EXPLORING TWO YEARS OF LABOR MARKET POLICY RESPONSES TO COVID‑19: A GLOBAL EFFORT TO PROTECT WORKERS AND JOBS KEY MESSAGES To mitigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, countries have responded with an unprecedented number of social protection and jobs interventions, introducing over 5,700 measures across 224 countries and territories. This brief is based on the COVID-19 Social Protection and Jobs Policy Inventory that provides information on interventions launched or announced between January 2020 and January 2022. The analysis in this brief focuses on 3,436 labor market policies in the inventory, of the types listed in Box 1. The main findings are as follows: (a) Worldwide, a large number of labor market and social assistance policies have been introduced to mitigate the economic effects of the COVID-19 crisis. Virtually all countries have implemented labor market policies. (b) Firm liquidity support policies were the most prevalent policy for all income groups, but the second most prevalent measures were labor market regulations in low-income countries (LICs), cash transfers to the economically active population in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs) and upper-middle- income countries (UMICs), and wage subsidies in high-income countries (HICs). (c) Cash transfers to economically active persons were more common than other forms of income support and were introduced by 63 percent of countries. Wage subsidies were also popular and were introduced by 52 percent of countries. (d) Over one-third of the countries introduced activation policies to assist jobseekers and vulnerable groups with finding jobs or improving their skills and employability. (e) Changes to working conditions and occupational health and safety regulations in the workplace were the most widespread form of labor regulatory adjustments and were introduced by 39 percent and 22 percent of countries, respectively. (f) Although expenditure data are incomplete, recorded expenditures on labor market initiatives were significant, amounting to an average of 3.59 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) (US$32.6 billion) across countries.1 Globally, on average, the highest spending was on firm liquidity support followed by income support policies, and active labor policies. 1 This refers to the expenditure from when the programs were established until the time of reporting. 1 (g) The average labor market program that countries implemented reached only a small portion of the working-age population. On average across programs, about 7.9 percent and 7.3 percent of the working-age population benefited from labor market policies in UMICs and HICs, while 3.6 percent and 3.3 percent benefited in LICs and LMICs, respectively. (h) Spending tended to favor firms over individuals. Although expenditure data are highly incomplete, average spending on policies benefiting firms amounted to more than 3.5 times that of policies benefiting individuals. FIGURE 1 INTRODUCTION Firm liquidity support was the most popular More than two years since the onset of the COVID‑19 type of labor market policy pandemic, countries worldwide have introduced an unprecedented number of social protection and jobs policies to mitigate its economic impact. Public works 21 The crisis had a particularly devastating impact on the labor market. For example, an earlier study conducted Training and across a sample of 39 countries showed that between 34 placement assistance April and July 2020, an average of 34 percent of survey respondents working before the crisis stopped working, Income tax reduction 35 20 percent of employees reported partial or no payments for work performed, and 9 percent changed jobs during Unemployment benefits 39 the early part of the pandemic (Khamis et al. 2021a). While recovery from this initial shock has started with Entrepreneurship employment increasing between the second and third 40 support quarters of 2020 and income loss declining (Khamis et al. 2021b), policy makers worldwide continue to Wage subsidies 52 implement social protection and jobs policies to help those still in need. Labor regulations 60 Globally, labor market interventions have been a key policy response to combat the economic CT to economically active persons 63 effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, with 99 percent of countries introducing at least one labor market Firm liquidity policy. Policies targeted individuals and households 95 support coping with income and job losses or at risk of losing their livelihoods. Countries also supported firms facing 0 20 40 60 80 100 existential threats because of general lockdowns to Percentage of countries implementing reduce business losses and job dismissals. Countries’ at least one policy responses have focused on helping firms survive as much as helping workers endure the pandemic. Income support policies Active labor policies This brief takes stock of labor market policies Labor regulations targeted to workers and firms since the onset of Firm liquidity support policies the COVID-19 pandemic. The data on policies come from the COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory, a World Bank Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. database documenting over 5,700 social protection and Note: Graph based on 3,436 programs implemented by 221 jobs policies that were put in place globally between countries, including 88 HICs, 58 UMICs, 47 LMICs, and 28 LICs. These include 907 income support, 320 active labor, 414 labor January 2020 and January 2022. The data cover a total regulations, and 1,795 firm liquidity support policies. of 224 countries and territories (see Annex A), which 2 represents a major expansion of the analysis carried out THE COVID-19 SPJ POLICY by De La Flor et al. (2021) for 55 developing countries. INVENTORY— METHODOLOGY The analysis describes the types of policies most often used among countries and explores patterns across The COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory contains quan‑ country income groups.2 The brief does not consider titative and qualitative information on social pro‑ the impacts and implications