
Nigeria, Takoradi and Tema in Ghana, and Abidjan are in this category.
IPCC data indicate that low-lying areas in West Africa, extending from C6te
d'Ivoire to eastern Nigeria, would be threatened by inundation should the
sea level rise as predicted (IPCC 2001). Coastal communities in low-lying
areas are increasingly susceptible to natural hazards such as floods. Many
such settlements in Mozambique were devastated by repeated flooding,
cyclones, and land subsidence in 2000 and again in early 2001.
Research reports on East Africa and the islands of the western Indian
Ocean point to threats to coral reefs as a result of higher surface water tem-
peratures. Climate change models predict that the occurrence of El Nifio-like
cyclones, with the associated warming, will be more frequent in the future
(Souter, Obura, and Linden 2000).
New Approaches Needed
There is increasing awareness of the interlinked issues described above-
increased pollution of coastal and marine ecosystems, losses of globally
significant biodiversity and ecosystem services, threats to infrastructure
and to the productive capacity of coastal dwellers, and unplanned coastal
development that undermines the productive potential of human and nat-
ural resources. Nevertheless, the policy and investment response to the
development crisis is still inadequate.
Agenda 21, the global plan of action adopted by the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), acknowledged
that established management approaches are not effective in achieving sus-
tainable development of coastal and marine resources (Agenda 21, ch. 17.4).
International, regional, and national environmental organizations and inter-
national conventions have reaffirmed that existing institutions and processes
typically fail to address the management needs of coastal and marine areas.
The reasons for this failure include the complexity of oceanic and coastal
processes, reliance on isolated sectoral approaches, lack of awareness of
the problems and the potential solutions, and the perception that new man-
agement approaches may compete with and displace entrenched programs
and methods. The next chapter deals with world and regional recognition
of the crisis affecting coastal and marine areas and describes how interna-
tional calls to action are growing in number and urgency.



2
The Need for Improved
Coastal Management
A Call to Action
The situation outlined in Chapter 1 calls for management options that take
into account the interrelated environmental issues in the region and the
underlying socioeconomic and political factors. Such strategic interven-
tions can help stakeholders in coastal nations realize the full benefits of the
resources and services offered by coastal and marine areas. One such
approach is integrated coastal management (ICM), described in Box 3.
Box 3. What Is Integrated Coastal Management?
Integrated coastal management (ICM) is defined by Cicin-Sain and Knecht
(1998) as a continuous and dynamic process by which decisions are made
for the sustainable use, development, and protection of coastal and
marine areas and resources. The process is designed to overcome the frag-
mentation inherent in the sectoral management approach and the splits in
government jurisdictions at the land-water interface. This is done by
ensuring that decisions in all sectors (fisheries, oil and gas production,
water quality, and so on) and at all levels of government are harmonized
and are consistent with the country's coastal policies. A key element in
ICM is the design of institutional processes to accomplish this harmoniza-
tion in a politically acceptable manner.
ICM recognizes the distinctive character of the coastal area-itself a
valuable resource-and the importance of conserving it for current and
future generations. The goals of ICM are to achieve sustainable develop-
ment of coastal and marine areas, to reduce the vulnerability of coastal
areas and their inhabitants to natural hazards, and to maintain essential
ecological processes, life support systems, and biological diversity in
coastal and marine areas.
ICM is multipurpose: it analyzes the implications of development, of
conflicting uses, and of interrelationships among physical processes and
human activities, and it promotes linkages and harmonization between
sectoral coastal and oceanic activities.
Source: Adapted from Cicin-Sain and Knecht (1998): 39.
13



14 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Interest in ICM strategies is demonstrated by the wave of recent con-
ferences and agreements. These include the Arusha Conference on ICM in
Eastern Africa, held in Tanzania in April 1993; the Seychelles Workshop on
ICM in February 1995; the Abidjan and Nairobi Conventions on ICM; the
Pan-African Conference on Sustainable Integrated Coastal Management
(PACSICOM), held in Maputo in July 1998; and the Conference on
Cooperation for Development and Protection of the Marine and Coastal
Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa, held in Cape Town, South Africa, in
December 1998 under the sponsorship of the Advisory Committee on
Protection of the Sea (ACOPS) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP). At the last-named conference, 30 Sub-Saharan African
countries were represented, 27 of them at the ministerial level.
Participants in the ACOPS/UNEP conference embarked on a pioneering
initiative to identify the principal causes of degradation of Africa's coastal
and marine resources and to determine the most effective environmental,
institutional, and financial means of addressing them. The resulting ini-
tiative, the African Process for the Development and Protection of the
Marine and Coastal Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa, is embodied in
the Cape Town Declaration.2 The initiative is receiving support from the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) as a mechanism for addressing the main
constraints on sustainable development along Africa's coastline. The African
Process will contribute to the Environment Initiative of the New Partnership
for Africa's Development (NEPAD), which is designed to chart a way for-
ward toward sustainable development in Africa. The principal objectives
of the African Process are outlined in Box 4.
Many coastal nations of Sub-Saharan Africa are signatories to impor-
tant international and regional maritime agreements. These include the
FAO Code for Responsible Fisheries; the 1995 United Nations Agreement
on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks; the 1972
London Dumping Convention; the 1973 International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL, revised in 1978); the 1995
Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land-Based Activities; and the 1995 Jakarta Mandate for the Protection
of Coastal and Marine Biodiversity, endorsed at a meeting convened under
the Convention on Biological Diversity. But although significant progress
has been made in the formulation and adoption of oceanic and coastal
agreements, implementation of these agreements in coastal developing
countries has been hampered by numerous problems, ranging from inad-
equate human resource capacity to financial constraints. Support from the
development community is an obvious and pressing need.
In 2001, as part of the preparations for the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD), the United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) organized the Global Conference on



THE NEED FOR IMPROVED COASTAL MANAGEMENT                         15
Box 4. Key Objectives of the African Process for the
Development and Protection of the Marine and Coastal
Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa
* Identify areas, sites, or living resources that are suffering measurable
degradation (hot spots) or are threatened with future degradation (sen-
sitive areas) and determine, through root-cause analysis, the leading
causes of these impacts, taking into consideration scientific, technical,
and socioeconomic factors.
* Design a program of interventions, including demonstration projects
and preinvestment studies, to address problems of regional priority,
which may be regional in scope or site specific.
* Strengthen existing regional institutions.
* Provide a framework for facilitating the mobilization of resources for
the sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment,
taking into account the scarcity of funds that are available for such pro-
jects.
* Produce a self-sustaining model that can be replicated in other regions
or thematic areas in order to develop interventions that contribute to
the goals of sustainable development.
Source: Based on ACOPS (2002).
Oceans and Coasts at Rio+10, held in Paris in December. Several delega-
tions from Sub-Saharan African countries, including Mozambique, Nigeria,
Senegal, and South Africa, attended the conference. Participants generally
agreed that coastal and marine areas around the world are in a critical sit-
uation that requires immediate action by nations and governing bodies
worldwide. This sense of urgency and priority was confirmed by ministe-
rial statements, as well as in presentations by international experts and sci-
entists, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), government agencies, and
representatives of commercial fishing and industrial bodies. The conference
issued an urgent call to decisionmakers in the WSSD process to develop a
detailed action plan for the sustainable development of the world's oceans
and coasts, linking economic development, social welfare, and resource con-
servation. Appendix B contains a summary of the recommendations of the
conference; key recommendations are shown in Box 5.
Pioneering Applications of Integrated Coastal
Management in Sub-Saharan Africa
Despite growing awareness of the issues faced by coastal and marine areas
in Sub-Saharan Africa, few coastal nations in the region have embarked on



16 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Box 5. Main Recommendations from the 2001 Paris Conference
on the Sustainable Development of Oceans and Coasts
* Target donor aid more explicitly to achieve poverty reduction and
improvements in public health in developing countries.
* Recognize sustainable aquaculture and responsible fisheries as parallel
and essential elements of a common strategy for ensuring global
seafood security and filling the supply gap forecast for the next decade.
* Develop a common Global Vision for Oceans, Seas, and Coasts to set
goals and objectives for the governance of the oceans and coasts.
* Promote joint implementation of clusters of international legal instru-
ments and programs.
* Support the implementation of the Global Program of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities.
* Avoid destruction, loss of human life, and other costs associated with
ocean-related natural disasters through appropriate forecasting, early
warning, prevention, preparedness, and mitigation measures.
* Promote transparency, participation, and accountability in decision-
making at all levels regarding oceans and coasts.
* Involve both national and subnational levels of government in the devel-
opment and implementation of integrated coastal management programs.
* Promote the scaling up of pilot projects.
* Encourage donors to create synergies among multiple single-issue pro-
jects (for example, dealing with biodiversity and coastal erosion),
weaving them into a comprehensive coastal management effort.
* Incorporate marine protected areas into an overall integrated coastal
and ocean management system, using the social sciences to enhance
participatory processes and to evaluate and address impacts on local
human communities.
* Advance scientific understanding of interactions among marine, terres-
trial, and atmospheric systems and of how human activities influence
these interactions.
* Increase the capacity of local governments and community-based
groups to manage coastal and marine areas through appropriate scien-
tific inputs and participatory processes.
* Promote good practice and performance measurement standards for
donor-funded projects in integrated coastal management and encour-
age progress and accountability at all levels.
* Improve the interconnection between education and training in integrat-
ed coastal management to permit more systematic capacity building.
* Promote regional partnerships.
* Integrate economic, environmental, and social vulnerability factors into
a vulnerability index, with special applicability to small-island devel-
oping countries.
Source: Bemal and Cicin-Sain (2001).



