© 2017 The World Bank Group 1818 H Street NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved. This volume is a product of the staff of the World Bank Group. The World Bank Group refers to the member institutions of the World Bank Group: The World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development); International Finance Corporation (IFC); and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which are separate and distinct legal entities each organized under its respective Articles of Agreement. We encourage use for educational and non-commercial purposes. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Directors or Executive Directors of the respective institutions of the World Bank Group or the governments they represent. The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. Rights and Permissions This work is product of the staff of the World bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waive of the privileges and immunities of the World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Contact: World Bank Group Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience Global Practice Tokyo Development Learning Center (TDLC) Program Fukoku Seimei Bldg. 10F, 2-2-2 Uchisaiwai-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0011 Japan Phone: +81(3)3597-1333 Fax: +81(3)3597-1311 Web: http://www.jointokyo.org About Tokyo Development Learning Center (TDLC) The Tokyo Development Learning Center (TDLC) program is a partnership of Japan and the World Bank. TDLC supports and facilitates strategic WBG and client country collaboration with select Japanese cities, agencies and partners for joint research, knowledge exchange, capacity building and other activities that develop opportunities to link Japanese and global expertise with specific project-level engagements in developing countries to maximize development impact. Background and Acknowledgements This research was prepared by the Tokyo Development Learning Center (TDLC) under the auspices of the Social, Urban, Rural, and Resilience Global of the World Bank Group. Its objective is to enhance the current Kitakyushu Model by adding a subsector on the linkage between solid waste management and disaster risk management, particularly flood events. The Kitakyushu Model is a methodology developed in Kitakyushu City, Japan to provide appropriate solutions for environmental challenges to pursue sustainable urban development. It strives to be a methodology that allows cities to easily apply sustainability more broadly and in a holistic fashion, beyond isolated projects and individual advice. Kitakyushu City’s experiences and strategies have been refined over the years to incorporate the real changes and challenges gained through both past success and mistakes. Therefore, the methodology is presented in a technically rigorous, but user‐friendly framework to realize real urban transformation. The team would like to acknowledge gratefully Government of Japan through Tokyo Development Learning Center (TDLC) program. The research was led jointly by Yuko Okazawa and Daniel Levine, and the document was prepared by Earth System Science Co., Ltd. The team gratefully acknowledges the peer reviews and inputs from the following World Bank Group colleagues: Kremena Ionkova, Salim Rouhana and Haruka Imoto. The team is especially grateful for the contribution of Kitakyushu City officials. Executive Summary We are living in the era of rapid urbanization. Population influx into urban areas has exacerbated city capacities and services around the globe. Of its many challenges are urban flooding and solid waste management. Adequate capacity is often lacking in each sector, and the two interplay as solid waste accumulates and blocks existing drainage channels, resulting in inundation, damages, and public health concerns. The World Bank and the City of Kitakyushu (Kitakyushu), Japan has partnered to develop this model, which focuses on this interplay of solid waste and urban flood risk. The purpose of this model is to: Present actions to city planners that will help address their urban flood risk that results from inadequate solid waste management Present the Kitakyushu experience in a user-friendly form to guide or offer suggestions to other cities around the globe The model is composed of three sectors, as shown in Figure 1. Addressing uncollected, accumulated waste Public Involvement and Education requires resident support and initiative. Public Involvement and Education is thus critical to address E3 E4 gaps in city waste services and to nurture healthy citizenship. Public Involvement in Waste Public Involvement Management in Drainage Table 1 provides an overview of the model actions. These W1 W5 E1 Maintenance actions are organized by relevant sector, but Figure 1 Priority W6 Our Beautiful, D1 Livable City better presents the relationships of actions to each other. Actions W2 E2 D2 The relationships are described per model concepts, W4 D3 below. Solid Waste Removing Management W3 Waste from Urban Drainage Concept 1: Independent City Government Sectors and Drainage Activities D4 The ultimate cause of waste-clogged drains is uncollected and unmanaged urban solid waste. A city, Figure 1. Model Overview thus, needs to invest in establishing basic services as its utmost priority. W1, W2, and W4 are hence highlighted in Figure 1. Similarly, regardless of waste dumping issues, a city needs to manage its drainage infrastructure. These uniquely different city activities often belong to two different city departments, and each needs to commit to serving their residents and providing necessary services. Proper functioning of these individual parts is critical to reaching a larger, common goal of creating a thriving and livable city environment. Actions that pertain to Concept 1, actions that are unique to each sector include E3, E4, W2, W3, W4, D3, and D4 as shown in Figure 1. Concept 2: All Unite as City Residents City services are always evolving and, hopefully, improving. Yet, it will never be perfect; there will always be service gaps, such as littering, unintended waste accumulation in drainage canals, and localized urban flooding. City residents, community organizations, leaders, and industries can help fill in these gaps, and to do so require a sense of solidarity. In Kitakyushu, everyone identifies themselves as a city resident and a member of their community, including managers of private companies and city officials, recognizing that city issues are their issues. Residents can help clean their own city, and each resident, under whichever societal role they play, can invest time and effort to create a more beautiful, livable city. Hence, the “public involvement and education” sector binds this model together. Actions that pertain to Concept 2 include E1, E2, W1, W5, W6, D1, and D2 as also shown in Figure 1. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Each actor, including the city government, needs to take responsibility and initiative to improve the city in which they live. It is our hope that this model can help cities around the globe do so. i Table 1. Overview of Model Actions Public Involvement and Education Actions to Enhance Public Involvement E1. Relationship Building E1-1. Establish Means of Communication E1-2. Set Common Goals/Slogans E2. Resident Involvement in Providing Services E2-1. Organize Public/Stakeholder Meetings E2-2. Develop a Policy to Support Resident Involvement E2-3. Send Government Staff to the Field Actions to Educate Residents E3. Education in Schools E3-1. Teach Students about the Local Society and Environmental Citizenship E3-2. Hold Students Accountable for the School Environment E4. Education of the Public E4-1. Inform Residents of City Activities and Progress E4-2. Organize Public Events and Programs E4-3. Establish Museums and Learning Facilities Solid Waste Management Actions to Establish Basic Waste Management Services W1. Waste Storage for Collection W1-1. Fix Waste Bins at Each Household W1-2. Use Portable Containers at Each Household W1-3. Use Standard Plastic Bags W1-4. Set Collection Stations for Groups of Households W2. Waste Transport W2-1. Use Collection Vehicles W2-2. Use Compaction Collection Vehicles W3. Waste Treatment (Incineration) W4. Final Disposal Actions to Improve Waste Management W5. Waste Reduction W5-1. Separate Waste W5-2. Collaborate with Manufacturers W5-3. Charge Fees for Waste Disposal W6. Maintaining a Waste-Free City Environment W6-1. Identify Waste Accumulation/Dump Sites W6-2. Collect Bulk Waste Periodically W6-3. Install Waste Bins in Public Areas W6-4. Encourage Residents to Maintain a Clean Environment Urban Drainage Actions to Maintain Drainage Capacity D1. Local Adaptations to Capture Debris D1-1. Cover Open Drains (wood or any other locally available material) D1-2. Cover Open Drains (concrete/metal grating) D1-3. Install Intermediary Screens within Drainage Channels D2. Waste Clean-Up, Drain Cleaning, and Maintenance D2-1. Perform Scheduled System Cleaning and Maintenance D2-2. Perform Ad Hoc Local Drain Cleanings D2-3. Inspect the System Prior to Rain Events D2-4. Establish a Hotline and Respond to Debris Accumulation/Backup Reports D2-5. Hold Clean-Up Events Actions to Expand/Improve the Drainage System D3. Systemwide Drainage Planning Considerations D3-1. Plan Using Sustainable Urban Drainage System/Low Impact Development Principles D3-2. Convert to Partial Separate Sewer Systems D3-3. Utilize Open Spaces, Ponds, and Detention Basins D3-4. Relocate Informal Settlements around Waterbodies D4. Design Level Considerations D4-1. Secure Discharge Points/Points of Interest D4-2. Create or Revisit Design Storms and Runoff Assumptions D4-3. Redevelop or Manufacture New Materials and Designs D4-4. Expand Drainage System in Coordination with Other Construction ii Table of Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background: the Relationship between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk ..................................... 1 1.2 Kitakyushu City and the Kitakyushu Model ....................................................................................... 4 1.3 Subsector Model Purpose ................................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Solid Waste Management and Urban Flood Risk: The Kitakyushu Experience ................................. 6 1.5 Key Concepts of the Subsector Model ............................................................................................ 10 1.6 Subsector Model Scope ................................................................................................................... 10 1.7 Subsector Model Structure.............................................................................................................. 11 2 Baseline and Policy Review...................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Purpose ............................................................................................................................................ 12 2.2 Undertaking a Baseline and Policy Review ...................................................................................... 12 3 Developing a Supplemental Action Plan ................................................................................................. 15 3.1 Strategies and Action Plans ............................................................................................................. 15 3.2 Governance Structure ..................................................................................................................... 16 4 Actions ..................................................................................................................................................... 18 4.1 Overview of Actions......................................................................................................................... 18 4.2 Structure of Sectors and Actions ..................................................................................................... 21 4.3 Public Invovlement and Education .................................................................................................. 23 4.4 Solid Waste Management ............................................................................................................... 39 4.5 Urban Drainage................................................................................................................................ 65 5 Financing Options .................................................................................................................................... 87 5.1 Financial Sources for Kitakyushu City .............................................................................................. 87 5.2 Examples of Cost Reduction Methods............................................................................................. 90 6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 94 7 Sources Cited ........................................................................................................................................... 95 8 Additional References ............................................................................................................................. 96 iii Acronyms and Abbreviations CBO Community Based Organization CSO Combined Sewer Overflow CSS Combined Sewer System ESD Education for Sustainable Development GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse Gas Kitakyushu City of Kitakyushu LID Low Impact Development NGO Non-governmental Organization NPO Nonprofit Organization O&M Operation and Maintenance POI Point of Interest R&D Research and Development SSS Separate Sewer System SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage System UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization USD United States Dollar iv Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction 1 Introduction 1.1 Background: the Relationship between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk We are living in an era of rapid urbanization. 2008 marked the year when half of the world’s 6.8 billion people became urban residents (The World Bank, 2017). If this trend continues, 66% of the world’s population is expected to be living in urban areas by 2050. Sub-Saharan Africa is the least urbanized but is the fastest growing area of the world (Ziraba et. al, 2016). This population influx has increased pressures on cities around the globe as many city governments struggle to provide a safe and secure living environment for their residents. Of its many challenges are solid waste management and urban flood risk management, and the nexus of these two sectors is an issue receiving increasing attention. Basic public services in each are often lacking in the developing world, and the two sectors interplay as solid waste blocks or restricts existing drainage channels, resulting in or worsening inundation during rain events. Figure 1-1 provides a conceptual schematic, showing how urbanization can overwhelm city public services, leading to waste accumulation in drainage systems and increased urban flood risk. Figure 1-1. Conceptual Schematic of Interplaying Solid Waste and Urban Flooding Factors Solid waste management is beginning to be incorporated as a low-regret option into flood management programs (Lamond et al., 2012). The World Bank’s 2012 Cities and Flooding Guide, for example, includes a 20 page section on waste management, highlighting it as a non-structural measure for integrated flood risk management. Many of today’s cities expand at a rate much faster than flood risk management plans are developed and infrastructure is installed. Existing systems are additionally ill equipped to accommodate changing and increasing runoff patterns caused by climate change and increase in impervious areas. These pressures are felt the most acutely in informal settlements in developing cities, where impromptu dwellings often expand into flood-prone, low-lying areas or existing drainage channels. Meanwhile, urban migration concentrates waste generated. Industrialization further increases and diversifies waste generated per capita, resulting in a faster rate of waste generation than actual urbanization. Of the various types of urban waste, such as commercial, industrial, medical, and animal wastes, municipal or household waste is likely the greatest quantity generated (Jha et al., 2012). Yet, less than an estimated 30 percent of urban waste in developing countries is collected (Ziraba et al., 2016). Due to the lack of waste collection services, alternatives, and awareness of health and sanitation concerns, residents resort to dumping waste into nearby drains, waterways, and open spaces. Figure 1-2 are pictures from a Bangladeshi newspaper in May 2017, depicting waste dumping in the Banasree Canal and nearby roadsides within the capital city of Dhaka. Open dumpsites inside drains or waterways overwhelm an already stressed drainage system, increasing the frequency and severity of urban flooding. Annual floods in 1 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction Kampala, Uganda, and other East African cities are blamed, at least in part, on plastic bags, which block sewers and drains (Jha et al., 2012). Another powerful image from Madagascar tells the story of the negative interplay between solid waste management and urban flood management (Figure 1-3). Source: Haq, 2017 Note: Caption states: “Incessant dumping of waste in the capital’s Banasree canal is not only suffocating the water body but also contributing to the continual waterlogging problem in the area. Though there is a signboard saying anyone would be fined Tk 5,000 for dumping waste on or next to the water body, locals continue to ignore it. Meanwhile, the roadside area beside the canal has been transformed into a waste dumping zone, from where garbage is also being spilled into the canal.” Figure 1-2. Waste Dumping in Canals in Bangladesh Figure 1-3. Waste Dumping in Canals in Madagascar Poor drainage and contamination of urban runoff poses multiple concerns. Standing water caused by dumped plastics or clogged drainage channels acts as breeding or feeding sites for vectors, increasing risks of communicable diseases in a densely populated environment. Displacement due to flooding often disrupts access to clean water and sanitation, sometimes resulting in a public health crisis such as cholera and E. coli outbreaks. Polluted waters also contaminate surface and groundwater resources, impacting access to safe drinking water post-disaster and long into the future. These pressures compound more intensely in impoverished urban areas; the poor have the least access to public services and have the least 2 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction capacity to prepare for and rebuild after disasters, placing them in a vicious cycle of poverty. The cumulative impact of the lack of solid waste management and urban flood risk management on a city’s economic growth, the health of its residents and families, and community dignity is extensive and long- lasting. Further, improperly managed waste dumps, including open landfills, are sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While GHG emissions do not directly impact the local community, cumulative impacts of climate change can. Increases in extreme weather events and natural hazards, including intense rain events, heighten the risk of urban flooding, multiplying the challenges cities face. If solid waste management and urban flood risk management are so critical, why aren’t these services being provided? Lamond et al. explored case studies of solid waste management impacting urban flood risk from across the globe, which are summarized in Table 1-1 (2012). Results showed that city governments are often overwhelmed with numerous other challenges, have other priorities, and/or lack sufficient resources. Awareness of health and sanitation issues is generally low both in government and among residents. Waste management is often seen as a low status occupation with low wages, leading to absenteeism. In some cities, community and private enterprises are the only active waste management entities, generating jobs and revenue from recycling and waste sorting, but their impact is often small-scale and insufficient as waste from nearby areas quickly flows in. In other areas, non-governmental organization (NGO)/nonprofit organizations (NPO) and government intervention were effective over the short-term but did not have long-lasting impact. Box 1-1 provides a case study, showing how the World Bank is aiming to address these issues. No single approach will ever be universally successful. Addressing this inter-sector issue requires a combination of actions that suits that locality, involving various actors, including community members, the private sector, and the city government. This subsector model presents the experiences of Kitakyushu City (Kitakyushu), Japan as one way to tackle solid waste management and urban flood risk issues. Box 1-1. Project Example from the World Bank Case of Monrovia, Liberia: Cheesemanburg Landfill and Urban Sanitation Project Much of the flooding disasters that have befallen Monrovia and other cities in Liberia in the last ten years have been caused in large measure by the significant amount of uncollected waste that blocks waterways and streams. Flooding due to clogged drains and canals filled with trash is a climate concern. The biggest culprit of waste is plastic waste. During the rainy season a large part of the densely-populated part of the city experiences frequent flooding, often making driving impossible for hours. On these occasions, solid waste that is not collected blocks the drainage systems and causes polluted surface water to stagnate. This can also affect ground water supply to these communities. The polluted water breeds malaria and other disease vectors and thus a significant number of people suffer from typhoid, diarrhea, malaria and are forced to get treatment as in or out patients. By contributing to provide waste collection services, the Project directly addresses a key local concern, namely flooding caused by clogged drains which disproportionately affects the most vulnerable in Monrovia. Additionally, improved waste collection services will remove waste from communities and reduce contamination of the local environment. Proper waste disposal and monitoring of surrounding soil and water tables will help protect nearby communities from contaminated soil and drinking water. 3 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction Table 1-1. Global Case Studies on Interplay of Solid Waste Management and Urban Flood Risk Case Study Problem Community Municipal Action Community Action Identified Awareness Accra, Ghana Blockage of Residents not Authorities appear Residents regard it as the drainage causes aware overwhelmed role of the government flooding Bamako, Poor waste Awareness was Structural drainage Local waste collection Mali management a raised during the improvement was system set up. Disposal is major factor in program carried out still a problem 1999 flood Cotonou, Indiscriminate Some have taken Peripheral areas Locals trained to collect Benin dumping of waste action neglected as the focus and gain revenue from is on the city center waste Guyana, Clogged and Identified by Authorities have In one ward a community Guyana inadequate residents as other priorities based organization (CBO) drainage leading to important had cleared drains, this flooding ward had not flooded Jakarta, Blocked channels Residents aware of Government plans to Local community based Indonesia cause widespread the problem dredge channels but schemes successful but flooding hampered by informal waste is carried from settlements upstream areas Lagos, Flooding due to High awareness in New city wide Very few community Nigeria blocked drainage community strategy of waste initiatives disposal Managua, Waste in the rivers Awareness is poor Network of micro Low compliance, flooding Nicaragua worsen flooding dams to collect still an annual event rubbish and silt Maputo, Flooding caused by Awareness low Some urban drainage Communities still dump Mozambique inadequate but being targeted improvement waste in drains, causing drainage in the city by education programs major problems in 2010 programs Marikina, Flooding partly due Residents made River dredging and Residents comply but Philippines to waste clogging aware by the penalties for dumping waste still arrives from the river program further upstream Mexico City, Waste blocks Appears to be low Programs focus on No evidence of Mexico drains and leads to awareness other priorities community action flash flooding Mumbai, Plastic bags blamed Poor awareness Ban on use of plastic Poor compliance with India for flooding bags ban Source: Lamond, et al. (2012). 1.2 Kitakyushu City and the Kitakyushu Model Figure 1-4 shows the general location of Kitakyushu. Kitakyushu is located on the northern edge of Kyushu Island, one of the four main islands of Japan. Today’s Kitakyushu city government was established in 1963, when five smaller “cities” were merged into one municipality. An industrial area throughout the 1900s, iron and steel manufacturing led the city’s development and growth. Global companies, such as Nippon Steel and Sumitomo Metal, Mitsubishi Materials Corporation, and TOTO are still located in the Kitakyushu today. Source: Google Maps Figure 1-4. Location of Kitakyushu City 4 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction The heavy manufacturing industry, however, had led to severe environmental pollution by the mid-1900s. Smog covered the city affecting children’s health. Oceans turned orange and had been coined “the Sea of Death” as shown in Figure 1-5. The 1960s was the turning point. Kitakyushu’s women started protesting and demanded changes to address these environmental issues and to improve everyone’s daily lives. Their movement spread to involve communities, private companies, and the city government, and together, Kitakyushu improved. Industries invested in becoming socially and environmentally responsible, and yet, not a single factory was shut down or relocated, and economic growth continued. By the 1980s, wildlife was back in the clear seas to the point the shrimp harvesting industry restarted operations. This Kitakyushu experience has been recognized internationally, starting in 1990 when the United Nations Environmental Programme recognized Kitakyushu as a “Global 500 Roll of Honour.” Kitakyushu also began sharing their experiences and lessons learned to other cities around Figure 1-5. Environmental the world. The Kitakyushu International Techno-cooperative Pollution in the 1960s Association (KITA) was established in 1980 and the Asian Center for Low Carbon Society in 2010. Kitakyushu developed its Kitakyushu Model as a part of their international assistance efforts. The document helps with urban master planning and provides guidance on how to achieve environmentally conscious, sustainable, urban development. The Kitakyushu Model consists of the “Kitakyushu Story,” the “Sustainability Framework,” and sectors such as “Waste Management” and “Water Management.” The Kitakyushu Model aims to be a methodology that allows cities to holistically design their own development, beyond a single project. The model has been used for the following projects.  Green Growth Promotion Plan of the City of Hai Phong, Vietnam  Waste management and recycling projects in Kota Surabaya, Indonesia Following its own experience, Kitakyushu expects cities to engage with all parts of society so that everyone collaboratively creates a living environment of which they can be proud. 1.3 Subsector Model Purpose This subsector model is an addition to the existing Kitakyushu Model that focuses on the interplay of solid waste and urban flood risk. The World Bank, in collaboration with Kitakyushu city government, prepared this model as a part of the City Partnership Program. Documentation of Kitakyushu’s practical “how to” experiences serves as the basis for learning and knowledge sharing activities that brings officials from developing countries and Kitakyushu together. The purpose of the model is to:  Present actions to city planners that will help address their urban flood risk that results from inadequate solid waste management  Present the Kitakyushu experience in a user-friendly form to guide or offer suggestions to other cities around the globe This subsector model is not intended to be a standalone document that can holistically cover each of these broad fields. In other words, this subsector falls under and supplements already existing Kitakyushu Model sectors of “Waste Management” and “Water Management.” 5 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction 1.4 Solid Waste Management and Urban Flood Risk: The Kitakyushu Experience While perhaps incomparable to the extent of waste accumulation and flooding issues facing today’s cities around the globe, Kitakyushu has gone through its share of growth pains during the latter half of the 1900s. Illegal settlements alongside city rivers and streams were obstacles to implement planned flood risk management projects, such as levees. Municipal waste collection services had been in operation since the city’s establishment, but open dumping and littering were issues into the late 1980s. Individuals and nearby stores and restaurants used to dump waste directly into the Kantake and Murasaki Rivers, which runs through Kitakyushu. Kitakyushu recognizes that waste dumps in and near waterways have compounding and multifaceted effects on urban flood risk. However, a long-term solution requires that the causes of these issues be dissected and addressed. In effect, each of these sectors, waste management and urban flood risk management, needs to be tackled fully, and for the most part, independently. A solution needs to involve a long-term waste management system that collects generated waste and recycles or disposes of it. The interplay of waste and flood issues disappears once sufficient waste collection and disposal is achieved, as in Kitakyushu. Similarly, regardless of the extent of waste dumping issues, a city needs to manage urban flood risk through both infrastructural and non-structural means. Investment in solutions that directly addresses causes, and not just the symptoms, should be a city’s utmost priority. A city government, hence, should consist of departments responsible for these usually separate sectors. At the same time, never can a city government or any responsible entity manage solid waste and urban flood risk perfectly. There will always be gaps in services, gaps in regulatory oversight, insufficient resources, and unforeseen needs and consequences. This gap is manifested, for example, in the small percent of waste being dumped in the streets of Kitakyushu today or the 70 percent of uncollected urban waste in a developing country, as depicted in Figure 1-5. The extent of this gap can be greater during times of heavy capital investment when services are initially being established, as in the bar, “Kitakyushu A Few Decades Ago.” Shortages of human, financial, and technical resources can often be acute. How can service gaps be filled if the reason the gap exists is due to the city government being overwhelmed? In the case of Kitakyushu, city residents who had demanded a better living environment helped fill in the gap by, shown as the colored, hatched portion of the bars in Figure 1-6. Residents cleaned waste and maintained drainage capacity in their surroundings. Residents would call the city government to inform them of any issues beyond their control. Residents would ask for assistance to open heavy drainage covers so that the community could get inside and clean the drains. Local private companies also took it on themselves to clean the areas surrounding their work buildings. As types of generated waste diversified, these companies offered to invest and change their production line to reduce and to be able to reuse waste generated from their products. The greater the service gaps, as it usually is earlier in a city’s development, the greater the need for such collaboration. Note: This figure is strictly conceptual. Data that quantifies what percent of demand for public services is met is not available. Figure 1-6. Conceptual Examples of Service Demand and Service Gaps 6 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction In Kitakyushu, the common experience of addressing severe environmental pollution had broken down previously existing barriers between actors. Kitakyushu had built a solid foundation of trust on which residents, communities, private companies, and the government could work together towards a common goal. Importantly, the city government recognized the value of maintaining and encouraging this collaborative environment. Each actor needed a sense of self-initiative, capacity to take responsibility for their roles, and a healthy dose of mutual dependency. The environmental department, which was also responsible for waste management services, took leadership and rallied everyone together to “Make Our City Beautiful.” By spreading and driving home this message, the city government created an atmosphere of cooperation instead of finger-pointing both inside and outside of the city government. The river department organized river dredging and cleaning, although it mostly consisted of accumulated waste. The road department cleaned drainage canals lining roads. The wastewater/drainage department cleaned out waste from larger mains and detention ponds. The waste management department offered staff and tools to support community cleaning efforts led by citizen groups. Sometimes, these groups eventually evolved to become their own NGOs needing less and less government support to provide important services. This means, city departments, individual city workers, and residents offered maybe minor but nonetheless critical human resources and time to “Make Our City Beautiful.” The city government additionally invested to keep residents informed and aware of city activities and needs. The government made use of mass media, organized public education events, built museums, and taught children about how their city and society functions. This sense of cross-sector and multi-actor collaboration is the essence of Kitakyushu and this model. The sense of unity and purposeful action to encourage and maintain this unity are what connects the otherwise separate departments and sectors. Box 1-2. Example of Model Concepts in Play: Kitakyushu and River Management - Rebirth of Murasaki River - Industrial agglomeration and population increase resulting from urbanization are positive outcomes of economic development. On the negative side, however, large amounts of industrial and household wastewater are released into the rivers, leading to appalling living conditions such as water pollution, sludge deposition, and acrid odors. The deterioration of the riverfront environment also leads residents into believing that disposing waste into rivers or drainage canals is an acceptable act. Such actions further destroy the environment, weakening the natural flood control functions of rivers and thus making the adjacent areas more susceptible to flood risks. Putting an end to such vicious cycles is a common challenge many cities face today. Kitakyushu City has rich experiences to share in this aspect. In the past, the city has suffered from post-urbanization water pollution and informal waste disposal. Its rivers lost some of their natural flood control capacity. The public sector and