35881 Masud Mozammel Sina Odugbemi With Using strategic the Support of communication to fight poverty Multitudes through PRSPs Information and Communication for Development, DFID Development Communication Division, External Affairs, The World Bank Masud Mozammel Sina Odugbemi With Using strategic the Support of communication to fight poverty Multitudes through PRSPs With the Support of Multitudes: using strategic communication to fight poverty through PRSPs edited by Masud Mozammel and Sina Odugbemi © The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA © The Department for International Development (DFID), 1 Palace Street, London, SW1E 5HE, UK Published 2005 Published by The Department for International Development (DFID), 1 Palace Street, London, SW1E 5HE, UK DFID, the Department for International Development: leading the British government's fight against world poverty. British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1-86192-6863 The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect official DFID policies. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Credits Graphic Design: Grundy & Northedge Photographs: Front cover­ top left - Jorgen Schytte / Panos Pictures, top right - Paul Weinberg / Panos Pictures, lower right - Shehzad Noorani / Panos Pictures. Back cover­ lower right - Jean Leo Dugast / Panos Pictures. Page 11­ Crispin Hughes / Panos Pictures. Page 33­ Dean Chapman / Panos Pictures. Page 83­ Frams Lemmens / Panos Pictures. Page 113­ Trygve Bolstad / Panos Pictures. Contents List of boxes and figures 4 Foreword 5 Acknowledgements 7 Acronyms and Abbreviations 7 Notes on Contributors 8 Executive Summary 9 Strategic Communication in PRSPs: An Overview 11 Part 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 12 Chapter 2. Structural Impediments to Participation and Country Ownership 17 Chapter 3. Strategic Communication: Principles, Challenges and Applications 23 Country Case Studies 33 Part 2 Chapter 4. Ghana 35 Chapter 5. Moldova 45 Chapter 6. Tanzania 53 Chapter 7. Emerging Lessons and Summary of Good Practice 67 Short Case Studies from Five Countries 83 Part 3 Chapter 8. Bolivia 85 Chapter 9. Cambodia 92 Chapter 10. Kyrgyz Republic 98 Chapter 11. Pakistan 103 Chapter 12. Rwanda 108 Appendices 113 Part 4 Further Case Studies and Additional Material 114 A. Bolivia 115 B. Cambodia 116 C. Kyrgyz Republic 117 D. Moldova 118 E. Niger 119 F. Pakistan 120 G. Rwanda 121 H. Tanzania 122 I. Uganda 123 J. Vietnam 124 K. Strategic Communication for Poverty Reduction: the SIDA workshop 125 L. Strategic Communication in PRSPs: an Annotated Bibliography and Further Resources 132 Index 144 Boxes and Figures Boxes 1 PRSP communication: steps to consider 29 2 Ghana: chronology of the consultations by activity 38 3 Ghana: GPRS communication strategy 42 4 Ghana: specific messages of the GPRS communication strategy 42 5 Moldova: a history of communication interventions 50 6 Moldova: communication activity plan 52 7 Tanzania: PRS information communication 57 8 Tanzania: results of policy and service satisfaction survey 60 9 Kyrgyz Republic: inputs into the NPRS process 99 10 Kyrgyz Republic: donor involvement in the PRS 101 11 Pakistan: participatory activities in the PRSP process 104 12 Rwanda: calendar of key policy documents 109 13 Rwanda: PRSP activities timetable 110 Figures 1 A framework for analysing strategic communication in the PRS process 15 2 Moldova: institutional framework for EGPRS elaboration 46 3 Tanzania: PRS actors 54 4 A conceptual framework for strategic communication in PRSPs 68 5 Split communication in the Pakistani PRSP 69 6 Strategic information sharing 70 7 Mediation between the government and the public in the Bolivian PRSP 71 8 Tanzania's poverty policy week 73 9 Coordination of Vietnam's JSA and APR 75 10 Ghana: donor supported capacity building 76 11 Pakistan civil society acts as a resource for donors 77 4 Foreword Although only five years old now, the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) approach has become established as the country-level framework for the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).Two of the six principles of the approach are particularly important: country ownership and the participation of broad segments of the political community in strategy formulation, implementation and monitoring.Yet a recent review of the PRS approach by the staff of the World Bank and the IMF said: · Some countries are beginning to link the PRS to domestic decision- making processes more effectively, and to deepen the involvement of line ministries and local governments.There is also growing parliamentary involvement in Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) oversight and implementation. However, sustained efforts are needed to align the PRS process with country systems and processes. · The PRS approach has raised awareness of the value of civil society contributions to policy dialogue. However, there is as yet relatively little evidence of a broad-based and open discussion of macroeconomic policy alternatives in PRSPs.There needs to be support for building the (Poverty Reduction capacity of different groups to engage in constructive dialogue on policy Strategy Papers ­ Progress in options and to ensure their sustained participation in PRSP Implementation', 20 September 2004) implementation and monitoring. It is pertinent to ask: why is it important that political leaders and policymakers in developing countries generally ­ and especially those implementing Poverty Reduction Strategies ­ ensure that there is broad and sustained participation in the evolution and implementation of these strategies?There are two excellent reasons why this is a matter of the first importance: · Experience has shown that top-down approaches to development do not work and are, in any event, not sustained. Development is about people. It is not something that is done to people; it is best done with people. Poverty Reduction Strategies are far more likely to be effective and sustainable when they are evolved and implemented with the full participation of the broadest possible segments of the country.That way they unleash the power, energies and commitment of multitudes. · What is more, intelligent political leaders know that engaging the population in constructive dialogue over policy options is an effective way of managing public opinion and securing political success. It might often be messy and challenging, but the rewards are manifold. It also protects political leaders from blame; for, a problem openly discussed with voters is a problem shared. 5 This is why this book is timely and relevant. It makes the crucial point that while building support for Poverty Reduction Strategies is vital to success, such support will not happen without planned, deliberate and sustained efforts to involve the citizenry in an open and inclusive process of two-way communication.This is what is meant by strategic communication. This publication offers policymakers and their technical staff four important forms of support: 1. Case studies from a variety of countries on the use of communication to enhance the effectiveness of Poverty Reduction Strategies; 2. Best practice guidance on which methods are known to have been effective and which have been less so; 3. An analysis of the structural impediments to participation and country ownership; and 4. A detailed list of further sources of information and guidance. Senior policymakers in countries implementing Poverty Reduction Strategies, as well as donor organisations, are urged to read and reflect on the lessons reported in this study. And to pass the work on to technical staff responsible for the implementation of Poverty Reduction Strategies around the world. 6 Acknowledgements Acronyms and Abbreviations This publication came about as a result of work that we have been doing to support ADB Asian Development Bank the strategic use of communication in the PRSP process. We would therefore AP action plan like to thank the senior officials in our respective organisations who supported APR annual progress report and approved that work: Paul Mitchell at the World Bank and Guy Mustard and CBO community-based organisation Michael Green in DFID. We also owe a debt of gratitude to the World Bank and CDF Comprehensive Development Framework DFID colleagues ­ too numerous to list ­ responsible for the programmes in all the CIDA Canadian International Development countries we visited and have featured in this publication as case studies. Without Association their active support this work would not have happened at all. CNA community needs assessment In particular, we would like to thank the following helpful colleagues and CS communication strategy partners: Jason Monty, Richard Rose, Johanna Martinson, Nawsheen Elaheebocus, CSO civil society organisation Anjali Manglik, Rosalie Ferrao, colleagues at the Development Communication DAC Development Assistance Committee Division of the World Bank, and the Information and Communication for Development DFID Department for International Development team of DFID, and government officials in the countries we visited. EU European Union We would also like to express our gratitude to the reviewers of the publication: HIPC heavily indebted poor countries James Deane, Barbara Zatlokal, Christopher Mushi, Waheeda Shariff Samji, Steliana ICTs information and communication Nedera, Reiner Forster, Katrina Sharkey, Servacius Likwelile, Matthew Sudders and technologies Eamoinn Taylor. IDA International Development Association Finally, we would like to take the opportunity to express our gratitude to Jeni IFI International Financial Institution Klugman, Alison Scott, Linda Van Gelder, Parmesh Shah, Tim Carrington, Caby IMF International Monetary Fund Verzosa, Diana Chung, Emanuele Santi, Gunilla Cederqvist, Servus Sagday, Roy I-PRSP interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Trivedy and Fatima Fouad for their advice and support during the development of JSA Joint Staff Assessment the strategic communication framework for PRSPs, and its application in countries M&E monitoring and evaluation over the last three years. MDGs Millennium Development Goals NEPAD New Partnership for Africa's Development NGO non-governmental organisation Masud Mozammel ODI Overseas Development Institute OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Sina Odugbemi Development PPA Participatory Poverty Assessment PRGF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSIA Poverty and Social Impact Analysis SAP Structural Adjustment Policy SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency UNDP United Nations Development Programme 7 Notes on Contributors Robert Chapman contributed to policy planning many years with civil society Director of the Interns' Network issues. Communication is one of Robert Chapman is a research within DFID, and represented organisations and mass media. 2003-4. Before joining ODI she four themes within the RAPID officer at the Overseas Claire Short's views to other In the last several years, she worked at the John Smith programme, which focuses on Development Institute (ODI), government departments, has taken special interest in the Memorial Trust and Demos, the interface between research within the Rural Policy and development NGOs, trade dynamics of the development having graduated from and policy: how can Governance Group, specialising unions, faith groups, think tanks, assistance agenda and Cambridge University in Social policymakers be more evidence- in information and academics, parliamentarians and harmonisation issues, and donor Anthropology in 2002. based in their policymaking; how communication for development the UK Labour Party. coordination mechanisms. can researchers be more policy- in Africa and Asia. He has carried Waheeda Shariff Samji aware in their research; and how out policy research and Masud Mozammel Sina Odugbemi Waheeda Shariff Samji is the can communication between the consultancies for a number of Masud Mozammel is a Sina Odugbemi is the Programme Managing Director and owner of two be improved. Specific multilateral and bilateral Communications Officer in the Manager responsible for Carpe Diem Ink, a Tanzanian communication projects have organisations on information and Development Communication Information and Communication development consultancy included a large study for FAO, communication technologies in Division of the World Bank. He is for Development (ICD) in the company based in Dar es DFID and the World Bank on the context of agricultural specialised in planning, Information and Civil Society Salaam. For a number of years, information systems for rural development, natural resource designing and implementing Department of the UK's she worked for and with civil livelihoods, support to several management and rural communication interventions in Department for International society organizations in Tanzania, projects to help them livelihoods. He is also involved in development operations focusing Development (DFID). In that role, including the Aga Khan communicate better to ICT strategy development, on policy, strategy, and he helps to manage the Foundation and CARE, after policymakers, and work with programme design and programmes. Mr. Mozammel is programme and also works as a which she joined DFID as an DFID on the communication implementation. currently leading the Division's Communication Adviser for DFID. advisor. Her consultancy elements of the Central work on strategic communication In addition, he coordinates a company, established in 2002, Research Department's new Ruth Driscoll in the Poverty Reduction Strategy network of media and specialises in the field of research strategy. Ruth Driscoll is a Research Papers (PRSPs) and in the communication officers in development communications, Fellow in the Poverty and Public Community Driven Development country teams. His special focusing particularly on Policy Group of the Overseas (CDD) approach. He is also interest is how public opinion packaging policy information for Development Institute (ODI). Her involved in communication processes influence public policy different stakeholders. Recent main focus is the PRSP research and provides support to and legislation. He has worked assignments have included Monitoring and Synthesis the World Bank client survey for DFID in different providing long-term technical project, a 3-year initiative programme. Prior to joining the communication roles since July support to the national poverty providing advice to DFID staff on World Bank, Mr. Mozammel 2000. Before then he was editor monitoring system based in the key issues arising in the worked as a newspaper reporter of West Africa Magazine in Poverty Eradication Division in implementation of PRSPs, based for seven years. Apart from London and had spent 20 years the Vice-President's Office, and on a synthesis of information journalism, he was also engaged as a journalist in Nigeria as well developing youth-friendly PRS about progress in-country. The in providing advisory and as the UK. materials for mass audiences in project aims to enhance DFID's technical support on Tanzania. Her work has also ability to engage with the wider communication issues and Amy Pollard included developing policy debate around PRSPs and involved in media production Amy Pollard is currently writing a communication materials for the help all levels of DFID staff to with various local and PhD in Social Anthropology at government in Uganda. remain well-informed about a international development Cambridge University, with a wide variety of PRSP work. Ruth agencies. focus on knowledge practices John Young has been involved in the collation within UNDP in South-East Asia. John Young is the Head of of information on the PRSP Steliana Nedera This work was undertaken as a Communications and process from a variety of sources Steliana Nedera was Head of the Research Officer in the Research Partnerships and runs the and providing updates, topic DFID office in Moldova between and Policy in Development Research and Policy in notes, and in-depth analysis on 2000 and 2004. In June 2004 (RAPID) Programme at the Development (RAPID) key issues around PRSPs. Ruth she moved to UNDP Moldova as Overseas Development Institute, programme at the Overseas joined the ODI after working as Assistant Resident where she worked between Development Institute in London. Special Adviser to Claire Short, Representative, Chief of spring 2003 and autumn 2004. He joined ODI in 2001 after 15 Secretary of State for Programme Section. In her Amy's previous work at RAPID years in Africa and Asia working International Development, UK position at DFID she was actively focused on civil society on rural services and DFID, where she provided advice involved in dialogue and support organisations, knowledge government service reform. on the political implications of towards the elaboration of the management and bridging Since joining ODI he has worked 8 development policies, Moldovan PRSP. She worked for research and policy. She was on a number of communication Executive Summary Purpose This publication has been produced in order to improve the chances of success of Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSs) in two ways: 1. To show policymakers how strategic communication can help them to achieve some of their objectives in formulating and executing effective Poverty Reduction Strategies. 2. To give the technocrats and officials actively engaged in the execution of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) guidance on best practice as well as lessons from a community of practice spread around the world. What strategic communication offers is almost impossible to switch off. Strategic communication is much more than · It creates or deepens a public culture of merely informing citizens about PRSPs. Rather, citizen­government dialogue.This is already it is the active seeking of the perspectives and evident in several PRSP implementing contributions of citizens so that they can help to countries, as this study affirms. Such a culture shape policy. It also means ensuring that has enormous benefits all round for the mechanisms are in place for a two-way flow of development agenda. information and ideas between the government and the citizenry as well as making deliberate Major issues efforts to build consensus amongst stakeholders The question is this: as countries implement about the development strategy the nation PRSPs, what are the major issues arising wishes to pursue. regarding the need to create national ownership Done properly, strategic communication and ensure broad participation in the process? contributes to the effectiveness of PRSPs in the Here are some leading ones: following ways: · Lack of information about the strategies · It creates open and inclusive national dialogue being developed and implemented among on policy options.This leads to greater and major stakeholders remains an issue.All too informed participation in policymaking by often finance and planning ministries treat significant segments of the population.The the process as their exclusive property. result is increased support and commitment · Lack of trust and confidence about the for the strategy that is agreed. process remains a major problem. Cynicism · It manages expectations. Rather than a is rife. In several cases, public attitudes can be revolution of unrealistic hopes it gives the summed up thus:`another strategy to lift us people a balanced sense of what policy out of poverty? Great! It will go the way of options can deliver.This helps governments. the last ten'. · It promotes transparency and accountability. · So-called participatory exercises are still too Open and inclusive dialogue richly informed often mere public information campaigns, by a full airing of the facts helps citizens to involving top-down dissemination and a few hold governments to account.They can workshops and seminars.What is worse, they measure progress against promises more easily. are usually ad hoc, rather than strategic. · It establishes and maintains momentum.This · All too often once the PRSP is finalised is because once vast multitudes are engaged communication processes come to an end. in the process of working out the strategy to There is often no effort to institute systems be pursued the energies of the nation are for continued citizen engagement and the 9 more easily unleashed; and once unleashed it regular flow of information. Structural impediments to genuine morale.This affects the implementation of participation Poverty Reduction Strategies in quite One of the main lessons of this study is that significant ways. PRSPs are not implemented in green houses, but in very specific national contexts. Implementation lessons Depending on the situation in each country, the For technocrats engaged in implementing following structural factors are critical to PRSPs, the main lessons of this study can be whether or not you can have genuine citizen summarised as follows: participation in and ownership of PRSPs: 1. You must distinguish between mere consult- · The underlying political culture can be ation or awareness raising and participation. decisive. If it is inherently authoritarian, for 2. Strategic communication is planned, example, both the governed and the ruling deliberate and long-term rather than ad-hoc elite will believe that public policy is the or reactive communication. exclusive preserve of governments and 3. The purpose of the communication strategy nothing more needs to be said. is to create ownership via a process of free, · The state of the mass media in the specific open and inclusive national dialogue. It also country is also a crucial factor.This is a bill of helps to manage expectations, so that three particulars: (1) do the laws allow a free governments do not unwittingly make rods and independent media system? (2) Do all for their own backs. sections of the community and all regions 4. It is important to involve the opinion leaders have access to the media? (3) Is mass media in the community; for while the focus of content such as to promote informed debate strategy is the poor, elites have crucial roles on the policy options in the effort to to play in the struggle against poverty. eradicate poverty? 5. Mechanisms for ensuring free flow of · Access to official information is the third information between policymakers and the structural impediment. If all the facts citizenry must be institutionalised. Otherwise, needed for informed debate are in the the process loses momentum after the initial possession of government departments who push and cynicism will triumph. treat everything as an official secret, genuine 6. Build communication capacity within participation is all but impossible. government. It is important for governments · The fourth is the density and capacity of civil to be skilled at practicing two-way society organisations (CSOs) in each country. communication. It is in their interest to be This includes not just the modern non- appropriately organised, staffed and equipped governmental organisations (NGOs) but in this vital regard. organic institutions of civil society such as 7. Help the mass media to be able to foster churches, mosques, temples, age-group the process of open and inclusive national associations and so on. How organised civil dialogue.With regard to PRSPs the economic society is often shapes how participatory literacy of journalists is a major challenge. PRSPs are, both in their formulation and 8. Increase civil society resources and capacity their implementation. and always seek to engage them. · Finally, there is the vexed question of 9. Finally, it is not enough to integrate strategic communication capacity within government. communication when devising macro-level The skilled management of public opinion Poverty Reduction Strategy; it is is an essential skill for all governments, yet equally important to integrate strategic the information ministry in many countries communication planning for specific sectoral 10 is a backwater of low skill, low pay and low and thematic areas prioritised in each PRS. Strategic Communication in PRSPs: Part 1 An Overview 11 Part 1 Strategic Chapter 1 Communication in PRSPs: An Overview Multitudes of Support the With 1 Introduction The introduction of the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) in 1999 by the International Financial Institutions saw the arrival of a process conditionality Introduction 1: establishing participation as a major element required for enhancing national ownership (Booth 2003). As the governments along with the civil Chapter society and donors in developing countries start preparing their Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) they recognise that ensuring effective Overview An engagement of stakeholders is an enormous challenge both in the PRSPs: preparation and later in the implementation of the poverty strategy. Luckily in in the very early stages of PRSP era it has been felt that a systematic application of communication tools and techniques is essential for the delivery of the participatory process requirement of PRSP. In fact commun- Communication ication is crucial not only for upholding the participation element but also Strategic critical for ensuring several other aspects of the six core principles that underpin PRSPs. The principles determine that the strategies should be: · results oriented, with targets for poverty reduction that are tangible and monitorable · comprehensive, integrating macroeconomic, structural, sectoral and social elements · country driven, representing a consensual view of what actions should be taken · participatory, with all relevant stakeholders participating in formulation and implementation · based on partnerships between government and other actors · long-term, focusing on reforming institutions and building capacity, as well as short-term goals The effective engagement of stakeholders to build ownership through the country-driven approach of the PRSP is heavily dependent on the availability of and access to information. However, it is not assumed that an information-rich environment would ensure the effective participation of stakeholders and establish ownership of the effort. One of the major challenges in using information to promote an open, inclusive, and informed dialogue is to apply communication tools and techniques in a strategic manner taking into account the socio-political, historical, cultural, and economic dynamics of a given country. 12 Multitudes of Support the With 1 How does the process work? is to focus on issues related to the socio-political The PRS process involves government and economic dynamics of a society: language, machineries developing and implementing a culture, attitude, and behavioural patterns; level of Introduction 1: national plan of action for reducing poverty, engagement, position and influence of known as a PRSP.This should be done through stakeholders; structural issues such as media and Chapter a participatory process, with a detailed the information environment and the nature and assessment of the nature of poverty in a country, capacity of the civil society.A strategic Overview and wide discussion of the strategy within civil communication intervention would typically An society. Donors then provide support in the involve a Communication Strategy (CS) and an PRSPs: form of grants or loans aligned with the PRSP Action Plan (AP) with clear resource allocation in once the government has prepared it.At the for both human and financial resources. heart of the PRS approach is the idea that the Strategic communication is much more process is country-owned rather than donor-led. than merely disseminating information to Communication Once fully formulated, the PRSP is then people to inform them about the PRSP. It is implemented. A process of ongoing monitoring, the active solicitation of their perspective Strategic including through an Annual Progress Report to help consider options to shape the (APR) produced by government, and a Joint formulation of policy, ensuring that the Staff Assessment (JSA) produced by the World mechanisms are in place for a two-way Bank and IMF, should provide information with flow of information and to build consensus which to improve the next PRSP. In this way, among stakeholders about the the approach is intended to be an iterative development agenda. (Mozammel and process of formulating, implementing and Zatlokal 2002) monitoring PRSPs, which contributes to an ongoing, long-term process of poverty Strategic communication is aimed at achieving a reduction. set of objectives during the PRSP preparation and implementation stages and continues throughout the future rounds of the PRSP What is strategic communication preparation, implementation, monitoring and in PRSPs evaluation phases.Therefore, the communication Strategic application of communication tools objectives should include a set of short-, and techniques is more important than carrying medium-, and long- term goals based on a set of out a set of standard and traditional data derived from solid research and analysis on communication activities that are common in economic, political, sectoral and thematic issues. many other development efforts. Strategic Systematic application of communication communication intervention cannot be tools can help the PRSP process in the occasional and ad hoc. It must be integrated and following ways: institutionalised in the overall PRSP process. · engage stakeholders in different levels of One of the reasons being that communication in preparation and implementation phases PRSPs is not only focused on public education · raise awareness of stakeholders through the or raising awareness about a set of issues or dissemination of information in a simplified actions. It involves other aspects that are linked manner so that they are able to understand to stakeholder expectations, keeping momentum the issues and participate in the dialogue of the process, or follow-up actions, or effectively involvement of stakeholders in a cyclical process. · continue an informed policy dialogue and The other major characteristic of strategic debate 13 communication intervention in the PRSP process · institutionalise the participatory process Multitudes of Support the With 1 · build ownership and accountability · create awareness of PRSPs and explain the · provide a space for citizen participation in underlying principles · Introduction defining country priorities to fight poverty create a communication environment 1: · incorporate the views of the poor · create momentum and reinforce the Chapter · establish a feedback mechanism continuity of the PRSP process · use the watchdog role of the media Overview · manage expectations An Why strategic communication in PRSP? · build confidence and trust Strategic communication intervention puts build capacity for designing and managing PRSPs: · in strong emphasis on socio-political, behavioural, the implementation of communication and attitudinal issues in addition to the programme common communication activities including · help institutionalise the participatory process Communication information dissemination, campaign or feedback.Therefore, a strategic communication Strategic programme relies heavily on a set of complex Major stakeholders in the communication objectives that deal with issues communication process of PRSP such as building consensus, establishing For the PRSP to succeed in its aims, both its ownership, managing expectations, and building formulation and implementation need to trust and confidence in the PRSP process.A integrate and apply communication tools and popular communication intervention would techniques primarily within and between three generally include activities that deal primarily major groups of stakeholders: government, civil with information dissemination, and sometimes society, and donors. These groups are, however, information sharing, through events like far from homogenous: consultation workshops and seminars.A strategic · Government is made up of a central ministry communication programme also relies with overall responsibility for the PRS considerably on information dissemination process ­ usually the Ministry of Finance in activities. However, it also places a strong Africa and the Ministry of Planning in Asia emphasis on public opinion data, stakeholder ­ and also sector line ministries (for health, dynamics, non-regular media channels including transport, education etc.). Most countries civil society networks, and so on. have local government offices, and some The PRSP process involves four major groups have a level of government at regional and of stakeholders.These include government, civil state levels (for example Pakistan or India). society, parliamentarians, and donors. Each of these Although levels of separation vary, this groups would have some common and some category also includes parliaments and other specific communication dynamics.All of them checks and balances on the executive such as would have different internal communication National Audit Offices. dynamics within their own groups and external · Civil society is a notoriously diffuse and communication with each other.They would all broad category, which may include a host of have different needs for different types and formats organisations depending on the social and of information. However, they would have some political context. With definitions varying common interests and issues other than the need around the theme of groups which act for basic information on the PRSP and its between the individual and the state, civil principles and progress. society organisations can include national Some of the major issues and challenges that and international NGOs, political parties, a strategic communication programme would media organisations, faith groups, trade 14 address are: unions, universities and private sector Multitudes of Figure 1 Support A framework for analysing the strategic communication in With the PRS process 1 Introduction 1: Chapter Overview ENTRAL C An M MINISTRY I N S IS T RIE PRSPs: in O F E LOCAL F C IN A N T G O T N V N E E CTOR LIN RN M E E E S M EGIONAL R Communication M N I N S G IS T RIE R O T V N E E E R NM V S O T Strategic G N P A E R L I AM C O M M U N I C AT I O N I N O F T H E C I THE THE P R F O PRS JOINT S DOCUMENT STAFF ASSESSMENT THE ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT MEDIA OR ET SUPP S G O G N IVERSITIE D R A N T I ATE SEC UB N S S AT I O IV T O U PR TORPROJE D S R C C O N O R ES T HGROUPS Y D O S N OR IT T ERNATIONA E AF I D -TRADITION T ON A L O NI C N S L O S N N O D S O R N S s N O GO T IO R S s R L N I O A D EU I V G N N C A T L IO NA 15 Multitudes of Support the With 1 organisations. The extent to which media the PRS as an iterative process which will work and other civil society groups exist towards reducing poverty in the long-term. Introduction independently of government varies Each stakeholder group has a part to play in 1: according to country context. developing strategic communication in PRSPs. Chapter · Donors can be usefully divided into three Whilst building a coherent country strategy categories for the purpose of this analysis. requires strong leadership from governments, the Overview First, there are the multilateral donors such contributions of civil society and donors are also An as the World Bank, International Monetary critical. Activities specifically targeted towards Fund (IMF) and regional development communication, such as the dissemination of PRSPs: in banks. Second, there are bilateral donors information amongst the general public, or including both those who are strongly initiatives to develop dialogue between supportive of the PRS approach (such as government and civil society, must run alongside Communication DFID and others offering budget support) efforts to improve communication within other and those who are less so (such as project or elements of the PRS, such as the budgetary Strategic programme-oriented donors like Japan and process or donor harmonisation. Approaching the US). Third, there are non-traditional the full range of communication issues in PRSPs donors, such asVietnam, with their illuminates the systemic and interactive processes emerging aid programmes. that forge strategic communication. Each stakeholder group needs to be aware of Communication within and between these three how their position in the PRS process confers 1 A similar model was drawn by stakeholder groups, in relation to the three key particular communication issues, and understand Steliana Nedera, DFID, at a SIDA moments in the PRS, can be mapped as a how approaches to communication can cause workshop on strategic communication and PRSPs in framework for strategic communication in PRS transformations in their positions, and in the Stockholm in March 2004. processes as seen in Figure 1.1 trajectory of poverty reduction itself. Thus, a resilient plan for strategic communication in PRSPs requires that the responsibilities and How strategic has communication in opportunities of all stakeholders be made clear PRSPs been to date? from the outset. Communication processes in PRSPs are often only as good as the organisation and quality of the PRS process itself. Rarely addressed in its own right, the development of strategic communication often occurs alongside improvements in the participation process, government capacity and donor harmonisation. Importantly though, whilst strategic communication may develop as a kind of added References bonus to improvements in other PRS activities, an investment in strategic communication has Booth D. (ed), 2003, Fighting Poverty in Africa: are PRSPs the potential to act as a catalyst which dislodges making a difference? (London, Overseas Development Institute) obstacles and creates an impetus for development in core elements of the PRS. Mozammel M and Zatlokal B. 2002, `Strategic Communication in PRSP' in A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies Across different countries experiences are mixed, (Washington DC, the World Bank) but whilst communication within PRSPs is often far from ideal, strategic approaches to World Bank. 2002, A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction 16 communication have proved central in forging Strategies (Washington DC, the World Bank) Chapter 2 Sina Odugbemi 2 Multitudes of Support the The structural impediments to With participation and country ownership 1 Introduction: rich or thin? This chapter is an exploration of the structural 2 Sina Odugbemi is Programme Manager and Adviser for challenges that can impede true country ownership of and participation in Information and Communications the PRS process. However, it is important to make explicit from the outset Impediments for Development (ICD) for DFID. the standard against which PRS processes ought to be assessed. I emphasise the word ought because the value-laden standards at the basis of many Structural 2: development instruments tend not to be made explicit for fear that donors will be accused of practising a new imperialism. Chapter Overview An For instance, Robert Cooper, a senior British requirements can be understood in either a thin diplomat writing in his personal capacity locates or a rich sense. PRSPs: in much of international development assistance Let's take them one by one. Country within what he calls postmodern imperialism. ownership of the PRS process can mean According to him: ownership only by the government of the day, Communication Postmodern imperialism takes two forms. or even just the finance ministry. No other First there is the voluntary imperialism of players or sectors in the political community Strategic the global economy.This is usually own the strategy.This is the thin sense. But operated by an international consortium country ownership can also mean that the PRS through International Financial Institutions is the crystallization of a genuine national such as the IMF and the World Bank ­ it is consensus. It means a political community characteristic of the new imperialism that saying:`This is what we are going to do; to this it is multilateral.These institutions provide strategy our entire nation is committed'.This is help to states wishing to find their way the rich sense. In the same way, participation in back into the global economy and into the the formulation and implementation of the virtuous circle of investment and PRS can mean a technical exercise involving prosperity. In return they make demands donors, consultants and government officials which, they hope, address the political and with some dissemination of the outcome to civil economic failures that have contributed to society groups and the media.This is the thin the original need for assistance. Aid sense of participation. But participation can theology today increasingly emphasises also mean the active involvement of all the governance. If states wish to benefit, they significant sectors of the political community 3 must open themselves up to the in the formulation, implementation and real Robert Cooper `The new liberal imperialism' The Observer, interference of international organisations time monitoring of the PRS.This is the rich London. Sunday April 7, 2002. and foreign states...3 sense of participation. What ought to be clear from the above is Cooper's blunt and controversial assessment that the thin sense of participation almost might explain the reluctance of donors to make inevitably begets the thin sense of country explicit the standards at the basis of aid ownership.And I would argue that by necessary instruments like the PRS. But these standards implication the rich sense of participation almost cannot be avoided in any serious examination of inevitably begets the rich sense of country PRS processes.Thus when two of the six ownership. Now, the fundamental question is as principles of the PRS process require that each follows: Is the internationally accepted PRS one be country owned and participatory those approach committed to the thin or the rich requirements have to be unpacked. And the first senses of country ownership and participation? The 17 step in that process is to point out that the overall impression one gets, and this is my Multitudes of Support the With 1 private view, is that the rich senses of country will make the PRS genuinely participatory and ownership and participation are the real goals of the help to produce true country ownership.The Impediments PRS approach. evidence suggests, for instance, that if the The problem is that the rich senses of political culture is authoritarian this is will not participation and country ownership amount to a happen. For old habits die hard; and this is true Structural 2: highly ambitious agenda of social and political of both the rulers and the ruled. It is important change that is hardly ever explicitly avowed. to realise that the rich senses of participation and Chapter What follows is a discussion of some of the country ownership really imply or assume a structural impediments to the realisation of democratic political culture. But if the Overview genuine participation and ownership of PRSs underlying political culture is not democratic, An together with the evidence from the case studies inclusive public policy dialogue will be difficult PRSPs: to organise.4 4 in For a discussion of the rich contained in this study.The justification for this tradition of political studies on chapter, if any is needed, is that while strategic The outstanding examples here are the political culture and communication can help to foster participation former Soviet Republics, now independent democratisation see Dalton and country ownership, the overall context in countries. Under Communist one party rule, the Communication 1998: 338-41. which communication takes place has a decisive narrow political elite decided for entire Strategic impact on what communication can contribute. countries.The people themselves did not expect In other words, strategic communication is not a to be involved.The situation would not appear magic bullet.We shall conclude with a word or to be radically different today, given the reported two on the policy implications. extent of the gap between public preferences and public policy in these new democracies. This is what political scientists call the representation gap The underlying political culture and it is quite wide in this part of the world. The underlying political culture in a Thus, when the leaders of governments are told specific political community has important that the PRS approach requires free and consequences. But what is political culture? The inclusive dialogue, they offer resistance. concept has been described thus: In this publication the case studies of A political culture is formed by the practice Moldova, Kyrgyztan, and Cambodia make of politics. It is the sum of the dispositions instructive reading.They show just how created by the regular operation of the challenging it is to organise inclusive policy political system of a particular society. A dialogue in such political communities.The political culture can encourage participation Tanzania and Ghana case studies illustrate what and involvement by the majority of citizens, is possible when a free and inclusive dialogue as tends to be the case in democratic happens; they also show how the underlying politics, especially the smaller ones political culture shapes what is possible. (ancient Athens, 18th century Geneva). Or it can promote attitudes of passivity and acquiescence, as in authoritarian or State of the mass media totalitarian systems. A political culture is Free, independent and plural mass media systems largely formed by the political system, but are a condition for genuinely participatory PRS it depends for its persistence and vitality on processes.This ought not to be a controversial the support of other social institutions. point to make. In modern societies the mass (Bullock andTrombley 1999: 660) media are the chief mediators of political reality, the main sources of political and economic Political culture affects whether or not you can intelligence, and significant influencers of public 18 have the kind of free and inclusive dialogue that opinion.The role of the media in development Multitudes of Support the With 1 is now generally accepted after years of doubt inclusive and accessible way? Do the journalists and contention.According to the World understand the issues? Do they have the skills to Development Report 2002: break down the complexities of economic Impediments ...and the media can affect politics and strategy in a way that engages and inspires a culture, supporting institutional change and mass audience? Structural market development. Open information Several of the case studies in this publication 2: flows can promote institutional reform by discuss the state of the media, for example in Chapter affecting people's incentives and by sharing Pakistan (lack of media debate) and in ideas and knowledge. New information can Kyrgyztan (poor media infrastructure).A Overview change people and culture ­ and create particularly instructive example is provided by An demand for new institutions. Information Ghana, regarding the way to train journalists to PRSPs: on how other institutions work can cover the PRS process in an intelligent and in stimulate public debate and facilitate inclusive way. collective action. And greater access to all media, including the foreign and the Communication vernacular, can provide a voice for social Access to information groups to press for changes in institutions What is access to information? A United Strategic and norms of behaviour. Nations Development Programme (UNDP) practice note on the subject offers a useful guide Under ideal circumstances, the media's role in through the conceptual maze: the PRS process could be identified as follows: Freedom of expression and the right to · explaining the strategic options to the public information held by public authorities are · encouraging free and open debate around related but different concepts. Freedom of the options expression and the free flow of information · supporting the process of strategy and ideas include the right to information, formulation but the right to official information is a · explaining the PRS to the public more narrowly defined concept, which · keeping the flow of information going requires specific legislation. during implementation Access to information is not only about · insisting on performance and accountability promoting and protecting rights to · monitoring and reporting progress against information but is equally concerned with stated PRS objectives promoting and protecting communication (use of information) to voice one's views, to Where you do not have a free, independent and participate in democratic processes that plural media system these things are not likely to take place at all levels (community, happen.Three factors determine whether or not national, regional and global) and to set you have a free, independent and plural media priorities for action.(UNDP 2003: 3) system.The first is the regulatory environment for the media: whether the laws of the land In each country the PRS is the outcome of a allow a thousand mass media flowers to bloom. process of public policy formulation. The second is media access or penetration: do Information, including technical data on the the mass media reach all sections of the political economy and society, is used by policymakers to community? Are rural communities cut off? This shape every stage in the policymaking and is a question of both physical and audience implementation process: reach.The third is media content: do the mass · problems identification 19 media cover the PRS process in an intelligent, · objectives Multitudes of Support the With 1 · options is to the needs, views and concerns of the · analysis and appraisal citizenry.As is now well known, when civil Impediments · consultation society is weak and badly organised those who · decision implementation control the state are better able to get their way · policy maintenance and escape scrutiny.As is now equally well Structural 2: · monitoring known, CSOs need to be genuinely anchored · evaluation within society; for that is the basis for legitimacy Chapter and effectiveness. In short, the modern concept As the PRS passes through all these stages ­ and of civil society is that it is `the locus of free and Overview all its phases ­ you will not have genuine deliberative politics' and it has added an `an An participation and national ownership unless important dimension to our understanding of PRSPs: in there is free flow of relevant information.The politics as public action and participation.' problem is that most of the relevant information (Young 1998:494) will be generated by, and belong to, the state. If The case studies we publish here show that the state will not willingly share the information for CSOs to be effective in the PRS process Communication with the media, parliament and CSOs, the they need to be: Strategic participatory process will end abruptly.This is · well organised especially important once the PRS is agreed and · have good advocacy skills the media and civil society need the information · have basic economic literacy and policy necessary to monitor progress. If they cannot do capacity that, pressure for accountability becomes far · be adult and responsible rather wild and more difficult. fractious In practice, the problem has manifested in the following way.When the PRS is being Rwanda is a case where, after the genocide, it formulated, governments, under pressure from has not been easy for CSOs to organise and gain donors and civil society groups, will often agree strength.The Bolivia case study shows how to the participation of the representatives of the fractious CSOs can do more harm than good. media and CSOs. But as the implementation While Tanzania provides a good example of a process unfolds the same governments will often country where CSOs have played a dynamic and resist any attempt to institutionalise participatory powerful role in the PRS process. mechanisms that will give the media and civil society groups full access to official statistics regarding progress on implementation.This Communication capacity within publication highlights the mixed lessons from government the case studies on Rwanda and Moldova. Communication capacity within governments is also a factor that affects how inclusive and participatory PRS processes are. Sometimes Density and capacity of civil society developing country governments mean well and organisations would like to involve their citizens in policy The density and capacity of CSOs is a factor in dialogue around the PRS.The problem is that how participatory PRS processes are. If civil they do not know how to do it well. In many society is the space between the state and the developing countries, government information household, the density and capacity of CSOs services are dreary backwaters.The government will determine the efficiency of the information officers are badly paid, badly intermediation between state and society.And trained, and very often lack confidence as well as 20 this will help determine how responsive the state basic equipment.The brightest and the best soon Multitudes of Support the With 1 get out and become `proper' civil servants or Development (ICD) team in DFID has been move into the private sector. doing in collaboration with the Development The contrast with what happens in places Communication Division (DCD) of the World Impediments like the UK couldn't be starker. Government Bank has been to support and improve the information and communication specialists capacity of governments to become better Structural belong to the Government Communication communicators with their own citizens and, 2: Network.They are well paid and well equipped hence, make PRS processes more inclusive and Chapter professionals with a wide range of skills.The list nationally owned. One successful example is the of strategic objectives that these professionals work the Bank is doing to improve the capacity Overview work with is striking.They include: of Ghana's Ministry of Information and An · to explain the working policies and actions Presidential Affairs (MIPA). of Ministers and their departments, PRSPs: in including executive bodies Conclusion and policy implications · to create awareness of the rights, benefits These, then, are some of the structural and obligations of individual citizens and impediments to genuinely nationally owned and Communication groups of citizens participatory PRS processes. One nagging · to persuade groups of citizens to act in question is: why do we not talk about these Strategic accordance with agreed policies in defined issues? Two answers suggest themselves. First, circumstances there are many people involved in the PRS · to advise the Department/Government of process who see development as essentially a the public's and the news media's reactions technocratic ­ and not a political ­ process.Yet to its policies or actions what can be more political than the insistence that poor country governments spend the It is all about the two-way flow between the majority of their resources on the needs of the Government and the public. poor? It is a point tellingly made by Moore and The challenge, then, is to make governments Putzel (1999): in developing countries realise that becoming There is a tradition in aid and development better communicators does not mean becoming agencies of bringing in political analysis, if skilled propagandists.True communication is a at all, in terms of problems and difficulties. two-way process. It is about dialogue; it is about `Politics' is why desirable things may not listening as well as talking.What is more, happen. Politics is messy. Political analysis intelligent political leaders realise that it is in is used only to explain and try to fix things their own interest to become better listeners. that have already gone wrong. In reality, That way leads to the skilled management of political analysis is not a gloomy science. It public opinion and, hence, political success. has a great deal to offer in understanding Two of the case studies in this publication what to do about poverty. are particularly relevant.The section in the Kyrgyzstan case study titled `Strengthening Second, many of the issues raised in this governance through communication' rewards discussion are grounded in the bottom-up careful study. It illustrates how many approach to development, that is, the voice and governments involved in PRS processes have accountability agenda.The trouble is that this is come to realise that becoming better an agenda that both donors and developing communicators with the citizenry (a two-way country governments find utterly challenging. process) actually strengthens and improves Donors are wary of being accused of political governance. In addition, much of the work that interference; and governments know that voice 21 the Information and Communication for and accountability issues are ultimately about Multitudes of Support the With 1 power.Thus we often have the ludicrous References spectacle of governments that have committed Impediments themselves to free and inclusive policy dialogue Bullock A and Trombley S (eds). 1999, The New Fontana shutting down radio stations and jailing `difficult' Dictionary of Modern Thought (London, Harper Collins) journalists. Structural Dalton R. 1998, `Comparative Politics: micro-behavioural 2: In spite of the difficulties, however, this is a perspectives' in A New Handbook of Political Science, edited compelling agenda.To shut our eyes to the by Robert Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (Oxford, Chapter impediments listed above would be deeply Oxford University Press) unwise. For every impediment identified is both Overview a call to action and an opportunity.And it is an Moore M and Putzel J. 1999, Thinking Strategically about An Politics and Poverty, IDS Working Paper 101 (Brighton, The opportunity for both donors and partner Institute of Development Studies) PRSPs: in governments alike. Finally, in spite of the impediments listed Oxfam. 2004, From `Donorshi'p to `Ownership'? Moving above there is evidence that the PRS process is towards PRSP Round Two, Oxfam Briefing Paper 51 (Oxford, unleashing a dynamic for change in many of the Oxfam) Communication implementing countries. In a recent briefing United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2003, Strategic paper, Oxfam (2004: 6) concluded: Access to Information Practice Note (Oslo, UNDP) In response to the question whether the PRSP represented the most open policy World Bank. 2002, World Development Report 2002: Building dialogue in their country to date, the Institutions for Markets (Washington DC, World Bank) uniform response from Oxfam offices and Young, I M. 1998, `Political Theory: an Overview' in A New civil-society partners in virtually every Handbook of Political Science, edited by Robert E. Goodin and country was a clear yes.The processes vary Hans-Dieter Klingemann (Oxford, Oxford University Press) enormously, but it is undeniable that PRSP has opened up new spaces for participation in most countries. 22 Chapter 3 Masud Mozammel 5 Multitudes of Support the Strategic Communication in PRSPs: With Principles, Challenges and Applications 6 1 Introduction Communication interventions to ensure effective 5 The author is a Communication Officer in Development participation of stakeholders are generally planned and implemented in Communication Division of the different ways based on the country context and situation. In most cases, World Bank. Communication however, the application of communication tools and approaches so far are 6 This article is based on the apparently limited to information dissemination activities and are primarily Strategic country PRSP experiences and 3: utilised during the preparation of the PRSP document. Few countries have the strategic communication framework developed in the designed long term participation plans that include extensive Chapter chapter on `Strategic communication activities and events. During the implementation phase, Communication in PRSP' in the Overview World Bank's 2002 PRSP some countries have also focused on communication activities in sectoral An Sourcebook. and thematic areas such as budget tracking, citizen report cards, PRSPs: participatory monitoring and evaluation, and so on. A few countries are also in continuing regular information dissemination activities on the progress of the PRS implementation. Many others are in the process of developing communication strategies and implementing communication activities Communication following the preparation of their PRSP documents. Strategic One of the major challenges that still needs attention is the institutionalisation of the process of communication and participation. Most of the activities related to communication so far have been carried out on an ad hoc basis. It is crucial to institutionalise communication in order to sustain the participatory process, build capacity and allocate resources as necessary. This chapter focuses on the experience of communication and information interventions that have been carried out in different PRSP countries to date. It talks about the fundamentals of strategic communication in PRSPs and highlights some strategic issues that need to be taken into consideration while designing, managing, or implementing a PRSP communication programme. Finally, the chapter discusses the strategic communication framework for PRSPs. Popular Communication Approaches system. In addition, communication activities are often occasional and temporary Information and communication tools can be interventions planned or implemented in used in many ways.They can promote a set of reaction to a certain situation or challenge. ideas and thoughts to garner support for a cause In most cases communication intervention or they can be used to create confusion about in the PRSP process has so far been used as a any issue. However, this depends on how one-way information dissemination mechanism. communication tools are applied and with what In some cases country teams have developed objectives, through what channels and for what comprehensive participation plans that include a period of time. Communication approaches in set of communication activities focusing on a development intervention are often looked at as systematic intervention with specific timeline a mechanism for information dissemination, a and objectives with short- and long-term goals. 