THE NEED FOR IMPROVED COASTAL MANAGEMENT                   17
the preparation of national ICM plans or programs for implementing the
recommendations identified in international and regional forums. South
Africa is the most a4ivanced in this respect, with its comprehensive Coastal
Management Policy Process (CMPP) that covers the whole coastline and
all the uses of coastal resources.
South Africa's Coastal Policy was drawn up after extensive consulta-
tion with the public and in light of numerous expert studies. A serious effort
was made to estimate the value of the direct benefits from goods and ser-
vices derived from coastal and marine areas. The White Paper for Sustainable
Coastal Development in South Africa, issued in June 2000, estimates these
direct benefits at about US$25.8 billion a year, equivalent to 35 percent of
South Africa's gross domestic product; the indirect benefits are valued at
US$20.6 billion a year (DEAT 2000). While many ongoing or proposed pro-
grams in coastal areas support key themes of the Coastal Policy, the insti-
tutional and regulatory framework for ICM has yet to be developed, at
either the national level or the provincial level.
Although South Africa is the only country to have an all-encompassing
ICM policy framework, several other countries are launching efforts to pro-
tect coastal and marine areas, even though these may be geographically
restricted or in early stages.
In Mozambique several pilot programs supported by the donor commu-
nity are providing inputs for the national coastal policy framework. Among
these initiatives are the Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management
Project funded by the World Bank and GEF. In Tanzania various donors
support ICM programs in strategic locations, including Mafia Island, Tanga
and Pemba, Lindi, Mtwara, the Rufiji Delta, and Kinondoni.3 In neither
country have the enabling policy and regulatory frameworks for sustain-
able coastal and marine resource management been put in place.
Nevertheless, experience from these local management programs will be
valuable inputs for the preparation of national ICM plans. The U.S. Agency
for International Development (USAID) and the University of Rhode Island
are supporting the Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP),
which spearheads the ICM policy and strategic process. As of mid-2002,
the government was reviewing a draft ICM strategy prepared by the TCMP.
In Ghana the World Bank assisted the government in formulating an
ICM strategy, and a national plan is currently in preparation. Nigeria's gov-
ernment is just embarking on the development of a national ICM plan.
Moving from Piecemeal to Integrated Approaches
Agencies directly responsible for fisheries, ports and harbors, tourism, or
environment frequently request support from the donor community for
sectoral initiatives. At the central policymaking level, however, demand



18 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
for ICM often arises only in response to a natural catastrophe, such as storms
and flooding, or to such human-caused events as oil spills in near-shore
waters. The preparation of ICM plans provides an opportunity to undertake
a more systematic and cross-sectoral analysis of coastal resources, their
uses, and the issues and opportunities faced by resource users. Such analy-
ses would contribute to the development of sustainable and productive
strategies for the sound use and management of coastal resources and
would highlight issues of immediate or continuing concern.
In the following chapter, we review the World Bank's record of assis-
tance for concerted sustainable coastal management strategies in Sub-
Saharan Africa and identify some ways of making this support more
effective.



3
World Bank Support for
Coastal and Marine
Resource Management
Achievements and Shortcomings
Since the 1992 UNCED meeting (the "Earth Summit") in Rio de Janeiro,
World Bank support for coastal and marine resource management has
increased significantly. Investments in this area in Sub-Saharan Africa had
grown to US$176 million by mid-2000. The investments, in the form of GEF
financing or of concessional funds from the World Bank Group's
International Development Association (IDA), include both stand-alone
projects and components of sectoral programs.
The Bank has also supported several regional initiatives, mostly through
grants and in collaboration with GEF. The Bank's regional program for
building capacity for ICM in East and southern Africa, in partnership with
the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and
the Secretariat for Eastern African Coastal Area Management (SEACAM),
is an example of Bank assistance that has successfully leveraged bilateral
grant financing. A regional fisheries project to increase country capacity
for monitoring and managing fish stocks is currently in preparation, with
support from GEF and IDA.
In addition to the current programs in Ghana, Mozambique, and Tanzania
described in Chapter 2, new initiatives are in various stages of develop-
ment, largely with support from GEF. The countries involved include Benin,
Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Namibia, Senegal, the Seychelles, and South Africa.
Some of the programs are national in scope; others are limited to spe-
cific geographic areas. For example, in South Africa several biodiversity
management projects contain components that target coastal and. marine
resource management. The marine component of the Cape Peninsula
Biodiversity Project is designed to strengthen the management of existing
marine protected areas and to demarcate new areas for limited-harvesting
and no-take zones in collaboration with user groups. The Bank is also sup-
porting a regional coral reef monitoring project of the Indian Ocean
Commission in the western Indian Ocean.
Research, information dissemination, training, and capacity-building
initiatives supported by the Bank have led to heightened awareness of
issues pertaining to coastal area management in Sub-Saharan Africa. Of
19



20 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
particular note are the activities of SEACAM, which has received Bank sup-
port for training programs aimed at national and provincial public agencies
as well as NGOs and community groups. SEACAM's coastal management
database provides information for researchers and practitioners on ongo-
ing ICM programs. Other activities sponsored by SEACAM include the
formulation of guidelines for environmental assessment in key activities
such as coastal tourism, aquaculture, and coastal mining (Box 6).
In response to the mass coral reef bleaching in the Indian Ocean associ-
ated with the major El Nifio change in weather patterns in 1997-98, the
World Bank sponsored research into the ecological and socioeconomic
impacts of the bleaching. Limited support continues to be provided to the
research program Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO)
for further work on socioeconomic impacts and on the potential for alter-
native livelihoods for reef-dependent coastal communities.
An innovative program for knowledge management and decentralized
decisionmaking in the ecologically significant Orange River Mouth area
shared by South Africa and Namibia has received World Bank support.
The initiative was launched as a way of gathering and making available
information needed by South Africa's Northern Cape Coastal Working
Group and Namibia's Coastal Zone Working Committee as input for strate-
gic development plans. The program focuses on interaction between users
and managers and supports the goal of sound governance of coastal and
marine resources and areas. Distance learning, training, and stakeholder
consultations are used to promote environmental awareness, participatory
planning, and capacity building for ICM. The Distance Learning and
Box 6. SEACAM's Guidelines for Coastal Activities
SEACAM's guidelines for coastal tourism, coastal aquaculture, and,
recently, coastal mining provide an important tool for promoting econom-
ically viable coastal development in countries with weak policy and insti-
tutional frameworks for sustainable utilization of coastal and marine
resources. The guidelines also help build capacity among coastal stake-
holders and decisionmakers, enabling them to recognize economic oppor-
tunities, plan and implement coastal development in a sustainable way,
and monitor and mitigate any negative impacts of coastal development.
The guidelines recognize that the application of environmental assess-
ment on a regional basis (for example, in the formulation of an integrated
coastal area management plan) is particularly appropriate in coastal areas
that host multisectoral activities and are experiencing rapid urban devel-
opment.



WORLD BANK SUPPORT FOR COASTAL AND MARINE MANAGEMENT      21
Information Sharing Tool (DLIST) component of the program aims to build
capacity at the provincial and local levels by providing access to informa-
tion and supporting empowerment and decentralization strategies, as
described in Box 7. The project also provides a vehicle for participative
planning in the dynamic coastal zone through facilitation of priority set-
ting, institutional strengthening, and collaboration between stakeholders,
the private sector, ICM experts, and civil society. The Orange River initia-
tive illustrates how coastal communities can be empowered to play an
active role in planning and managing the resource base. (Box 9 in Chapter
6 looks at a poverty reduction program being carried out as part of the
Orange River rehabilitation effort.)
Several of the projects supported by the Bank focus on the conservation
or sustainable use of coastal and marine biodiversity. The reason for this
emphasis may be that the projects were largely funded by GEF under OP2,
its operational program for aquatic biodiversity conservation. A few pro-
jects, however, are multipronged, supporting strategic planning, commu-
nity development, and private sector involvement, as well as biodiversity
management. Examples include the Mozambique Coastal and Marine
Biodiversity Management Project (discussed in Box 10 in Chapter 6) and a
proposed project in Eritrea that would support food security for coastal
dwellers as well as promote ICM.
Although there has been considerable growth in the number of ICM ini-
tiatives under way or planned, the coastal and marine portfolio in Sub-
Saharan Africa exhibits a number of shortcomings when compared with
investments in sectors such as infrastructure, education, and health.
Specifically, the interventions are limited in scope, capacity, and funding
(being heavily grant dependent), and the number of integrated, ecosys-
tem-based approaches is still small.
The World Bank continues its drive to mainstream environmental issues
into the broad goal of achieving sustainable development through lasting
poverty reduction. The institutionwide environmental strategy provides
an overall structure for promoting sustainable development in programs
supported by the Bank. At the regional level, the Africa Region's environ-
mental strategy sets up a framework for creating positive incentives and
the enabling conditions for improved environmental management through
policy reform and through capacity building in the public and private sec-
tors and in civil society. In formulating its strategic agenda for ICM in Sub-
Saharan Africa, the Bank works proactively to provide leadership and
coordination in a vital area for natural resource management.
The next chapter turns to the experience gained thus far in ICM initia-
tives in Sub-Saharan Africa.