of these policy responses. tection and jobs policies introduced in response to the pandemic in 224 countries between January This brief is structured as follows. The first section 2020 and January 2022. The inventory covers 5,782 briefly explains the data and methodology. The policies across the three areas of social protection: labor following section gives a descriptive overview and market policies (encompassing 59.4 percent of all poli- comparison of countries’ responses for all social cies), social assistance (33.3 percent of all policies), and protection programs. That is followed by the main social insurance (7.3 percent of all policies).3 Of the 224 section, which describes labor market initiatives to help countries and territories included in the inventory, 29 workers and firms. This section covers labor market are LICs, 47 are LMICs, 59 are UMICs, and 89 are HICs.4 interventions providing income support (public works, cash transfers to economically active persons, wage The labor-specific analysis focuses on the 3,436 subsidies, unemployment benefits, and income tax labor-related policies documented in the COVID‑19 reduction), active labor market policies (entrepreneurship SPJ Policy Inventory, including interventions support and training and job placement assistance), and directed to firms, workers, and households. The policies to support firm liquidity and changes to labor framework used to classify these policies is explained regulations. In each section, an analysis of beneficiaries in Box 1. and expenditures across income groups is included. The brief includes the conclusion at the end. BOX 1. LABOR MARKET INTERVENTIONS OF THE COVID-19 SPJ POLICY INVENTORY The COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory includes information on several types of programs and policies that affect the labor market. Policies are considered if they aim to address the employment or income shock faced by workers, including indirectly through firm liquidity support. For this brief, labor market policies are classified according to four categories: (a) income support policies, which include public works programs, cash transfers to economically active persons, income tax reduction, unemployment benefits, and wage subsidies; (b) active labor market policies, which include entrepreneurship support and training and placement assistance; (c) firm liquidity support policies, such as tax relief for firms, credit facilities, credit guarantees, corporate tax reductions, and relief from social security contributions for firms; and (d) labor regulations which define formal work relationships. Regarding income support policies, public works and cash transfer programs specifically targeted to economically active persons are considered as labor market policies. In contrast, interventions that do not explicitly target workers such as general cash transfers to households are not considered.5 Similarly, policies regarding unemployment benefits or suspending social security contributions paid by firms are included within the set of labor market policies. Figure 2 described the policies included in the inventory in more detail. 2 For more information about country classification by income level and region, refer to https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/ knowledgebase/articles/378834-how-does-the-world-bank-classify-countries. 3 It is important to note that this number differs from Gentilini et al. (2022), who also based their analysis on this database, because they do not consider labor market demand-side policies. For additional information on the COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory and the types of policies included in each social protection area, refer to Annex B. 4 It should be noted that this number also differs from Gentilini et al. (2022), whose analysis is based on 223 countries and territories. 5 Income support measures, while distinct from Active Labor Market Programs, are included in this analysis because they either directly or indirectly aim to address the employment or income shock faced by workers. 3 FIGURE 2 Firm liquidity support was the most popular type of labor market policy Income support for the poor given in the form of cash wages, services or food Income support policies Public works in exchange for work effort Cash transfers to Non-contributory cash transfers to economically active persons without economically active persons being conditional on the beneficiaries’ actions Labor income tax deferral or reduction, change in basic personal Income tax reduction income tax credits Unemployment benefits Benefits payable to workers due to job loss paid only for a limited period Wage subsidies to employers who maintain existing jobs with or without Wage subsidies reduced work Programs that encourage the unemployed and target groups to start their Entrepreneurship support policies own business or to become self-employed, among other ALMPs Active labor Training and placement Training programs, including vocational, cash for training, workplace training, assistance and placement services including counseling and job matching, among others support policies Credit facilities and guarantees, payment facilities, taxes, social security Firm Firm liquidity support contribution for firms, utility and rent support, among other special measures regulations Labor Changes in severance payments, dismissal procedures, hiring flexibility, working Regulatory adjustments conditions, leave policies, remuneration, labor inspection, among others Note: ALMP = Active labor market policy. In total, expenditure data are available for 27 The analysis examines the patterns in expendi‑ percent of the social protection and labor policies ture and beneficiaries of labor-related policies for in the database, for which total expenditure is countries where data are available. The focus is on US$7.75 trillion.6 Among the labor market policies average expenditure as a percent of GDP.8 Expenditure in the COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory, 28 percent have found in local currency is converted into US dollar using expenditure data. The expenditure on these