the private sector worked together to overcome the city’s challenges. Here, we organize the issue of waste disposal into the river as shown in Figure 1-7. Urbanization results in industrial agglomeration and population increase, thus causing an increase in industrial and household wastewater that flows directly into the rivers. This leads to water pollution, and the residents’ “awareness” towards interacting with and protecting the water(river)front environment decreases. Lower awareness makes residents more likely to dispose waste into the river, thus weakening the flood control capacity of the river and making the surrounding areas more exposed to flood risks. Figure 1-7. Increased Flood Risks due to Informal Waste Disposal into Rivers: Vicious Cycle caused by Lack of Awareness of Residents 7 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction Kitakyushu City addressed this challenge by reviving Murasaki River through multiple projects including the Environmental Renovation Project and the My Town My River Renovation Project. Figure 1-8 shows the city’s actions and the derived benefits. To alleviate water pollution, the city imposed stricter regulations on industrial wastewater and developed a better sewage system to decrease the amount of household wastewater flowing directly into rivers. Furthermore, the city increased awareness and urged residents to take protective actions towards the river by leading city-wide community development initiatives, heavily engaging residents as well as the private sector. This created a public momentum towards protecting and maintaining a clean river environment, thus resulting in a decrease in informal waste disposal. Water pollution was no more, and the flood control capacity of the river was strengthened. The city’s actions successfully decreased flood risks. Figure 1-8. Increased Flood Risks due to Informal Waste Disposal into Rivers: Positive Cycle starting from Residents’ Improved Consciousness 1. Pollution in Murasaki River (from 1960s to 1980s) The Murasaki River, running from south to north through the center of Kokurakita-ku (Kokura North Ward) of Kitakyushu City, was suffering from water pollution in the past. It is confirmed that green laver used to grow naturally in Murasaki River until the end of Meiji era, but since entering the Showa era, the pollution in Murasaki River became severe (Sanitation Team, 1967). From the old times, the areas around Murasaki River have been home to paper mills and steelworks. The uncontrolled discharge of industrial wastewater from these factories was the major cause for the river’s pollution. During the post-war rapid economic development in Japan, more and more factories and people moved to the central area of Kokurakita-ku, dramatically increasing the amount of industrial and household wastewater. In 1967, the coverage rate of sewage systems was only 10.1percent in Kitakyushu City, and a large part of the wastewater flowed directly into Murasaki River. To make matters worse, on either bank of the river were illegal barrack housings constructed due to the post-war housing deficit. In around 1965, 597 households and 2,000 residents lived illegally along the Murasaki River, and human excrement flowed freely into the river along with household waste (Figure 1-9). The disposed waste precipitated to the riverbed, decayed, and emitted methane gas in addition to polluting the water. Water quality became poor, and the river lost its natural flood control capacity, thus increasing flood risks. According to records, many sites along the Murasaki River suffered from inundation during the flood in June, 1953. Within the city, the inundation area was as large as 5,100 ha (Fukuoka Prefecture, 2013). Source: Secretariat of the Council for Murasaki River, 1980 Figure 1-9. Murasaki River in 1979 8 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction 2. Rebirth of Murasaki River (from 1960s) Kitakyushu City put effort into the development of sewage systems from the late 1960s. The coverage rate increased from only 16 percent in 1969 to 50 percent in 1977, and the water quality of Murasaki River was significantly improved (Figure 1-10 and 1-11). Figure 1-10. Changes in Water Quality of Murasaki River Meanwhile, initiatives to purify the river and renovate the riverfront environment were driven forward along with the demolition of illegal structures and resettlement of illegal residents. In 1966, Kitakyushu City and Fukuoka Prefecture together founded the Council for Murasaki River to conduct preliminary surveys regarding illegal residents, to hold local informative sessions, and to assist residents in finding new housings and land. City officials negotiated with each resident one by one, listened to what requests residents had, and took care of the residents until they were resettled to municipal housings and other locations. The demolition of illegal structures was completed by 1980 (except for one structure which was forcefully demolished) . The development of sewage systems, river improvement works such as dredging and bank protection works, and planting of riverside greenery took place at the same time. In 1980, the fireflies came back to Murasaki River and were released at many sites within the city. Citizens came to think “Fireflies cannot live in a dirty river. We must not throw away waste into rivers.”, thus improving the residents’ “awareness” and leading to civic movements to protect the river. Furthermore, the My Town My River Renovation Project which started in 1990 aimed to transform Murasaki River into a river loved by the residents and focused on flood control and community development in the surrounding areas. For flood control, the city enlarged the river width and reconstructed the bridge to increase the discharge capacity, thus securing the safety level of flood control. For community development, roads, parks, and urban projects were integrated so that the whole city would be centered around Murasaki River. Also, the city gathered ideas from the public, and two were actually implemented; a window to look inside the river was installed at the Environmental Museum of Water, and events are held on water at Suhama Plaza. At Kitakyushu City, the public sector and private sector worked together for community development and successfully restored the water quality of Murasaki River. The residents’ “awareness” is improved, leading to voluntary actions to protect the river environment. At the same time, the issue of informal waste disposal was solved, and flood risks are better controlled. Figure 1-11. Current State of Murasaki River Box 1-2 prepared by Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Kitakyushu Urban Center 9 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction 1.5 Key Concepts of the Subsector Model Given the Kitakyushu experience, this subsector model is based on the following two concepts. Concept 1: Independent City Government Sectors and Activities Establishing adequate services should be the city government’s number one priority. One department can be responsible to establish, maintain, and operate a waste collection and management system, and another be entitled with the responsibility to manage urban flood risk and install urban drainage infrastructure. Each department has its own mandate that it needs to fulfill and each sector need requires significant time and investment. While the focus of this model is on the interplay of solid waste management and urban flood risk, implementation of basic infrastructure and systems need not be multisector. They can nonetheless still be critical components towards a vision of creating a thriving and livable city environment. Concept 2. All Unite as City Residents While the majority of activities and actions may pertain only to one particular sector or actors, city departments, governments, private companies, and residents must not lose sight of the common vision. In Kitakyushu, the ultimate sense of unity lies in how everyone identifies themselves as a city resident and a member of their community, including managers of private companies and city officials. A manager of the steel industrial plant would then have incentive to decrease water and air pollution to help city residents, his community, and his family. The government official working on establishing waste management services would be willing to put in the extra effort because the service is for his city, community, family, and himself. Everyone shares the same positive and negative impacts from the city’s changing human and natural environment. This high level of awareness of people’s interconnectedness is what makes the Kitakyushu experience and model unique and what creates opportunities for collaboration. 1.6 Subsector Model Scope As Kitakyushu’s experience and Concept 2 shows, collaboration and a sense of common purpose among various actors of society are essential to fill in gaps in city services. The interplaying issues of solid waste management and urban flood risk can only be addressed by nurturing all actors’ sense of responsibility and initiative and by developing this collaborative relationship. For this reason, this subsector model introduces the “Public Involvement and Education” sector at the forefront, before it continues to the two technical sectors, as listed below and shown in Figure 1-12.  Public Involvement and Education  Solid Waste Management Public Involvement and Education  Urban Drainage The subsector model presents actions in each of the three sectors that together help address waste Public Public accumulation in drainage canals. Actions in each sector Involvement in Involvement in Drainage Waste include those that are fundamental and pertain solely Management Our Maintenance to that sector, such as education in schools, Beautiful, construction of sanitary landfills, or development of Livable City urban drainage infrastructure. The areas of the circle Removing that overlap in Figure 1-12 consist of actions that are Solid Waste Waste from Urban Drainage Management cross-sector, such as cleaning out drainage canals or Drainage holding a waste pick-up event in a community park. The model’s primary focus is on these areas of overlap, the actions that fill in service gaps. Still, no one will clean a local drainage canal, if there is no reliable Figure 1-12. Model Scope and Interrelated means to dispose of that collected waste. Hence, this Sectors model also touches on necessary sector specific actions, which are priority government actions and tend to be more specialized and technical. All these actions are bound together by a common goal of making a beautiful, livable city. 10 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Introduction The scope of this model is limited to the following:  Domestic Solid Waste – Generated urban waste consists mostly of household waste and its generation is the most dispersed, relative to commercial or industrial waste.  Urban Flood Prevention Measures – This model excludes any emergency flood response actions, including any that may specifically deal with waste management.  City-Level Planning – Regulations, policies, and actions may be necessary at the national or basin-wide scale. However, the audience of this model is the municipal planner, and hence will consist of actions relevant from his/her perspective. For example, flooding caused by an overflowing river due to inadequate flood risk management at the river basin scale is not within the scope of this model. Instead, the focus is more on inundation caused by rain events and inadequate urban drainage capacity.  Kitakyushu Experiences – There are numerous ways to address problems. Actions described in this model are limited to those chosen by Kitakyushu. 1.7 Subsector Model Structure The subsector model consists of five sections as listed below. The model structure generally follows that of existing Kitakyushu Model sectors, although there are minor differences in section titles and the usual section on performance indicators has been merged into Section 4 Actions. The relationship of this subsector model sections to the common planning process is shown in Figure 1-13.  Section 1 Introduction Presents the background and overview of the subsector model  Section 2 Baseline and Policy Review Presents a checklist of data to be collected and analyzed  Section 3 Developing a Strategy Presents general considerations important in developing an overall strategy  Section 4 Actions Presents actions and options to implement to achieve the strategy set in Section 3  Section 5 Financing Presents financing considerations to implement actions and options presented in Section 4  Section 6 Conclusion Summarizes and concludes the subsector model Figure 1-13. Model Sections and its Relationship to the Planning Process 11 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Baseline and Policy Review 2 Baseline and Policy Review 2.1 Purpose The baseline and policy review is the first stage in the development of a city-wide solid waste management strategy and an urban flood risk management strategy. Primarily an information gathering exercise, the review’s purpose is to obtain information and understand existing and expected future conditions, which will then inform policy direction, strategy, and potential actions. Information gathering may be supported by additional research-based work and technical feasibility studies to help develop a robust evidence base on which to base new policy proposals. This work should be led by sector specialists in consultation with local, regional and central governments, as well as important stakeholder groups. As described in Section 1, solid waste issues interplay with urban flood risk issues, because city solid waste management services are inadequate. In line with model Concept 1, reviews for each of the three model sectors can be performed mostly independently. At the same time, review content should somewhat overlap and include identification of current conditions and challenges specifically concerning solid waste accumulation that causes standing water and increases in urban flood risk. Existing resident or industry involvement in waste management or flood risk management related activities should also be investigated. 2.2 Undertaking a Baseline and Policy Review The baseline and policy review should relate to a stated point within time (e.g. last full calendar year or fiscal year). Information sources most likely include those from local, regional, and national governments. The review should also pertain to relevant sectors: public involvement and education, solid waste management, and urban drainage. Table 2-1 provides a suggested checklist of information that should be obtained during this process. The review should be undertaken by specialists in each of the three sectors. This specialist can be consultants, technical advisors, or government representatives. Refer to Kitakyushu Model sectors “Waste Management” and “Water Management” for additional suggestions and context. Table 2-1. Baseline and Policy Review Checklist Category Contents Public Involvement and Education • Existing local, regional, and national policies, strategies, plans, and rules • Existing local, regional, and national policies, strategies, plans, and rules for other related Institutional sectors (e.g. solid waste management, river management, storm water/sewer management, community development, climate change adaptation and mitigation, energy, water resources, development plan) • Organizational structure • Roles and responsibilities Organizational • Human, technical and financial resources • Communication and reporting among related departments and stakeholders • Available budget • Subsidies, grants, and/or loans to communities and industries Finance • Procedures and characteristics of how funds flow from national and regional governments to the city • Literacy rate Schools • Enrollment, graduation, and dropout rates • Proportion of children out of school 12 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Baseline and Policy Review Category Contents Public Involvement and Education (cont.) • Types of formal and informal organizations and relationships that tie the community together • Community boundaries and their leaders Community • Level of awareness of solid waste management, river management, stormwater/sewer Associations management and environmental education and Groups • Diversity of religions, cultures, and ethnicities, and historic and existing conflicts or challenges • Demographics, including vulnerable populations • Resident or community level needs • Population and human migration trends • Formal and informal settlements • Income and expenditure at households Socioeconomic • Poverty characteristics • Characteristics of any migratory/nomadic populations • Existing development plans • Environmental characteristics such as water quality, air quality, noise quality, and Environment recreational values of surroundings • Ecological characteristics and health, such as fauna, flora, and endangered species Solid Waste Management • Existing local, regional, and national policies, strategies, plans, and rules • Existing local, regional and national policies, strategies, plans, and rules for other related Institutional sectors (e.g. river management, storm water/sewer management, education, community development, climate change adaptation and mitigation, energy, water resources, and development plan.) • Organizational structure • Roles and responsibilities Organizational • Human, technical and financial resources • Communication and reporting among related departments and stakeholders • Available budget • Subsidies, grants, and/or loans to communities and industries Finance • Procedures and characteristics of how funds flow from national and regional governments to the city Waste • Current and expected future waste volume, composition, and characteristics Characteristics • Identification of waste sources (such as manufacturers) Waste • Current volume, location, and extent of waste accumulation issues Accumulation • Possible causes of waste accumulation and Dumping • Waste accumulation impact to the immediate environment and human health • Existing and planned waste management services and any challenges • Current collection and transport methods and their challenges • Locations of waste collection and disposal based on infrastructure development plan • Available human, technical, and financial resources • Available land for any necessary solid waste management-related infrastructure Management • Current community or private company initiatives to perform waste management services, including scavengers • Future prediction of waste market growth • Current conditions and opportunities for private businesses in the solid waste management sector • Existing NGOs, CBOs Society/ • Community needs Community • Vulnerable areas and city’s social demographics 13 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Baseline and Policy Review Category Contents Urban Drainage • Existing local, regional, and national policies, strategies, plans, and rules • Existing local, regional and national policies, strategies, plans, and rules for other related Institutional sectors (e.g. solid waste management, city planning, landuse planning, river and flood management, education, community development, climate change adaptation and mitigation, and water resources) • Organizational structure • Roles and responsibilities Organizational • Human, technical and financial resources • Communication and reporting among related departments and stakeholders • Available budget • Subsidies, grants, and/or loans to communities and industries Finance • Procedures and characteristics of how funds flow from national and regional governments to the city • Support for research and development (R&D) • Location, sizes, designs, and constraints of relevant infrastructure, such as drainage channels, main arteries, storage basins, pump stations, wastewater treatment plants, and Infrastructure levees. • Future growth plans and changes in drainage patterns and needs • Precipitation patterns, river flow patterns, groundwater levels, and infiltration rates Water • Past flood or inundation events and their extents Resources • Drainage water quality and its impact on receiving waters • Existing NGOs and CBOs Society/ • Community needs Community • Vulnerable areas and city’s social demographics • Environmental characteristics such as water quality, air quality, noise quality, and Environment recreational values of surroundings • Ecological characteristics and health, such as fauna, flora, and endangered species 14 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Developing a Supplemental Action Plan 3 Developing a Supplemental Action Plan 3.1 Strategies and Action Plans A strategy informs a government or a government department’s direction for the next several years. It usually consists of an overall common vision and goals along with more measurable objectives. Specific actions to be implemented fall underneath these objectives, as depicted in Figure 3-1. Figure 3-1. General Strategy Structure This model aims to address interplaying issues of solid waste management and urban flood risk. Inclusion of public involvement and education is also critical to develop and maintain a healthy, lively city. Each of these three sectors could have their own strategy with its own goals, objectives, and action plans. Instead of encouraging city governments to develop yet another strategy specific to this cross sector model, this model suggests development of a supplemental action plan. This action plan can support already existing strategies, as depicted in Figure 3-2. The urban drainage sector is not shown for clarity. Figure 3-2. A Supplemental Action Plan that Supports Existing Strategies Figure 3-2 portrays that there could be common objectives between different sectors, shown by the orange objective. Some actions that generally pertain to public involvement and education could be instrumental in meeting a solid waste management objective, or vice versa. There could be actions that are inherently inter-sector, such as organizing a public cleaning event, depicted by the orange actions in Figure 3-2. 15 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Developing a Supplemental Action Plan Similarly, solid waste management and urban drainage can have overlapping objectives and actions, such as installing drainage covers or screens to catch waste in runoff and cleaning accumulated waste out of gutters. As one example, Kitakyushu added a solid waste management component for a flood project in Indonesia. The capacity to think cross-sector when planning strategies and projects can be critical in reaching the larger common city vision. This model presents actions that city planners can employ to develop a comprehensive supplemental action plan, which supports and fills in gaps in the public involvement and education, solid waste management, and urban drainage sectors. Specific objectives and relevant, necessary, and practical actions depend entirely on each city’s unique situation. 3.2 Governance Structure Clearly delineating institutional governance structures, or roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder, is critical to successfully implement a strategy or a cross-sector supplemental action plan. Table 3-1 presents typically relevant stakeholders and their suggested functions that pertain to solid waste-urban flood risk management. Table 3-1. Stakeholders and their Typical Functions and Responsibilities Organization Functions/Responsibilities • Develop and implement national policies/strategies • Formulate, pass, or issue laws, regulations, and/or national orders National • Establish a funding/grant system to local governments • Invest in Research and Development • Monitor and evaluate national government performance • Develop and implement regional policies and strategies that align with or supplement national regulations/guidelines • Formulate and implement regional ordinances Regional • Establish funding/grant system to local or city governments • Invest in Research and Development • Monitor and evaluate regional government performance • Develop and implement policies, strategies, plans, and ordinances that align with or supplements national and regional regulations/guidelines • Secure funding/grants form regional and/or national governments • Procure resources • Plan, design, and construct facilities City • Perform daily operation and maintenance (O&M) • Receive and evaluate subsidy applications submitted from CBOs, local industries, and other stakeholders • Disperse subsidies to CBOs, local industries, and other stakeholders • Support community and industrial activities • Educate the public and provide information • Monitor and evaluate city government performance • Clean local residential areas (e.g. gutters and waste collection stations) Community • Support city government activities • Encourage local activism • Clean local commercial areas (e.g. road gutters and waste collection stations) Industry • Support city government activities (e.g. R&D, respond to business opportunities) • Reexamine operations to reduce resource use and increase resource use efficiency Table 3-2 displays how Kitakyushu delegates or delegated roles and functions internally to various city departments to meet their solid waste management and urban drainage related goals. Each department also has an active public outreach and involvement component, shown in the rightmost column. A clear separation of roles and responsibilities facilitates effective cross-department communication and collaboration. Again, the most practical and effective delegation of roles depends on each city’s unique situation. 16 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Developing a Supplemental Action Plan Table 3-2. Delegation of Roles within the Kitakyushu City Government Department1 Relevant Functions/Responsibilities Public Involvement • Protect the city from river-caused flooding • Organize/support river cleaning River • Construct levees events Department • Dredge and clean rivers and waterways • Support “Friends of the River” resident volunteer groups • Plan, design, and construct city roads • Organize/support “Road Supporter” Roads • Design and install roadside gutters and drainage resident trash pickup volunteer Department channels along with road construction groups • Clean and maintain drainage gutters • Manage urban inundation risk • Host school field trips at the • Plan wastewater and urban drainage wastewater treatment plant infrastructure for the entire city • Respond to calls and requests from • Design and construct major drainage pipelines, the public concerning drainage Wastewater/ pump stations, detention basins, and treatment issues and drain cleaning Drainage plants Department • Maintain and clear accumulated waste/debris from inside the drainage system, once they pass through the gutters • Manage and address water pollution caused by discharge • Provide waste collection, transport, waste • Support “Friends of the Park” treatment, and disposal services resident trash-pickup and cleaning • Provide recycling services volunteer groups • Lead environmental education Environmental • Host school field trips at the Department incineration plant • Teach children about the waste life cycle and how to sort waste correctly at home • Teach students about the environment, their city, sustainability, and environmental Environmental citizenship Education • Inform and educate the everyday resident Department • Establish related museums, programs, and events Note: 1. This table presented all “departments” as separate entities, but some may fall under the same umbrella “agency,” while other departments may be independent. For example, Environmental Education in Kitakyushu is a part of the Environment Department. The details of the organizational hierarchy, however, are not important, since they are unique to each city government. 17 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions 4 Actions 4.1 Overview of Actions The solid waste-urban flood risk subsector model consists of three sectors: 1) public involvement and education, 2) solid waste management, and 3) urban drainage. This section lays out specific actions per each sector. The intent is to have city government planners select and/or adapt those that are the most relevant to their situation and strategies to develop a supplemental action plan, as explained in Section 3. Table 4-1 provides an overview of all actions covered in this model. Table 4-1. Overview of Model Actions Public Involvement and Education Actions to Enhance Public Involvement E1. Relationship Building E1-1. Establish Means of Communication E1-2. Set Common Goals/Slogans E2. Resident Involvement in Providing Services E2-1. Organize Public/Stakeholder Meetings E2-2. Develop a Policy to Support Resident Involvement E2-3. Send Government Staff to the Field Actions to Educate Residents E3. Education in Schools E3-1. Teach Students about the Local Society and Environmental Citizenship E3-2. Hold Students Accountable for the School Environment E4. Education of the Public E4-1. Inform Residents of City Activities and Progress E4-2. Organize Public Events and Programs E4-3. Establish Museums and Learning Facilities Solid Waste Management Actions to Establish Basic Waste Management Services W1. Waste Storage for Collection W1-1. Fix Waste Bins at Each Household W1-2. Use Portable Containers at Each Household W1-3. Use Standard Plastic Bags W1-4. Set Collection Stations for Groups of Households W2. Waste Transport W2-1. Use Collection Vehicles W2-2. Use Compaction Collection Vehicles W3. Waste Treatment (Incineration) W4. Final Disposal Actions to Improve Waste Management W5. Waste Reduction W5-1. Separate Waste W5-2. Collaborate with Manufacturers W5-3. Charge Fees for Waste Disposal W6. Maintaining a Waste-Free City Environment W6-1. Identify Waste Accumulation/Dump Sites W6-2. Collect Bulk Waste Periodically W6-3. Install Waste Bins in Public Areas W6-4. Encourage Residents to Maintain a Clean Environment Urban Drainage Actions to Maintain Drainage Capacity D1. Local Adaptations to Capture Debris D1-1. Cover Open Drains (wood or any other locally available material) D1-2. Cover Open Drains (concrete/metal grating) D1-3. Install Intermediary Screens within Drainage Channels 18 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D2. Waste Clean-Up, Drain Cleaning, and Maintenance D2-1. Perform Scheduled System Cleaning and Maintenance D2-2. Perform Ad Hoc Local Drain Cleanings D2-3. Inspect the System Prior to Rain Events D2-4. Establish a Hotline and Respond to Debris Accumulation/Backup Reports D2-5. Hold Clean-Up Events Actions to Expand/Improve the Drainage System D3. Systemwide Drainage Planning Considerations D3-1. Plan Using Sustainable Urban Drainage System/Low Impact Development Principles D3-2. Convert to Partial Separate Sewer Systems D3-3. Utilize Open Spaces, Ponds, and Detention Basins D3-4. Relocate Informal Settlements around Waterbodies D4. Design Level Considerations D4-1. Secure Discharge Points/Points of Interest D4-2. Create or Revisit Design Storms and Runoff Assumptions D4-3. Redevelop or Manufacture New Materials and Designs D4-4. Expand Drainage System in Coordination with Other Construction Figure 4-1 depicts the relationship of each sector and their actions to each other within the overall model concept. Public Involvement and Education As explained in Section 1.4 and Section 1.5, there are services that the city government can and E4 should provide that pertain specifically to that E3 sector. These include W2, W3, and W4 for the W1 solid waste management sector, which consist of W5 D1 city government actions that invest in establishing W2 E1 a waste management service system. Similarly, E3 W6 D3 and E4 deal with informing and educating city E2 D2 residents and stakeholders, so that they will more W3 D4 readily participate in grassroots and/or city-led Solid Waste Urban Drainage activities. Actions D3 and D4 pertain to planning Management and structural considerations important when expanding and improving urban drainage W4 infrastructure. In contrast, actions located in areas of overlap Figure 4-1. Actions and the Overall generally involve more expensive resident Model Concept involvement and are cross-sector. They consist of organizing and teaching residents to put out waste for city collection, reduce waste, and to maintain a waste-free city environment (W1, W5, W6). Similarly, D1 involves structural adaptations to drainage channels that prevent waste accumulation and blockage of runoff drainage, which can sometimes be done under resident initiative. D2 consists of actions that clear waste out of the drainage system by a combination of city government and local resident efforts, and hence is located at the center of Figure 4-1. E1 and E2 are actions that city governments can take to encourage resident involvement in maintaining a beautiful, livable, city environment. These are also placed at the center of Figure 4-1. The areas of overlap are the primary focus of this subsector model. Table 4-2 lists example objectives that a city planner may establish in Section 3 and presents suggested combinations of short term and long term actions that may help the city reach those objectives. Consistent with Section 1, these example action combinations show that for many sample objectives, a basic but functioning waste management system is a baseline requirement. Cities need to invest in establishing such systems as their first priority in addressing waste accumulation issues. 