22 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Box 7. Distance Learning for Empowerment:
The DLIST Initiative
Power and knowledge are closely related; the "know" and "know-not"
groups tend to coincide with the "haves" and "have-nots." Partly because
of this information gap, a skewed power balance persists in South Africa
despite the demise, in 1994, of the apartheid system that sustained it.
Like other parts of South Africa, the Northern Cape Province suffered
greatly from the effects of apartheid. To add to its problems, international
mining companies in the area are now downscaling, leaving in their wake
a devastated environment and few alternatives for earning a livelihood.
Strategies for protection and rehabilitation of the ecosystem and for sus-
tainable development of coastal resources are needed. An additional
motive for expediting the establishment of appropriate planning and
management is that the Northern Cape Province shares with Namibia an
area of international environmental importance, the ecologically rich
Orange River Mouth.
Representatives of governments at different levels, the private sector,
local communities, and other stakeholders from the Northern Cape
Province identified information sharing as a pressing need. A participato-
ry process assisted by the World Bank led to the creation of the Distance
Learning Information Sharing Tool (DLIST), which is being used interac-
tively not only by the original interested groups but also by registered
users as far away as Madagascar and the United States.
Through direct interaction, DLIST disseminates ICM concepts, process-
es, and issues that are relevant to coastal stakeholders. DLIST has provid-
ed a valuable means of building up a pool of information to support ICM
in the Northern Cape Province-Namibia area and of helping to bring
empowering knowledge to disadvantaged groups and persons. It is now
being supported by the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) under IW:Leam, UNDP's international waters capacity-building
program.
Source: Information from EcoAfrica, Cape Town, South Africa, accessed
2002.



4
Experience to Date with
Integrated Coastal Management
The preceding chapter surveyed some of the initiatives being undertaken,
with the support of the donor community, to improve coastal and marine
resource management in Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite these efforts, the
degradation of the resource base, conflicts relating to resource use, and
poverty in coastal communities remain largely unabated. Overexploitation
of resources, unplanned development, productivity losses, and social and
economic inequities continue to escalate. Although the ICM approach and
its incremental results have the potential to create an effective consensus
regarding coastal resource management among stakeholders in Sub-Saharan
Africa, the adoption and implementation of the approach have, for the most
part, been constrained by the lack of an institutional core.
Elements of an appropriate institutional core include an effective policy
regulatory framework, structures of authority, working modalities for
interinstitutional coordination, the presence of trained personnel in both
the public and private sectors, and availability of financial resources.
Although the existence of such a core is the foundation for generating real
demand for ICM, within nations there may exist smaller constituencies in
the public, private, and NGO sectors that act as agents of change. In Ghana,
Mozambique, and South Africa, the environmental agency took on this
role. In Nigeria, NGOs such as the Nigerian Conservation Foundation
(NCF) and the Center for Environmental Research and Social Enterprise
(CERASE), as well as representatives of public agencies, act as change
agents. In many instances government sectoral agencies-for example, in
fisheries, tourism, urban planning, and environmental management-share
responsibility for different aspects of ICM.
ICM is still relatively new in Sub-Saharan Africa, compared with Asia
and Latin America, and few conclusions can be drawn from implementa-
tion to date. Nevertheless, some important lessons can be derived from
early experience with raising awareness, stimulating policy dialogue, and
building constituencies, partnerships, and consultative processes in pro-
gram design and implementation.
23



24 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
To assist in identifying strategic directions for ICM in Sub-Saharan Africa,
a stock-taking exercise was carried out to assess experience so far with
donor support for initiatives involving the region's coastal areas. The key
findings and constraints identified are summarized here.
Multisectoral issues cannot be addressed by means of a single-sector orienta-
tion. Many interventions involving the coastal and marine environment,
whether supported by the World Bank or funded by the donor commu-
nity, have a sectoral focus. Those that are aimed at promoting sustainable
development of the threatened resources of the coastal area tend, with a
few exceptions, to be oriented toward a single issue-protecting species,
minimizing pollution of the marine ecosystem, or improving coastal infra-
structure. The emphasis is often on harvesting resources (such as fish, min-
erals, or forest products) or on promoting trade and investment in the
coastal zone by, for example, rehabilitating ports, encouraging tourism, or
creating industrial zones. Pollution management is tackled as a separate
issue, and coordination of efforts is seldom evident. Moffat and others
(1998), in their assessment of ICM in East Africa, draw attention to the focus
on conservation and the neglect of the development aspects of ICM.
Although concentration on a single issue may be an efficient way to launch
a project and may succeed in implementing some of the elements of a coastal
management program, it lacks the holistic, cross-sectoral, and multistake-
holder approach that is both the hallmark of ICM and a prerequisite for
sustainable development.
Inadequate institutional and human capacity undermines the takeoff of 1CM. The
significant weaknesses in human resource skills and institutional capacity
in Sub-Saharan Africa account for the long delays in program and project
start-up. (The preparation phase of the Mozambique Coastal'and Marine
Biodiversity Management Project took four years, and a similar project in
Guinea-Bissau has been under preparation for four years.) Another mani-
festation of this problem is seen in the very small number of ICM programs
under implementation.
The knowledge gap prevents the emergence of early adopters. A key reason for
the small number of ICM initiatives in the region is lack of knowledge and
awareness. There is insufficient recognition of the severity of problems in
the coastal zone, of the various linkages (between poverty and reliance on
natural resources and ecosystem services, between human interventions
and impacts on ecosystems, and between sectoral initiatives and trans-
boundary issues involving shared ecosystems), and of the necessity for
intersectoral coordination and planning. There is a critical need for infor-
mation acquisition and sharing to advance knowledge in ICM and related
disciplines and so inform the decisionmaking process. Subject areas in
which better understanding is needed include:



EXPERIENCE TO DATE WITH INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT       25
* Environmental assessment-in particular, strategic environmental assess-
ment (SEA)
* Environmental and natural resource economics
* Geographic information systems (GIS) and modeling of coastal and
marine ecosystems to assist ICM planning
* Physical and biological oceanography
* Hydrology and hydrography
* Maritime law, including jurisdictional questions and issues of sover-
eignty
* Intergovernmental issues relating to the management of coastal and
marine areas, including both modern and traditional property rights
* Zoning issues
* Distributional equity and social issues in coastal settlements.
Information from these thematic areas needs to be combined with indige-
nous knowledge and lessons from experience in resource management.
Finally, closing the knowledge gap entails empowerment of resource users
and identification of incentives for sharing information.
Limitations in scope,funding, and commitment lead to weak, ad hoc, stopgap
programs-yet the problems are long term. With the exception of trust fund
resources from donor countries that have an interest in coastal and marine
issues, such as Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden, financing
is not readily forthcoming for ICM initiatives. Funding from the World
Bank and from other agencies is extended in response to demands from
small, localized constituencies to address either single issues or multiple
issues in geographically limited areas. The reasons for the constraints on
resources include the intersectoral character of ICM and the lack of an insti-
tutional structure or framework to support or spearhead ICM programs;
the costs of planning, preparation, and implementation; and the long lead
times involved.
Initiatives aimed at balancing the tradeoffs between promoting devel-
opment and protecting threatened species and habitats tend to be small-
scale, localized operations with modest budgets. Experience with ICM
initiatives in other regions indicates that although localized programs or
special-area management plans and programs can be successful in the short
term, commitment at the national level is needed to ensure sustainability
and long-term continuation of programs. Small programs funded by donors
or NGOs, although visible and attractive, are too dependent on external
financial and technical assistance to be sustainable over the medium to
long run. These initiatives are also affected by institutional constraints, by
weak commitment and capacity of individual governments, and by polit-
ical upheavals. Project funds may run out before local ownership and con-



26 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
trol are fully established, leading to stakeholder frustration. Furthermore,
such ad hoc programs do not deal with all of the significant issues in coastal
and marine management, which include the effects of land-based sources
of marine pollution, proactive contingency planning for risk management
and for prevention of disasters such as oil spills and flooding, equity issues
involving access to coastal and marine resources, and reconciliation of the
development needs of coastal populations with maintenance of the integrity
of coastal ecosystems.
Failure to use ecosystem-based approaches creates a mismatch between prob-
lems and interventions. Coastal and island nations in the region border large
marine ecosystems that extend across boundaries, requiring an ecosystem-
based approach and coordinated action among the littoral states for effec-
tive management. With a few exceptions-the GEF-funded Gulf of Guinea
Large Marine Ecosystem Program, the Benguela Current Large Marine
Ecosystem Program, the UNEP's Regional Seas Program, and SEACAM's
efforts to promote ICM capacity in East Africa-no significant initiatives
are under way that take an ecosystem approach toward sustainable man-
agement of Sub-Saharan Africa's coastal and marine areas. The next chap-
ter looks at how the World Bank and its partners can work to change this
unsatisfactory situation.