labor market exchange rates from 2020. The spending recorded in policies amounts to US$5.9 trillion, which represents the database refers to the expenditure from when the about 76 percent of all the expenditure recorded in the program was established until the time of reporting. For database. The relatively low percentage of expenditure beneficiaries, the focus is on the average number of ben- data available means that total expenditure recorded eficiaries per program and the average across programs here seriously underestimates the total expenditures on in the percentage of working-age population covered, these programs worldwide. A breakdown of the percent and how that varies across income groups. Additionally, of programs with expenditure by type of program given that an individual could be a beneficiary of more appears in Table 1 below. Expenditure information is than one social protection and jobs program, this brief particularly rare for income tax reductions and labor uses the average number of beneficiaries per program market regulation adjustments, but is also available for each country and by income group. These numbers for less than 30 percent of the unemployment benefit, reflect the actual expenditures and beneficiaries when training, and firm liquidity support programs. Overall, available; otherwise, the figures for planned expendi- beneficiary data are available for around 22 percent of ture and beneficiaries are used, respectively. For some the social protection and labor policies in the inventory. of categories of labor market policies, the number of Out of the labor market policies in the database, around observations available for analysis is low, increasing the 16 percent have beneficiary figures.7 variance of the estimates for these few cases. 6 The policies used in the expenditure analysis are the ones for which there is expenditure, GDP, and exchange rate data available. 7 These figures are based on beneficiary data recorded at the individual, household, and firm levels. 8 This is calculated using a country’s spending as a proportion of its GDP and calculating the average across income groups. 4 TABLE 1 Coverage of expenditure data by type of program Number of countries Number of total Number of Share of programs with at least Type of program programs in countries with at with expenditure one policy with inventory least one policy data expenditure data CT to economically active persons 349 139 45 93 Public works program 76 46 50 32 Unemployment benefits 145 86 28 33 Training and placement assistance 140 75 24 23 Wage subsidies 233 115 37 63 Entrepreneurship support 180 88 46 53 Income tax reduction 104 77 2 2 Labor regulations 414 133 2 6 Firm liquidity support 1,795 210 24 146 Total 3,436 221 28 181 HOW DID GOVERNMENTS TRY TO Worldwide, 95 percent of countries have imple‑ PROTECT WORKERS AND FIRMS? mented liquidity support policies for firms, making this the most prevalent type of labor market policy LABOR MARKET POLICIES WERE NEARLY (Figure 1). Most countries, across all income groups, UNIVERSAL AND PRIMARILY FOCUSED ON introduced some sort of firm liquidity support to help PROVIDING LIQUIDITY SUPPORT firms survive and retain workers. The four main sectors FOR FIRMS targeted by firm liquidity policies were restaurants, tourism, transportation, and agriculture, as the first Around 99 percent of countries adopted at least one three were affected by severe negative demand shocks labor market policy during the crisis. This is in line during the COVID-19 pandemic. with the 98 percent reported in De La Flor et al. (2021) which covered almost one-fourth of the current sample In total, around 1,795 firm liquidity policies were of countries. On average, countries have introduced introduced. Some policies stipulated eligibility require- 15 labor market policies. HICs and UMICs tended to ments such as revenue loss, tax and contributions com- introduce a higher number of labor market policies with pliance, and a commitment to retain their employees an average of about 18 and 17 labor market policies, for firms to be able to benefit from the measures. Of respectively, while LMICs and LICs have an average of countries that implemented a firm liquidity policy, 12 and 9 policies, respectively. 93 percent adapted existing policies and 88 percent created new policies (Figure 3). This highlights the Based on the sample, the average expenditure for high priority governments placed on helping firms firm-related measures represented 3.33 percent of survive to help stabilize labor demand during the crisis. GDP (US$32.1 billion) while the average spending Figure 4 shows that the firm liquidity support policies for programs benefiting individuals was 1.06 were the most popular measure across countries in all percent of GDP (US$7.9 billion). This is particularly income groups. The second most prevalent measures evident in HICs where the average expenditure for implemented were cash transfers to the economically programs targeted at individuals was 1.51 percent of active population in LMICs and UMICs, wage subsidies GDP (US$19.87 billion), whereas the average expenditure in HICs, and labor regulations in LICs. This could reflect for policies for firms was more than 3.56 times as much, the availability of fiscal resources for implementing wage at 5.38 percent of GDP (US$66.11 billion). subsidies in HICs and the preference for existing cash transfer programs in MICs. 5 Of the programs with available expenditure data, FIGURE 3 firm liquidity support policies accounted for most Percentage of countries implementing at of the spending. On average, expenditures amounted least one policy adaptation and new policy to 3.32 percent of GDP (US$32.1 billion) (Figure 5). by category This is more than three times the average expenditure of the second largest category, income support policies. HICs spent the most on firm liquidity support 21 programs and allocated an average of 5.38 percent Wage subsidies 91 of GDP, amounting to US$66.11 billion. Conversely, 26 Entrepreneurship LICs, LMICs, and UMICs spent less than the global support 90 average. On average, LICs spent 1.48 percent of GDP CT to economically 29 (US$0.27 billion), LMICs spent 2.15 percent of GDP active persons 94 (US$3.03 billion), and UMICs spent 1.78 percent of Training and 36 GDP (US$13.94 billion). placement assistance 79 48 Firm liquidity policies reached on average 217,000 Public works 67 firms. The subset of 114 policies implemented by 61 58 countries that have firm-level beneficiary data available Labor regulations 80 shows that measures taken by UMICs and HICs tended Unemployment 66 to benefit an average of around 241,000 and 226,000 benefits 48 firms, respectively. On the other hand, firm liquidity 93 policies by LMICs and LICs assisted around 156,000 Firm liquidity support 88 and 62,000 firms on average, respectively. 