23 campaign, public education or a feedback On many occasions communication Multitudes of Support the With 1 intervention has been considered as a workshops, consultation meetings, or similar `consultation' process that generally focuses on events where a selected group of people workshops, focus groups, or roundtables representing government departments, CSOs, Communication discussions, etc. Some of the most common academia, donors, and occasionally some activities and approaches that have dominated representation from CBOs.As a result, Strategic 3: the PRSP process are: participants in these events often do not have · information dissemination prior knowledge or ideas about the issues and Chapter · public relations therefore are not able to provide their views and · promotion of the PRSP approach inputs as expected. Sometimes there are few Overview · consultations awareness raising or educational activities such as An · awareness raising the printing of brochures or simplified versions PRSPs: · workshops of PRSP documents. Press conferences are also in · seminars planned prior to and/or following those consult- · campaigns ation workshops, seminars or similar events. What impact does this have on the PRSP Communication In a few cases government units/departments process? Two major concerns are often raised. responsible for the monitoring of the First, it undermines trust and confidence over Strategic implementation of the PRSPs have continued the participatory nature of the process. Second, communication activities, although not on a it greatly raises the expectations of stakeholders. regular basis, following the preparation of their In both cases these ad hoc and non-strategic PRSP document.A very small number of communication activities do not contribute to countries have developed and/or are in the establishing ownership through effective and process of adopting strategic communication meaningful participation in the PRSP process. plans as part of the monitoring activities of This type of communication intervention PRSP implementation and also for the can be the result of some of the following preparation of the second round of the PRSP. perceptions, actions or reasons: · communication intervention is viewed as simple information dissemination activity The danger of not using strategic without having a strategic approach (i.e. communication strategic communication) · not involving professionals in the design and Communication intervention is one of the major implementation of communication elements of the PRSP process because intervention and therefore communication participation of key stakeholders is one of the is not integrated into the overall process major characteristics of the approach. In addition,· lack of capacity to design, manage, and the PRSP process also puts emphasis on the implement communication strategies and issues of partnership and country ownership action plans during preparation and implementation. · lack of resources ­ both human and financial However, participation of stakeholders has often been viewed as an element only during the Building confidence and trust through a PRSP preparation phase, in order to approve a regular flow of information is crucial for the draft strategy document that is prepared with success of the PRSP process. It would be inputs from different government departments, much more challenging to deal with the issues sectoral experts and consultants. Communication and concerns that normally emerge from the interventions to ensure this kind of participation ad hoc and non-professional occasional 24 are often limited to a few sector-specific communication activities. Multitudes of Support the With 1 Strategic and institutional issues of information or message (Who is the provider to consider of the information? Who is arranging the workshop or seminar? Who is credited for the Communication One of the critical elements of a strategic public service announcement on the television or communication intervention in the PRSP the radio? etc.). Stakeholder familiarity and socio- process is that the communication activities are psychological proximity is crucial for information Strategic 3: planned, designed, organised or implemented in to reach its receiver effectively.An open and a very strategic manner. For example, awareness- inclusive dialogue is only possible when the Chapter raising in a standard communication information or message is understood, accepted intervention would focus primarily on issues and analysed effectively by the stakeholders. Overview An such as content, messages, channels, packaging Identifying the sender of information for each of and timing. However, in a strategic the communication activities is important.The PRSPs: in communication intervention there are several more important aspect however is to involve and other crucial aspects that are researched and engage that sender in a given communication analysed while designing and implementing or activity.This also is linked to the issues of effective modifying an existing communication participation and ownership of the PRSP process. Communication programme.These might include issues such as: · Strategic the sender of a particular message or Message development information Some communication activities would require · audience-specific information and messages the production or formulation of the message · the timing of a particular communication for a specific group of stakeholders and/or activity participants in a communication intervention. · coordination and synchronisation of Designing and disseminating messages is perhaps communication activities with other the most critical element of a strategic ongoing or upcoming interventions that communication intervention. One of the many have direct or indirect linkages with the reasons being that a message can raise huge and PRSP communication programme unrealistic expectations among individual · involving non-standard channels (i.e. media stakeholders, or a group of stakeholders.Thus it and website) is important to ensure that the messages carry · using existing networks (such professional adequate, reliable and substantial information so association and NGO networks) and that they do not contribute to the raising of establishing similar new ones unrealistic expectations. · internal and organisational communication (especially important for building ownership Confidence and trust and support with the government machinery) Well-crafted messages and the timely flow of · communication capacity information among the stakeholders are two major elements for building confidence and trust Strategic issues during the PRSP process.This encourages Some of the main strategic issues to be taken stakeholders to participate in the formulation and into consideration while designing and/or implementation of the poverty strategy. implementing a strategic communication Otherwise there is a risk of undermining the programme are: success of establishing the PRSP principles due to distrust of the process. Establishing a systematic Sender of the information feedback mechanism is crucial, especially for One of the major issues relating to building trust follow-up information sharing activities, in order 25 and confidence is the sender of a particular piece to build trust among stakeholders. Multitudes of Support the With 1 Packaging the information Quality and accuracy of information The design and production of communication The involvement of relevant government materials should be very specific to the target departments and specialised groups/organisations Communication audience.These information materials should be such as NGOs, academics and research institutes easily understandable. Often it is assumed that is important for disseminating correct and Strategic 3: the level of understanding is primarily correlated trustworthy information. For example, it would only to the level of education.This might be be useful to coordinate with the health or Chapter correct while dealing with a very specific issue education department while designing an and/or intervention that focuses on a group of information product on these issues. Overview stakeholders that is fairly homogeneous. An However, in PRSP communication Follow-up and linkages PRSPs: interventions, stakeholder groups are very It is necessary to link each of the in diverse with very different backgrounds, communication activities to short-, medium- or education, specialisation, level of involvement long-term goals so that there is a regular flow of and influence. information on each of the issues that are in the Communication public domain for debate and dialogue. In Timing addition, building linkages with other relevant Strategic It is important that the receiver of information ongoing development projects and programmes has enough time to read or understand the issue is important for the consistency of messages before providing any feedback.As regards related to a particular issue (such as budget effective participation in workshops and information and governance). seminars, participants are often not given enough time to go through these documents. It Culture, language, attitudes and behaviour is important to take into consideration the In the PRSP process, a considerable and socio-political and economic context while extensive information sharing process takes planning any communication activity. For place through communication intervention at example, will it be useful or appropriate to various levels of the society.Therefore, it is broadcast a radio programme or distribute a essential to understand and analyse the brochure regarding PRSP during a natural perception and attitudes of people towards the disaster, national elections or an international institutions that are directly or indirectly event (such as World Cup football or the involved in the country's development process. Olympic games? These might include government or non- government institutions, local or international, Sustaining momentum political or social groups, community based A timely flow of necessary information among organisations and the media. Stakeholder stakeholders is essential for keeping momentum attitudes towards those institutions should also of the PRSP process.Timing is thus one of the be explored carefully during the development major elements for keeping momentum and of PRSP communication strategy. Language is ensuring the sustainability of the process. It helps the other important factor that has a very mitigate risks from unrealistic stakeholder influential role in fostering the process of an expectations about the PRSP process. It is also informed public dialogue and debate.Therefore, important to collect feedback or results on time, it is essential that information materials are encourage debate and eventually establish translated into the local language so that they momentum of the process. Sustaining can be understood by people at all levels, from momentum of the process is one of the prime village communities to urban areas, on their 26 purposes of the communication plan. own terms. Multitudes of Support the With 1 This discussion has highlighted some of the is also essential to ensure the participatory major factors that can contribute towards monitoring mechanism for the implementation developing appropriate messages and identifying of sectoral and thematic priorities. Communication the right channel or vehicle to deliver Generally, one of the thematic groups for information and gather feedback effectively in PRSP preparation or implementation should order to formulate, implement and monitor the design and implement the communication Strategic 3: implementation of the PRSs. programme.This group might include communication professionals from the relevant Chapter Institutional issues government departments and non-government One of the major obstacles for a successful bodies including media, civil society, and Overview An implementation of a PRSP communication academics. In some cases it might be necessary programme is that in most cases to hire communication consultant(s) to help PRSPs: in communication and information functions design or implement the communication are considered temporary and ad hoc. Most strategy. Consultants can be contracted to carry of the time communication activities are out specific activities or to help produce centred around some kind of launch events, communication materials. Communication sectoral or thematic seminars and workshops Coordination and collaboration with Strategic (i.e. discussion on health or education other government and non-government issues or governance or reforms), and the departments and agencies is also essential to communication needs and/or the participation have a systematic institutional arrangement for aspect for the PRSP are completed as soon the communication functions in the PRSP. as the PRSP document is finalised. For these This will help engage the communication reasons, the communication function is professionals from the relevant departments generally handled by a group of temporary staff or organisations within and outside the or consultants in occasional coordination with government. However, it is much easier and the information department of the government more efficient to coordinate and complement or the press or public relation wings/units at the ongoing or upcoming development the Office of the President,Vice President, intervention (i.e. projects or programmes) Prime Minister or some large ministries that would also involve some communication (such as finance, planning or agriculture). activities or a programme. However, only in a few countries has the communication function slowly and gradually Capacity building been institutionalised with long-term or Building capacity to design, implement and permanent staff within a particular government manage strategic communication programmes department.They have also formed within and outside the government is one of the operational and thematic groups working on crucial factors for the success of true communication and participation issues and participation in the PRSP process and its have developed a regular form of discussion and sustainability over time. It is essential both to dialogue with different stakeholders. raise human skills levels and develop necessary It is essential for the success of the infrastructure to implement or carry out participatory principle of the PRSP process to communication activities. It is not only the issue clearly identify the role and responsibilities of a of building capacity to design and implement a communication team within the organisation set of communication activities, but also to chart of the PRSP and institutional arrangements ensure that the relevant stakeholders are using for ensuring sustainability with clear mandate and information efficiently in order to establish a 27 budget.An institutional basis for communication two-way communication flow. Multitudes of Support the With 1 Developing and institutionalising a through effective participation of the strategic communication programme stakeholders. It is essential to remember: ...communication process for the Communication It is recognised that the integration of a Strategic formulation and implementation of PRSPs Communication approach is crucial for an involves several levels of people with Strategic 3: informed policy dialogue to address the various requirements and interests. challenges of participation and ownership of the Relevant factors include literacy levels, Chapter PRS process.This is also important for the socioeconomic status, attitudinal and purpose of monitoring and evaluation during cultural factors, whether stakeholders are Overview the implementation of the strategy. government or non-government, elected An Development of a Strategic Communication representatives, bilateral or multilateral PRSPs: programme would require institutional support, agencies, the private sector, and the wider in capacity building, coordination and cooperation public.Within each group there are several among various stakeholders at different levels. layers as well. For example, within the A well designed strategic communication government there are departments dealing Communication programme would establish a mechanism for a directly with the formulation of PRSPs, but two-way flow of information with specific there may be several other line Strategic objectives, activities, channels, messages, departments involved in the feedback, timelines, budget and responsibilities. implementation of the PRSPs. Specialised This approach would help establish momentum groups within the government will also and build trust on the poverty reduction process have a perception and a stake in the PRSP, through the application of different strategic such as technical experts or staff who deal communication tools as necessary considering with policy related issues. the context of a given country. (Mozammel and Zatlokal 2002: 5) A strategic communication programme can be designed during the PRSP preparation phase. A strategic communication programme would However, while most countries have used short- include a Communication Strategy and Action term communication programmes during the Plan. The strategy would focus on issues preparation of the PRSP in many cases they that are linked to socio-political, cultural, have not focused on the challenges that arise attitudinal, behavioural and structural aspects during the implementation phase. Usually, even of a society.Therefore, a strategy and action if the communication or participation plan has plan would be designed based on information been developed they have not been from research and analysis on the following implemented due to several reasons including major issues and topics: non-availability of resources.A communication · demographic information programme does not necessarily need to include · media-communication structure (i.e. a large number of activities every week and information on media coverage, type-print, month, but they should be more strategic and electronic, web-based , ownership, level of systematic with clear target goals with an freedom) emphasis on the objectives for participation · communication environment and dynamics during the implementation phase. On the other (i.e. what are the most popular media hand, each communication activity should also channels? For example: newspaper, radio, be complimentary to the other in order to television, Internet, community radio, achieve a clear set of goals (through a set of traditional forms of communication, folk communication activities) that would eventually media, social interaction) 28 establish ownership and ensure accountability · civil society dynamics Multitudes of Support the With 1 · socio-political trends, structure, and Box 1 PRSP communication: steps to consider dynamics Objective set communication objectives for short, medium, long term · position, influence, advantages and Research data collection (primary or secondary) Communication disadvantages of stakeholders · culture, tradition, and history of the system Activities define activities for information sharing and dissemination set goals for each activity of governance Strategic define timings, budget, and responsibilities 3: · structure of the government machinery Audience select audience groups, understand their interest, advantage and disadvantage analyse their status, education, position, and influence Chapter This first level of research to develop a Messages develop group-specific messages communication strategy with a guideline or Overview Networks identify existing networks An roadmap for preparing an Action Plan is understand the dynamics of the networks generally carried out during a PRSP PRSPs: Channels assess the existing channels at national, regional and local level in Communication Needs Assessment phase. It is identify the accessibility considered the first stage of designing a strategic Feedback incorporate feedback mechanism such as baseline, opinion research, activity/event communication programme for a PRSP. specific evaluation Some of the main objectives of a PRSP aggregate feedback data to monitor and evaluate the overall PRSP communication Communication programme Communication Needs Assessment are: · Strategic to understand the existing communication Costing establish existing and required capacity for human and financial resources mechanism to promote participation and ownership of the PRSP · to identify the major issues directly or indirectly linked to the information dissemination and sharing process · to conduct a stakeholder analysis · to explore the needs for developing a systematic approach for a two-way communication flow in support of the PRSP process · to understand the overall communication environment (channels, tools, capacity, etc.) Developing a PRSP communication strategy and action plan Once the Communication Needs Assessment is conducted, the process of designing a PRSP Communication Strategy and Action Plan could be launched. It is suggested that a PRSP communication programme which is centred on a Communication Strategy and Action Plan is developed, managed and implemented by communication professionals in collaboration with other relevant experts such as social scientists, sector-specialists, project management, budget and procurement professionals.A 29 thematic group can be formed within the PRSP Multitudes of Support the With 1 preparation and implementation unit of the of stakeholders at different levels including the government to provide technical and policy wider public, government, civil society and advice regarding the design and management of bilateral and multilateral agencies. Each activity Communication the communication programme. In many cases should be targeted for each audience group with this type of thematic group would also be different messages and channels to achieve Strategic 3: responsible for, and oversee, the overall specific goals.These activities might include participation agenda for the PRSP process. consultation workshops, radio and television Chapter A PRSP Communication Strategy and programmes, print materials such as brochures, Action Plan could be developed using the simplified versions of the PRSP document, Overview framework elaborated in the World Bank PRSP progress reports, budget education, participatory An Sourcebook chapter on `Strategic Communication monitoring and evaluation, citizen report cards, PRSPs: in PRSP'. community level interaction, community radio in and so on. It is crucial to identify activities that Setting objectives are realistic in achieving the target objectives The development of a national communication with regard to timing, institutional arrange- Communication strategy for the PRSP should begin with a set of ments, and financial and human resources. clear communication objectives focusing on the Strategic principles of the PRSP process. In other words, Identifying the audience the communication objectives would contribute Selecting the audience and understanding their to the process of establishing the PRSP interests, advantages and capabilities in order to principles and achieve the target goals. Such disseminate or share information is essential for objectives necessitate the proper use of the designing a communication plan.The communication tools and concepts, establish the development of messages and their effectiveness time frame required and the resources needed to in reaching different stakeholder groups depends solicit useful inputs to the PRSP process.A largely on the selection of the target audience. comprehensive strategy sets the objectives for However, the type of audience varies and the both the formulation and the implementation of channels or form of communication vehicles to the PRSPs. reach it change as well. For example, the target audience for using mass media channels is Conducting research different from the audience in a consultative The research data can be collected from both meeting with NGOs or a particular government primary and secondary sources (opinion research department. They would include: other research activities carried out in the · those who have the greatest capability for country by local, regional or international further transmission: the media, civil society agencies, academic or research institutions). (NGOs, academics, institutes and think Collecting this information will help identify tanks) different stakeholder groups, their position and · those who need to understand the principles interests, influence, advantages and disadvantages, themselves: government officials at all levels to better understand the existing communication · those who need to be open to the principles channels and the communication capacity within of the PRSP, contribute to its development the country, as well as the relationships between and sustain the process: NGOs, international actors within and outside the country. organisations working within the country, aid organisations Defining activities · major opinion formers throughout society, Since the PRSP process is country driven and such as religious leaders, union leaders and 30 partnership oriented it involves various groups school heads Multitudes of Support the With 1 It is important to establish the relationships Each target group will require a different between different groups and any limitations to presentation of the same information.The their working together.Are they isolated? Do figures should never vary and the content should Communication they trust each other? Workshops and seminars be different only in the detail, the visual should include as many different sectors as presentation or the simplification of concepts. It possible (on the same level of representation) is important to ensure that awareness of the Strategic 3: such as government officials and members of PRSP, its principles and phases, as well as civil society.Their early juxtaposition will expectations for contribution and participation Chapter encourage dialogue between them and create are contained in the first messages to all target new information channels to reach other sectors. audiences. From the initial steps of both the Overview An Such a mixture of different sectors will also PRSP and the Interim PRSP (I-PRSP), make the message more readily acceptable, documentation should be translated into local PRSPs: in create an atmosphere of confidence in the languages to be accessible to local authorities, project and reach a greater number of people, as the media and as much of the wider population well as sending the message, from the beginning, as possible. that the PRSP is a participatory programme for It is also important to take into Communication the entire population. consideration that the general mass audience and Strategic broader public will certainly include people Designing the messages who do not want the status quo to change.The The next stage in a communication strategy is messages must in some way make this group see to develop the appropriate messages to address the benefit of the PRSP and the importance of different groups of audiences. For example, inclusive communication. messages for communicating with government stakeholders (such as line ministries) will be Identifying the networks different from messages designed for academia, Using the existing networks of various civil society groups, local or international stakeholders or creating new networks to development partners (including bilateral and achieve the target goals is essential for PRSP multilateral agencies) or the general mass communication.The use of networks not only audience.Within these stakeholder groups, the helps disseminate and share information and messages will also be different for different knowledge and form public opinion, but also professional groups. Some may be interested in establishes momentum and creates a knowing the technical details of the PRSP communication friendly environment. process. Others will be interested in policy- NGOs and international organisations have related issues.The broader public will want to both formal and informal networks with each know how the PRSP process can improve their other, may have electronic capabilities and often quality of life. carry out training, education and out-reach to The types of messages, their different target the socially excluded.They may be the only audiences and their channels of dissemination contact an isolated village has with the rest of are all interrelated.The information process will the country. Small organisations with limited also address different groups of audiences based funds often have creative ways of reaching their on their education level, profession, customs and populations through their networks and have a culture and their level of involvement in the great deal of credibility with their contacts. PRS. Sharing opinions, ideas and information Civil society is more easily reached by the can be facilitated by means of consultation media, is a creator of its own media and can be workshops, seminars, town hall meetings and relied upon for interaction among its members, 31 public debate. with government, big business and NGOs. In Multitudes of Support the With 1 analysing civil society, it should be broken down Costing: the human and financial resources into as many groups or networks as possible: available professional groups (doctors, lawyers, The costing of communication activities to Communication accountants, nurses, teachers, others), institutes, support the PRSP, both financial and in terms of research centres and universities/polytechnics, human resources, is one of the most important Strategic 3: religious groups, and so on. Each will invariably parts of the communication plan. If possible a have a network of members and contacts. full budget for each of the activities should be Chapter developed. It is important to remember that the The channels or vehicles design, implementation, and management of a Overview An assessment of existing communication strategic communication programme is a major An vehicles on a national, regional and local level is intervention and could be an expensive PRSPs: essential to ensure that networks are exploited so undertaking. in as to maximise the proportion of the population Assessing existing communication involved in organised and timely capabilities within the country is the basis for communication. In preparing print materials, it any further communication activity.They are Communication is essential to identify the target audience, their made up of the human resources (those who literacy levels, capacity to understand and will design, manage, and implement the Strategic language. For specific audiences, incorporating communication strategy), and the visuals such as cartoons and basic simple pictures communication infrastructure (the vehicles, may be essential for comprehension. channels or the networks) within the country. Appropriate distribution of communication materials is another important area that needs to be considered.The costs of regular Conclusion distribution and whether this can be maintained throughout the lifetime of the PRSP should A systematic communication intervention in the also be considered.The PRSP is an evolving PRSP process is inevitable since it promotes process and, if communication is successful, ownership through effective participation of a understanding will develop as well. variety of stakeholders.This participatory nature of PRSPs has provided a mechanism where a Feedback multi-dimensional information sharing process One of the main goals of designing and can take place. However, it is also essential to implementing a PRSP communication strategy understand that a good flow of information does is to obtain feedback from stakeholders not necessarily contribute to establishing (including different technical and non-technical ownership of the process.This requires a audiences, government or non-governmental systematic communication approach to ensure agencies, development partners and the wider that the stakeholders are empowered with the population). Collecting feedback in a systematic necessary information to provide genuine views and timely manner helps drive the preparation and feedback that can be used in a meaningful and implementation of the PRSP. Developing a way to build ownership and ensure accountability. clear feedback mechanism is essential in both policy formulation and the implementation References process. In the preparation stage, the feedback will be particularly helpful in establishing Mozammel M and Zatlokal B. 2002, `Strategic Communication ownership and partnership, while in the in PRSP' in A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies implementation stage it will ensure transparency (Washington DC, the World Bank) 32 and accountability. http://poverty.worldbank.org/files/12981_comm0916.pdf Part 2 Country Case Studies 33 Part 2 Country Case Studies This part presents detailed information from three of the case studies: Ghana, Moldova, andTanzania. Each case study describes the background of the PRSP in the respective country, the communication process and interventions so far, obstacles and challenges, the steps taken to overcome these obstacles, and the plan for strategic communication which each Multitudes of country has put in place to take the PRSPs forward. Support The part concludes with a summary of a set of recommendations the based on the examples of practical applications from the three detailed With country cases studies. 2 Studies Case Country 34 Chapter 4 Robert Chapman 7 Ghana Summary The Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) set in motion 7 Robert Chapman is a research officer at the Overseas a process of communication between government, CSOs and donors on Development Institute (ODI), within public policymaking.This involved a broad consultation with national the Rural Policy and Governance Group specialising in information stakeholders culminating in events such as the National Economic and communication for Dialogue and the Civil Society Forum.The media stimulated some national development in Africa and Asia. Multitudes interest in the GPRS regarding the implications of HIPC for the country. of However, the GPRS was prepared according to a tight schedule at a time of Support transition for the administration of the incoming government.The strategic the communication activities were stalled by both funding and time restrictions. With Donors have provided considerable assistance in this area notably in the 2 development of the GPRS Communication Strategy, the preparation of the Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Plan with a strong dissemination component and the design of a programme for the restructuring of the Ghana 4: Ministry of Information and capacity building for the media.The majority of the work in implementing the communication strategy for the GPRS still Chapter needs to be done and there is now an opportunity to build the momentum Studies: in relation to the revision of the GPRS in 2005. Despite a comprehensive Case strategy there will need to be considerable capacity improvements in the government if the proposed communication activities are to be carried out Country effectively. If they are not, the challenges of a tight timetable and limited resources are likely to reassert themselves.This is particularly important for extending the breadth and depth of the communication effort out to the regions and the districts beyond national level stakeholders. Background overthrow of Nkrumah in 1966 ushered in a period of political instability with long periods of Ghana country context military rule (1982-92).A series of military Ghana has a population of 20.7 million and a coups, including two by Rawlings (1979 and total land area of 230, 940 sq. km. It is located in 1981), made Ghana one of the most unstable West Africa and is bordered by Burkina Faso to countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.The economy the North, Ivory Coast to the West and Togo to suffered as a result of mismanagement by the the East and has a 539km coastline to the South. successive regimes and vulnerability to external The majority of the workforce (60%) are shocks such as falling cocoa prices.This resulted engaged in agriculture and 25% work in services in declining living standards especially during the with the remaining 15% working in industry. period 1975-84 such that subsequent growth has The agricultural and service sectors contribute merely returned per capita GDP to the level 35.2% and 39.4% to the GDP respectively with achieved soon after independence in 1960.The industry contributing 25.4%. Ghana gained growth experienced since the early 1980s has, independence from Britain in 1957 with cocoa, however, been above average for Africa and the timber and gold exports forming the basis for re-democratisation following the establishment 35 aspirations of economic growth. However, the of the constitution in 1992 has improved stability. Background to the Ghana PRS approved for the three-year period 2003-2005, Poverty related policymaking began in Ghana and its production led to the release of HIPC during the 1980's with the introduction of funds at the end of 2002 and agreement with safety-net provisions relating to structural the IMF for a Poverty Reduction and Growth adjustment reforms.A Technical Committee on Facility (PRGF) loan. Multitudes Poverty produced a Policy Focus on Poverty A Monitoring and Evaluation plan was of Reduction in 1996 and this was followed by an developed with support from DFID to assist the Support Accelerated Poverty Reduction Programme NDPC and the Ministry of Economic Planning the with costed poverty-focussed activities for the and Regional Cooperation to analyse and report With period 1999-2001. However, these policies were on the progress being made with not implemented to the extent that they had any implementation. NDPC prepares Annual 2 significant impact. Progress Reports on the GPRS which will An Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy contribute to the evaluation and revision process Paper (I-PRSP) was submitted by Rawling's in 2005.The M&E Plan outlines 52 indicators Ghana 4: government in June 2000 and was endorsed by that were agreed with the MDAs and will be the IMF and World Bank. A participatory used to track the progress of the GPRS. In Chapter process was not required for preparation of the addition information will be available from the I-PRSP and later that year Rawling's National Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIAs) Studies: Democratic Congress (NDC) party lost the studies that are being carried out on agricultural Case third elections since the 1992 constitution to modernisation, pro-poor decentralisation, Kufuor's New Patriotic Party (NPP).The tackling vulnerability and exclusion, energy and Country incoming government extended the timescale petroleum sector pricing. for the preparation of the full PRSP known in Ghana as the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS).The NPP also decided early Communication in the Ghana PRS on to request HIPC debt relief which placed renewed emphasis on the importance of the Consultation process GPRS in terms of government planning and Participation and national ownership were policy coordination. regarded as key principles in the preparation of The National Development Planning the GPRS.The methods used to encourage Commission (NDPC) was responsible for the broad support from stakeholders are described in development of the GPRS through a special the GPRS as information dissemination, Task Force set up to coordinate the process. collaboration, coordination and consultation to Core Teams were also established to assist in the achieve the following objectives: preparation of the strategic policy framework for · to ensure the reflection of the views of the the GPRS in the following five areas: average citizen in the GPRS macroeconomy, gainful employment/production, · to ensure input of Ministries, Departments human resource development/ basic services, and Agencies (MDAs) governance and vulnerability and exclusion.The · to make certain that civil society's role in Core Teams were made up of a ministry official implementation was well defined who chaired the team and six others including · to enhance the advocacy and watch-dog role people from CSOs and donors, government of civil society officials and consultants.The first draft of the GPRS was prepared towards the end of 2001, Consultations were organised both within revised by February 2002 and costed for the government and between government and civil 36 2003 budget discussion.The GPRS was society.Three ministerial workshops and a one- day meeting with sector ministers and their service delivery and religious bodies, research deputies were arranged to ensure commitment institutes and policy think tanks to discuss the within government. Chief directors of MDAs first draft of the GPRS. Groups such as the and the directors of technical departments took National Association of Local Authorities received part in additional meetings on the GPRS and calls for comments that they responded to. Other budget policy including workshops for the groups, such as the TUC and the coalition of Multitudes of functional sectors of administration, public safety, women's groups, submitted statements of their economic services, infrastructure and social concerns with the document. The national level Support services. Donors were included as stakeholders consultations culminated in a Civil Society the in the process through the staff on the Core Forum and a National Economic Dialogue. With Teams, the development partners Consultative A consultation workshop also took place in Group meetings and a development partners 2002 as part of the design of the Participatory 2 seminar on the draft GPRS. Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) activities. Consultations took place in six of the Government and CSOs were encouraged to Ghana country's ten administrative regions, which work together to improve public accountability 4: included a total of 12 districts (out of the then and collaborate in assessing the impact of the total of 110) and 36 communities (three from GPRS at the local level.Two participatory Chapter each of the selected districts).The community activities were planned for selected districts. level consultations used focus groups made up of First, to use citizen report cards to assess the Studies: men, women, youth, representatives of impact of specific poverty related programmes Case traditional authorities and occupational and such as theVillage Infrastructure Project of the Country interest groups.The groups were selected in Ministry of Agriculture. Second, to carry out consultation with the District Assemblies usually participatory expenditure tracking of social through the District Planning and Coordinating service expenditure particularly on water and Units.These community level consultations sanitation.These could form the basis for an aimed to disseminate information on the GPRS extended role for PM&E in the monitoring of and to ascertain community perceptions on the GPRS. poverty.The District Assemblies conducted wrap-up sessions for the community Media dissemination consultations with the Planning and Budget The dissemination and publicity strategy sets out officers, the district directors of agriculture, to create national understanding of the GPRS for education and health and the district effective participation of the communities, groups or coordinating director. individuals in influencing decisions on development The consultations at the regional, district and policies and expenditures.The GPRS was officially community levels were intended to support the launched at a press conference in 2000 but no work of the Core Teams and feed into the effective media campaign followed. Many media national level harmonisation process. At the editors remained unaware of the GPRS national level consultations were organised throughout the preparation period of the first between the Core Teams and the MDAs and draft resulting in limited reporting and low other organisations such as NGOs, religious public awareness.There was some coverage of groups, trade unions and the private sector. the respective consultation events such as the Separate seminars were also arranged at the regional workshops and the National Economic national level for stakeholders from the Dialogue.The government's decision to apply Communication media, the Trades Union for HIPC debt relief also generated media Congress (TUC), professional bodies and student interest and debate.This raised the profile of the 37 unions, coalition of women's groups, NGOs in GPRS and initiated a discussion on public Box 2 Chronology of the consultations by activity (GPRS 2003) Activity Participants Date Conceptualisation forum Cross section of stakeholders on Poverty Reduction March 2000 Launching of GPRS process Cross section of Ghanaian society July 2000 Multitudes Core teams orientation fora Core Teams August 2000 of Community, district and regional consultations Community groups, district and regional representatives October- November 2000 Support Harmonisation Core teams, CSO, Private Sector, Development Partners March 2001 the Special Forum for Civil Society (as input to the National Economic Dialogue) Civil Society Organisations May 2001 With National Economic Dialogue Cross section Ghanaian society May 2001 2 Linking GPRS to annual /MTEF budget MTEF/budget division of MOF June 2001 to date Presentation on draft GPRS Development partners July 3, 2001 GPRS Instructional Workshop for MDAs MTEF sectoral groupings July 23-27, 2001 Ghana 4: GPRS consultation workshop Chief Directors ­ MDAs August 2, 2001 Call for comments Divisional Directors, MDAs August 8, 2001 Chapter GPRS consultation workshop NGOs and Religious Bodies August 10, 2001 Studies: GPRS consultation workshop Labour Unions and Civil Society August 17, 2001 Case GPRS consultation workshop Policy advocacy groups and think tanks August 20, 2001 Review workshop Think tanks, research institutions and policy activists August 20, 2001 Country Call for comments Professional bodies & NUGS, NUPS August 24, 2001 Call for comments PEF, AGI, GCC, NASSI August 24, 2001 Call for comments Core Teams for GPRS August 24, 2001 Call for comments National Association of Local Governments August 24, 2001 Call for comments Gender Network August 31, 2001 Call for comments National Association of Local Governments August 24, 2001 GPRS consultation workshop Women's groups and the media August 31, 2001 Consultation and training workshop Budget officers- Ministry of Finance September 4, 2001 Policy review workshops with MTEF/ Budget Division Admin Group A, Economic and Public Safety groups September 17-18, 2001 Policy review workshops with MTEF/ Budget Division Social, Infrastructure and Admin Group B September 19-20, 2001 GPRS/MTEF cross sectoral meetings MDAs October 2001 Policy Hearings MDAs October 10-12, 2001 Retreat Parliament October 25-27, 2001 Budget Hearings MDAs October29- Nov.2, 2001 Finalisation of draft estimates from MDAs MOF November 13-18, 2001 Review of draft estimates Cabinet November 2001 Review of budget with GPRS priorities Parliament November 30, 2001 Regional and District workshops Regional and district personnel, CSOs, NGOs June- December 2001 Stakeholders forum on final draft Cross section of Ghanaian society March 14, 2002 38 policymaking. However, it was not on the scale Ghanaian and external consultants to fill human or of the quality that was required.The govern- resource gaps but this is seen as a temporary ment's dissemination campaign to the media was measure. Communication activities for the stalled and the media itself had limited capacity GPRS such as the media campaign not only for macroeconomic policy reporting. require additional resources but also sufficient The World Bank has initiated a Media staff to manage them.The GPRS Multitudes of Capacity Enhancement Program to build the Communication Strategy outlined below will capacity of the media through training editors require a dedicated team of communication Support and producers as well as journalists in reporting specialists with the appropriate resource the techniques for economic policy subject matter. allocation.This will also be essential for the With The programme was managed by the School of management of a documentation centre and the Communication Studies at the University of effective implementation of the M&E output 2 Ghana for a 12 month period from September dissemination activities. 2003.The themes for the training sessions Ghana included the GPRS and Multi-donor Budget Novelty of the process 4: Support (MDBS), strengthening media coverage Civil Society Organisations in Ghana have had on development issues and improving radio some experience of engaging with the Chapter coverage on development issues. Journalists are government and donors through the Structural encouraged to understand their role in Adjustment Participatory Review Initiative Studies: improving accountability in the public sector by (SAPRI).The World Bank and the Government Case informed reporting on a wide range of issues in of Ghana supported the establishment of a Country the scope of the GPRS such as economics, tripartite process with a network of CSOs to business, the environment, rural communities, assess the social impact of the Ghana Structural health and education.The World Bank has also Adjustment Policy (SAP). SAPRI started in been supporting training for financial and Ghana in 1997 and provided a focus for greater economic reporting through the Institute of networking and coordination amongst CSOs in Financial and Economic Journalists including the country than had occurred previously. training via video-conference from the World Irrespective of problems with the SAPRI Bank Institute. resulting from the level of commitment by the The M&E Plan includes a set of government at the time there were definite dissemination activities to keep stakeholders benefits in terms of CSOs having a voice on informed on the progress of the GPRS.The plan public policymaking and gaining confidence in outlines the importance of using expert media networking for that purpose.This has provided advisers to assist NDPC with the packaging of a basis for CSO engagement in policy dialogue information into appropriate formats for the in Ghana that would have otherwise been different target stakeholder groups such as the absent. However, by the time of the GPRS District Assemblies, MDAs, academic and policy preparation the processes of consultation with units or the general public. government and coordinated participation in public policymaking still remained very new to both sides. Systemic challenges Despite concerted efforts by the new government to consult widely and build a Resources consensus around the GPRS it remained The Task Force for the GPRS is based within a government driven process. Civil society the NDPC, which has been severely under- organisations broadly welcomed the process in 39 resourced. Donors have provided support for principle but were unable to take control to the same extent as in Kenya and Uganda through timetable.This led to the perception by many independent CSO initiatives to engage in the CSOs that the process was more like a series of PRSP process. CSOs and the media in Ghana `public announcements' rather than a genuine are becoming increasingly able to promote active consultative process.This was compounded by debate on policy issues but governments in the the fact that even those who were invited to Multitudes past have been authoritarian and top-down participate in consultation meetings often of and have tended not to favour participatory received the relevant documentation very late in Support governance. This has made CSOs wary as to the day leaving little time to prepare and the whether the new government's intentions are coordinate inputs. Future consultations will need With genuinely participatory or whether they are to develop ways to ensure more inclusive access merely responding to donor conditionality.The by interested parties and clear mechanisms for 2 donors themselves have actively promoted CSO incorporating their feedback through an engagement in public policymaking which has ongoing process. contributed to the perception that donors are Ghana 4: driving the process. The fact that there was so Institutional capacity much time pressure on the consultation process The problems with timing may be due in part Chapter was certainly seen as a symptom of external to the government's limited capacity to conduct pressure on the government. such a public dialogue as a new administration Studies: The World Bank initiated a Development conducting a new type of public policymaking Case Dialogue Series in March 2003 to promote process. Many CSOs felt that the consultation dialogue between a range of stakeholders exercise was really only just the beginning of Country including CSOs on Ghana's development and the type of engagement that is required for encourage inputs to public policymaking.This genuine participatory policymaking. CSOs were series has included themes such as not the only group that would have benefited Empowerment for Development, the GPRS and from greater access to the process. Parliament MDBS: Strengthening the Links of also had very little involvement and could have Accountability, Decentralising the Poverty been the focus of more strategic engagement. Reduction Strategy: Challenges and Parliament has now set up a sub-committee on Opportunities for Strengthening Partnerships poverty reduction to engage more proactively between Government, Civil Society and with the GPRS. Donors.The series is ongoing and could be an Many CSOs now coordinate their inputs important forum for debate on the forthcoming through the umbrella organisation GAPVOD revision of the GPRS. ­ which brings together 419 members from all over the country, including 25 INGOs. Timing They have recently been included in the Time pressure was a real factor limiting the government's capacity building programmes extent of communication activities in the for two ministries, the Ministry of Finance preparation of the GPRS.The change of and Economic Planning and the Ministry of government in 2000 was generally regarded as Manpower, Development and Employment. bringing more genuine efforts at consultation. The training courses include topics such as However, both the transition of administrations financial management, project planning and and the decision to go for HIPC put more time monitoring. GAPVOD has also initiated a pressure on the process that had the effect of programme with the media to coordinate precluding extensive consultation.Although the inputs to the revision of the GPRS and is new government extended the original schedule establishing a civil society platform for regional 40 the consultations were still planned to a tight and district level meetings on the GPRS. Communication on the GPRS between the What lies ahead? government ministries was also a limiting factor. Many ministries did not show significant interest GPRS communication strategy in the GPRS until the beginning of 2002 when To address some of the challenges outlined it became clear that donors would channel above NDPC, supported by the GTZ, resources through the Government of Ghana developed a GPRS Communication Strategy in Multitudes of (GoG) according to the priorities and 2003.The strategy sets out to achieve the programmes in the GPRS using budget support. following objectives: Support NDPC was effectively driving the process alone · To effectively create awareness about the the for much of the preparation period and had its goals and objectives of GPRS, solicit With own resource constraints to contend with.The stakeholder support and induce the requisite structure of the Core Teams exacerbated the sense of ownership. 2 problem because they were not aligned with · To regularly inform the various stakeholders existing line ministries and government and the general public about progress of the Ghana departments. The GPRS M&E plan identifies GPRS and solicit feedback. 4: the need for NDPC to establish a regular quarterly bulletin to provide information on The approach that has been developed is based Chapter GPRS implementation to the Policy, Planning, on three main activities. First, the Monitoring and Evaluation Divisions of the encouragement of stakeholders to participate Studies: MDAs, government staff and other civil servants, through the more specific messages designed for Case Office of the President and Cabinet and the them. Second, creating greater awareness Country District Assemblies. amongst all stakeholders to reduce The Ministry of Information and Presidential misconceptions and stimulate broader debate Affairs (MIPA) could also have provided more and demand for information on the GPRS. support to the NDPC for the communication Third, creating a mechanism for stakeholder activities.The World Bank has supported the consultation and feedback that is continuously preparation of a Development Communication seeking the views of the various stakeholders. Enhancement Programme to effectively The proposed mechanisms for implementing restructure the MIPA.This would involve a the GPRS Communication Strategy focus on significant programme of human development, internal government channels, targeted institutional restructuring including stakeholder consultation and mass media for the decentralisation and support for district public at large. Internal communication channels information centres, the development of a include seminars, newsletters and circulars to national portal and pilot electronic governance, inform staff of the MDAs and the district commercialisation of selected ISD activities and assemblies and to encourage feedback from government message development. MIPA's stated them. Other stakeholder groups such as CSOs mission is to use communication as a process for and CBOs will be encouraged to participate popular participation and empowerment for social and through community fora and general assembly economic transformation and the goal of the meetings.The mass media will be used to programme is to empower the country's population to provide information on the GPRS to a wider own and internalise government's policies, programmes audience including the portrayal of key messages and activities. This would involve support to through drama on radio and television.There NDPC for the communication activities will be messages specifically tailored towards required for the GPRS but the programme and individual stakeholder groups and general resulting restructuring have been stalled due to messages relevant to all groups.The general 41 delays in funding disbursement. messages include explaining the role of NDPC Box 3 GPRS Communication strategy Box 4 Specific Messages of the GPRS Communication Strategy Target audience for the GPRS Media/communication MDAs and local government as implementers and coordinators require Communication Strategy channels* information on: Challenges in terms of new roles and responsibilities National level National level Impact of GPRS on them as targets Members of Parliament Radio Role as implementers and co-ordinators Multitudes Ministers of State, MDAs Television (GTV, TV 3, Metro TV, Role as facilitators of good governance of General public TV Africa) Civil Society Organisations/NGOs Newspapers Government and Parliament are essential for their overall support Support Private sector Seminars and workshops and for consistency in public pronouncements. Messages targeted at the Media houses and journalists Internal government newsletters, this group include: Development partners circulars and notice boards The scope of the GPRS With Annual and quarterly reports Transparency Consultative meetings 2 The Private Sector is seen as important especially with the current Internet/email/website Government's focus on growth. Messages for the private sector include: Documentation centre Specific government actions to improve the private sector Regional and District Levels Regional level Public/private partnership opportunities offered by the GPRS Ghana Opinion, Traditional and Religious Television: GTV transmits nationwide Progress being made in public/private partnership 4: Leaders and has programmes in five local Shared objectives and responsibilities Regional Planning and Coordinating languages Role expected of the private sector Chapter Units (RPCU) The rationale and scope of the GPRS District Planning and Coordinating Radio: Almost all regional capitals have The macro economic targets of the GPRS and its justification Studies: Units (DPCU) at least one FM radio station The General Public remain relatively unaware of the GPRS both in terms of Regional and District heads of Case the process and the content of the current strategy. The focus of messages Government agencies and departments Parliamentary hansard used to for the general public will be: Private sector disseminate national policy information Country The scope of the GPRS Civil society organisations and could be reintroduced Benefits of the GPRS NGOs Clarification of major misconceptions and concerns about the GPRS Project Management units of Poverty General assembly meetings organised The process of transparency and accountability within the GPRS Reduction Projects eg. VIP by the District Assemblies Media houses and journalists The Media has the potential to carry the messages of the GPRS to a high CSO Association meetings proportion of the general public and to stimulate greater national ownership and debate. In order to achieve this, those working in the media Community level Community level will need to be far better informed themselves. The messages identified for CBOs/FBOs Mobile vans with loudspeakers used the Media include: Assembly persons during public gatherings such as The rationale and scope of the GPRS Sub-district institutions market days The macro economic targets of the GPRS and its justification Opinion, religious, traditional leaders Communal labour groups Key issues and policy areas of production and gainful employment (ORTLs) Public radio boxes Key components of human resource development and basic services Community members Youth outreach programmes Programmes for the vulnerable and excluded Women's groups Notice boards and posters The scope of good governance Community fora organised by traditional Ongoing activities under the 5 thematic areas authorities or the district assembly Clarification of misconceptions and concerns about the GPRS School management committee The process of transparency and accountability meetings Community durbars Churches and mosques *Identified by the communication audit/needs assessment carried out as part of the preparation 42 of the GPRS Communication Strategy and transparency in the GPRS process, the goals published in nine newspapers as a supplement. and objectives of the GPRS together with its This version has also been translated into seven scope and benefits.The more specific messages local languages8 and printed ready for distribution 8 Asanti-Twi, Fanti, Nzema, are outlined in the Box 4. to regional and local media and other community Hausa, Dagbani, Ga, Ewe. A comprehensive series of communication stakeholders. The media campaign will also form activities have been planned.The activities are part of the need to disseminate information on Multitudes of designed to address the information gaps of the the progress of the GPRS based on the results of target audience through an integrated approach the ongoing M&E activities. Support using a mix of radio and television programmes the as well as workshops and seminars.There are also With plans for a quarterly magazine, flyers, and posters. Revision of the GPRS 2005 Media editors will be trained through 2 workshops to encourage more informed The NDPC is now preparing for the revision of discussion on radio and television. Newspapers the GPRS in 2005.The GPRS Communication Ghana will also be used to improve the flow of Strategy is expected to assist in this process by 4: information especially where there is a high building on the consultation processes of the circulation such as the main urban areas.At the first GPRS to generate more dialogue and Chapter regional and community level local radio feedback and extend ownership further.The stations are to be the most appropriate channel annual National Economic Dialogue, for Studies: of communication for the GPRS.The local example, took the GPRS Annual Progress Case language programmes will be able to disseminate Report as its theme for 2004.The NDPC is also Country information beyond the English speaking and planning to improve the integration of the literate audience of the other mainstream media. government's medium- and long-term plans Mobile vans will also be used to show video through the GPRS.This is likely to involve the documentaries and raise awareness using linking of the GPRS with the MDGs9.The 9 UNDP is assisting the loudspeakers in more remote areas that have government's longer-termVision 2012 government with this. limited access to other media. Comprehensive Social and Economic Policy A number of these activities have recently could also be harmonised with the other been implemented.A Trainer of Trainers frameworks such as the MDGs and NEPAD. workshop was held in Kumasi for regional This could contribute to more focussed public officers from eight frontline institutions from all debate as the GPRS becomes the central 10 regions.These officers were trained how to framework for longer-term development plans. train the district officers to provide community However, the increase in complexity in the level sensitisation on the GPRS.The training short-term may make the task of also included how to monitor the district communicating information on the GPRS and officers and provide technical backstopping for encouraging feedback more difficult. media activities.The training of the district Government stakeholders and CSOs will need officers will require considerable resources and more information on these longer-term coordination but it is important for building the frameworks and enhanced capacity to provide capacity of the local government to prepare coordinated analytical inputs on the detailed three-year plans based on the GPRS.To assist programming for the GPRS. this training a GPRS trainer's manual has been prepared and is currently being tested. In preparation for an extensive media campaign a simplified version of the GPRS has 43 been prepared.The English version has been References Booth D, Crook R, Gyimah-Boadi E, Killick A, Luckham R, Boateng N. 2004, Drivers of Change Overview Report. Overseas Development Institute (ODI)/ Centre for Democratic Development (CDD). Final Draft, Unpublished. Multitudes of CIA. 2004, World Factbook ­ Ghana (http://www.cia.gov/cia/ publications/factbook/geos/gh.html) Support the Duodu M. 2003, GPRS Communication Strategy. Unpublished With report. 