5
A Strategic Agenda for ICM
Over the past decade, the World Bank has lent support to a steadily grow-
ing program for managing coastal and marine resources. Disappointingly,
however, many of the investments are confined to addressing biodiversity
issues. As noted in the last chapter, many donor-supported activities con-
sist of small-scale, localized interventions, and not enough scaling up of
these pilot or demonstration projects has taken place in Sub-Saharan African
coastal nations. Another factor is that most countries lack the national policy,
strategic, and regulatory frameworks needed to guide investment in coastal
and marine areas. And support by the World Bank for ICM initiatives
remains modest when compared with the magnitude of the complex issues
facing the coastal nations of Sub-Saharan Africa and the size of investments
in traditional sectors such as water, sanitation, health, education, and urban
and rural development. The reasons include the lack of a coordinating insti-
tutional mechanism to request support for an integrated approach to coastal
and marine resource management; the focus on conservation, leading to a
tendency to channel proposals for support toward GEF; and insufficient
awareness of the economic gains to be reaped from the adoption of an inte-
grated approach. A significant opportunity exists for the World Bank to
play a strategic role in providing catalytic support to these countries' endeav-
ors to manage coastal and marine resources sustainably.
Although conservation of coastal resources is important, particularly in
areas that are rich in biodiversity, planners need to take cognizance, too,
of the significant economic opportunities present in these areas, which can
be maximized through sound planning and management. The focus of
investment needs to be expanded to include such ICM goals as planning,
zoning, minimization of risks to vulnerable populations, increased capac-
ity for disaster preparedness, empowerment of local stakeholders, conflict
management, and control of pollution in international waters. Partnership
with the private sector and investment in sustainable coastal tourism, sus-
tainable mariculture, and soundly planned and managed industrial ven-
tures could yield significant benefits on the local as well as the national
level.
27



28  THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
The overarching goal of the World Bank Group in Sub-Saharan Africa
is poverty reduction through environmentally and socially sustainable
development. More than any other region of the world, Sub-Saharan Africa
relies on its environmental base, both economically and socially. Now the
vital coastal resource base is threatened by interdependent forces, includ-
ing extreme poverty, unprecedented population growth in coastal com-
munities, and overexploitation of resources (World Bank 1996).
In 1994, as part of a World Bank-led exercise to provide direction and
support for the many environmental initiatives that emerged from UNCED,
the Bank commissioned the study "Africa: A Framework for Integrated
Coastal Zone Management." The report, first issued in 1994 and revised in
1996, was intended to set forth a rationale for incorporating ICM into strate-
gies for environmentally sustainable development in Africa and to provide
a framework for Bank investments in the management of coastal and marine
resources. The report proposed the following goal for development in
Africa's coastal zone over the next three decades:
Establish a working system for integrated and participatory develop-
ment planning and natural resource management in the coastal zone by
the year 2025. This system will seek to optimize the net benefit flows from
coastal resources to individuals and society by reducing user conflicts, mit-
igating adverse development impacts and enhancing the productivity of
coastal ecosystems. (Hatziolos, Lundin, and Alm 1996)
The framework document recommended that the Bank identify targets
of opportunity for advancing ICM in Sub-Saharan Africa in order to bring
about sustained improvements in coastal habitats and in the socioeconomic
conditions of coastal communities, which make up almost half of the total
population of the region's coastal nations.
Identifying Operational Goals and Principles
To derive an operational interpretation of the goal enunciated in the frame-
work document, we dissect the statement into four strategic goals reflect-
ing experience with ICM in Sub-Saharan Africa.
a. Establish aflexible, adaptive working system. One of the greatest challenges
to management in an uncertain situation is that information, goals, and
circumstances change with time. This is especially true in developing
countries. Plans that do not permit innovation and flexibility often result
in failure. It is well recognized that adaptive planning involves a con-
tinuous and active process before and during project execution.
Accordingly, the ICM agenda promotes adaptive management systems
that integrate natural resource management activities in coastal and
marine areas. Such a management system provides flexible mechanisms



A STRATEGIC AGENDA FOR ICM                                     29
for dealing with the uncertainties inherent in a system involving multi-
ple issues, stakeholders, and policy options (CIFOR 1998).
b. Enhance the value of coastal ecosystems by increasing their long-term phys-
ical and economic productivity.
c. Promote equitable distribution of the current andfutureflows of benefits from
coastal resources.
d. Ensure that adequate incentives are providedfor proper management, that user
conflicts are reduced, and that any adverse impacts are alsofairly distributed.
Strategic goals (b), (c), and (d) encompass the concepts of net benefit
flows, productivity enhancement, and distribution embedded in the over-
all goal statement. (References in the statement to individuals, society, reduc-
tion of user conflicts, and impact mitigation all relate to distributional aspects.)
Strategic goals (c) and (d) are aimed at reducing poverty among coastal
dwellers through optimization of benefits. Strategic goals (a) and (d) focus
on improving governance and capacity in coastal and marine areas.
The next step is to translate these strategic goals into operational prin-
ciples, each embodying a general target against which an intervention or
action can be assessed. According to these principles, interventions should:
* Promote adaptive management systems that permit effective interac-
tion among local stakeholders, the private sector, government, and the
donor community
* Support effective policies and incentives for equitable realization of ben-
efits
* Generate positive and equitably distributed domestic benefits
* Where possible, generate positive and equitably distributed global ben-
efits.
Determining Priorities for Investment
To set priorities for intervention in the coastal and marine areas of Sub-
Saharan Africa, we next identify specific criteria, using the strategic goals
and principles outlined above and building on the framework for ICM
capacity assessment developed by Shah and others (1997). These criteria
are used primarily for identifying and ranking targets of opportunity, but
they can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of interventions. Although
the criteria are meant to guide investment for ICM, they also serve as indi-
cators of which areas needs attention when designing ICM projects. For
example, if institutional effectiveness is weak because of poor local capac-
ity, some groundwork in this regard may have to be done before design-
ing a project. The level of capacity enhancement achieved can also serve
as an indicator for monitoring effectiveness of program implementation.



30   THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
The criteria fall into four main categories: those for institutional effec-
tiveness, policy effectiveness, equitable distribution of domestic benefits, and
equitable distribution of global benefits (Table 2).
Criteriafor institutional effectiveness may include local capacity, the qual-
ity of environmental programs, private sector involvement, and the avail-
ability and level of external assistance.
Criteria for policy effectiveness assess the extent to which ICM interven-
tions are likely to succeed in the country's political and socioeconomic envi-
ronment. A successful intervention should enhance existing stability or
build in mechanisms that are adaptive and are resilient to shocks arising
from political instability.
Criteriafor equitable distribution of domestic benefits address the value of the
country's coastal and marine ecosystem, expressed in terms of the net ben-
efits of intervention. The precautionary principle should be applied in sit-
uations where there exists a threat of serious impacts on the ecosystem and
Table 2. Criteria for ICM Interventions
Criterion                     Components
Institutional  Capacity and competence of the local partner; existence and
effectiveness  quality of national environmental action plans and programs,
national conservation strategies, biodiversity conservation
strategies and programs
Private sector participation; country's willingness to involve
private sector
Availability and level of extemal assistance (high level of
donor interest may attract additional donors and investment
but deter others); appropriate balance of donor participation;
improved donor coordination
Policy         Political stability
effectiveness  Country commitment
Clarity regarding property rights
Incentives
Equitable      Current use of coastal and marine resources
distribution of  Potential uses of coastal and marine resources
domestic       Threats to coastal and marine resources
benefits        Cost-effectiveness
Dependence on resources
Equitable      Use and nonuse values
distribution   Representativeness
of global      Biodiversity
benefits       Threats to coastal and marine resources
Cost-effectiveness