96 Income tax reduction 8 The most popular types of firm liquidity programs were tax reliefs, credit facilities, and loan payment 0 20 40 60 80 100 facilities. Together, these three types of support Percentage of countries represented 65 percent of all firm liquidity support implementing policies policies globally (Figure 6). Around 79 percent of countries introduced some sort of tax support by either Adaptation New postponing tax deadlines or reducing tax liabilities. For instance, Dominica postponed the deadline for filling Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory and the WDI—World Bank. Own elaboration. corporate tax, and the Republic of Congo reduced Note: Graph based on 3,428 programs implemented by corporate tax rates for 2020. Other countries introduced 220  countries and territories, including 88 HICs, 58 UMICs, 47 measures such as allowing additional deductions LMICs, and 27 LICs. These include 349 CTs to economically active for tax credits or extending the deadline for settling persons, 73 public works, 144 unemployment benefits, 139 training tax liabilities. and placement assistance programs, 233 wage subsidies, 180 entrepreneurship support programs, 104 income tax reductions, Credit facilities/guarantees were introduced in 414 labor regulations, and 1,792 firm liquidity support policies. Data reflect available numbers for the period from January 2020 until over 73 percent of countries. On average, each January 2022. country allocated about US$29.4 billion to credit guarantee funds, which accounts for 2.68 percent of GDP (Figure 7), yet the allocated budgets greatly EUR 50 million), business loans (up to approximately vary according to income group, with HICs spending US$122 million or EUR 100 million), or land capital on average 4.25 percent of GDP (US$64.2 billion) financing by the Rural Development Foundation. and other income groups less than 2 percent of GDP (US$0.3 billion in LICs, US$3.1 billion in LMICs, and Countries also introduced a series of loan payment US$10.5 billion in UMICs). Singapore allocated around facilities, representing an average expenditure of US$214 million (SGD 285 million) to enable start-ups 1.47 percent of GDP (US$1.96 billion). For example, to continue innovation and entrepreneurship activities Greece put in place an interest rate subsidy operation and provide them access to credit during the economic worth over US$914 million (EUR 750 million) under the turmoil. In Estonia, rural companies were given access EU State Aid Temporary Framework to help businesses. to guarantees (up to approximately US$61 million or Iraq announced a moratorium on interest and principal 6 FIGURE 4 Percentage of countries with at least one labor market policy, by category and income group A. LIC B. LMIC CT to economically 28 CT to economically 60 active persons active persons Public works 41 Public works 34 Unemployment benefits 0 Unemployment benefits 28 Training and placement 24 Training and placement 28 assistance assistance Wage subsidies 10 Wage subsidies 43 Entrepreneurship 38 Entrepreneurship 34 support support Income tax reduction 24 Income tax reduction 21 Labor regulations 55 Labor regulations 55 Firm liquidity support 83 Firm liquidity support 98 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage of countries Percentage of countries C. UMIC D. HIC CT to economically CT to economically 78 65 active persons active persons Public works 22 Public works 8 Unemployment benefits 41 Unemployment benefits 57 Training and placement 31 Training and placement 44 assistance assistance Wage subsidies 53 Wage subsidies 71 Entrepreneurship 41 Entrepreneurship 44 support support Income tax reduction 51 Income tax reduction 35 Labor regulations 66 Labor regulations 60 Firm liquidity support 97 Firm liquidity support 97 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage of countries Percentage of countries Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. Note: Graph based on 3,436 programs implemented by 221 countries and territories, including 88 HICs, 58 UMICs, 47 LMICs, and 28 LICs. These include 349 CTs to economically active persons (13 in LICs, 65 in LMICs, 131 in UMICs, 140 in HICs), 76 public works (19 in LICs, 32 in LMICs, 17 in UMICs, 8 in HICs), 145 unemployment benefits (17 in LMICs, 39 in UMICs, 89 in HICs), 140 training and placement assistance programs (8 in LICs, 20 in LMICs, 34 in UMICs, 78 in HICs), 233 wage subsidies (4 in LICs, 27 in LMICs, 60 in UMICs, 142 in HICs), 180 entrepreneurship support programs (19 in LICs, 29 in LMICs, 61 in UMICs, 71 in HICs), 104 income tax reductions (8 in LICs, 12 in LMICs, 36 in UMICs, 48 in HICs), 414 labor regulations (42 in LICs, 71 in LMICs, 125 in UMICs, 176 in HICs), and 1,795 firm liquidity support (136 in LICs, 306 in LMICs, 520 in UMICs, 833 in HICs) policies. Data reflect available numbers for the period from January 2020 until January 2022. 7 FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6 Average expenditure of labor market policies Distribution of firm liquidity programs by type as a percentage of GDP by income group and of policy policy category Expenditure (% of GDP) Social security 8 Income Support contributions for firms Policies 0.35 0.55 0.90 1.40 0.95 Utilities and rent 8 support Active Labor Policies Policy category 0.69 0.23 0.27 0.36 0.36 Loan payment facilities 11 Labor Regulations Other special measures 18 0.03 0.47 0.01 0.25 Credit 24 facilities/guarantees Tax relief 30 Firm Liquidity Support 1.48 2.15 1.78 5.38 3.32 0 10 20 30 LIC LMIC UMIC HIC World Percentage share of firm Income group liquidity programs Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory and the WDI—World Bank. Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. Own elaboration. Note: Graph based on 1,795 firm liquidity support programs Note: Graph based on 974 programs implemented by 181 countries implemented by 213 countries and territories, including 86 HICs, and territories, including 67 HICs, 53 UMICs, 43 LMICs, and 18 57 UMICs, 46 LMICs, and 24 LICs. These include 152 social security LICs. These include 322 income support policies (16 in LICs, 82 in contributions for firms, 437 credit facilities/guarantees, 190 loan LMICs, 113 in UMICs, 111 in HICs), 117 active labor policies (12 payment facilities, 546 tax relief, 327 other special measures, in LICs, 15 in LMICs, 40 in UMICs, 50 in HICs), 7 labor regulations and 143 utilities and rent support policies. Data reflect available (2 in LMICs, 4 in UMICs, 1 in HICs), and 528 firm liquidity support numbers for the period from January 2020 until January 2022. policies (23 in LICs, 85 in LMICs, 162 in UMICs, 258 in HICs). Expenditure as a percent of GDP has been calculated by dividing the total expenditure per country by its GDP and averaging across income groups. Data reflect available numbers for the period from January 2020 until January 2022. payments by small and medium enterprises through average spending of 0.94 percent of GDP (about its directed One Trillion Iraqi Dinar lending initiative. US$2.1 billion). Countries such as Guinea and Jersey postponed the payment of liabilities, and others such Reduction of social security contributions paid as Malaysia and Kosovo provided discounts and by firms represented 8 percent of firm liquidity subsidies, respectively. measures and led to a decrease in tax revenue for countries. Globally, this decline represented, on Finally, 18 percent of firm liquidity policies intro‑ average, about 0.39 percent of GDP (US$13.8 billion). duced correspond to other special measures. For example, Brazil deferred social security payments On average this meant an allocation of 0.75 percent worth more than US$6 billion (around 0.42 percent of of GDP (around US$2.8 billion). Honduras opened GDP). Other countries such as Iceland also allowed firms access to public contracts with the Government and to defer social security contributions, Cameroon and the Mayor’s Offices to individuals; micro, small, and Fiji canceled penalties for late payment, and Bulgaria medium enterprises (MSMEs); and the social sector covered part of the social security contributions in of the economy. The Isle of Man established the particular cases. Coronavirus Business Support Scheme which provides assistance to local businesses, including the self-em- Utilities and rent support also represented 8 ployed, in designated sectors with a grant payment of percent of firm liquidity measures, involving an around US$4,000 (£3,000). 8 FIGURE 7 income loss. Data from our sample suggest that countries have spent on average 0.95 percent of GDP on income Average expenditure of firm liquidity support support policies which amounts to around US$7.88 policies as a percentage of GDP by income billion (Figure 5). The average labor-related income group and policy subcategory support policies reached 1.05 million beneficiaries. Expenditure (% of GDP) Social security Cash transfers to economically active persons contributions for firms 0.56 0.34 0.25 0.39 were the most frequently used income support policy and the second most common labor market policy (Figure 1). These transfers were introduced by 63 Firm liquidity support policy type Credit percent of countries. Of those countries implementing facilities/guarantees 1.57 1.92 1.51 4.25 2.68 these transfers, 29 percent adapted their programs and 94 percent introduced new programs. Other forms of Loan payment income support such as wage subsidies, unemployment facilities 0.55 0.43 0.32 3.33 1.47 benefits, income tax reduction, and public works were used by 52 percent, 39 percent, 35 percent, and Tax relief 21 percent of countries, respectively. Based on our 0.30 0.51 1.54 1.00 sample, the average expenditure for cash transfers to economically active persons amounted to US$2.3 billion, Other special measures 0.39 0.95 0.26 0.88 0.75 which represented 0.50 percent of GDP. Utilities and rent Cash transfers to economically active persons support 0.05 0.56 0.16 1.93 0.94 were primarily aimed at supporting informal and LIC LMIC UMIC HIC World non-salaried workers, yet they were also directed Income group in some cases at formal workers (Figure 9, panel A) and self-employed as well as the unemployed Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory and the WDI—World Bank. (Figure 9, panel B). In fact, of the cash transfer programs Own elaboration. that specified whether they were targeted to informal Note: Graph based on 528 programs implemented by 146 countries or formal workers, 71 percent were directed at only and territories, including 60 HICs, 44 UMICs, 33 LMICs, and 9 LICs. These include 17 social security contributions for firms (5 in LMICs, those in the informal sector and 21 percent were aimed 9 in UMICs, 3 in HICs), 266 credit facilities/guarantees (17 in LICs, at only formal workers. For example, the Government 45 in LMICs, 92 in UMICs, 112 in HICs), 33 loan payment facilities of El Salvador delivered US$300 to households with (2 in LICs, 5 in LMICs, 14 in UMICs, 12 in HICs), 54 tax reliefs (10 members working in the informal sector. Ukraine relaxed in LMICs, 16 in UMICs, 28 in HICs), 136 other special measures (3 the eligibility rules of the Guaranteed Minimum Income in LICs, 16 in LMICs, 24 in UMICs, 93 in HICs), and 22 utilities and rent supports (1 in LICs, 4 in LMICs, 7 in UMICs, 10 in HICs) with Program to expand its coverage to informal sector expenditure data available. Expenditure (as a percent of GDP) has workers, returning migrants, and individuals who lost been calculated by dividing the total expenditure per country by their jobs during the pandemic. Some countries such its GDP