19 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Table 4-2. Example Objectives and Possible Combination of Actions to Reach that Objective Minimum Necessary Immediate Actions Longer-Term Actions Conditions Example Objective 1: Residents and local entities become more involved in maintaining their immediate surroundings. E1-1, E2, E4-1, E4-2 E1-2, E3, E4 W1, W2, W4 W6-4, D2-5 D2-4 Residents must have a way to The city government should develop a Immediate actions need to be sustained over dispose of collected and relationship with residents or entities (E1-1)the long term. Building a sense of common cleaned waste. and inform them of the government’s intent purpose (E1-2) and educating residents (E3, (E2, E4-1). Encouraging residents to E4) can build a sense of agency. Establishing maintain a clean environment (W6-5) or hotlines where residents can reach organizing clean-up events (E4-2, D2-5) can government personnel (D2-4) can also be important first steps. strengthen communication and existing relationships. Example Objective 2: Clean a large drainage canal/river and maintain drainage capacity. E1-1, E2-2, E2-3, E4-1 W1, W2, W4,W6 D2-5 D1, D2 In organizing a clean-up event (D2-5), the Over the long term, the city needs to city government needs to start by establish reliable waste services to provide developing a relationship with to-be an alternative to waste dumping (W1, W2, participants (E1-1, E2). The event and its W4). Additional investment in preventing positive impacts should also be publicized waste dumping may also be beneficial (W6). (E4-1). Further, proper maintenance and cleaning of local drainage channels (D1, D2) would reduce waste accumulation downstream. Example Objective 3: Reduce waste in the waste stream. E2, E4-1 E1-2, E3, E4, W1, W2, W4 W5-1, W5-3 W5-2 Residents must have a way to Waste separation (W5-1) allows the city to Over the long term, collaboration with dispose of collected and treat and recycle or dispose of each type of industry and businesses is required to cleaned waste. waste as most suitable. Charging for waste develop a resource-recycling waste services (W5-3) financially encourages management system (W5-2). Increase in residents to reduce waste. Resident resident awareness would further help involvement and understanding (E2, E4-1) support such efforts that rely on long term is critical for both these steps investment (E1-2, E3, E4). Example Objective 4: Increase worker commitment and address absenteeism in the waste management sector. E4-1, E3-1 W1, W2, W4 E1-2, E3, E4 W1-3, W1-4, W2-2, W3, W4, W5-1, W5-3 A waste service system must Worker commitment can be improved by Over the long term, city residents need to be in place for there to be providing better working conditions and by become more aware of the role waste demand for workers increasing social value of the work they management plays in their everyday lives perform. Use of plastic bags (W1-3), and communities. Establishing a common compaction vehicles (W2-2), incineration city-wide goal (E1-2) as well as educating (W3), and sanitary landfills (W4) decrease children and the public (E3, E4) are critical. odors throughout the process. Use of plastic bags, teaching residents to segregate and dispose of trash correctly (E4-1, W5-1), and setting collection stations (W1-4) also increases worker safety and ease. Waste collection workers can also teach students about waste in schools (E3-1) Example Objective 5: Reduce waste flowing through the drainage system. E2-1, E2, E4-1 W1, W2, W4 D1, D2-1, D2-2, D2-3 W6-2, D2-4 Residents must have an Installing covers over drainage channels Over the long term, public outreach (E2-1, alternative to dumping waste (D1-1, D1-2) and if possible screens E2, E4-1) will encourage resident into nearby canals. throughout the system (D1-3) will prevent involvement. The government can also waste from entering the drainage system. establish hotlines so that residents can The city government or residents will need inform the city of any issues (D2-4, W6-2). to clean the waste that is caught (D2-1, D2-2, D2-3). 20 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Neither actions presented in this model nor their example uses are prescriptive. They are suggestions to city governments, city planners, and sector departments as methods to address the interplay of solid waste management and urban flood risk issues. Users should consider, adapt, and develop these actions so that they fit and work in the local cultural, social, economic, and environmental context and that city’s future vision. Only then will an action plan be meaningful and sustainable. 4.2 Structure of Sectors and Actions Each sector is organized into two main subsections. The first subsection provides a quick overview of the sector, an explanation of how it is relevant to the interplay of solid waste management and urban flood risk, and a description of Kitakyushu’s development for that sector. To provide consistency and context for the story of Kitakyushu development, this subsection includes a figure that lays out Kitakyushu’s population, number of households, and Japan’s gross domestic product (GDP) per capita from 1960 to today. Kitakyushu City staff has confirmed that Japan’s GDP growth patterns are consistent with that of Kitakyushu. Sector relevant event timelines are provided below these graphs. While Kitakyushu’s history is not directly applicable to other cities today, the intent is to provide a relatable reference. For example, a city planner who knows his/her country’s GDP and population can roughly look at what time in history Kitakyushu may have been in a similar situation, and refer to sector activities Kitakyushu had been focusing on at that time. The second subsection under each sector presents sector actions. A table lists the actions that will be described and a figure organizes them according to what the actions are primarily meant to accomplish and their ease of implementation. The figures also intend to provide relatable context or information to help guide other city planners. The remainder of the second subsection consists of action descriptions, presented in a consistent and concise format. Each action group begins with a head page that shows relevant actions, their characteristics, and their advantages and disadvantages based on Kitakyushu’s experiences (Figure 4-2). A gray bar for each action provides a quick overview of the timeframe, affordability, technical capacity, partners, and their involvement level for that action. The definitions of each are provided in Figure 4-2. X1. Action Group Name Purpose/Introduction [Introduces the action, describes the purpose, and explains its relevance to solid waste- [Figure] urban flood management] X1-1. Action Name Timeframe Affordability Technical Capacity Partners Involvement Level Short: 1~2 years A range from $ to Low, Mid, or High, Stakeholders to Intensity of Mid: 3~5 years $$$ relative to relative to other involve outside the involvement of Long: > 5 years other actions within actions within the city government identified partners Recurrent the same group same action group (Low, Mid, High) Advantages Disadvantages • xxxxxxxxxxxxx • xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Figure 4-2. Sample Action Group Head Page Finally, each action is described, consisting of the following information:  Description  Necessary Existing Conditions  Important Considerations  Financing and Resources  Operation and Maintenance  Performance Indicators  Case Studies of the Kitakyushu Experience 21 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Depending on the action group or action, some of the above information is presented as a part of the action head page, if the content is relevant to all actions within that group. Some of the actions, especially those that are cross-sector, are closely related and their action descriptions can be similar. For example, D2-5 “Hold Clean-Up Events” can be said to be an example of E2-2 “Develop a Policy to Support Resident Involvement” or E4-2 “Organize Public Events and Programs.” Actions are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and while some descriptions could be repetitive, they were also not intended to be read from cover to cover. These action descriptions are structured so that it will allow users to select specific actions sheets that interest them. Section 4.1 and each sector introduction both provide context that can assist model users. Further, there are references to other related actions within each action description. 22 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions 4.3 Public Involvement and Education Collaboration between the city government and residents, community groups, industries, and private companies forms the foundation of the Kitakyushu experience. Investment in the public involvement and education sector helps address the interplaying issues surrounding waste accumulation in drainage canals that extend beyond a city government’s capacity to manage in that moment in time. Specifically, investment in this sector addresses the following two needs.  Residents and industries need to take initiative and responsibility, within their capacity and whelm, to create the society or community in which they prefer to live  Residents, industries, and the city government need to collaborate and work under a common purpose or understanding Public involvement is time and energy intensive, requiring activities such as holding meetings and workshops, and maintaining open communication channels, which can slow down decision-making processes and project execution. However, projects that have resident support are more sustainable. Similarly, investments in relationship building and nurturing residents that take initiative and responsibility over their immediate surroundings have immeasurable benefits over the long term. Benefits of public involvement include but are not limited to the following.  Raises residents’ awareness, motivation, and sense of autonomy  Builds relationships between residents and the government for smoother communication and collaboration in the future  Nurtures trust that improves sustainability and ease of implementing projects and city activities  Provides the government with resident feedback and ideas to improve city services and programs  Helps ensure longevity of projects and programs  Promotes coproduction, where resident activities are functional components of city services, such as o Cleaning out local gutters and drainage channels o Separating or putting out waste for city services to collect, treat, and dispose or recycle o Identifying issues, such as accumulated waste or blocked drainage, and reporting it to proper authorities In this model, the terms “public” and “residents” are used broadly. The intent is not necessarily to exclude other possible stakeholders, such as private businesses and community organizations. They are mentioned when specifically relevant. However, as described in Concept 2 of the model, all city government workers, private company workers, and community leaders are simultaneously city residents, with shared common interests. From this perspective, the terms “public” and “residents” are used to comprehensively include everyone who holds multiple roles within society. 4.3.1 Public Involvement and Education and Kitakyushu Development As explained in Section 1, the Kitakyushu experience is that of residents’ activism. Residents demanded a better living environment in the 1960s when air and water pollution from industrialization reached levels that caused human health concerns. The city government, residents, community groups, and industries then worked together to successfully develop a cleaner, healthier Kitakyushu. Residents, however, were continually active in other sectors as well. They advocated for and elected the “Toilet Mayor” in 1968, demanding construction and extension of wastewater and drainage services. In the waste management sector, residents abided by city requests when putting out trash for collection, whether it be waste bins, plastic buckets, or plastic bags. In the urban drainage sector, residents cleaned out nearby drainage channels. Neighborhood associations organized themselves to clean larger drainage mains. These neighborhood associations have existed for a long time and continue to operate today, maintaining and managing local public facilities. Simultaneously, the city government has invested for decades in communicating with residents, informing residents of city activities, and organizing public/stakeholder meetings. City government workers have been told by leaders to lower the barriers between the government and the public. The government has found waste pickup and cleaning activities are especially inclusive, providing opportunity from the elderly to young children to participate. Such events help nurture trust among participating members. 23 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Kitakyushu residents have long been receptive to government initiatives. An important factor for this is the high literacy rate in Japan, as depicted in Figure 4-3. 99 percent literacy is also representative of Kitakyushu. Almost everyone could read by the mid-1900s, due to nationwide investment in public education. This additionally implies that residents have basic knowledge, such as math, science, and social studies, and share school-based experiences, such as being a part of a defined community. Figure 4-3 shows that the literacy rate in Japan was independent of GDP trends. The high human resources capacity or potential in Kitakyushu perhaps had allowed for the quick and extensive resident involvement in various citywide activities. Sources: GDP per capita: Economic and Social Research Institute, 2015 and International Monetary Fund, 2017 Literacy rate: Central Intelligence Agency, 2013 Figure 4-3. Public Involvement and Education and Kitakyushu Development Nonetheless, Kitakyushu continued to invest in education of its residents, increasingly focusing on environmental education. Environmental education refers to education that 1) teaches children and residents to be responsible citizens, and 2) increases awareness on environmental issues, including waste management, flood management, and climate change. Environmental education in Kitakyushu officially started in 1969. More investment heavy educational actions, such as opening museums and educational facilities and organizing environment-themed events and exhibitions, only took place after Kitakyushu became wealthier, as can be seen in Figure 4-3. At around the turn of the century, Kitakyushu began investing in environmental education at a more holistic level, aiming to nurture city residents who would help Kitakyushu become one of the “world’s environmental capitals.” As an example initiative, standardized teaching guides and workbooks for environmental education in city elementary schools were completed in 2006 and 2009, respectively. Today, Kitakyushu stands by Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) principles, which “empowers people to change the way they think and work towards a sustainable future (United Nations Educational, 24 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] 2017).” The City further breaks this down to include “connect, relate to, share a vision with and collaborate with co-residents.” Kitakyushu’s understanding of ESD embodies the government, residents, community groups, and businesses’ intent to holistically create a better, healthier living environment for all. As a concrete example of how residents stand by their “let’s help each other” principle, Kitakyushu was one of the few cities that accepted waste and debris from northeastern Japan after the 2011 earthquake disaster. Usually, resident opposition prevents such intercity collaboration from being fruitful. 4.3.2 Actions for Public Involvement and Education The public involvement and education sector consists of actions presented in Table 4-3. These actions can be organized into two large groups, one which focuses specifically on public involvement in city government activities (Actions E1 and E2), and the second which takes a more long-term perspective and focuses on educating residents to be responsible citizens and raises their awareness of environmental issues (Actions E3 and E4). Table 4-3. Overview of Public Involvement and Education Actions Public Involvement and Education Actions to Enhance Public Involvement E1. Relationship Building E1-1. Establish Means of Communication E1-2. Set Common Goals/Slogans E2. Resident Involvement in Providing Services E2-1. Organize Public/Stakeholder Meetings E2-2. Develop a Policy to Support Resident Involvement E2-3. Send Government Staff to the Field Actions to Educate Residents E3. Education in Schools E3-1. Teach Students about the Local Society and Environmental Citizenship E3-2. Hold Students Accountable for the School Environment E4. Education of the Public E4-1. Inform Residents of City Activities and Progress E4-2. Organize Public Events and Programs E4-3. Establish Museums and Learning Facilities Figure 4-4 presents the above actions relative to their ease of implementation. Actions that are more complex to implement may require more technical expertise or resources or higher financial investment. Actions that are presented towards the left side are relatively simpler to implement. Figure 4-4 is strictly conceptual and what is appropriate and feasible in each country or city differs depending on realities and conditions on the ground. Figure 4-4. Ease of Implementation of Public Involvement and Education Actions 25 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Actions to Enhance Public Involvement E1. Relationship Building Purpose/Introduction An awareness of the interrelationship between city residents, CBOs, various government departments, and private companies is the foundation that allows for collaboration on projects and government initiatives. While participatory actions also help facilitate learning and build connections, the sole purpose of actions presented in E1 is to connect different actors, increase awareness, and to build relationships. E1-1. Establish Means of Communication Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Mid $ Low Community Leaders, Industries, Schools, High NGOs/NPOs, Community Groups Advantages Disadvantages • Identifies partners and develops relationships with • Developing relationships and communicating can be them difficult if there are no community leaders • Allows for smoother communication when necessary for government activities E1-2. Set Common Goals/Slogans Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Mid $ Low Community Leaders, Industries, Schools, Mid NGOs/NPOs, Community Groups, Mass Media Advantages Disadvantages • Establishes a common goal or vision to promote • May require a long time for residents to understand collaboration throughout the city feel attachment to that goal/slogan • Having a common goal further increases togetherness and streamlines future activities Operation and Maintenance • Keep the partner/stakeholder inventory up to date • Communication and collaboration with identified partners in specific activities help maintain and build on relationships and reinforce set common goals and understanding. (See E2) • Educating children and the general public, including taking advantage of media outlets to keep residents informed of city activities also reinforces common goals and understanding (See E3, E4) Financing and Resources • City government staff to commit to public relationship building activities Performance Indicators • Number of partners, the coverage areas of partners, and diversity of partners with whom the city government can readily communicate • Prevalence of the common goal/slogans in media, public materials, within government, and/or schools. 26 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E1-1. Establish Means of Communication Description Establishing relationships and communication venues allows for easy and thorough transmission of information to and from representatives of communities/CBOs and other partners, and through them to and from all stakeholders. Communication is necessary for gathering information and ideas, consensus building, and receiving feedback on planned, current, and completed activities. Contact information, such as representative names, phone numbers, The Kitakyushu Experience: community/school/company names, and emails should be compiled in an inventory. Kitakyushu has numerous CBOs including women’s groups, welfare groups, youth associations, and neighborhood associations. Establishing relationships Necessary Existing Conditions and communicating with CBO leaders have been effective in disseminating and collecting information. None Many CBOs have supported city initiatives, such as ensuring their groups begin segregating waste per new guidelines or organizing residents to participate Important Considerations: in a neighborhood clean-up day. • Identify staff within the government who are well connected. Ask them to Identify stakeholders or partners • Be aware that formal and informal community leaders exist. It may be necessary to establish relationships with both. • Consider a representative’s community boundary or sphere of influence. Who does it include? Who does it exclude? Think of alternative ways how to communicate with those who are excluded. Source: Kitakyushu City Jichikai Sourengoukai (2017) • Consider specifically reaching out to vulnerable, disadvantaged, or minority populations, such as women, the poor, and minorities. Ensure the city has a way to communicate with these residents. • Clearly determine how this inventory will be maintained as well as shared. E1-2. Set Common Goals/Slogans Description The Kitakyushu Experience: Setting a common goal or having a catchy slogan can be one method to raise awareness and unify city residents and Kitakyushu encourages residents, CBO, and private community groups to work towards that goal. Picking up the companies to participate in volunteer activities piece of trash that you dropped, for example, may seem under a common slogan “Make Our City Beautiful.” People, for example, take initiative and gather to insignificant, but if everyone abides it can greatly reduce litter pick up trash in tourist and public areas. found along city roads. Kitakyushu also has created a city environmental mascot named Teitan, a play on words meaning Necessary Existing Conditions “low carbon emissions” The mascot is printed on • Means to propagate the goal or slogan various city products, and he also has a twitter account. Teitan embodies the general idea of environmental awareness, including cleanliness of Important Considerations: everyday surroundings. • The goal or slogan needs to be something the public can relate to and yet send a clear message. • Consider how the goal will best reach the intended audience. Should it be text messages? Television commercials? Brochures? Reach out to community leaders and contacts identified in E1-1. 27 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E2. Resident Involvement in Providing Services Purpose/Introduction City governments should encourage residents and community groups to take self- initiative and participate in environmental activities, such as maintaining their surrounding environment. The government can provide knowledge, information, structure, and human or material resources to support resident/community activities. E2-1. Organize Public/Stakeholder Meetings Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $$ Mid Community Leaders, Industries, High NGOs/NPOs, Community Groups Advantages Disadvantages • Increases cooperation • May require many explanation meetings to build • Provides an opportunity to collect field level consensus information • Helps inform and improve planned activities E2-2. Develop a Policy to Support Resident Involvement Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $ Mid Community Leaders, Industries, Mid NGOs/NPOs, Community Groups Advantages Disadvantages • Raises awareness and/or interest • Requires some time and effort for the government to • Encourages residents to participate in activities support residents, including, potentially personal • Promotes residents to take self-initiative and conduct time similar activities E2-3. Send Government Staff to the Field Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $ Low Community Groups, Residents, Schools High Advantages Disadvantages • Raises awareness and/or interest • May require working overtime and on weekends • Encourages residents to participate in activities • Provides an opportunity to collect field level information • Reinforces relationships with residents Operation and Maintenance • Supervise, monitor, and evaluate activities contributed by participating partner(s) • Collect activity reports from groups that received government support. This information can be as simple as listing the date and location of the activity, number of participants, activity content, and any observations or comments. Financing and Resources • City government staff to organize and commit to public involvement activities • Staff daily allowance and transportation costs • Preparation of fliers, brochures, and graphics for explanations • Any materials and tools, such as gloves and trash bags, depending on the planned activities Performance Indicators • Participant/partner level of satisfaction and/or understanding • Number of questions from participants • Number of explanation meetings held with stakeholders or the number of staff sent to the field to support resident initiatives • Qualitative assessment of behavior changes in for example, solid waste management or drainage cleaning over the long term 28 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E2-1. Organize Public/Stakeholder Meetings Description Public meetings should be held at the start of new city projects or at milestones when resident input or participation is especially important. Interaction between residents and government can raise resident awareness and encourage them to take ownership for any activities for which they may be responsible. The overall project can additionally be improved by incorporating on-the-ground comments provided during the meeting. While time consuming with no concrete, immediate results, such processes are integral to secure project sustainability. The city needs to conduct the following to prepare for public meetings. • Clearly develop the project/meeting purpose, The Kitakyushu Experience objectives, relevant concepts, and important dates In Kitakyushu, it is common practice for the • Organize the meeting, including logistics, such as the government to organize explanatory meetings, time, date, and venue especially when new activities, policies, or projects • Prepare presentation materials are being implemented. • Contact potential participants For instance, when the city decided to collect fees per plastic trash bag, the city held explanatory meetings before and immediately after its implementation with Necessary Existing Conditions each neighborhood association. Just for this new • Understanding of local community dynamics, important initiative alone, the city estimates they conducted about a total of 1,000 explanatory meetings stakeholder groups, and their leaders (see E1-1) throughout the city. As another example, Kitakyushu held meetings in Important Considerations 1995 to brainstorm ideas with residents, schools, and • Consider when residents/target participants would be community organizations about how residents the most available. Are there better seasons/days/times wanted or envisioned their Bachi River to look. Their to reach out to them? If needed, conduct a daily activity inputs informed the overall direction of the river restoration plan, completed in 1997 after about 100 profile to learn of people’s availabilities. meetings. • Be aware of social norms. For example, can women participate in meetings with men? Be sensitive to ethnic differences, the elderly, gender role differences, and social status • When preparing materials, adapt the contents to the overall literacy rate and level of understanding of the participants. Financing and Resources • Staff to prepare meeting materials • Facilitator to conduct the meeting Elementary school children’s vision of the future Bachi River • Venue rental costs and printing costs 29 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E2-2. Develop a Policy to Support Resident Involvement Description The city government can provide the following resources to support resident participation in government related activities. • Financial support • Technical support • Materials for cleaning, learning, or community activities • Prizes, awards, and/or recognition to communities and schools that contribute to maintenance of the city environment A clear policy governing what is provided to whom, when, and how will help streamline planning for support activities. This consistency and predictability will also be beneficial to resident groups. Necessary Existing Conditions • Understanding of local community dynamics, important stakeholder groups, and their leaders (see E1-1) Important Considerations • Requires a clear government policy to provide consistent and defined support over the long term. For example, what types of activities should the government encourage and how? The Kitakyushu Experience • Clear rules and criteria that control and allow for fair distribution and allocation of resources should be Kitakyushu City provides tools, instead of money, to community groups/CBOs to encourage them to clean developed. their communities, especially solid waste collection • Although minimal relative to the overall government stations and street gutters. budget, the annual budget for support activities needs Since 1989, Kitakyushu supports communities or to be secured. organizations to establish “Road Supporters,” “Friends Financing and Resources of the River,” and “Friends of the Park” groups, which • Dependent on policy content and supporting activities organizes maintenance and clean-up events. • Annual city budget As another example of Kitakyushu support, Kitakyushu assists resident volunteers who work as • Research for alternative funding streams, which non- “Environmental Education Supporters.” These city government, community groups or NGOs/NPOs volunteers encourage and promote environmental may be eligible for applying education among city residents. Volunteer activities, which centers around the Kitakyushu Environment Museum, began in 2001 when Kitakyushu sponsored Operation and Maintenance and held the Japan Expo. Kitakyushu continues to • Review and revise policy and criteria according to support volunteer activities by, for example: progress on chosen performance indicators • Organizing monthly knowledge sharing/learning meetings Performance Indicators • Planning visits to environment-related facilities • Number of applications for support • Providing materials and equipment • Total disbursed budget • Providing space or a productive environment for • Number and type of activities contributed to in a given volunteers to gather year • Beneficial results of the support • Number of new resident led activities or initiatives, such as new community groups or NGOs/ NPOs 30 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Option E2-3. Send Government Staff to the Field Description One of the most effective ways to encourage resident/community participation or to encourage them to change habits is for the city government to demonstrate that itself. Talk the talk and walk the walk. Sending staff to the field also provides a good opportunity to supervise and monitor resident or community participation levels and to further build relationships and communicate with residents. Ideas and comments collected from the field can then be reflected in subsequent government activities. Staff can be sent to support: • Solid waste collection and cleaning activities • Public education activities at schools, seminars, and exhibitions The Kitakyushu Experience • Environmental activities conducted by schools and community Kitakyushu encourages their staff to groups participate in local activities. Staff is active in road supporter groups, river cleaning events, Necessary Existing Conditions and numerous other city and community led activities. Pictures remain today of times • Understanding of local community dynamics, important when the city mayor himself got dirty, stakeholder groups, and their leaders (see E1-1) cleaning out sludge in the city rivers in the • Staff with appropriate technical and facilitation skills to provide 1960s and 1970s. By publicizing that the top city official himself was out cleaning the resident support rivers, the city government tried to not only increase resident awareness but to also encourage more people to come out and Important Considerations participate in the next event. • Clear government policy to support staff involvement (see E2-3) • Determine actual conditions in the field to determine where, when, and how many staff members to send • Sending well known or higher level staff may have a greater impact in receiving publicity and hence may be beneficial for activities of high priority Performance Indicators • Number and hours of staff participating in activities 31 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Actions to Educate Residents Action E3. Education in Schools Purpose/Introduction Changing behavior can take a long time. One effective method is to teach children the value of taking initiative and responsibility for their immediate environment and collectively, their society. Elementary and middle schools can be important venues and opportunities to teach such environmental citizenship. Students can also help raise awareness and change behaviors of their family members. E3-1. Teach Students about the Local Society and Environmental Citizenship Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $$ High Education Department, School Principals, High Teachers Advantages Disadvantages • Raises children’s awareness and/or interest • Requires coordination and collaboration with • Children can teach and inform other family members schools, principals, and teachers, which may be • Strengthens relationships with city teachers and difficult depending on existing relationships education departments E3-2. Hold Students Accountable for the School Environment Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $ Low Education Department, School Principals, High Teachers, Students Advantages Disadvantages • Raises children’s awareness and/or interest • Requires teacher supervision to organize and teach • Instills values through action and developing habits, children how to clean their school while having fun • Giving children responsibility sometimes leads to • Builds a sense of school community, teaches children children level politics and power struggles about roles and responsibilities, and eliminates the need for janitors E3-1. Teach Students about the Local Society and Environmental Citizenship Description Starting to teach about the students’ local society and environmental citizenship requires two steps. The Kitakyushu Experience 1) Preparing teaching and learning materials To ensure effective curriculum development, 2) Identifying field trip sites and partner organizations Kitakyushu has a system of personnel exchange between Board of Education and the local city 1) Prepare teaching and learning materials government. Hence, both the city government and educators are involved in planning and • Teaching materials should sufficiently guide the teacher so implementing environmental education classes. that all teachers can teach classes at a standard level Such personnel exchanges also allow for regardless of their experience level. The material should knowledge sharing and capacity enhancement. include key ideas and takeaway points, best practices, and clear goals/results from each lesson, chapter, or school year. • Learning materials should include pictures and illustrations that promote student understanding. Workbooks should provide spaces that allow students to directly add ideas and take notes. Content should be comprehensive and systematic to achieve objectives of each target age/grade. • Materials should be prepared by teachers with cooperation from relevant government personnel. 