A STRATEGIC AGENDA FOR ICM                                     31
on its functions and provision of goods and services. A successful inter-
vention is one that reduces the aggregate likelihood of threats or includes
mechanisms for mitigating the impacts of such threats on productivity or
distribution. (Oil spill contingency planning is an example.) Given the goal
of maintaining or enhancing domestic benefits, an intervention should be
rated on the basis of the level of domestic expenditures and the effective-
ness of their use in, for example, reclaiming degraded coastal and marine
ecosystems or avoiding significant deterioration of nondegraded areas. An
intervention should target areas where cost-effectiveness is high or should
create the conditions for making complementary interventions more cost-
effective. The latter is sometimes referred to as "barrier-removal" interven-
tion. Removing an institutional barrier may improve the cost-effectiveness
of other existing or future programs.
Criteriafor equitable distribution of global benefits. Global use and nonuse
values refer to the global value or benefits of current and potential uses of
the coastal and marine ecosystem. These values are additional to the domes-
tic use and nonuse values. A successful intervention results in the mainte-
nance or enhancement of benefits generated by the use of coastal and marine
resources and promotes equitable distribution of these benefits. A successful
intervention should maintain biodiversity resources and environmental
functions in the coastal zone.
Global threats to a particular country's coastal zone can include com-
plex situations such as the projected effects of cliriate change (sea level rise
and extreme climatic events), downstream effects of activities in neigh-
boring countries, coastal pollution, sedimentation, and overfishing by
people from neighboring countries and from outside the area. A successful
intervention reduces the aggregate likelihood of threats or provides mech-
anisms for decreasing the impacts of such threats on productivity and dis-
tribution.
Applying the strategic goals, principles, and criteria described in this
chapter, we carried out an exercise to prioritize ICM investments for Sub-
Saharan Africa, by country. (See Appendix A for a complete list of criteria
mnd countries.) The weights assigned to each criterion for each country are
Dased on the available data and on assessments by experts both within and
:)utside the country. There is a degree of subjectivity and relativity in the
ranking exer'cise, and the rankings themselves are subject to change on the
basis of local, national, and global externalities at a given time. Nevertheless,
we believe that the exercise is useful in determining where investments by
the Bank are most needed and have the highest likelihood of successful
implementation. The exercise indicates the following priorities, with 1 being
the top priority and the countries listed in order of priority within the main
ranking:



32 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
1. Seychelles, South Africa, Mauritius, Mozambique, Ghana, Senegal, The
Gambia, Tanzania, Namibia
2. Nigeria, Madagascar, C6te d'Ivoire, Guinea, Benin, Sao Tome and
Principe, Gabon, Mauritania
3. Cape Verde, Dijibouti, Sierra Leone, Republic of Congo, Somalia, Liberia,
Cameroon, Togo, Angola.
Any of the countries classified as low priority could nevertheless qual-
ify for World Bank assistance in response to a natural catastrophe or some
other event or should an institutional or policy process create new situa-
tions or opportunities.
The next chapter examines how World Bank strategies and processes
may be able to support integrated coastal management in countering the
threats facing Sub-Saharan Africa's coastal and marine environment.



6
Implementing ICM Programs
The Way Forward
The World Bank's environmental strategy emphasizes three key objectives:
* Improving the quality of life-that is, improving health and livelihoods
and reducing the vulnerability of those affected
* Enhancing the quality of growth by supporting policy, regulatory, and insti-
tutional frameworks for sustainable environmental management and
promoting sustainable private development
* Safeguarding the quality of the regional and global commons by dealing with
threats to climate change, forests, water resources, and biodiversity.
The World Bank's role in supporting coastal and marine resource and area
management in Sub-Saharan Africa is guided by the strategic goals articulated
in the Bankwide environmental strategy, the Africa Region's Framework for
Integrated Coastal Zone Management described in Chapter 5, and the goals,
principles, and intervention criteria outlined in that chapter.
At the global level, the Bank is committed to mainstreaming environ-
ment in development planning processes, programs, and implementation.
In accordance with that policy, investments in the coastal and marine envi-
ronment may be integrated into larger investments in traditional sectors
such as rural development, infrastructure, water, fisheries, and tourism. In
specific instances, as described earlier, the investments may be in the form
of stand-alone coastal and marine resource management projects supported
by IDA and by GEF.
Given the complex and changing nature of the coastal and marine ecosys-
tem and the lack of experience with ICM in Sub-Saharan Africa, in defin-
ing strategic directions to guide investment we focus on the following
themes:
* Strengthening the institutional core
* Improving the quality of life of coastal communities
* Promoting partnerships between the public sector, the private sector,
and civil society
33



34 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Promoting sustainable management of fragile ecosystems across polit-
ical and geographic boundaries
Within each of these themes, the emphasis is on barrier removal through
adaptive management, experimentation, learning, and information sharing.
Strengthening the Institutional Core
The institutional core consists, in essence, of the key decisionmaking agents,
the processes they engage in, and the information they make use of within
these processes. Certain characteristics of the institutional core have been
found to be critical for the success of ICM programs.
1. Strong institutions at the subnational as well as the national level. Strong
political will and commitment have to be present at the very beginning
of any ICM program, and there must be appropriate institutional coor-
dination at the central and local levels during the program planning and
implementation stages. Chua (1993) suggests that an interagency coor-
dinating body is preferable for implementing an ICM program. Lack of
integrated planning has led to conflicts about resource use, deteriora-
tion of the resource base, and reduction of development opportunities.
Conflicts between agencies with different development goals and over-
lapping mandates have led to duplication of effort and thus to ineffi-
ciency and waste of valuable resources.
2. Transparency in decisionmaking, public participation in program design, and
properfeedback processes. Top-down programs designed and initiated by
donors and national policymakers have encountered difficulties in secur-
ing the buy-in and commitment of local stakeholders. The ultimate suc-
cess of ICM depends on ownership and initiative by local actors. It follows
that public consultations, information dissemination, and outreach pro-
grams are important ingredients of any ICM program.
3. Good information and assessment systems. Obtaining reliable information
on coastal and marine resources and processes is a major challenge facing
ICM planners. Improving the institutional core entails the generation of
credible ecological, biophysical, and socioeconomic data on the ecosys-
tem. Valuable information can be obtained from national and local envi-
ronmental action plans and environmental impact assessments, from
local development plans, and from sector-specific studies conducted by
the private sector and by governments, with support from the interna-
tional donor community. The economic and social costs and benefits aris-
ing from the prescribed use of a particular resource or area need to be



IMPLEMENTING ICM PROGRAMS: THE WAY FORWARD                        35
evaluated carefully in designing an intervention. Cost-benefit assess-
ments can reveal externalities and hidden costs that affect the health of the
ecosystem or vulnerable segments of society and that need to be addressed
through appropriate policy or institutional reforms. Such assessments
can complement environmental and social analysis to identify tradeoffs
that may need to be made in planning the best use of the coastal area.
(See Box 8, on the use of strategic environmental assessment.) Close inter-
action with a range of stakeholders-in the public and private sectors; at
the regional, national, and local levels; in modern and traditional insti-
tutions; and in the NGO community-during the ICM planning process
can be most useful in filling many of the informational needs.
Improving the Quality of Life in Coastal Communities
Poverty and inequality are the greatest threats to sustainable development.
Nowhere are these problems more apparent than in coastal and marine
areas, where competition for resource use often results in conflict, unem-
ployment, poverty, and overexploitation of the resource base. Experience
with ICM initiatives that target poverty reduction through empowerment
is uneven, and efforts to assess outcomes are therefore premature. There is
a significant need for experimentation and for initiatives designed to ensure
Box 8. Strategic Environmental Assessment:
A Powerful Planning Instrument
Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is an important tool for
addressing environmental issues at an early stage in policy and program
formulation and ensuring that these issues are monitored throughout the
life of the program. The integration of SEA into planning processes allows
environmental assessment to evolve from a reactive tool to a mechanism
that proactively facilitates sustainable resource management. National
SEA guidelines cut across sectors and ecosystems, complementing nation-
al coastal management policy and promoting collaborative integrated
approaches toward strategic planning for coastal and marine areas.
In South Africa, for example, strategic environmental assessment is dri-
ven by the concept of sustainability (CSIR and DEAT 1999). Recognizing
the limitations of project-specific environmental assessment, the guide-
lines provide a framework for integrating sustainability into development
plans and programs. Recent legislation in South Africa mandates that the
principles of sustainability be integrated into all development planning
processes. SEA is recognized as a tool for operationalizing these principles
and incorporating environmental issues into strategic decisionmaking.