and averaging across income groups. Data reflect available as Algeria, Argentina, and Peru extended bonuses numbers for the period from January 2020 until January 2022. to health care workers. Overall, of the cash transfers that mentioned the type of worker they were aimed at, 45 percent were directed at only wage workers, INCOME SUPPORT PROGRAMS WERE THE 22 percent were targeted at only the self-employed, SECOND MOST POPULAR LABOR MARKET and 6 percent were aimed at solely the unemployed. POLICY AFTER FIRMS’ LIQUIDITY SUPPORT Other countries such as Vietnam implemented cash transfers to bridge the income loss for uncontracted The main channel through which governments employees who lost their jobs and workers who did helped workers and the unemployed was through not qualify for unemployment benefits. income support policies, which include cash transfers to economically active persons, wage Some cash transfers to economically active persons subsidies, unemployment benefits, public works, were introduced as one-time programs. Indeed, and income tax reduction. More than 89 percent of globally, around 39 percent of these cash transfers were the countries worldwide implemented some type of a one-off measure, while approximately 60 percent income support policy to compensate for or prevent were implemented as temporary measures, meaning 9 that they were expected to last only for a specific period FIGURE 8 or until the COVID-19 pandemic ended. In contrast, Average expenditure of income support policies less than 1 percent of these cash transfers involved as a percentage of GDP by income group and permanent interventions which were designed to be policy subcategory in place even after the crisis ends. Expenditure (% of GDP) Countries with established unemployment benefits for formal sector workers experienced an increase CT to economically active persons 0.29 0.30 0.55 0.64 0.50 in applications and disbursement of claims. Of the countries implementing unemployment benefits, 66 percent adapted their existing policies and 48 percent Public works Income support policy type 0.47 0.08 0.72 0.41 0.31 created new programs. In some cases, countries modified the amount and duration of existing benefits due to Unemployment the crisis. For example, Albania doubled the amount benefits 0.10 0.35 0.50 0.37 of its unemployment assistance, and the Virgin Islands extended its benefits for an extra 24 weeks. Wage subsidies However, in some other cases, unemployment 0.04 0.20 0.49 1.42 0.95 benefits were extended to formal and informal self-employed workers who were not previously eligible, either because of their type of work or Income tax reduction 1.06 1.06 because they did not satisfy the contribution requirements to qualify for benefits. For example, LIC LMIC UMIC HIC World Income group Finland temporarily relaxed the eligibility requirements of its unemployment insurance program to allow Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory and the WDI—World Bank. entrepreneurs to claim benefits without shutting down Own elaboration. their businesses. Ukraine announced that graduates of Note: Graph based on 321 programs implemented by 146 countries educational institutions and internally displaced persons and territories, including 55 HICs, 43 UMICs, 35 LMICs, and 13 LICs. These include 156 CTs to economically active persons (6 in LICs, 44 without documentation to confirm their employments in LMICs, 66 in UMICs, and 40 in HICs), 38 public works (8 in LICs, would qualify for unemployment assistance. The increase 21 in LMICs, 6 in UMICs, and 3 in HICs), 40 unemployment benefits in the coverage of formal workers and extension of (6 in LMICs, 14 in UMICs, and 20 in HICs), 85 wage subsidies (2 in these programs to those previously ineligible before LICs, 10 in LMICs, 25 in UMICs, and 48 in HICs), and 2 income tax the COVID‑19 pandemic meant an overall average reductions (2 in UMICs) with expenditure data available. Expenditure as a percent of GDP has been calculated by dividing the total allocation of more than US$18.8 billion, which repre- expenditure per country by its GDP and averaging across income sented 0.37 percent of GDP. Almost 99 percent of such groups. Data reflect available numbers for the period from January policies were temporary and around 1 percent were 2020 until January 2022. The average for unemployment benefits permanent measures. for LMICs excludes the Pandemic Unemployment Assistance Program worth US$36 million (around 8.82 percent of GDP) launched by the Wage subsidies were mainly targeted at formal Federated States of Micronesia as it skewed the average upward to 1.55 percent of GDP (US$71.5 million), while the average without wage workers through employers to help it is 0.10 percent of GDP (US$78.6 million). The median value of enterprises retain as many employees as possible expenditure on unemployment benefits in LMICs including this and were dependent on formal employment program is also around 0.09 percent of GDP. contracts. Of those countries implementing wage subsidies, 91 percent introduced new programs and 21 percent adapted existing programs. Countries spent young people by covering 100 percent of the minimum on average 0.95 percent of GDP, involving an average wage. Australia introduced a wage subsidy program expenditure of more than US$4.4 billion. HICs have for permanent, casual, and part-time workers who had the highest prevalence of wage subsidies and spent worked with their employers for at least a year. More around 1.42 percent of GDP (US$7.7 billion). For than 98 percent of such policies were temporary, over 1 instance, within the Kickstart Scheme, the Government percent were one-off measures, and less than 1 percent of the United Kingdom launched a financial support were permanent. program to stimulate job placements and hiring of 10 FIGURE 9 Percentage of cash transfer policies by target group A. Percentage of CTs to economically active B. Percentage of CTs to economically active persons which specified the type of formality persons which specified the target worker 80 50 45 71 40 60 Percentage Percentage 30 24 40 22 20 21 20 10 6 8 3 0 0 Informal only Formal only