2) Identify field trip sites and partner organizations • Hands on learning or seeing real-life facilities can enhance learning that takes place in classrooms • Identify what facilities or organizations students can visit to provide more context and understanding. Possible 32 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions sites include city landfills, incineration plants, wastewater treatment plants, drinking water treatment plants, parks, detention basins, and museums. • Reach out and partner with organizations or government departments responsible for those facilities. Prepare tours and any materials that cater to the visiting students’ age and understanding. Develop a system that allows coordination and scheduling of student field trips from various classes and schools with the organization/department’s schedule. Necessary Existing Conditions • Cooperation between the city education system and other city departments The Kitakyushu Experience • Principal and teacher understanding of the importance of and In Kitakyushu, content of environmental commitment to teaching about the students’ immediate local education and social studies as a whole environment and promoting environmental citizenship focus on the following physical extents per different age groups. • 6-8 years old: their immediate Important Considerations surroundings (e.g. family, friends, • Consider the target age and grade of the students when designing school, playground) the curriculum, including literacy rate, ability comprehend and • 9-10 years old: their community (e.g. concentrate, and level of interest. community mapping, locations and • Make the content accessible to the target age group. Think about roles of community facilities, such as how it can capture and keep the audience’s attention and interest. stores, libraries, fire departments, • Consider the capacity of teachers throughout the district when and hospitals) designing teaching materials • 11-12 years old: their nation • Consider designing and branding the learning material as they will • Over 13 years old: the world be distributed to all students • Make use of your city’s or society’s experiences as much as possible Examples of specific activities include: • Obtain feedback from both students and the field trip host so that • Learning about where your trash these visits can be continually improved goes and how to separate trash (3rd and 4th grade) Financing and Resources • Visiting the local wastewater • Experts/teachers/designers to prepare teaching and learning treatment plant (4th grade) materials and develop a field trip system • Learning how to separate trash from • Cost for copying, bookbinding, and distribution waste collection workers themselves, • Tools and equipment to provide each class who come to school on a compactor vehicle Operation and Maintenance • Revise class content, materials, field trips, and overall goals as needed Performance Indicators • Number of classes taught in each school • Student satisfaction and understanding • Student/resident behavior changes over the years 33 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E3-2. Hold Students Accountable for the School Environment Description The school environment is where children learn societal skills, including what it means to be an integral, responsible member of society. Making students clean and keep up their school environment have lifelong lessons, so that as adults, they would think to pick up waste on the streets or keep their living environment clean and sanitary. Cleaning a school or a classroom also requires delegating roles and knowing when to ask teachers for assistance, skills that are relevant also between residents or community groups and the city government. Children quickly learn to think twice about littering if they know that they would have to clean it later that day. They also learn how small contributions from each student can go a long way in making a comfortable learning Source: UNESCO, 2009 environment. Necessary Existing Conditions • Support of the Board of Education, the city government , and other relevant entities or organizations • Principal and teacher understanding of the importance of having students clean their school Important Considerations • School cleaning should take place at the same time across the entire school. Set a time within the school day everyday. It may only need to be about 15 minutes. • Divide students into groups. This can be done at the classroom level where the teacher or the students themselves break up into teams. • Consider the school layout and break up cleaning needs into manageable chunks, for example, classrooms, hallways, bathrooms, common rooms. Assign student groups or classes to each. • Consider the age of the students. It may make more sense to delegate cleaning bathrooms or the science room with fragile equipment to older students than first graders. • Teacher may need to still be present to supervise and provide assistance as necessary. • Once the students are old enough and the cleaning routine is set, they may be able to self-organize and self- delegate. Older students may be able to start teaching or providing tips to younger students on how to clean effectively. For example, how to best wring out a rag or sweep the classroom. • Holding students responsible for cleaning may mean laying off janitors. Consider how to best go about this process so that it does not create backlash. Financing and Resources • Tools and equipment, such as buckets, rags, brooms, water, and soap Operation and Maintenance • Maintenance and repurchasing of old tools/equipment • Periodic check of school cleanliness to identify need for improvement Performance Indicators • Effectiveness and cleanliness of the school environment • Necessary level of teacher involvement • Changes in student/resident behavior over the years 34 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Action E4 Education of the Public Purpose/Introduction The city government should reach out to and educate the general public, including illiterate adults, disadvantaged communities, and children who cannot attend school, with the intent to nurture strong citizenship. This outreach should be continuous over the long term so that city residents as a whole increase participation in their communities and through that government initiatives. E4-1. Inform Residents of City Activities and Progress Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $$ Mid Mass Media, Community Groups, High Industries, Schools Advantages Disadvantages • Disseminate information to a large number of people • Requires resources to prepare public-oriented at once materials • Can be one method to encourage residents to • Informing is one-directional communication. Other participate in current and future activities means are necessary for the government to receive • Increases understanding and awareness of local any feedback history, conditions, and issues E4-2. Organize Public Events and Programs Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $$$ High Mass Media, Community Groups, High Industries, Schools Advantages Disadvantages • Increases understanding and awareness of local • Requires resources to prepare public-oriented history, conditions, and issues materials • Can directly cater to or involve social vulnerable • Need land and space for the event or exhibition groups • Impact is limited to those that attend • Can be one method to encourage residents to participate in current and future activities E4-3. Establish Museums and Learning Facilities Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Long $$$ High Planners/Engineers, Mass Media, High Community Groups, Industries, Schools Advantages Disadvantages • Increases understanding and awareness of local • Requires resources to prepare public-oriented history, conditions, and issues materials • Can directly cater to or involve social vulnerable • Need investment in land and facility structure as well groups as its O&M • Can be one method to encourage residents to • Impact may be limited to those that attend participate in current and future activities • Provides a permanent facility for educational purposes Performance Indicators • Long term changes in behavior over the years • Changes in levels resident participation and coproduction in environmental activities over time 35 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E4-1. Inform Residents of City Activities and Progress Description Informing and providing information is the first step to increase residents’ understanding of issues, their causes, their solutions, and past or ongoing activities within and/or outside their community. Information dissemination options include the following. • Brochures, pamphlets, fliers • Videos/DVDs • Posters • Websites, online videos, social media • Seminars • Shows and advertisement on TV, radios, and newspapers • Billboards and signs Important Considerations • Take extra precaution to make sure the data/information being disseminated is accurate, fair, and sensitive to any social issues experienced in the city • Consider the literacy rate of the target audience • Ensure the final product provides a clear message. Be creative with content, structure, and format • Use imagery that has impact, such as before and after pictures that drive home the importance of an activity • Consider accessibility of the final product as well as whether it draws people’s attention. Be creative with design • Consider who may not be receiving this information. Think of alternative ways to capture this other audience. Financing and Resources • Human resources, including graphic designers and proofreaders • Cost of production and distribution The Kitakyushu Experience Operation and Maintenance: Kitakyushu takes public relations seriously, and takes advantages of mass media, not only to • Materials need to be kept up-to-date with the latest disseminate important city information, but to data/information also provide spotlight on commendable resident, community, or private industry activities. Performance Indicators Sometimes, this means preparing a small article about how one neighbor saw a bicycle thrown • Number of seminars held, participants in seminars, access to away in the river and took it on himself to pull it websites, and videos/DVD views out. • Resident level of satisfaction and understanding with provided informational materials • Changes in behavior over the years 36 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E4-2. Organize Public Events and Programs Description Public events and programs help enhance residents’ The Kitakyushu Experience understanding of the city’s environmental issues, their causes, their solutions, and past or ongoing activities within and/or outside their community in a fun, open environment. Public events can be catered to involve all residents including socially vulnerable groups. Planning for public events and programs include the following steps. • Developing the theme or concept of the event/program • Identifying and organizing sponsors and volunteers • Arranging the event/program (e.g. date, period, and venue) • Publicizing the event (see E4-1) Kitakyushu organizes an environment-themed event called “Eco-Life Stage” every year to showcase environment-related activities, in which local Necessary Existing Conditions residents, NPOs, businesses, schools, and the • Commitment within the leading government government are involved. About 80 to 100 department to hold such an event organizations usually participate, and for them, the event also provides a promotional opportunity. The event aims to increase resident awareness while Important Considerations generating no waste and to minimizing electricity use. • When choosing the venue, consider whether it is: o Large enough o Accessible to the intended audience The Kitakyushu Experience o Safe Kitakyushu has established a Kitakyushu • Ensure materials developed have a clear and coherent Environmental Certification program as one messages that draws attention and can be understood by the way to increase opportunities to learn about the target audience/age groups (see E4-1) local environmental efforts and increase • Consider which community organizations or private companies resident awareness and interest. The can participate to make a more interactive event. Refer to certification covers the history of Kitakyushu, including how it addressed water and air groups identified in E1-1. pollution issues in the mid-1900s, as well as the city’s more recent environment-related efforts. Financing and Resources • Human resources and support staff • Budget for venue, public outreach, and any construction of temporary buildings Performance Indicators • Number and demographic of visitors • Level of satisfaction and increased understanding of visitors 37 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions E4-3. Establish Museums and Learning Facilities Description: Museums and learning facilities help enhance residents’ understanding of the city’s environmental issues, their causes, their solutions, and past or ongoing activities within and/or outside their communities. Permanent educational facilities can be also used for school field trips, family outings, community group learning, and tourism. Necessary Existing Conditions: • Commitment to invest in museums and facilities Important Considerations: • When planning and designing the museum or facility structure, consider: The Kitakyushu Experience: o Location and its accessibility for the intended Kitakyushu has the following museums and learning audience facilities. The city also provides environmental interpretation and education in the field. o Size and capacity to accommodate the intended audience Museums o Consider the building’s environmental impact and • Environment Museum see if design and construction be altered to have • Firefly Museum less impact by, for example, using reusable • Environmental materials or by powering the building with • Museum of Water renewable energies. • When designing the content of the museum or facility: Learning facilities o Develop main ideas and concepts the visitors • Eco-Town Center should take from their visit • Water treatment plants o Ensure there is a clear message and that the • Wastewater treatment plants information provided is accurate • Intermediate solid waste treatment plants o Consider and match the different literacy rates and • Recycling centers education levels of visitors • Youth outdoor learning centers o Combine use of text, images, videos, real objects, Environmental Interpretation and Education and interactive displays • Hand-on activities, such as walk rallies, crafts, • Public outreach materials may be needed to encourage cooking in the field visitors to come and to provide informational materials • Outdoor activities, such as river canoe, climbing, for visitors to take home. Consider preparing brochures, trekking, nature tours, campfire talks, cycling, and fliers, websites, DVDs, posters etc. See E4-1. bird watching • Identify potential sponsors to help build and run the museum. Identify any volunteers who can be guides in the museum. Financing and Resources • Budget for construction, operation, and preparation of the museum and its displays and exhibitions. • Budget to prepare publication and outreach materials • Human resources to construct and operate the museum Operation and Maintenance • Revision of displays and exhibits Performance Indicators • Number and demographic of visitors • Level of satisfaction and increased understanding of visitors 38 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions 4.4 Solid Waste Management To address the interplay of domestic solid waste and urban flood risk, a city needs to first and foremost establish waste collection and transport systems. If domestic waste is effectively removed from the city landscape, it would prevent any from accumulating and blocking city drainage systems, which causes flooding and public health issues. Citywide services are critical to provide residents a clear way to dispose of waste generated. However, if a city is to collect waste, there needs to be a place for the waste to go. Hence, investment in waste collection and transport must inherently include investment in the entire waste stream. The most simple and quickest approach is to establish a sanitary landfill, where waste can be responsibly disposed in a manner that minimizes environmental and health risks, as shown in Figure 4-5 as a combination of W1, W2, and W4. Kitakyushu additionally made early investments in waste treatment (incineration) to increase efficiency and sanitary conditions at the landfill, and hence is shown as W3 in Figure 4-5. These foundational services to establish waste collection and waste transport are referred to in this section as basic waste management services. Priority is placed on immediate improvements on living conditions within the city. W1 W2 W3 W4 Waste Storage for Waste Collection and Waste Treatment Final Disposal Collection Transport (Incineration) W5 Waste Reduction W6 Maintaining a Waste-Free City Environment Figure 4-5. Service Flow of Basic Solid Waste Management However, waste management services that lead to waste disposal is neither best practice nor the most socially or environmentally sustainable. This one-directional waste stream extracts raw resources from the environment to produce a product, which is maybe used once to fill a landfill at the end. Such use streams place heavy burdens on the environment and city services. Life-cycle thinking provides healthier alternatives by focusing on prevention, minimization, or reduction of resources use and by identifying opportunities to reuse, recycle, or recover resources from waste. Reducing environmental and resources demands throughout the product life cycle also helps reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and mitigate climate change. Kitakyushu is committed to this alternative, sustainable, life-cycle approach to waste management. Nonetheless, the focus of this model is on the interplay of solid waste and urban flood risk. The model covers waste reduction (W5 in Figure 4-5) as important actions that improve waste services and directly help reduce flood risk. Extended discussion of product life cycles and recycling are, however, outside the scope of this model. Refer instead to Kitakyushu Model sector “Waste Management” for more in-depth information. Finally, options to address residual waste that did not get collected by basic city services are collected in W6 under the title “Maintaining a Waste-Free City Environment.” Example actions include cleaning city public areas and identifying non-city-sanctioned dump sites. These actions, often requiring heavy resident involvement, fill in gaps in waste collection services to achieve a clean, livable city. 39 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions 4.4.1 Solid Waste Management and Kitakyushu Development Kitakyushu’s initial purpose for providing waste management services was to improve sanitary and living conditions in the city. Figure 4-6 shows that the amount of waste collected and GDP rose until roughly around 1990, independent from population growth. This increase is consistent with the global trend that industrialization itself increases waste generation. Data shown in Figure 4-6 is limited strictly to waste collected by city services, so it most likely underestimates actual waste generated. Data Sources: GDP per capita: Economic and Social Research Institute, 2015 and International Monetary Fund, 2017 Kitakyushu Population, Number of Households, and Daily Waste Collected: Kitakyushu City, 2014 Figure 4-6 Solid Waste Management and Kitakyushu Development The lower half of Figure 4-6 simultaneously shows that Kitakyushu made early investments in solid waste management services, predating the rise in GDP and possibly, improvements in living standards. By the 1960s, the city already provided some form of waste collection, incineration, and disposal services. Until the early 1990s, the city focused on improving effectiveness and efficiency of the existing system by, for example, improving collection systems, addressing littering, and improving incineration plants to be more 40 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions economical and environmentally responsible. Kitakyushu aimed to collect 100 percent of domestic waste and to treat and dispose of it within 24 hours. However, waste generation not only increased but also diversified as the standard of living improved. Facing concern that the traditional treat and dispose method of waste management would become insufficient and strain existing landfills, Kitakyushu reexamined the entire waste stream and decided in the first half of the 1990s to shift city goals to become a resource recycling-based society. Kitakyushu invested in public outreach and resident meetings to ask everyone to sort waste into different categories, such as cans, different types of plastics, and paper, so that each could be recycled or treated accordingly. Plastic and paper recycling companies emerged. Manufacturing industries also committed to reforming their production and resource re-extraction lines, and took responsibility for recollecting used appliances and products. Overall, Kitakyushu did not experience much resistance from residents, as they were generally cooperative and supported the city’s effort to become more sustainable. Once in the 21st century, the city put into effect the Kitakyushu City Basic Environmental Plan, which set a new vision to become a low-carbon emitting, sustainable society. Kitakyushu sees solid waste management as an integral component in addressing climate change. Managing waste disposal appropriately by, for example, minimizing open dumping and reducing air pollution and gas emissions from waste incineration, can play a small but important part in mitigating global climate change. Reduction in resources use and promoting recycling of heavy metals can also decrease raw resources extraction demands and help save energy throughout the product life cycle. This further reduces GHG emissions. Kitakyushu recognizes that these local climate change mitigation efforts, if implemented on a global scale, could ultimately help reduce climate change impacts. Such impacts include the extent of unpredictable, extreme rain events, which plays a role in increasing urban flood risks today. 4.4.2 Actions for Solid Waste Management Table 4-4 lists actions included in this subsection. Actions W1 to W4 are grouped together as actions that help establish basic waste management services. W1, W2, and W4 specifically lay important foundations that allow for most other actions in this model to be effective (Refer to Table 4-2). These actions pertain to the following goals of basic waste management services:  Collect 100 percent of waste produced within the designated area (e.g. city or town limits)  Treat and/or dispose all collected waste in the same day  Set collection frequency and treatment methods that promote a sanitary environment As depicted in Figure 4-6, Kitakyushu went through an early stage of establishing waste management services and improving resident living conditions before shifting focus to become a more waste-conscious, resource-recycling society. While priority goals or evolution of solid waste management services may still be consistent with this Kitakyushu history, cities today need not follow this progression exactly. Early efforts to reduce waste produced and collaborate with manufacturers to identify alternative resources recycling options can widen waste management options in the future. Hence, these actions are organized under W5. Finally, this subsector concludes with W6, which consists of actions that generally involve residents to clean and manage waste left behind by city collection services, including those accumulated in drainage canals. 41 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Table 4-4. Overview of Solid Waste Management Actions Solid Waste Management Actions to Establish Basic Waste Management Services W1. Waste Storage for Collection W1-1. Fix Waste Bins at Each Household W1-2. Use Portable Containers at Each Household W1-3. Use Standard Plastic Trash Bags W1-4. Set Collection Stations for Groups of Households W2. Waste Transport W2-1. Use Collection Vehicles W2-2. Use Compaction Collection Vehicles W3. Waste Treatment (Incineration) W4. Final Disposal Actions to Improve Waste Management W5. Waste Reduction W5-1. Separate Waste W5-2. Collaborate with Manufacturers W5-3. Charge Fees for Waste Disposal W6. Maintaining a Waste-Free City Environment W6-1. Identify Waste Accumulation/Dump Sites W6-2. Collect Bulk Waste Periodically W6-3. Install Waste Bins in Public Areas W6-4. Encourage Residents to Maintain a Clean Environment Figure 4-7 presents the above actions relative to their ease of implementation. Actions that are more complex to implement may require more technical expertise or resources or higher financial investment. Actions that are presented towards the left side are relatively simpler to implement. Figure 4-7 is strictly conceptual and what is appropriate and feasible in each country or city differs depending on realities and conditions on the ground. Figure 4-7. Ease of Implementation of Solid Waste Management Actions 42 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Actions to Establish Basic Waste Management Services W1. Waste Storage for Collection Purpose/Introduction Daily domestic waste should be properly stored at each household or community for both ease of waste collection and hygiene. Proper waste storage and collection removes waste from any runoff during rain events and hence, removes it from entering the urban drainage system. W1-1. Fix Waste Bins at Each Household Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Mid $ Low Residents, Community High Advantages Disadvantages • Cheap to build, using local resources • Can become unhygienic if not cleaned properly or • Cannot be stolen structured inadequately (e.g. no covers) • Easy to maintain • Vulnerable to rain, vectors/animals, and scavengers • Secures waste in one location • Difficult to collect waste for transport W1-2. Use Portable Containers at Each Household Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $ Low Residents, Community High Advantages Disadvantages • Can be easy and cheap to purchase • Easily stolen or lost • Easy to empty and clean • Can be costly, depending on material • Has a cover to protect contents from rain and • Vulnerable to scavengers vectors • Secures waste in one location W1-3. Use Standard Plastic Bags Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $$ Mid Residents, Community High Advantages Disadvantages • Standardizes the waste disposal method • Requires budget and a continual supply and distribution • Improves efficiency of waste collection of plastic trash bags • Limited need to clean, as waste collection takes care • Increases use of plastic bags and pollution, especially if of the entire plastic trash bag. No bin or container plastics are not treated and simply disposed to clean • Reduces injures during waste collection W1-4. Set Collection Stations for Groups of Households Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $$ Low Residents, Community High Advantages Disadvantages • Easy to set and clean • May be difficult to find or come to a consensus about • If covered, can protect contents from rain and location vectors • Someone needs to be delegated to maintain the • Keeps waste from spreading collection station and possibly discourage scavengers • Keeps waste out of public view • Can be vulnerable to rain, scavengers, vectors, and • Simplifies waste collection and transport by limiting animals pickup points Important Considerations • Determine if any entity is currently collecting certain types of waste. Scavengers or CBOs, for example, may be collecting recyclables and other waste that can provide financial income. Reach out to these entities and consider if and how they could participate in the city’s waste collection services. • Regardless of the storage and collection method, covering and enclosing waste is important to keep out rain and vectors and to keep waste from spreading. 43 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Performance Indicators • Amount and prevalence of waste accumulation • Hygienic condition in the designated/communities • Number of households following the designated waste collection and storage method • Compliance of residents to designated disposal method W1-1. Fix Waste Bins at Each Household Description Fixing waste bins outside of each household clearly designates to both residents and waste collectors where to place/pick up waste. Fixed waste bins can be made of locally available materials, such as wood or bricks, although having a common design helps increase waste collection efficiency. Common designs can also improve aesthetics of scenery in the designated area/community. Necessary Existing Conditions • Willingness to pay for installation of fixed waste bins by each household • Resident understanding and trust that waste will be collected if placed in these bins. Consider holding a resident meeting (E2-1, E4-1) Important Considerations • Affordability: Determine how much it costs households to The Kitakyushu Experience install fixed bins. Can households afford this cost? Does the Kitakyushu residents installed and used fixed government need to provide assistance? How long can the waste containers up until about the 1960s. The suggested design be used? bins were made of concrete with a flip cover top • Size: Determine size according to both amount and type of and latched front door. The bins were placed over waste generated and planned collection frequency. Also the drainage canal running by homes and lined and faced the street for easy waste collection. consider whether the size is aesthetically and physically Setting permanent waste bins had the following acceptable (e.g. is it so big that it will block traffic?) benefits. • Material: Choose materials according to what is locally • Improved aesthetics of the neighborhood available and the desired longevity. Wood, for example, may • Improved hygiene decompose faster than brick if raw food waste is being stored • Minimized waste from interfering with traffic • Design: Entirely contain the waste to protect against animals, • Increased work efficiency and hygienic vectors, scavengers, odor, and weather. The bottom should condition of waste collection. be smooth and hard. Elevate the bin off the ground. • Ease of Use: Design the bin so that it is easy for households Kitakyushu provided financial incentive to and waste collectors to use. For example, elevating bins residents to purchase and install such containers. above ground and having doors that open at the front may be easier for households to use and clean the inside, and help waste collectors sweep or scoop waste out. • Ensure the design and location is culturally and socially acceptable • Consider whether residents in informal settlements require different needs Financing and Resources • Budget for installation, whether by the government or households • Resident time and effort to clean and repair these fixed waste bins • Cost to disseminate information (e.g. websites, brochures, commercials) Operation and Maintenance • Periodic cleaning to maintain a hygienic environment • Outreach to residents if disposal methods are not being followed 44 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W1-2. Use Portable Containers at Each Household Description Portable containers are an alternative to fixed waste bins. Portable containers can make waste collection more efficient, as the containers can be moved to suit household preferences and then carried to convenient locations to assist waste collection. Portable containers can be of various sizes and materials, such as • Small plastic containers with covers • Steel drums (no cover) Necessary Existing Conditions: • Willingness to pay for waste containers by each household • Resident understanding and trust that waste will be collected if placed in these bins. Consider holding a resident meeting (E2-1, E4-1) Important Considerations: • Consider whether it is more feasible to have each household purchase a waste bin from nearby stores or manufacturers or whether it makes more sense for the city government to design standardized, effective portable waste containers. • Affordability: Determine how much it costs households to purchase waste bins. Can households afford this cost? Does the government need to provide assistance? How long can the bins be used? • Size: Each household could determine the size they need, according to the amount and type of waste generated, The Kitakyushu Experience planned collection frequency, and ease of lifting and transporting. Kitakyushu used light, portable, plastic containers up until about 1970. Use of bins made collection • Material: Choose materials according to cost, durability, and efficient and had the following benefits. weight. Plastic tends to be the cheapest and lightest but • Improved aesthetics of the neighborhood perhaps the least durable to weather and use. • Improved hygiene • Design: A bin that is easy to transport and clean would be the most effective. If a city government is to design its own • Minimized waste from interfering with traffic portable waste containers, consider adding wheels or • Increased work efficiency and hygienic covers attached by hinges so that the top does not blow condition of waste collection. away. Heavier plastics can be used to improve durability but However, there were some issues, such as keep the container light. • Empty containers were easily blown around • Collection Method: Determine how to collect waste from by the wind portable bins. Do residents need to bring it out when the • Plastic was easily damaged by sunlight waste collection service comes? Alternately where should • Containers were easily stolen residents leave bins near the street, so that it does not interfere with traffic? Hence, each household had to keep an eye out for • Ensure planned systems are culturally and socially their containers or invest in new containers when needed. acceptable • Consider whether residents in informal settlements require different needs and adjust accordingly Financing and Resources: • Budget to purchase containers, whether by the government or households • Resident time and effort to clean waste containers • Cost to disseminate information (e.g. websites, brochures, commercials) Operation and Maintenance: • Periodic cleaning to maintain a hygienic environment • Outreach to residents if disposal methods are not being followed 45 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W1-3. Use Standard Plastic Bags Description City plastic bags helps improve efficiency of waste collection because they contain waste not only during storage but also throughout the collection process. They also minimize pests/vectors and odors. Because each bag is used only one time, it need not be the most durable of materials. Necessary Existing Conditions • Resident understanding and trust that waste will be collected if placed in bags. Consider holding a resident meeting and disseminating information (E2-1, E4-1) • Resident access to a continual supply of standardized plastic bags • Distribution system of the city plastic bags to all households • Willingness to use and potential pay for city plastic bags Important Considerations • Certain rules are necessary to control what types of plastic bags can be used. Each has advantages and disadvantages o City produces/purchases standardized clear bags and require that particular plastic trash bag to be used  Affordability: the city needs to consider cost of purchasing or producing standardized bags as well as a way to distribute these bags. Bags could be sold in local stores, which relatively simplifies the city’s role in distribution, or delivered directly to residents, perhaps by using the local postal system.  Cost to residents: Consider whether it is more feasible to have each household purchase city plastic trash bags or whether it makes more sense for the city government to distribute them free of charge.  Collection: Easiest and safest to collect, as appearance and size of bags are standardized and workers can see the contents inside the bag o The city designates use of transparent/translucent bags  Affordability: Cheaper for the city, as residents can use bags that are convenient to them.  