36 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
that vulnerable communities engage in coastal enterprises in such a way as
to derive a fair share of the benefits from these projects.
Interventions should (a) support devolution and decentralization of
decisionmaking relating to control of resources, allowing stakeholders at the
local and community levels to participate actively in area and development
planning; (b) identify innovative mechanisms for generating employment,
with attention to programs that focus on conservation of fragile and glob-
ally significant ecosystems; (c) support partnerships with the private sector
to ensure sustainable financing for small-scale initiatives; and (d) promote
broad-based involvement in planning to improve the equity of resource
distribution. Broad-based involvement also facilitates peer enforcement of
compliance with locally developed and accepted norms and standards.
Box 9 describes a proactive effort under way in South Africa.
Promoting Sustainable Management of
Fragile Ecosystems
Maintaining well-functioning ecosystems and ecological processes is crit-
ical for meeting human needs and ensuring the sustainability of economic
activities in coastal and marine areas. Coastal and marine ecosystems are
increasingly subject to multiple pressures, ranging from the effects of human
activities to natural disasters brought about by climatic variations.
Maintaining species diversity requires a coordinated approach and the
involvement of the global community in interventions at the local level.
Although Sub-Saharan Africa has a significant number of marine protected
areas (MPAs), their effective management is impeded by a multitude of
constraints. Better integration of MPAs into an overall ICM framework that
incorporates participatory processes designed to increase awareness of the
value of coastal and marine biodiversity would lead to improved man-
agement of the resource base. Interventions should also promote partner-
ships in coastal and marine tourism enterprises and mechanisms for sharing
the revenues.
Research into the state of fragile ecosystems is needed to facilitate the
regular monitoring and assessment of the coastal and marine environment.
Such assessments are vital to sound decisionmaking on the use of the
resources of these areas. For example, the Bank's support for CORDIO, the
research program on coral reef degradation in the Indian Ocean, focuses
on the biophysical impacts of coral degradation resulting from bleaching
and other disturbances, the long-term outlook for recovery, the socioeco-
nomic effects of coral mortality, the options for mitigating these impacts
through management and through development of alternative livelihoods,
and the prospects for interventions aimed at restoration and rehabilitation
of reefs to accelerate ecological and economic recovery.



IMPLEMENTING ICM PROGRAMS: THE WAY FORWARD                      37
Box 9. Poverty Reduction through Sustainable Coastal
Management in South Africa
Community-driven development projects that promote viable and envi-
ronmentally sustainable economic opportunities for coastal communities
are the focus of a new Poverty Relief Fund mobilized by South Africa's
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). The initiative
supports alternative income-generating activities in coastal communities
of the country's Northern Cape Province that previously depended on
subsistence farming and the diamond mining industry.
The Poverty Relief Fund is also helping with the rehabilitation of an
important transboundary salt marsh and wetlands area at the mouth of
the Orange River, shared by the Northern Cape Province and Namibia.
The site has been designated by both South Africa and Namibia for the
Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. (The Convention on
Wetlands, signed in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran, provides a framework for
national action and international cooperation for the conservation and
wise use of wetlands and their resources; currently there are 1,150 sites on
the Ramsar List.) This sensitive, globally significant ecosystem had been
seriously degraded through poor management and the effects of coastal
mining. The Working for Water Project supported by the Poverty Relief
Fund employs more than 100 coastal inhabitants in restoring the hydro-
logical regime, eradicating alien vegetation, conserving the site, and
developing it as a community-run ecotourism project.
DEAT also promotes private sector initiatives for sustainable harvest-
ing of kelp resources by worker-owned companies. The project is support-
ed by the Gariep Strategic Development Initiative (SDI), one of several
SDIs in South Africa. The SDI programs, which are key investment com-
ponents of the government's macroeconomic growth strategy, are
involved primarily in promoting nodes of economic development.
The major institutions concerned about ecosystem preservation-includ-
ing the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the World Conservation Union,
the World Resources Institute (WRI), The Nature Conservancy (TNC),
Conservation International (CI), and the UNEP-have agreed that certain
principles should guide conservation efforts in the 21st century (WWF
2001). These efforts should be driven by a common vision, using networks
of protected areas within managed coastlines as the core components of
conservation planning. They should be planned and implemented over
time scales compatible with ecological processes. Finally, they should com-
bine rigorous science, traditional knowledge, and politics and should con-
sider the social, economic, and policy factors critical to sustainability.
The WWF's Ecoregion Program Global 200 identifies a series of ecore-
gions representing major habitat types in the terrestrial, freshwater, and



38 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
marine realms that warrant greater emphasis because of outstanding bio-
logical features. One of the 10 marine ecoregions on this list, the East African
Marine Ecoregion, stretches from southern Somalia to the shores of
KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa-a distance of over 4,600 kilome-
ters-and is home to a population of about 22 million (Map 3). A focus on
regional approaches such as the Marine Ecoregion Program will make it
possible for planning and management of the coastal and marine areas to
be based on a sound understanding of the connectivity of ecological
processes, including coastal and offshore currents, tidal influences, trans-
port of nutrients, and the movement of large marine animals, as well as
human population dynamics.
Promoting Partnerships between the Public Sector,
the Private Sector, and Civil Society
The public sector in coastal nations has in the past proved ill equipped to
address the multidimensional problems of coastal and marine areas. The pri-
vate sector has the advantage of being capable of rapid and flexible adap-
tive decisionmaking, and it can be a source of complementary funds in the
form of venture capital. Removing the barriers to effective participation by
the private sector in the management of coastal and marine resources may
therefore contribute to the success and sustainability of interventions.
For example, the Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management Project
(CMBMP) in Mozambique, supported by the World Bank and GEF, empha-
sizes partnership between the public sector, the private sector, and civil
society in bringing about improvements in the livelihoods of coastal com-
munities and in the ecosystem. The project, described in Box 10, is a key
element of Mozambique's National Coastal Zone Management Program.
Making the investments needed to address ICM issues often requires
greater expenditures than appear to be economically efficient for the bor-
rowing country. Although the donor community remains committed to
ICM and to the protection of coastal and marine resources, increased and
targeted financing, from the World Bank and other partners, is needed to
implement a coordinated and sustained strategy for research, analysis,
knowledge management, and investments to promote ICM. Such a strategy
requires innovative partnerships with GEF and with bilateral donors and
the identification of opportunities for additional resource transfers from
concessional sources. Partnerships of this kind, and additional resource
transfers, are currently being implemented for the conservation and man-
agement of critical ecosystems (under the Critical Ecosystems Partnership)
and are under consideration for renewable energy. The possibility of setting
up strategic funds at the regional level to finance urgent ICM priorities was
endorsed at the Global Conference on Oceans and Coasts at Rio+10.



IMPLEMENTING ICM PROGRAMS: THE WAY FORWARD                     39
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40 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Box 10. Promoting Partnerships for Sustainable Coastal
Management in Mozambique
Mozambique's Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management Project
(CMBMP) is a pilot for an integrated, multipronged approach designed to
support sustainable development of coastal and marine areas. Its elements
include:
* Strategic spatial planning that fully integrates conservation with
regional development
* Establishment and strengthening of key terrestrial and marine conser-
vation areas
* Initiation of community-driven microprojects to promote sustainable
use of coastal and marine resources
* Identification of best practices for environmentally and biodiversity-
friendly economic development
* Establishment of public-private partnerships for promoting sustainable
coastal development.
This project is the first phase of a long-term national coastal zone pro-
gram. If successful, the activities piloted under it will be adopted and
replicated throughout the coastal zone.
The program design sought to respond to the great need for develop-
ment and sustainable livelihoods in impoverished communities in
Mozambique's unique coastal areas. The government has lacked the
resources and information to provide these opportunities to the poor, but
the country's return to peaceful conditions and the drawing power of
pristine coastal and marine areas make Mozambique an attractive possi-
bility for private sector-led growth. Without an appropriate policy and
regulatory framework, however, such investments run the risk of being
both environmentally and socially unsustainable. The CMBMP aims to
provide the necessary planning framework to avoid this danger. The pro-
ject's capacity-building activities-in particular, at the provincial and local
levels-will facilitate partnerships between coastal communities and the
public and private sectors.
Source: World Bank (2000).
Closer collaboration within the World Bank Group and its partners is also
important in mainstreaming ICM in ongoing programs and projects. For
example, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the World Bank
Group's private sector development arm, is actively considering new
investments involving tourism development. In such cases a blended pro-