Both Wage Self− Unemployed Two All three workers employed only types of types of only only workers workers Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. Note: Graph based on 3,436 programs implemented by 221 countries and territories, including 88 HICs, 58 UMICs, 47 LMICs, and 28 LICs. These include 349 CTs to economically active persons (13 in LICs, 65 in LMICs, 131 in UMICs, 140 in HICs), 76 public works (19 in LICs, 32 in LMICs, 17 in UMICs, 8 in HICs), 145 unemployment benefits (17 in LMICs, 39 in UMICs, 89 in HICs), 140 training and placement assistance programs (8 in LICs, 20 in LMICs, 34 in UMICs, 78 in HICs), 233 wage subsidies (4 in LICs, 27 in LMICs, 60 in UMICs, 142 in HICs), 180 entrepreneurship support programs (19 in LICs, 29 in LMICs, 61 in UMICs, 71 in HICs), 104 income tax reductions (8 in LICs, 12 in LMICs, 36 in UMICs, 48 in HICs), 414 labor regulations (42 in LICs, 71 in LMICs, 125 in UMICs, 176 in HICs), and 1,795 firm liquidity support (136 in LICs, 306 in LMICs, 520 in UMICs, 833 in HICs) policies. Data reflect available numbers for the period from January 2020 until January 2022. Countries also provided additional support to (US$0.87 billion). Of the total public works programs, workers by giving them income tax reduction. Of around 89 percent were implemented in developing the countries implementing income tax reduction, 96 countries (25 percent in LICs, 42 percent in LMICs, and percent adapted their policies and 8 percent created 22 percent in UMICs), and the remaining 11 percent new policies. Some countries made concessions on the were implemented in HICs. The Government of Rwanda deadlines for filing personal income tax returns and temporarily waived work requirements for public work others granted deductions for workers. These forms beneficiaries to ensure continuity of cash transfers, and of relief were dependent on the level of income of in India, wage rates were increased. More than 60 the workers, their family structure, and their group in percent of the programs were newly introduced public some cases and applied universally in other policies. works. For example, Guinea announced a labor-intensive On average, UMICs spent 1.06 percent of GDP which public works program which involved the construction amounts to around US$0.1 billion.9 Expenditure data of boreholes to improve access to drinking water. are not available for income tax reduction measures in other income groups. CHANGES TO WORKING CONDITIONS AND Finally, public works policies were implemented in LABOR INSPECTIONS WERE THE MOST only 21 percent of all countries in the inventory, COMMON CHANGES TO LABOR making these the least common income support REGULATIONS policy worldwide. Of countries implementing public works, 48 percent adapted their programs and 67 Around 60 percent of governments reformed percent introduced new programs. Based on our sample, labor market regulations to respond to the crisis, countries allocated an average of US$2.2 billion to these with changes to working conditions being the measures, around 0.31 percent of GDP, with UMICs most common type of change. Of the countries spending the highest share at 0.72 percent of GDP implementing labor market regulations, 58 percent 9 These averages are based on two policies; therefore, they might not be representative of the entire income group. 11 adapted their policies and 80 percent introduced leave, and partial activity in case of inactivity due to the new policies. Although the implementation of these pandemic. Spain granted workers the right to reduce programs typically did not involve additional financial their working hours, up to 100 percent, if they needed costs for countries, there were a few exceptions. Based to care for dependent relatives due to illness, age, or on the limited sample, these involved an average disability. Procedures were also established or improved expenditure of US$0.14 billion (around 0.25 percent to facilitate teleworking arrangements in countries of GDP) (Figure 9).10 For example, Albania allocated such as Italy and Uzbekistan, among others. At the over US$44 million (ALL 4.5 billion) to wage increases same time, other countries such as Belize permitted for doctors and nurses. employers to temporarily reduce working hours under special circumstances. Flexible work methods, such as teleworking and shortened work time, were widely used, which Countries also introduced changes to promote allowed workers to stay employed following increased safety in the workplace. Adjustments mobility restrictions that slowed business activities to labor inspection regulations were the second most and put jobs at risk. About 31 percent of labor popular type of regulation introduced. Around 18 regulations policies related to these changes in working percent of labor regulation policies involved adjusting conditions (Figure 10). Djibouti introduced a policy labor inspection rules. For example, Honduras launched which enabled companies to implement alternative a range of guidelines for economic sectors, such as working arrangements such as teleworking, paid construction, restaurants, and tourism. Countries made additional changes to regulations FIGURE 10 regarding compensation, leave, dismissal pro‑ Distribution of labor regulation policies cedures, hiring, and severance payments; some countries allowed employers additional flexibility Severance payment while others focused on protecting employees. In 2 the Kyrgyz Republic, employers were not permitted to dismiss workers and employees, except for certain Hiring flexibility 6 reasons, while in the Cayman Islands, employers terminating or temporarily laying off workers due to Dismissal procedures 9 the pandemic had to pay one week’s wages for each completed 12-month period of employment as severance Leave policies 9 payment. Contrastingly, in Peru, employers who were affected by the pandemic could apply to temporarily Other regulations 10 suspend workers’ contracts under certain circumstances without the need to pay wages. Remuneration 14 Labor inspections 18 ACTIVE LABOR POLICIES WERE IMPLEMENTED IN ABOUT HALF OF Working conditions 31 COUNTRIES BUT REMAIN AN 0 10 20 