Collection: Easy and safe to collect, for workers can still see the contents inside the bag. o Residents can use any plastic bag The Kitakyushu Experience  Affordability: Easiest for residents, as they can use any bag that is convenient. Kitakyushu chose to provide residents with standardized, transparent plastic bags to dispose  Collection: Less safe for workers, as opaque of waste starting around 1970. The city first bags can hide possibly dangerous content that conducted a pilot run of using these bags in could injure workers. Surprisingly heavy bags specific areas, and then collaborated with can also lead to worker injuries, such as back neighborhood associations to establish this pain, over the long term system throughout the city. • Collection system: Determine how and when these plastic The city initially distributed free plastic trash bags bags should be left out for collection. Chosen locations to households, which was successful in should be frequently enough placed and located out of the establishing a proper waste collection system way so that they do not interfere with traffic while nurturing society acceptance. However, there was, understandably, opposition when the city later started to charge residents for Financing and Resources the same plastic bags. It may be wiser to charge • Production cost of standard city plastic trash bags residents for bags from the beginning. Public • Distribution cost of the plastics bags (e.g. physical outreach and consensus building would be critical distribution means, human resources) to initiate a fee-based system. (See W5-3) • Cost to disseminate information (e.g. websites, brochures, commercials) Operation and Maintenance • If the city is producing/purchasing its own bags, maintenance of that relationship • Outreach to residents if disposal methods are not being followed 46 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W1-4. Set Collection Stations for Groups of Households Description Waste collecting stations could simplify waste collection processes, especially in areas where the housing density is high, there are many high-rise buildings, or narrow roads limit ease of waste collection. Necessary Existing Conditions • Cooperation among households at each collection station to maintain the collection station. • Waste storage/disposal by portable waste containers or plastic bags Important Considerations The Kitakyushu Experience • Setting station locations: In Kitakyushu, waste collection stations are set for o Consider the amount of waste that will be generated small groups of households or an entire high-rise and the space available. building. Some problems included: o Make sure a collection station is not uncontrollably • Odor large. • Waste scattering and leaching due to o Ensure it will not pose traffic safety issues. improper storage o Locate stations along easily accessible routes as much • Punctured bags and waste scattering from as possible. animals/birds o Check that locations are culturally and socially • Improper dumping during non-designated acceptable times • Set clear collection times and dates and adhere to them. • Improper maintenance • Establish rules about how to put out waste. Does it need Households belonging to each collection station any specific protection from pests/vectors? From need to set clear rules to prevent the above precipitation? Is bad odor an issue? problems, such as • Support residents establish clear rules to maintaining the • Setting a clear time for waste disposal (e.g. station. If they need to purchase any materials, such as 6am-9am) nets, large but easily collapsible bins, and brooms, establish • Covering waste by nets or disposing waste a fair, agreed on system to do so. Solicit help from or ask bags into bigger crates to limit waste neighborhood associations or any other local CBOs to scattering support this effort. • Establishing cleaning duties among residents • Consider whether residents in informal settlements require It is essential to involve residents to ensure station different needs and adjust accordingly maintenance. This may require investment in • Consider whether there is need for government assistance public outreach and providing information to to residents when setting waste collection station. inform residents. Financing and Resources • Resident time and effort to maintain collection stations • Cost for public outreach and disseminating information Operation and Maintenance • Periodic cleaning to maintain a hygienic environment • Outreach to residents if disposal methods are not being followed 47 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W2. Waste Transport Purpose/Introduction Proper waste transport requires selecting an affordable method, purchasing necessary vehicles and laborers, and setting practical waste collection routes that cover the entire jurisdiction. Furthermore, means to secure and protect waste on vehicles are needed so that waste scattering and odor issues are limited. W2-1. Use Collection Vehicles Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Procurement: Short $$ Low Private Companies (for High Operation: Recurrent outsourcing) Advantages Disadvantages • Allows transfer of large volumes of waste over a long • Requires capital and O&M cost distance • Requires workers for loading and lifting waste • Unhygienic working environment • Air and noise pollution W2-2. Use Compaction Collection Vehicles Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Procurement: Short $$$ Mid Private Companies (for High Operation: Recurrent outsourcing) Advantages Disadvantages • Allows transfer of large volumes of waste over a long • High capital and O&M cost distance • Air and noise pollution • Easier to control waste • Requires more technical knowledge for O&M • Requires fewer workers • A more hygienic working environment Operation and Maintenance • Commit to collecting all waste in planned areas everyday • Maintain records on collected waste volume, used fuel, and working hours • Revise routes when necessary to increase efficiency • Perform routine vehicle maintenance and repair vehicles Performance Indicators • Proportion of domestic waste collected in the city/community • Locations that waste collection vehicles never come and the frequency of this occurring • Number of total hours required to collect waste daily and weekly • Number of working staff and their hours. Number of staff experiencing work-related injuries or sickness • Number and type of complaints from residents Alternative Actions A more affordable alternative to purchasing or hiring vehicles is to rely on non-motorized vehicles/carts drawn by people, bicycle, or animals. Benefits include: • Low capital and O&M cost • Air and noise pollution free • Easier access into narrow streets, including informal settlements Disadvantages include: • Each vehicle has limited transfer volume and coverage area • Heavy reliance on human labor • Waste easily spills from the vehicles/carts Non-motorized systems of waste transport will more likely involve individual workers or CBOs. The city will need to work closely with these workers, agree on proper compensation, decide if the city will provide any tools and materials, and monitor and supervise their effectiveness. 48 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W2-1. Use Collection Vehicles Description Simple collection vehicles allow for transfer of large quantity of waste compared to using non-motorized vehicles, although larger vehicles cannot access narrower roads. Collection vehicles include the following options. • Open trucks • Tractors • High-sided, open top vehicles • Front-loading, high-sided, enclosed vehicle. Open top vehicles need to be covered during waste transport to prevent waste from scattering. The Kitakyushu Experience The Kitakyushu area began waste collection using Necessary Existing Conditions open trucks prior to its establishment in 1963. • Understanding of locations of waste collection stations, and Waste collection was provided 3 times a week to estimated waste to be collected at each stop all residents, including to those living in informal settlements. As refrigerators become more prevalent and raw Important Considerations food waste made up a smaller proportion of • Plan collection routes that will cover all waste collection generated and collected waste, waste collection of stations. Aim for efficiency. this general waste was reduced to twice a week. • Collection should occur frequently enough to prevent unsanitary conditions. • Determine the number and type of vehicles as well as the number of workers necessary The Kitakyushu Experience • Ensure vehicles have the capacity to transport the volume of waste to be collected along that route. At the onset of city waste collection services, society Make sure that assigned vehicles can access and fit on considered waste collection workers to be of low social those roads. Avoid times of heavy traffic or congested status. Working conditions were unsanitary, the work was physical, and the social norms placed additional roads. mental and emotional tolls on the workers. • If there are inaccessible neighborhoods, such as informal settlements, work with community leaders to develop a mutual solution. • Determine whether there is a need for waste transfer stations to streamline waste collection. For example, if the final landfill or waste treatment site is far, it may make sense to establish a waste transfer station to “hand off” waste to another fleet of vehicles. • Consider whether the city can hire one or several private companies to perform this service. While this will simplify city’s responsibilities, private companies may push back should less waste be generated in the future and the need for collection decreases. In Kitakyushu, the workers then staged strikes • Consider the emotional and physical stress placed on demanding improvements of their work conditions. waste collection workers, especially if society sees this Waste was uncollected during the strike period, and job as of lower status. Cooperate with workers to waste accumulated throughout the city for a week, improve work conditions, decrease odors and increase which began causing human health concerns. cleanliness. Consider having workers participate in Ultimately, the city government accepted union offers educating children about waste. and improved worker working conditions by limiting working hours and wages. Today, working conditions have drastically improved, especially with the use of Financing and Resources plastic trash bags, advances in technology that limits • Budget to purchase or hire vehicles, workers, and odors, and increases in resident awareness. Waste necessary fuel collection has become a respectable job. • Budget and capacity to purchase spare parts and perform necessary O&M • Budget for work clothes, protective gear such as boots and gloves, and tools • Human resources to plan, monitor, and implement collection routes 49 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W2-2. Use Compaction Collection Vehicles Description Use of compaction vehicles increases the volume of waste each vehicle can carry as well as improve hygiene conditions for workers. However, higher technical capacity is needed to perform appropriate O&M of these vehicles. Compaction vehicles includes: • Rear-loading hydraulic compactor • Screw compactor • Rating drum compactor Necessary Existing Conditions • Availability and affordability of compaction vehicles, spare parts, and O&M personnel • Availability of trained workers and drivers to use these vehicles • Understanding of locations of waste collection stations, and estimated waste to be collected at each stop Important Considerations • Plan collection routes that will cover all waste collection stations. Aim for efficiency. • Be aware of waste that should not be compacted, for example aerosol cans that are still pressurized. If residents do not dispose of waste appropriately, it can lead to worker accidents and injuries • Determine the number and type of vehicles as well as the number of workers necessary • Ensure vehicles have the capacity to transport the volume of waste to be collected along that route. Make sure that assigned vehicle can access and fit on those roads. Avoid times of heavy traffic or congested roads as possible. • If there are inaccessible neighborhoods, such as informal settlements, work with community leaders to develop a mutual solution. • Determine whether there is a need for waste transfer stations to streamline waste collection. For example, if the final landfill or waste treatment site is far, it may make sense to establish a waste transfer station to “hand off” waste to another fleet of vehicles. • Consider whether the city can hire one or several private companies to perform this service. While this will simplify city’s responsibilities, private companies may push back should less waste be generated in the future and the need for collection decreases. • Consider the emotional and physical stress placed on waste collection workers, especially if society sees this job as of The Kitakyushu Experience lower status. Work with the workers to improve work As mentioned under important considerations, conditions, decrease odors and increase cleanliness. some domestic waste should not be compacted, Consider having workers participate in educating children such as aerosol cans which can leak flammable gas about waste. during compaction. There are cases in Kitakyushu where workers are injured because residents dispose of these materials inappropriately. Financing and Resources As one way to address this issue, Kitakyushu • Budget to purchase or hire vehicles, workers, and necessary disseminates information to residents, asking fuel them to entirely use or release the can contents prior to its disposal. • Budget and capacity to purchase spare parts and perform necessary O&M • Budget for work clothes, protective gear such as boots and gloves, and tools • Human resources to plan, monitor, and implement collection routes 50 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W3. Waste Treatment (Incineration) Purpose/Introduction Incineration reduces waste volume to less than a quarter, increasing longevity of existing landfills. Incineration also kills any pathogens, so the resulting ash is more hygienic than waste left untreated. However, incineration plants need to be properly designed and operated to handle or reduce emissions of harmful pollutants. Planning, design, and construction require high capital investment and technical capacity. Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Construction: Long $$$ High Engineers, Private Companies (if High Operation: Recurrent outsourcing) Advantages Disadvantages • Reduces waste volume and pollution in landfills, • High capital and O&M costs allowing for cleaner and longer use of the same • Requires highly skilled engineers and technology to landfill design, operate, and maintain the plant • Manages large volumes of solid waste • Proper incineration processes and treatment of • If running a 24 hour incineration plant, the plant can emissions are necessary to control dioxin emissions produce heat and electricity and other sources of air pollution • Ash produced at high temperatures can be recycled and mixed in with cement to form concrete • Eliminates production of methane gas in landfills Description While it is possible to operate a non-24-hour incineration plant, it has many drawbacks, such as: • Relighting and reheating the plant to the necessary temperature everyday requires fuel, while once running, an incineration plant produces energy it needs to keep operating • A 24 hour plant can produce enough energy to provide excess electricity and heat to nearby users • Emissions and ash produced during warming up and cooling down includes harmful pollutants which are released into the environment Hence, this action promotes and provides information for a 24-hour incineration system. It is estimated that a 24 The Kitakyushu Experience hour system becomes possible with a daily waste Land acquisition and getting resident agreement for incineration demand of 2,000 to 3,000 tons. construction of incineration plants (and landfills) are generally difficult. It usually instigates a not-in-my- backyard attitude and requires consideration of Necessary Existing Conditions environmental justice issues. • Technical capacity to design, construct, operate, and To obtain resident agreement, Kitakyushu offered to maintain plants and facilities, including mechanics construct community facilities, such as playgrounds, a and operators multipurpose sports field, a swimming pool, and • Sufficient waste collection volume to make the gymnasiums, and develop incineration plant tour incineration process efficient courses, as compensation for inconveniences. • Workers on shifts that accommodate a 24-hour Construction of such facilities was possible, because schedule Kitakyushu had acquired double the size of necessary • Landfills to accommodate generated ash land, looking ahead 30 to 40 years, when a new plant will have to be constructed. The city planned to construct the new plant while the old plant would still Important Considerations be in commission. Hence, these community facilities were built on open, unused land until construction for • Incinerate all collected waste within 24 hours for h f ili i b sanitary reasons • Waste Characteristics: incineration process must match waste composition, volume, density, and water content • Land Acquisition: o Locate plants where there will be minimal impacts to the environment and communities but not too far 51 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions from the city and landfills. o Choose a location that is also safe from natural disasters o Consider the waste transportation route and whether existing roads can accommodate this increased truck traffic. Nearby residents may also not appreicate a constant stream of waste trucks. If needed, acquire land, plan, and construct alternative roads. • Design: Consult specialists in the area. The incineration process should be at a high enough temperatures, for example, over 800 degrees C to eliminate dioxins in emissions, to reduce hazardous or toxics substances in emissions and in remaining ash • Determine the number of plants according to waste volumes and ease of collection • Realize that all machinery/processes/plants cannot be used during required maintenance and repair. Determine if the plant needs to be designed to include backup or excess incineration capacity to allow for proper maintenance • Consider whether the city incineration plant needs to also accommodate waste other than domestic waste or if the city is going to require businesses to be responsible for disposing of their own commercial waste. If the city is to accommodate commercial waste, design the plant with incineration needs of that waste in mind. Financing and Resources The Kitakyushu Experience • Capital and recurrent cost for plants and facilities • Skilled human resources. If needed, consider outsourcing plant To improve safety and reliability of waste operations, maintenance, and/or repair to private businesses treatment and control impacts to the environment and residents Kitakyushu has for increased efficiency and hiring of more specialized workers. taken the following actions. • A 24-hour incineration plant allows electricity and heat • Prepare an accident prevention plan production to fuel the process itself and also to sell it back to • Establish a registration system for the city or nearby industries. private sector incineration plants • If the city is treating trash for non-household entities, such as • Require registered private businesses to commercial businesses or industries, consider if the city should prepare their own plans to minimize charge them a fee for the service impacts to the environment and residents Operation and Maintenance • Ignition and extinction as necessary for 24 hours operation • Monitor key plant indicators to ensure proper operations of plant processes, such as incineration temperature, air flow, and flow of waste through the process. • Perform preventive maintenance and repairs as necessary • Plant parts can be renovated in sections, but this rotational renovation results in the instrumentation and equipment process to be entirely replaced in about 30 years • Consider full plant renovations to improve building structures and to install new technologies if relevant Performance Indicators • Various environmental indicators, such as air pollution concentrations, noise, and odor • Number of complaints from residents • Frequency and volume of waste that does not get incinerated within 24 hours • Volume of waste treated daily 52 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions The Kitakyushu Experience Kitakyushu opened its first batch process-based incineration plant in 1952 for the following reasons. • Lack of landfill space. Incineration allows for longer use of each landfill • Waste is prone to quick decomposition and attracts vectors in Kitakyushu’s warm, humid climate, while a lack of space means any landfill of untreated waste will still be located in close proximity to residents. Incineration provided a more sanitary option, for instance, reducing risk of diseases and rats, with less environmental justice issues Kitakyushu opened its first 24-hour incineration plant in 1973 and hired a heavy industry-based private company to manage operations. 24-hour incineration was the chosen alternative, because: • Waste volume increased • Hazardous emissions would be reduced • The incineration process would be more efficient and produce constantly higher quality ash Kitakyushu estimated design capacity of the plant assuming a daily waste generation rate of 1kg per capita. The Japanese national government provided a 50 percent subsidy for the plants, as one way to help clean and mitigate for the environmental pollution in the area. Alternative Actions Refer to the sector model “Waste Management” of the Kitakyushu Model for alternative treatment methods, such as gasification, refuse derived fuels, and pyrolysis. Recycling, composting, and resources extraction could be approached also as alternatives to waste treatment that prevents waste from being landfilled. 53 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Action W4. Final Disposal (Sanitary Landfills) Purpose/Introduction Open dumping has many disadvantages, such as generation of odor, spread of communicable diseases, groundwater pollution from leachate, generation of methane gas, and scavenger injures. Properly managed landfills, in contrast, provide a more hygienic environment with improvements to reduce environmental impacts. Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Construction: Mid-Long $$$ High - - Operation: Recurrent Advantages Disadvantages • Reduces negative environmental impacts to water • Requires expansive land or space resources, air quality, and climate change with proper • Requires operation and maintenance, including management heavy machines for spreading, compacting and • Reduces risk of spread of communicable diseases covering waste on land • Possible to generate gas and odor through poor O&M • Possible to access waste picker with poor O&M Description Sanitary landfills are designed dumpsites, usually consisting of layers of soil/aggregate, liners, covers, and a way to release generated gas, so that environmental impacts can be minimized. Sanitary landfills can be designed to accommodate a variety of waste. A landfill dedicated to disposing ash cakes from incineration plants would require less protection in both design and O&M compared to a generic landfill that accepts untreated waste. Necessary Existing Conditions • Sufficiently sized access roads that allows easy movement of heavy machinery and trucks for waster transport and site management • Availability of necessary heavy machinery and their operators • Technical human resources, such as environmental engineers and planners, with understanding of landfill design and pollution management • Land or landfill spaces at affordable prices Important Considerations • Site selection o Perform geotechnical studies of potential sites. Choose a location that minimizes risk of groundwater/surface water contamination o Strike a balance between locating the landfill far enough to reduce negative impacts to nearby residents but close enough to waste collection areas or treatment plants to reduce transport cost. Inform residents and CBOs along heavily used routes. o Undergo a responsible land acquisition process. Consider the current use of land and if any services or people can or need to be relocated. Consider any negative impacts to nearby neighborhoods and inform them about the planned landfill. Reach out to current landowners and negotiate for an affordable cost. Follow national or city regulations of land acquisition and proper compensation. o Consider potential use of the land after the landfill is closed, instead of choosing a site that will permanently become useless. • Design o Perform geotechnical studies. Design and install appropriate soil/aggregate layers, liners, gas collection trenches, and leachate collection and surface drainages. o Plan for sufficient covers to protect disposed waste from weather, water, and scattering by the wind o Design and install barriers to minimize unwanted residents and animals from accessing the site o Estimate not only current but expected waste generation volumes and characteristics into the future to 54 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions determine capacity of the site. Landfill design depends on the type of waste disposed and the risks they pose. Ash cakes from high temperature incinerators are more stable than decomposing raw domestic waste. • Restore the land after landfill closure and ideally, convert the land to other safe uses. • Consider if any portion of landfill projects and O&M can or should be outsourced to private businesses for increased efficiency and/or hiring of technical personnel Financing and Resources • Budget for land acquisition and planning, design, and operation and maintenance of the landfill. • Budget to purchase, operate, and maintain heavy machinery, such as trucks, bulldozers, sprinkle trucks, and compactors, for spreading, compacting and covering disposed waste • Engineers, planners, construction workers, and O&M personnel • Other tools and equipment needed for daily operations Operation and Maintenance • Compact and cover disposed waste daily to prevent odor, burning, growth of vectors, and attracting animals • Prevent water pools from forming by compacting and covering waste in a uniform profile • Monitor for and remove any animal nests • Keep a record of key indicators (see below) • Develop a system that keeps a tight control over who has permission to access the site. The Kitakyushu Experience Located in a land-scarce area and immediately Performance Indicators next to the ocean, the easiest landfill location in • Nearby groundwater/surface water quality Kitakyushu was offshore. Once filled, • Number and type of complaints from residents, such as noise, Kitakyushu uses these post-landfill sites as new land. scattering of waste, and other environmental impacts • Number of working hours and staff injuries or sickness at the landfill • Daily disposed waste volumes 55 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Actions to Improve Waste Management W5. Waste Reduction Purpose/Introduction Waste reduction becomes increasingly important to lengthen the life of landfills. Increasing capacity of incineration plants and landfills are costly, so cities have incentive to find alternative waste disposal methods. Simultaneously, diversification of waste presents opportunities to better make use of these resources. For example, glass bottles could be cleaned, sanitized, and re-used. Plastics can be recycled by reprocessing them into new plastic products. Paper can also be recycled into different paper based products, such as toilet paper. Organic waste could be composted to produce fertilizer, and household appliances can be dissected to re-extract rare metals for reuse. As a result of waste reduction and recycling efforts, waste collected from Kitakyushu households decreased by 34 percent from 2003 to 2015. W5-1. Separate Waste Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $ Low All Residents, Waste Collection High Companies (if outsourcing) Advantages Disadvantages • Helps reduce waste that is disposed • Requires all residents to understand and comply with • Allows efficient use of resources if combined with waste separation rules recycling efforts • Requires a more coordinated waste collection system • Raises resident awareness about waste and resources issues W5-2. Collaborate with Manufacturers Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $ Low All Residents High Advantages Disadvantages • Helps reduce waste that is disposed • Costly for both industries to invest in new processes, • Allows efficient use of resources infrastructure, and R&D. • Requires minimal investment for the city • Could increase cost of products to include the end-of- • Increases collaboration and relationships between life or recycling costs the city and its industries W5-3. Charge Fees for Waste Disposal Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $ Mid All Residents High Advantages Disadvantages • Provides economic incentive to reduce waste • Could result in increases in illegal waste disposal • Provides some income stream to the city to offset • Could encourage residents to dispose waste in some costs or to invest in other initiatives adjacent cities or communities where waste disposal • Raises resident awareness about waste and is cheaper resources issues Performance Indicators • Amount of waste produced or collected per person per day • Amount of waste incinerated or disposed • Frequency or extent of resident difficulty with waste separation Alternative Actions Composting is an alternative way to treat and reuse organic waste. Proper management is necessary to ensure composting does not produce odors or vectors and that it produces high quality fertilizer that is marketable if done at a large scale. Composting at the household scale is also effective as long as sanitary conditions are maintained. Refer to the sector model “Waste Management” of the Kitakyushu Model for more in depth discussion of recycling and other processes after waste separation 56 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W5-1. Separate Waste Description Waste separation allows each type of waste to be handled in a way that is best suited for that type of waste. Some waste, such as metals for example, may be better recycled and reused, and even if incinerated, will not become ash. Creating different waste reuse, recycle, or waste disposal streams ultimately reduces waste that is disposed in landfills. Having residents participate in the initial separation process also creates and opportunity for residents to learn and reexamine products or items they use and are disposing. Necessary Existing Conditions • Residents and waste collection services capable and willing to separate trash and appropriately collect and handle each type. • Organization of explanatory meetings, receiving resident feedback, and providing informative material (E2-1, E4-1) • Cooperation from or availability of any necessary recycling plants or manufacturers to make use of each waste category (W5-2) Important Considerations • Clearly decide how each type of waste should be put out for collection. Using transparent plastic bags or open crates can be an easy way for residents and waste collection crew to ensure that the correct waste is being put out for collection. Inform residents of the chosen method. • Waste collection services will need rearranging to accommodate different waste streams. Waste The Kitakyushu Experience categories for recycling, for example, need to be Kitakyushu began asking residents to separate waste in 1993 transported to different locations than starting with cans and glass bottles. The intent was to incineration plants or landfills. Raw food waste decrease waste the city generated and to promote recycling. may require collection a few times a week for When residents were asked about what they thought about sanitary reasons, while collection for metals this new idea, residents replied that more efficiently using or could be once or twice a month. reusing resources and becoming a more environmentally friendly city fit with their values. • Some waste could be collected outside of city waste collection services. For example, Separate collection of plastic bottles started in 1997, paper electronics could be collected by the containers and white Styrofoam trays in 2000, fluorescent manufacturer or electronic stores. Collaboration lights and colored Styrofoam trays in 2002, and various plastics in 2006. with these entities is critical. • If the city had been relying on private businesses Today, Kitakyushu residents separate waste into the following to collect and transport waste, changes in waste types for the given collection frequency. collection systems will possibly decrease work • Aluminum and steel cans and glass bottles –once a week for these companies. Provide sufficient notice to • Plastic products – once a week these businesses and alter contracts if needed. • Paper (cardboard boxes, magazines, newspapers) –once a • Complete cooperation by residents is necessary. month Organize resident meetings, reach out to CBOs • Clothes and cloth –anytime at collection boxes in markets for support, develop informational materials and • Batteries – anytime at collection boxes in markets reference materials for residents. • Metals –anytime at collection boxes in markets • Electronics/household appliances – anytime by Financing and Resources manufacturers • Staff and budget to potentially cover increases in • Remaining household waste (organic waste, scraps of waste collection cost, due to increase in papers, unrecyclable plastics )– twice a week collection rounds. Consider outsourcing to Because Kitakyushu incinerates its waste, even if waste is not private businesses if applicable. perfectly separated, the plant and landfill usually handle it • Staff and budget to cover public outreach without causing pollution issues. Operation and Maintenance • Refer to operation of W2-1 and W2-2 for O&M of waste collection systems • Maintain clean and hygienic environment at the waste collection station or location 57 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W5-2. Collaborate with Manufacturers Description Waste separation (W5-1) is meaningless without first securing an alternate waste processing stream for each category of waste. Collaboration with manufacturers also presents opportunity to minimize resources use, improving the product so that it uses less resources and produces less waste. Necessary Existing Conditions • Existing communication means and relationships with industries and manufacturers (E1-1). • Intent on both the city and industries sides to together work towards waste reduction (E1-2). Important Considerations The Kitakyushu Experience • Discuss with manufacturers or industries what kind of product improvements and recycling will Home to numerous industries, Kitakyushu had the benefit of be possible and what cooperation from the city having local manufacturers who were very cooperative with the city’s waste reduction initiatives. Below are some example would be necessary to implement it. partnerships. • Realize that recycling plastics or paper, for • Mitsubishi Corporation and other partner companies example, requires development of such agreed to invest in construction of plastic bottle recycling technology and construction of a recycling plant plants. to create new products. This takes tremendous money and time investment for a private • After several years, the global market