IMPLEMENTING ICM PROGRAMS: THE WAY FORWARD                41
gram of financing from GEF, the World Bank Group, and bilateral funds
could support a comprehensive program for sustainable management of
coastal and marine resources in countries with high use values in tourism
and recreation at the national level and high global values in the form of
coastal and marine biodiversity. Close partnerships with the UNEP, the
World Conservation Union, the FAO, the WWF, the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC), and other agencies promoting ICM
are critical for supporting the implementation of international maritime
agreements.
Close links need to be forged between the private sector, on the one hand,
and, on the other, academic and research institutions and foundations that
have strong marine studies and ICM programs. The objectives of this coor-
dination would be to advance knowledge concerning ICM; to disseminate
new information and mobilize and synthesize local knowledge; to develop
local capacity for carrying out research; and to strengthen capacity for
implementing ICM. Networking with national and international NGOs
and close collaboration with bilateral aid agencies are also vital.
Conclusion: Tailoring ICM to
Country Development Needs
As the Africa Region's environmental strategy notes, Africa is too ecolog-
ically, socially and politically diverse for any one strategy or solution to be
universally applicable. Furthermore, the ICM agenda is just one among
numerous priorities set by the Bank internally and by client countries on the
basis of political, social, economic, and other pressing needs. Even though
the need for ICM as an organizing framework for addressing the popula-
tion and development pressures impinging on the coastal margins of Sub-
Saharan Africa is obvious, many of the poorer nations of the region may
find themselves unable to afford the luxury of long-term planning hori-
zons and lacking the resources to invest in enabling activities that take a
long time to bear fruit. Achieving an integrated approach-both horizon-
tally, in terms of economic and sectoral integration, and vertically, in terms
of resource management and governance arrangements-is a long-term
proposition. The benefits of ICM are unlikely to be felt in the near term.
ICM programs may therefore not be adopted in a holistic sense in coun-
tries where political and social pressures for development are too strong
and capacity and commitment to carry out strategic planning is weak or
nonexistent. In such countries, ICM programs that are introduced through
external donor support are unlikely to be sustained in the absence of strong
links to more immediate economic and social welfare programs that have
a high national priority. Small pilot efforts that address local priorities are
not likely to be replicated at the scale and rate required to make significant



42 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
headway on the sustainable development front unless supported by mas-
sive commitments of external assistance.
To confront this reality on the ground, ICM will need to be more strate-
gic in design and packaged as a value-added increment to traditional eco-
nomic investments. In addition to investments within fisheries or
environment programs, opportunistic approaches will have to be adopted,
targeting large-scale investments in the water, infrastructure, energy, and
transport sectors with the aim of making such investments more "coastal
friendly" by averting downstream impacts and bringing about more explicit
benefits to coastal populations and ecosystems. Strategic environmental
assessment may be refined to allow evaluation of the costs and benefits for
downstream environments of programmatic lending in the water and
energy sectors. Projects in these sectors may affect, for example, large coastal
megacities, where migration patterns may be affected by land use or invest-
ment strategies in watersheds upstream; rural landscapes; and natural
ecosystems at the land-water interface, such as biologically productive
coral reefs, mangroves, and estuaries. Ensuring environmental flows and
instream uses of surface and groundwater, maintaining or improving water
quality for downstream use, and taking into account the nonmarket or
future-option values of coastal ecosystems as providers of valuable ser-
vices that depend on clean and reliable flows are among the ways that such
investments can be leveraged to yield benefits to coastal populations.
Mainstreaming ICM to achieve the necessary scale and impact will also
require more explicit synergies with the poverty reduction strategies of
specific countries and with the Millennium Development Goals set by the
United Nations. ICM targets will need to be linked to quality of life, qual-
ity of growth, and environmental sustainability-objectives identified in
the Millennium Development Goals and in the Bank's environmental strat-
egy. The gains to be reaped through ICM approaches will need to be pre-
sented in terms of national development priorities and designed to meet
targets that support these priorities. Some countries (as illustrated by the
priority-setting exercise described in Chapter 5 and Appendix A) will be
ready for the whole package: strengthening the institutional core, includ-
ing the strategic planning, policy, and regulatory frameworks, governance
arrangements, and conflict resolution; promoting partnerships; ensuring
sustainable management of fragile ecosystems; and improving the quality
of life of coastal communities. Others may only be ready to adopt and sus-
tain activities that can be incorporated into more explicit income-generat-
ing investments with the potential to demonstrate immediate benefits. It
may be necessary in some countries or localities to address immediate and
perhaps very visible problems while working toward longer-term solu-
tions for underlying causes. The immediate problem may be coastal ero-
sion, significant declines in fish catches, or loss of revenue as a result of a



IMPLEMENTING ICM PROGRAMS: THE WAY FORWARD                43
downturn in coastal tourism. A rapid infusion of capital, as well as capac-
ity-building support, may be required to deal with these problems. Lessons
from such experiences may then provide sound feedback for putting in
place the governance arrangements, enabling activities, conflict resolution
mechanisms, and so on needed to strengthen the institutional core for future
ICM implementation.
Ecosystems and ecological processes span political and geographic
boundaries, and many governments, as well as development partners, are
recognizing the need for environmental management at the subregional
rather than the national or local level. The droughts and floods that afflicted
Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe in 2000 are examples of how
national leaders have recognized the need for cooperation in managing
ecosystems and natural resources. As described earlier in this chapter, lead-
ing institutions concerned about ecosystem preservation have concluded
that conservation in the 21st century must be driven by a common vision,
using subregional approaches and forming networks of protected areas.
Such regional approaches will provide a mechanism for involving both
countries that are not yet ready for ICM planning and those that have
demonstrated readiness and commitment within an integrated, planning
framework that reaches beyond political boundaries to encompass a larger
geographic scale. The new instruments being considered by the World Bank
for assisting subregional initiatives can provide much-needed catalytic sup-
port for multidonor initiatives that are planned and implemented over
longer time scales that are more compatible with ecological processes.



Appendix A
Illustrative Exercise in Setting Priorities for Integrated Coastal
Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, by Country
Category I                    Category 11
clarity                                                     ___z(D'  ~
Crieron                                                   'U  u      U
Ba,n,;            3         1|   I  *   2   I      2       2 * 1  2   2 
in%ot ee:nM,cataanmaiersucsESevrnetlyssanbedeopn.
Bdi:%d ersltM                    2      2              -I"" 3 - 1-- I  2 
Coustres e  e  f   et to    a       t  e-  nb of cie  ustfyin 1CM investment
inter% ention \-----'.1,
coni nutnitn t               3  2      2   2      2 _     2   2.2
D)ependSence  3  i      -                  _                -      _I
in%ok1 enient     _  2   1  F  11       2   1  2   2   _   ,  ,   - 
blD prga  m 2rs t2 1                2         1            21 21 2l   1 
thlobal haeat resent.
nonuv-e 4alue4
Tncentiv es                                 2  --. n,=nT
Local capacitN                      2r 2         5-2 .2
I'a artn er  |    la                            ~i2 
l'tecntial u.h e               *              a           a 
Propert, rigt      li[                     2   2  2           21M  2 w 1-
I hmatse to CfT 1ll-i9N -IJZ I                               m
L'se ot CRNIE            Cll|1             ii|     i   R   l  |   n
Note: CMR, coastal and marine resources; ESD, environmentally sustainable development.
Countries are listed from left to right according to the number of rcriteria justifying ICM investment
that have been fulfilled at present.
44



APPENDIX A                         45
Category III
2 ES 2 2  .!2 2  32  2  2
m     IR IN 1  11 2R  2 1 - 24 I.@1 w
sU    L. *   (J -   - _ ~ u --  _
2|11 132 11 2 11 2 2 2 2 2  2 3 2 2
Ei 1 El1 E2 2  21 2  3 3 3 3
2  2  1   2 2a1 2   2  2  3  2
2  2   2  2   2  2  2  2  3
- _
p t     p i     po ml  _1 2 avilbl
3   3  3  M  3  3  3   2  3  3  3  3  3  3
2  2  2- W 2  3  3 IM   3-3  2  3  3  3  3-3
I - i|E  |  |  i a  ~~~~~~~3 2 3 3 3
1B11 1  1  B IIII  2  2  2  2  2  3  3  3  3
e FHigh.  m2  Moderate  m Low  Not
priority  priority  1  priority  F   available



Appendix B
Global Conference on Oceans and Coasts at Rio+10:
Principal Recommendations
The list in this appendix replicates that in Section VI, "Summary of
Recommendations," of the co-chairs' report on the Global Conference on Oceans
and Coasts at Rio+10, held in Paris, December 3-7, 2001. The full report is avail-
able at <http:/ /www.udel.edu/CMS/csmp/rio+10 >.
Issue          Recommendations
Poverty        1.1 Establish and implement programs in integrated coastal
reduction and      and ocean management to guide development opportuni-
healthier         ties in coastal areas of developing countries while main-
coastal           taining or achieving environmental quality.
communities    1.2 Target donor aid more explicitly to achieve poverty
reduction/public health improvement in developing
countries, such as, for example:
*   Encourage the GEF to analyze how project proposals
funded under the GEF will address poverty
alleviation / public health gains.
*   Encourage donors to set up a "Small Project Fund"
for addressing ocean and coastal issues. "Small
grants" of usually less than $25,000 per project can
be useful sources for: (a) capacity building, particu-
larly among local authorities and nongovernmental
organizations; (b) dissemination of good practice; (c)
preparation of larger project proposals; and (d)
demonstration projects to promote sustainable liveli-
hoods.
1.3 Recognize sustainable aquaculture and responsible fish-
eries as parallel and essential elements of a common
strategy to ensure global seafood security and fill the
supply gap forecasted for the next decade.
1.4 Focus on innovative approaches to small-scale fisheries
and aquaculture, empowering the sector, establishing
fishing rights including access to necessary infrastructure
to support livelihoods and tenure systems, integrating
fisheries into coastal management, and taking account of
the interactions and compatibilities between aquaculture
and harvest fisheries.
1.5 Support the implementation of the Global Programme of
Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-Based Activities, and in particular the Strategic
Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater.
46