2 Duodu M. 2003, Needs Assessment - GPRS Communication Strategy. Unpublished report. Ghana Government of Ghana. 2003, Ghana Poverty Reduction 4: Strategy (2003-2005) An Agenda for Growth and Prosperity. Volume 1: Analysis and policy statement. (Government of Chapter Ghana, National Development Planning Commission) Studies: Government of Ghana. 2003, National Economic Dialogue: Case Report on Proceedings. (Government of Ghana) Country Government of Ghana. 2003, An Agenda for Growth and Prosperity. Ghana's Poverty Reduction Strategy (2003-2005). Monitoring and Evaluation Plan (Government of Ghana) Government of Ghana. 2003, Implementation of the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (2003-2005) 2002 Annual Progress Report. (Government of Ghana, National Development Planning Commission) MIPA. 2002, Ghana Development Communication Enhancement Program. Prepared for Ministry of Information and Presidential Affairs by MacKarvo Consultancy. Unpublished report. MIPA/World Bank. 2002, Joint Mission Report on Ghana Public Sector Development Communications Enhancement Program. Killick A and Abugre C. 2001, Chapter 3: Institutionalising the PRSP approach in Ghana in Booth D. 2001, PRSP Institutionalisation Study: Final Report. Report for the Strategic Partnership with Africa (London, Overseas Development Institute) Yao G. 1998, Organising Ghanaian civil society for the review of the impact of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). Unpublished report. 44 Chapter 5 Steliana Nedera 10 Moldova Summary Despite widespread capacity issues, through the PRS process 10 Steliana Nedera was head of the DFID office in Moldova some thought and progress has been made in developing communication between 2000 and 2004. within the Moldovan government. Donor groups have managed their contributions well, integrating projects to inform the general public on the PRS with similar efforts by government. These, unfortunately, have been Multitudes fairly poor, and communication between government and civil society has of been hampered by a lack of media interest and lack of initiative amongst Support civil society groups themselves. Participative processes are now gradually the improving, and a flurry of recent activities around the draft PRSP paid With dividends in a constructive and relevant debate, which made tangible 2 contributions to the redrafting process. Overall, communication in the Moldovan PRS has generated some innovative and successful approaches; Poverty Forums bringing together representatives from key ministries, Moldova donors and civil society groups; online feedback forms to send comments 5: directly to the central government working group; and a clustering of Chapter participation activities which build momentum over a short period. Donors have provided effective support, working closely with ministries and Studies: providing technical support to broker dialogue between government and Case civil society groups. Country Background The transition to a market-based economy has been slow and difficult: major internal Development,Transition and Poverty political divisions within successive governments The Republic of Moldova is a small (33,800 sq have delayed the implementation of structural kms) landlocked country, situated in southeast reforms aimed at improving the business climate Europe between Ukraine, in the north, east and and attracting investment into the economy.The south and Romania in the west. It has a secession of the region of Transnistria in 1992 multiethnic population of 4,264,300 people11: 11 64.5% Moldovans, 13.8% exacerbated these problems, further eroding Ukrainians, 13% Russians, Moldova gained its independence from the Moldova's industrial base.This lack of progress in 3.5% Gagauz, 2% Bulgarian, Soviet Union in 1991 and is a parliamentary structural reforms was accentuated after the 1.5% Jewish, and 1.7% other republic. Moldova is a predominantly rural 1998 Russian financial crisis.The cumulative (including Belarusian, Polish, country (over half of the population lives in decline of the economy during 1990-2000 Roma, and German). villages in rural areas); it has only 4 large cities exceeded 60% (second only to Tajikistan among and 42 small towns. transition economies). There is broad agreement on the key Since 2001 the Moldovan economy has features of the Moldovan development context. registered an annual growth of 6-7%.This In short, the country has had a difficult and growth has been triggered by a sharp increase in fairly disappointing transition, with the both external and domestic demand.The export development gains from market liberalisation so growth is due primarily to the recovery of the far failing to translate into higher living Russian market, but also to some diversification standards and a better quality of life for most of of the export geography: exports to the EU have 45 the population. increased rapidly in the past two years.At the Figure National Council for Sustainable 2 Development and Poverty Reduction Moldova: institutional framework for EGPRS The Inter-ministerial Council The Participation Council elaboration for Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Synthesis Group Grant Implementation Unit National consultants 10 Facilitator Organisation Ministerial Working Groups (per sector) Civil Society Survey Agency same time, exports to the CIS and to the the institutional arrangements for the elaboration Russian markets remain very large.The increase of the full paper (see diagram above). in domestic demand is due to the very rapid The National Council for Sustainable growth of remittances from Moldovans working Development and Poverty Reduction, chaired abroad.According to official statistics, by PresidentVladimirVoronin, leads on the Multitudes remittances amounted to US$286 million in elaboration of the EGPRS and provides a good of 200212. In few years, Moldova has become one of 12 The actual figure is likely to be link between this medium-term strategy and Support between US$ 400 and 500 the most migration- and remittance-dependent longer-term development plans (the Moldova the million, which is the equivalent countries in the world.The very rapid growth of 21 strategy and the MDGs).The structure of of about a quarter of GDP With remittances is likely to be the single most work has been organised around two arms of important factor behind the growth in the past the PRS elaboration of the EGPRS and the 2 few years. participation agenda: there is a Council for Participation (which includes seven civil society Brief summary of the PRS process representatives, seven representatives of state Moldova in Moldova institutions, five donor representatives, one local 5: The process of developing the first PRSP in public administrator and one representative from Moldova has taken considerably longer than the private sector) and an Inter-ministerial Chapter initially envisaged.Although Moldova has started Council for Sustainable Development and Studies: the work on the Interim PRSP in 2000 ­ at the Poverty Reduction, responsible for the same time or even before other countries in the elaboration, promotion and implementation of Case region, the Government only examined and the EGPRS. Country approved the full PRSP very recently, on 19 The Participation Council doesn't represent May 2004. the participation process per se, but forms the The Interim PRSP was completed in nucleus of its institutional framework.The November 2000 and went to the IMF and Bank purpose of the Participation Council is to Boards on 19 December 2000.After a organise a wide-scale participation of the parliamentary crisis in December 2000, general public and to ensure that the World Bank Trust parliamentary elections were held in February Fund (US$415,000) provided for participation 2001, and were won by the Communist Party. activities is implemented in an effective and The process of elaborating the full PRS paper efficient manner.The Council monitors how stopped for more than a year, and resumed when the Grant Implementation Unit (created in the government had re-established a basic May 2003) manages the grant money.The Trust dialogue with the international financial Fund supports: international and national institutions, familiarised itself with the PRSP expertise contributing to the elaboration of the process and filled key vacancies created by the paper (most of the national consultants came departure of officials who had been involved in from civil society), a contract to a survey the initial PRSP exercise.A revised I-PRSP agency to carry out a qualitative analysis (akin approved in April 2002 came to prove the to the Voices of the Poor study), a contract to a commitment of the current Government to the national NGO network (`Facilitator process.The Government decided to name the organisation') to facilitate the consultation of Moldovan Poverty Reduction Strategy the the document with the public through a series Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction of events at national and local level and Strategy (EGPRS), emphasising the role of different communication activities. economic growth for poverty reduction. The Ministry of Economy led the The approval of the revised I-PRSP was elaboration of the strategy. This was a process 46 followed by the design, discussion and creation of made up of two distinct streams of work ­ the sector working groups, led by relevant deputy body in the Ministry of Economy, which will ministers, were responsible for specific coordinate the implementation and monitor the strategies and action plans in areas covered by reduction in poverty levels according to the the EGPRS and the Ministry of Economy with poverty indicators (in cooperation with the a Synthesis group worked on the concept and Department of Statistics and Sociology).This EGPRS framework. body will also be responsible for the monitoring Multitudes of The progress in elaboration was slow of MDGs indicators, ensuring good links are between 2002 and 2003.The main constraints made between the EGPRS and the MDGs.The Support were the weak capacity of the working groups same unit will have the overall responsibility for the to produce good quality sector strategies, as well communication with different stakeholders. Line With as the lack of capacity at the other end ­ the ministries involved in the EGPRS will have Synthesis Group struggled with the EGPRS designated officials responsible for the 2 vision, priorities and objectives. implementation of their sector's action plan, and Capacity for policy formulation is a generic for more targeted communication and problem for the state institutions involved in the participation activities in their specific area.At Moldova 5: policy cycle ­ the high turnover of staff due to the national level the re-elected (to ensure political reasons meant that some good specialists appropriate representation) Participation Chapter left the ministries and the policy documents Council will have responsibility for the prepared are weak.The specific requirements for participation initiatives and events.The EGPRS Studies: the EGPRS preparation ­ including identification identifies roles and responsibilities for the public Case of priorities, objectives, targets and indicators ­ authorities, private sector and civil society, both were new additions to the traditional process of at national and local level, in the strategy Country policy document preparation and many working implementation, monitoring and evaluation. groups did not have the knowledge and the skills to meet this challenge. Actors and Roles The team contracted at the beginning for The Government of Moldova is leading on the the Synthesis Group did not have sufficient EGPRS elaboration process.The Government knowledge of PRS processes and struggled with has demonstrated ownership of the strategy and the formulation of the framework and with the is committed to finalise it.The Ministry of integration of the sector documents prepared. Economy is the overall coordinator whilst a These shortcomings required staff changes at number of line ministries, through their deputy different levels of the institutional framework; ministers, are chairing in sector working groups. after this, the process gained momentum by the These are responsible for the elaboration and end of 2003 and progressed well until the implementation of sector action plans. approval of the strategy by the Government in The Ministry of Economy and the Ministry May 2004. of Finance need to collaborate closely in order to The EGPRS is linked to the MTEF (2004- ensure a viable link between the MTEF and the 2006 cycles).The Government considers the EGPRS.The Ministry of Economy is responsible MTEF an important institutional mechanism for coordinating the inputs from donors so that that will contribute to greater fiscal discipline assistance funds elements of the EGPRS which and efficiency in resource allocation and in are not provided for by public funds. operation. It will ensure that budget allocations The donor agencies are also key actors in are consistent with EGPRS priorities, given the the process ­ they support the government in availability of resources. the elaboration of the strategy and provide The institutional arrangements for the resources for the implementation of different 47 strategy implementation envisage a permanent parts of it.The PRS process was strongly supported by a number of donors, including the implementation to match the EGPRS progress. World Bank, IMF, DFID, and UNDP.These Some of the information campaign elements donors are part of the Participation Council and were not implemented until the end 2003. contributed directly to the implementation of In December 2003 the Government put the participation agenda, but also supported the forward the draft EGPRS for consultation with Multitudes process with advisory and technical expertise the public.According to its terms of reference, of capacity through existing projects or through this participation process is organised in three Support specific targeted projects. stages: the first informs the public about the the Civil society is becoming more involved in process of EGPRS elaboration, focusing on With the PRS as it progresses, especially as windows identifying problems and concerns of of opportunity appear for the non-governmental stakeholders, possible solutions and getting 2 organisations, professional organisations and stakeholders involved in the process.This first other civil society constituents. These actors are stage is made up of 10 national seminars and increasingly stepping into the policy debate and nine local level roundtables.The second part of Moldova leading activities related to participation and the participation action plan is more complex 5: communication and dissemination of information. and includes 36 activities: nine seminars at national level, 18 round tables at local level and Chapter The participation process nine roundtables at national level.This phase Studies: Participation until December 2003 was concentrates collecting all the contributions, fragmented and limited to very few stakeholders comments, critics and suggestions on the Case ­ only a few events were held by the EGPRS from target audiences.The third stage is Country Government, in partnership with the World Bank about providing feedback to the stakeholders on (two poverty forums, several video-conferences how their contributions were taken on board and workshops). and identifying ways for stakeholders' In 2002 DFID organised several roundtables participation to the EGPRS implementation. with civil society to disseminate information The third stage includes 36 activities: 27 local about PRSPs (nature and specifics of the seminars and nine national level conferences. exercise, examples from the region) and These events have turned out to be quite encourage civil society to take an active part in successful.The national-level discussions had a the elaboration of the Moldovan PRSP.At the lot of substance, and the comments were end of 2002, DFID financed a project by the relevant and constructive.All feedback was OWH TV Studio NGO to carry out an collected by the team which worked on the information campaign.The campaign would finalisation of the strategy and a report on how inform the public about the EGPRS and would this feedback was integrated into the final facilitate the communication between strategy was presented at the EGPRS Forum on stakeholders as the participation process goes April 2.Through this work, the EGPRS gained ahead.The campaign included the following better visibility within Moldovan society. package: several television programmes, one Alongside direct communication with civil video-clip (social advertising), radio programmes society, the participation process also facilitates and a poster.The NGO's main partner is the indirect communication.The public can Participation Council and the GIU. Due to the comment on the EGPRS through the website slow progress and operational difficulties of the forum and email to GIU.The facilitator EGPRS between 2002 and 2003, the organisation has established 30 temporary Government did not launch the participation enquiry points, where people can get process until the end of 2003.The OWH TV information about the strategy and can send their 48 Studio responded by delaying the project comments to GIU and the Synthesis Group. Overall communication approach in has also been a widespread failure of officials to Moldova's PRS process respond to criticism and follow up on meetings. The participation activities and subsequently the communication related ones are implemented Examples of communication by the GIU.The GIU is reporting to the interventions Multitudes of Ministry of Economy and to the Participation Council.The Participation Council discusses and The Poverty Forums organised by the Support approves the plans for participation and strategic Government and the World Bank were however the communication.The GIU has presented for more successful. Designed for key stakeholders With discussion to the Participation Council an in the public and non-profit sector and selected updated version of a Communication Action representatives of the private sector, they were 2 Plan at the beginning of 2004.As mentioned helpful in advancing the dialogue on the PRSP before, the institutional arrangements for the process and building ownership for the process communication during EGPRS implementation in Moldova. Moldova 5: are not yet made public. The roundtable discussions with civil society, Most of these events form both part organised by DFID, had mixed success. Chapter of the participation action plan and the Participants felt they were very useful at the communication action plan, and are therefore time when the process had only just started in Studies: are inter-related.The Participation Council is in Moldova and the PRSPs were a new and Case a good position to monitor the implementation unfamiliar exercise.The roundtables were of these plans and suggest changes and intended to be a kind of demonstration, which Country amendments as necessary. civil society groups would use as a template for similar events of their own. In fact, NGOs were suspicious of these kinds of events, feeling that Feedback mechanisms they were a somewhat artificial exercise. The decision to select a national NGO At the present time, most feedback on the PRS network to facilitate the participation events concerns the elaboration phase.There are several proved successful: the NGO - The Network of systems in place to gather feedback: the facilitator Social Area NGOs ­ had good relationships organisation collects stakeholder feedback on with grassroots organisations and was able to EGPRS draft documents from events and passes arrange successful events with the general public. it on to the Synthesis group, which examines the Another success story was the comments and sees how they can be communication established during the process of incorporated.There are plans to inform elaboration of the social sector strategy in the stakeholders on how their contributions were Ministry of Labour and Social Protection used though a number of designated events. (MLSP). DFID has a very good partnership Building effective feedback mechanisms into record with the MLSP, and also worked the PRS has not been easy. In a number of extensively with civil society groups. When the meetings with donors and larger NGO events, MLSP working group started to work on the civil society groups ­ mainly NGOs ­ have social sector strategy for the EGPRS, DFID commented that they have limited access to the provided assistance through the existing projects process and are not welcomed by the based in the ministry and tried to build a Government13.Their comments have not reached dialogue between the working group and a civil 13 Statement from the Council the bodies responsible for the EGPRS directly, society group - the Network of NGOs working of NGOs at the EGPRS Forum, 49 but were communicated via the media. There in the social sector.The Network representatives 2 April 2004 Box 5 A History of Communication Interventions Date Item Who Quantity Distribution October Roundtables with DFID 2, about 120 Organised in 2002 civil society participants in all, Chisinau, the capital and government representing all city, with invitees officials sectors of NGO work from the regions November Poverty Forum Government of Circa 150 Organised in 2002 Moldova and WB participants Chisinau March 2003 Second Poverty Government of Circa 100 Organised in Forum Moldova and WB participants Chisinau August Videoclip ­ Produced by OWH 1 Broadcast so far on 2003 advertising the TV Studio Euro TV channel EGPRS (capital city) 2003 Documentaries Produced by OWH 2 Broadcast on the National TV channel (national coverage) participated in the discussion of the draft sector strategy and were subsequently invited to September `Tell Poverty No' Elaborated by GIU 16000 copies, in Distributed at all 2003 booklet Romanian, Russian participation events comment on other policy papers.The MLSP is and English and through other now opening more to NGOs, both in terms of channels dialogue and also partners in social work Multitudes September `Tell Poverty No' Elaborated by the 2000 copies Distributed at all implementation. of 2003 poster (in the state OWH through participation events The work with mass media has so far been language only) the DFID grant, and through other Support endorsed and channels poor. The national media have shown little the promoted by the interest in the process, tending to portray it just Government With as another event and failing to engage in any and GIU. sustained debates or develop their own views on 2 October EGPRS website ­ Created and run 1 Can be visited by the strategy. Media agencies are increasingly 2003 www.scers.md by GIU those who have Internet access ­ harassed by the Government and are not truly mainly in the capital independent. Most of the media groups which city and larger Moldova are not owned by the state are still dominated by settlements 5: the interests of small elites. October EGPRS newsletter Created by the 4 editions, 77200 Nationwide, as a All of this underlines the importance of Chapter 2003 Association of copies each, free supplement to Independent in Romanian the local and ensuring communication is well timed and Press on behalf and Russia national Studies: coordinated with the participation process. In of the GIU newspapers- Moldova, the launch of a large-scale consultation Case members of the Association of exercise was not accompanied by a Country Independent Press communication campaign of a similar scale. 2004 Briefing with the GIU Events at the local level got some limited media coverage, but the national media has remained December National Seminars Government of 10 Chisinau consistently quiet on the EGPRS. 17, 2003 - Moldova, GIU With key January 10, stakeholders to 2004 present the draft EGPRS Overall challenges 27 January Local round tables The Women's 9 Across the country, ­ 10 Forum, under the to start the Resources February contract with the consultation exercise Financial constraints have not been an issue in 2004 Ministry of communication activities so far.The Trust Fund Economy, GIU disbursement was slow, because of the overall Since mid- Journalists are GIU N/a Chisinau slow progress of the strategy, but donors have 2003 until invited to the now (on- meetings of the been open to contributing funds when the need going) Participation has arisen. Council, press releases are prepared by GIU and Systemic issues sent to media outlets Placing EGPRS communication and information management within the Ministry of Economy has its advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, being centralised, the communication activities are well integrated into other streams of work.The Government has genuine ownership of the strategy and is 50 consulting fully with its citizens. On the other hand, this arrangement may well slow down limited information flows on the PRS to the communication processes. Communication capital city. events are often delayed because of procurement problems, procedural issues or disagreements Capacity issues between the Government and donors. Government of Moldova has ownership of The internal communication between the strategic communication work and is leading on Multitudes of groups was poor. This was partly due to this. However, the capacity for design and imbalances within the EGPRS institutional implementation has had to come from outside, Support framework. As times, consultants working in the as internal resources are very limited. the Synthesis group caused confusion and tension Donors and civil society need to support the With between other working groups. government of Moldova to sustain the As mentioned earlier, civil society momentum behind PRS formulation and take it 2 organisations reported insufficient access to into the implementation phase. By itself, the information about the EGPRS. A number of government of Moldova will not have the capacity the Participation Council members are civil and resources to carry outtargeted and large-scale Moldova 5: society representatives, who are supposed to communication and information campaigns. report back to the sector. However, discussions Chapter at the National NGO Forum in November 2003 showed that civil society overall knows What lies ahead Studies: very little about EGPRS and has not undertaken Case any work at its own initiative to discuss the After the EGPRS is approved by the Parliament strategy. Civil society groups are not very of the Republic of Moldova, its implementation Country involved in the policy processes in general, as the will start. As this begins, It will be important to state does not really allow them to be. keep the momentum of consultation with Communication within civil society, and the different stakeholders, which was initiated in the mechanisms for sharing information, are still in preparation phase. Government willingness to formation and need support. This would be an communicate with the private sector and civil excellent opportunity for donors to provide society could contribute significantly to financial support and develop more active strengthening the voice of the latter in the participation in such policy exercises. policy dialogue. The participation of different Countries from the former Soviet Union stakeholders in implementation and monitoring often lack a tradition of consultation or and evaluation looks set to be of primary accountability. Moldova being no exception, the importance. EGPRS with its mandatory participation is In the forthcoming months it is crucial to something of a shock to the system. The process scale up the strategic communication work (see opens up possibilities for CSOs to become part box 6), and make the participation process as active of the policy dialogue, but state institutions are and effective as the current conditions allow. often unwilling to facilitate this. The state A concerted effort by the Government and generally does not perceive the non-profit sector donors is needed in order to coordinate work, as an independent, active and knowledgeable which supports communication at ministerial actor and tends to either ignore or install control level, horizontally, vertically, and especially over its activity. Over time, and with downwards. Civil society groups have a critical governmental reform, this may well change. role to play in implementing different National television and radio cover the communication initiatives. entire territory of the country making lack of 51 media coverage particularly frustrating. This has Box 6 Communication Activity Plan Strategic approach Target group Tools Terms Administrative Parliamentarians To elaborate a leaflet for parliamentarians 1-15 March 2004 mobilisation To elaborate a database including fax numbers, emails of parliamentarians in order to 15-29 February 2004 inform them periodically about the EGPRSP elaboration process Multitudes Sectors working groups To ensure the public is informed on how the feedback provided is taken on board 27 January - 30 March 2004 of Mayors To send by mail the information about EGPRSP and to ask their involvement through 25 February 2004 Support accumulating opinions of citizens. the Round table with participation of mayors associations 17 March 2004 With Political parties Round table with the participation of political parties representatives 22-28 March 2004 To include parties in our email group and to send periodically information 20 February 2004 2 about EGPRSP NGOs To send draft sector strategies and the governmental strategy and to discuss with them 1 February - 30 March 2004 To invite NGOs representatives to participate in seminars and round tables organised 27 January ­ 13 May 2004 within the participation process Moldova Permanent communication by email, telephone permanent 5: Social mobilisation Youth, parents, teachers To organise the essay contest for pupils from schools, high schools and residential 1 February ­ 2 April 2004 institutions. Chapter To promote the website forum in order to accumulate the public opinions permanent General public To publish the sector strategies resume in the national mass media 15 February ­ 30 March 2004 Studies: To publish in national and local media articles and analysis regarding the EGPRSP permanent Case To edit the EGPRSP bulletin 12 February, 5 March 2004 Advertising/publicity General public To place the video spot on National TV Channel February ­ April 2004 Country To organise the show "Buna Seara" dedicated to PRSP process March 2004 To organise 2 special TV shows with the participation of the minister and other invitees February, March 2004 To organise 6 radio shows (OWH TV Studio) February ­ May 2004 To realise one TV show dedicated to PRSP and to place it on local channels March 2004 To organise interactive shows on National Radio February ­ May 2004 To print and place stickers in city transport March 2004 To promote the site in national media February ­ March 2004 To place billboards March 2004 Interpersonal Mass media To invite mass media at national and local activities permanent communication To organise a contest for journalists February ­ April 2004 National and local To organise press briefings and press conferences 3 February 2004, 30 march coordinators of the To organise non-formal meetings with journalists permanent Facilitator Organisation To inform about messages to each stage permanent To send the media list with all local journalists January 2004 Point-of-service- Public To distribute the information through information points throughout the country permanent promotion Academia, the public To print and place the strategy in public libraries February 2004 52 Chapter 6 Waheeda Shariff Samji 14 Tanzania Summary Tanzania has been successful in using communication 14 Waheeda Shariff Samji is the managing director and owner of techniques in PRSPs both to include a wide variety of people in the PRS Carpe Diem Ink, a Tanzanian and, currently, in seeking to ensure that a well focused and ongoing development consultancy based in Dar es Salaam. conversation on the strategy can develop. In the initial stages, the variety of communication interventions used were not particularly well focused, and Multitudes there was no central mechanism to capture comments and integrate them of with the PRS. Civil society groups later tried to coordinate their feedback Support with limited success ­ although they have acted as effective mediators, the working between government and donors as a watchdog on public With expenditure. Overall, there were three particularly notable successful 2 communication initiatives: First, the Tanzania without Poverty booklets which had an extensive print run, were widely distributed through CSO networks and were explained alongside workshops, posters and other anzaniaT communication activities. Second, the Poverty Policy Week event was very 6: effective in bringing together key stakeholders, including donors, civil Chapter society groups and government officials, and has become a regular annual event.Third, a policy and service satisfaction survey managed to establish Studies: baseline indicators for gauging the level of public satisfaction with the PRSP, Case drawing on widely gathered data to compare various policy initiatives, Country including the PRS. On a more operational level, communication flows between working groups have been limited due to problems in the way work was been organised. In the future, it seems that the need for broad- based working groups must be balanced with the need for consistent attendance which enables an ongoing dialogue and follow-up activities to develop. There is a move towards narrowing down the focus of working groups and ensuring they are well prioritised, to ensure that communication and discussion is better engaged with and more consistent. Background economy at a macro level have been more beneficial to urban areas, particularly Dar-es- According to gross economic and social Salaam, where poverty has declined from 7.5% indicators,Tanzania is still ranked amongst the to 4.1%, compared to a marginal rural decline world's poorest countries. Recent studies have from 12.7% to 11.5%. Inequality in Tanzania has shown that while macroeconomic gains are grown from 0.34 to 0.37 in the last ten years, significant, income poverty has not changed and the rural population has seen the least gains significantly.Although the proportion of those from macroeconomic growth, with 39% of the living in poverty has decreased from 39% to rural population falling below the poverty line. 36%, absolute numbers of poor people have Rural areas are incredibly diverse, with increased, and will continue to do so, given the cotton growing areas south of LakeVictoria, 2.9% population growth rate. It has also densely populated coffee, banana and dairy areas 53 become clear that improvements in the in the northern highlands, the maize and legumes growing areas in the south west, and the semi-arid interiors dominated by agro- Committee of Cabinet pastoralists. There are significant regional Ministers disparities on regional poverty estimates, with those regions that are isolated from markets (for Multitudes example Lindi and Mtwara), or that do not grow of export crops (such as Dodoma, Kigoma and Support Inter- Poverty Rukwa) being worse off than others. the Ministerial Monitoring Structural adjustment programmes in Technical Steering With Committee Committee Tanzania and a high debt to service ratio have Poverty reduced the country's ability to provide basic 2 Monitoring social services for its people. The 1980's saw a Secretariat (PED) crisis in the form of a decline in physical production, a decline in employment PRS anzaniaT Technical opportunities, a shortage of consumer goods, a 6: Committee high rate of inflation, a fall in real incomes, a fall in export earnings, and a deterioration of the Chapter social sectors as a result of decreased government Studies: expenditure many of which the country is only just recovering from. Case Dissemination, Surveys & Research & Routine Data Sensitization Since 2000,Tanzania has embarked on Census TWG Analysis TWG Systems TWG & Advocacy Country TWG following a Poverty Reduction Strategy under the enhanced HIPC initiative, initially driven by the World Bank and other multilateral financial institutions. Tanzania's first PRS was finalised in Figure October 2000, following a year of consultation 3 both within and outside of government. The PRS Actors PRS document provides a medium-term (three year) strategy of poverty reduction, with a focus Source: on reducing income poverty, improving human `Measuring Poverty capabilities, survival and social well-being, and Reduction: Understanding containing extreme vulnerability. It is set within Tanzania's Poverty the wider context of Vision 2025, a nationally Monitoring System', owned long term development strategy, and the Poverty Eradication global Millennium Development Goals. Division, Vice-President's Priority areas of the current PRS were Office, URT, August 2002 identified through a national consultative process, and include agriculture, health, primary education, rural roads, water, and the legal and judicial system. Cross-cutting issues include rural development, environment, HIV/AIDS, gender, employment, governance, and local government reforms. A new PRS (PRS II) was being developed, following an extensive review process begun in 54 late 2003. PRS II is likely to run from 2004 to 2009, in order to allow poverty policies the survey programme that covers key data space and time for implementation that will requirements until 2012, including household result in a significant reduction in poverty. budget surveys, national census, labour The PRS is driven by the Ministry of force surveys and agricultural surveys. Finance and theVice-President's Office (VPO) as central government institutions who · The Routine Data SystemsTechnical Multitudes of implement it. It is underpinned by budget Working Group (RDSTWG) The group is allocations to priority sectors, with a number of chaired by the President's Office, Regional Support donors contributing to government budget Administration and Local Government the support on this basis. The PRS is reviewed (PO-RALG), and comprises of 13 members, With annually, with progress reports published and mostly from sector ministries and a few discussed at national policy fora. These are based development partners. It is charged with 2 primarily on studies carried out over the course improving information systems between of the year through the poverty monitoring central, regional and local government system, including national surveys and the offices, and ensuring routine data collection anzaniaT annual Poverty and Human Development Report. 6: and analysis is carried out. A poverty monitoring master plan was Chapter developed in December 2001 in order to assess · The Research and AnalysisTechnical the impact of the PRS on poverty. Working to a Working Group (RATWG) The group is Studies: committee of ministers, a Poverty Monitoring chaired by the President's Office, Planning Case Steering Committee and a PRS Technical and Privatisation, and has 13-15 members, Committee are driven by the Poverty ranging from research institutions to Country Monitoring Secretariat (see figure 3), which is development partners to civil society based in the Poverty Eradication Division (PED) organisations. This group sets the research of theVPO. The secretariat is responsible for priorities of the poverty monitoring system, ensuring that the PRS is monitored on a regular and provides analysis on the causes of basis, and that appropriate data and analysis are poverty, poverty trends, and the impact of produced each year in order to inform poverty reduction initiatives. It uses a policymakers. A number of Technical Working variety of research methods, including Groups have been created to address specific participatory poverty assessments. issues in poverty monitoring, which are described below. · The Dissemination, Sensitisation and AdvocacyTechnical Working Group (DSA TWG) The group is chaired by the PED in the The technical working groups VPO, and has 26 members from civil society, development partners and government A number of technical working groups (TWG) institutions. The group is charged with have been created in order to address the needs of coordinating a distribution programme for the Poverty Monitoring System (PMS). They are: information that is generated from the poverty monitoring system, and raises aware- · The Surveys and CensusTechnical Working ness on key poverty policy messages Group (SCTWG) The group is chaired by emerging. It is committed to adapting the National Bureau of Statistics, and has information into user-friendly formats for 13-15 members from government agencies, different target audiences, and to developing multilateral and bilateral donors, and PRS communication feedback mechanisms 55 academic institutions. It has designed a at a national level. Like all the technical working groups, the with specified staff counterparts, with a short- to DSA TWG designs and develops an annual work medium- term goal of sustainable skills transfer. plan based around the perceived communication Increasingly, CSOs have also become needs of the PRS. These work plans are costed involved in PRS communication initiatives. out and endorsed by the PRS Technical They have undertaken dialogue with the Multitudes Committee, and then implemented with input Government on poverty policy issues, and are of from the group's membership, PED staff, and a playing an important role in stakeholder Support host of technical advisors based in the PED. consultations and policy monitoring. As more the In essence, the annual DSA TWG work information has become publicly available and With plans comprise the communication strategy for policy awareness levels have grown, CSOs have the PRS as a whole. Members of the DSA also begun to look at the monitoring of policy 2 secretariat (i.e. PED staff) sit on all the technical impact. More donor funding has become working groups, and are expected to feedback available for civil society to undertake policy on communication requirements from all angles. engagement activities and to serve as a watchdog anzaniaT on government. Moreover, civil society 6: networks have developed their capacity to The movers and shakers in engage at high levels on public expenditure Chapter PRS communication reviews and PRS consultations. Studies: The government has also recognised the At all levels, the government is a key player. It is potential of the benefits to be derived from Case responsible both for driving the PRS process CSO participation in policy debates, adding a Country and for implementing various parts of it. It also public dimension to feedback on poverty contributes up to one third of the total PMS policies. CSOs are seen as intermediaries for funding. At a central level, a number of communication strategies, taking information permanent secretaries from various ministries from the government to their own constituents are charged with ensuring that the PRS is kept and the general public; they are seen as an on track on an annual basis. Senior level effective means of disseminating information government officials chair the various working downstream, as well as a means to gather groups, and the PED is a central institution in feedback from a large rural population. Civil the overall system. society in Tanzania is no longer limited to Over the last four years, an increasing NGOs and CBOs ­ a multitude of media and number of development partners have shifted faith-based organisations, trade unions and their development aid from projects to budget research institutions are becoming key players in support, largely based on the PRS. A large the accountability debate. percentage of the development aid received is channelled through the government budget, and development partners are therefore significant A chronology of key PRS players in the PRS process ­ they provide much communication interventions of the resources required to operate the PMS, as well as technical expertise. A number of communication interventions The PED has continued to receive strong related to the PRS have been undertaken in the technical support from a number of donors, past three years. It is interesting to note that the including the UNDP and DFID. Most of this earlier interventions (until January 2002), were support has been in the form of staff and mostly ad-hoc measures, driven and implemented advisors providing specific technical expertise primarily by development partners and civil 56 placed within the PED and expected to work society, and not part of a wider communication Box 7 PRS information communication Date Item Who Quantity Distribution Tanzania Without Poverty ­ A plain language guide Local civil society organisation 200,000+ (English & Nation-wide, using media to Tanzania's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper' (with technical & financial support Kiswahili) (newspaper inserts), May 2001 (published by HakiKazi Catalyst) from DFID) ­ not endorsed by government and civil A booklet outlining basic themes of the PRS, as well as government society networks Multitudes thought-provoking questions of Tanzania Without Poverty ­ DFID and Poverty Eradication 2,000,000+ Nation-wide, using the Support (Published by DFID and PED) Division ­ officially endorsed by (English & Kiswahili) private sector, civil society August the 2001 A series of 6 posters focusing on the 5 priority government government networks, and government areas of the PRS agencies With `First Progress Report on Tanzania Ministry of Finance, Government of 10,000 Government agencies 2 Without Poverty' the United Republic of Tanzania (English & Kiswahili) January 2002 A booklet containing basic information on progress made on PRS targets, as well as future plans `Measuring Poverty Reduction ­Understanding DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication 5,000 Government agencies and Tanzania's Poverty Monitoring System' Division, Vice-President's Office (English & Kiswahili) postal system anzaniaT August 6: 2002 A booklet containing a `user's guide' to the poverty monitoring master plan Chapter Poverty Policy Week 2002 workshop DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication 500+ participants Workshop A 5-day workshop designed to combine the launch Division, Vice-President's Office September Studies: of a number of poverty monitoring `products' government 2002 Case `Household Budget Survey (HBS) 2000/1' reports National Bureau of Statistics, 1,000 full reports (English) Postal system and Country (National Bureau of Statistics) President's Office Planning & 5,000 summary reports government agencies September 2002 A report presenting the findings of the HBS, with analysis Privatisation (English & Swahili) focusing on poverty indicators defined in the PRS. `Poverty and Human Development Report 2002' Research & Analysis TWG 5,000 (English) Random (RA TWG) December 2002 An analytical report presenting an overview of the status of the main poverty indicators, magnitudes and trends. PRS Workshop for Members of Parliament DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication 250+ Members of Workshop A workshop aimed at raising PRS awareness levels for Division, Vice-President's Office Parliament July Members of Parliament 2003 Poverty Policy Week 2003 workshop DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication 500+ participants Workshop A 4-day workshop focused on the theme of vulnerability Division, Vice-President's Office October and the PRS Review 2003 `Policy and Service Satisfaction Survey' R & A TWG Drafts available in Not published (RA TWG, 2003) English November 2003 www.povertymonitoring.go.tz DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication N/A In the public domain (Created and run by the PED) Division, Vice-President's Office December 2003 A website aimed at increasing coordination between the TWGs, with key poverty monitoring documents `PRS Review Calendar 2003/4'(PED) DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication 1,000 (English) Postal system A 14-month calendar highlighting key events in the PRS Division, Vice-President's Office December 2003 Review process, as well as summary recommendations from Poverty Policy Week 2003 57 Box 7 Continued Date Item Who Quantity Distribution Guidelines for the PRS Review Poverty Eradication Division, Training for PRS Review Available to PRS Review Vice-President's Office National Consultation Consultation facilitators February facilitators 2004 Multitudes of Village and Council level consultations Association of Local Authorities 42 councils and 168 Report in process Tanzania (ALAT), coordinated by villages Support March the Poverty Eradication Division the 2004 With Civil society consultations in various regions Tanzania Episcopal Conference; Consultations through Report in process BAKWATA; NGO Policy Forum; Haki forums and radio 2 March-April 2004 Kazi Catalyst; ACORD; CARE Tanzania; TANGO; Tanzania ECD Network Consultations with parliamentarians, trade Ministry of Labor and Youth Questionnaires Reports in process unions, youth groups and private sector Development distributed to various anzaniaT March-April groups 6: 2004 Chapter Tuma Maoni Yako `Give us Your Views' ­ DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication 500,000 copies and Nation-wide through post, 4 page leaflet with PRS Review information and Division, Vice-President's Office available on the Internet networks and forums, with March questionnaire media launch Studies: 2004 Case Government workshops briefing sector ministries PRS Secretariat Inter-government Sector ministries and and parliamentarians on PRS Review mandates exchange meetings Members of Parliament Country March-May 2004 Voices of the People ­ A report summarising DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication Unknown Draft in process feedback from the PRS Review Consultation process Division, Vice-President's Office August and questionnaires 2004 A Comprehensive Communication Strategy for PRS II DSA TWG, Poverty Eradication In progress In progress Division, Vice-President's Office August- September 2004 NOTE: This chronology does not include the PED `Tujikomboe' radio show (a documentary aired weekly since April 2000), focusing on issues of poverty eradication, but not necessarily limited to PRS. 58 It also does not include the `Mapambano', the biannual PED newsletter, which also discusses poverty - but is not limited to the PRS. strategy per se. These interventions were quite It should be noted that a number of specific simply aimed at getting information beyond the research studies undertaken by the RA TWG usual suspects (a close circle of government, have not been included in the table below, development partners, research institutions, and mainly because of their limited circulation and few CSOs) in order to encourage engagement in access. However, the Poverty & Human the process. Many of these interventions were Development Report is an annual publication, Multitudes of opportunistic in nature, with activities undertaken key to the Poverty Monitoring System, and a with minimum consultation and participation. Participatory Poverty Assessment, released in Support Interventions that followed have been more 2004, is also a key publication. the strategic, with specific target audiences and With defined outcomes in mind. The intention behind many of the interventions is to create Feedback 2 dialogue on the issues, and to have meaningful debates on the findings emerging from the Until recently, feedback mechanisms within the system. Many of the newer interventions (post PRS communication field have been relatively anzaniaT January 2002) have been aimed primarily at ad hoc. All official publications request that 6: government stakeholders involved in the PRS informal feedback or enquiries be sent to the Chapter process. This has included creating documents PED. However, until January 2004, there was no aimed at increasing knowledge on the PMS designated body in charge of dealing with this Studies: within government at district, regional and or responding to questions. Even in the case of Case central levels (for example Measuring Poverty more formal feedback (through workshop Reduction booklet), and documents which reports and papers), response mechanisms have Country increase the breadth of poverty knowledge for been irregular, and there was little evidence of policymakers mainly at central level (for example key feedback issues being raised or discussed the Household Budget Survey 2000/1 and Poverty during policy drafting until the PRS Review & Human Development Report 2002 and 2003). It kicked off in late 2003. has also included a number of awareness-raising Civil society organisations began to events (such as Poverty Policy Week and workshops coordinate feedback to the PRSP, using the for members of parliament) for government simplified PRSP booklets as a starting point. officers, in an effort to increase participation in Responses to questions raised in the booklet were the various policy processes underway. compiled and presented in a booklet entitled With respect to the quantity of information Bouncing Back ­ Some Grassroots Responses to that has been communicated around the PRS (as the PRSP (HakiKazi Catalyst and Concern 2002). indicated in Box 7), most products that were Although the booklet was published in both distributed prior to January 2004 were in English and Kiswahili, distribution was limited. response to demand from other Technical As the focus of the DSA TWG in 2002 had Working Groups, rather than as proactive been on dissemination activities, the group measures within a wider communication strategy. agreed that activities in 2003 should focus on Post the PRS Review launch in October creating feedback mechanisms around 2003, communication interventions have been information campaigns. A tender was put out in further narrowed in scope to gather views from August 2003 to invite bids for a pilot feedback the people to feed into the PRS II. It is project exploring views on information coming expected that those views will culminate in a out of the PMS, with a view to rolling this out publication (Voices of the People) in the third on a national scale should it be successful. quarter of 2004. Exploratory work on how this might be done is 59 currently underway. Box 8 Results of the policy and service satisfaction survey Dar es Salaam Other towns Rural areas Tanzania mainland M F T M F T M F T M F T HIV/AIDS 97 94 97 98 90 96 98 93 98 98 93 97 Multitudes Anti-corruption 91 88 90 87 83 86 88 75 86 88 80 87 of Education 88 86 87 84 73 81 87 75 85 87 78 85 Support Health 88 84 88 81 77 80 85 75 84 85 78 84 the Environment 87 84 87 82 76 80 84 75 83 84 78 83 With Taxation 78 77 78 82 70 81 82 70 81 82 74 81 2 Privatisation 88 85 87 83 64 78 77 62 75 80 69 79 Agriculture 76 73 75 71 64 69 82 69 81 79 69 78 PRS 76 75 76 74 66 72 79 58 76 78 65 76 anzaniaT Water 82 82 82 68 69 69 68 67 76 77 72 76 6: Civic education 79 75 79 70 64 69 75 59 74 76 65 74 Chapter Local government 64 64 64 75 58 73 81 74 80 75 63 73 Rural roads 69 64 69 64 64 64 76 61 75 73 63 72 Studies: Land 62 72 76 62 62 62 72 61 70 71 64 70 Case Law and order 63 61 62 69 55 68 83 78 82 71 62 69 Country Qs 2.1.01-15. `Which government policies have you heard about?' Percentage of respondents indicating they know about each policy. Source: `Policy and Service Satisfaction Survey', REPOA and Research and Analysis Technical Working Group, URT, 2003 60 Given the somewhat weak formal feedback intervention, availability of the intervention) have mechanisms, assessing the impact of various been used by the author in an informal way. communication interventions in the PRS has been difficult. Objective evaluations are Tanzania Without Poverty booklets questionable, as no formal baseline has been The success of the Tanzania Without Poverty conducted, and indicators of success have not booklets has been phenomenal. What begun as Multitudes of been developed. a pilot attempt at raising public awareness on In 2003, the RA TWG commissioned a Policy poverty reduction (with an initial print run of Support and Service Satisfaction Survey to gauge levels of 7,000), quickly escalated into a mass policy the policy perception and public understanding awareness campaign. The content of the With during the PRS period.The PRS scored ninth booklet not only presented the facts around the in a list of 15 policies surveyed (see Box 8). policy issues, but also used political cartoons 2 Whilst this could be seen as a negative indicator, and a colourful (and patriotic) cover graphic to given the relative newness of the PRS (Tanzania convey messages. The final print run totalled is currently in its third year of implementation), 212,000 (distributed mainly through civil anzaniaT and the absence of a mass marketing campaign, society networks); in addition to a serialised 6: this is a relatively good score. newspaper insert that reached over 40,000 Chapter In the absence of a formal PRS awareness primary readers, and up to 400,000 secondary baseline, the above study can be a useful tool in readers15. In the run up to the PRS Review in 15 Steadman Research Services & Studies: analysing the relative successes and failures of early 2004, further copies of the Kiswahili Research International (based on Case policy communication strategies. It can (and version have been printed and used as tools in their data that newspapers have 11 readers per copy) should) be developed and taken as a baseline for the consultative process. Country further communication interventions on the PRS. The booklet was initially intended for the In March 2004, the DSA TWG launched general public, and it became clear that although the Give usYour Views leaflet, which incorporated it was advanced in its language use to be read by PRS Review information with a feedback the population at large, many people in rural questionnaire. With 500,000 copies of this being areas were having it read to them by school- distributed nation-wide, and its availability on going children. It is worth noting, however, that the Internet, some 40,000 responses have already PRS awareness levels in both rural and urban been received and are being processed to feed areas are similar, with only rural women being into the drafting process of the new PRS. less aware than the rest of the population (applicable to all policies, not just the PRS). Following the initial print run in May 2001, What worked the booklet became increasingly popular reading material, and was even being sold on the streets As mentioned above, it is relatively difficult to of urban areas. Further print runs had to be gauge the success of various interventions as branded `Not for Sale', in order to keep these have tended to be reactive measures, with circulation high. little thought having gone into developing The booklet became an important awareness awareness indicators or a baseline awareness tool for local and regional government offices, survey. In this respect, judgments on and was also highly appreciated by rural-based interventions as made in the following CSOs as a vital tool in increasing their (and their discussion have all been done on a relative (in constituents) awareness of a significant national comparison to each other, rather than to an policy process. Even today, the booklets are ideal) scale. Very basic subjective indicators in demand, and it is not unusual to see them in 61 (informal public reaction at launches, use of the local government offices in rural areas. The success of the booklet triggered the Poverty Policy Week 2002/3 onset of the PRS posters, once again on a mass Poverty Policy Week was another surprise scale. These, however, were not as successful as success story. Poverty Policy Week 2002 was the booklet for a number of reasons. Posters initially designed as a week of workshops tend to have a short shelf life (around 2 weeks, intended to draw together stakeholders engaged Multitudes depending on the elements), and the in poverty reduction and release new of distribution method used (mostly private sector information generated through the PMS. New Support networks with an unspecified target population data was available through the Household Budget the in rural areas) did not allow for the context Survey 2000/1, and a new national database With behind the information to be understood. As a (Tanzania Socio-economic Database) had been stand-alone intervention, posters tend to have released. In order to effectively launch these 2 more measurable impact when centred on products, it was agreed to combine them into a behaviour change, rather than when used for single five-day workshop, culminating in the information exchange. release of the 2002 PRS Progress Report. The anzaniaT The booklet format became a trend-setter in event was officiated by theVice-President of the 6: the Tanzanian context, with further editions of United Republic of Tanzania, and each day the PRS Progress Report also commissioned by chaired by permanent secretaries and directors Chapter the Ministry of Finance in the same manner. In from relevant ministries. Studies: addition, popular versions of the Zanzibar Over 600 people (from government, Poverty Reduction Plan (2002) were also development partners and civil society) were Case produced using similar formats. Popular versions invited, and 300 participants attended each day. Country of a number of social sector policies, such as the The event was highly publicised in the local Agriculture Sector Development Policy and the media, with press conferences and a series of National Forestry Policy, are currently being articles appearing in the daily papers both prior developed by different government agencies and to and during the workshop. Senior government civil society organisations. officials also gave radio interviews pertaining to It is also interesting to note that the success the new findings and analysis. The report of the of the booklet and ensuing awareness campaign workshop was circulated to all participants. depended in large part on the minimum Initially a donor-driven event, the workshop consultation undertaken, and the massive scale of had little appeal to those outside the the campaign. The opportunity to raise development partners and select academic and awareness on a key government initiative was research organisations. However, the workshop's seized, with little wastage of time and resources success in the first year has made it into an on extensive participation by all stakeholders. annual event on the government calendar, with This was largely an independent initiative that government ownership and interest increasing was not bound by the bureaucracies that significantly over the course of a year. Indeed, invariably follow consultation. interest in the event has increased amongst a Whilst the popular version of the booklet variety of different actors, including key was initially successful as an accessible format for government agencies and civil society at large. tedious government policies, towards the mid In a follow-up to the 2002 event, Poverty 2002 there were a multitude of similar Policy Week 2003 was designed as a series of publications which were not so well received. theme-based workshops running simultaneously With some refinement and revision, however, over a four-day period. It was designed bearing this format can be a useful communication tool. in mind lessons learnt from the first event, where plenary sessions were thought to be less 62 useful than separate working sessions where the most value could be added. It was intended can be commended for its idealism, in practical primarily for policymakers to debate and discuss terms, this does not always work. Given the key policy issues related to the PRS Review lengthy government procurement system within process, which was also launched simultaneously. which the DSA TWG is expected to operate, it The workshop was attended by over 500 is not realistic to expect this communication participants, and over 1,000 copies of the mechanism to be responsive and demand-driven. Multitudes of summary report in English were distributed to A number of activities that have been planned government offices and CSOs. As in the case of and budgeted for within the DSA TWG (for Support the previous event, it was preceded by a media example the website) were not implemented for the campaign, and officiated by theVice President , over 12 months, mainly due to restrictive With with various sessions chaired by permanent procurement processes. Although government secretaries, senior government officials and procurement processes are expected to be 2 members of parliament. rigorous and lengthy in order to prevent The media hype surrounding the event has corruption, in the demand-drive environment of no doubt added to its appeal, as has the the PRS, this has proven to be a serious shortfall. anzaniaT anticipation of receiving unreleased poverty 6: information, and being able to participate in Technical Assistance Chapter meaningful policy debate. It is now a Whist technical advisors can contribute completely government-owned event, marred significantly towards the achievement of Studies: only by occasional in-fighting between Communication initiatives, they are often put in Case Technical Working Groups to determine who the difficult positions of having to balance the drives the agenda. production of tangible outputs with relatively Country Whilst this is by far the most high profile futile attempts at capacity development within event of the DSA TWG, it must be said that this very short periods of time. The current staffing caters only to a very select audience (mainly structure of the PED does not possess the time, urban-based policymakers). Perhaps part of its experience and incentive to undertake the success can be attributed to the fact that it is a implementation of all Communication activities, very focused event with defined outputs. and nor should it be expected to in the long run. Although the efficiency of the PED to carry out its PRS mandate may be improved in the Systemic Challenges future, it is not realistic to expect staff to acquire specific technical skills in the short- to medium- Access to Resources term. Within the wider PMS, more attention Financial resources have not been an issue as far will have to be paid to whether this kind of as communication initiatives are concerned. work should be continuously outsourced Funds have been committed by both thereby making output production more government and development partners, either efficient, or whether the PED should attempt to through the Poverty Monitoring Pooled Fund ­ build that capacity in-house, perhaps working a funding arrangement to which the towards making it more sustainable. Government and a number of development In the run-up to the PRS Review and PRS partners contribute - or through bilateral II, the PED has employed two full-time staff funding arrangements. However, access to the who handle the consultative process and public funding has proven more problematic. information management. These positions are Whilst the notion of placing the temporary (nine months duration), and implementation of the PRS communication and supported by the UNDP. The focus of these 63 information needs within government systems positions has not been on building capacity within the PED, but on managing and past, and the DSA TWG is often unable to implementing activities during the PRS Review. respond quickly to demands from the system. This has resulted in many more communication During the PRS Review process, however, the activities (see Box 7) being undertaken during Chairs of the TWGs have committed to meeting the review process than would otherwise have monthly in order to ensure cohesion and Multitudes been possible. synergy between the TWGs. of In July 2004, the DSA TWG put out a There is also a tendency amongst all the Support tender for the design of a comprehensive Technical Working Groups (including the DSA) the communication strategy for the PRS II. This is to want to disseminate information amongst the With again intended to complement the work of the general public, even when this is not necessarily DSA TWG through the identification of key appropriate. It is taken as a given that the ideal 2 stakeholders, communication channels and dissemination strategy for any product of the planned activities. PRS would be to distribute it nationwide to all and sundry, with little thought given to why this anzaniaT Communication flows between technical may be so, and what people are expected to do 6: working groups with information once they have received it. There is a fundamental error in the way the These basic questions do need to be asked at Chapter system works at present, and the role of conception stage. Studies: dissemination, sensitisation and advocacy This has resulted in a lack of ownership on activities within the PMS needs to be reviewed. the part of the DSA as well as a lack of targeting Case The DSA TWG has in the past received a final particular audiences and messages at the product Country finished product from other TWGs (for example design stage. There is a tendency amongst other the Poverty & Human Development Report or the TWGs (particularly the RA TWG) of relegating Household Budget Survey 2000/1) - who often the DSA TWG to the role of post office or design their own dissemination strategies event organiser for finished products, rather than without consulting the DSA TWG,- and is as a think-tank on communicating policy expected to review the need for communicating messages to select target audiences. A productive the contents in different formats to different and sustainable working relationship between audiences. This is difficult to do when presented the TWGs has not yet emerged as envisaged, with a finished product, and with little guidance although with increased communication on what the key policy messages are, and who between the TWGs in the last seven months, this needs to know about them. is more likely to increase. Communication flows between the various Whilst there are a whole host of reasons TWGs of the poverty monitoring system have behind the initially random nature of DSA been limited. This can be partly attributed to activities, the crux of the issue lies in the the structure of the PMS, which does not structural and systemic bureaucracy that has been designate communication between the TWGs in created as a result of it being hosted, managed and a systematic manner. Members from other implemented by the PED. The PED plays the TWGs often attend DSA TWG meetings, vital role of being secretariat to the PRS although this is usually done in their own Technical Committee, and the coordinator of the individual capacity, rather than as an attempt to PRS.The PED has also been burdened with the feed information across working groups. management and implementation of DSA However, appointed representatives from the activities, and is expected to be able to respond to DSA TWG do not regularly attend other TWG the communication demands from the poverty meetings, perhaps due to time constraints and monitoring system in a timely, efficient and 64 work pressures.. Feedback and input from effective manner. Increasingly, it is becoming other TWGs has therefore been minimal in the clear that communication initiatives to be under- Mediums of communication taken for the PRS II will need to be contracted As can be seen from the above, the majority of out, and minimally managed within the PED. communication interventions on the PRS have used the written medium, in the form of Group membership and logistics booklets, posters, reports and so on. In a country In comparison to the other technical working with a vast rural population (76% of the Multitudes of groups which average 15 members each, the population), and a 29% illiteracy rate (with membership of the DSA TWG was large and women being twice as likely as men not to have Support cumbersome (26 members plus four PED any education), a large segment of the the representatives). There has been a lack of population is unreachable through current With commitment by appointed members to attend communication means. Whilst this may be regular meetings (Carpe Diem Ink 2003), and a wholly appropriate given the level of policy 2 lack of consistency in representation from debate and the focused target groups, it presents members. Many members did not attend challenges for a truly effective mass media meetings when invited, particularly those from campaign, which to date has not made full use anzaniaT sector ministries, and those that did were often of audiovisual communication means. 6: spectators rather than participants. This sporadic Radio continues to be the most widely used Chapter attendance has led to massive inconsistencies in medium with access to over 96% of the contributions from members, which often population, and television has also begun to attract Studies: translates into a lack of follow-up on the work a significant number of viewers, with a reach of Case plan from members, leading in turn to many about 11% of the population (although 65% of activities not being undertaken as planned, or these are in Dar es Salaam), and yet, neither are Country indeed at all. utilised to their full potential in delivering key This has led to less group ownership on tasks policy messages, or in raising awareness on policy undertaken, and a dependence on a very small issues. To be sure, the high costs (of airtime group of core members and technical advisors to versus printed matter) of utilising these mediums take things forward. This has also resulted in the have played a part in this, but their effectiveness in secretariat moving forward with activities that nationwide campaigns cannot be matched by have not necessarily been endorsed by a wider print or press. This is further highlighted in the group, which has had budget implications as well. Policy and Service Satisfaction Survey (URT, 2003) The DSA TWG work plan (2003) contained where radio is by far the major source of policy quite a large number of routine activities, many information in both urban and rural areas. of which fell behind the intended timeframes as they depended almost entirely on other TWGs Distribution methods for print matter to generate information for dissemination. The Given the broad geography and size of the delays in implementation meant that the DSA country and population, it has been difficult to TWG work plan was always, to some degree, develop mass awareness campaigns using written out of date and beyond their control. materials. The most efficient and least time- Following recommendations made by intensive distribution method is the postal technical advisors in December 2003, the system, although this is not always cost-effective. membership of the DSA TWG was reduced to The most effective method is to use CSOs, 14 individuals selected for their potential to which often undertake to sensitise their contribute significantly to the process. Although audiences on content, rather than to simply this has made the DSA TWG conceptually quite distribute. However, this is the most time- strong, it remains operationally weak. consuming to coordinate and implement, and 65 can have high cost implications as well. It is also difficult to get full geographic coverage, as some The PRS Review Action Plan suggested a remote areas will not be reached. number of consultations and activities that have Finding the balance in terms of distribution been undertaken within very short timeframes. methods ­ as a combination of methods often This has been built upon and refined, and works best ­ is quite difficult, and the cost included additional useful publications such as a Multitudes implications have been tremendous, in both PRS Review Resource Pack, containing all relevant of human and financial terms. materials for stakeholders and the PRS Review Support Calendar. The poverty monitoring website also the contains a PRS Review page which is used to With What lies ahead exchange ideas and gather feedback from selected audiences, and particularly to increase 2 Following Poverty PolicyWeek 2003, an emphasis communication flows between the TWGs. has been placed on communication within the During this period, it is also clear that PRS, especially on developing links with the communication activities will be focused around anzaniaT grassroots, and encouraging public consultation. the production of outputs, and not on capacity 6: Given the very broad scope of dissemination building of government staff, which is a longer- activity, each TWG has given some thought to term process issue. An interim DSA TWG work Chapter narrowing the focus of its dissemination activities plan was developed and is being used to guide Studies: and of being selective in determining target the PRS Review process in order to provide audiences. Whilst disseminating all poverty cohesion within the system and clear indicators Case monitoring products to the public at large may be and outputs against which progress can be Country admirable, it is an expensive undertaking and may measured. A comprehensive communication not produce desired results. strategy will be developed for the PRS II as a The feedback that is obtained during the final output of the interim work plan. PRS Review Consultation process will undoubtedly be useful to policymakers, and the feedback system that has been used has proved to be valuable. However, this again draws References attention to the issue of scale. In those cases where it is necessary to reach the wider public, Carpe Diem Ink. 2003, From the inside ­ a perspective on dissemination within the PED, November 2003 (Dar es communication interventions need to be Salaam, Carpe Diem Ink) massive in scale, using not only written mediums but also the mass media. Poverty Eradication Division (PED) United Republic of DSA activities within the PMS have been Tanzania. 2002, Measuring poverty reduction: understanding narrowed down to focus on upstream Tanzania's Poverty Monitoring System, August 2002 policymakers at local, regional and national levels, Poverty Eradication Division (PED) United Republic of as the objective is to impact on poverty policies. Tanzania. 2002, Poverty Policy Week Report 2002 Downstream dissemination has been undertaken by civil society (used here in its broadest sense, Poverty Eradication Division (PED) United Republic of Tanzania. 2003, Poverty Policy Week Report 2003 including the media, trade unions, NGOs, academia, etc.) and other stakeholder groups, who REPOA & Research and Analysis Technical Working Group, address their constituents according to the broad United Republic of Tanzania. 2003, Policy and Service parameters set by the PED. Development satisfaction survey (Dar es Salaam, URT) partners are also taking initiative in this field; Steadman Research Services and Research International. UNICEF, for example, is in the process of 2002, Tanzania All Media Products Survey 2002 (Dar es 66 developing youth-friendly PRS materials. Salaam, Steadman Research Services) Chapter 7 Amy Pollard, Ruth Driscoll and Robert Chapman 16 Emerging lessons for strategic communication and summary of good practice This chapter sets out to identify emerging lessons for strategic 16 Amy Pollard was a Research Officer at the Overseas communication both within and between each of the three main PRSP Development Institute (ODI) stakeholder groups ­ government, donors and civil society. Information is between 2003 and 2004. Ruth Driscoll is a Research drawn from case studies and examples of practical experiences from the ten Fellow and Robert Chapman is a countries profiled in the appendices to this publication.The emerging themes Research Officer, both at the ODI. Multitudes are organised on the basis of the conceptual framework laid out in Figure1. of Based on the learning from country case studies the chapter concludes Support with a list of emerging good practices on integrating strategic the communication in the PRSP process.These good practices are fleshed out in With more detail in the following sections to develop the practical applications of 2 the conceptual framework. It is hoped that these may provide the basis for developing future strategies and action plans for communication in future generation PRSPs. Lessons Emerging An overview of communication The equilateral triangle of neatly bound 7: in PRSPs relationships shown in Figure 1 does not always Chapter reflect the complex and fluid relationships that This section focuses on drawing the connections develop on the ground. In practice, Studies: between the role of the key stakeholders in the communication within and between Case PRS process and the communication challenges government, civil society, and donors may be that they face. It outlines the approaches that better represented as floating spheres that may Country have been used to tackle these challenges, with move into different formations as they overlap, specific examples drawn from the country divide or disengage. This section illustrates how experience and challenges. communication issues affect the way these Every stakeholder group has a part to play in relationships are configured, and how approaches developing strategic communication in PRSPs. to communication can change them. Using the conceptual framework (figure 4), this analysis will attempt to outline how government, Communication within government civil society and donors can improve The role of government in the PRS process is communication within their own sector, and in essentially one of coordinating and leading the their relationships with other stakeholder groups. efforts of national and international actors We organise the analysis by first examining the engaged in the national poverty reduction effort. communication challenges and approaches These actors include the various institutions and within stakeholder groups: individuals that make up the government itself, · within government such as the legislative and executive branches, · within civil society politicians and officials, central and sub-national · within the donor community. tiers, and various sector line ministries. Experience to date with the intra- We then examine the communication challenges government dimension of this coordination and and approaches between these groups: leadership role points to two emerging · between government and civil society challenges. First, clear lines of communication · between government and donors need to be established between the central PRS · 67 between donors and civil society unit and other parts of government, particularly Figure 4 A conceptual Government framework for strategic communication in PRSPs Civil society Donors line ministries and local government. Those charged with leading the PRS process inside · In Pakistan: Responsibility for the PRS was government will not be able to design, deliver or given to the Ministry of Finance, even monitor a comprehensive national strategy for though Pakistan's Ministry of Planning poverty reduction if they are unable to maintain (MoP) has responsibility for long-term Multitudes relationships across the breadth and depth of planning processes at national level. The of government institutions. PRS was not properly integrated with the Support Second, clear links must be articulated MoP's 10 year development plan, and the between the PRS document and process, and communication flows across government With other national plans and processes. These have been strained. In the Punjab region, include national parliamentary, budget or responsibility was allocated to the regional 2 planning traditions, including their sector or Ministry of Planning, where relations have local government aspects. Regional processes gone much more smoothly. Here, the PRS such as European accession in the Balkans or has increasingly been used as a technical Lessons free trade in Central America, and donor-driven tool across regional government. exercises such as United Nations Development · In Cambodia: A PRS unit was placed within Emerging Programme's (UNDP) efforts to localise the the Ministry of Planning, and as the 7: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may Ministry of Finance became increasingly also be relevant. If links are not articulated, the estranged from the process, the PRS Chapter PRS risks competing with rather than adding became increasingly detached from value to existing processes. If such processes Studies: budgetary processes. Divided between command stronger ownership inside parties of the coalition government, the Case government, the result is likely to be an two ministries had opposing methods of Country unsustainable PRSP. work, and an inter-ministerial group has struggled to mediate their relationship. Several approaches are proving their worth Once fully established, a medium-term in addressing these challenges: expenditure framework looks likely to bridge these interests for the time being. The location of the PRS unit in a place where it is able to exercise influence over and Working groups around particular sectors or facilitate joint working between different parts themes in the PRSP are also proving effective of government is proving crucially important. at facilitating joined-up working between A carefully chosen location enables different parts of government. These groups coordination and leadership to take place at are often instigated by the PRS unit itself but both ministerial and official levels. In Asia, each is composed of representatives of the strong traditions of government planning, have Ministry of Finance or Planning, relevant sector made the Ministry of Planning the location of line ministries, and local government. They choice, but in Africa and other regions, such may also include donors and NGOs engaged in units appear to have been more effectively financing and delivering the relevant part of located within Ministries of Finance or Offices the PRSP. They provide a useful forum for of Prime Ministers or Presidents. The key lies developing and monitoring detailed strategies in ensuring that the unit responsible for driving for priority sectors or cross-cutting themes the poverty reduction effort is placed in a (such as gender or environment) featured in the power position, and not in its traditionally PRSP. For example: marginal position of social sector line · In Uganda: Sector working groups, 68 ministries. For example: particularly on health issues, are working Government Figure 5 Split communication in the Pakistani PRSP Overlapping, but divided responsibilities between the Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Finance have left the PRS poorly integrated with Civil society Donors the 10 year development plan. well. At monthly meetings officials from · In Rwanda: The PPA became an the central Ministry of Health discuss authoritative and widely referenced source recent developments with those from local on the state of poverty in Rwanda. Debates line ministries, representatives from on the efficacy of the PRS often used the particular civil society groups and key PPA as a central point as there was a donors. Linked by personal connections as consensus that it was the most credible Multitudes of well as institutional ties, these individuals and reliable source on poverty. Simply by are in close collaboration, and have providing a comprehensive and coherent Support engaged in an ongoing discussion from the data set, the PPA became a useful tool for the planning to the monitoring stages. improving communication between central With · InTanzania: Four technical working groups and regional government officials by 2 have been established to plan, implement providing shared common ground and and monitor the PRS, one of which is focus in their discussions. specifically mandated to ensure that the · In Cambodia: After attracting criticism from general public are properly informed on the both civil society representatives and Lessons PRS and to elicit their feedback. They are donors over the lack of participation in responsible for drawing up a PRSP formulation process, the Minister for Emerging 7: communication strategy for the PRS as a Planning led a concerted effort to improve whole. With members from the central PRS dialogue with the public through the APR. Chapter secretariat, across civil society and donor After specifically appealing to key NGOs, groups making up the committee, the line ministries, working groups and the Studies: working group has been effective in general public, the APR was praised for Case ensuring `buy-in' across stakeholders. In bringing together civil society to plan their the future, the committee aims to slim contributions and integrating feedback well Country down, in order to create more continuity in within the document. By making explicit meetings, and make it easier to develop efforts to improve on the PRSP, the APR more consistent plans that are properly document has encouraged a sense of followed through. trajectory for developing communication and reducing poverty through the process, High quality core documents are important with donors remarking that the PRS was touchstones for discussion on the PRS, working on the basis of `iterative especially when communication between improvements'. national, sector and local government becomes strained or confused. Central PRS documents Communication within civil society such as the Participatory Poverty Assessment The PRS approach challenges CSOs to move (PPA),Annual Progress Report (APR), and the beyond their traditional role of service delivery PRSP itself are an opportunity to crystallise in poor countries and towards engagement in knowledge, opinions and plans, providing a focal policy debates. Civil society's role is to help point on which discussion can turn. When ensure the full range of citizen and national well timed and designed to meet national rather interests are represented at both design and than donor reporting needs, both the process of monitoring stages. Such a role is made possible producing documents, and the texts themselves by the sheer diversity of a sector which can can be useful in building links between disparate embrace international and national NGOs, planning, budget and parliamentary processes. media organisations, faith groups, trade unions, For example: political parties, research institutes, and many 69 other types of organisation. Figure 6 Government Strategic information sharing allows different parts of civil society; including NGOs, community groups and the public; to work Donors together on the PRS. Civil society This diversity also creates a number of to demonstrate the relevance of the PRS to communication challenges within civil society everyday people. Whilst only accessible to itself, however. On the one hand, horizontal 32% of the population, these have been relationships need to be established between backed up by additional coverage in local organisations with very different constituencies, newspapers and monthly PRS update Multitudes interests and structures if civil society is to sheets published by NGOs. of articulate an effective voice on either the Support national PRSP or particular policy areas within National networks and sub-committees on either the it. On the other hand, vertical relationships the PRSP or particular policy themes within it With must be forged between urban elites and poor have been created by CSOs in many countries. people, especially in rural areas, if that voice is to In some cases, these have attracted donor or 2 be truly representative. Both sets of relationships International NGO (INGO) financing to help demand funds and capacity for communication overcome capacity and resource constraints. that have not historically been available in weak These networks have helped transcend Lessons civil societies in poor countries. differences between organisations and allowed the development of joint policy positions and Emerging Several approaches are proving to be the pursuit of coordinated advocacy and 7: especially effective at addressing these challenges: monitoring strategies. For example: Chapter Strategic information-sharing between CSOs · In Bolivia: Capitalising on the relative about the PRS process is a key pre-requisite for Studies: strength of organisations at municipal effective joint working. Many CSOs have level, HIPC funds were allocated through Case produced translations of key documents into Comites de Vigilancia, made up of locally Country local languages, engaged the media in discussing elected representatives. These were the PRSP in ways that ordinary citizens can supported by international NGOs running understand, and pro-actively disseminated training sessions on resource allocation information to organisations which lack links and budgetary transparency. Although into government or donor sources of information heavily influenced by local power relations, about the PRSP process. the committees made unprecedented steps For example: towards formalising civil society · InTanzania: Simplified booklets named monitoring at a community level, and Tanzania without Poverty, were extremely ensuring that spending was well aligned successful in explaining the PRS process with community interests. and prompting discussion amongst the · In Pakistan: Whilst the participative process general population. Published in English itself was weak, protests to the lack of civil and Kiswahili, the booklets were society participation in the Pakistani PRS distributed though CSO networks alongside were well coordinated with a strong central workshops and posters, and serialised in message. In 2002,The Sustainable local newspapers, they had a great impact Development Policy Institute led a diverse through their own print run and the other network of CSOs and NGOs to formally publicity activities that they sparked. reject the PRS process on the grounds that · In Rwanda: Radio `soap operas' have been the participative process had been wholly used to engage the general public in the inadequate. Their letter was widely latest developments in the PRS. Storylines circulated at the highest levels of linking poverty reduction initiatives with government, amongst donor groups and 70 the lives of familiar characters have aimed development professionals internationally. Figure 7 Government Mediation between government and the general public in the Bolivian PRSP. Catholic Church Where government and civil society are estranged, the trusted Catholic Church runs a parallel consultation Donors to pass public feedback to The general government officials and, to public a lesser extent, to donors. Participatory processes within civil society itself reduction but avoid undermining country have also proved an important means of ownership. Yet in reality, this role is complicated overcoming weak representation of poor people by the sheer diversity of interests and behaviours and other marginalised groups. In some that exist within the donor community. Each countries, civil society networks have organised donor has its own set of objectives, which often their own parallel consultation processes because relate to domestic foreign policy or economic Multitudes of they felt government-led consultations did not interests, rather than poverty reduction per se. allow sufficient representation of diverse Each also has its own ways of working, expressed Support interests. In others, civil society has organised in preferences for certain sectors, aid instruments the PPAs and fed the findings into national policy or monitoring requirements. With debates, as a means of bridging the gap between This diversity again poses Communication ordinary citizens and the national policy process. challenges for those seeking to ensure a 2 For example: coordinated and harmonised response from the · In Rwanda: As part of the PPA, hundreds of donor community to countries engaged in the cellules at village level were given $1000 to PRS process. Before coordination can take Lessons carry out a PRS related project designed, place, donors need to build lines of monitored and implemented by the communication around common interests in a Emerging 7: community themselves. Borrowing the certain sector or theme, but this is extremely traditional Rwandan practice of ubudehe, difficult in a context of proliferation and Chapter this initiative was a great success within fragmentation. Before activities can be communities and a point of pride amongst harmonised, these communication channels Studies: both the NGO groups who led the initiative, need to be developed into relationships of trust, Case and government officials who but high staff turnover and lack of in-country commissioned it. It was highly successful representation often mitigate against this. Country in strengthening country ownership, and creating ongoing connections between Nevertheless, there are some signs of NGOs and poor people in rural areas. emerging good practice within the donor · In Bolivia: Gathering some consensus community: amongst a deeply divided and fractious civil society, the Catholic Church ran an Joint donor groups have been created in many independent consultation process, parallel countries, either in support of the national PRSP, to the state-run National Dialogue. for example around general budget support, or Drawing on the status of the Church as a around detailed sector strategies that sit within respected arbiter of disputes, this Foro the national strategy. These groups allow donors Nacional Jubileo facilitated debate on the to share information in a systematic way, engage structural causes of poverty, and enabled in joint dialogue and coordinate their support for civil society to feed into the PRS without government and civil society actors engaged in raising unrealistic expectations about how the PRS process.They are however, proving to be their contributions might be taken on board. extremely time-consuming, especially for those agencies tasked with leading the group. This may be the inevitable consequence of donors Communication within the beginning to bear the transaction costs which donor community have undermined national government The role of donors in the PRS process is intended institutions in the past. For example: to be one of providing financing and other · In Bolivia: After a history of rather 71 support in ways that maintain a focus on poverty fragmented donor relationships, two networks were recently established to aid Communication between Government and donor coordination. DFID set up a network Civil Society of bilateral donors in 2002, and the `Donor The PRS approach envisages a two-way Support Group' was initiated by the IMF relationship between government and civil and World Bank in 2004. These groups have society, which not only enables the development Multitudes already been helpful in encouraging flows of a nationally owned PRSP, but also contributes of of information between donor groups and to the development of an accountability Support ensuring that each agency has similar and relationship between government and citizens. the reasonable expectations of what can be By strengthening lines of accountability, the With achieved in the PRS, ironing out difficulties approach seeks to overcome the tendency of between CIDA and the IMF and World Bank. much development aid to encourage national 2 governments to focus outwards, on accounting International partnerships have also been created to donors, rather than downwards, to their own or given added impetus as a result of the PRS domestic constituency. Lessons process. These include the OECD-DAC, the As is the case for relationships within a given Strategic Partnership with Africa, and informal sector, those between these two spheres are Emerging networks such as the Utstein group of `likeminded complicated by a number of communication 7: donors', all of which are increasingly acting as fora challenges. Many poor countries are prebendal for dialogue between donor headquarters on or semi-democratised states, in which lines of Chapter different dimensions of the PRS approach. accountability between citizen and state remain Whether their activities will translate into tangible extremely weak. Where there has been dialogue Studies: behavioural change from those donors demon- between NGOs and the state in the past, it has Case strating weak commitment to alignment and often been characterised by mutual distrust or Country harmonisation remains to be seen. For example: extreme antipathy, rather than constructive · In Cambodia: Collaborative working is cooperation. Politicians and officials tend to smoothing relations between the Asian have little history of practising open government Development Bank (ADB) and World Bank and CSOs lack experience of engaging in public who had serious fall outs after the two dialogue or speaking the technical language of donors backed different and competing budget reform. policy processes. Responsibilities for donor involvement have now been separated, The scale of this communication challenge with the ADB concentrating on supporting is enormous, but the PRS approach has catalysed the MediumTerm Expenditure Framework, a number of contributions to addressing it: and the two banks cooperating on public administration reform. Consultation processes led by government but · In Rwanda: After ongoing difficulties with engaging a range of civil society organisations are coordinating their work, a donor conference a basic requirement of the PRS approach and have in 2001 clarified guidelines for shared been organised with varying degrees of success in working, which have formed the basis of a all countries engaged in the process. They have number of joint donor initiatives led by worked best where governments have been UNDP. This central reference point, genuinely committed to taking civil society views combined with other credible and rigorous into account, and where CSOs have organised documents such as the PPA, facilitated effectively to articulate these views. There is more clear and forthright discussions, evidence of improvement in consultations over allowing donors in Rwanda to develop time, but concerns have been expressed about the 72 more trusting working relationships. poor quality of many held to date. Poverty Policy Week Figure 8 Tanzania's Poverty Policy Week created a focused opportunity for government, Government civil society and donors to come together and discuss the PRS, plan joint working Civil society Donors and launch the Annual Progress Report. Key elements of a quality process include been able to draw upon long-standing dissemination of essential documents in advance relationships with government officials and and in a format or language that participants can develop these into channels for influencing, understand; allocation of sufficient time and while `outsider' NGOs maintain the necessary resources for civil society to prepare comments; critical distance. At the monitoring stage, organised workshops which encourage partnerships have been developed between local Multitudes of participants to prioritise and focus, but also give governments and NGOs to carry out household space for comprehensive discussions; broad surveys, PPAs and other studies designed to track Support geographical and thematic coverage; and a the impact of PRS implementation. In some the commitment to ongoing dialogue with civil countries, parliamentarians and civil society With society to explain how these views will be taken organisations have formed alliances aimed at forward by government. For example: holding government to account for delivering 2 · In Moldova: The government has on its PRSP promises. For example: established a website to gather feedback · In Kyrygzstan: Where the general public on the PRS, it presents key information on have a long-held distrust of government Lessons the strategy, news on recent developments, agencies, NGO groups were commissioned and offers members of the public the to conduct a PPA and gather views on the Emerging 7: opportunity to give their feedback either by PRSP. This research uncovered that many email or an online form. With only 3% of poor people were unsure how to access Chapter the population online (CIA 2002), the state-run services and unaware of how to effectiveness of this has been limited. The assert their rights with official agencies. Studies: network that managed consultation events The government here can inform the public Case with the public at large has organised 30 indirectly though traditional ashur temporary enquiry points. schemes, side-stepping and improving their Country · InTanzania: Whilst many governments have poor relations with civil society. run one-off, or even a series of consultation · In Bolivia: Think tanks have worked to events or roundtables,Tanzania's `Poverty diffuse an often antagonistic relationship Policy Week' has provided an annual focal between government and civil society. point for discussion of the PRS. Originally Policy research contributes to bringing intended as a forum to release new better informed and more constructive research data and information systems, the discussion to a debate over the PRS which four day event has become a platform to has typically taken crude and violent forms. launch the Annual Progress Report. Close partnerships between government Bringing together over 500 participants officials and think tank researchers have from civil society, ministries, working served to place the latest PRS groups and donors, concentrating PRS developments in the public arena. discussion in this way has not only · In Kyrgyzstan: One key NGO, the facilitated a more focused and constructive DIALOGUE network worked in partnership dialogue, but attracted better media with the government to publish regular coverage and more convergence in the summaries of the latest PRS documents. work of different stakeholders. These were made available online in Russian and English, and were championed Partnerships between civil society and by the NGO's Director, who toured the government have also been formed to good country explaining and discussing the effect in many PRS processes. At the latest PRS developments with a wide 73 consultation stage, certain `insider' NGOs have variety of civil society groups. Permanent spaces for civil society participation Communication between government have been created as a result of the PRS process and donors in some countries, through legislative reform. The PRS approach demands new positioning This may simply entail the introduction of civil from both government and donors through its society representation on government bodies central focus on the principle of national Multitudes such as sector working groups tasked with ownership. This implies not only that donors of developing the sector strategies that constitute refrain from undermining national ownership Support the PRSP. In other cases, national watchdog through stepping back from intrusive the bodies have been created for poverty monitoring conditionality, but also that governments stake With and ongoing arrangements for dialogue with civil their claim as leaders of the national poverty society have been created at local government reduction process by beginning to play a more 2 level. These legal changes create ongoing powerful role in the aid relationship. communication channels between government The potential gains are clearly immense, but and civil society and augur well for strengthened they require negotiation of complex Lessons accountability lines over time. For example: communication challenges along the way. · In Bolivia: Between 1995 and 2001, four Donors are called upon to end the dictation of Emerging pieces of legislation were put in place to detailed terms for development financing and 7: ensure civil society participation became a move towards softer forms of negotiation and permanent feature of the policymaking influencing around broad poverty reduction Chapter process. The legislation aimed to goals instead. Governments are expected to undertake a process of empowerment through Studies: decentralise administration and monitoring systems, with local people at municipal which they begin to articulate their own terms Case level taking a key role in the PRS. It also and take leadership of the process. Country enshrined extensive consultation activities, In aid dependent countries, governments are known as the National Dialogue, to take often understandably reluctant to risk offending place every three years. Economic problems donors, and can be left confused as they seek to and civil unrest have undermined the understand the inevitable donor `bottom line', practical effectiveness of this legislation to but it is no longer articulated in stark and date. concrete terms. As donors increasingly coalesce · In Cambodia: With tense relationships into groups, for example taking joint decisions hampering cooperation between the about budget support, there is also a risk that Ministry of Planning and Ministry of governments feel `ganged up on' rather than Finance at a national level, regional empowered. Commune Councils were elected in 2002 to move the PRS process forward at Several approaches are being tried and tested community level. Made up primarily of to help these two sides negotiate the changing local leadership figures from civil society, aid relationship, with varying degrees of success: these side-stepped the political divisions endemic at national level, but stumbled on Joint donor assessments have been instituted by their lack of expertise and experience. joint donor groups in many PRS countries. UNDP has been engaged in a capacity They provide a coordinated response to building programme to help them grow government from the donor community to into their responsibilities, and the drafts of the PRSP and augur well for reducing Commune Councils look like providing a the amount of time spent by government useful complement to national officials on handling feedback from individual 74 participation processes in the longer term. donors. The process has worked best where Figure 9 Government Donors The coordination of Vietnam's JSA and APR created a hub for information exchange between donors and government. Civil society donors have succeeded in prioritising their by governments to articulate in writing some concerns, and articulated clearly to government terms for their relationship by donors. They whether these are hard conditions for support or often include a stated preference for certain mere suggestions for improvement. types of aid instrument such as budget support, Joint Staff Assessments (JSAs) carried out by for predictable commitments and disbursements the World Bank and IMF fulfil a similar timed with the national budget cycle, or for Multitudes of feedback function and have worked well in donors to restrict their activities to a limited some countries, but the need to simultaneously number of sectors. Whether such strategies are Support signal that the PRSP provides a sufficient basis matched by behavioural change from donors the for financing can make these assessments less remains to be seen. For example: With than candid. For example: · In Uganda;The government wrote · 2 In Cambodia: The JSA was a relatively `partnership principles' for donors into the open process, incorporating comments PEAP (PRSP). They outline that donors from DFID and other smaller donors as well should confine their support to the PEAP as the World Bank and IMF. Informal strategy, channel funding through Lessons consultations were held across stakeholder government systems, and to provide groups at an early stage of the drafting, medium term projections of aid that can be Emerging 7: involving them in discussions of the coordinated with the budget cycle. In criterion for assessment as well as whether return, donors are systematically consulted Chapter these have been met. These measures at macro and sector levels in the contributed to greater transparency in the formulation and implementation of plans Studies: JSA, clarifying its implications for and budgets. The operational principles are Case government. continually evolving, and their coordination · In Vietnam: Early and late drafts of the JSA by the governments' Aid Liaison Country were circulated to individual donors, with Department has been seen as a particularly substantial comments received from Japan successful and innovative move. and other like-minded donor groups. This process allowed the document to emerge Communication between Donors and as the consensus view of donors. Civil Society Combined with the Annual Progress report, Relations between donors and CSOs engaged in these monitoring documents brought the PRS process can appear to be something of together an unprecedented amount of data a one-way street, in which donors channel funds from across government. They were seen and other support to organisations seeking to as an important step towards more engage in consultations and monitoring integrated national planning. activities. There is often however an element of · In Ghana: The World Bank presented the reciprocity in the relationship, with CSOs JSA to other donors at the last minute in a providing donors with a non-government view formal meeting, and they were effectively on the PRS, and a relatively non-controversial only given the opportunity to rubber stamp means of supporting government accountability it. There has been little joint working to citizens. across donor groups. Once more, this is a relationship characterised by a number of communication Operational principles for donor support have challenges. On the one hand, donors are been developed in a very small number of understandably keen to articulate their support countries that are leaders in the PRS approach, for civil society engagement by forging 75 such as Uganda. These are a conscious attempt relationships around funding and other resource Figure 10 Donors In Ghana, donor supported capacity building has helped media based CSOs to both inform the Civil society general public on the PRS, and provide transparent feedback to government. Government gaps. On the other, they need to take care to matters. This helps both the communication ensure such relations do not compromise the of the PRS to the general public, and vision of a nationally representative civil society. creates a public `watchdog', providing In reverse, CSOs need to fulfil their need for feedback to government. Although funded financing and information, but maintain a by the Bank, the programme is managed Multitudes sufficiently critical distance from international independently by the School of of donor agendas. Communication Studies at the University Support of Ghana and has been an effective way to the Several approaches appear to be helping these support media coverage of the PRSP whilst With two sets of actors strike this delicate balance: maintaining the autonomy of the sector. 2 Donor championing of the participatory process Civil society as a resource for donors to keep is another means of ensuring donors support them informed of developments. In several civil society without undermining country countries civil society groups have been a useful Lessons ownership. In several countries, donors have `third party' to mediate donor relationships with acted as a useful bridge between NGOs and government. Providing information, opinions Emerging government, conveying concerns about the need and feedback on the process as a whole, the 7: for a quality consultation or monitoring process, donor­civil society relationship also provides and providing financial and technical support for forum for public views where issues have arisen Chapter this. Where civil society has organised its own between civil society and national government. parallel consultations, donors have also played a For example: Studies: useful role in supporting national networks In Bolivia: Where relations between all Case · tasked with designing and organising their own actors in the PRS have at times been Country independent consultations, instead of selecting acrimonious, think tanks have been a their favourite individual NGOs. For example: valuable resource for clarifying PRS · In Moldova: Where the participation debates. Donors have invested in their process had been disappointing, in August analytic capabilities; synthesising the 2002 DFID organised extensive roundtable issues raised by government and other meetings for civil society representatives, parts of civil society. These have aided disseminating information on PRSPs and donors in their efforts to have more encouraging them to be involved in the reasonable expectations of government. elaboration of the strategy. They also · In Pakistan: When conflicts over the financed an indigenous NGO to run a participation process were reaching crisis communication campaign, working point, CSOs communicated directly with through television, radio and posters. This donors to inform them of the scale and NGO group came to work in close gravity of the problems. Donors referenced partnership with the PRS unit in the their correspondence in the Joint Staff government, and coordinated their Assessment, and problems with the information campaign with the activities of participative process were flagged as the the Participation Council. central issue that the PRS needed to · In Ghana: The World Bank in Ghana has address. initiated a Media Capacity Enhancement Programme to build the capacity of the media through training editors and producers as well as journalists in reporting 76 techniques for economic policy subject Figure 11 Government In Pakistan, civil society groups communicated directly with donors when relations with government broke down. Donors conveyed concerns to Civil Society Donors government through the JSA. Summary of good practice individuals from across central and local government to work on a particular issue. The role of strategic communication in PRSPs · Writing or commissioning high quality core has been discussed in the context of a documents, such as the Participative Poverty conceptual framework that highlights the Assessment or the Annual Progress Report linkages within and between three main can provide key reference points for debate Multitudes of stakeholder groups: government, donors, and between stakeholders. civil society.This section draws on the case study · Running open, broad and well organised Support experiences and considers the practical consultation processes can be a key forum the applications of strategic communication in for disseminating information to the general With PRSPs for the different stakeholder groups public, as well as gathering views and identified in the framework.The chapter also feedback on each stage in the process. 2 intends to focus on some of the good practices · Creating permanent spaces for civil society that have been identified from the case studies participation, whether through legislation, and provide a basis for developing future capacity building or working partnerships, Lessons communication strategies. can help develop two-way, ongoing and interactive communication, rather than one- Emerging Government off and one-way consultation exercises. 