demand for company. recyclable plastic bottles increased. The national trend was to export this waste instead of processing it in- • Realize that recollecting electronics, for example, country to reduce cost. However, Kitakyushu kept its side and re-extracting useful parts or heavy metals of the bargain and did not choose the cheaper option. The also require industries to invest in research and history of cooperation and valuing the relationship with development and reorganizing the local companies was decided to be more important. manufacturing process. This takes tremendous Further, reliance on foreign markets to dispose money and time investment for a private recyclables outside Kitakyushu would increase the city’s company. susceptibility to global market trends and increase the • Discuss the best way to collect each waste risk of not being able to properly treat and dispose of city category. Plastics may make sense for the city to waste, which was deemed unacceptable. collect if it is frequently discarded, while a • Under Kitakyushu’s request, Toshiba Corporation agreed toaster made by Company A may make the most to collaborate and invest in recycling plants for sense for Company A to decide how to recollect household appliances that met the national Home its own products. Appliance Recycling Law. Toshiba further promised to invest in other manufacturers recycling plants and R&D Financing and Resources of recycling processes. Their efforts led to the • Staff to collaborate with industries to develop a redevelopment of product designs that allowed for easier waste reduction plan or process recycling without increasing product cost to the consumer. • Staff and budget to cover any public outreach taken on by the city • Yoshikawa Kyogo, a steel manufacturing-related company in Kitakyushu, also developed a new car recycling process • Reach out to national or provincial governments, so that a car could be recycled almost entirely. With as applicable, to see if any financial help is collaboration with Mitsubishi Corporation and Nippon available to industries. Steel and Sumitomo Metal Corporation, Yoshikawa Kyogo constructed a recycling plant, which saw numerous Operation and Maintenance visitors, including from car manufacturers. The national • Periodic communication with industries and Japanese government incorporated this car recycling making any necessary adjustments process in the End-of-life Vehicle Recycling Law. 58 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W5-3. Charge Fees for Waste Disposal Description Charging fees aims to encourage residents to: • Reduce waste The Kitakyushu Experience • Dispose of recyclables separately Necessary Existing Conditions • Organization of resident informational meetings and receiving resident feedback (see E2-1) • Resident understanding and agreement with the new process • Similar initiatives and collaboration with surrounding cities and communities to prevent residents from disposing waste in adjacent cities because it is significantly cheaper. Kitakyushu charges residents for city plastic waste bags and requires their use for waste disposal. Current prices Important Considerations are as below. • Consider resident’s capacity and willingness to pay as • 45L bag - 0.50 U.S. Dollar (USD) well as any additional costs to the city when setting • 30L bag - 0.30USD fees. Compare fees also to neighboring areas to ensure • 20L bag - 0.20USD they are not significantly different. • 10L bag - 0.10USD • Fees should be according to disposed weight or volume to encourage waste reduction, instead of it being a flat fee. Decide how to best charge fees. It could be requiring residents to purchase plastic trash bags of certain volumes or another creative method The Kitakyushu Experience that works for residents, is simple, and is efficient. Kitakyushu experienced resident reluctance when first • If requiring residents to purchase plastic trash bags or beginning to charge fees in 1998 for designated plastic any other material, determine how to sell them. This waste bags, something the city had been providing for free. Residents finally agreed when the city government may involve paying distributers and local markets to agreed to price the bag at about the unit cost of stock these city bags throughout the community. production, which was 0.10 USD for a 45 L bag. • Develop informational materials to guide residents on The city provided the first 10 bags for free so that the new process and system (E4-1). residents could get accustomed to using these new bags. • Invest in extra patrols and surveillance if increases in The city also patrolled and supervised waste collection, waste dumping is a concern (W6-1). If waste disposal paying about 10 USD daily for volunteers to help with costs to the resident are significantly different, it could this task. The city also sent out extra patrols to look for lead to an increase in waste inflow from neighboring illegal waste disposal or dumping, but that did not become an issue. cities. However, the price was too cheap. Neighboring areas were charging more for their standard plastic trash Financing and Resources bags, so non-city residents had begun purchasing city • Budget to cover production and distribution cost of the trash bags and disposing of the waste within city city plastic trash bags boundaries on their way to work. • Staff to plan and organize the new fee system The city then adjusted the price so that it matched those of neighboring areas. Kitakyushu also started charging • Staff for public outreach for plastic recycling bags, although at a price lower than that for general waste. Operation and Maintenance Any fees collected over the production cost are used to • Conduct studies to determine effectiveness of charging purchase cleaning supplies and tools to support local fees to reduce waste. Revise prices accordingly. waste-pick up or cleaning efforts. Performance Indicator for Option: • Waste volumes entering incineration plants or landfills 59 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W6. Maintaining a Waste-Free City Environment Purpose/Introduction Litter brings more litter, meaning when there is already waste on the ground, people tend to litter and add to it, while it is much more difficult to be the one who initially litters the otherwise clean environment. Accumulation of litter leads to informal waste dump sites. Reducing waste dumping is not simple. A solution requires a raising resident awareness and sense of responsibility as well as enforcement of city ordinances. W6-1. Identify Waste Accumulation/Dump Sites Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $$ Low Residents, Private Companies (if High outsourcing) Advantages Disadvantages • Allows the city to clean identified sites to discourage • Require human resources to patrol and to clean future dumping • Improves aesthetics and hygiene of the area W6-2. Collect Bulk Waste Periodically Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $$ Low Residents, Private Companies (if High outsourcing) Advantages Disadvantages • Helps reduce waste dumping • May require extra budget to offer bulk collection • Improves aesthetics and hygiene of the area services W6-3. Install Waste Bins in Public Areas Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $ Low Private Companies or Organizations High Managing Public Areas Advantages Disadvantages • Helps reduce waste dumping and littering • Risk of waste bins being stolen • Improves aesthetics and hygiene of the area • Increases city waste collection points • Residents may dispose their household waste in public bins, which may cause issues if, for example, the city it charging for services • May cause littering in the immediate vicinity of the waste bins W6-4. Encourage Residents to Maintain a Clean City Environment Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurrent $ Low Residents, Industries, Businesses, High NPOs/NGOs Advantages Disadvantages • Can be an opportunity to learn of best practices • None • Help support other communities • Encourage residents to take initiative Performance Indicators • Frequency and distribution of waste dumping • Participation level of residents and community groups 60 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W6-1. Identify Waste Accumulation/Dump Sites Description Once effective waste collection services are established and residents understand the correct ways to dispose of waste, people who intentionally dump waste will do so in easy to dump areas or areas that are less visible. Prevention of waste dumping includes patrolling areas prone to waste dumping, identifying sites, and quickly removing them if found. Patrols and identification of waste accumulation can include the following activities. • Install surveillance cameras • Patrol by city government staff • Install notice boards informing residents about monitoring and patrolling activities Necessary Existing Conditions • An accessible alternative to waste dumping, such as reliable city waste management services that reaches all parts of the city (W1, W2, W4). Patrolling and identifying waste accumulation and dump sites are meaningless if such a condition is the norm. • Equipment and staff for patrol and monitoring activities Important Considerations • The same dump sites tend to be used repeatedly, and if so, fake cameras, real cameras, and notice boards can be effective in those locations. If installing real operating cameras, realize that someone needs to be checking the video/images periodically. • If waste naturally accumulates or collects in certain locations, determine their sources and invest in public outreach and cleaning activities specific to those areas. • Establish a hot line, so that residents can inform the government of any waste accumulation issues (E1-1, D2-4) • Once a dump site is identified, it must be removed. Consider who should be held responsible for cleaning. If the city is going to be responsible, consider vehicles and equipment necessary to access the site and to transport the waste to appropriate locations • Identify those responsible for dumping waste. This could be through surveillance cameras or if strong relationships are developed between the city government and communities, residents may know those that are responsible. Devise non-confrontational ways to request proper waste disposal. This could be holding an extra informational The Kitakyushu Experience meeting in that area, delivering brochures in that area, and Kitakyushu generally requires people responsible asking CBOs or community leaders to be extra vigilant. for the waste dumping to return, collect, and re- • If waste dumping is a widespread issue, it may be dispose of the waste correctly. Hence, Kitakyushu necessary to clearly issue a city ordinance that establishes invests in searching for the responsible party by, penalties and fines for waste dumping and/or littering. for example, examining the disposed waste to determine its original owner. Financing and Resources • Budget to purchase, use, and maintain vehicles, cameras, and other necessary equipment • Staff for monitoring and patrol or budget and contract to hire private companies for the task Operation and Maintenance • Keep records of waste accumulation and dump site locations, the volume of waste found, and the frequency at which those sites are identified and cleaned. • Periodically check and maintain equipment, such as surveillance cameras. 61 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W6-2. Collect Bulk Waste Periodically Description Household bulk waste includes large items, such as furniture, bedding, rugs, and appliances, that cannot be recycled (if that is a waste disposal option) and too large to handle within the regular waste collection system. Most households may not have access to vehicles, such as trucks, to transport these items to designated locations, which may lead to unwanted dumping in nearby areas. Hence, the city government can provide bulk waste collection services periodically. Necessary Existing Conditions • Space to accommodate bulk waste collection • Capacity within city waste management services or partnering industries to recycle, treat, or dispose of the collected waste Important Considerations • Consider how often bulk waste collection should take place. It could be designated days within the year when there is high demand, and/or the city could provide the service once requested from residents. Inform residents of the chosen service (E4-1). • Decide whether to provide the service for free of charge or if the city will require a fee. A fee may make more sense if the city is on-call to provide these services. If collecting money, consider its affordability to residents, since the city would like residents to use this service than to dump waste in a nearby field or river. • Designate pickup location and time. See important considerations outlined in W1-4. • Ensure the city has the appropriate vehicles to collect bulk waste (see W2-1). • Consider if it makes more sense for the city to outsource collection to a private business. The Kitakyushu Experience Kitakyushu used to collect bulk waste free of Financing and Resources charge, two to three times a year from designated locations. In 1994, however, the city began • Budget and staff to collect transport, and dispose of bulk charging for this service, because increasing waste proportions of bulk waste consisted of • Fees collected from requested services (if applicable) commercial, manufacturing, or industrial waste, • Staff to perform necessary public outreach the disposal for which is not the city’s responsibility. As a result, annual bulk waste collected by Kitakyushu reduced from 29,000 tons in 1993 to 4,000 tons in 1994, and this bulk waste Operation and Maintenance collection rate has since been consistent. • Consider performing quick resident satisfaction surveys to determine if any adjustments to the service are needed 62 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W6-3. Install Waste Bins in Public Areas Description Waste bins in public areas, such as city centers, tourist areas, bus stations, train stations, and parks, can provide residents and users an alternative to littering. Necessary Existing Conditions • Cooperation from any organizations, businesses, or agencies managing the public area, such as parks departments or bus/train companies. • Resident understanding or lack of incentive to steal installed waste bins • Established city waste management services (W1, W2, W4) Important Considerations • Waste bin design: the bins should be durable to weather and frequent public use. Consider securing the bins on the ground to prevent theft. A consistent color and design would allow for easy recognition of waste bins as well as improve city aesthetics. • Determine location and distribution of waste bin installation. Consider the volume of waste potentially The Kitakyushu Experience generated and waste type. If this action is to address Kitakyushu had installed public waste bins to littering, clean the litter and set waste bins in those prevent littering. Initially, the public bins helped locations to provide an alternative way to dispose of the decrease littering in Kitakyushu, but this became waste. Consider setting multiple waste bins to allow for less and less of an issue as resident awareness of waste separation. proper waste management increased over the years. • Consider the possibility that nearby residents may dispose of regular household waste in public waste bins. This may Eventually, issues associated with public waste not be effective, for example, if the city is trying to charge bins became more evident, which included fees for waste disposed by the household. disposal of regular household waste in public bins and overflowing and scattered waste from the • Coordination with any organizations, businesses, or bins. After deliberating, the city decided to remove agencies managing the public area. Clarify which party is all public waste bins in 1993, the same year the responsible for waste collection, waste bin maintenance, city began charging residents fees for waste and cleaning. disposal. • Determine necessary waste collection from waste bins set At the same time, the city invested more in in public areas. These could simply be additions to waste education of its residents to prevent littering and collection stations planned and managed in W1-4. asking each to be responsible for taking their waste home for proper disposal. Financing and Resources • Budget and staff for waste collection, transport, and disposal • Public outreach or education to teach residents to use available waste bins instead of littering Operation and Maintenance • Periodic cleaning and replacing of public waste bins as necessary 63 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions W6-4. Encourage Residents to Maintain a Clean City Environment Description Resident driven, local, grassroots efforts to clean, pick-up litter, and maintain a clean, livable living environment is integral to maintaining a clean city overall. A small amount of effort from each resident can manage feats that a city government could never do on its own. Specific activities the government could engage in to encourage grassroots efforts include the following (also refer to E1 and E2). • Helping residents organize themselves into working groups that hold waste pick-up days or cleaning days to maintain their immediate environment. • Supporting activities by providing tools, such as plastic waste bags or gloves • Supporting activities by sending government staff to participate • Selecting model areas to recognize the community’s hard work and contributions. Necessary Existing Conditions • Established city waste management services (W1, W2, W4) • Community level organizations or associations and people with time and resources to participate in local activities • Shared values among residents that maintaining a clean living environment is important and worthwhile Important Considerations The Kitakyushu Experience: • Coordinate with local community groups and determine if there are needs that the city can help address. In 1994, Kitakyushu passed “the Kitakyushu City ordinance to prevent littering.” As a part of this • Recognize that in addition to residents, the city also ordinance, the city government began designating consists of private businesses, industries, schools, “beautiful city areas” or “model areas” and NGOs/NPOs, and many potential informal networks. Be assigning each at least one “beautiful city creative as to how each group can contribute. promoter.” The promoter organizes clean-up events and increases awareness by distributing • Consider recognizing “model areas” and/or specific flyers and promotional materials. Up until a few resident groups. If so, decided how often to recognize an years ago, promoters also spoke with people who area. Ensure the selection is fair and does not always litter the area. The objective of these actions is to recognize areas that are more affluent or of a certain ethnic promote and increase visibility of “clean areas” group or class. Remember the purpose is to encourage and thereby encourage more people to partake in resident, grassroots initiatives around the city. such activities. Hence, “model areas” were usually set in publically visible areas, such as by the main • Disseminate the information effectively, including model train station or in areas where residents or areas and best practices (E2-2, E4-1) communities were especially active. • Take advantage of the local environment. For example, In collaboration with residents and industry, the children playing in public parks or inner city rivers tend to city additionally organizes events to increase discourage people from intentionally polluting or littering awareness of the importance of maintaining a these areas. clean living environment. Example events include: • Organizing a biannual “Make our City Financing and Resources Beautiful and Clean Campaign” • Budget and staff to support resident activities (if • Recognizing a “Clean Community Building applicable) Week” • Designating the first Sunday of every October as the “Make Our City Beautiful Together Day” Operation and Maintenance and encouraging many local groups to clean • Publicize and disseminate information about best practices roads, parks, rivers, and beaches during the and lessons learned from successful areas to other early fall season. neighborhoods (also see E4-1) Kitakyushu provides volunteer groups that clean city roads, parks, rivers, and other public areas Performance Indicators with “Make Our City Beautiful” plastic trash bags for free. Cleaning of multi-residential buildings is • Number of active resident groups, and their type of excluded from this service. activities, and frequency of those activities • Number and distribution of “model areas” and other groups or areas that have received recognition. 64 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions 4.5 Urban Drainage Urban drainage infrastructure collects and conveys rainwater from urban areas into waterbodies to prevent urban flooding. This infrastructure is particularly important in urban settings because:  Impervious areas increase surface runoff and prevent natural drainage  Higher population, waste, and asset densities increase flood risk, health risk, and potential damages River basinwide flood risk management (e.g. landuse planning within the floodplain, levee construction, multipurpose dam construction, large scale retention basin construction) and urban flood risk management (e.g. managing rainfall that falls and flows through the city) together secure a safe urban living environment. These are fundamental in a city’s growth. Basic discussion of basinwide flood risk as well as planning, design, and construction of drainage infrastructure to manage urban flood risk are not the focus of this subsector model. This introduction on urban drainage is limited to a brief overview of drainage infrastructure components, using a combined sewer system (CSS) as a schematic. Rather, this subsector model focuses primarily on adaptation, improvement, and maintenance of existing urban drainage infrastructure to maintain urban drainage capacity. Numerous free resources and extensive textbooks discuss the field of urban drainage more extensively, including the World Bank’s Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century (2012) as well as Kitakyushu Model sector “Water Management.” Figure 4-8 presents a schematic of urban runoff and drainage infrastructure assuming a CSS. CSS is a system where both stormwater runoff and domestic wastewater are conveyed, treated, and discharged as one system. In comparison, separate sewer systems (SSS) provide separate networks for the two discharge streams. In Figure 4-8, blue arrows indicate stormwater flow while brown arrows indicate wastewater flow. Some runoff always infiltrates underground, percolating to groundwater basins (Circle 1 in Figure 4-8). Impervious areas, however, significantly reduce infiltration and increase surface runoff, which collects in gutters and drainage channels as stormwater (Circle 2) or in ponds or detention basins (Circle 3). Detention basins provide storage of runoff and an opportunity for infiltration, helping to decrease flows within the urban drainage system and receiving natural waterbodies. Runoff from both Circle 2 and Circle 3 enter underground pipes that carry domestic wastewater, which requires treatment before being discharged into a nearby water body (Circle 5). There can be underground storage (Circle 4) to control flow throughout the system, accommodate times of high flow, and to reduce combined sewer overflows (CSOs). CSOs are untreated discharges from CSS, necessary to prevent upstream flooding, but detrimental to the water quality and environment of the receiving water body. Figure 4-8. Schematic of a Combined Sewer System The interplay of solid waste and urban flood risk occurs at points of open drainage, specifically, Circle 2 and Circle 3. Waste that accumulates in these structures can restrict runoff from entering the urban drainage system and cause inundation. Hence, half of the actions focus specifically on preventing waste 65 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions accumulation in this part of the system, using both infrastructural and maintenance methods. The model assumes some form of urban drainage infrastructure exists. At the same time, in developing countries, urban drainage infrastructure capacity itself is usually inadequate to cope with runoff. Addressing systemwide urban drainage challenges require examining the entire system, Circles 1 through 5. This model does not present a holistic approach to urban drainage planning and design, but provides some suggested actions to a rapidly growing city, explaining important considerations when expanding or improving existing urban drainage systems. These considerations make up the second half of the urban drainage actions. 4.5.1 Urban Drainage and Kitakyushu Development Kitakyushu officially became a municipality in 1963 with the merging of five former smaller “cities.” Construction of citywide wastewater and urban drainage systems began simultaneously, beginning with the construction of the first wastewater treatment plant, the Kougasaki Treatment Plant, that same year, as shown in Figure 4-9. Kitakyushu originally constructed a CSS, because one of the top city priorities in the 1960s and 1970s was to provide flushing toilets and wastewater services to its residents while also providing much needed urban drainage systems. Table 4-5 presents the advantages and disadvantages of CSOs. The 1970s also was the period of river levee construction, as depicted on the timeline in Figure 4-9, which allowed Kitakyushu to then focus on planning and building urban drainage systems. It is around 1970 that the city additionally began constructing SSSs as feasible for new developments. Urban drainage infrastructure, thus, expanded rapidly in the 1970s, to the point that the city developed and used its own standard reinforced concrete pipes to lower costs. River, sewer/urban drainage, and road departments worked together to provide adequate services as quickly and comprehensively as possible. Again, as shown in Figure 4-9, early investments in infrastructure predated the rise in GDP. Demand for extensions and improvements to the urban drainage system, as well as demands to improve levees and river structures continues today. One major initiative today is to better manage CSOs and the water quality, environmental, and public health impacts they pose, so that residents can enjoy a cleaner, healthier living environment. 66 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Data Sources: GDP per Capita: Economic and Social Research Institute, 2015 and International Monetary Fund, 2017 Access to Wastewater Services and Coverage of Urban Drainage: Kitakyushu City, 2017 Notes: - Access to wastewater services is the proportion of the city population that has access to wastewater services, where the wastewater receives treatment before final discharge into natural waterbodies. - Coverage of urban drainage refers to the proportion of the designated area that receives sufficient flood risk protection from a 5-year storm event. National policy dictates the area that requires urban drainage systems to accommodate a defined size design storm. Figure 4-9. Urban Drainage and Kitakyushu Development Table 4-5. Advantages and Disadvantages of a Combined Sewer System Advantages Disadvantages • Quicker implementation, lower overall construction and • Higher health risk should inundation of sewage occur maintenance costs (one system) • Require larger pipes, more storage, and extensive O&M to • Stronger against accidental pollution (including accommodate highly fluctuating flows industrial wastewater), because is water is usually • Require larger wastewater treatment plant with higher treated before discharge operational costs • Designed to handle grit and other solids, as well as large • Environmental concerns in the receiving water body volumes of flow (combined sewer overflows) • More advantageous in areas with less fluctuations in precipitation 67 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions 4.5.2 Actions for Urban Drainage Table 4-6 lists actions included in this subsection. This subsection first presents actions D1 and D2 that prevent and remove waste from accumulating in drainage canals, which would restrict conveyance of stormwater. The second half of the actions, D3 and D4 is broader, describing important considerations when expanding or improving drainage infrastructure. The orange numbers in Figure 4-8 are used in the action descriptions as a way to orient users as to where in the drainage system the action is the most relevant. Table 4-6. Overview of Urban Drainage Actions Urban Drainage Actions to Maintain Drainage Capacity D1. Local Adaptations to Capture Debris D1-1. Cover Open Drains (wood or any other locally available material) D1-2. Cover Open Drains (concrete/metal grating) D1-3. Install Intermediary Screens within Drainage Channels D2. Waste Clean-Up, Drain Cleaning, and Maintenance D2-1. Perform Scheduled System Cleaning and Maintenance D2-2. Perform Ad Hoc Local Drain Cleanings D2-3. Inspect the System Prior to Rain Events D2-4. Establish a Hotline and Respond to Resident Reports D2-5. Hold Clean-Up Events Actions to Expand/Improve the Drainage System D3. Systemwide Drainage Planning Considerations D3-1. Plan Using Sustainable Urban Drainage System/Low Impact Development Principles D3-2. Convert to Partial Separate Sewer Systems D3-3. Utilize Open Spaces, Ponds, and Detention Basins D3-4. Relocate Informal Settlements around Waterbodies D4. Design Level Considerations D4-1. Secure Discharge Points/Points of Interest D4-2. Create or Revisit Design Storms and Runoff Assumptions D4-3. Redevelop or Manufacture New Materials and Designs D4-4. Expand Drainage System in Coordination with Other Construction Figure 4-10 presents the above actions relative to their ease of implementation. Actions that are more complex to implement may require more technical expertise or resources or higher financial investment. Actions that are presented towards the left side are relatively simpler to implement. Figure 4-10 shows that D1 and D2, actions that more directly relate to the interplay of solid waste management and urban flood risk are overall, easier to implement. Figure 4-10 is strictly conceptual and what is appropriate and feasible in each country or city differs depending on realities and conditions on the ground. Figure 4-10. Ease of Implementation of Urban Drainage Actions 68 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Actions to Maintain Drainage Capacity D1. Local Adaptations to Capture Debris Purpose/Introduction Local structural improvements of where runoff flows into the drainage system, combined with adequate maintenance, can help minimize inflow of waste and waste accumulation within the drainage system. These actions focus on relatively quick adaptations to sections of open drainage and conveyance that can help maintain urban drainage capacity. D1-1. Cover Open Drains (wood or any other locally available material) Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $ Low Residents High Advantages Disadvantages • Any material works as long as the drains are partially • Requires frequent replacement covered • Predominantly depends on local resident ownership • Quick and affordable to maintain, clean, and replace • Implementable anywhere • Need to ensure the cover does not become debris and add to the drain blockage issue D1-2. Cover Open Drains (concrete/metal grating) Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $$ Mid City Engineers, Industry Mid Advantages Disadvantages • Secure and designed cover that fits over existing • Depending on the cover, residents may need official drains help to access the drain for cleaning • Quick and affordable • Require decentralized maintenance D1-3. Install Intermediary Screens within Drainage Channels Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $ Mid Industry Mid Advantages Disadvantages • Catches debris within stormwater drain before it • Require decentralized maintenance collects and clogs a main artery or a pump station • Quick and affordable Operation and Maintenance • Covers and screens will need to be maintained and replaced by either local residents or the City depending on the material and ease of purchase or installation. • A more decentralized debris catchment system requires a decentralized cleaning system. (See D2) • If the city is involved in initial community organization/development, it needs to continue at least a peripheral involvement and continue any necessary support Performance Indicators • Percent of open drainage covered • Number of times annually or seasonally that each discharge point becomes a drainage bottleneck, although the system downstream still had capacity. o Depth, extent, and duration of inundation. o Time until residents responded to the blocked drain and the type of response taken. o Time until the city learned of the issue, and the response taken Alternative Actions An alternative to decentralized collection of debris is to size the infrastructure and allow debris collection in a more central location. Assuming the city would be performing the cleaning, it may be more cost-effective to have larger amounts to clean but in less number of locations. However, this assumes that the debris load remains manageable. On the other hand, even with sufficient drainage covers, the city may still need to organize frequent cleanings at collection points throughout the drainage system. 69 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D1-1. Cover Open Drains (wood or any other locally available material) Description Cover existing drainage channels with planks of wood or any other locally available material to catch debris in the runoff before it enters the drainage system. Necessary Existing Conditions • Local drainage infrastructure exists, whether it be drainage channels or gutters around homes and local roads • A feasible method to periodically clean debris that will collect around the covers and screens Important Considerations • If local drainage channels or ditches are not yet officially constructed, determine where runoff tends to currently collect by examining erosion patterns or existing gulleys. Structure these into a more uniform channel for easier runoff control and maintenance. • Continued local maintenance and involvement is fundamental to this action. Use of informal covers also means the covers themselves will eventually disintegrate and possibly become sources of debris. Financing and Resources • Action relies primarily on local resident/industry ownership and agency to implement and maintain. • The city can and should have a role in teaching communities to engage in this activity and to offer appropriate support. D1-2. Cover Open Drains (concrete/metal grating) Description Design and installation of simple concrete covers on open drainage channels or entirely covering the channel and installing metal grates or gutters as inlets for runoff is a more permanent way to remove debris from the drainage system. Necessary Existing Conditions • Local drainage infrastructure exists, whether it be drainage channels, gutters, or underground pipes around homes and The Kitakyushu Experience local roads To better handle green waste from blocking grates, • A feasible method to periodically clean debris that will Kitakyushu designed a unique metal grate that collect around the covers and screens (see D2) collects leaves in one portion of the grate and leaves the remaining surface area clear to accommodate runoff. Important Considerations Although this particular example only addresses • Consider the ease of removing these covers or grates for green waste and cannot be directly applied in cleaning the channel or pipe underneath. situations of high debris load, the example shows • Designs and installation will occur in mass. Consider mass that preemptive design alterations and production and installation costs and make initial adjustments have the potential to significantly adjustments that would make that work simpler and hence decrease necessary maintenance and cleaning after installation. cheaper. Financing and Resources • City funded, if it is to be an official, more permanent system • City engineers should be involved in designing appropriate covers or grates. 