APPENDIX B                                                         47
1.6 Prevent destruction, loss of human lives and associated
costs through appropriate forecasting, early warning, pre-
vention, preparedness, and mitigation measures of ocean-
related natural disasters.
Implementation 2.1 Develop a common Global Vision for Oceans, Seas, and
and compliance     Coasts which provides the goals and objectives for the
with inter-        governance of the oceans and coasts, to which the multi-
national           tude of international regulatory regimes and institutions
agreements         contribute.
2.2 Promote transparency, participation, and accountability
in decision-making on oceans and coasts at all levels.
2.3 Undertake a broad diplomatic process for wider ratifica-
tion and implementation of multilateral agreements
related to oceans and coasts (such as UNCLOS, Fish
Stocks Agreement, etc.), and develop strategies for ensur-
ing peace and security of oceans and coasts, including
peaceful settlement of ocean disputes.
2.4 Promote joint implementation of clusters of international
legal instruments and programs addressing oceans at
global, regional and national levels, through, for example:
memoranda of understanding among governing bodies,
joint work of scientific bodies, joint consideration of
related agreements, and joint work programs.
2.5 Streamline national reporting around clusters of interna-
tional legal instruments and programs addressing oceans
to ease countries' reporting burdens.
2.6 Encourage the creation of national ocean and coastal
councils to formulate national policies on oceans and
coasts and to implement, in a coordinated fashion, clus-
ters of international agreements on oceans and coasts.
2.7 Regional scales of ocean governance should be recog-
nized and promoted as an essential approach to pursue
the sustainable development of oceans and coasts and to
integrate global approaches with local ones.
Capacity       3.1 Involve both the national and subnational levels of gov-
building for       ernment in the development and implementation of inte-
governance         grated coastal management programs, avoiding exclusive
of ocean and       reliance on pilot projects which often do not "scale up"
coastal areas      to include other parts of the coastal zone.
3.2 Increase the capacity of local governments and community-
based groups to manage coastal and marine areas with
appropriate scientific inputs and participatory processes.
3.3 Take decisive actions to ensure effective management
measures for the coastal areas of each nation, moving
from the implementation of demonstration projects to a
more complete coverage of each nation's coastline, by
working toward committing to the following targets:



48 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
*   20% of national coastlines under management by 2012
*   60% of national coastlines under management by 2022
*   100% of national coastlines under management by 2032
3.4 Promote the formulation of policies for the management
of exclusive economic zones (EEZ) as a new frontier to
maximize the economic return from ocean resources, in
particular through the development of common visions
for sustainable development across all ocean sectors
using an ecosystem-based approach and the setting of
national and regional ocean management objectives and
priorities.
3.5 Encourage donors to create synergy among many "single
issue" projects (such as biodiversity, coastal erosion)
funded by multiple donors in the same national context
which often operate with few connections among them,
and to weave these into a comprehensive coastal manage-
ment effort.
3.6 Promote good practice and performance measurement
standards for donor-funded projects in integrated coastal
management and encourage progress and accountability
at all levels.
3.7 Improve the interconnection between education and
training in integrated coastal management to allow for
more systematic capacity building in the field. To this
end, donors and governments should consider the estab-
lishment of regional consortia of local universities on
integrated coastal management.
3.8 Promote the development of Regional Partnerships
aimed at improving the management of coastal and
marine resources, following successful cooperation
models such as the African Process for the Development
and Protection of the Coastal and Marine Environment in
Sub-Saharan Africa recently endorsed by the OAU Sum-
mit and the African Regional Preparatory Process for WSSD.
Protection of  4.1 Consider a timetable and specific resource commitments
coastal and        to further implement the Jakarta mandate on marine and
marine areas      coastal biodiversity under the CBD.
and            4.2 Develop an internationally accepted marine biodiversity
biodiversity       classification system for the marine realm that supports
the development of a rationale for MPA systems within
jurisdictions.
4.3 Establish and expand a comprehensive global representa-
tive network of marine protected areas that includes
regional and national systems of highly protected/ no take
areas for the maintenance of connectivity and corridors.
4.4 Ensure the effectiveness of existing MPAs through the
development and application of performance measures.



APPENDIX B                                                         49
4.5 Incorporate marine protected areas into an overall inte-
grated coastal and ocean management system using the
social sciences to enhance the participatory process, and
assess and address impacts on local human communities.
4.6 Consider establishing MPAs or special conservation areas
in the high seas in areas under threat, such as seamounts.
Monitoring     5.1 Develop a periodic, comprehensive global report on the
and assessment     State of Oceans and Development, building on existing
of the marine      regional and sectoral efforts. This report should anticipate
environment        and plan for emerging ocean and coastal issues, such as
offshore aquaculture and bioprospecting of marine
genetic resources.
5.2 To support the global assessment, implement an opera-
tional observing system that is adequate to detect
changes occurring in the marine environment from estu-
aries to the deep sea and the development and applica-
tion of modeling and forecasting techniques to achieve
operational capabilities analogous to weather prediction.
5.3 Advance the scientific understanding of interactions
among marine, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and
of how human activities influence these interactions
through synthesis and improved understanding of: (a)
the ocean-climate system, and of (b) coastal systems that
are affected by the ocean-climate system and land-based
human activities.
5.4 Improve the linkage between science and management
through partnerships that enable more effective use and
exchange of data and information to the benefit of com
munities and society as a whole, by including, inter alia,
the socio-economic aspects of marine pollution and phys-
ical degradation in the State of the Oceans and Develop-
ment report, and in particular through the development
of environmental and socio-economic indicators measur-
ing the performance of management actions related to
oceans and coasts.
5.5 Support the implementation and financing of the Global
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-Based Activities.
Small island   6.1 Integrate economic, environmental, and social vulnerabil-
developing         ity factors into a vulnerability index with special
states (SIDS)      applicability to SIDS.
6.2 Secure greater and sustainable returns from ocean
resources through improved domestic policies and legis-
lation, improved terms of trade in ocean resources, and
higher levels of domestic and foreign investment.
6.3 Build capacity for the sound management of the exclu-
sive economic zones of Small Island Developing States.



50 THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
6.4 Call for Barbados +10 to be convened as a full and com-
prehensive review to focus on achievements, constraints
and new initiatives necessary to significantly advance
sustainable development within SIDS.
Emerging       7.1 Consider international instruments or voluntary guide-
issues             lines to manage access to and exploitation of the genetic
resources of the deep seabed (for example, in the form of
a protocol or voluntary guidelines attached to the CBD
and/or to UNCLOS).
7.2 Address the human health issues posed by genetically
modified organisms through the ratification and imple-
mentation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
attached to the CBD and the control of alien and invasive
species.
7.3 Address issues in the high seas, including considering the
establishment of marine protected areas in deep
hydrothermal vent areas and the conservation of sensitive
habitats such as seamounts.
Note: CBD, Convention on Biological Diversity; OAU, Organization of African Unity;
MPA, marine protected area; UNCLOS, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea;
WSSD, World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Section VII of the report, "General Conclusion," states:
In conclusion, the Conference wishes to transmit a sense of urgency to the
WSSD for addressing the issues surrounding the sustainable development
of oceans and coasts. Participants at the Conference generally agreed that
we are in a critical situation of declining trends that requires immediate
actions by nations and governing bodies worldwide. This sense of
urgency and priority was corroborated in ministerial statements, as well
as by non-governmental, governmental, and international experts, scien-
tists, commercial fishing, and industrial representatives attending the
meeting. It is essential that we link economic development, social welfare,
and resource conservation in order to achieve sustainability of oceans and
coasts. The Conference issues an urgent call to action to decision makers
in the WSSD process to develop a detailed action plan for the sustainable
development of the world's oceans and coasts.



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Biodiversity." Tanzania Program Office and WWF-U.S, Dar es Salaam.



Notes
1. Cited in WRI (2001b). The share is based on world landings (catch) of marine
fish stocks, both demersal and pelagic, measured in millions of tons a year.
2. Declaration on an African Process for the Development and Protection of the
Coastal and Marine Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa.
3. ICM principles are being applied in the Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation
and Development Program (TCZCDP), the Kunduchi Integrated Coastal Area
Management Project (KICAMP), the Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP), the Rural
Integrated Project Support (RIPS), the Rufiji Environment Management Project
(REMP), and the Mangrove Management Project (MMP).
56






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