7: For many developing country governments the · Delegating specific responsibility for liaising Chapter PRS formulation process is new territory in with donors can be a useful way to clarify public policy planning terms.Although policies donor­government relationships and ensure Studies: aimed at reducing poverty are not in themselves good flows of information between parties. Case all that new, the realignment of the national budget for this purpose is.The PRS brought with Communication strategy Country it process conditionality that required widespread An approach that has been taken in Ghana, participation to ensure national ownership.This Moldova, and Tanzania is to develop a element of the PRS formulation process is most communication strategy specifically for the relevant from a strategic communication PRSP. In all cases this has been a retrospective perspective and a practical application for measure taken to redress imbalances in the way government stakeholders should focus on the information on the PRSP has been design and implementation of effective communicated to different stakeholder groups.A participatory and consultative mechanisms. PRSP communication strategy provides the basis National governments seem to be more for considering how all the relevant groups can successful where they build strategic be encouraged to participate most effectively in communication into the core business of leading the formulation of the PRS.The communication the PRSP. There are many opportunities to do strategies include a combination of media this, including: campaigns, consultations with stakeholders at · Building good working relations between different levels of government, and capacity the PRS unit and other parts of government. building to assist groups in understanding and This is particularly important where the engaging in the process.The fact that these location of the PRS unit (in the Ministry of communication strategies are being developed Planning or Ministry of Finance) has meant after the first PRSP has already been prepared that budgetary and planning processes must has implications for their implementation. In be coordinated. cases where the PRSP was prepared without · Developing working groups around sectors widespread consultation then the communication 77 or themes that can bring together strategy needs to fulfil this task whilst also encouraging feedback that will be constructive Civil society for the revision of the PRS.This will involve Civil society groups vary in their capacity to disseminating information both on the PRSPs engage with governments in public policy original goals and on the results achieved so far. planning processes. In many developing Where widespread consultation and ownership countries where democratisation or re- Multitudes took place initially, the communication strategy democratisation processes are relatively recent, of can focus on extending the scope of participation CSOs have limited experience of sharing Support and encouraging feedback based on the results of information with government. In cases where the monitoring and evaluation exercises to assist the the media has been controlled by government it With revision process. The communication strategy is will take time for a free, vibrant and independent therefore more than a comprehensive list of the media to grow up within civil society. It is 2 communication activities that need to take place therefore important when considering practical because it must integrate them with the timing applications for civil society to focus on building of the PRS events to ensure an ongoing their capacity to communicate amongst Lessons communication process. themselves as a basis for engaging effectively with government on the PRS. Emerging Core team of staff with communication expertise The extent to which civil society groups can 7: The design and implementation of the effectively communicate is partly conditioned by communication strategy requires a core team of the extent of their participation in the PRS, Chapter staff within the government PRSP preparation which they negotiate with national team that have specialist communication skills. governments. However, CSOs can create an Studies: There are often capacity constraints in the independent impetus for constructive Case government that restrict the production of the Communication in various ways: · Country PRSP and, in this context, the funding for Civil society groups can be key figures in communication experts may be considered a disseminating information on the PRS, lower priority than for other staff. However, through the media, soap operas, booklets and even with the most basic communication workshops. Publishing précis of debates and strategy there needs to be a suitable team of summaries of the process is often a useful communication experts in the government means both to inform the general public and PRSP preparation team to implement it.The communicate clearly with government. role of strategic communication is to create a · National networks and sub-committees can dialogue between stakeholders and therefore pool the expertise of civil society groups on implementing the communication strategy a particular problem, crystallising their should be considered as an ongoing process understanding and finding new ways to that can improve the quantity and quality of develop solutions. the dialogue as it progresses.Without an · CSOs are often well positioned to gather effective team of communication specialists the information on the nature of poverty in a activities in the communication strategy will be country, taking a key role in Participative at risk of being implemented as a series of Poverty Assessments, as well as facilitating one-off events that have no cumulative impact participation processes. on stimulating broad participation and · Some CSOs have also been important ownership.The staff of the core team need to mediators, smoothing relations between have the capacity and resources to ensure that antagonistic or conflicting groups there is a strong institutional memory and that brought together through the PRS, whether feedback can be used effectively to encourage they be within civil society itself, 78 ongoing participation. government or donors. · Some CSOs have established a niche as local publicity activities. In Rwanda radio soap providers of reliable, up-to-date and operas have been used to update audiences on independent information and expertise. PRS issues through the drama of the radio This is often a particularly useful resource programmes.These have formed the basis for for donors to `triangulate' their views of the monthly PRS update sheets that are published PRS process. by CSOs and used to extend the reach of the Multitudes of radio programmes. CSOs are able to disseminate Civil society networks PRS information widely and in a way that can Support Civil society networks provide a good basis for encourage the type of ongoing dialogue that is the communication on the PRS because they needed for greater ownership and With provide a link between groups with a shared empowerment. In cases where CSOs find it common interest such as faith groups and difficult to access the relevant information from 2 political parties. In Bolivia municipal level government they need to be more actively committees Comites de Vigilancia were used to included in the process. In Moldova a national strengthen civil society monitoring at the NGO network was selected by the government Lessons community level. In Ghana, the Ghana to facilitate participation events which improved Association of PrivateVoluntary Organisations the discussion amongst the general public. Emerging in Development (GAPVOD) is an umbrella 7: organisation of 419 member organisations Donors Chapter including 25 international NGOs. GAPVOD Donor organisations are a driving force in the has initiated a programme with the media to PRS process in developing countries. Despite Studies: coordinate inputs from its members on the efforts to ensure that national governments Case revision of the GPRS and is establishing a civil develop their own strategies there is the intrinsic society platform for regional and district level link between PRSP preparation and donor funds Country meetings with members on the GPRS. Civil in the form of HIPC debt relief and other multi- society groups need to be able to coordinate in donor budget support (MDBS). For many this way to increase the impact of their governments donor funding is the reason for the engagement with the government on the PRS. preparation of the PRSP and strategic commun- It is often most effective if an independent ication is a necessity to fulfil the requirements for consultation process can be organised by a civil broad based participation. It is therefore society group. In Bolivia the Catholic Church important when considering practical applications managed to organise an independent for donors to focus on supporting governments consultation even amongst a deeply divided civil in their efforts by maintaining a consistent society and encouraged a national debate on approach and by targeted capacity building. poverty through the Foro Nacional Jubileo. Donor initiatives demonstrate that strategic communication can work to clarify the distance Dissemination and public engagement between actors, as much as bring them together. Civil Society Organisations can play an Donor efforts to improve strategic commun- important role in the dissemination of ication often focus improving coordination of information on the PRS to the public at large. their work, developing their analytic capacity, or Local media are able to discuss the PRS in ways making donor relations with other actors that are easily understood by relating it to issues explicit. These take on a number of forms: of local importance and relevance. In Tanzania · Joint donor groups have established networks CSOs distributed booklets in English and to share information amongst donors, Kiswhili that stimulated broad debate and ensuring they have similar and reasonable 79 encouraged further dissemination through other expectations of the ongoing PRS process. · A development of this work has seen strategic communication in the PRSP and international partnerships providing joint generate more collective action from donors funding to capacity building projects, and when necessary. Joint donor assessments are establishing greater clarity on the `division of one way of coordinating donor priorities and labour' between donor agencies. the Annual Progress Report is becoming · Multitudes Closer collaboration between donors has increasingly important as a monitoring tool. In of made for more constructive and thorough Vietnam the Joint Staff Assessment of the IMF Support joint donor assessment documents. and the World Bank was circulated to other · the Whilst still in their early stages, drawing up donors for comment in good time and With operating principles for donor support has substantial feedback from other donors was been an effective tool to clarify donor incorporated. In this case the JSA could be 2 relationships and behaviour. relied upon by the government as the · Donor initiatives to support civil society consensus view of the donors. have been most successful when they have Lessons separated their funding from implementation Capacity building or monitoring structures; for example, by Donors are anxious not to undermine national Emerging working through independent actors, ownership by excessive conditionality and 7: providing contracts which make CSO interference in the PRS formulation process. autonomy explicit, or `lending' technical However, the requirements for widespread Chapter advisors as independent consultants (rather participation are a type of process than donor staff). conditionality that does need support to be Studies: Donors must be careful not to undermine implemented effectively. Initially support is Case · government-civil society relations when required to the government for the preparation Country responding to civil society requests directly. of a PRSP Communication Needs Assessment Some donors have managed this by that constitutes the preliminary research for the explicitly acknowledging civil society views Communication Strategy. Capacity building for through formal mechanisms, for example, in these activities is likely to require both training their JSAs. of national experts and funding for external communication experts at least in the short Consistency and coordination of approach term.This should be part of a long term and Many donors are working towards greater ongoing package of support for the design and harmonisation of their approaches to common implementation of the PRSP Communication goals such as poverty reduction. From the Strategy that centres on a core team of perspective of strategic communication in communication experts as discussed above. PRSPs, this is essential for the consistency of There is also a need to enhance the capacity the messages that are being developed to across all the government departments that are encourage participation from a wide range of responsible for the dissemination of stakeholders. Conflicting messages from information on government policy. Capacity different donors or regularly changing donor building of the media is also likely to require priorities will make the government's task of long-term donor support to improve the developing an ongoing dialogue with a well quality of reporting on macroeconomic policy informed public much more difficult than it issues as is occurring in Ghana. Civil society already is. Joint donor groups are time more broadly can also benefit from donor consuming but have helped donors coordinate support to assist with the cost of networking their support to the PRS process in many and consultation activities. 80 countries.This could help in the monitoring of Document quality and transparency civil society and the donors ­ the earlier in In view of the challenges of information sharing the process the better but at whatever stage between many developing country governments the activities should be closely integrated and their constituents there is a particular need with the progress of the PRSP itself. for the core PRSP-related documents to be of 2. Provide a core team of communication high quality.This means they need to be very experts: as an ongoing part of the Multitudes of clear in their structure and content to enable a government department responsible for wide range of stakeholders to understand and PRSP formulation, to implement the Support discuss the relevant issues. For very wide Communication Strategy and Action Plan, the circulation simplified versions have been ensure institutional memory, encourage and With developed that focus on the key messages ­ but manage feedback and maintain ongoing this still relies on the core documents being dialogue. 2 clearly written in the first place. Donors have 3. Encourage civil society networking: to the capacity and resources to ensure that the develop discussion and consensus amongst central PRS documents such as the Participatory civil society groups that can help to improve Lessons Poverty Assessment (PPA), the Annual Progress the quality of inputs into PRSP formulation Report and the PRSP contribute to improved and review. Emerging communication and transparency of the 4. Support NGOs and local media: to 7: policymaking process rather than hinder it. In disseminate information on the PRSP in a Chapter Cambodia efforts to improve on the PRSP led way that is accessible to the general public to a focus on the APR that included greater with discussion in local languages and Studies: participation from government and NGO related to local issues. Case stakeholders and incorporated their feedback 5. Ensure consistency of PRS approach: in more effectively.This led to a more transparent order to limit confusion and misinformation Country process that encouraged broader participation and to help generate broad ownership over aimed at achieving iterative improvements. time. 6. Facilitate targeted capacity building: of Practical applications CSOs for information sharing and The issue of strategic communication in PRSPs establishing independent consultations, the has emerged out of a need to include a wider national media editors and producers and range of stakeholders in policymaking for journalists for economic reporting, and poverty reduction in developing countries.The government for improved coordination of objective is to enable widespread participation dissemination. between donors, government and civil society in 7. Produce high quality core PRS documents: the design and implementation of the PRSP. In to ensure clarity of the messages to be order to achieve this greater communication is discussed amongst a broad range of needed both within and between all three stakeholders and improve transparency of groups than is currently taking place. the process as a whole. In conclusion, the key components of a strategic approach to communication in the PRSP can be summarised as: Conclusion 1. Develop a PRSP Communication Strategy The challenges of communication in PRSPs and Action Plan: including mass media both within and between governments, civil campaigns, consultations and workshops, society and donors correspond to some of the 81 internal communication with government, key challenges of the PRS initiative ­ how to create a genuinely country-owned, participatory, and comprehensive process. As improving the exchange of information facilitates greater collaboration, joint working and coordinated activities, strategic communication can provide a Multitudes catalyst to reconfigure relationships between of stakeholder groups, bringing them together in Support new ways. At times, building strategic the communication may mean putting in place With activities specifically targeted towards improving communication, such as consultation networks, 2 meetings to bring together stakeholders, or dissemination campaigns. In other instances it may mean addressing the communication issues Lessons within activities which are primarily concerned with other matters, such as sector working Emerging groups, operating principles or donor 7: partnerships. Improving communication here can be a catalyst to dislodge entrenched issues, Chapter providing opportunities to reconfigure and clarify the relationships between government, Studies: donors and civil society in the PRS. Case Whilst governments can provide leadership Country in a strategic communication approach, CSOs and donors have a central part to play in making these initiatives work. Strategic communication facilitates the involvement of all stakeholders in the PRS, allowing core PRS activities to be fully capitalised on as part of an iterative process for reducing poverty. 82 Short Case Studies Part 3 from Five Countries 83 Amy Pollard Short Case Studies Part 3 Bolivia from Five Countries This part builds on the understanding gained from the detailed country case studies by presenting summary information from a further five PRSP countries: Bolivia, Cambodia, Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan and Rwanda. Each case briefly describes the background of the PRSP in the country concerned and then explores the communication challenges and approaches experienced both within and between the three principle stakeholder groups; government, civil society and the donor community. Multitudes of Support the With 3 Countries Five from Studies Case Short 84 Chapter 8 Bolivia Summary Communication initiatives in the Bolivian PRS have worked towards building constructive links between very diverse groups with fragile relationships. The Bolivian government as a whole has long-term problems with clientalism and corruption, and an acrimonious relationship with a very vocal and internally-divided civil society sector. Steps towards bridging these gaps through the PRS process have been made in three ways. First, by conducting consultation processes and participative monitoring at the relatively stable and coherent level of municipalities. Second, an independent consultation on the PRSP was conducted by the Catholic Church ­ an organisation which cuts across disparate civil society groups - and run in parallel to the government-led National Dialogue. Finally, think tanks such as ILDIS have worked to mediate between government and the general public by promoting more informed and constructive debate. Steps are also being taken within the donor community to develop closer collaboration amongst themselves, with DFID leading a new network of bilateral donors. There is, however, room for improvement in the links Multitudes between donors and other stakeholders.There have been calls for donors of to capitalise on the success of the Bolivian think tank sector, and invest in Support research and analysis which can promote a better match between donor the expectations of government, and its practical capacities. With 3 The PRSP process in Bolivia CEPAS-CÁRITAS, the Social Commission of the Bolivian Episcopal Conference, in Bolivia was one of the first countries to write a September 2003, and was advised that a much Bolivia 8: PRSP, submitting an interim PRSP in January more through process of participation and 2000 and a full document in 2001 (Christian Aid consultation with civil society was necessary. Chapter 2002). The Bolivian Government is currently Ten days later, in the midst of mass protest and working on a second PRS, known as the EBRP civil unrest, the President was forced to resign Countries: (Estrategia Boliviana de Reducción de la Pobreza). and a new government was formed. The new Five Bolivia's PRSP process has been noteworthy government is currently engaged in a second from for its innovative approach to engaging CSOs and National Dialogue but continues to face local government, which builds on a tradition of formidable political pressures. Studies social activism and gives civil society a role in Case holding municipalities to account. The approach Short has been enshrined in legislation ensuring a Communication challenges and lasting legacy, but it has also faced formidable approaches within government challenges in a pressurised political environment. The development of a second PRS had Context of government been scheduled for 2003. The process has been Bolivian governments have had problems with somewhat held up due to a change of corruption, clientalism and lack of state capacity government in 2002, and civil unrest in October for generations. Bolivian party politics is highly 85 2003. The government presented a first draft to fragmented, and with no outright winner of recent elections, successive governments have Coordinating the EBRP been made up by coalition. The president is The EBRP was initiated by theVice President indirectly elected by congress, and ministries are and President, and was deliberately insulated from divided up between highly personalistic political party politics. However, although poverty itself parties, who co-exist in an uneasy `pacted' or tends to be eclipsed by other issues in Bolivian `prebendal' democracy (Booth and Piron 2004). political debate, poverty reduction remains highly The Ministry of Finance is seen as particularly contentious between the various central and weak, and the budget process has been municipal bodies responsible for operationalising correspondingly difficult. There is no the EBRP. Consultants have suggested that permanent civil service and the national state the new PRS needs not only to provide has limited presence and authority across vast capacity building for government institutions, swathes of territory (Booth and Piron 2004). but also to provide training in negotiation and Circumstances are somewhat better at regional management skills to help municipalities and level, and municipal authorities do have a much central government agencies cooperate (CEPAS- greater capacity to deliver core services. CARITAS 2003).There have also been calls for a One of the central challenges facing the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework, which Bolivian government is developing a would help co-ordinate EBRP with other public constructive relationship with a highly sceptical policy budgets, whilst the Ministry of Finance is Multitudes and vocal public. The government as a whole under development. of has had serious problems establishing legitimacy Support and credibility with the general population, and the constant pressure from extreme social Communication challenges and With movements has often hampered the process of approaches within civil society developing its capacity (Booth and Piron 2004). 3 Context of civil society Capitalising on municipalities Whilst Bolivian civil society is vibrant, politically The latest PRS process capitalised well on the engaged and highly organised, it is also highly Bolivia relative strength of municipal authorities. The fractious, extreme and sceptical of government. 8: 1997 Law of Municipalities stipulated that HIPC Groups often represent different functional Chapter debt relief funds should be dispersed at the interests, such as cocaleros, peasants, mine municipal level. Although going against a long workers, and regional groups, working outside Countries: centrist tradition in Bolivian politics, the formal structures often in an antagonistic Five decentralisation process was managed relatively relationship both with the state and each other. from smoothly, and municipal governments have good Overall, there is a tendency for policy dialogue relations with their own local civil society to take extremely crude and quite violent forms Studies associations. Although some INGOs have (Booth and Piron 2004). Street protests tend to Case criticised the devolution process for undermining dominate, and over several decades, the peasant Short the input of national CSOs that are not organised union movement has grown stronger, more territorially (Christian Aid 2002), municipalities autonomous and ethnically conscious. In the have been remarkably effective in commanding 2000 civil disruption, confrontations with police funds: The first National Dialogue involved 1200 led to 60 deaths. encounters at municipal level, and as a result of their overwhelming presence in the dialogue, Bridging a divided civil society small, rural poor municipalities gained There were two major participation initiatives in disproportionately from HIPC and concessional the first Bolivian PRS; the state-run National 86 funds (Booth and Piron 2004). Dialogue and the Church-led, Foro Nacional Jubileo 2000 (or Jubilee Forum) which ran in the coverage did not actually promote a well parallel. The Catholic Church is arguably the informed dialogue on the PRS; it has been seen most reliable and widely respected civil society as a cynical move by government to ensure good organisation in Bolivia17, and was successful in public relations and draw attention away from 17 Ramiro Cavero Uriona, Minister including a wide range of CSOs, trade unions, substantive problems with the process (Christian of Sustainable Development and universities, and groups for human rights, Aid 2002). Planning, Bolivia, personal communication (June 2002) women and the environment in its consultation. The format of the Jubilee Forum was intended Including civil society in monitoring specifically to enable discussions on the overall The National Dialogue and Popular structural causes of poverty, (as opposed to Participation legislation created Comites de dividing up the discussions into political, social Vigilancia (or vigilance committees) composed and economic, as in the National Dialogue) and of six elected CBO leaders, which were charged was eventually able to feed into the official with ensuring that community interests were Dialogue at both departmental and national properly reflected in local investment decisions. levels. The process was built on existing They had the right to insist on audits and decentralisation mechanisms and succeeded in petition for funds to be frozen if they suspect facilitating much greater representation of poor any misuse. Whilst these arrangements have not people than the formal National Dialogue. This always functioned as intended, with local power second initiative was also more successful in relations having a much greater influence than Multitudes of managing public expectations of how civil national laws, international NGOs have society contributions could be integrated with supported their development. For example, Support policy documents, building on the trusted status Oxfam GB is working towards strengthening the of the Catholic Church18. existing local monitoring organisations at the 18 Juan Carlos Requena , lead With municipal level, where decisions on HIPC funds coordinator of the first Bolivian 3 The role of international NGOs are taken, and strengthening organisations that poverty reduction strategy, personal communication (June International NGOs were active in assisting the work on resource allocation and budget 2002) dissemination of information on the PRS, and transparency (Christian Aid 2002, McGee et al provided funding, guidance and capacity building 2002). Enshrined in law for the first time, this Bolivia 8: support for civil society groups (Driscoll 2004). Civil Society Social Control Mechanism created Oxfam GB built up contacts with networks of a more formal, and more effective monitoring Chapter local CSOs, informing them about the PRS and system for civil society, than had previously offering guidance on how they might influence been seen. Countries: the process. INGOS have also lobbied for the Five release of information on the PRS in local from languages, and using media forms that are Communication challenges appropriate to each community (Christian Aid and approaches within the donor Studies 2002).This seems to have had modest impact in community Case practice, and the effect of INGOs, walking a Short tightrope of between government and a fractious The context of donors civil society, has often been ambivalent. Against a history of fragmented, un-coordinated aid relationships, donors seem to be taking steps Utilising the media to improve their communication and The National Dialogue maintained a fairly high collaborative work. The main bilateral donor profile in the media, and was covered by local groups in Bolivia are the Dutch, Swedes, Danes language radio stations as well as national and Swiss. Their financial input is dwarfed by 87 broadcasters. Some have suggested however that the IMF and World Bank funds, and that of the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB). Communication challenges and Until recently their communication has been ad approaches between government and hoc and sporadic, with no organised networks or civil society meeting structures. In January 2004, however, the IMF launched a Bolivian Support Group for Legislation to institutionalise civil society donors, meeting regularly to coordinate their participation activities, share knowledge and discuss progress. Given the volatile relationship between the Bolivian government and civil society, the PRSP Differences in priorities was a particularly bold effort to institutionalise a There have been some problems in reconciling participative process in policymaking. There were the differing priorities of CIDA, the Canadian four key pieces of legislation which aimed to put aid agency with the IMF and World Bank. in place a framework to facilitate participation. CIDA recommended that governance was a · The 1995 Law of Popular Participation: this more pressing priority for Bolivia than attempted to institutionalise decentralisation. comprehensive planning procedures. It argued · The 1995 Law of Administrative that comprehensive planning would not fix Decentralisation critical problems surrounding the · The 1997 Law of Municipalities implementation of PRS, and would instead risk · The 2001 Dialogue Law: this attempted to Multitudes undermining country ownership. They have provide a legal framework through which of created pressure on the rest of the donor the results of the National Dialogue will be Support community to accept a partial, rather than implemented. The legislation stipulated that the comprehensive, process of development in the further dialogues should take place every With current PRS iteration. This has quelled the three years and that HIPC debt relief funds enthusiasm of the Bank, and the two groups are to be dispersed through municipalities. 3 have come to an understanding that progress will be slower than originally envisaged. The decentralisation process was successful in entrusting more power and resources to municipal Bolivia Donor coordination governments, but it has been criticised for 8: Although Bolivia still has problems with donor undermining the input of some national civil Chapter coordination, there are a number of practical society groups that are not organised territorially initiatives to increase it. Preceding the IMF's (Christian Aid 2002). Whilst the legislation Countries: Bolivia Support Group, DFID established a entrenched a very progressive distribution formula, Five network of bilateral donors in 2002, with the in the 2003 PRS process, circumstances became from explicit aim of increasing dialogue on the too difficult to consolidate institutional reform. In participatory process and maximising the scope the recession that followed Argentina's economic Studies of the PRSP (Eyben 2002). Not all assistance is collapse, the PRS timetable slipped from 2003 to Case coordinated with the PRS - consultants suggest 2004. Rioting and civil unrest in February and Short that donors still tie too much assistance to October 2003 led to a change of government and projects, on common basket funding and as a new president committed to governing without directed by their own external agendas, such as parties (Piron and Evans 2004). Overall, despite coca eradication (Piron and Evans 2004). the legislation, stakeholder monitoring has not been as useful and sustainable as it could have been. Whilst the National Dialogue contributed substantially to the PRSP, there was much less public involvement in the Joint Staff Assessment 88 and Annual Progress Report. Building trust between civil society and government and civil society. Commentators government have suggested that these groups may have a There have been a variety of complaints from critical role in resolving some of tension civil society groups who say money earmarked between civil society and government, and for the PRS is going missing and that only the contribute to a much more constructive future usual suspects are invited to consultation dialogue on PRS. meetings. Consultants have claimed that the funds freed up by the EBRP have turned out to be meagre compared with social needs, and the Communication challenges and municipal governments, the principal agent for approaches between government and the expenditure of HIPC funds , have showed donors themselves to be incapable of fulfilling their role. An estimated 200 of 312 local governments are Continuity in the face of political change considered unviable, and in many municipalities, Steps to improve coordination and spending is below 50% of funds allotted (Kruse communication between donors are likely to 2003). There have also been claims that contribute to improvements in the aid indigenous people have gained nothing from the relationship with government over time. As in legal changes around participation and that other countries, however, they have not exclusion is as severe as ever. Others have succeeded in removing the inevitable tensions Multitudes of suggested that the climate of public distrust has between government and donors in the PRSP been so severe that legislative changes to cement process. Following the change in government in Support public participation have had little impact, and 2002, donors became edgy that the PRS would the the general public still feel that they are not no longer be a priority. These concerns proved With properly represented or listened to. not be founded, but the civil unrest had affected 3 These concerns have been acknowledged at the government's ability to deliver to the government level: Juan Carlos Requena, lead previously agreed timetable, and had to be taken coordinator of the PRS, acknowledged that in account in a realistic way by donors. there were different understandings of the Bolivia 8: appropriate level and form of participation by Timing and expectations civil society: whilst some INGOs assumed civil It has been suggested that some donors have had Chapter society would take part throughout the process unfair expectations of the Bolivian government (including the drafting itself), the government so soon after they had taken power. There have Countries: assumed that they would be responsible for been calls for donors to invest in better analytic Five drafting a document for discussion, in line with capabilities and institutional memory, capitalising from feedback from the National Dialogue. on the capable indigenous think tanks, to ensure But with both doubts over the competencies they are positioned in an effective and Studies of government, and confusion over the reasonable way to assist government with the Case participative process, there has been a fraught PRS. The second PRS was centred on Short and at times unproductive relationship between agreements for specific tasks between CSOs and the government. There have been government and key interest groups, and it has suggestions that the few who have been engaged been suggested this approach will generate new in genuine discussion were already insiders, institutions, and especially think tanks, that could known to government and the political system. provide an ongoing counterweight to the A few key organisations, such as the EPSC and politics of confrontation (Booth and Piron 2004). other think tank groups, have made successful 89 first steps as go-betweens; aiming to link Communication challenges and monitored'. They suggested that the Bank should approaches between civil society and be wary of engaging of `political conditionality by donors stealth'. They claim that linking democracy and good governance to civil society participation is a Vested interest groups complex and contradictory task, and that donors There have been concerns that the Social may need to acknowledge the political nature of Control Mechanism, designed to allow the their relationship with civil society in order to vigilance committees to monitor spending of facilitate constructive debate. In this instance, the HIPC funds, can not at the same time be an connections between communication processes, effective mechanism to monitor the and sensitive political relationships are revealed. implementation of the PRS. There have been suggestions that this created vested interests in donor groups like DFID, who are supporting the process, and also amongst the Church, which have undermined the independence of Key sources monitoring (Piron and Evans 2004). Observers suggest that PRS and donor monitoring must Booth D and Piron L-H. 2004, Politics and the PRSP approach: not become too intertwined with domestic civil Bolivia Case Study ODI Working Paper 238 (London, Multitudes society monitoring structures; donors can Overseas Development Institute) of potentially crowd out the voices of domestic CEPAS-CÁRITAS. 2003, The revised "Bolivian Poverty Support stakeholders, and dominate communication Reduction Strategy 2004-2007":Comments by CEPAS- the around the PRS. CARITAS Comments on the proposal submitted by the With Bolivian Government to the Consultative Group Meeting for The aid relationship Bolivia in Paris, October 8-9, 2003 3 Whilst some have accused donors of having low Christian Aid. 2002, Participating in Dialogue? The estrategia standards, and ignoring inadequacies in the Boliviana de Reduccion de la Pobreza, policy briefing participative process, others have claimed donors (http://www.christian-aid.org.uk/indepth/0204part/bolivia.pdf) Bolivia are too demanding (for example, Kruse 2003 8: and Molenaers & Robrecht 2002). CIDA. 2001, The Canadian International Development Chapter Kruse (2003), for example, claimed that the Agency's Experience with the PRSP Process in Bolivia , A international financial institutions and donor Report prepared by CIDA's Bolivia Country Program and Policy Branch, December 11 2001 (La Paz, CIDA) Countries: community have ignored the repression of Five repression and suspension of constitutional rights Coventry C. 1999, The Bolivia Poverty Reduction Strategy from that occurred in parallel to the National Paper: A preliminary analysis of the possibilities for civil Dialogue. He claims that government and society participation, A report for DFID. Report submitted to Studies donors were working together to keep problems LACAD (London, DFID) Case in the process away from public attention. Driscoll R, Jenks S with Christiansen K. 2004, An Overview of Short However, Kruse wrongly predicted that the NGO participation in PRSPs, (London, Overseas Development donors would accept the proposed PRS 2 in Institute) Paris in 2003 ­ in fact, they rejected it and agreed with Kruse that a more rigorous Eyben R. 2002, Contribution to `Crafting Bolivia's PRSP: 5 participatory process was required. points of view' in Finance and Development June 2002 Vol. 39, Number 2 Molenaers and Robrecht (2002), on the other hand, considered that the `participation as IMF. (ed) 2002, Crafting Bolivia's PRSP ­ five different points imposed by donors is at the same time too of view in Finance and Development June 2002 Vol. 39 90 ambitious to be workable and too vague to be Number 2. (Washington DC, IMF) Kruse T. 2003, The IMF and the Bolivian crisis ­ comment PRS-Watch 15 October 2003. Electronic newsletter received 23 October 2003 McGee R, Levene J and Hughes A. 2002, Assessing Participation in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers: A Desk- Based Synthesis of Experience in Sub-Saharan Africa, IDS Research Reports 52. (Brighton, Institute of Development Studies) Molenaers N and Robrecht, R. 2002, Strengthening Civil Society participation from the outside? Donor driven consultation and participatory processes in PRSPs ­ the Bolivian case, IDPM-UA Discussion Paper (Antwerp, IDPM) Moser C and Antezana O. 2001, Social Protection Policy and Practice in Bolivia: Its implications for Bolivia's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper ODI Working Paper 156. (London, Overseas Development Institute) Piron L-H and Evans. 2004, Politics and the PRSP Approach; synthesis paper, ODI Working Paper 238 (London, Overseas Multitudes Development Institute) of Support Republic of Bolivia. 2000 and 2001, Interim Poverty Reduction the Strategy Paper, prepared by the Bolivian Authorities (La Paz, Bolivian Authorities) With Bolivian Authorities, Staff of the IMF and IDA. 2001, Poverty 3 Reduction Strategy Paper Joint Staff Assessment, May 10 2001 (La Paz, IMF/IDA) Bolivia World Bank. 2001, Bolivia clinic report on Micro-Finance, 8: Financial Volatility and Poverty, 09 November 2001, cited on World Bank Website (http://www.worldbank.org) Spring 2004 Chapter Interview: David Booth, Overseas Development Institute, 2004 Countries: Five from Studies Case Short 91 Chapter 9 Cambodia Summary Although communication processes in the Cambodian PRS had been somewhat problematic, current initiatives are making steady improvements. With weak state capacity in the government overall, organising the PRS and integrating it with budgetary processes had been hampered by chaotic relations between the Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Finance. Split between parties in the coalition government, the Ministries have had a rather contradictory style of working and deep political divisions. Increasingly, however, the PRS has become widely recognised across government, and has become a shared reference point around which tentative cooperation now develops. There was little such recognition or discussion of the PRSP amongst the general population; the lack of translated drafts of PRS documents, and lack of discussion in the media was not well compensated for by the Participative Poverty Assessment or civil society consultations on the PRSP. Communications around the Annual Progress Report were a marked improvement on this, as Ministers have specifically invited CSOs to comment, and organised a series of open meetings on the Multitudes of implementation phase. CSOs worked together to coordinate their feedback, and plans were formed for a wide programme of communication materials Support the and activities targeted at the general population. Even amongst the donor With community communication is improving: after a long running dispute between the World Bank and ADB, there are now a number of jointly 3 organised initiatives for capacity building, working with both government and civil society groups. Cambodia 9: The PRSP process in Cambodia Communication challenges and Chapter approaches within government Cambodia passed an Interim PRSP in October Countries: 2000 and Governance Action Plan in February Context of government Five 2001. There was a Joint Staff Assessment (JSA) The Cambodian state as a whole has serious from in December 2000. The Governance Action capacity issues and is still recovering from the plan was redrafted as a Socio-economic conflict and instability of the Khmer Rouge era. Studies Development Plan, which was eventually The political system is underscored by informal Case worked up into a full PRSP in December 2002. patronage structures, which whilst Short simultaneously undermining state capacity to perform essential functions of economic and social management, confers the under-resourced state with what little supervision and implementation capacity it does have (Conway and Hughes 2004). For the last six months, the government has been disabled by political 92 deadlock. The 2003 elections left the CPP with the largest block vote but no overall majority - party having an overall majority, Ministries have other parties have refused to form a coalition, been divided between parties and entrenched throwing the government into paralysis. This political divisions have cemented chaotic inter- has drastically affected the investment climate, ministerial relations. and forced delays to the Cambodian application for WTO ascension(CSD 2003). Integrating PRS with the budget and The government have placed the reduction other poverty reduction initiatives of poverty and inequality as an integral part of Ministry of Finance engagement is particularly their post-conflict work towards political stability important for linking the PRS with the and national reconciliation. As such, they have budget, which has so far proved difficult. The placed a particular emphasis on participatory annual budget covers recurrent costs such as approaches in their official documents (Kingdom salaries and maintenance, while the PRS is of Cambodia 2002). Whilst the Cambodian focused on investments funded by donors. The government had met the requirements of the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) World Bank in seeking feedback and public intended to merge these interests, but it may involvement on the PRS, there have been be some time before this is sufficiently suggestions that there is still room for improve- established to be effective. The MTEF itself ment, and there is a wide perception that the is not well linked to the PRS (CSD 2003). PRS is a donor-driven process. As a whole, the PRS was less well debated Multitudes of in parliament than the preceeding Social and Co-ordinating government departments Economic Development Plan (SEDP). Support One of the main challenges in organising the the PRS process in Cambodia has been difficulties in Including parliament and officials across With the relationship between the Ministry of Planning government 3 and the Ministry of Finance. The PRS was Whilst NGOs have praised the PRS for formulated by an inter-ministerial group under including sector ministry officials in the the chair of the Ministry of Planning. Initially, the formulation process, others have characterised Ministry of Finance was not engaged with the involvement as `broad but shallow'. The PRS has Cambodia PRS process, partly because the `inter-ministerial' increasingly been used as a reference document 9: approach of the PRS was odds with their usual for government development activities, including way of budgeting. Line ministries such as the in public presentations by the Prime Minister, Chapter Ministry of Planning tend to have a more and at meetings with donors. participatory approach, whilst Finance adopts a Countries: more centralised approach. The government Five created a National Poverty Forum, built into the Communication challenges and from Ministry of Planning, to develop long-term approaches within civil society Studies expertise on consultation forums and public Case dialogue on the PRS (IDA and IMF 2003). The Literacy and translation issues Short Ministry of Finance has tended not to include the A Khmer version of the I-PRSP document was Ministry of Planning in its work, although it is not available until the eighth draft was already now showing more interest in the PRS process submitted to the Cambodian cabinet (Guttal and and is engaging with the inter-ministerial group Chaves 2001), and all major government to some extent, but they are not playing a central documents were initially prepared in English, role in the PRS (Conway and Hughes 2004). which obviously limited involvement to an Problems have been exacerbated in the last educated elite. There has been a general lack of 93 six months by the hung parliament: With no PRS discussion in wider media outlets. Although some English language newsletters (SIDA), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the offer a useful précis of key debates to an IMF and the World Bank. The ADB championed audience of development professionals (for the Socio-economic Development Plan which example, The Cambodian Development Review), preceded the World Bank-led PRS process. the government has not succeeded well in prompting debate on the PRS amongst the Donor coordination general public. Donor coordination is said to be in very early Levels of literacy are very low across the stages and as such the alignment and country, with only 37% of the country harmonisation agenda is not well developed functionally literate. Levels are lowest amongst (CSD 2003). The CAP process has been seen as poor and rural communities. This is clearly a a testing ground for how well donors can significant barrier to communication of the coordinate. There are several jointly funded PRSP, even if better distribution of documents initiatives currently under development, and better coverage in the press were possible. particularly between DFID, the ADB and the World Bank. These have co-financed the health Synthesising civil society contributions sector programme, support to decentralisation The Participative Poverty Assessment, run by the and budget management processes. DFID has ADB, was poorly structured and collated, failing provided commentary and drafting support for Multitudes to present poor people with policy options and the PRS and JSA. of simply gathering descriptions of their hardships Support (Conway 2004). NGO groups have claimed The PRS and the SEDPII: the World Bank the that consultations leading up to the PRS were and the Asian Development Bank With rushed and poorly documented, and the group There were serious tensions between the World of participants involved was seen as rather Bank and ADB over the relationship between 3 narrow. No civil society representatives were the PRS (supported by the Bank) and the included on the PRS drafting inter-ministerial SEDPII (supported by the ADB). The Second team. CSO contributions to the APR, however, Social and Economic Development Plan was a were much more successful. For this report, constitutional requirement, and the agreement Cambodia 9: CSOs came together to coordinate their was eventually reached that the full PRS would comments and communicate them directly to be based upon an improved version of the Chapter donors (IDA and IMF 2003). SEDPII.The Prime Minister has committed to merge the PRS and SEDP processes and these Countries: will be presented as a single document in 2005. Five Communication challenges and The PRS was intended as a less comprehensive, from approaches within the donor but better prioritised document for poverty community reduction (CSD 2002). The ADB is now Studies leading on the MTEF process and working Case Donor context jointly with the World Bank on public Short There are various donor groups in the Cambodian administration reform. context: the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the Danish International Building capacity for devolution Development Cooperation Agency (DANIDA), Commune Councils were elected in 2002 and the German Development Assistance Agency although they have been slow to grow into their (GTZ), the Norwegian Agency for Development responsibilities, UNDP-sponsored capacity Cooperation (NORAD), the Swedish building programmes have been very successful. 94 International Development Cooperation Agency Developed over a number of years, the programme has given sustained support to local consultation exercises and discussion, for capacity building, enabling the communes to example; the National Assembly did not attend assert themselves against assumptions from the the first public event on PRS, despite having Districts and Provinces that they should be been invited (IDA and IMF 2002). subordinate. The Commune Councils aimed to increase the representation or rural people in the Iterative improvements PRSP, and create local poverty reduction Whilst there may have been missed initiatives oriented to their needs. For donors, opportunities, donors have judged that the the challenge of not undermining country- Government have made a reasonable start in ownership here is particularly important, as the building a participative PRS process. The JSA principle problems for these Councils have come stated that the Cambodian Government is keen when other agencies working in the area crowd to build an open and consultative policy process, them out of their responsibilities. UNDP has and although its efforts fall short of the mark at coordinated its training programmes with similar present, they are a good basis for iterative schemes run by NGOs and other donors, to ensure improvements (IDA and IMF 2003). An ODI the councils have sufficient space to develop. evaluation considered the PRS consultation process as exemplary given the Cambodian context, and the involvement of trade unions, Communication challenges and for example, is truly a first. In the PRS Multitudes of approaches between government and formulation there was a failure to document civil society consultation exercises and keep full records of Support the contributions of CSOs (Acharya 2001). the Making the most of opportunities There were also problems with timing; the PRS With There has been some concern in the NGO consultation was undertaken in the run-up to 3 community that although the Cambodian national elections, when the public may not government has had good intentions to involve have been most receptive to discussions on civil society in the PRSP, these have not been poverty reduction (ANGOC 2002). carried through on a practical level, and The preparation of the APR showed marked Cambodia opportunities to rebuild trust between improvements in some of these difficulties. 9: Government and the public have been missed. Chhay Thon, the Minister for Planning wrote Overall, participatory initiatives have worked public letters to the NGO Forum, line ministries Chapter well in some areas where they were introduced and the heads of the PRS working groups slowly, but have failed in most cases where they appealing for input into the process. They were Countries: were rushed through without building up specifically encouraged to gather contributions Five partnerships with CSOs, and undertaken from CSOs, donor contacts, officials and other from without complementary top-down institutional stakeholders. The NGO forum organised a Studies reform (Conway and Hughes 2004). series of meetings on APR implementation, and Case Some agencies, like the NGO Forum, have fed into the process enthusiastically. Short been heavily involved in the PRS, synthesising material and making public commentary at Disseminating information various stages. However, their submissions to Although dissemination on information on the the I-PRSP drafting process were not formally PRSP was poor, H.E. Kim Saysamalen, the acknowledged by government and are said to Secretary General with overall responsibility for have had little impact on the content of these the PRS, made dissemination a priority for the documents. Time pressure and bureaucracy have implementation phase in 2002. He reported 95 also limited the comprehensiveness of that a grassroots manual, prepared in Khmer, was being distributed to the communes explaining legitimate within ministries and could be the the 20 core messages of the PRS in a simple basis of consensus amongst stakeholders. format. The government has also been working with NGOs to do `show and tell' mobile shows Jointly organised initiatives at the community level, to gather feedback of The Ministry of Planning organised a joint PRS the PRS. This was undertaken in 53 locations in workshop with the World Bank and IMF in 13 provinces, and included a video, poster and April 2001. The workshop was attended by calendar featuring core messages on the PRS. approximately 200 people, representing key stakeholders in the Cambodian PRSP process: central ministries, line ministries, local Communication challenges and government officials, local NGOs, international approaches between government and NGOs, and the donor community, and explicitly donors aimed at promoting dialogue and information sharing between different PRS actors (Kingdom Too much too soon? of Cambodia 2001). More recently, individuals As described earlier, post-conflict Cambodia at DFID have spotted opportunities for further has serious problems with state capacity, cooperative workshop events, particularly in and some have suggested that in pushing relation to participative monitoring practices. Multitudes for economic liberalisation, peace-building DFID responded to the lack of parliamentary of and the transition from one-party to multi- involvement in the PRS by initiating joint Support party elections simultaneously, donors have working with the World Bank and Government the asked for too much too soon. Consultants of Cambodia to re-run the successful PRS With have suggested that the international workshops run by NGOs in 2002. community take an incremental approach 3 to Cambodia (Conway and Hughes 2004). Communication challenges and Whilst the state has little formal power and approaches between donors and civil is heavily dependent on external aid, donors society can exacerbate these problems if they ask Cambodia 9: government to work beyond their capacity. Poorly timed comments Communication channels, and analytic NGO Forum noted that the World Bank Chapter capacity, are not sufficiently developed to adopted a `hands off ' attitude to the PRS until enable good judgements on this (Conway and the first raft of the PRS was produced. Countries: Hughes 2004). However, the network criticised the Bank for Five producing `50 pages of comments' on the draft from An open JSA process and for bringing in international consultants to Cambodia is said to be somewhat unique in prioritise the PRS and restructure the Studies having what was a relatively open JSA (CSD document according to World Bank's Case 2002). Consultation was informal but most comments.After the second draft, they sent Short donors and some NGOs were consulted as well another extensive set of comments, and it has as Ministers of Finance and Planning. DFID been suggested that these dramatic overhauls provided comments, while H.E Kim Saysamelen would not have been necessary had the Bank worked with USAID,World Health taken greater interest in the early stages. A Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF to develop more pre-emptive approach was evident in the a working group of monitoring and evaluation preceding Joint Staff Assessment, where experts. Kim Saysamelen explicitly prioritised informal consultations were made across 96 developing a set of indicators that were seen as stakeholder groups at an early stage of drafting. Key sources ANGOC. 2002, Results of Initial Discussions Among NGOs/ NGO Forum on Cambodia CSOs on the National Poverty Reduction Strategy of Cambodia Briefing Paper prepared by NGO Forum on Staff of IDA and IMF. 2003, Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Cambodia and presented by Nathaniel Don Marquez of the Joint Staff Assessment (Washington DC, IDA/IMF) Asian NGO Coalition (ANGOC) (Phnom Pehn, ANGOC) Staff of IDA and IMF. 2002, Assessment of the PRSP Acharya S. 2001, `Poverty Reduction in Cambodia: some Preparation Status Report (Washington DC, IDA/IMF) reflections' In Cambodia Development Review. Vol 5, Issue 2. April-June 2001 Staff of IDA and IMF. 2001, Assessment of the Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, (Washington DC, IDA/IMF) Cambodia NGO Forum. 2004, Working group issues Online Publication: Cambodia NGO Forum Interview: Tim Conway, The World Bank, Cambodia, 2004 Cambodia PRSP Workshop, April 25-26, 2001, (Phnom Penh, Cambodia) Chhit Kim Yeat H E. 2001 What government improvements are most needed to help the poor, Paper presented at Regional Conference on Poverty Reduction Strategies, Hanoi Vietnam 4-6 December 2001 Multitudes of Conway T. 2004, The process of pro-poor policy Support change in Asia: Synthesis of case studies in Cambodia, the Indonesia, Madhya Pradesh and Vietnam ODI and IDS for DFID Asia Regional Policy Unit (London, Overseas With Development Institute) 3 ConwayT and Hughes C. 2004, Understanding Pro-Poor Policy Change: The Policy Process ­ Cambodia (London, Overseas Development Institute) Cambodia CSD PRS Monitoring and Synthesis. 2002 and 2003, personal 9: communication with PRSPs Monitoring and Synthesis project at Overseas Development Institute Chapter Guttal S and Chaves J. 2001, Cambodia's Socio-Economic Countries: Development Plan (SEDPII) 2001 2005: Prospects for Civil Five Society intervention, (Bangkok, Focus on the Global South) from Kingdom of Cambodia. 2000, Interim Poverty Reduction Studies Strategy Paper, (Phnom Pehn, Cambodia) Case Kingdom of Cambodia. 