70 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D1-3. Install Intermediary Screens within Drainage Channels Description Install screens at intermediary locations throughout the stormwater drainage system, such as at system low points, underpasses, and before pump stations. Screens allow collection of debris that enters the system before it clogs a main detention basin, artery, or pump station. Necessary Existing Conditions • Local drainage infrastructure exists, whether it be drainage channels/pipes or gutters around homes and local roads • A feasible method to periodically clean debris that will collect around the screens Important Considerations • Continued local maintenance and involvement is fundamental to this action. • Its location can be determined from experience, (where would it make structural and debris collections sense to install a screen?) or from a systemwide perspective on which screen locations may be the most effective. Financing and Resources • Screens can be installed by the city and maintained by the city or its residents. • If residents are to be involved, the roles and responsibilities of the city versus the residents need to be delineated. A means for the residents to communicate with the city would also be necessary. 71 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D2. Waste Clean-Up, Drain Cleaning, and Maintenance Purpose/Introduction Debris inherently builds up and creates clogs throughout drainage infrastructure over time. Periodic cleaning and maintenance is crucial for effective and efficient urban drainage management. Cleaning activities are even more important in systems with high amounts of debris load. Trash pick-up, cleaning, and maintenance work can be performed by a combination of the following: the city, outsourced to private companies, and local residents. D2-1. Perform Scheduled System Cleaning and Maintenance Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $ Mid Cleaning Crew, Private High Cleaning Companies Advantages Disadvantages • Ensures the system receives periodic care and • Reliance solely on city cleaning activities may result in maintenance. prohibitively high costs • Strategically timing the cleaning and maintenance • The city is usually not the first to recognize localized before rainy seasons allow for increased issues nor the one most suited to addressing it effectiveness • Scheduled cleanings allow for easy financial planning D2-2. Perform Ad Hoc Local Drain Cleanings Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $ Low Cleaning Crew, Private High cleaning companies Advantages Disadvantages • Local residents are the most aware of changes, • Resident initiative implies dependence on resident needs, and issues of their surroundings responsibility • The City can minimize maintenance costs with • Depending on the debris load and the commitment resident involvement level of residents, the city may need alternative • Create a sense of agency and pride among the backup plans residents in maintaining a livable environment D2-3. Inspect the System Prior to Rain Events Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Recurring $ Low Cleaning Crew, Private Mid Cleaning Companies Advantages Disadvantages • Ensures the drainage system is working at highest • Can only address minor, last minute issues, such as possible capacity during rain events clearing a few drains D2-4. Establish a Hotline and Respond to Resident Reports Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $ Low Residents Mid Advantages Disadvantages • Allows the city to use cleaning resources timely and • Relies on responsive residents and a responsive city effectively system • Builds on existing relationships between residents and the city 72 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D2-5: Hold Clean-up Events Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short and $ Low Cleaning Crew, Private High Recurring Cleaning Companies Advantages Disadvantages • Mobilizes local resources to care for larger debris • Requires organization and materials to support a load than possible on an ad hoc basis larger-scale clean-up • Increases resident ownership over care for their • If the events are scheduled on an ad hoc basis, the surrounding environment. city may not be able to rely on their activities for cleaning and maintenance Important Considerations • It is important to distinguish whether resident involvement is integral and necessary for maintenance of drainage The Kitakyushu Experience infrastructure, or whether their involvement plays more of an Kitakyushu has annual contracts with a local educational and relationship building role between the city and private company who is responsible for its residents. responding to ad hoc maintenance needs. For • Cleaning should be prioritized generally from downstream to example, the city would receive a call from a upstream. Maintaining drainage capacity of discharge points resident on the hotline, informing the city of a clogged drainage channel that is causing local and main arteries is necessary to allow more localized drainage. inundation. The city would then call the Cleaning larger capacity channels/pipes also require larger private company to ask them to clean out the resources, which is suited to be centrally managed. clog. The city pays the company for the task • Of the city cleaning and maintenance work, consider if any or all as agreed upon in the contract. parts of the work can or should be outsourced to capable private companies. Performance Indicators • Number of hotline calls received. The proportion responded to and the time between the report and the response. • Number of students or residents involved in clean-up events • The number and extent of urban flooding caused by high debris load • Locations of critical clogs and floods, so that the city can better focus maintenance on these areas before the next rain event. 73 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D2-1. Perform Scheduled System Cleaning and Maintenance Description The city performs scheduled cleaning and maintenance needed throughout the system. Necessary Existing Conditions • A municipal trash collection and disposal system that sufficiently removes debris from the city, so that drainage infrastructure cleaning and maintenance are manageable. • Understanding of locations within the drainage infrastructure that experience debris blockage. Important Considerations • Cleaning should be scheduled on a recurring basis, meaning the city should have the capacity to plan for its finances, human resources, and material needs. The Kitakyushu Experience Financing and Resources Kitakyushu performs annual system cleaning • Annual funding and labor and maintenance, scheduled to be completed • The city plans and finances system cleaning and maintenance, prior to Japan’s rainy month, which is also but can outsource the physical cleaning work to a private followed by a typhoon season. Since scheduled cleaning takes place once a year, the financial company. burden of this O&M is minimal. • Any tools, trash bags, and vehicles necessary to perform needed cleaning D2-2. Perform Ad Hoc Local Drain Cleanings Description Residents maintain and play a continuous role in the upkeep of their local environment, including drainage systems. If residents cannot address the issue, they contact the appropriate city personnel, and either the city or a hired company responds in the field. Necessary Existing Conditions • A municipal trash collection and disposal system that The Kitakyushu Experience sufficiently removes debris from the city, so that drainage Kitakyushu built and still operates many open infrastructure cleaning and maintenance are manageable. drainage channels and canals for runoff • Self-reliant and responsible city residents management. Contaminants in the runoff, such as litter, domestic solid waste, and historically, Important Considerations organic kitchen waste, contributed to unpleasant smells. During these times, it was in the residents’ • While it may be easy and ideal to rely on residents for local interests to take initiative and clean out nearby cleaning, maintaining a livable city is the city’s drains periodically to ensure the channels were responsibility. not blocked. • Consider outreach and educational activities the City or local NGOs/NPOs can provide to encourage resident involvement. Financing and Resources • Local residents can be involved out of personal agency to maintain their living environment • Any tools, trash bags, and vehicles necessary to perform needed cleaning 74 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D2-3. Inspect the System Prior to Rain Events Description The city sends out a crew to check the drainage system prior to a large storm event or a rainy season. Last minute cleaning or maintenance is performed if necessary. Necessary Existing Conditions • A municipal trash collection and disposal system that sufficiently removes debris from the city, so that drainage infrastructure cleaning and maintenance are manageable. • Reliable weather forecasting that provides sufficient time for cleaning activities • A plan for inspection locations Important Considerations • Generally prioritize inspection of downstream locations before inspecting upstream system locations. • Inspection of low points within the drainage system, such as underpasses or locations of pumping stations, is especially important. • Financing and Resources • The city plans and finances system cleaning and maintenance, but can outsource the physical cleaning work to a private company. • Any tools, trash bags, and vehicles necessary to perform needed cleaning D2-4. Establish a Hotline and Respond to Resident Reports Description Establish a hotline that allows residents to contact the city’s drainage/stormwater department with issues. The city then responds to both the call and the issue. Necessary Existing Conditions • A municipal trash collection and disposal system that sufficiently removes debris from the city, so that drainage infrastructure cleaning and maintenance are manageable. • The communication tool chosen must be convenient and accessible for the majority of the public. This may include phones, emails, and social applications. The Kitakyushu Experience Important Considerations The Kitakyushu city government’s rule to • Responding to hotline calls, both to the caller and to the issue at ensure that all calls are responded to in a hand, is critical to develop and maintain trust as well as to week, even if the response is to provide an address the reported issue. update or to request more time to address the • Different city departments may need their own internal raised issue. communication system to appropriately respond to the variety of calls the city may receive. Financing and Resources • Funding necessary to maintain the communication system, both the technical tool and human resources • Residents as reporter of issues, communicating observations and needs to the city 75 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D2-5. Hold Clean-Up Events Description Clean-up events consist of schools, community groups, The Kitakyushu Experience volunteer groups, and other organizations that organize a local The mayor in the late 1960s, known as the “toilet trash pick-up event. mayor” was known to personally participate in clean-up events to encourage citizen involvement. Necessary Existing Conditions • A municipal trash collection and disposal system that sufficiently removes debris from the city, so that drainage infrastructure cleaning and maintenance are manageable. Important Considerations • A clean-up event is simultaneously an educational and promotional event. Reach out to schools and the community. Consider how to effectively use mass media for publicity (See E4-1) Financing and Resources Today, there are resident-led groups throughout Kitakyushu, such as about 1,000 “road supporter” • Residents as participants groups. Each of these groups organizes a clean-up • Community groups, schools, private companies as those event about once a month. The city government responsible for the event provides trash bags and tools to support these • Seek local private company involvement as a part of their events, and government workers participate as volunteer or CSR contribution well. • Any tools, organization, and logistics necessary to prepare and hold a clean-up event 76 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions Actions to Expand/Improve the Drainage System D3. System-wide Drainage Planning Considerations Purpose/Introduction Drainage infrastructure needs to adapt as the city grows, land- use patterns change, and resident needs shift. Urbanization increases impervious areas, runoff coefficients, and peak flows while decreasing water quality. Efforts to regain or maintain natural infiltration of rainwater will help decrease flooding, unintended environmental impacts, such as water pollution and erosion, and maintain groundwater resources. Basic considerations to plan updates to existing systems versus new systems are similar. This action presents system-wide planning options that Kitakyushu chose as its city expanded. D3-1. Plan Using Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)/Low Impact Development (LID) Principles Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Long $$$ High Construction Industry, R&D, Land High Owners, Engineers Advantages Disadvantages • Enhances multiple beneficial uses of the same space, • Requires a large space for implementation including aesthetics and recreation compared to traditional drainage management • Can help conserve environmental habitat • Requires policy to encourage implementation of • Improves discharge water quality SUDs/LIDs in nonpublic spaces. • Help maintain groundwater levels D3-2. Convert to Partial Separate Sewer Systems Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Long $$$ High Construction Industry, R&D, Land High Owners, Engineers Advantages Disadvantages • Limited or no risk of sewage overflow into public • Difficult to construct in areas with narrow roads waterbodies and minimal space • Decreases demands on wastewater treatment plants • More expensive to construct and maintain than • Surface run-off and rainwater can be reused (e.g. for combined sewer system landscaping or agriculture) after simplified • Higher risk of water pollution by accidents (e.g. oil, treatment chemicals) or unintended cross-connections • Should there be flooding during rain events, floods will originate more often from greywater and not be contaminated with sewage D3-3. Utilize Open Spaces, Ponds, and Detention Basins Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Long $$ Mid Residents, City Planners, Engineers Mid Advantages Disadvantages • Increases city livability • Requires long-term planning for land conservation • Increases operational flexibility for the drainage • Requires coordination with other uses for the space system and water storage • Supports urban ecosystems • Maintains groundwater levels D3-4. Relocate Informal Settlements around Waterbodies Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Long $$$ Mid Residents, Landowners, Community High Leaders Advantages Disadvantages • Allows for an efficient drainage system • Relocation of people, industries, buildings, and • Allows city governments to create public space by services require significant outreach, consensus waterways building, and appropriate compensation • Time and resources intensive 77 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D3-1. Plan Using Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems/Low Impact Development Principles Description SUDS/LIDs refer to approaches that promote maintaining the same time of concentration at POIs pre- and post- development of the urban environment. The approach encourages higher infiltration, use of vegetative detention basins and channels, and strives to capture the first several centimeters of rain to address runoff water quality concerns. For specific descriptions of SUD/LID infrastructure, refer to the Kitakyushu Model, Water Management. Necessary Existing Conditions • Sufficient studies to design a location specific SUDS/LID infrastructure The Kitakyushu Experience: • Capacity to accept, plan, and implement SUDS/LIDs While a long-term vision for city and landuse principles planning is ideal, the reality of Kitakyushu City • Capacity to pass ordinances, taxes, and/or regulations on history shows that at the time, the clear priority stormwater management so that there is systemwide was flood control and protection of the city and its implementation of SUDS/LIDs and not just on publically resident’s lives. Environmental, aesthetic, and other important roles an urban river should play owned land. only gradually came to be considered in the 1990s. The Tarabaru Basin, a detention basin, is an Important Considerations example of SUDS/LID. This basin was specifically • Plant native plants for habitat restoration/preservation renovated and designed to provide recreational, • May require more maintenance to manage vegetation educational, and environmental benefits along with flood management uses. Unlike many • Consider the role of the specific structure (for example, detention basins in Kitakyushu, the bottom of the water quality mitigation or temporary water storage) Tarabaru Basin is undeveloped, allowing • Consider involving the private market and incentivize vegetation to grow and an ecosystem to flourish. landowners to convert or implement SUDS The detention basin and its surroundings are used for festivals and school field trips when it is not • Development and installation of new infrastructure may fully inundated. require a need for new standards and regulations Financing and Resources • SUDS/LID structures can still be funded through traditional means, since it is an alternative to more traditional, utilitarian drainage systems • City governments could possibly obtain funding from other sectors within and outside of the government, since this infrastructure usually provides multiple benefits • R&D and technical personnel to install location-specific structures • Consider creating a market by implementing regulations (such as a stormwater tax and rebate system) that leads to development of the private sector to meet this need Operation and Maintenance • Regular infrastructural maintenance and cleaning • Additional maintenance to support vegetation Performance Indicators • Changes in time of concentration at POIs as SUDs/LIDs are implemented • The amount or proportion of impervious areas • Changes in water quality at points of discharge 78 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D3-2. Convert to Partial Separate Sewer Systems Description Many cities initially operate combined sewer systems, but find it The Kitakyushu Experience beneficial to convert to separate sewers as the city expands and Kitakyushu’s drainage infrastructure that was drainage infrastructure is updated and replaced. built before approximately 1970 was designed to be a CSS. At the time, installing a CSS was faster, cheaper, and more efficient, since only one pipe Necessary Existing Conditions network was necessary. Managing urban runoff to • Sufficient human and financial resources to implement a improve public health was one of Kitakyushu’s dual system priorities. • Planning for the entire drainage area as to how and where Today, 21% or 3,422 ha of the City’s to discharge stormwater and how and where to connect sewer/drainage network area is CSS. Areas built wastewater pipes to existing systems and renovated after 1970s generally have SSSs. This change in approach signifies extensive • A longterm plan and strategy urbanization and increased impervious areas, which led to severer inundation and CSO issues Important Considerations during rain events. In mid to late 1970s Japanese cities nationally experienced serious urban • Consider the benefit of managing wastewater inflow into flooding due to inadequate drainage capacity treatment plants and how much separate sewers can relative to the landuse changes that had occurred. contribute to continued use of existing infrastructure Drainage infrastructure was then redesigned and • Consider the frequency of combined sewer overflows, its updated to accommodate the high runoff environmental impact on receiving water bodies, and coefficient, while nonstructural measures to decrease runoff started to be examined. societal impact of any overflows • Drainage infrastructure can be updated and/or replaced in In 2005, the City prepared its first “Emergency sections if strategically planned. Time drainage Plan to Improve the City’s CSS,” and this plan and its goals have been updated twice since then. infrastructure update works with other ongoing construction that requires breaking ground. Overall goals include: • Prioritize areas to install separate sewer systems. Important • Reduce CSS pollution loads to those of SSS. criteria can include: • Halve the number of CSOs o Severity of overflows or inundation events • Control the amount of debris in discharge o Proximity or impact on important public services, such waters as hospitals and schools Specific actions include: o Proximity or impact on economically important city • Construct new stormwater pipes or canals, sections and refurbish existing CSS pipelines as wastewater pipelines. Financing and Resources • Construct stormwater detention basins to • In addition to traditional funding sources, capture the initial runoff and majority of o Consider if/whether separate systems, and hence lower urban nonpoint source pollution. This water is flows, will allow elongated use and operation of treated at a wastewater treatment plant after existing wastewater treatment plants, and possibly the rain event. reduce the need for additional treatment capacity o Consider the environmental/water quality benefit separate sewers will have. • Hire necessary staff or private companies to support planning, engineering design, and construction work • Maintenance of separate sewer systems may be more costly than a combined sewer system. Plan accordingly. Operation and Maintenance • Regular infrastructural maintenance for pipes, pump stations, and detention basins • Gutter cleanings discussed in Action D2 • Pipe replacement needs depend on material and wear and tear Performance Indicators • Change in frequency of CSOs • Improvement in water quality of receiving water bodies, especially during and immediately after rain events. • Reduction in sewer backups resulting from flows exceeding design flows into treatment plants 79 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D3-3. Utilize Open Spaces, Ponds, and Detention Basins Description As the city expands and develops it is often beneficial to secure The Kitakyushu Experience open spaces and utilize existing water bodies, such as small agricultural reservoirs. Many older structures can be adapted Kitakyushu manages 10 detention basins within the city. Many of these basins were former and converted for use as detention basins or ponds that agricultural reservoirs, and while no longer used encourage infiltration as well as provide temporary stormwater for agriculture, these basins work to temporarily storage. store runoff to decrease flow in downstream rivers These structures reduce flood risk and have Necessary Existing Conditions proven to successfully manage intense rainfall • An overall city development plan events. • Plan or knowhow on annexing additional land into the city. Important Considerations • Agreement or consensus with landowners • Determine if there are necessary legal processes issues with converting water and land uses from agriculture or rural Nishiyama Basin in Kitakyushu based zoning to urban uses • Consider multiple benefits of the space, including recreation, aesthetics, ecosystem, and water quality benefits Financing and Resources • Funding and human resources to plan, adapt, and remodel existing infrastructure. • Social and institutional skills to navigate land acquisitions and zoning changes • Consider getting funding from non-drainage specific sources, if the city can claim multiple benefits of the facility Operation and Maintenance • Regular infrastructural maintenance for intakes, outlets, and any pump stations • Dredging if sediment/debris build-up is an issue • General trash pickup cleaning (See D2) • Pipe replacement needs depend on material and wear and tear Performance Indicators • Changes in infiltration rates/groundwater levels • Use of the open space for the various beneficial uses • Decrease in drainage system overflows • Increase in discharge water quality Alternative Actions • Construct underground storage structures, such as storage tanks, to increase storage throughout the system. This will increase system operational flexibility and help decrease CSOs, but would not provide other multiple benefits. 80 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D3-4. Relocate Informal Settlements around Waterbodies Description People often settle near waterways and floodplains, creating The Kitakyushu Experience informal settlements in many cities. These structures can Kitakyushu City had illegal settlements along and impede needed flow capacities in the waterways, and people within the city rivers, and these settlements were living in these settlements may directly dispose of domestic causing city-wide drainage water discharge issues, waste into the waterway. These residents are vulnerable to the in an otherwise developed river. The City began smallest of floods and often have the least capacity to cope and relocation efforts starting around 1970 with close recover from flood disasters. Simultaneously, lands along coordination between prefecture and city officials as well as community leaders. The City built public waterbodies are often public or government land, which could housing for resident relocation. be used for not just flood risk management but other publically beneficial uses, such as recreation. Resettlement is a difficult process, but may be necessary to improve conditions city-wide. Necessary Existing Conditions • Identification of cooperative community leaders • Clear need for relocation for the larger public good • Compensation for those that are forcibly moved • Capacity to follow through and develop as planned the land that was formerly informally settled. Near the Mouth of the Murasaki River in the late 1960s Important Consideration On the other hand, there are still sections of the • Consider not just locations for resettlement but whether city where buildings extrude even today. Located those people can make a living in their new locations. For near the mouth of a tributary to the Murasaki example, if the resettlement involves an industry, such as River, it is an old and central community market fisheries, are there alternative work locations for the people that has been in operation since the early 1900s. or alternative sources of fish for consumers? This market, however, has important historic and cultural value, and plans to both protect this area • Limit relocations of structures and people to those that are and manage flood risks are underway. necessary. Financing and Resources • Funding to pay for relocation compensation as well as development of new housing or complexes when necessary • Labor to undergo a long consensus building process with landowners and residents • Lawyers if the city faces legal and settlement issues Operation and Maintenance • NA Performance Indicators • Community surveys on living condition satisfaction Near the Mouth of the Murasaki River in the early 1970s • Extent and demographics of informal settlements • Change in lifestyles after relocation 81 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D4. Design Level Considerations Purpose/Introduction Urbanization increases impervious areas, runoff coefficients, and peak flows while decreasing water quality. This means, urbanization increases the need for more robust infrastructure. These actions focus on design and construction level considerations necessary to expand and adjust the drainage system for an increasingly urban landscape. D4-1. Secure Discharge Points/Points of Interest Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $$ High Engineers, Planners High Advantages Disadvantages • Allows for or promotes planning development of the • Takes a long time to secure final discharge points if entire drainage area coordinating with levee construction/river • Ensures sufficient drainage capacity for the entire development area D4-2. Create or Revisit Design Storms and Runoff Assumptions Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Short $ High Engineers High Advantages Disadvantages • Provides a common design criteria to size drainage • Requires long-term data collection, management, infrastructure and analysis • Ensures design criteria is up-to-date D4-3: Redevelop or Manufacture New Materials and Designs Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Mid $$ High Engineers High Advantages Disadvantages • Can reduce design and construction costs • Standardization also devalues non-standard designs • Encourage city specific R&D fit for the environment or methods or situation • Poor standards can have city-wide impact • Makes retrofitting or future adaptation easier if infrastructure is standardized • Encourage development of private sector manufacturing D4-4. Expand Drainage System in Coordination with Other Construction Timeframe Affordability Technical Level Partners Involvement Level Long $$$ High Engineers, Contractors High Advantages Disadvantages • Decreases overall costs • May complicate each engineering and construction • Ensures drainage is considered as the city expands project or is reconstructed • Separate planning and projects are required to ensure overall drainage infrastructure needs are addressed • Requires coordination with other departments 82 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D4-1. Secure Discharge Points/Points of Interest Description Drainage infrastructure is built downstream up. Plan drainage systems using drainage “areas.” Determine the downstream “point of interest” (POI), calculate needed capacity at the POI (See D4-2), stabilize the point of discharge, and build upstream from this point. Securing the most downstream points of discharge require collaboration with land- use planning and river flood management planning and integration with existing or planned levee or other flood management structures. It may be necessary to relocate existing structures to locate discharge points where most technically sound (D3-4). Necessary Existing Conditions • Topographic map or elevations to determine drainage areas, POIs, and slope • Design storm hyetographs, runoff coefficients, and runoff hydrographs (D4-2) • Schematic and understanding of the entire drainage infrastructure system Important Considerations The Kitakyushu Experience • For points of discharge, the lowest POI, it may be necessary Kitakyushu’s drainage regions are about 16,000 ha to coordinate with levee construction or any structural each and usually corresponds to “urbanization areas” as defined under Japan’s City Planning Act. needs of the receiving water body. POIs are generally set Hence, the area is a unit convenient for planning where the system would enter public waterbodies. purposes. New regions were added to the network • Selection of POI is the start of planning for a new drainage as the city expanded upstream. area. Prioritize construction according to: The lowest point of discharge is at the Murasaki o Localized urban flood risk River, and these points were determined and o Location of important public services, such as hospitals, secured simultaneously as levees were built for water treatment plants, power distribution centers, city flood protection. Fukuoka prefecture performed flood planning while the city was public schools, evacuation zones, police and fire responsible for levee construction within its stations jurisdiction. Flood control construction projects on o Economic value the downstream end of Murasaki River took place o Ease of post-flood reconstruction in the 1970s. Financing and Resources • Funding for planning, design, and construction of new infrastructure • R&D and other technical personnel to perform drainage infrastructure planning • Contractors to install structures Operation and Maintenance • Maintain discharge capacity at POIs and final discharge points. (See D2 for trash/debris removal options). • Maintenance of final discharge capacity may also involve river cleaning and, if necessary, river dredging to remove river-basin wide sediment buildup. Performance Indicators • Frequency and extent of drainage backup due to undersized downstream capacity (e.g., at POIs) 83 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D4-2. Create or Revisit Design Storms and Runoff Assumptions Description The stormwater component of drainage infrastructure design often uses design storms and other criteria to determine appropriate sizing of drainage infrastructure, such as pipe sizes. Key criteria or assumptions include: • Design storm event hyetographs (including what frequency storm to design for) • Runoff coefficients and slopes These determine runoff hydrographs and associated time of concentration and flow at time of concentration, for which the system needs to be designed. Since these assumptions and criteria are foundational to all designs that follow, these should be revisited as: • Rainfall patterns change • Increase in data allows for updates to design storms The Kitakyushu Experience • Changes in land use, especially changes in impervious areas and ground elevations In 1995, the national urban planning committee set the national policy to plan for 10 year events in urban areas and to provide this level of protection Necessary Existing Conditions by the beginning of the 21st century. • Adequate precipitation monitoring data and analysis Historically, Kitakyushu City had designed its capacity drainage infrastructure for a 5 year storm event, • Topographic/landuse/vegetation/elevation data but since 1991, the City has designed for a 10 year • Decision on what frequency storm to use storm. The 10 year storm is currently determined • POI location and associated drainage area (D4-1) to have the intensity of 53.1mm/hour. Further, studies within Kitakyushu have shown Important Considerations that urbanization has increased total runoff by a • Consider national or regional plans or regulations that factor 2.5 within a set drainage area. Urban drainage infrastructure needs to accommodate for usually dictate the level of flood/inundation protection such changes in runoff characteristics. drainage infrastructure should provide • Consider if neighboring cities or regions have updated design storms that can be also applied. • Coordinate this option with other cities, regional, and national governments as, ideally, a part of a larger program • Determine runoff coefficients, and hence runoff, considering city development 30 to 50 years into the future • Designing for a design storm implies that flooding needs to be expected should a larger or more intense storm comes. The city should separately plan for such inundation events. Financing and Resources • Continual funding is needed to support installation and operation of rain gauge stations, data collection, and data cleaning and management. This need not be at the city government level. • Required human resources could include data managers, meteorologists, hydrologists, hydrologic engineers, city planners • Rain gauge station technology with remote or manual systems to collect the data Operation and Maintenance • Regular O&M of rain gauge stations, and other equipment needed for analysis, such as computers/servers • Data management Performance Indicators • Extended records of inundation to determine if assumptions need to be revisited. (For example, the system was in theory design for a 10-year rain event, but statistically, it floods much more often) 84 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D4-3. Redevelop or Manufacture New Materials and Designs Description Standards sizes and designs for drainage canals, gutters, screens, grating, and pipelines can be useful to streamline engineering, procurement, and construction, while also giving the city its own “look.” Any cost savings incorporated into these standard designs will have a compounding impact, when considering the total length of pipes and number of manholes necessary to develop an entire drainage system. Having consistent designs and sizes throughout the city also will allow for easier systemwide retrofits and adaptations when necessary. Necessary Existing Conditions • Technically capable city officials and/or residents • Cooperation with manufacturing companies • Need that is of a large enough scale that manufacturing, designing, or creating for a set standard has extensive The Kitakyushu Experience impact on future systemwide planning and construction. Historically, Kitakyushu City collaborated closely with manufacturing companies and created its Important Considerations own standard materials to cut costs and to construct a drainage system as quickly as possible. • Look into readily available materials and sizes. Do they Some adaptive materials included the following: meet standards? Are they affordable? It may be as simple • Manhole covers made with concrete and as choosing the most readily available materials, such as metal pipes and manhole covers, to become the city standard. • Determine national or other available and relevant standards such as required material quality, strength, safety characteristics, and manufacturing processes. New materials/designs must at least meet these standards. • What specific needs do the city standard need to address? This could include costs or smart design adaptations, such as the example in Option D1-2, where a unique metal grating was designed to collect green waste in such a way that it does not completely restrict water flow. • Stronger reinforced concrete pipe so that it • Consider tradeoffs for different designs and sizes. For did not need to be buried as deep and could withstand a wider range of environments. example, a smaller pipe may be cheaper to manufacture, but may put strains on construction workers who have to fit inside smaller tunnels to lay the pipes. Weaker pipe material may be cheaper to procure, but may require that it be buried deeper into the ground. • Consider contributing new developments to existing standards Financing and Resources • Experience, technical knowledge, and physical resources to manufacture/design new materials • Longterm and reliable investment such that would support development of new standards or designs Kitakyushu’s industrial background meant that Operation and Maintenance human resources and technical resources were • Regular O&M of manufacturing or construction of locally available to attempt such R&D. Kitakyushu’s experience is nonetheless particular materials or system segments remarkable and shows how local ingenuity can go • Continual economic and human investment in R&D a long way in solving a local problem. Performance Indicators • Relevant indicators depend on the need new designs/standards were intended to meet. It may include: o Comparative monitoring of cost savings o Prevalence or replacement rate of the new design/standard throughout the system o Effectiveness at achieving what the new design/standard was intended to accomplish 85 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Actions D4-4. Expand Drainage System in Coordination with Other Construction Description The drainage infrastructure network is best expanded along with other planned construction or reconstruction. Urban development construction, whether it be commercial buildings, homes, or roads all alter existing land use and runoff patterns. Roads in particular are essentially lines of raised berms, meaning artificial drainage for the surrounding areas must be installed. Coordinating construction not only makes technical sense, but it often allows the city to cut total costs. Necessary Existing Conditions The Kitakyushu Experience • A drainage area plan, including a schematic for where to Kitakyushu clearly delineated roles and construct drainage pipes or canals of what capacity. responsibilities to coordinate road construction • Coordination of drainage infrastructure planning with city with urban drainage infrastructure construction. development and/or roads department The wastewater/urban drainage department was responsible for designing and constructing Important Considerations drainage pipes, pump stations, and detention basins. On the other hand, the roads department • Build drains as roads and new developments are built. took responsibility for design and construction of o Reduces excavation costs by decreasing the number of gutters, drainage canals adjacent to roads, and excavations necessary underpasses. This coordination allowed o Eliminates need for re-patching or resurfacing road Kitakyushu to quickly manage urban flood risks during its development. concrete/asphalt. o Simplifies construction management by interacting with both road and drainage contractors together o Reduce impacts to and complaints from residents • Determine where exactly to lay drainage pipelines. Urban areas generally have crowded underground utility systems, so coordination is important. • As a general rule, should different pipelines come in close proximity, drinking water pipes should be above stormwater drainage pipes, which should be above wastewater pipes. • When replacing roads and if the drainage pipes lie underneath the roads, consider upgrading pipe material to increase strength. Steel pipes, for example can withstand higher stress than clay pipes, and may be necessary depending on traffic load conditions. Financing and Resources • Investment is needed for city development. However, building roads/other infrastructure along and expanding drainage infrastructure along with the construction is in itself an economical method. • Required human resources could include managers, planners, and engineers of both the main development and drainage departments. Operation and Maintenance • The relevant departments should coordinately sufficiently to ensure the larger drainage system is being adequately constructed, although in parts. Performance Indicators • Percentage of new development, including roads, that did not contribute to expansion of the drainage system 86 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options 5 Financing Options Financing is critical in providing government services. Initiating new services and investing in infrastructure requires high capital costs. In contrast, O&M of existing infrastructure and systems, public involvement, and education require less annual or one-time costs but rely on constant, reliable financing streams. This subsector model includes both sector specific, infrastructural projects as well as cross-sector actions that involve residents and stakeholders on a recurring basis. The former may rely on specific grant schemes or loans, while the city government may have to fund the latter on their own. Hence, this financing section examines the overall financial sources for a city, based off of the Kitakyushu city government experience. The city government then allocates these sources internally, according to regulations, policies, and priorities. Simultaneously, funds are always finite. City governments and their departments frequently reexamine their budget, prioritize projects, and identify ways to reduce project costs. Kitakyushu has a history of being creative to reduce costs of high investment projects, especially for their urban drainage systems. These examples are also presented in this section. In Kitakyushu’s words, it is the city government’s responsibility to overcome insufficient resources, including funds, people, and materials to provide public services. Shortages are ongoing issues, and are never sufficient excuses for not being able to serve residents. This section consists of the following two subsections.  Financial sources for a city  Examples of costs reduction methods This section does not include the following information, because they are infrastructure project centric and are covered in existing Kitakyushu Model sectors.  Risk management during project cost estimation  Procurement procedures and methods  Contract and construction management methods and types While Kitakyushu’s experience may not be directly applicable globally, it can act as a reference for other city planners in their own attempts to secure adequate funding to implement projects and programs. 5.1 Financial Sources for a City Financial Sources for the City Government A country’s system of government heavily influences sources of city budgets. Japan is a unitary state, in which the nation enforces a high level of organizational and policy standardization. Table 5-1 presents an overview of Kitakyushu’s financial sources and how each source is used, how often they are available, and how reliable they are. The proportion of each financial source relative to the annual city budget is provided as reference. The combination of city taxes, revenue from user fees, and municipal bonds, which are financial sources raised solely by the city government, amounts to approximately 50 percent of the total budget. Generally, ongoing city services and activities, such as public outreach, education, and recurring O&M work are funded by constant and reliable sources. On the other hand, infrastructural projects require a heavy, one time investment, for which the city can issue municipal bonds. Numerous national grants and assistance may be available, but these often require grant applications and evaluations before an award decision is made. To finance an infrastructural project, the city takes advantage of any available national grants first and then municipal bonds. If the project is still underfunded, the city government draws from city taxes and national government allocations as a last resort. 87 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options Table 5-1. Overview of Kitakyushu Financial Sources and Their Characteristics Funds Proportion of Funds Frequency Reliability of Ongoing Total City Projects Available Availability Activities Budget1 City Taxes  Annually Reliable 29% National Government Allocations  Annually Reliable 9% Revenue from Services and User Fees  Annually Reliable 3% Almost Every Municipal Bonds  Year2 Reliable 18% New Award Depends on Grant National/Regional Government Grants  Every Few Application 22% Years3 Result Miscellaneous  - - 19% Source: Kitakyushu City (2015) Notes: 1. Proportion of city government budget is approximate, based on fiscal year 2014. 2. Kitakyushu City government issues municipal bonds almost every year. 3. A new grant award may be once every few years in a given sector. However, there can be multiple grants and each grant disbursement can span several years. Hence, there are funds from grants every year. Additional details for each financial source identified in Table 5-1 are provided below. Although not used in Kitakyushu, international funds, such as loans and funds from bilateral and multilateral donor agencies, NGOs, and institutions can additionally assist city governments around the world. Descriptions of these sources are omitted in this subsection. City Taxes and National Government Allocations City taxes are mandatory fees the city collects from its residents. Feasible taxes depend on each city’s jurisdiction and legal powers as well as the relationship and separation of powers between the city and the regional and national governments. Example city taxes include but are not limited to the following.  Resident tax  Tax on automobiles and motorcycles  Property tax  Tax on luxury items, such as tobacco  City planning and industry/business tax  Various taxes on tourism In contrast, national government allocations are national budgets annually disbursed from the national government to help ensure cities provide basic services to city residents. Both taxes and national government allocations are reliable financial streams. The Kitakyushu Experience In Kitakyushu, these two sources fund ongoing city activities. City taxes also help fund infrastructural projects when national grants and municipal bonds are insufficient. For example, for an average waste management project, these sources account for approximately 10 percent of city borne costs. Revenue from Services and User Fees It is generally good practice to have users of a service directly pay for that service. Effective fee or rate setting is critical to balance affordability, equity, and legal constraints or requirements. User fees can help fund O&M and future system investments. Requiring payment can also encourage users to efficiently use services, which can decrease overall demands on the infrastructure or system. Fees that can be collected from services relevant to this model consist of the following.  Wastewater service fees from users  Stormwater fees from property owners  Waste collection fees from users  Revenue from visitors visiting city museums or from participants in programs/events The Kitakyushu Experience 88 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options Kitakyushu charges households service fees for wastewater, and hence, partly for drainage services, relative to the amount of drinking water used. The water and wastewater bill is provided together as a set service, since water delivered to a household must be drained out. Kitakyushu does not charge for stormwater drainage services. As dictated by national policy, Kitakyushu does not charge residents for waste management services. However, as described in W5-3, the city government began charging residents for city designated plastic trash bags in 1998 with the intent to encourage waste reduction at the household level. A fee of 0.50 USD per bag was deemed effective for waste reduction and was initiated in 2006. Kitakyushu uses collected revenue in excess of bag procurement costs to provide cleaning tools to residents and CBOs, supporting community waste cleaning activities. This example portrays that charging users for disposed waste could be a revenue stream to support financial sustainability of waste management services. Further, some city services or projects can provide multiple benefits, which could become an additional revenue source. Examples relevant to this subsector model include the following.  Revenue from selling heat and electricity generated by the incineration plant  Revenue collected from users of recreational facilities located near public facilities or constructed as a part of public works projects The Kitakyushu Experience Kitakyushu’s 24-hour incineration plant produces heat and electricity, which Kitakyushu uses to power the plant. Electricity produced in excess is sold to local power utilities and nearby industries as an additional income stream. Municipal Bonds A city government can borrow money from investors for a defined time and pay back the loan plus interest. These debt investments are called municipal bonds. Japanese cities issue bonds to help secure necessary cash flow to fund capital investment. Japan has the second largest municipal bond market in the world (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2010). The Kitakyushu Experience In Kitakyushu, municipal bonds are a reliable source of funding for construction projects. A new bond is issued almost every year. Municipal bonds, for example, accounted for 90 percent of the local cost share when implementing waste management facility projects. National/Regional Government Grants National and/or regional governments often provide grant or funding schemes to promote local development in line with national policies. Cities must prepare a grant application and are awarded funding depending on national government evaluations and discretion. Below are several examples of Japan’s funding schemes Kitakyushu has utilized. Many schemes are set to promote projects or systems that provide multiple benefits. The Kitakyushu Experience  Funds to Promote Resource-Cycling Societies Provides one-third cost-share for waste treatment facilities that recover energy, material recycling resources centers, and final disposal sites. Provides one-half cost-share for advanced facilities, such as incineration plants that generate electricity. The nation helps fund these recycling or energy-conscious waste management related facilities, because they often require high capital costs but have a life of about 30 years. The country promotes construction and use of more advanced, environmentally and financially sustainable facilities by supporting initial capital investment.  Funds for Offshore Landfill Walls/Levees Provides 50 percent cost-share to construct and maintain levees/walls of offshore municipal waste landfills. Provides 40 percent cost-share to construct and maintain levees/walls of offshore industrial or private-sector waste landfills. The fund encourages development of offshore landfills that simultaneously improve the local environment; improve access, use, and working conditions in and around the harbor; provide public open spaces; and act as a public emergency evacuation site.  Urban River Improvement Projects  Comprehensive Funds for Public Infrastructure Provides assistance to renovate or newly construct river bank protection infrastructure and detention or flood control basins. The fund supports system adaptation to increasing urban flood risk from intense rain events and 89 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options higher runoff flows. Urban river improvement projects are an example use of this comprehensive fund. The fund provides assistance for high priority projects on relatively smaller rivers of nationally designated important rivers. Projects include river expansions, levee renovations, and river dredging, and are conducted in coordination with the prefectural government. Kitakyushu has relied on these funds to construct levees. The prefectural government conducted a basin-wide flood protection plan, and the city, in coordination with the prefecture, performed construction work. Project cost share was one-third national, one-third prefecture, and one-third city government.  Funds for Urban Drainage Services Provides funding for expansion or extension of stormwater infrastructure and pipelines, if the capacity (e.g. pipe length, diameter) is large enough to meet minimum funding criteria. Coordination with the National Government to Develop Necessary Funding Streams City governments, as well as other local organizations and entities, can lobby and work with national governments to develop relationships, effective grant schemes, and other necessary support systems. Coordination can increase a city government’s understanding of national goals/policies, including how to best apply for funding. In return, the national government can learn about local needs and challenges so that future policies and schemes can be formulated to better address those needs. The Kitakyushu Experience Kitakyushu has a long history of working with the national government, providing on-the-ground information and city needs and challenges to the national government so that effective funding streams could be developed. Kitakyushu also cooperates with other major Japanese cities so that their collective voices can be heard. Below are coordination and communication examples.  Meeting and holding discussions with key national ministry staff in Tokyo before the annual budget is decided  Cooperating with other cities and co-developing white papers and/or requests, which can then be presented to the national government. These initiatives are usually sector or content specific. For example, a report was prepared and submitted to the national government to request expansion of Funds to Promote Resource-Cycling Societies so that a wider variety of facilities would be applicable for funding. They also requested that funds be dispersed over a longer time-period.  Building cooperative, respectful relationships through ongoing project grant management External Financial Resources for City NGOs and CBOs There are separate national subsidies as well as some private company funds that are available to NGOs/CBOs for their volunteer work. Private funds include corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds from large companies offered through competitive or noncompetitive means. TOTO, for instance, the ceramic company globally known for their toilets, is based in Kitakyushu City, and actively supports local NGO/CBO initiatives. NGO/CBO activities contribute to or supplement city services, such as by organizing clean-up events, promoting clean cities, and offering environmental education opportunities. The Kitakyushu Experience The community organization council of the Nakatani-District advocates for preservation and restoration of the aquatic environment of the Masubuchi Reservoir and the Muraski River, Kitakyushu’s drinking water source and the river that flows through the city, respectively. The council focuses on increasing awareness of the need to restore these iconic natural systems, and has received private corporate funding to support their activities in Kitakyushu. 5.2 Examples of Cost Reduction Methods Within an infrastructure project life cycle, starting from project planning to construction and ending with O&M, construction requires the highest cash flow. Figure 5-1 depicts project-based expenditures relative to when in the project cycle a project team may have the most opportunity to alter or influence project impacts and costs. Conceptual planning and feasibility studies are lower cost compared to construction, but decisions made at these stages can more extensively influence future costs. For example, overall plans for urban drainage or waste management systems, dictate the types of infrastructure that are needed. In comparison, engineering design phase allows for minor adaptations and alterations, but the project is already committed to, for instance, building a wastewater treatment plant or a sanitary landfill of a 90 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options designated capacity. Likewise, cost reductions for O&M is easier when planning or designing the facility but much more difficult once the infrastructure exists. Note that Figure 5-1 is strictly conceptual. Figure 5-1. Project Phases, Level of Influence, and Cost This subsection focuses on methods to reduce project costs at the engineering design and construction phases for actions that require such investment. Overall planning, while more influential over long-term project costs, is unique to each city’s situation and difficult to generalize. O&M, while also important, usually allows only for minor cost savings. Further, planning phase and O&M considerations have been covered, as applicable, under each action in Section 4. Table 5-2 organizes cost reduction suggestions for design and construction phases presented in this subsection. Construction materials, labor, and time/processes are the main components of construction, dictating who, uses what, how, to build a facility. Cost reduction examples for planning and studies phases as well as the O&M phase are included in Table 5-2 as references. These closely resemble or are included in action descriptions presented in Section 4. Table 5-2. Cost Reduction Suggestions for Design, Construction, and O&M Phases Planning and Studies Design and Construction Operation and Maintenance Construction • Redesigning materials • NA • NA Materials • Manufacturing materials • Involving the public and Labor • NA • Hiring unemployed citizens community organizations • Coordinating and aligning • Planning and structuring city departments • Procuring in bulk Time and waste collection to allow for • Improving efficiency and • Improving construction Processes 24 hour operations of the effectiveness of drain/waste methods incineration plant. cleanings or waste collection Suggestions in Table 5-2 and this subsection are based off of the Kitakyushu experience. As seen in sections 4.2 Solid Waste Management and 4.3 Urban Drainage, Kitakyushu rapidly expanded city services during the 1960s and 1970s. City staff remembers being constantly short on funds and having to be creative to meet resident demands and their own expectations. Kitakyushu reduced project or program costs, beyond the typical competitive bidding process, so that residents could receive waste management or urban drainage services. While these cost reduction suggestions may not be universal, they provide case studies and ideas to other city government planners facing similar funding challenges today. 91 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options Construction Materials Large-scale construction, such as installation of a drainage system, requires the same or similar materials, such as pipes, to be used repeatedly. Hence, minor cost reductions at the material level, can multiply to become significant cost savings over the entire construction. Further, improvements in materials may allow for quicker or simpler installation, decreasing necessary labor or time. Two Kitakyushu examples are presented below. Redesigning Construction Materials Description: Kitakyushu redesigned construction materials, sometimes for the sole purpose of cutting costs. One example was developing concrete manhole covers in the 1970s (See D4-3), which was cheaper to install than covers that were made entirely of metal. Today, most of these concrete manhole covers have been replaced by entirely metal covers. Another example of designing city materials, Kitakyushu ordered the development of precast reinforced concrete pipes that met a stricter stress resistance standard. The city government had decided that a stronger pipe would require less intensive pipe support structures, allowing for easier and hence, cheaper construction, making up for the initial R&D investments (See D4-3). Tradeoffs:  Investment in R&D to design materials required initial costs and accepting risk that a desired design may not be developed.  Cheaper materials sometimes mean shorter life. Cheap materials could decrease construction costs but may increase costs over decades when system replacement and renovation is considered. Manufacturing its Own Construction Materials Description: Prior to the incorporation of Kitakyushu City in 1963, the then Yahata City reduced construction costs by manufacturing its own drainage pipes (Figure 5-2). This decision came after extensive and yet unfruitful negotiations with local private manufacturing companies and asking them to decrease bulk prices. The city ordered cast-iron molds from iron factories and began casting its own concrete drainage pipes. Today, these concrete pipes probably would not meet manufacturing and materials standards. However, some of these pipes have been inspected for regular O&M Figure 5-2. Yahata City and Its Self- purposes and are still in use today. Manufactured Pipes Tradeoffs:  City decision to self-manufacture materials hurt local manufacturers.  Materials were constructed by nonprofessionals, which could have undermined reliability, quality, and safety of the material. Labor Physical labor is a major input during project construction. Some workers are required to be of a certain trade or have technical skills such as in surveying, concrete, foundations, carpentry, ironworks, welding, machinery, or electricity and instrumentation. Other work, such as digging trenches, simply requires physical human labor. Need for human labor may be more intense earlier in a city’s development when less technological input, such as dexterous excavators, is available. Negotiating labor costs can be key in reducing construction costs. However, worker health and safety, minimum wage, and other social and legal requirements must simultaneously be considered. 92 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Financing Options Hiring Unemployed Local Residents Description: Yahata City constructed its own materials in the 1950s by hiring unemployed workers for 240 Japanese yen per day, the cost for a bag of cement at the time. Economic instability and high unemployment were issues during this post-Second World War era, and Yahata City hired residents for public works projects to simultaneously address unemployment and resident demand for a cleaner, healthier city. Tradeoffs:  Wages did not meet current minimum wage standards, even with adjusted prices. Yahata City provided what was deemed acceptable, fair, and feasible at that time. Time and Processes Finally, improvements in work efficiency can help reduce construction costs, because that translates into less labor costs, less fuel costs, and shorter rental costs of any borrowed equipment. Two Kitakyushu examples are provided below. Procuring Necessary Materials in Bulk Description: For cheaper and smoother construction, Kitakyushu procured pipes in bulk in the 1970s. This means, instead of ordering pipes from manufacturers for every section of pipe installation, larger amounts of pipes were ordered together to reduce paperwork, processing time, and possibly, unit cost per pipe. In Kitakyushu, these pipes were stored at local wastewater treatment plants and shipped to construction sites as necessary. Bulk procurement can decrease costs for any materials needed in large quantities, such as concrete, pipe connectors, or plastic bags. Tradeoffs:  Private contractors opposed Kitakyushu’s decision to procure materials by itself and in bulk, since it hurt their bottom line. There are examples of local companies that went under and were bought by others during this era. Improving Construction Methods Description: In the early 1970s, Kitakyushu adopted tunneling shields as a part of its excavation work to lay underground pipelines. The Japanese standard at the time was to only use tunnel shields if installing pipes of a minimum 1.5m in diameter. However Kitakyushu set its own standard to allow for a minimum of 1.35m diameter pipes, effectively cutting excavation costs. The Japan Sewerage Works Association officially recognized the 1.35m as a standard size in 1996. Figure 5-3. Tunnel Shield Excavations for 1.35m Tradeoffs: Pipes  The Japanese 1.5m minimum diameter standard was set partly for worker safety reasons. Construction workers from this era’s tunnel shielding remember how they endured back pain during this work. 93 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Conclusion 6 Conclusion In many cities across the globe, accumulation of uncollected and unmanaged solid waste and its impacts on urban flood risk and sanitation are pressing challenges. This model aspired to persuade and encourage city planners to comprehensively involve residents and local businesses in actions that address these challenges, such as waste management and waste reduction efforts. Similarly, the model hopes to encourage greater collaboration within city departments so that planners will come to consider whether through their urban flood risk management plans, it is possible to also help address waste management challenges, or vice versa. Kitakyushu’s experience shows that not only is this collaboration possible but that it has the potential to reshape and improve the city holistically. The three model sectors and their actions are Public Involvement and reiterated and depicted in Figure 6-1. This model was Education organized according to two important concepts: E4 E3 Concept 1 was “Independent City Government Sectors and Activities.” The role of city governments Public Involvement in Waste Public Involvement is to serve city residents and provide basic services, Management E1 in Drainage Maintenance including public education, solid waste management, W1 W5 Our Beautiful, D1 and urban flood risk management. This means, each W6 Livable City department sector needs to invest in developing W2 E2 D2 D3 their unique foundational services and infrastructure. W4 Removing Only with basic city services can the cross-sector Solid Waste Waste from Urban Drainage Management W3 issues be adequately addressed. Actions presented in Drainage this model that generally pertain to solely each D4 sector included E3, E4, W2, W3, W4, D3, and D4, as shown in Figure 6-1. These actions belong in each department’s strategy and action plan. Figure 6-1. Model Sectors and Their Actions Concept 2 was “All Unite as City Residents.” Services provided under Concept 1 usually have gaps or leaves some unmet need, which tends to be larger earlier in a city’s development. An example of this is uncollected waste that ends up clogging urban drainage channels. This model presents specific actions that can help fill this gap, which rely heavily on resident, community, and industry involvement. Relevant actions were E1, E2, W1, W5, W6, D1, and D2, as shown in Figure 6-1. A supplemental action plan consisting of these actions can help bolster or enhance each sector’s action plans and their performance. Active resident involvement, a sense of community and co-dependency, with each actor maintaining a practical dose and sense of personal responsibility is what makes Kitakyushu’s experience unique. After all, the city government is not the city. Residents are, and these residents form communities, NGOs/CBOs, industries, and the government. Not only is it reasonable to have these residents partake in maintaining their homes and public areas, resident initiative is essential in truly Note: The banner states “We are all connected by one ocean” creating a beautiful, livable, vibrant city that everyone Figure 6-2. Beach Clean Up in Coordination with Cities in Korea and China dreams of. 94 Interplay between Solid Waste and Urban Flood Risk Sources Cited 7 Sources Cited Central Intelligence Agency (2013). The World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency < https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html> Economic and Social Research Institute (2015). Statistics: Gross Domestic Product. Cabinet Office, Government of Japan. Accessed 25 July 2017. Fukuoka Prefecture (2013). Murasaki River System Improvement Plan. Haq, SK Enamul (2017). Photographs on pg 5. The Daily Star. 10 May 2017. 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