2001, PRSP Preparation Status Report Short (Phnom Pehn, Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning) Kingdom of Cambodia. 2002, National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2003--2005, Cambodia (Phnom Pehn, Kingdom of Cambodia, Council for Social Development) NGO Forum on Cambodia. 2004, NGO Statement to the 2001 Consultative Group Meeting on Cambodia Online Publication: 97 Chapter 10 Kyrgyz Republic Summary In the circumstances, communication in the Kyrgyz PRSP has worked well and offered good examples of what can be done to work around seemingly entrenched problems. From the inception of the initiative, the government formed a working group on the PRS which included numerous and varied civil society representatives. The PRS prompted concerted efforts to improve links between ministries and a process of strengthening institutional capabilities; a process which has gone fairly smoothly with few surprises as the implementation phase has progressed. In this post-soviet republic, the general population have tended to be wary of government and officials, and this has dampened civil society participation in the PRS. Working around this problem, an independently commissioned participative poverty assessment did manage to gather very candid views from poor people by capitalising on the good communication links between NGOs and ordinary citizens. Facilitating feedback on implementation and monitoring is more challenging, as the dissemination of information is hampered by poor communication infrastructure, and although online versions of documents Multitudes of have been produced in English and Russian these are only available to less than 2% of the population. Whilst donor cooperation has been patchy, recent Support the collaborations have focused on supporting CSO involvement in the PRSP With drafting process, and in this context, donors are well placed to help bridge the civil society and governmental sectors. 3 The PRSP process in Kyrgyz Republic submitted to the IMF and World Bank in Republic December 2002. The implementation phase has The PRSP in the Kyrgyz Republic is called the been now been ongoing for a year and a half, and Kyrgyz National Poverty Reduction Strategy (NPRS). is said to be running relatively smoothly. 10: This was completed in 2003 and was built on the back on the Comprehensive Development Chapter Framework, which was designed with an Communication challenges and approach similar to the ideal PRSP process: it approaches within government Countries: had a strong emphasis on the importance of Five addressing development in a holistic way, building Context of government from a country-led initiative and was very inclusive of The Kyrgyz Government established a new Studies CSOs. The preparation of the NPRS started in Governmental Commission on NPRS to take Case 2000 in parallel to the CDS, and both the CDF responsibility for managing the PRS process. The Short and the Interim NPRS (I-NPRS) were commission reported to the Government via the completed almost simultaneously in May 2001. In Prime Minister and was made up of the ministers, June 2001, the I-NPRS was presented to the IMF heads of government departments, and regional and the World Bank; it underpinned their governors. It was located in the Ministry of agreement of concessional lending arrangements. Finance, which had overarching responsible for The full NPRS, completed in August 2002, was coordinating the process. Thirty new 98 discussed by the consultation committee and interdepartmental working groups were also Box 9 Inputs into the Kyrgyz NPRS process March 2000: meeting to present information on the PRSP initiative and participation March 27­April 11 2000: Regional seminars; 800 copies of the NPRS/CDF issues: government officials, the public and donors attending distributed to participants. April 2000: the I-PRSP preparation process begins: initiative groups established May 2000: Draft CDF is published for discussion. Results of seminars are published within interdepartmental working group. online, with home pages written by each relevant stakeholder group. July 1999­Dec 2000: Five international seminars to draft CDF: total attendees are Feb 2001: Resource book created collating all proposals by the general population to 1214 representatives of various structures and regions of the country, of which the improve the NPRS. Specialists within the Ministry of Finance assess these proposals Government constituted 44 %, NGOs - 13 %, political parties - 1%, private sector - and adjust the NPRS appropriately. 8%, mass media - 1%, scientific institutions - 4%, international organisations - 29%. July 1999­Dec 2000: NGOs in all regions held 30 round table discussions: over 500 Feb 2001: 45 roundtable meetings at local and regional levels, with 766 people representatives from the private sector and NGOs. During round tables discussions of whom 515 were from NGOS. 850 copies of the NPRS and 850 copies of the CDF representatives of NGOs made more than 700 proposals and recommendations on 17 were disseminated. directions of the CDF. Proposals were submitted to three national seminars and handed onto the developers of CDF and NPRS. Source: Kyrgyzstan Development Gateway 2004 established, and these were much more pledged to distribute budget documents more heterogeneous in nature, made up from specialists widely, and to reform the judicial system in the Ministry of Finance and other ministries, through a new commission which will representatives of science, culture, business, NGOs, coordinate the drafting of laws and ensure better and regional representatives with specific expertise consistency across legislation. in the NPRS. They were responsible for covering different sectors and issues in the drafting process (CDF and NPRS 2002). The CDF was managed Communication challenges and separately by the Coordination Council, headed approaches within civil society by the Prime Minister (Kyrgyzstan Development Gateway 2004). The Kyrgyz government has Building trust using networks and been relatively stable, and there have been no traditional models of cooperation surprises as the implementation phase of the PRS Many Kyrgyz civil society groups had a generally has progressed. wary and suspicious attitude to the PRS. The CDF consultation process preceding the PRS was Strengthening governance through perceived as inadequate, and this combined with a communication long-held distrust of government agencies. Many The PRS process has prompted the Kyrgyz civil society representatives did not feel government to make a concerted effort to committed to implementing the strategy and, at Multitudes of improve the links between different ministries. the level of local communities, the document was It is the first time that ministries such as practically unknown (Gerster 2002). Support transport have linked their work to poverty It was in this context that the PPA was the reduction, for example. launched between March and May 1999. In a With The Kyrgyz Government has acknowledged context where officials, police and those working 3 that economic growth alone will not be sufficient for the government are often suspected of to lead to poverty reduction and has made a corruption, a number of NGO affiliates were commitment to improving governance to ensure taken on to work with a team of 15 Kyrgyz that economic improvements will translate into researchers to help gather the contributions of Republic alleviating poverty.The government has begun a poor people to the NPRS. Interviews and focus process of strengthening institutional capabilities groups were held in local languages with 1,100 Kyrgyz 10: addressing four areas; reforming public people, from nine sites in the poorest regions of administration, promoting decentralisation, Kyrgyzstan, from around 100 people in each Chapter creating transparency of public finance manage- community. The final published study cited ment and improving corporate governance. communication issues as a central aspect of Countries: Amongst other measures (such as improving Kyrgyz poverty: there was a lack of trust in Five wages for civil servants and reducing regional and national government institutions and from bureaucracy) the principle reforms are around a sense that only some members of civil society communication issues. Central government has had full access to resources and officials; many Studies pledged to improve public consultation and participants said that only those with personal Case accountability. A broad commitment was also relationships had this privilege. Informants said Short made to improving the involvement of civil that the hierarchical structure of administrative society, feedback between different the state and institutions meant they had little idea how to the public and creating a transparent access information, and were unaware of the environment, although it is not apparent how mechanisms they could use to make state this is being translated into a practical institutions attend to their needs. Instead of 99 programme of reform. The government also turning to official agencies, most people took their problems to community groups for support; donors have tried to make these more formalised both traditional ashar schemes and NGOs were (Gerster 2002). Others have criticised the World seen as a more trusted and reliable source of help. Bank and IMF for not seizing the opportunity The PPA was a fairly comprehensive document of the PRS to revisit the rather orthodox project and capitalised on good communication between assistance of many donor groups in Kyrgyzstan; NGOs and civil society to overcome the problem suggesting that donor impact as a whole could of poor communication channels between civil have been more effective if communication society and government. within the community had been closer. Their involvement in the PRS has differed A range of materials for dissemination considerably: The DIALOGUE network has consistently produced summaries of key PRS documents and translated Russian and English drafts through its Communication challenges and Development Network project. This has been approaches between government and developed in partnership with government, champ- civil society ioned by Emil Alymkulov. Alymkulov has been active in presenting simplified versions of the PRS Momentum from the CDF process process to various civil society groups, and has The pre-cursor to the PRSP ­ the Multitudes made powerpoint presentations available online. Comprehensive Development Framework - had of been very participatory and inclusive, but because Support it was consensus-oriented, the CDF was said by the Communication challenges and many to be a badly prioritised document (Gerster With approaches within the donor 2002). The discussion process on NPRS was community therefore more sharply focused, with responses to 3 drafts taking a more structured format. This Donor context produced very mixed results ­ and opinions Kyrgyzstan's largest donors are the Asian ranged from the `Government dominating the Republic Development Bank (providing assistance on roads, process' to `the Government is no longer running agriculture, education, health and corporate the show' (DIALOG 2001). There are a Kyrgyz governance) and the World Bank (working on substantial number of meetings, seminars and 10: irrigation, health, and micro-credit).As well as the workshops documented, and the input of these US, the Swiss and German governments support contributors appears to have been followed-up Chapter important land reform activities, and the Dutch and made public (CDF-NPRS newsletter 2002). promote legal cooperation in judicial reform.The Overall, the PRSP process is considered to be Countries: WHO and the German, British, and Japanese the CDF made operational and has benefited Five Governments support health activities while from some of the momentum already built-up from UNDP, UNHCR, OSCE, INTRAC and the from the initiative: the government has Studies Soros Foundation all support NGOs with small distributed hundreds of copies of the PRSP to Case grants. UNHCR, UNAID, the Soros Foundation stakeholders for comment, convened 23 working Short and the EU co-fund civil society support centres. groups, and held over 50 events with civil society. The public website: http://cdf.gov.kg/en/, Donor coordination originally set up for the CDF, was converted to Donor coordination has reportedly been patchy. include the PRS and brings together information Some consultants suggest that there are ad hoc on the two initiatives in one place. The CDF has coalitions of cooperation amongst a rather small carved out a niche as a longer-term complement 100 donor community, and that recently bilateral to the PRS process. Working around a poor dissemination Box 10 Donor involvement in the Kyrgyz PRS capacity Department for International Development (DFID): The DFID Communication in the Kyrgyz Republic is corporate strategy requires special attention to PRSPs and deals often made difficult by the mountainous with them as a priority concern. There are, however, no specific instructions from headquarters on how to become involved in landscape, which covers 90% of the region and the process as DFID wants to make sure that the NPRS is country has obstructed the laying of telephone networks, driven and owned. DFID provided unfocused support to the Internet and the distribution of newspapers. It process in Kyrgyzstan in the form of a consultant for 45 days. is said to have hampered the dissemination of DFID's operational priorities in the Kyrgyz Republic are health, rural environment and governance ­ all three areas are NPRS documents, although those who attended considered to be compatible with the NPRS so no changes workshops and networking events had good of the DFID programme are envisaged. access to information (Dialogue Network 2003). United States Agency for International Development (USAID): There are no national television broadcasters in There are no directives from headquarters on how to deal with Kyrgyzstan, and press outlets have distribution PRSPs. USAID provided extensive comments on the October draft version. The adjustment of USAID priorities due to the NPRS will problems and are generally poorly developed. be considered as many USAID supported programmes lie in NPRS This may explain an almost total lack of media priority areas and are expected to be affected. coverage in-country. German Technical Cooperation (GTZ): GTZ activities are Documents were translated into Russian and strongly focused on economic reform and private sector English at various stages in the drafting ­ development. It has a Resident Representative in the country but GTZ is an implementing agency and not a policymaking body. In although they were not produced in summary or Multitudes its ongoing working contacts related to the priority areas some of basic form in Kyrgyz or Dungan, which are the of its experiences have been transmitted to Government. principle languages of the general population. Beyond the current contacts GTZ abstained from participating Support in the NPRS process. The government did however produce regular the monthly newsletters in English which detail Norway: Norway was hardly present in the Kyrgyz context, With supported through its Norwegian trust fund at the World Bank meetings, events and developments in the PRS the World Bank Report `Kyrgyz Republic. Enhancing Pro-poor 3 and CDF processes.These have been made Growth'. The explicit goal of this report was to assist the Kyrgyz publicly available and have been scrutinised by authorities in designing their NPRS. various independent groups internationally United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): For the (Alymkulov 2001, Gerster 2002). These list the UNDP, PRSPs are a corporate priority in view of proactive Republic policymaking. The UNDP focuses its support on its human communication activities and emerging actions development concerns, being convinced that these are and are available online and across various Kyrgyz preconditions for any other achievements. In the Kyrgyz Republic, 10: distribution lists. Needless to say, with less that the UNDP had been actively involved in the CDF, the I-NPRS as well as recently in the NPRS, in close cooperation with the 2% of the general population online, the leading office of the Government. The UNDP is very satisfied with Chapter effectiveness of this should not be overstated. the effectiveness of its interventions. In particular, it claims that, due to its activities, the inequality issue and gender aspects are Countries: now part of the draft. In the NPRS process, UNDP activities included organising workshops and seminars, including one on Five Communication challenges and gender for members of working groups; providing national and from approaches between government and international consultants as technical support; preparing its own donors assessment of the NPRS draft; providing a research report to Studies support the working group tasked with developing a Case macroeconomic framework for the PRS; and preparing a field Linking the PRS to existing plans study on Voices of the Poor. Short Both the PRS process and the preceding CDF have to some extent been donor-driven processes, yet some have suggested that the donor community failed to encourage the articulation of clear links between the two processes.This 101 created some confusion on the government side. Communication challenges and Gerster R and Mogilevsky R. 2002, Kyrgyz Republic: the approaches between donors and civil involvement of Swiss cooperation in the development of the society national poverty reduction strategy, Online Publication: Gerster Consulting Changing perceptions IDA and IMF Staff. 2001, National Strategy for Poverty Whilst a variety of consultation activities Reduction Preparation Status Report Joint Staff Assessment, including government, donors and civil society November 14 2001 (Washington DC, IDA/IMF) have been put in place, there have been consistent Newsletter (English version): CDF and NPRS, 15-31 reports that the sense of ownership in-country is December 2002, No. 30, Online Publication: CDF and NPRS weak, and the NPRS as a whole is seen as a government­donor matter. When donors Newsletter (English version): CDF and NPRS, 16-31January became more interested in the PRSP, making 2002 No. 2, Online Publication: CDF and NPRS significant inputs into the process, they were also at risk of crowding out the civil society The Krygyz Republic. 2003, The National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2003-2005: Expanding the Nations Potential contributions that were a strength of the CDF (Bishkek: Kyrgyz Authorities) process (IDA and IMF 2001). Donors have taken some steps to try to counter this. For example, The Kyrgyz Republic. 2001, Interim National Strategy for the Swiss Development Cooperation has funded Poverty Reduction, 2001-2003, Prepared by the Kyrgyz Multitudes support for the civil society involvement in the authorities, June 13 2001 (Bishkek: Kyrgyz Authorities) of drafting process. This grant led to a consultation The Kyrgyz Republic. 2001, Kyrgyz Republic Interim National Support group meeting with a large platform for Strategy for Poverty Reduction Progress Report, Online the exchanging views on the NPRS (Gerster 2002). Publication: The Kyrgyz Authorities With Such steps form part of the long-term project of strengthening communication between donors 3 and civil society groups. Websites Kyrgyzstan Development Gateway http://eng.gateway.kg/prsp_structure Kyrgyzstan Development Gateway Republic Key Sources http://eng.gateway.kg/prsp_partic The CDF and PRSP website: http://cdf.gov.kg/en/ Kyrgyz Alymkulov E. 2001, Human Development Concepts as a basis 10: Interview: Roman Mogilevsky, Executive Director, for poverty reduction, Online Publication: Dialog Network CASE Kyrgyzstan Chapter Interview: Anonymous, Government of Kyrgyzstan Dialog Network. 2003, Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2001- 2003 period: Dialog on Poverty Reduction Strategy (Draft), Countries: Online publication: Dialog Network Five Dialog Network. 2001, Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2001- from 2003 period : Dialog on Poverty Reduction Strategy, Online Studies Publication : Dialog Network Case Engagement in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) Short Process: personal communication with PRSPs Monitoring and Synthesis project in Overseas Development Institute. German T, Gerster R, Randal J, Zimmerman S. 2002, Evaluation of SDC's Bilateral Engagement in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), Online Publication: Gerster Consulting Gerster R. 2004, Budget Support for Decentralisation in the 102 Kyrgyz Republic, Online Publication: Gerster Consulting Chapter 11 Pakistan Summary Communication in the Pakistani PRS has been highly problematic; marred by poor institutional links and a lack of trust between government, donors and civil society groups. Responsibility for the process has been confused both between the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Planning, and between provincial and federal levels. With relations becoming increasingly tense and politicised, the drafting process has moved slowly and unevenly across different regions, and inputs to the PRS have become correspondingly unrepresentative across ethnic groups. Some optimism may emerge from the Punjab region, where responsibility for the process has been placed within the Ministry of Planning, not the Ministry of Finance, and where political agendas are increasingly aligning around the PRS. In the midst of all these problems, civil society organisations united to reject the PRS process as a whole, arguing that the participation process had been woefully inadequate. At this stage of breakdown, civil society groups succeeded in involving donors, who shared their concerns and put the brakes on the process until the issue was properly tackled. Their role as Multitudes brokers though has been compromised by repeated suggestions that donor of agendas are at odds with interests of the long-term interests of Pakistan Support itself, and a wide perception amongst both civil society representatives and the government officials that the PRS is a donor-driven process. With 3 The PRSP process in Pakistan Communication challenges and approaches within government Pakistan Pakistan completed an Interim PRSP (I-PRSP) 11: in November 2001 and a full PRSP in April Context of Government 2003. The Joint Staff Assessment of the I-PRSP When the PRSP process began in 1999, Chapter in January 2003 approved concessional lending responsibility for the strategy was given to the based on the progress that had been evidenced Poverty Alleviation Department within the Countries: by the I-PRSP initiative. There have been some Federal Planning Commission of the Five delays to Pakistan's PRS due to the hung Government Pakistan. A Centre for Research from parliament that resulted after the 2003 elections. on Poverty Reduction and Income Distribution Studies The World Bank and IMF decided to delay the was also established at the Planning Commission, Case initiative until national and local Government using financial assistance from the World Bank Short had been secured, so that the PRS would have a and UNDP. The Pakistani PRSP had a strong chance to develop better ownership in-country regional emphasis and the each province was (IMF and IDA 2003). The full PRS was finally asked to develop a PRSP document. Both the published in December 2003 and there was a national and provincial PRS processes were JSA in February 2004. Alongside the delayed by the hung parliament in 2003. development of a National PRS, sub-national and federal PRS strategies have been worked 103 out. These have been in place since July 2003. Box 11 Participatory activities in the Pakistani PRSP process 10 district workshops (out of 108 districts of Pakistan) Consultation between federal and provincial governments led organised and facilitated by government officials. Government by the Federal Finance Minister to persuade provincial officials participated. governments to prepare their own provincial PRSPs as the primary framework for future development planning. Provincial 4 provincial workshops (none in Northern Areas and Azad State governments are also expected to engage their respective of Jammu and Kashmir or Federally Administered Tribal Areas) district governments in preparation of provincial PRSPs. jointly organised by Planning Commission and ADB. Government and selected civil society representatives participated. 1 national workshop where draft I-PRSP was presented by Planning Commission. Comments were sought during the plenary session. Government, multi- and bi-lateral donors, and selected civil society organisations participated. Confusion of responsibilities at provincial responsibility for the Federal Health Ministry, and federal levels Welfare Ministry, and central Ministries for Although the regions were supposed to be Finance and Planning, fewer than half a dozen people had even heard of the PRSP19. A major 19 Tim Williamson, personal supported by district governments, many communication 3 May 2004. provincial and federal government problem was that whilst the PRSP was written representatives have struggled to develop a good by the Department of Finance, the Department working relationship (Akhtar 2002). It was of Planning is responsible for planning processes, planned that the federal PRSP Secretariat would and is in a much stronger position to integrate provide the Provincial Governments with a the PRS with long-term country planning tentative structure for the PRS and that these documents. For this reason, whilst the PRS would be drafted through a process of draws on both the former Social Action Plan, partnership.The experience across the provinces and the Planning Commission's Poverty has been variable, but for many the drafting Reduction Programme 2001-2004, and process has moved slowly. The location of references the Debt Management Strategy, the ownership of the PRS process at provincial level draft PRS does not appear to refer to the has been unclear and efforts to create sharper Planning Commission's TenYear Plan. distinctions have been hampered by complex political affiliations. Provinces and regions in Developing government ownership Multitudes Pakistan correspond to ethnic and religious Whilst there are plans to place the PRS before of groupings and establishing leadership of the Parliament with the budget, there has been a lack Support PRSP process has become a deeply politicised of parliamentary involvement in the drafting the issue. On a practical level, links between federal process leading some CSOs to suggest this process With and provincial levels have been poor; for is simply a `rubber stamp'. However, there is example, hampering efforts by the Federal increasing optimism that greater ownership can 3 Bureau of Statistics to use the Core Welfare be developed at a provincial level. In Punjab, for Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ) to generate example, responsibility for the PRS has been district level service delivery information. placed by the Planning Development Department Pakistan As well as affecting formulation, problems (not the Finance as in the National strategy). As 11: with coordinating different tiers of government Punjab has become an increasingly coherent and have also affected the implementation process. stable political state, the PRS has become well Chapter A lack of clarity on the roles and responsibilities aligned to the political agendas of both the of federal, provincial and district was judged in dominant party and heads of local government. Countries: the JSA to be the critical component limiting In this context, it has become an effective Five the decentralisation process, and there have technical tool for devolved government. from been suggestions that a single institution needs to be charged with identifying needs and Studies coordinating support. Communication challenges and Case approaches within civil society Short Integrating government departments and initiatives A united CSO community Within government, a limited number of In December 2002, Pakistani CSOs came officials have been involved in the PRS directly, together to formally reject the way that the and general awareness of the initiative is low. PRSP was being developed by the Pakistani Training programmes are currently working to Government. They wrote a letter to the PRSP address this problem, but facilitators report that Secretariat in the Ministry of Finance, contesting 104 in sessions involving those with budget the I-PRSP claim that extensive consultation processes had taken place in the PRS US presence in Afghanistan, other donors also formulation stages, arguing that any existing have `cash to offload' for political reasons ­ as participation was wholly inadequate, and that part of positioning themselves regarding General the content of the PRSP itself was too heavily Pervez Musharraf and the war against terror 20. 20 Tim Williamson, personal influenced by IFI agendas. The letter was These factors may unite donors in action (ie. in communication 3 May 2004. coordinated by the Sustainable Development their need to give aid and concessional lending), Policy Institute (SDPI), Islamabad, and signed by but they also create an incentive to produce a 36 civil society groups (SDPI 2002). The letter PRS as soon as possible, rather than address was circulated to the highest levels of long-standing problems for poverty reduction. government as well as the donor community, It has been suggested that whilst some World including the World Bank,ADB, UN and IMF. Bank projects may have been earmarked as PRS-related, they would in fact have taken place An independent Participative Poverty without the PRS, and that the various agendas Assessment of donors have obstructed rigorous dialogue on The National Poverty Assessment (NPA), the most effective assistance for Pakistan. published in 2003, used data from community consultations in 51 sites around the country, and highlighted the sensitivity of relations between Communication challenges and different regional and ethnic groups. It suggested approaches between government and Multitudes of that responses to previous poverty initiatives have civil society been heavily inflected by ethnic identities, Support religion and other micro-political factors (PPA Breakdown in dialogue the 2003). This was conducted by the Rural Support Consultation processes were in full flow at a With Programme Network, not directly under the regional level when they were interrupted by the 3 auspices of the PRS, but was fed into the process hung Pakistani parliament. Once resumed, most later. Whilst this independent assessment captured provinces have reportedly engaged in multiple the interaction of regional, ethnic and political workshops and seminars, although the Sikh and tensions very well, it did not undertake detailed Balochistan districts in the North-West are far Pakistan capacity mapping of the civil society sector. outstripping the Punjab areas. As was mentioned 11: Consequently, whilst capacity building within the earlier, Pakistani CSOs united to formally reject public sector was build into the PRS at federal, both the PRS process and its content. The Chapter provincial and district levels, the capacities within consultation process has been criticised for not civil society were not well considered. fully including all stakeholders, particularly civil Countries: society actors and marginalised groups. It has Five been argued that there has been token represent- from Communication challenges and ation of some major groups, whilst other major Studies approaches within the donor public sector actors are completely missing; for Case community example; the PRSP Implementation Committee Short not only has no civil society representation but is The influence of donor agendas devoid of key ministries such as water and power, Some have suggested that members of the donor agriculture, petroleum and natural resources, and community have come to Pakistan with their the environment (SDPI 2002). own agendas and that these have been in conflict with the long-term interests of the Lack of media debate country. Whilst USAID has an interest in Although the outrage felt by civil society groups 105 military aid and securing cooperation for the over the PRSP process does not appear to have been translated into a major media debate, it has service and the movement of personnel. It has spawned some international comment and been suggested that donors should try to build discussion (Akhtar 2002). After the breakdown strong relationships with departments and teams in communication between CSOs and within government, not just with individuals, so government, grassroots organisations have not their communication can be more consistent been included in monitoring mechanisms, and resist these changes. which have been criticised as fragmented. With little consistency on procedures and expenditure, it is difficult to compare across the provinces, Communication challenges and and in this the government has lost an approaches between donors and civil opportunity to present the PRS to the media as society a publicly accountable initiative. Overall, the lack of media coverage is said to be symptomatic Awareness of capacity issues of a rather lethargic public, who are not Donors have been aware of problems both with proactive in the political arena. Some suggest ethnic conflict and lack of media capacity that this trend is linked to a political system hampering civil society involvement with the based on patronage, which has historically linked PRS. Redressing the ethnic balance of political involvement with self interest, kinship consultations was an expressed priority of Multitudes and religious ties, rather than public benefits. donors in the recent JSA. In previous JSAs, of donors have expressed concern that Support opportunities for broad based public discussion, the Communication challenges and through the media and other forums have been With approaches between government and missed (IMF and IDA 2003). donors 3 Lack of trust v honest broker Capacity building assistance The SDPI and its alliance of CSOs are roundly The World Bank and UNDP provided financial suspicious of IFIs and their neo-liberal agenda, Pakistan assistance for the establishment of the Centre for which is seen as undermining democratic 11: Research on Poverty Reduction and Income institutions in Pakistan (SDPI 2002). They have Distribution, housed at the Planning Commission. expressed concern that the IFIs support the Chapter military government and that their own agenda Developing ownership in providing assistance is in conflict with the Countries: Some government officials clearly see the PRSP long-term goals of poverty reduction in Pakistan. Five as a donor document; as a means to gain funding On the other hand, the broader donor from at a federal level, before ownership develops at a community was able to play the role of honest provincial level. Recently the Finance Secretary broker between CSOs and government at a Studies has emphasised the importance of PRS in a moment in the PRSP process when Case number of speeches and presentations, and this communication had broken down. Donors Short has reportedly given government ownership of were able to advocate for a better participatory PRS a boost in the minds of central Ministry process, a role which underscores the potential staff. There has been some confusion over the for alliance building between this community role of donors however; some Federal level staff and Pakistan's civil society. reportedly believed that DFID were going to be responsible for instituting the Medium Term Expenditure Framework.21 These confusions 21 Tim Williamson, personal 106 communication 3 May 2004. have been exacerbated by cuts in the civil Key sources Akhtar A S. 2002, PRSP: goals may not be achieved in Dawn Group of Newspapers, 08 April 2002 Balochistan Post. 2001 `Balochistan given highest allocation in 10-year plan', in Balochistan Post 08 September 2001 Finance Minister. 2004, Speech of the Finance Minister for the Pakistan Development Forum, Online Publication: Pakistan Development Forum Government of Pakistan. 2003, Preparation of Full PRSP ­ Progress Report, Islamabad: Government of Pakistan Finance Division, Policy Wing (PRSP Secretariat) Government of Pakistan. 2001, Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (I-PRSP), Islamabad: Policy Wing, Finance Division and Poverty Reduction Cell, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan IMF. 2003, Pakistan 4th Review under PGMF (Washington, Multitudes of International Monetary Fund) Support Mallick A A. 2000, Social Action Programme: Pakistan ­ A the Review of Progress Presented at South Asia Regional Poverty With and Evaluation Workshop, New Delhi, June 8-10 2000 ODI. 2002, Support to the Government of Pakistan in 3 developing a monitoring framework for the I-PRSP, Final Report 23 August 2002 (London, Overseas Development Institute) Pakistan 11: Pakistan Development Forum. 2001, Pakistan's reform programme: progress and prospects report March 2001 Online Publication: World Bank Website www.worldbank.org Chapter Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) Project. 2003, Countries: Pakistan Participatory Poverty Assessment, July 2003 Five (Islamabad, PPA Project) from SDPI and Civil Society Alliance. 2002, Letter to government Studies 20 December 2002 Staff of IMF and IDA. 2001, Interim Poverty Reduction Case Strategy Paper ­ Joint Staff Assessment (Washington DC, Short IMF/IDA) Staff of the IMF and IDA. 2003, Joint staff assessment of Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Preparation Status Report (Washington DC, IMF/IDA) Interview : Tim Williamson, ODI Associate 107 Chapter 12 Rwanda Summary Several innovative and constructive approaches to communication were adopted in the Rwandan PRS process, with varying degrees of success. The government has made clear efforts to develop dialogue with the civil society sector, which remains weak and is viewed with some scepticism a decade after the genocide. The Participatory Poverty Assessment, for example, borrowed traditional Ubudehe methods of mutual assistance to fund poverty reduction projects which were planned, implemented and monitored at a village level. This was widely regarded as successful, and although the PPA itself was published too late to feed directly into the PRS, it has since become a core reference document on poverty in Rwanda around which discussion amongst the donor community has turned. This document was a rare opportunity to bridge relations between civil society and government, and within the donor community. The Ubudehe techniques were popular and effective amongst the general public, and a point of pride for government officials. Although communication between government, donors and civil society has typically been ad hoc and marred by clashes of Multitudes of expectations, opportunities present themselves for the future in three main areas: First, the linguistic homogeneity within Rwanda could make radio a Support the powerful instrument for informing the public on PRSPs. Second, the PPA has With established a well informed and extensive network of civil society groups at a community level which could act as champions for further communication 3 approaches. Finally, the infrastructure for donor coordination has been improved, enabling the donor community to communicate their concerns, for example about the participatory process, to government more effectively. Rwanda 12: The PRSP process in Rwanda Communication challenges and Chapter approaches within government The PRS process was officially started in Countries: Rwanda in June 2000 with the production of a Context of government Five zero draft and announcement of the process by The Rwandan PRSP is being implemented at a from the President in Parliament. Following a time when the scars of recent history are still fresh. Studies consultation process between various Ministries, The political regime is very authoritarian yet donor agencies and CSOs (mainly at national overall it seems to be offering competent govern- Case level with some provincial meetings), the ance and using aid successfully. Responsibility for Short Interim PRSP (I-PRSP) was finalised in coordinating the PRSP was given to the National November 2000, and endorsed as a suitable Poverty Reduction Programme, which was set up document for assistance in a Joint Staff in the Ministry of Finance and Planning in 2000. Assessment in December. A full PRSP Its role was to synthesise the contributions of document was completed in November 2001. different sector ministries and civil society, and The implementation phase is now in full swing. ensure that two particular sets of issues; decentralisation and traditional Rwandan culture, 108 were fully incorporated to the PRSP process. Box 12 Calendar of key policy documents 1999 Policy Framework Paper 2001 National Environmental Action Plan 1999 Medium Term Expenditure Framework Development Plan 2001 Agricultural Strategy 1999 April National Gender Policy 2001 March National 5-Year Plan of Action for UNLDC-III 2000 Vision 2020 2001 November PRSP 2000 September 2001-2003 Budget Framework Paper 2002 National Constitution (drafted by National Constitutional Commission, adopted by referendum) 2000 November Interim -Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (I-PRSP) (From Mutebi, Stone and Thin, 2001) Decentralisation turnover of staff. Most NGOs have few resources, It was planned that during implementation the and are not online. As a whole, civil society role of local agencies would expand to gradually groups did not have the capacity to challenge edge out sector ministries from leading the government strategies in the formulation stage, initiative. This was tied into initiatives developed proposing few alternatives and generally failing to under the PPA, which we will come to later. engage with analysis at a policy level. In general, The local government ministry implemented a their contributions focused on short-term decentralisation programme at prefecture and solutions and immediate service problems. This community level with the aid of village has led to numerous calls for work to address their communities who were in the process of capacity building needs (Bugingo and Painter developing their own development strategies. 2002, Renard & Molenaers 2003). Disseminating information Communication challenges and There have been some problems with lack of approaches within civil society media outlets, which has hampered communication and public discussion of the Context PRSP. Newspapers have been relied upon to A decade after the genocide, organised civil spread information to the general public, but society remains weak and distrust prevails within they are too expensive for many citizens and Multitudes of many communities. This is a particular problem levels of literacy are low in any case. Radio has in rural areas, and religious groups and small also been heavily relied upon, and although it is Support local NGOs are often isolated and poorly available to only around 32% of Rwanda's the engaged with national policy processes. Many population, the medium does have a strong With international NGOs are still focused on post- history of radio soap-operas. These not only 3 emergency rehabilitation projects (Booth 2003). address social issues, but also political debates However, Rwandan civil society does have a and policy initiatives. They have been seized history of organising groups of people to address upon as an opportunity to engage the wider community problems: population in the PRS process, by telling stories Rwanda · Umuganda, work on community projects. which demonstrate the link between policy 12: · Ubudehe, the tradition of mutual assistance processes and the lives of real people22. In 22 Karin Christiansen, personal Chapter · Gacaca, the communal resolution of disputes. addition to this,Trocaire have provided clear and communication, 2 April 2004 This has been adapted to deal with the detailed monthly updates on PRS activities, Countries: legacy of genocide cases circulated widely amongst NGO groups and Five · Umusanzu, support for the needy and work international development professionals. The from towards a common goal linguistic homogeneity of Rwanda presents a great opportunity for dissemination activities to Studies The need to build capacity reach a wide variety of the general population. Case Some commentators have suggested that as a Short whole, civil society organisations have struggled to make the most of the opportunities afforded them Communication challenges in the PRS (Trocaire 2003). After a history of and approaches within the donor centralised, authoriatian governance, few community Rwandan citizens feel they have a right to participate in public decision-making. CSOs have Coordinated donor activities a few competent professionals, but they are over- Despite successive efforts, there have been 109 burdened with heavy schedules and there is a high ongoing difficulties in coordinating activities Box 13 PRSP activities timetable between donor agencies. A donor conference in 2001 drew up a number of guidelines for shared May­Nov 2000: Preparation of Interim PRSP working (UNDP 2001) and floated several ideas, May­June 2000: Preparation of first draft of I-PRSP such establishing lead agencies and lead June 2000: Establishment of National Programme for Poverty Reduction ministries, sector by sector to ease relations June 2000: Donor discussions on preparatory process for I-PRSP between donors and between donors and July 2000: Consultation with Préfectures government. Three years on, these appear to July­ Aug 2000: Request for donor comments on working draft have somewhat fallen by the wayside. Cooperative working has been eased by the Aug 2000: Preparation of participation action plan emergence of key reference points on which Aug 2000: Distribution of first draft of I-PRSP consensus has centred, notably the National Sept 2000: Civil society consultations on working draft Poverty Assessment. This was conducted in Sept 2000: Sectoral ministry consultations on working draft around 1000 community regions with several Sept/Oct 2000: Preparation of policy matrix and presentation to Cabinet thousand participants and has become a highly Oct 2000: Editing and Cabinet approval of final draft I-PRSP credible source on poverty in Rwanda (Bugingo Nov 2000: GoR/donor meeting to discuss I-PRSP and Painter 2002). Other sources had been less useful either because their data sets were Sept 2000­ Jul 2001: Participatory assessment for the PRSP contradictory and incomplete, or because they Sep 2000­Jan 2001: Development of Monitoring Indicators Multitudes had failed to make explicit linkages to the PRS of Jan­Mar 2001: "Ball-park" costings of sectoral priorities for PRSP process. The PPA research has proved an Support July 2000­Sep 2001: Consultations with civil society and other stakeholders enduring touchstone for discussion on the the Jan­Apr 2001: Macroeconomic Analysis efficacy of the PRS. With Sept 2000­Feb 2001: Survey and analysis of social service expenditures and outcomes May 2000­June 2001: Household Survey 3 Communication challenges and July­Nov 2001: Demographic and Health Survey approaches between government and July 2001: Three-day workshop on `Operationalising the PRSP' civil society June­July 2001: PRS process inputs to Budget Framework Paper Rwanda 12: Sept 2001: PRSP draft outline followed by zero draft PRSP Credible action-research in the PPA Oct 2001: National Consultation on Draft PRSP The Participatory Poverty Assessment was not only Chapter Oct 2001: Integration of national household survey results a valuable resource for donors, but had tangible benefits for communities, and fed into the PRS Nov 2001: Finalise draft PRSP and submission to Steering Committee Countries: process itself. The PPA had three components: a Five (From Mutebi, Stone and Thin, 2001) National Poverty Assessment,A Butare Pilot of from ubudehe mu kurwanya ubukene (Community Action Studies Planning) and a Policy Relevance Test. The National Poverty Assessment was a Case · national survey, using standard participatory Short techniques in 100 districts across Rwanda. · Ubudehe was more unusual, and involved providing every cellule with US$1000 to carry out a project designed, monitored and implemented by the community themselves. The process starts with the drawing of a social map of the community, they then 110 classify households into social classes, identify their development problems and prioritise not in Kinyarwanda and the documents have them, and select the most significant problem not been adapted into summaries or guides to be addressed by the community project. aimed at a general audience. There have been Community members select two groups of concerns that agendas and documents were not people ­ one to implement the project and properly circulated, and some felt that the PRS the other to monitor it. Once the project has process as a whole was rushed and that been endorsed by a technician from the participatory activities simply `went through District level (who will also have been the motions' (Bugingo and Painter 2002, Renard involved at earlier stages), the funding is and Molenaers 2003). On the other hand, the released.This was undertaken on a national Government of Rwanda did include phone level in 2002. numbers of the officials responsible · The poverty relevance test analysed I-PRSP for coordinating drafting process on all their policies through focus groups; evaluating how literature, and have made clear efforts to well the policies were solving problems of encourage public dialogue on the PRS.23 23 Karin Christiansen, personal individuals and communities. It was conducted communication, 2 April 2004 in 38 of the 100 Districts in groups of twenty-five people, selected on the basis of a Communication challenges series of criteria to cover different social and and approaches between government economic groups. and donors Multitudes of The study, implemented by a team of 18 social More coordinated dialogue on difficult Support scientists from the Organisation for Social issues the Science Research in Eastern and Southern Greater impetus behind donor coordination as a With Africa (OSSREA), was intended to synthesise result of the PRSP process augurs well for 3 civil society contributions, and feed directly into better coordinated dialogue between the PRS as a key mechanism for fostering government and donors in future PRS processes. in-country ownership. In the event, however, the It has not, however, removed the need for study was finished in early September 2001, just ongoing dialogue around issues of concern and Rwanda a couple of months before the final adjustments differences of opinion between the donor 12: were made to the PRSP document. Although community and government. For example, Chapter well received when it was finally published, and some donors have pressed the government to a point of pride amongst government officials, it take its commitments on participation more Countries: was a missed opportunity to publish this study seriously, or to pay greater attention to certain Five so late. Despite this, the priorities as ranked by dimensions of poverty highlighted in the PPA. from communities in the PPA are covered in the PRSP and reflect a range of both sectoral (eg. PRSP and donor monitoring Studies agriculture, health and education) and thematic One area of tension has been government and Case (eg. security and governance) issues. They donor monitoring of the PRSP. Donors have Short include some very specific ones (the need for expressed some concern and surprise that the candles and fuel for oil lamps). Rwandan government, after hosting perhaps the most ambitious evaluation study ever conducted Access of information and communication in the humanitarian and development sector, The Rwandan government has been active in appears to lack interest in monitoring and publishing a variety of documents around the evaluation procedures (Shaffer 2001). Civil society PRS as it has developed. Several drafts have groups have in turn expressed concern that in 111 been made available in English and French, but donor monitoring of the PRSP there is insufficient distinction between core indicators by Government of Rwanda. 2002, Poverty Reduction Strategy which the whole PRS can be judged, and broader Paper: Summary Version (Kigali, Government of Rwanda, indicators which inform analytic questions and Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning) more participatory monitoring. DFID work Government of Rwanda. 2002, Poverty Reduction Strategy analysing gender in the PRS, for example, was Paper (Kigali, Government of Rwanda, Ministry of Finance and criticised for passing off a set of questions as a list Economic Planning) of indicators (Mutebi, Stone & Thin 2001). Government of Rwanda. 2001, Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (Kigali, Government of Rwanda, Ministry of Finance and Communication challenges and Economic Planning) approaches between donors and civil society Government of Rwanda. 2001, Ubudehe to Fight Poverty (Kigali: Ministry of Local Government and Social Affairs (MINALOC) and the National Poverty Reduction Programme Donor support for civil society (NPRP) at Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning) participation To support CSO participation, DFID funded a Government of Rwanda. 2000, An approach to the Poverty Reduction Action Plan for Rwanda: The interim PRSP (Kigali, technical advisor from Action Aid India, an NGO Government of Rwanda) renowned for its participatory practices, to help design the participatory bottom-up approach of Mutebi F G, Stone S, Thin N. 2001, `Institutionalising Multitudes the Rwandan PRS (Booth 2003). The Govern- the PRSP approach in Rwanda', in Booth D et al. PRSP of Institutionalisation Study: Final Report (London, ODI) ment of Rwanda has made a stronger effort to Support hear ordinary people's views through the PPA. Renard R and Molenaers N. 2003, Civil society participation the in Rwanda's poverty reduction strategy, IDPM/UA Discussion With Calls to tone down expectations paper, 2003-5 (Antwerp, University of Antwerp) This effort has not however, been altogether 3 Richmond J, Gower M. 2002, Quality participation in poverty welcomed. UDPM-UA have argued that civil reduction strategies: Experiences from Malawi, Bolivia and society participation is neither possible nor Rwanda (London, Christian Aid) desirable in a Rwandan context, where civil Shaffer P. 2001, UNDP's Human Development Initiative Impact Rwanda society capacity is weak, and the public are Evaluation (Quebec, UNDESA, IDEA International Institute) 12: adjusting from years of authoritarian rule. They suggest that donors should tone down Staff of the World Bank and the IMF. 2002, Poverty Reduction Chapter their ambitions for interactive processes and Strategy Paper ­ Joint Staff Assessment (Washington DC, instead set contextually sensitive, firm targets World Bank and IMF) Countries: which take account of the state of civil liberties Trocaire. 2003, Rwanda PRSP update Dec 2002-Jan 2003 Five in countries like Rwanda. These capacity issues (Kigali, Trocaire) from may explain why the most meaningful PRS Trocaire. 2003, Rwanda PRSP update Feb 2003-March 2003 Studies contributions have come from large, national (Kigali, Trocaire) and international NGOs. Case UNDP. 2001, Proposed guidelines for a productive aid Short coordination process in Rwanda, conference report, Kigali 14- 16 November 2001 (Kigali, UNDP) Key sources Zaman M. 2002, Are we getting lost in exclusive anti-poor, Bugingo E and Painter G. 2002, Missing the mark? adjustment lending policy cycles? Action Aid Policy Brief. Participation in the PRSP process in Rwanda (London, Available from http://www.esrftz.org/ppa/documents/aa_1.pdf Christian Aid) Zuckerman E. 2001, Why engendering PRSPs reduces Booth D. (ed) 2003, Fighting Poverty in Africa: Are PRSPs poverty, and the case of Rwanda, UNU-WIDER Discussion 112 making a difference? (London, Overseas Development Institute) Paper 2001-112, (Helsinki, UNU/WIDER) Part 4 Appendices 113 Further case studies Part 4 Bolivia A and additional material Appendices A to J contain short case studies of communication in PRSPs from ten countries. They are intended to provide brief and easily accessible 24 24 The case examples presented in these appendices were case examples ­ seven of the countries covered are examined in more detail prepared by Amy Pollard. elsewhere in this publication. Appendix K provides a summary of a workshop on strategic communication for poverty reduction, held at the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) in Stockholm on 9 March 2004. Appendix L presents an annotated bibliography on strategic communication in PRSPs, together with suggested further resources. Multitudes of Support the With 4 Appendices 114 Appendix Further case studies A Bolivia Bolivia was one of the first countries to write a PRSP, submitting an I-PRSP in January 2000 and a full document in 2001. The Joint Staff Assessment in 2001 judged that it set out a particularly ambitious set of reforms, and whilst remaining optimistic, raised some doubts around the capacity of the government to deliver Bolivia's government has long-term problems with corruption and has often lacked legitimacy due to its coalition structure, the government has been consistently committed to participation and decentralisation. In 2000, a National Dialogue (ND) was held to feed into the PRSP. This was a government-led, countrywide consultation process involving municipal, departmental and national level government structures, civil society, business and international actors. Round table discussions were most successful at municipal level, because the issues discussed were focused around very concrete questions concerning the priority populations and issues for poverty reduction, distribution and control of potential debt relief resources. International cooperation agencies were extremely involved in the dialogue process and played an important role in encouraging and funding civil society participation. Some of the outcomes of the ND brought real policy change, for example for the first time Bolivia's resources will be allocated to favour the poorest municipalities. Communication in the PRSP process Process of disseminating the PRSP, monitoring and sharing information Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP In terms of disseminating information on the Although in many ways the National Dialogue in PRSP, this effort was greatly aided by donors and 2000 was a positive participatory process, it international NGOs who actively provided remained extremely limited and exclusive. Bolivia funding, guidance and capacity-building support has a diverse and forceful civil society (as shown for civil society participation. Oxfam GB, for by the recent electoral success of a popular coca example, worked to inform CSOs about the PRS growers' leader). Despite divisions within and process and enable them to influence it, as well as between social movements and NGOs, civil broadening their knowledge and building capacity society organised an independent consultation for policy analysis. Christian Aid recommended process (the Foro Nacional Jubileo 2000) which ran that information on the PRS should be commun- parallel to the National Dialogue but was icated in local languages, using media forms that Multitudes of eventually able to feed into the official Dialogue are appropriate to each community, although this at departmental and national levels.This process seems to have had modest effect in practice. Support built on existing decentralisation mechanisms and In terms of monitoring, the National the succeeded in facilitating greater representation of Dialogue started a move to create a civil society With poor people than had occurred in the formal Social Control Mechanism to monitor the National Dialogue. It was set-up by the Catholic expenditure of funds and to participate in the 4 Church and involved many CSOs including trade drawing-up, follow-up evaluation and A unions, university, women, environmental and reformulation of the PRSP.This is currently being human rights groups.The format of the Jubilee followed up by international NGOs; Oxfam GB is Forum was intended specifically to enable working towards strengthening existing local Appendix discussions on the overall structural causes of monitoring organisations at the municipal level, poverty, as opposed to dividing up the discussions where decisions on HIPC funds are taken, and into political, social and economic, as in the strengthening organisations that work on resource 115 National Dialogue. allocation and budget transparency. Appendix B Cambodia Cambodia passed an I-PRSP in October 2000 and Governance Action Plan in February 2001. This was redrafted as a Socio-Economic Development Plan, which was eventually worked up into a full PRSP in December 2002. The government have placed the reduction of poverty and inequality as an integral part of their post-conflict work towards political stability and national reconciliation. As such, they have placed a particular emphasis on participatory approaches in their official documents. Based on extensive NGO and civil society consultations, the Cambodian NGO Forum, suggested that whilst the Cambodian Government had often gone beyond the requirements of the World Bank in seeking feedback and public involvement. They have also created a National Poverty Forum, built into the Ministry of Planning, to develop long-term expertise on consultation forums, informed dialogue and consensus building on poverty reduction strategies. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, There has been some concern in the NGO monitoring and sharing information community, that the good intentions of the In addition to the lack of translated drafts of the Cambodian government have not been carried PRSP documents, there appears to be a general through on a practical level, and that lack of discussion of the PRSP in wider media opportunities to rebuild trust between outlets. Although some English language government and the public have been missed. newsletters offer a useful précis of key debates to Despite the goodwill and effort to make an audience of development professionals (eg. communication smooth in the Cambodian PRS The Cambodian Development Review), the process, there have however been various Government does not seem to have promoted problems: all major government documents the PRSP amongst the general public. This were initially prepared in English, and this might be a missed opportunity, as the severely limited Cambodian involvement with government been seen as relatively effective: the their development. A Khmer version of the I- Joint Staff Assessment judged that the PRSP document was not available until the Cambodian Government has been particularly Multitudes eighth draft was submitted to the Cambodian successful in developing an open and of cabinet. NGO submissions to the I-PRSP consultative policy process, which despite its Support drafting process were not formally shortcomings, has been seen as a solid the acknowledged by government and appear to foundation for iterative improvements. With have had little impact on the content of these documents. Within Government, there were no 4 representatives from civil society groups on the Inter-Ministerial drafting team. Time pressure B and bureaucracy have also limited the scope of consultation exercises and discussion. Appendix 116 Appendix C Kyrgyz Republic The PRSP in the Kyrgyz Republic is called the National Poverty Reduction Strategy (NPRS). This was completed in 2003 and was built on the back on the Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) which, like PRSPs in theory, has a strong emphasis on holistic approaches to development, a country-led approach and was very inclusive of civil society organisations. The preparation of the NPRS started in 2000 in parallel to the CDF, and both the CDF and the Interim NPRS (I-NPRS) were completed almost simultaneously in May 2001. In June 2001, the I-NPRS was presented to the IMF and the World Bank and used to underpin their agreement of concessional lending arrangements. The full NPRS completed in August 2002 after the co-ordinated work of 30 groups covering different sectors and issues in the drafting process. In addition to government officials and members of Parliament, representatives of civil society and the private sector were invited to participate in the working groups. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, The pre-cursor to the PRSP ­ the CDF process, monitoring and sharing information had been very participatory and inclusive, but As a whole, Kyrgyz Communication are often this consensus-oriented CDF paper was said by made difficult by the mountainous landscape, many to have led to a document without which covers 90% of the region and has priorities.The discussion process on NPRS was obstructed the laying of telephone networks, therefore more sharply focused, with responses to Internet and the distribution of newspapers. It drafts taking a more structured format. This met is said to have hampered the dissemination of with very mixed results ­ and opinions ranged PRSP documents to some extent. Documents from the `Government dominating the process' were translated into Russian and English at to `the Government is no longer running the various stages in the drafting, although they show'.A number of key figures from central were not produced in summary or basic form government and the major donors were seen to in Kyrgyz, Uzbek or Tajik which are the make the main inputs into the process and the principle languages of the general population. involvement of civil society organisations was felt The government did however produce to be much more modest in comparison to CDF frequent newsletters in English which detail Multitudes of process. Despite this, there are a substantial meetings, events and developments in the number of meetings, seminars and workshops PRSP process; these have been made publicly Support documented, and the input of these contributors available and have been scrutinised by various the has been clearly followed up and made public. independent groups. With 4 C Appendix 117 Appendix D Moldova Moldova's PRSP process was stalled by political events. In the original schedule, a full PRSP paper was to be produced by the end of 2001, but in the event unforeseen constitutional changes caused significant interruptions. In mid 2000, the Moldovan parliament passed major constitutional changes; moving from a presidential to a parliamentary republic and parliamentary elections in 2001 were won by the Communist Party, and the PRSP process was held up for more than a year. An Interim PRSP was finally approved in April 2002. The Joint Staff Assessment in June 2002 judged that despite these interruptions, Moldova was committed to progress towards PRSPs, and approved concessional assistance and adjusted lending for the county. The full PRSP document was approved in July 2004. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, The interim PRSP described two major bodies: monitoring and sharing information the Mass Media Group and the Council of Overall, communication during the PRSP Experts to facilitate the process of dialogue in process in Moldova has largely been focused on producing the PRSP. The remit of the Mass dissemination and public relations. There are Media Group was to produce press releases to very few documents available which can give us disseminate information and the public an indication about public reactions, or the promotion of the PRSP initiative and the responses of NGOs to the PRSP. Although Council of Experts to manage participatory there were two rounds of meetings run by the process. Subsequent discussions however resulted World Bank, aiming to bring together experts in the establishment of the PRSP Institutional from think tanks, NGOs and other civil society Framework in late 2002.The general public, the groups to discuss the initiative, these kinds of poor and those who were not considered to have meetings seem to be occasional, and very much an expert status were involved only through the on the periphery of the main focus of the `household budget survey' and other poverty initiative. Most government literature places monitoring instruments. legislative reform and the importance of fostering a good investment climate at centre- Multitudes stage, provoking complaints that other issues, of such as gender, have been overlooked. As a Support whole, the sharing of communication in the the Moldovan PRSP seems to be closely tied to With demarcated organisational partnerships, rather than more open and unstructured debates. 4 D Appendix 118 Appendix E Niger Niger completed an I-PRSP in October 2000, and a full PRSP document in January 2002. The Joint Staff Assessment, also in January 2002, judged that these documents had particular strengths in their participative approaches, and were good examples of a genuinely country-driven initiative. A national workshop was held in 2001 to start the consultation process, which led to the formation of 11 delegated groups. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, The JSA noted that there was a significant monitoring and sharing information problem with lack of information when The consultation process for the PRSP was attempting to analyse the state of poverty in developed in conjunction with a communication Niger. Few studies existed with the plan aimed at raising awareness within the comprehensive data necessary, although country about the PRSP's objectives, process, and government staff were judged to have managed the input needed from all concerned well with what they had. There was a strong stakeholders. This was said by the JSA to have emphasis from those working on the documents been moderately successful, although the that feedback was to be gathered as a continuous dissemination process was hampered by the process, rather than just amending specific relative disorganisation of Niger's NGO sector, mistakes. There were significant efforts to involve which did not have the capacity to act as an a broad range of consultative partners: NGOs, intermediary or translator of PRSP literature. civil society groups, students, trade unions, the Although a dedicated webpage has established an media and a number of other groups have been excellent hub of news, documents and involved at various stages. A participatory poverty explanation of the PRSP, this can only have analysis was launched to capture the input of limited impact in a country of 11 million people poor households as well as possible. with only 12,000 Internet users. Multitudes of Support the With 4 E Appendix 119 Appendix F Pakistan Pakistan completed an I-PRSP in November 2001 and a full PRSP in April 2003. The Joint Staff Assessment of the I-PRSP in January 2003 approved concessional lending based on the progress that had been evidenced by the I-PRSP initiative. There have been some delays to Pakistan's PRSP, due to the hung parliament that resulted from the 2003 elections. The World Bank and IMF decided to delay the initiative until National and Local Government had been secured, so that the PRS would have a chance to develop better ownership in-country. The National Poverty Assessment, published in 2003 used data from 51 sites around the country, and highlighted the sensitivity of relations between different regional and ethnic groups; it seems that responses to the poverty initiatives have been heavily inflected by ethnic identities, religion and other micro-political factors. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, Consultation processes which were in full flow at monitoring and sharing information a regional level, were interrupted when the Donors have been concerned that opportunities Pakistani parliament had no overall majority. for broad based public discussion, through the Once resumed, most provinces have reportedly media and other forums have been missed. engaged in multiple workshops and seminars, Although the outrage felt by civil society groups although the Sikh and Balochistan districts in the over the PRSP process does not appear to have North-West are far outstripping the Punjab areas. been translated into a major media debate ­ it Redressing this ethnic balance is an expressed has spawned some international comment and priority of donors. More seriously however, discussion. There has been criticism of the Pakistani CSOs came together to formally reject fragmentation of monitoring procedures and the way that the PRSP was being developed by data; ODI has suggested that there is a need the Pakistani Government. They disputed not for a single institution charged with identifying only the lack of consultation, but also the key information needs and coordinating substantive thrust of the PRSP document; monitoring support. arguing that a neo-liberal led policy prescription Multitudes has led only to sharp increases in economic, social of and environmental poverty in recent years. Support the With 4 F Appendix 120 Appendix G Rwanda Rwanda completed an I-PRSP in November 2000, and a full PRSP document in November 2001. The Rwandan PRSP is being implemented at a time when the scars of recent history are still fresh. Organised civil society is weak, distrust prevails within many communities and many international donors and international NGOs are still focused on post-emergency rehabilitation projects.The political regime is very authoritarian yet seems to be offering competent governance and using aid successfully. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, Participation has been strongly promoted in the monitoring and sharing information Rwandan PRSP process. DFID funded a The Rwandan government has been active in technical advisor from Action Aid India, an publishing a variety of documents around the NGO renowned for its participatory practices, PRS as it has developed. Several drafts have to design the participatory bottom-up approach been made available in English and French, of the Rwandan PRS. Subsequently, the although these have not been adapted into Government of Rwanda has made a stronger summaries or guides aimed at a lay audience. effort to hear ordinary people's views, through Amongst professional groups however, there has Participatory Poverty Assessments, Policy been an effort to co-ordinate between agencies, Relevance Tests (to discuss the effectiveness of a donor conference in 2001 drawing up a sectoral policies) and ubudehe approaches (based number of guidelines for shared working. This on traditional Rwandan practice values of co-operative working has been eased by the problem-solving at community level). Priorities emergence of key reference points on which as ranked by communities participating in the consensus has centred, notably the National PPA are covered in the PRSP and reflect a range Poverty Assessment, which was conducted in of both sectoral (eg. agriculture, health and around 1000 community regions with several education) and thematic (eg. security and thousand participants and has become a highly governance) issues. They include some very credible source on poverty in Rwanda. specific ones (the need for candles and fuel for oil lamps). This has not been altogether welcomed however; UDPM-UA has argued that Multitudes of `civil society participation' is neither possible nor desirable in a Rwandan context. They suggest Support that donors should moderate their ambitions for the `interactive processes' and instead set With contextually sensitive, firm targets which take account of the state of civil liberties in countries 4 like Rwanda. Overall the communication of G civil society has been limited by a lack of advocacy, training and low literacy levels.The most meaningful contributions have been from Appendix large, nationally based NGOs. 121 Appendix H Tanzania Tanzania was one of the first countries to prepare a PRSP document. The first PRSP was prepared in late 2000, followed a couple of months later by a joint staff assessment. While the achievements ofTanzania's first PRSP are still being debated, there seems to be a general discontent with how the process was carried out. According to the Joint Staff Assessment, the original PRSP was prepared through a process of consultation between government, NGOs and national and international development partners. The consultation process revolved around a number of events, workshops and seminars, which were held at various levels and stages during the preparation of the PRS. The government was said to have made great efforts to establish systematic monitoring systems when the PRS was actually being implemented; setting up four technical working groups, a steering committee and technical committee. Whilst superficially these initiatives attempted to institutionalise a participative PRSP process, in fact, the true authorship of the PRSP has been said to resemble a traditional `iron triangle' of homogenous professionals working in international agencies. There is evidence to suggest that these deficiencies in the participatory process have not only reduced country ownership of the initiative, but fundamentally undermined the effectiveness of macro-level economic and legislative reform; in driving a wedge between the local context of poverty, and the general economic framework, the initiative has failed to harness potential for change, particularly in rural areas. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, In the Tanzanian PRSP, it appears that most monitoring and sharing information communication efforts have focused on the Although some excellent basic versions of key dissemination of information, rather than a more documents have been produced, it appears that wide-ranging two-way process of developing these were only distributed to mid-level ideas. Critics have suggested that the governmental staff, researchers, academics and communication process in Tanzania was heavily the most major NGOs. Surprisingly, it seems Multitudes limited to stakeholders in urban centres and that even amongst governmental staff, those of senior government officials in central without direct responsibility for producing the Support government.The working groups responsible for document had seldom read the paper, or even the overseeing the participatory process have mastered its key points. Despite this,Tanzania With focused their efforts on senior officials and has been held up as an example of good major organisations, marginalising the broader monitoring practice. Tanzanian PRSP 4 range of civil society groups and local NGOs monitoring was led by an independent group, from the process. This provoked some anger and made up from both Tanzanian and international H criticism from various NGO groups, many of experts; this has been used as a model for others whom have resorted to letter writing campaigns around the world. Appendix from the margins, rather than entering a direct dialogue with donors or government. 122 Appendix I Uganda Uganda was one of the first countries to complete a PRSP, drafting the first document (called a PEAP) in 1996/7 and a second iteration in March 2000. The PEAP is said to have led to impressive changes in policymaking, public expenditure management and the prioritisation of poverty reduction in Uganda. It has been a heavily documented process, with three sets of Joint Staff Assessments in 2001, 2002 and 2003, and two poverty progress reports in 2002 and 2003 maintaining the interest of many international development professionals, who cite Uganda regularly as a key case study of the PRSP process. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP Process of disseminating the PRSP, Overall, the Ugandan experience of monitoring and sharing information participation and PRSPs has been comparatively The Ugandan government has developed positive. The government has recognised strong specific monitoring systems for the PRS process. networks of civil society groups, and has used It set up a small technical unit located very close their skills and experience to facilitate to the budget office in the Ministry of Finance, workshops in poor rural areas. Some so that when the new incentives created by consultations have been general in scope, others budget reform processes began to generate have been organised along sectoral or thematic demand for poverty information, this would be lines, which are said to be the most productive. immediately noticed and responded to. The scope of public consultation has been wide, Uganda's model has been praised for recognising covering analytical and diagnostic work, that poverty monitoring needs to involve a institutional and budget analysis, and agenda- network of institutions such as a statistics setting. Overall, Uganda has been praised for department, sectoral planning units, and NGOs the width and depth of participation in the with a commitment to participatory monitoring. PRSP process, but government has still attracted They appear to have succeeded in establishing a criticism for limiting the freedom of NGOs to well-resourced and well-placed unit to assume express themselves. The contributions of NGOs, principal responsibility for making things although widely sought, have been strictly happen . Improving the disseminating of bound up within state-set parameters. information on the PRSP beyond those in the Multitudes of development profession is one of the principle areas for improvement identified in critiques of Support participation rates. the With 4 I Appendix 123 Appendix J Vietnam Vietnam produced an I-PRSP in March 2001 and a full PRSP (termed CPRGS in Vietnam) was completed in May 2002. The Joint Staff Assessment in June 2002 was broadly supportive of both the plan and PRSP process. It was assessed that the Vietnamese government had demonstrated a strong commitment to an inclusive and broad based PRS process, and that this was endorsed at the highest levels of government. Overall, the CPRGS is widely perceived to be government owned, but based on a solid consultative process. It is broadly understood to have good content and reasonable priorities, however it's success is seen as dependent on various other factors; in particular the 10 year socioeconomic plan, annual budgets and ministry plans. Taken together, these policies are seen by some to make up a more influential set of measures for poverty reduction. Communication in the PRSP process Process of dialogue in producing the PRSP involvement has been maintained fairly steadily. The CPRGS was drafted by government, by a committee of 52 officials from 16 government Process of disseminating the PRSP, agencies. There were multiple workshops monitoring and sharing information nationally, held across the country to gather Some local researchers and experts were views from CSOs and regional representatives. employed as consultants to aid parts of the More than 1800 poor people were consulted drafting process, and four drafts were translated through the Participatory Poverty Assessment, into English and circulated for comment and there was general support for the overall amongst the international community. However, policy direction. There were widespread this effort doesn't seem to have been matched by concerns about the ability of the local efforts to disseminate PRSP documents more institutions to convert the statements into reality broadly within the public at large. Vietnam has a and many constructive suggestions about how relatively underdeveloped media and the actions could be made to work best for the communication infrastructure, especially poor may have gone unnoticed. Five compared to its neighbouring countries, international NGOs (Action Aid, Catholic although there have been moves to improve it in Multitudes Relief Services, Oxfam GB, Plan International, recent years. There have not been moves to of and Save the Children UK) were partners in the translate major documents into native languages, Support community-level consultations, and although or even French ­ and no basic summary versions the there have been complaints from some NGOS of the PRSP documents produced. Despite this, With that local groups have not been fully utilised, this there is a good range of analytic literature on the was partly due to the weakness ofVietnam's PRSP process inVietnam. 4 independent NGO sector.Vietnam has had particular success in incorporating gender J aspects to the PRSP document, with government working closely with several Appendix NGOs, and making special effort to involve women in roundtable discussions and consultations. Relations between national and local government, donors and NGOs have been 124 brokered by the Poverty Task Force, and overall Appendix Strategic Communication for Poverty K Reduction: the SIDA workshop The increasing demand for communication in development programmes brought together around forty officials and professionals from different agencies in a workshop in Stockholm to discuss strategic communication for poverty reduction: experiences from PRSPS and development programmes. The workshop was held at the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) in Stockholm on 9 March 2004. The event was jointly organised by SIDA, the Development Communication Division (DevComm) of the World Bank and the Information and Communication for Development (ICD) group of the UK Department for International Development (DFID). Summary · In the first session, Paul Mitchell, from The World Bank, explained how the Bank has been going about addressing strategic Communication in their development work. · Next, Klaus Palm, a consultant for SIDA, outlined the three major challenges he saw for strategic communication in development. · Questions from the floor addressed a range of issues. · Erik Illes explained how SIDA were going about building partnerships and better external communication in their organisation. · Ingemar Gusafsson from the SIDA Methods Development Unit developed this theme by exploring the conditions which allow strategic communication to take place easily. · Questions from the floor were broadly supportive of SIDA's assessment, and identified various other ways that it could be applied. · Sina Odugbemi and Masud Mozammel outlined the issues and challenges for strategic communication in PRSPs, based on their experience of working in DFID and the World Bank. · Steliana Nedera outlined the specific communication issues in the Moldovan PRSP. · Servacius Likwellie described the communication challenges facing the Tanzanian government in developing their PRSP. · Questions from the floor mostly asked for more detail on the Tanzanian PRSP. Multitudes of · James Deane talked about the role of Panos in opening up media involvement and discussion on Support PRSPs. He opened up debate about the best way to improve media capacity. the · Outside the context of PRSPs,Anders Ronquist talked about SIDA's experience of building With national ownership through a health programme in Nicaragua. 4 · The final session discussed how to go forward, and explored potential joint working on K Communication in PRSPs. Appendix 125 Session 1 In the first session, Paul Mitchell, fromTheWorld Bank, explained how the Bank has been going about addressing strategic communication in their development work. 1. Paul Mitchell highlighted that communication must be seen taken seriously as a development tool which works to improve development effectiveness in four ways: · by generating consensus internally and externally · building trust and developing a conducive environment for development work · as a tool for advocacy which can bring important issues to the attention of decision-makers · as part of the design of development work itself 2. Mitchell argued that because development is all about change and social transformation, it is always political. The World Bank has started to accept that political risk is another risk dimension. 3. Both the world of communication and the world of development are changing very rapidly. This makes it increasingly important to communicate well with your audience; there are increasing demands for a more transparent, holistic and participatory approach to development. 4. Good communication is critical to successful development work; a recent study shoed that projects who had sought the involvement of beneficiaries had a 68% success rate, compared to those who planned their projects independently who were successful in only 10% of cases. Corruption and good governance are currently the main development problems, and communication is key to dealing with them. 5. Working partnerships bring both benefits and costs; we need to work to alleviate the risks that accompany partnerships in a sector which deals with globalised, highly political and sensitive issues. 6. Strategic communication must be adapted for different political and social contexts; a proper assessment should be made to create communication that take account of various factors: · audience · behaviour and attitude · messages · channels · evaluation 7. Strategic communication needs to be built into three major stages of the project cycle · communication research assessment: empirical research and surveys, audits, dialogue · communication design and implementation; designing a strategy to achieve change · monitoring and evaluation; proof of change achieved 8. Mitchell outlined a seven point checklist for building good communication · ask the communication question at the planning stage of projects · define the scope to the public debate · actively listen stakeholders an ongoing dialogue · manage expectations · use communication specialists · build consensus · promote local ownership Next, Klaus Palm, a consultant for SIDA outlined the three major challenges he saw for strategic communication in development. Multitudes 9. Palm explained why he preferred the term planned, rather than strategic communication; because he of thought the critical aspects of communication were planning ahead and thinking about Support communication as an instrument to achieve change. the 10. The first challenge Palm identified for planned communication was that of clarifying relationships With between numerous ongoing processes; capacity building, participative processes and developing dialogue. All of these areas are very closely related and linked through communication, and they 4 need to be carefully coordinated. 11. The second challenge is to develop our listening skills. All too often discussion of communication K focuses on how to improve the way we deliver messages, but it is equally important to learn how we listen and respond to others. Appendix 12. We need to develop planned communication at a process level, so that it is part of all development work. The interests and views of stakeholders should be analysed and incorporated into projects so that ownership develops across different groups and organisations. 126 Session 1 continued Questions from the floor addressed a range of issues: · When working on strengthening the media, there is a challenge in harnessing the momentum behind national processes; especially PRSPs, MDGs and national reports. We need to be as imaginative as possible in engaging poor and vulnerable people. · The danger with focusing on the strategy of communication is that we forget the cultural issues involved: you can't expect to resolve long-term, entrenched problems just by changing the way you deliver a message ­ sometimes things are more complicated than that. · In PRSPs, there is often an initial bout of enthusiasm for participative approaches while countries are being supported by donors and other international actors. The difficulty is maintaining this energy during the implementation phase. · We shouldn't assume that consensus is a good thing: often people have irreconcilable positions and the best that we can do is incorporate a little bit of everyone's views. At the end of the day, we can list a range of things that would be great for poverty reduction, but these must be prioritised and we can't expect to agree about how to do that. · You have to respect different cultures to an extent, but everyone has an agenda; development is political and everyone wants to achieve something. You need to define what you will `respect' in culture and what you will not (eg. genital mutilation) ­ but once you start trying to do that, you will quickly find yourself in very deep water. · We simultaneously talk about listening to all groups in society, large and small, and about building a consensus and persuading them of our views: can consensus building really be a bottom-up? · We should be clear about the two roles of strategic communication; fostering debate and amplifying different views on the one hand, and trying to get people to understand and come to conclusions together on the other. Session 2 Erik Illes explained how SIDA were going about building partnerships and better external communication in their organisation. 1. The overall goal of SIDA is to develop relations that enable the poor to improve their lives, and the organisation places a great emphasis on cooperation for institutional change. 2. Arranging partnerships can be a long and difficult process. SIDA works to design partnerships that reduce administrative costs and administrative burden on both parties. 3. Communication can be broken down into various categories, all of which represent a significant management challenge for development agencies: · objectives · capacity · accountability · mainstreaming · implementation strategy 4. You can arrange partnerships in different ways to make them more productive for all parties; have silent partners, joint lead agencies or one; it is important to organise them as appropriate for each Multitudes of project or initiative. Support Ingemar Gusafsson from the SIDA Methods Development Unit developed this theme by the exploring the conditions with allow strategic communication to take place easily. With 5. Gusafsson pointed out that whilst most people within development agree that partnerships are useful and productive, there are always constraints that limit how far they can commit to working 4 co-operatively. K 6. He pointed to four main issues which partnerships need to negotiate: · purpose of the development initiative · forms of financing may be overall sector support or core funding for a particular organisation Appendix · process of working; harmonisation, dialogue or capacity development which brings different actors together · financial flows can be organised in various ways; through budgets or the pooling of donor funds 127 7. When moving from project to programme mode, the dialogue shifts in three ways: Session 2 continued · Content: shift from discussion of technical details of individual projects to discussion of the sector as a whole. · Relationship between different agencies and governments: Developing clear rules of the game for communication and dialogue. This process is matter of negotiation between number of actors who come with their own baggage and agendas. · Consensus building; developing mutual trust and consensus about what should be done and how corporation should be organised. We must be prepared to represent other agencies, and to let others speak for us. 8. SIDA conducted a study with the aim of finding the enabling conditions for good dialogue, on the basis of 9 project evaluation studies. They found that good dialogue requires four processes: · dialogue in the partner country · dialogue between country's government and the donor community · dialogue among various donors · dialogue between and bilateral or multilateral donors 9. There are various trans-boundary factors which are conducive to good dialogue: · high capacity for dialogue and sensitivity to perspectives of others · decentralised structures · clear division of roles · high level of insight into the cooperative arrangement · strong local ownership 10. There were also a number of clear success factors for donors working in partnerships: · common vision as to what programme support will lead to · clear distribution of roles clarified early · coordinator with limited personal interest but sufficient capacity · decision made at same level among various donors · avoidance of closed groupings · openness to discussing policy issues · shared views on building capacity · international dialogue on formalised donor cooperation · exchange of expert know-how in the partner country Questions from the floor were broadly supportive of this assessment, and saw other ways it could be applied: · You could do a very similar set of success factors not just for donors, but for other interest groups. · Buy-in from local stakeholders is clearly a key factor, but it is one of the most difficult both to assess, and to develop through planned activities. It is hard to build this into logical frameworks, but examining evaluation reports seems to be a good method for analysing buy-in. · We can not assume that partnerships can be built simply by donors and other partners doing the right things; civil society groups are often denied full access to information because of restrictive legislation. We need tackle structural limitations that put the breaks on partnerships, as well as improving how we operate ourselves. Multitudes of Session 3 Support the With Sina Odugbemi and Masud Mozammel outlined the issues and challenges for strategic communication in PRSPs, based on their experience of working in DFID and 4 the World Bank. 1. Odugbemi and Mozammel first drew attention to the role of communication within PRSPs. K PRSPs have six core principles, including being country-driven and involving broad participation, and being partnership-oriented through the coordinated participation of many multilateral groups. Both of Appendix these principles are underpinned by good communication. 2. Reasons for strategic communication in PRSPs: · greater and informed participation · create open and inclusive national dialogue 128 · ensure transparency and accountability Session 3 continued · manage expectations · establish momentum · institutionalise two-way flow of communication 3. Major issues: · trust and confidence · lack of information among major stakeholders · ad hoc communication activities (often PR) mostly during preparation of PRSP document · absence of regular flow of information and follow-up 4. Challenges: · capacity within and outside the government · institutionalisation of communication intervention · resource allocation both human and financial · sustainability and momentum · simplification and demystification of information 5. Lessons: · good communication intervention creates ownership · involvement of opinion leaders is essential (need to focus on the poor, but recognise that elites also need to be incorporated) · focus on sustaining the level of confidence on PRSP · distinguish between participation and consultation · emphasise on institutional arrangement. (how will monitoring etc happen in terms of flow of information ­ against what baseline of poverty assessment ­ how much can people trust agencies to tell the truth about how it is going) · build capacity within government (supply side of information ­ many developing country governments do not see that it is in their own interest to be good communicators) · increase civil society resources and capacity · develop the media sector: economic literacy of journalists, motivation and engagement and pressure for accountability. (discourse is a million miles away from the vocabulary of the general public ­ don't make it alien and alienating) Use intermediaries to engage people with this highly technical documentation · foster the process of creating an open and inclusive dialogue (where this has not been the culture ­ need to tease out the possibilities for this) Steliana Nedera outlined the specific communication issues in the Moldovan PRSP. 6. The major pattern of communication in Moldova was a disconnection between parties. Most dialogue was going one-way, between donors and civil society organisations, and also between donors and governments. 7. There was very little communication activity which completed this loop and allowed flow of information in both directions, between all parties. 8. Tackling this problem is very challenging and there are major capacity issues which limit how much progress can be made. Although there is a great deal of goodwill and commitment to making the Moldovan PRSP successful, more wide-ranging strategic communication may be out of reach for this country at present. Multitudes of Servacius Likwellie described the communication challenges facing theTanzanian Support government in developing their PRSP. the 9. With a socialist history, the Tanzanian population were used to rallying around a government With initiatives which had a strong agenda. This was shaken in the economic crisis in 1987, which was a serious set back to years of economic progress. 4 10. When the government set the priority ofVision 2025 in the PRSP; that Tanzania would become a K middle-income country in 21 years, they could not rely on mass support from across Tanzanian business and society. 11. The government set about creating partnerships, not just budget allocations, to bring together the Appendix private and public sector. They set up an institutional framework to ensure wide participation; with four technical committees to assess what worked and what didn't. 12. There were national surveys to gather data, strengthen administrative systems, aid analysis and gather 129 opinions, but the bulk of information has been flowing `downstream'. Session 3 continued 13. Lessons: · clarity on respective roles ­ can't have bleeding of responsibilities · let all have their own agenda and perspectives ­pluralist · institutionalised interface between and within stakeholders Questions from the floor mostly asked for more detail on theTanzanian PRSP: · On integrating the MDGs into the Tanzania PRSP: the PRSP was used as a vehicle to achieve the MDGs, and MDGs were used as a yardstick for monitoring and evaluation. · On donor support: The problem in Tanzania was not donors withholding support, but government delaying the process. There has been increasing success in harmonising donor assistance and communication. · On how accountability works in Tanzania: There is an annual week long event where the government reports on what it has been able to do, asking for opinions from CSOs, donors, schools and the public as a whole. · On gender in the PRSP: Women have held leadership roles in many groups and were not felt to be marginalised in the Tanzanian PRSP as a whole. Session 4 James Deane talked about the role of Panos in opening up media involvement and discussion on PRSPs. He opened up debate about the best way to improve media capacity. 1. Panos aims to stimulate public debate by promoting effective media involvement and performance, with a view to advancing the MDGS. 2. In many developing countries the media do not have the capacity to generate the kind of public debate that promotes country ownership of PRSP; ownership depends on public debate as well as participation and consultation processes. 3. Panos is a neutral actor on the content of PRSPs, working internationally to bolster media activity through training workshops, seminars and studies. 4. Panos has come to several key conclusions on the media and PRSPs: · very low level of awareness of PRSP within countries · reporting disengaged and formulaic · lack of technical skills to report sectoral specific issues · poor relationship between government and journalists hinders investigative and strong coverage · lack of interaction between CSOs and media · media outlets demand payment for coverage of development-related issues. (journalists won't come to workshops unless paid, etc) · strategies to engage media not adjusted to new media environments · fundamental issues of media engagement with poverty related issues 5. A changing media environment has led to the marginalisation of poverty issues: · increasingly democratic, plural and complex media landscape Multitudes · increasingly commercial, advertising driven, consumer focused media of · decline of investigative journalism, economic journalism, heavily focused on a narrow Support business agenda · the explosion of radio (particularly in countries like Uganda), particularly commercial FM radio and With community radio provides new opportunities for public debate · the talk show host can be as effective as the traditional journalist 4 · new strategies developing to communicate grassroots perspectives to national audiences, including policymakers (listening clubs, oral testimonies etc) K 6. Panos have identified some complex issues in how best to develop media capacity. Whilst training for journalists has been highly successful in the past, print journalists are rapidly being sidelined in Appendix favour of radio presenters, and are not always in a position to work autonomously even when they are more skilled. We may need to move towards more imaginative development activities to cater for their needs. 7. A report by Panos in 2002 criticised the World Bank, IMF and Governments for not allowing public 130 debate about alternative views to the fundamental questions of economic policy underlying PRSPs. Session 4 continued Outside the context of PRSPs, Anders Ronquist talked about SIDA's experience of building national ownership through a health programme in Nicaragua. 8. The project started in 80s as an NGO initiative that twinned institutions in Nicaragua and Sweden. The programme trained approximately 200 Obstetric Nurses. 9. It was technically successful, and trained many Nurses who had the capacity to work. They developed a good enthusiasm in Nicaragua and the staff on the project had a deep personal commitment to methods. 10. There were various problems with sustainability: the National Health Authority and Local Authorities were unaware of the project, and the project was financially insecure.There was insufficient dissemination in local communities and professional groups in-country were not fully on board. 11. Eventually, the project finished and NGO commitment decreased. Enthusiasm faded and the training capacity was not fully used ­ only a handful of those trained work as nurses today. 12. In late 2000 SIDA was asked to do the project again. They did a feasibility appraisal with a professional communicator and team of four. Interviews were conducted with all stakeholders and seminars were held with key stakeholders to draw up log frame. 13. There was a programme of negotiations with key professional groups: discussion with the Ministry of Health and formation of a Core Advisory Group for the programme. 14. SIDA has developed its role as donor/partner ­ offering technical assistance to broker partnerships, being a facilitator for dialogue and providing financial support for the design phase of the project. 15. The donor community was fully informed and involved, and the project promoted in-country dialogue at local levels. SIDA included communication components in the programme design and budgets. SIDA communicated with Core Group, and used professional support with communication. 16. There was a great effort to think about how communication connected with target groups and object- ives. Doing this was effective, but it was a long-term investment that required significant `donor patience'. Session 5 The final session discussed how to go forward, and explored potential joint working on communication in PRSPs. 1. A survey of the workshop participants showed that the key issues in taking strategic communication forward in PRSPs were: · capacity issues · knowledge ­ sharing and consolidating knowledge across organisations · working together as teams ­ finding ways to work on projects, programme and products 2. Sometimes working in partnership is not the best thing to do; we are better off just working `in communication'. For our organisations it sometimes undermines our capacity to be involved if we are not seen as independent ­ we need to retain our status as a distinct organisation. 3. The key issue is about how we can develop awareness of other organisations; we need to use synergies and training to utilise the work of other people ­ to stop reinventing the wheel. This will help to elevate communication work so that it is taken seriously as a development tool. 4. This meeting could be useful to develop three areas: knowledge sharing: we could create an email group to share drafts and ideas. We could create joint missions; these are often good ways to use partnerships Multitudes of with institutions to alleviate awkward politics around sensitive missions. Lastly, we can start to move beyond the `battle of approaches': people get very territorial about the vocabulary that they use. We Support should use communication approaches as a toolbox; choosing the appropriate technique pragmatically. the 5. In terms of changing of behaviour, we need to assess who needs to be changed. When we want to With create internal change within organisations, it is sometimes easier to do this with the support of others. We can use the credibility and weight of other organisations to act together. 4 6. We could extend the circulation of the Strategic Communication Reader which is a collection of K relevant and interesting materials. We need to make sure we have mutual links and think about how we can package our work collectively to make it as powerful as possible. 7. We need to mainstream communication within our own programmes and set aside budgets to Appendix handle communication; thinking carefully about the specific added value that communication can bring to development. 8. We need a set of simple tool-based documents that can tell people quickly,`this is how this problem 131 has been done in the past', and `these are some ways you can do it'. Appendix Amy Pollard, John Young and Robert Chapman 25 Strategic communication in PRSPs: L An annotated bibliography 26 Amy Pollard worked as a Besley T and Burgess R. management, by opening new spaces and Lucas found that whilst PRSPs Research Officer at the 2000, Does the Media Make for policy dialogue, but those reforms have produced an unprecedented Overseas Development Government Responsive?: remain vital, especially in regard to number of household surveys and Institute (ODI) between 2003 Theory and Evidence from the budget. For their part, donors poverty outcome measurements, and 2004. John Young is Indian Famine Relief Policy, need to be prepared to take risks and people often turn a blind eye to Head of Communications London School of Economics impose disciplines on themselves. the poor quality of these reporting and Partnerships at the ODI Working Paper, (London, LSE) The hypothesis that PRSP processes methods. There is little information can promote changes leading to more available on how the information from and Robert Chapman is a This paper argues that where the effective poverty reduction needs stakeholders is incorporated into Research Officer at the ODI. media is better developed, state refinement, but remains plausible. either monitoring processes or policy governments are more responsive to [From summary] documents. Booth and Lucas suggest issues around poverty. The publication has case studies that problems with routine information The determinants of government on eight African countries, including systems demand a more imaginative responsiveness to its citizens are key Tanzania and Rwanda. approach to PRSP monitoring. issues in political economy. Here, we develop a model based on the solution of political agency problems. Booth D and Lucas H. Bretton Woods Project. 2003, Having a more informed and politically 2002, Good Practice in Poverty Reduction Strategy active electorate strengthens the Development of PRSP Papers (PRSPs): A Rough Guide incentives for governments to be Indicators and Monitoring (www.brettonwoodssproject.org/ responsive. This suggests that there is Systems ODI Working Paper topic/adjustment/PRSP rough guide/ a role for both democratic institutions No.172, (London, Overseas PRSP rough guide.htm ) and mass media in ensuring that the Development Institute) preferences of citizens are reflected This briefing aims to provide in policy. The ideas behind the model `PRSP monitoring...needs to information to a non-specialist are tested on panel data from India. be geared to what is new and audience on key aspects of PRSPs. We show that state governments challenging about the PRSP initiative It is an update to Bretton Woods' are more responsive to falls in food ­ particularly the effort to engage a ABC of PRSPs (1999). production and crop flood damage via wider range of stakeholders in policy Written in a question and public food distribution and calamity dialogue about poverty reduction at answer format, this guide gives an relief expenditure where newspaper the national level.' introduction to PRSPs, explaining circulation is higher and electoral This paper is based on a Desk how they relate to World Bank accountability greater. [From abstract] Study of Good Practice in the and IMF spending, structural Development of PRSP Indicators and adjustment loans and the HIPC Monitoring Systems commissioned by initiative. It also explores the issues Booth D. (ed) 2003, DFID for the Strategic Partnership with of `ownership' and participation. The Fighting Poverty in Africa: Are Africa (SPA) in 2001. The first phase of guide examines the conditions that PRSPs making a difference? the study defined an approach to the countries must meet to receive aid (London, Overseas monitoring of PRSPs and undertook under a PRSP, looking at how the Multitudes of Development Institute) a preliminary analysis of the content World Bank and IMF assess PRSPs, of current PRSP documentation and what monitoring systems are Support This is the most substantive formal (Interim PRSPs, PRSPs and Joint Staff in place. It offers an outline of the the publication to date on politics and the Assessments). A number of gaps, technical aspects of the PRSP cycle PRSP process. issues and challenges were identified. as a whole. With PRSPs have helped to mainstream The second phase adopted a more The guide assesses the nature and anti-poverty efforts in national policy forward-looking perspective and a extent of civil society participation 4 processes in Africa. However, more upbeat mood. Its purpose was in PRSPs, saying that there is no the seven country experiences to make some practical suggestions, uniform threshold which must be L synthesised in this chapter reveal based on actual experiences of a met, just a commitment to openness differences as well as commonalities. relevant sort, about how to meet and transparency. It highlights that Can vicious circles of patrimonial some of the biggest challenges many NGOs consider that the World Appendix politics, state weakness and facing those concerned with PRSP Bank and IMF are not well equipped ineffectual aid be replaced by virtuous monitoring. [Paper Summary] to assess participation, and that in ones, based on greater national In terms of communication issues, several countries, including Bolivia ownership of anti-poverty effort? This the paper suggests that PRSPs need and Cambodia, the concerns of civil is still uncertain. PRSPs add value to be monitored in terms of `key society organisations have been 132 to technocratic reforms in public inputs' rather than outcomes. Booth overlooked by donor boards. Burke A. 1999, Communication systems for the exchange of being backed up by the proper and Development: a practical information sources that already exist support.The paper calls for a review of guide (London, Social locally and also providing established PRSP process in terms of participation, Development Division, information intermediaries with the which involves the poor at every Department for International facilities to enhance their capacity for juncture. It argues that improved Development) information sharing. quality participation is essential if Responsibility for incorporating PRSPs are to achieve their aims of Communication activities have always technological innovation in ICTs into more flexible poverty reduction been central to DFID programmes. development strategies has policies which have a stronger sense But DFID's new poverty agenda has traditionally fallen to those with the of ownership in country. given them a much stronger mandate for infrastructure within `People's participation in decision emphasis, with a growth of interest governments and development making is in crisis. In both rich from all advisory groups and most agencies. This is largely due to the and poor countries, hundreds of geographical divisions. Newer, more large-scale and high costs of building thousands of people are taking to the broad-ranging programmes give far telecommunication, electricity and, to streets to protest against policies set greater scope for innovative a certain extent, broadcasting by global institutions and powerful communication activities with new networks. As the technology becomes governments. It is in poor countries partners. If priority is placed on more powerful and more complex, in particular that millions of people, eliminating poverty, then it is vital that with satellite-based and fibre optic whose lives are affected most by channels of communication involve cable networks encircling the globe these policies, have little voice. poor and excluded people. This with increasing density, the position of While World Bank and International involves people's rights to be involved ICTs within this infrastructure Monetary Fund (IMF) officials in development programmes, and in mandate is unlikely to diminish. ICTs, discuss ways of opening up dialogue society and governance more however, also consist of a wide range with poor people, large protests have generally. The engagement of poorer of equipment nowadays that can be taken place outside their meetings in people with government involves operated individually or within small, recent years. Christian Aid believes many complex Communication local networks that do not require vast the sentiments of many of those issues, whether it takes place at a infrastructure investments. Long protestors echo those of people in village level or in policy debate. With a lasting batteries, solar and wind-up poor countries who have to live with high level of interest in power sources are now being used to the impact of decisions made by communication, and a growing enable ICTs to operate in remote global institutions. awareness of how central it is to areas. This paper focuses principally Two years ago the World Bank and many new DFID priorities, there is on the role of ICTs as flexible and IMF introduced Poverty Reduction need for good practice material from powerful tools for social development Strategy Papers (PRSPs). Poor Social Development Division. This through small scale strategic countries must now complete PRSPs guide fulfils those aims, and interventions, linking to, and extending in order to qualify for debt relief and complements other communication beyond, formal and centralised further loans. In order to write their initiatives under way in DFID. [From systems operating on a larger scale. PRSPs, governments are required to introduction] [From the executive summary] consult with poor people. The real picture of participation Christian Aid. 2001, Ignoring in PRSPs is now becoming clearer. Chapman R and Slaymaker T. the experts: Poor people's Thirty seven countries have produced 2002, ICTs and Rural exclusion from poverty an interim PRSP, and five countries a Development: Review of the reduction strategies, Christian full one. These have been endorsed Literature, Current Aid policy briefing prepared by the boards of the World Bank and Interventions and in partnership with INESC, IMF. But research from Christian Opportunities for Action, ODI Rede Brasil, Mozambique Debt Aid, in consultation with partner Working Paper 192 (London, Group, LINK, CEDLA, UNITAS organisations in poor countries, Overseas Development (www.christian-aid.org.uk/indepth/ shows that the involvement of poor Institute) 0110prsp/prsp.htm) people in drawing up policies and writing PRSPs has been minimal and This paper investigates the role that This is a damning critique of IMF and superficial.' [From summary] information and communication World Bank attempts to incorporate technologies (ICTs) have to play in civil society participation in PRSPs. developing countries, focusing It argues that poor people's Christiansen K with Hovland I. particularly on those rural areas that involvement so far has been minimal 2003, The PRSP Initiative: Multitudes are currently least affected by the and superficial. Multilateral Policy Change and of latest advances in the `digital The paper suggests that while the Role of Research, ODI revolution'. The need for flexible and poor people's views are invited on Working Paper No. 216 Support decentralised models for using ICTs some issues, they are not allowed to (London, Overseas the is discussed in the context of address the broad package of Development Institute) With `content and control'. The challenge economic reforms from World Bank of achieving rural development goals and IMF. It argues `one size fits all' This paper traces the emergence by supporting knowledge and packages, which do not take full of the Poverty Reduction Strategy 4 information systems is analysed account of the poverty situation in Paper (PRSP) initiative and the through an epistemological each country, are still in evidence. various factors that contributed to L perspective illustrated by case The paper suggests that poor people its adoption in September 1999, studies from the literature and the and their representatives need to be including the role and relative authors' research on the operation of supported in developing `tools for influence of research in this process. Appendix these systems at the community participation'; especially training A PRSP is a document that sets out level. The concept of building about how they can inform choices in an analysis of poverty in a country partnerships at the community level economic policymaking. Poor people and defines the national strategy based around information exchange are currently being used to `rubber on how the government is going to 133 is explored, using ICTs to improve stamp' PRSPs; the rhetoric is not reduce it. Preparation of a PRSP is an entry criterion for debt relief under as network relationships, trust, Craig D and Porter D. 2002, the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries structure, and participation. They `Poverty Reduction Strategy (HIPC) programme, and is also an argue that trust grows as network Papers: a new convergence' in eligibility criterion for concessional members work together. They also World Development, Vol. 30, lending from the World Bank (IDA) argue that networks will benefit No. 12, December 2002. and IMF (PRGF programme). from evaluation of these various (www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/ This Working Paper forms part relationships and processes, and decentralisation/afrlib/craig.pdf) of ODI's Research and Policy in suggest a number of angles that can Development (RAPID) programme, be used when evaluating networks: This paper looks at the political which seeks to learn more about · Contributions Assessment can be dimensions of the PRSP approach, linkages between development used to see where the resources arguing that the liberal ideological research, policy and practice. The lie in the network and whether the framework behind PRSPs obscures main questions addressed are: network processes have facilitated the power relations which remain · How did the idea of the Poverty circulation of these resources. despite it. It uses Uganda as a case Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) · Channels of Participation mapping study. come to be adopted, and can help the network to undestand `PRSPs may...be seen as a "third · What was the role of research in how and where the members are way for the third world''' this process? interacting with the network, and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers what their priorities are. represent both a primary policy The relative contribution of research · Monitoring Networking at the Edges device of international development is considered using a three- will highlight how much institutions, and an instance of a dimensional framework: `networking' is being stimulated by wider international convergence · Policy context: politics and the secretariat function and helps of public policy around global institutions to assess the level of independent integration and social inclusion. · Evidence: credibility and exchange that is going on. Charting the emergence of these communication approaches, this paper argues that · Links: influence and legitimacy A two-page checklist for networks is this convergence has a number of provided, with suggested evaluation structural predilections which favour questions covering the issues raised the technical and juridical over the Church M, Bitel M, Armstrong above. The authors then show why political economic, and a disciplinary K, Fernando P, Gould H, Joss networked linking and coordinating framework over practical contest. S, Marwaha-Diedrich M, de la can bring much added value to Drawing extensively on decentralised Torre A L and Vouhé C. 2003, advocacy work, and summarise the governance and Poverty Reduction Participation, Relationships reasons as follows: programmes in Uganda, this paper and Dynamic Change: New · The improved quality and shows how these predilections Thinking on Evaluating sophistication of joint analysis that obscure power relations and restrict the Work of International underpins the advocacy. practical and political options, while Networks, DPU Working Paper · The extended reach to key actors exacting heavy establishment and 121 (London, Development in key contexts through which that compliance costs. [From abstract] Planning Unit, University improved analysis can be College London) channelled. · The capacity to act simultaneously, Driscoll R and Christiansen This paper reviews central issues with shared ideas, in many places K. 2004, The PRSP Approach: concerning the use of networks at once. A basic guide for CARE in the field of international · The space for competing views international (London, CARE development. Formal networks to be discussed and consensus International) today have become a preferred positions achieved. organisational form for cooperation · The opportunity for those with few This guide provides an introduction on a range of issues, and there are other avenues to powerful decision- to the process of developing a PRSP, many advantages to a networked makers to gain access through the as well as the history and politics structure ­ not least the network's networked relationships. of this approach. It was originally capacity to challenge and change developed for CARE International, unequal power relations. The authors The paper concludes that there but gives a useful overview for therefore begin by stating that: are numerous, well established anyone new to PRSPs. `If we are to find our way to barriers to improving information The guide explains the significance counteracting the negative effects exchange. Knowledge capture, the of an emphasis on `participation' in Multitudes of of economic liberalisation and high cost of information access PRSPs, pointing to the links between globalisation, especially on the and infrastructure constraints all participation and country ownership, Support marginal and under-represented on affect the equitable distribution of improved donor behaviour and a the the world stage, we need a greater information in rural areas. However, more programme driven approach understanding of how to build and technological advances in ICTs have to aid, rather than aid driving a With sustain powerful networks based on reduced the cost and increased the series of isolated projects. It also the values of dignity in development quantity and speed of information describes the technical aspects of 4 for all.' transfer dramatically. This is set the PRSP, explaining the idealised They continue by discussing to continue and the technologies policy cycle, and the principles L problems and solutions for networks are already being designed to behind the approach. The guide based on the four Ds used by accommodate a wide range of outlines the political associations Chambers in his participatory user choices. The need for a of PRSPs; as a process which may Appendix approach to development: Diversity, concerted effort to build knowledge challenge dominant power relations Dynamism, Democracy and partnerships and to engage the and requires a shift in the process Decentralisation. private sector and technology drivers of policymaking. PRSPs can also The paper then draws on in the pursuit of rural development change the power relationships several case studies and illustrative goals is paramount if ICTs are to between rich and poor countries by 134 examples to highlight topics such have a role in future strategies. making aid conditional on a process rather than specific policies. The Figueroa M E et al. 2002, direct access to fieldwork and guide offers an assessment of how Communication for Social local accounts. 2. NGOs usually successful the PRSP process has Change: An Integrated Model have offices that span the different been overall so far. It evaluates the for Measuring Process and Its levels of the global system, and quality of PRSPs in terms of public Outcomes, Communication for therefore information can flow ownership of the process, whether Social Change: Working Paper easily between the grassroots, NGO PRSPs have managed to reform Series (The Communication local offices, NGO headquarters, institutional practices sufficiently, Initiative) and NGO lobbying activity in global and whether donors have provided (www.comminit.com/ centres. 3. NGOs' value base sufficient aid to resource PRSPs. The strategicthinking/stcfscindicators/sld- implies a democratic approach to guide suggests that the PRSP has so 1500.html) communication that emphasises far been broadly successful but is not openness, sharing and non- a magic bullet for poverty reduction. The Communication for Social hierarchical communication channels. Change initiative is based on an NGOs rely on their distinctive iterative process where `community competence in handling information Driscoll R, Christiansen dialogue' and `collective action' work for four main purposes. The first K, and Jenks S. 2004, An together to produce social change and second purposes concern their Overview of NGO Participation in a community that improves own management systems and in PRSPs (London, Overseas the health and welfare of all of its strategic plans, and their processes Development Institute) members. This is an integrated model of institutional learning. The third that draws from a broad literature purpose is for advocacy. NGOs have This paper explains why `participation' on development communication realised that they have a far greater has become a buzz-word associated developed since the early 1960s. chance to influence government with PRSPs. It gives an overview of It is particularly influenced by the and donor policy if they are able to NGO participation in PRSP processes work of Latin American theorists make systematic use of grassroots to date and explains why participation and communication activists information in their advocacy is seen as particularly important in who wrote how to create a more work. The fourth purpose is one of PRSPs. people-inclusive, integrated accountability. NGOs face increasing Driscoll et al outline that approach of using communication pressure to evaluate the impact of participation is seen to increase for development. Theories of group their work and to stand accountable country ownership of poverty dynamics, conflict resolution, to various stakeholders, both reduction policies, that it is part of leadership, quality improvement upwards to donors and downwards holding governments to account and future search, as well as the to the communities in which they for their spending, and that it has network/convergence theory of work. The danger with multiple intrinsic pro-poor outcomes. They communication, have been used to accountabilities is that upwards offer a framework for analysing NGO develop the model. accountability may carry more weight participation; taking account of the This paper examines how than downwards accountability, type of NGO involved and the extent this model of communication which in turn may result in a one-way of their participation, as well as their facilitates an assessment of the information flow away from the field engagement at a particular level of communication. It identifies a rather than in both directions. the PRSP cycle (national, regional, series of indicators to measure the Edwards reviews possible barriers local etc) and the stage to which the process of community dialogue and to information use in NGOs: internal whole PRSP has advanced. NGO collective action; based on equity of organisational obstacles; problems participation is examined in the information, levels of participation, with representativity and the images context of the `ideal' PRSP cycle. a sense of ownership and levels of that are used; and the gap between The paper maps NGO participation cohesion. It uses different kinds of raw information and knowledge. in PRSP to date, suggesting that evaluation and self-evaluation. Whilst Possible solutions include International NGOs have had the not highly rigid, it offers a systematic organisational decentralisation, most meaningful engagement with approach to communication which viewing information as an integral government and donors, whilst promises to identify the factors that part of all organisational processes, national and local groups have help community initiatives succeed, emphasising the need for information tended to be limited to consultation and identify what is lacking in others. to be relevant, and taking advantage exercises and data gathering. It of the opportunities provided by IT. offers short case studies taken from Vietnam, Rwanda and Bolivia. Edwards M, Fraser C and Overall, the paper assesses that Restrepo Estrada S. 2002, Fraser C and Restrepo-Estrada Multitudes NGO experiences of participation `Community radio for change: S. 2002, `Community Radio of have been a mixed bag: on the NGOs in the Age of for Change and Development' one hand they have developed new Information', IDS Bulletin 25 in Development (the Journal Support links between other organisations, (2) 117-124 (1994) (Brighton, of the Society for International the government agents and poor people, Institute of Development Development), 45(4): 69-73, With but on the other, they have felt their Studies) (December 2002) contributions were often sidelined and participatory processes have In this article, Edwards links the rise The authors illustrate the role of a 4 often been haphazard. of NGOs within the development radio station, owned and run by a field to the emergence of the community, in providing the forum L information age, and poses the for the participatory, public dialogue question of whether NGOs have a which is essential for social change. comparative advantage in linking The radio station is a platform for Appendix information, knowledge and action identifying and analysing problems in an efficient and relevant way. and their solutions, thereby He suggests that NGOs have a determining development inputs distinctive competence in this area that truly meet local needs. Open 135 due to three factors: 1. NGOs have access to on-air complaints from the audience can pressure local authorities geographical boundaries. This is "Perhaps no reform can be as to adopt practices of good governance termed `meta-networking' and is significant for making democratic and transparency. Cheap and easy to a core function of the professional institutions work as reform of install and operate, community radio role. The purpose of community the media...." (UNDP; Human can also be the interface between development is to support and shape Development Report, 2002) poor communities and the Internet. social networking. [Abstract from This paper argues that heightened [Abstract from article] article] media involvement in the PRSP process could help build a stronger independent media sector while Gellner G. 1986, Plough, Hovland I. 2003, preparing citizens to take an active Sword and Book: the Structure Communication Literature role in dialogues that will have a huge of Human History (Chicago, Review (London, Overseas impact on their lives. Therefore, the the University of Chicago Press) Development Institute) media has a vital role in ensuring quality consultation and participation. Gellner puts forward a In preparation for a new research Media involvement it is argued; comprehensive philosophy of human strategy, the Central Research would help frame the issues for history, from the Neolithic age to Team (CRT) at the UK Department discussion; provide background the present. Gellner divides human for International Development analysis; and disseminate the results endeavour into three fundamental (DFID) commissioned a series of of the consultations, noting minority activities - production, coercion, and studies on relevant topics - among or dissenting points of view. In cognition - and examines how these them the topic `communication addition, similar to the steps taken activities were transformed by the of research for poverty reduction'. to strengthen the private sector in `great leaps' of the agricultural and This literature review contributes to developing countries, the resulting industrial revolutions. the study by mapping the current PRSP could itself include legal and In tracing the social changes that recommendations and emerging regulatory frameworks that would occurred as humans moved from themes in the literature relevant to facilitate the development of an hunting and gathering to agriculture this issue, drawing on an annotated independent media sector which to industry, Gellner rejects genetic bibliography of over 100 documents could serve as a watchdog holding and teleological explanations and from DFID and other development governments accountable for stresses instead the roles of special agencies, research institutes, commitments made to citizens. combinations of circumstances and of academics and practitioners. cognition. He argues against cultural Conclusions and findings from relativism and contends that human the documents are summarised Lloyd-Laney M. 2003a, societies have progressed in genuine in the literature review, divided Making Information User- knowledge, even if at a price. into four sections. The first section Driven, (Wallingford, Despite the triumph of cognition sets out the background and, more UK, Communication and and the abundance of goods generally, some links between Information Management offered by industrial production, communication and poverty. Section Resource Centre) Gellner warns, coercion still 2 presents previous DFID material (www.cimrc.info) plays a menacing role in modern on communication of research, and society. He advises that, though compares it to material from other Tailoring information to suit your we cannot predict the future, we bilateral and multilateral agencies. audience increases the likelihood that can understand our options by Section 3 summarises the major your information will be accessed comprehending the past. concerns and recommendations and taken up. To provide user- related to communication of research driven information it is important to for poverty reduction in current understand who your target audience Gilchrist A. 2000, `The literature from research institutes, is, what information they want/ well-connected community: think-tanks, academics, NGOs and need, how they access information networking to the "edge practitioners. The third section is and whether you are trying to of chaos"' Community divided into three sub-sections: inform or influence your audience. Development Journal 35(3): communication to policymakers, Questionnaires can be employed 264-75. to researchers, and to end users. to determine your audience's Finally, Section 4 discusses some of information needs and the media Complexity theory provides new the gaps in the field and emerging they use. With this knowledge you insights into the behaviour and themes that seem to be potentially can provide the information your `emergent properties' of social important issues in the near future. target audience wants, in media they Multitudes of systems. The experience of can use, and place your information `community' is both an outcome and where your audience will look for Support the context of informal networking. Hudock A. 2003, Hearing it. If you are clear about who has the A `well-connected community' is the Voices of the Poor: produced the information, who it achieved when people feel part of Encouraging Good Governance is intended for and its purpose, the With a web of diverse and inter-locking and Poverty Reduction through user can make informed decisions relationships. These networks sustain Media Sector Support, World about the value of your information. 4 and shape an integrated and dynamic Learning paper series Involving end users in research is social and organisational environment (www.worldlearning.org/wlid/docs/ also more likely to produce outputs L representing life at the `edge of wl_pp4.pdf) that are quickly disseminated and chaos'. It supports the familiar (www.eurodad.org/articles/ taken up. Awareness of the strategic patterns of interaction and collective default.aspx?id=484) role of information within your Appendix organisation that characterise the organisation can be enhanced by voluntary and community sectors. This is the fourth of a series of five encouraging all organisation members Community development involves World Learning papers that examine to become involved in identifying creating and managing opportunities the linkages between global and information needs, dissemination for connection and communication national governance as reflected in and community building. Practices 136 across sectoral, identity and the PRSP process. such as using a database of people who have requested information to `information overload', and there Mahmoud, M O M. 2002, The regularly inform them about newly is confusion about the role of each Media in Democracies: Role, available materials, and ensuring network with respect to another. Responsibilities and Human that your organisation has a focal · Networks are themselves `not Rights Issues (Geneva, UNHCR) point responsible for responding to networked', so that information (http://193.194.138.190/democracy/D- information demands will help you to users cannot get an overview of Mohamedou.pdf) reach your target audience. [Summary what information is available, and from paper] where. This paper argues that the media is · Networks do not incorporate generally good for democracy, and and strengthen the systems leads to improved human rights. Lloyd-Laney M. 2003b, Making that people already use to access It does however point to several Knowledge Networks Work for information (e.g. social networks), common problems which mean that, the Poor: Final Report, (ITDG and consequently do not for issues such as human rights, the ­ the Intermediate Technology understand why they do not reach media is often less helpful than it Development Group) their target audience. might be. (www.itdg.org/?id=knowledge_ · It is also important to recognise The paper suggests that although networks) and value local knowledge and the media is increasingly being information channels, through organised on a global level, the Making Knowledge Networks Work participatory approaches. different political, economic and for the Poor is an ITDG initiative that · Organisations do not always cultural conditions in which media seeks to improve the integration communicate effectively with their agencies operate in different and coordination internationally constituencies, and are often guilty counties determines how the media of information and knowledge of confusing information dissem- can address issues of public interest resources on appropriate technology, ination with communication. and human rights. In fact, press and the purpose of the preliminary · Development practitioners and freedom and human rights are study was to consider the role of a those engaged in the provision of inseparable things ­ press freedom network in bringing about this aim. information services aimed at often working to strengthen human The project emerged out of a reducing poverty, emphasise that rights at the same time as depending recognition by both development `face to face' communication is on them. In this way, the media practitioners and donors that the most effective mode of and politics are in a kind of `cycle of poor men and women face a transferring information. The production' where numerous actors series of problems in locating and challenge, therefore, is how any are part of an interconnected system. using other people's knowledge information system or network At present, many human rights and information for their own can engage with this mode of stories are either underplayed by the benefit. In particular, information communication. media or reported without sufficient about new technical options is · The role of the information inter- attention to the social context of required both to enable adoption mediary is key in addressing this each incident. Ideally, the media of appropriate technologies, and challenge, but they are little under- should deal with human rights in to facilitate technology adaptation stood and quite often overlooked. transparent, democratic, consistent and development. The project · Participation in knowledge and accurate manner. The extent undertook a number of activities, networks can be influenced by to which it may do so is affected by including investigation of key centres institutional competition for how concentrated the media sector of knowledge resources on these resources, especially when is, its distribution capabilities, and the issues, discussions, organisational knowledge and information is quantitative and qualitative capacity case studies, and a workshop seen as an organisational asset. to produce coverage. Often, media to identify requirements for agencies adapt news material to suit appropriate technology information The creation of a new network would their largest audience, and this often and knowledge to contribute to the not necessarily resolve these issues, reduces the quality of coverage. information systems of poor people unless it attempted to consolidate Most often, human rights stories in and to brainstorm the concept of a and provide additional facilities not the media are reductionist, rather coordinating network. The research already on offer to users. However, than deliberately misleading, and confirmed that: there was doubt amongst project miss the complexities of each case · there is poor coordination amongst participants and informants about the which would be brought out by a information providers need for another network. Rather, it closer attention to social context. · poor people have difficulty was suggested the focus should be accessing the right kind of on making existing networks work Multitudes information better. The need for better Marker P, McNamara K of · many of the information systems co-ordination between information and Wallace L. 2003, The that do exist to provide information generators and providers was Significance of Information Support to the poor are not demand-driven, recognised, as was the need for and Communication the they overlook local knowledge, sharing of good practice in information Technologies for Reducing With they do not understand or ignore services and systems. This suggests Poverty (UK Department for the role of intermediaries, and that there is a role to be played as a International Development) they do not monitor usage `broker of brokers', and to be a (www.comminit.com/st2002/sld- 4 · the ICTs revolution provides catalyst for better communication and 5235.html) opportunities but can undermine coordination within networks and L traditional, local communication, between network members. [From This study sets out, for DFID staff, by taking attention away from executive summary] the fundamental principles underlying them and supplanting them a proposed approach to ICTs and Appendix development, and draws from those The main findings of the project were: principles a set of recommendations · The proliferation of networks for DFID's priorities in this area. is itself a problem. Development `DFID should mainstream 137 practitioners complain of attention to the information and communication aspects of poverty McGee R and Norton N. 2000, levels. In the North, it aims to and appropriate use of ICTs in the Participation in Poverty guide and inspire bilateral and development process' Reduction Strategies: A multilateral donor agencies, NGOs, Here, ICTs are defined broadly Synthesis of Experience with and other civil society organisations to include radio, television, mobile Participatory Approaches to seeking to play a supporting role as phones and landlines, computers Policy Design, Monitoring and their Southern partners engage in and the Internet. The paper argues Implementation, IDS Working national PRS processes. that ICTs can be used to empower paper 109 (Brighton, Institute The document outlines the the poor as part of the Millennium of Development Studies) significant challenges which Development Goals (MDGs). (www.ids.ac.uk/ids/bookshop/wp/ must be overcome in the course Information and communication wp109.pdf) of establishing participatory, issues should be considered in all sustainable, country-owned poverty areas of DFID work, and must be This document reviews the extent reduction strategies It testifies to given particular attention in the PRSP and affect of civil society and NGO the existence of many competent process. DFID should try to build participation in the PRS process. It participation advocates and multilateral partnerships and joint concludes that donors, governments, practitioners, and to a considerable programmes of work on ICTs. These civil society organisations and NGOs wealth and depth of experience should be a higher priority for DFID all need to take a learning approach on which governments can draw country offices and are central to the PRS process. It has a substantial to overcome these challenges. empowering the poor and generating section on communication between It also highlights the need for a wider participation by civil society the poor and state institutions; learning approach, and for State organisations in DFID work. `upwards', `downwards' and and Donor agencies and many civil `horizontally'. society organisations themselves `Experience shows that to promote internal institutional Mattelart M and Mattelart several kinds of information flow changes, as the PRS process A. 1998, Theories of ­ `upwards' and `downwards', as unfolds.' Communication: A short well as `horizontal' among networks introduction (London, Sage) and alliances ­ are essential in participatory policy processes for Mozammel M and Zatlokal The first formal information poverty reduction.' B. 2003, Strategic theory model was Claude It looks at Participatory Poverty Communication in PRSP, Shannon's mathematical model Assessments as upwards World Bank. of communication, developed in communication - designed to (www.worldbank.org/ the 1940s, which laid out a linear give donors information that goes developmentCommunication/ schema of production, transmission, beyond `measuring poverty' without where1/prsp.htm) channel, receiver, and destination. its qualitative aspects. They are This model views technology as an providing a more dynamic picture This document makes instrument that is merely inserted of poverty which has led to practical explicit connections between into (human) calculations, plans lessons for policy. In terms of communication and core aspects and predictions. The reaction to downward information flows, it looks of the PRS process, particularly the mathematical model came at the consultation exercises and participation. It details practical when social science researchers dissemination, and the steps that have steps for making communication in started emphasising the circular been taken to demystify bureaucratic PRSPs effective. nature of communication. Even the processes. They conclude that `Participation, the cornerstone of smallest situation of interaction is information flows are a critical PRSPs, relies on accurate, consistent determined by so many variables element of reflective practice amongst and continuous communication that that a linear schema can only donors, governments and CSOs. provokes response and encourages obscure more than it clarifies, and `The purpose of this synthesis is debate' instead they suggest analysing to review the experience to date in The paper advocates for more interaction through looking at applying participatory approaches `strategic communication'; based on different levels (such as the to macro-level policy formulation, a two-way flow of information that communication between the actual implementation and monitoring, builds a consensus amongst various elements of the message; the with a view to supporting country- stakeholders and is integrated into communication embodied in the led facilitation of inclusive and the policy agenda. It maps the human/social relations involved; the high-quality participation in the cultural and social issues involved communication implied by previous PRS process. The participatory with communication in PRSPs, Multitudes of messages; the communication of experiences reviewed are drawn arguing that communication is an the message in relation to wider from research initiatives, donors' integral aspect to all stages of the Support society). This approach argues that country strategies, aid coordination process, and that it is critical to the it is also necessary to take into processes, policy advocacy create a `communication account the large amount of `silent' campaigns, institutional change environment' to do this. The paper With messages that surround every processes, budgetary analysis suggests that the key to this is pronounced message, such as the and formulation, and citizens' setting clear objectives for the 4 implicit understandings of monitoring mechanisms. Sections communication process, with a gestures, space, linguistic codes, are organised around key themes focused audience in mind, and send L time, ways of relating, and which crystallised in the course of thoughtfully designed messages ways of disagreeing or reaching reviewing these experiences. through appropriate channels. It agreements. From this perspective, This synthesis is directed details the financial and human Appendix both the `sender' and the `receiver' towards a range of actors involved resource issues associated with are equally important actors. in PRSP processes. In the South, communication. The paper provides it aims to serve governments case studies from Niger, Uganda responsible for leading the process, and Vietnam. and civil society organisations 138 wishing to engage with it at various NCDDR. 1996, Review of the the institutional framework for The evaluation study of HASHI literature on dissemination its relations with the partner interviewed 200 farmers, with equal and knowledge utilisation, government and with other donors, numbers of women and men, to find (USA, National Center for the and by its own internal rules and out which of these communication Dissemination of Disability culture. In recent years, donors methods were effective and whether Research) have recognised the importance there were gender differences. The ( www.ncddr.org/du/products/review) of ensuring that these frameworks results of the survey showed that support nationally owned Poverty village meetings were the most This review offers some frameworks Reduction Strategies or similar popular channel of communication for understanding the use of approaches. Different objectives with both sexes, but that men had knowledge. Their categories are: and interests between donors and participated and benefited more than (i) conceptual knowledge (which partner governments can impair women from the information that changes attitudes), instrumental aid effectiveness. Donor support was shared at the meetings. The knowledge (changes practices), can be opaque and unpredictable. reason for this was that the meetings strategic knowledge (achieves goals, The way aid is delivered can create were held in the morning, and so ­ such as increase in power); (ii) spread an unnecessary burden on partner although attendance was compulsory of knowledge (one-way diffusion of countries, hinder efforts to build for all - women were less likely to information), choice of knowledge partner country capacity and weaken attend due to household chores at (process of expanding access to partner government leadership that time of day. Film shows and sources), exchange (interactions), and its accountability to its own radio broadcasts were also popular implementation (increasing use of people. This chapter sets out nine among both sexes, but more so knowledge or changing attitudes guiding principles for providing among men. One major disadvantage and practice). Ideas about how more coordinated and effective with film shows was that they often knowledge diffuses have not development assistance. This took place at night, when women changed greatly over the years; for chapter also sets out specific good were either reluctant to go out or had example, that there is a cultural and practices donors may adopt for to stay home with the children. Thus needs gap between researchers and developing the overall framework for the official communication strategies users, but information technologies donor­partner government relations, and methods of the HASHI project have transformed practice. The for donor­donor coordination and for were more accessible to men than notion of learning taking place on individual donor systems. If adopted, women, and men also seemed to a blank slate still prevails in many they would enhance a greater profit more from the information schools, whereas constructivist sharing of objectives between donor communication activities run by theories point out the obvious and partner governments, clearer HASHI than women. Women, on fact that learners filter knowledge expectations of each other and more the other hand, relied far more on through pre-conceived ideas and predictable and transparent aid secondary sources of information, people make sense of ideas based flows. Donors would coordinate in a such as neighbours and school on their prior experience. People way that would be transparent and children, who passed on information change their beliefs only when minimise unnecessary transaction that they had received from the serious discrepancies emerge in their costs for partner countries. Donors' project. Informal communication thinking and practice. The source of internal rules and cultures would networks were more directly information is more important than encourage their staff to behave important to the women than the the content, for example people collaboratively and as flexibly as formal communication activities. The accept information more readily from possible. [From abstract] authors conclude that there is a need those they trust, e.g. dairy farmers to design communication channels trust each other more than experts. that take into account existing Comprehensibility has more impact Otsyina J and Rosenberg D. socioeconomic differences between than quality. Also summarised are 1999, `Rural development and men and women. key ideas from social marketing, e.g. women: what are the best audience segmentation (dividing approaches to communicating your audience into different groups information?' Gender and Oxfam. 2003, The IMF and and designing different information, development , 7(2): 45-55. the Millennium Goals: Failing training, rewards etc.). Identity and to deliver for low income cultural differences will also play their The authors present the topic of rural countries, Oxfam Briefing part in deciding how information will development and women by stating Paper 54 (September 2003) be received. that the main problem in this area is (www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/ the lack of effective communication issues/debt_aid/bp54_imfmdgs.htm) Multitudes strategies and methods. In this of OECD DAC. 2003, paper they reflect on why this is `The IMF has a key role in achieving Harmonising Donor Practices so and what might be done to the MDGs, but as one partner in a Support for Effective Aid Delivery, improve the situation. They present broad alliance for poverty reduction, the Guidelines and Reference the findings of a study carried out and not as the all powerful on/off With Series in Tanzania in 1992, charting the switch for aid and debt relief.' (www.oecd.org/dataoecd/0/48/ communication strategies employed This policy brief is critical of the 20896122.pdf) by an extension agency in the HASHI IMF saying it is too conservative and 4 (Hifadhi Ardhi Shinyanga) project, a has too much of a monopoly on aid This paper offers guidelines for soil conservation and afforestation decisions. It argues that the IMF L how donors could better improve programme under the Ministry needs to radically change the way their various procedures; how they of Lands, Natural Resources and it works in low income countries; relate with governments, how they Tourism, supported by foreign aid. moving from a focus on short-term Appendix relate to one another, and how they The HASHI project employed several macro-stability and pessimism about operate internally. different means of communication: aid to an approach based on long- The effectiveness of a donor's village meetings, film shows, radio, term poverty needs and the MDGs. assistance in a partner country school projects, seminars, neighbour This is seen as essential if PRSPs 139 is affected by the nature of contacts, and posters. are to be successful. Oxfam argues that aid and debt relief should be the arguments for and against. Provan K and Brinton Milward de-linked from the IMF programme Section four looks at monitoring of H. 2001, `Do Networks and should instead be based on the policy implementation. It examines Really Work? A Framework implementation of the PRSP and the role CSOs can play in ensuring for Evaluating Public-Sector the PRSP progress report. The PRSP that pro-poor policies are actually Organizational Networks' progress report should be discussed implemented and the impact on Public Administration Review at the annual Consultative Group poverty reduction is maximised.' 61(4): 414-23. meeting of all donors in a country [from summary] and this should be open to all Provan and Brinton Milward start stakeholders. with the question: Do networks Philo G. 1996, `Seeing and for community-based, publicly Believing' in P Marris and funded health services deliver Oxfam. 2002, Oxfam PRS S Thornham (eds) Media what they promise? How do we guide: Guide of participation studies: A Reader (Edinburgh, evaluate network effectiveness? in policy formulation and Edinburgh University Press) In principle, community-based monitoring in the context of networks would seem to be logical PRSP. What leads people to accept or mechanisms for providing public (www.eurodad.org/articles/ to reject the portrayal of an event services that cannot or should not default.aspx?id=208) in the news? Philo analyses a be centralised. Community-based case study of the television news networks in the health sector `The guide is developed with the coverage of the Miners' Strike in typically bring together a collection intent to serve as a resource not the mid-1980s and the extent to of programmes and services that only for Oxfam staff but also for which the news was believed to be span a range of cooperating but other organisations involved in `true' by the audience. The news autonomous (frequently private or influencing national policymaking coverage selectively focused on non-governmental) organisations. and monitoring of the PRS violent incidents, portraying an However, there is still a lack of process. The document focuses image of the picket lines as primarily comparative network data, and on policymaking in low-income violent places. In Philo's general the authors state that in practice countries (LICs), because present audience sample, 54% believed that it is premature to conclude that donor conditionality stipulates civil picketing was indeed mostly violent. networks are effective mechanisms society participation in preparation Some important reasons given for addressing complex policy and in the implementation of by the audience for believing the problems. They then propose a plans under the PRSP approach. television story were the perceived framework for network evaluation However, Oxfam emphasises that credibility of the source (historically that focuses on three different levels "many of the areas covered will be and culturally mediated trust in the of analysis: community, network and useful to organisations working in BBC), as well as the impact of the organisational participant level. middle-income, or even developed visual images ­ seeing is believing. · Evaluation at the community countries." However, the remaining 46% of level: At this level, networks Section one gives a background the audience sample did not accept must be evaluated against the and introduction to the increasing the story as it was portrayed by the service contribution they make to opportunities for civil society to news. One of the most important the communities they are participate in policy formulation grounds for rejection was direct or supposed to benefit, using criteria and implementation in low income indirect experience of the issue, e.g. such as improved access, countries, and in particular the through having driven past picket utilisation, responsiveness, new opportunities created by the lines or through knowing miners. integration, and cost effectiveness. Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Another ground for rejection was Since the network's end users are programme introduced jointly by the comparison between the television frequently not a politically powerful World Bank and IMF. coverage and other sources of interest group, Provan and Brinton Section two looks at what is information, such as newspapers. In Milward suggest that evaluation at meant by the participation of Civil addition, some people were sceptical community level should include Society organisations in policy due to their perception of the political consultation with representative formulation and implementation, and agenda of the television news. consumer advocacy groups or particularly those organisations made The portrayal of the miners' local officials. up of or representing the poorest strike as violent stuck in the minds · Evaluation at the network level: To sections of society and women. It of over half the sample audience, operate effectively, the gives a definition of the different strongly influenced by the visual collaborating organisations must Multitudes of levels of participation and what is images. Footage and photographs recognise the need to act as part required to ensure that meaningful carry a lot of weight as credible of a network. The simplest way of Support participation is achieved. As such it evidence in information societies, evaluating whether this is the provides a resource for influencing and are seen as more `neutral' or happening is to map the ebb and and assessing the participatory `true' than written reports. However, flow of organisations to and from With process in individual countries. this was not enough to make the the network, as compared to the Section three looks at the policy news coverage stick as a credible maturity of the network. Newly 4 formulation process, and specifically story in all of the sample audience. established networks should be how the content of policies can be In sum, how people understand attracting new members who can L influenced by Civil Society to ensure and interpret news depends on offer new services, while mature that they are pro-poor and will ensure the extent to which the news is networks should have a relatively poverty reduction. It therefore compatible with their existing stable core group of agents with a Appendix provides a resource for CSOs cultural/political beliefs, their direct broad range of loose or informal seeking to influence the content and indirect experience, and their ties. Frequently, a network will of national policies and in particular ability to compare the television require a principal agent, or PRSPs. Annex one then contains account with various other accounts. network administrative a table of the typical policy reforms organisation, in order to manage 140 mooted for low-income countries and the evolution of the network. · Evaluation at the organisational The meaning of an innovation is Smith M J. 1997, `Policy participant level: This level thus gradually worked out through Networks' in Hill M (ed) The considers the benefits that accrue a process of social construction. Policy Process; A Reader to the organisational members [From the book's preface] (London, Prentice Hall) of the network. Do the individual agencies feel that they stand Smith suggests various ways to to gain from participating in the Roth C. 2002, The Media in distinguish between different policy network? The answer to this will Governance, Developing Free networks. The first distinction is based mostly depend on four primary and Effective Media to Serve on the theory that policy networks criteria: client outcomes and the Interests of the Poor: A can be arranged along a continuum integration of services; legitimacy Guide to Assistance DFID from a policy community to an issue and status; resource acquisition Governance Department, UK network. At the policy community end and fundraising; and cost. Department for International one would find networks that were Development (February 2002) well defined, with formal membership (www.dfid.gov.uk) and frequent interaction among the Rogers E. 1995, Diffusion of members. At the issue network end Innovations, (NewYork,The This paper aims to `improve the of the continuum, on the other hand, Free Press) quality and impact of government- one would find a large and loosely media relations and media defined network of various people, Rogers, perhaps the most widely effectiveness in serving the interests with fluctuating levels of activity and known diffusion theorist, presents of the poor and the disadvantaged'. interaction. a comprehensive overview of The paper discusses how to Another way of distinguishing issues and problems related help government and development between policy networks is to look to diffusion in his fourth book. agencies support the media in at them by policy sector. Smith's These include the generation of developing countries with a view chapter focuses on the interaction innovations, socioeconomic factors, to improving the livelihoods of the between networks and government. the innovation-decision process, disadvantaged in these countries. The network's aim is to influence communication channels, diffusion It examines government-media government policy, while the networks, the rate of adoption, relations, regulatory mechanisms, government wishes to use networks compatibility, trialability, opinion and what kinds of government to achieve specific policy goals. leadership, the change agent, and strategies can help to make the The nature of this interaction will innovation in organisations. media more pro-poor in different vary by sector, as different sectors The book makes use of the countries. It has a sizeable operate with different levels of important concepts of uncertainty directory of resources for training resources and prestige. The author and information. Uncertainty is the media practitioners. also suggests that if networks wish degree to which a number of to maintain a good relationship with alternatives are perceived, with the government they have to abide respect to the occurrence of an SamiullahY and Srinivasa by certain `rules of the game': they event, and the relative probabilities of R. 2000, Role of ICTs in have to act constitutionally, accept these alternatives. Uncertainty Urban and Rural Poverty the government's final decision, motivates an individual to seek Reduction, UK Department for show that they can be trusted, and information. Information is a International Development only make reasonable demands. difference in matter-energy that (www.teri.res.in/icteap/present/ High profile campaigns, for example, affects uncertainty in a situation session4/sami.doc) fall outside the rules of the game where a choice exists among a set of and will change the nature of the alternatives. One kind of uncertainty This paper argues that information relationship to government. is generated by an innovation, and communication technologies The chapter also outlines defined as an idea, practice, or object can be used to reduce poverty. differences between core members that is perceived as new by an ICTs can play a significant role in of a policy network and peripheral individual or another unit of adoption. combating rural and urban poverty members. Some members will be An innovation presents an individual and fostering sustainable active in the network for a longer or an organisation with a new development through creating period of time, will have more alternative or alternatives, with new information rich societies and resources, and more contacts. means of solving problems. But the supporting livelihoods. If ICTs are However, this does not necessarily probabilities of the new alternatives appropriately deployed and realise mean that they will take power being superior to previous practice the differential needs of urban and away from other members. Rather, Multitudes are not exactly known by the rural people, they can become the author argues that in a policy of individual problem solvers. Thus, they powerful tools of economic, social network, power is positive-sum, are motivated to seek further and political empowerment. Key to i.e. the resources of one group also Support information about the innovation to successful ICT interventions is the benefit the others. the cope with the uncertainty that it enabling environment, participation With creates. of the private sector and NGOs, Information about an innovation free flow of information, access by Song S. 1999, Guidelines is often sought from near-peers, women and capacity building. The on the use of electronic 4 especially information about challenge for governments is to networking to facilitate their subjective evaluations of ensure the convergence of their regional or global research L the innovation. This information initiatives and those taken up by networks (Ottawa, exchange about a new idea occurs various donors, multilaterals, NGOs International Development through a convergence process and other organisations and to Research Centre [IDRC]) Appendix involving interpersonal networks. address the digital divide. [From The diffusion of innovations is abstract] Recent developments in information essentially a social process in which and communication technologies subjectively perceived information - including the rapid spread of 141 about a new idea is communicated. telecommunication infrastructure and the growth of the Internet to information are prerequisites of draws on specially commissioned - have dramatically lowered the ensuring the voice and participation research from Lesotho, Ethiopia and barriers to research collaboration necessary for a democratic society Uganda. in the developing world. Electronic · Access to information and The report first gives an overview networking offers the potential communication build on these of the PRS process which finds that: for researchers anywhere to internationally recognised rights · Since their introduction, PRSPs communicate with peers in their and together encompass the core have been widely welcomed field and to gain access to valuable principles of democratic as the first serious attempt by research information via the Internet. governance: participation, the international community to put However, while the problem of transparency and accountability. poverty reduction at the centre of access is a substantial hurdle which · The promotion and protection of development planning has been overcome, there are both access to information itself · They have also been criticised many other barriers to successful and flows of information exist by some non-governmental electronic collaboration. This paper between constituents, organisations (NGOs) as being highlights some key issues to be governments, parliament, merely a new name for Structural aware of in fostering electronic community groups, civil society Adjustment Policies (SAPs) collaboration. organisations and the private Benefits of electronic networks sector are of equal importance. Positive outcome include are clear. Firstly, they allow · It is essential to create and · Better dialogue between researchers to share information strengthen the communication government and civil society dynamically and far more quickly mechanisms that enable poor organisations on priorities for than previously. There are distinct people to influence national and government spending advantages in terms of interaction. local government policy and · Increased government Song also points out that electronic practice. commitment in developing networking should be seen as a countries to poverty reduction tool to enhance the gain from face- Vyas A. 2002, `Connecting generally and to agreed basic to-face meetings, rather than a voices and expanding horizons' factors for helping people out of replacement for these. However, in Development (Journal of poverty ­ generally education, there are substantial prerequisites the Society for International health and rural infrastructure. to a functioning electronic research Development) 45(4): 55-60. · Increased transparency, in which network. Access to Internet government budgeting and is not always guaranteed in Vyas describes the genesis, expenditure can be scrutinised by Southern institutions even where developments, doubts, dilemmas parliaments and public. it is physically possible. Political and challenges of moderating an interests may provide obstacles, electronic discussion list on gender However some PRSP critics especially if the activity is perceived issues in South Asia. She elaborates charge that the whole approach is as undermining other authority on the contents, subscribers' profile, fundamentally flawed being based structures. Equally important is methodology and technical issues on the same premise as SAPs that a reliable commitment to the relating to the discussion list. She economic growth is the first step functioning of the network. Without strongly feels that e-discussion towards reducing poverty and the fundamental buy-in from the lists have immense potential for report notes that even the World participants, electronic networks are resource sharing, networking and Bank and IMF, in their own review of doomed to fail. In order to strengthen advocacy activities which need to PRSPs earlier this year, admitted that commitment, Song suggests that be fully explored and utilised by the many countries have given little detail a network should have a facilitator women's groups and researchers in about how they expect to achieve the who stimulates discussion, regularly the South Asian region. She further high growth rates needed. summarises the debate, draws in shares her optimism about how The report is critical of the World inactive participants, and provides this simple email technology can Bank and IMF, and governments for assistance to participants not connect researchers globally, forge not allowing debate and alternative previously familiar with electronic collaborations and share information views on these fundamental discussion forums. [Partly from through the email networks, and questions of economic policy. abstract] connect the people. [Abstract from The participation in economic article] policymaking to which civil society is being invited in the PRSP process is UNDP. 2003, Access strictly limited. to Information UNDP´s Warnock K. et al. 2002, In order for PRSPs to succeed, Multitudes of engagement and a guide to Reducing poverty: is the World the report stresses the need for a key actors (United Nations Bank's strategy working? After strong sense of commitment and Support Development Programme) 3 years what progress, if any, `ownership' by governments and the has the PRS made? (Panos people and concludes that so far This document is principally aimed Institute / Medianet) this sense of ownership is not very With at UNDP country offices and strong partly because countries establishes a strategic framework for For over 70 countries producing a have not paid enough attention to 4 the support UNDP provides to access Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper the potential role of the media in of information. It aims to lever (PRSP), approved by the World Bank informing people and stimulating L support in a way that maximises and IMF, is either a condition for engagement. [Summary from id21] people' participation in democratic getting debt relief, or a condition and policymaking processes. UNDP for receiving concessional loans Appendix highlights the importance of a strong and some aid. This Panos report regulatory framework as well as examines the progress made so far Communication infrastructure. after 3 years of the Bank and IMFs UNDP takes the following position: Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) · Implementation of the rights to and looks at the arguments about 142 freedom of expression and access whether it can succeed. The report Further resources PovertyNet www.worldbank.org/poverty/ strategies/review/index.htm Debt Relief International www.dri.org.uk PovertyNet provides an introduction to key issues as well Examines the PRSP approach and its as in-depth information on poverty links to debt relief. measurement, monitoring, analysis, and on poverty reduction strategies for researchers and practitioners. Development Gateway The World Bank and IMF conducted www.developmentgateway.org a Comprehensive Review of the PRSP in early 2002. Several donor Has major sections on poverty, agencies, academic institutions and discussion boards etc. Numerous civil society organisations made reports, events and summaries of independent contributions to this PRSP relevant documents. review and the IMF and World Bank produced syntheses of their contributions. These are available on UNDP Information and the PovertyNet website. The World Communication Technology Bank and IMF carried out a second http://sdnhq.undp.org/it4dev/ Comprehensive Review of the PRSP initiative in 2004. A good focal point for ICT. World Bank Communication Centre www.worldbank.org/ developmentCommunication/ index.htm Good general centre point for communication in development. The PRSP Monitoring and Synthesis Project www.prspsynthesis.org The PRSP Monitoring and Synthesis Project is a 3-year project commissioned by DFID UK and managed by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI). It provides advice to DFID staff on key issues arising in the implementation of PRSPs, based on a synthesis of information about progress in- country. The project has produced a number of papers on experience to date, for example: · Politics and the PRSP Approach: Synthesis Paper (2004) · Experience with Poverty Reduction Strategies in Latin America and Multitudes the Caribbean (2003) of · Experience with PRSPs in Transition Countries (2003) Support · National Poverty Reduction the Strategies (PRSPs) in Conflict- With Affected Countries in Africa (2003) 4 L Appendix 143 Index A F Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) 69, 81 Action Plan (AP) 13 feedback 32, 59­61 partnerships Annual Progress Report (APR) 13, 69, 80, 81 civil society and government 73 G international donors 72 B Ghana 75, 76, 79 Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) Bolivia 70, 71­2, 73, 74, 76, 79 case study 35­44 process 13 case study 85­91, 115 government PRS unit 68 communication capacity 20­1 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) C communication with civil society 72­4 major issues 9 Cambodia 68, 69, 72, 74, 75, 81 communication with donors 74­5 communication approaches 23­4 case study 92­7, 116 communication good practice 77­8 communication issues 25­7 capacity building, communication programmes 27, 80 communication within government 67­9 communication process 13­16 civil society organisations (CSOs) PRSP role 14­16 communication programme development 28­32 communication with donors 75­6 principles 12 communication good practice 78­9 I communication with government 72­4 information R communication within civil society 69­71 access to 10, 19­20 Rwanda 69, 70, 71, 72, 79 density and capacity 10, 20 dissemination 70, 79 case study 108­12, 121 networks 31­2, 70, 79 institutional issues, strategic communication 27 PRSP role 14­16 international donors, partnerships 72 S communication staff, teams 78, 81 approaches 23­4 J strategic communication see communication good practice 77­81 joint donor groups 71­2, 74­5, 79­80 Strategic Communication for Poverty Reduction: SIDA government capacity 20­1 Joint Staff Assessment (JSA) 13, 75, 80 workshop (2004) 125­31 institutional issues 27 overview 67­76 K T programme development 28­32 Kyrgyz Republic 73 Tanzania 69, 70, 73,79 stakeholders 14­16, 67 case study 98­102, 117 case study 53­66, 122 strategic communication in PRSPs 9,12­16 strategic issues 25­7 M U strategy 77­8 mass media 10, 18­19 Uganda 68­9, 75 Communication Needs Assessment 29 Moldova 73, 76, 79 case study 123 Communication Strategy and Action Plan 13, 28­30, 81 case study 45­52, 118 consultation process, civil society and government 72­3 V country ownership, structural impediments 17­22 N Vietnam 75, 80 networks, civil society 31­2, 70, 79 case study 124 D Niger, case study 119 documents 69, 81 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 69­71, 72­3, 76 donors communication with civil society 75­6 P communication with donor community 71­2 Pakistan 68, 69, 70, 76, 77 communication good practice 79­81 case study 103­7, 120 communication with government 74­5 participation international partnerships 72 civil society 71, 74 joint donor groups 71­2, 74­5, 79­80 process 12, 13 PRSP role 14­16 structural impediments 10, 17­22 144