30 IMPORTANT TOOL Percentage share of labor regulation policies At least one activation policy such as job placement, training, and entrepreneurship support was Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. introduced in 54 percent of the countries. This Note: Graph based on 414 programs implemented by 134 countries and territories, including 53 HICs, 39 UMICs, 26 LMICs, and 16 involved, on average, an expenditure of US$0.88 billion LICs. These include 8 severance payments, 25 hiring flexibility, 37 (0.36 percent of GDP). Out of all the income groups, on dismissal procedures, 130 working conditions, 38 leave policies, 59 average, LICs had the highest allocation for active labor remuneration, 76 labor inspections, and 41 other regulations. Data policies, at 0.69 percent of GDP (US$0.06 billion). On reflect available numbers for the period from January 2020 until average, LMICs, UMICs, and HICs spent 0.23 percent January 2022. (US$1.6 billion), 0.27 percent (US$0.1 billion), and 10 This average is based on seven policies; therefore, it might not be representative. 12 0.36 percent of GDP (US$1.5 billion), respectively. On existing ventures by providing them with grants. Togo average, active labor policies benefited 0.37 million announced a COVID-19 agricultural response plan to people overall and more specifically, 0.04 million in consolidate food security and improve the income of LICs, 0.72 million in LMICs, 0.50 million in UMICs, and agricultural producers by providing emergency credit, 0.22 million in HICs. agricultural equipment, and irrigation kits. Canada provided US$11.7 million (CAD 15 million) through More than one-third of the countries being the Women Entrepreneurship Strategy to support reviewed introduced job placement and training women entrepreneurs facing hardship due to the assistance policies to encourage and support COVID-19 pandemic. jobseekers and other vulnerable groups to search and find jobs or improve their skills and employ‑ ability. Of these countries, 36 percent adapted their CONCLUSION existing programs and 79 percent introduced new policies. Based on the sample data, this involved an For over two years, countries worldwide have average expenditure of about US$0.35 billion or about put in place an unprecedented number of social 0.15 percent of GDP. Countries tended to implement protection and jobs policies to mitigate the effects more programs related to boosting working abilities, of the COVID-19 pandemic. Available data for a subset including both soft and hard skills, than those involv- of 1,556 programs implemented across 196 countries ing job placements. Countries adapted and created and territories indicate that, globally, countries have new training programs to reskill workers and those allocated, on average, US$39.6 billion (4.85 percent of entering the labor force during the pandemic, which GDP) to social assistance, social insurance, and labor represented, globally, 81 percent of job placement and market policies from January 2020 to January 2022. training assistance measures. In Costa Rica, the Plan Habilidades Proteger established a scholarship program Countries allocated significant funding to labor for online training promoted by the government, which market programs to protect workers and firms. planned to benefit 50,000 individuals affected by the Spending on labor market programs, on average, COVID-19 pandemic. In France, the Skills Investment reached about 3.59 percent of GDP (US$32.6 billion) Plan (PIC) aims to train the youth and prepare them across countries. This was mainly driven by firm liquidity for the professions of the future. Seychelles intro- support policies. The same pattern holds across all duced the Seychelles Employee Transition Scheme income groups, although expenditure in terms of GDP (SETS) which was aimed at helping workers who had varied. On average, firm liquidity support policies been laid off as a result of the pandemic by offering reached 62,000, 156,000, 241,000, and 226,000 firms retraining, up-skilling, and temporary work placement in LICs, LMICs, UMICS, and HICs, respectively. services and came to an end in early 2021. Countries also adapted their public employment services (PES) Firm liquidity support measures were widely used by offering new digital tools for online labor market to help businesses survive the economic downturn. intermediation, which facilitate job matches between Programs with available data show an average allocation workers and employees. This represented 19 percent of about 3.32 percent of GDP (US$32.1 billion). On of job placement and training assistance policies world- average, HICs spent 5.38 percent of GDP (US$66.11 wide. For example, Brunei Darussalam revamped billion), the highest expenditure share across income the JobCentre Brunei website to facilitate connections groups. Conversely, UMICs, LMICs, and LICs allocated between jobseekers and employers through automated an average of 1.78 percent (US$13.94 billion), 2.15 and real-time job matching. percent (US$3.03 billion), and 1.48 percent of GDP (US$0.27 billion), respectively. Around 40 percent of countries also introduced at least one entrepreneurship support policy. Of these Income support policies were the main instrument countries, 26 percent adapted their policies and 90 per- used to protect economically active persons. cent introduced new programs. On average, countries Spending on these measures represented, on average, spent US$0.95 billion, a share of about 0.38 percent 0.95 percent of GDP (US$7.88 billion). Within these poli- of GDP. These consisted of measures that promote cies, cash transfers were the most popular program used entrepreneurship by encouraging the unemployed and to help formal and informal workers. On average, about target groups to start their own business or to become 0.50 percent of GDP was devoted to these programs self-employed. Some policies were targeted at already based on our sample data. Unemployment benefits, 13 while typically aimed at formal workers, were extended Even though these policies were not a predominant to formal, informal, and self-employed workers. Wage crisis response, they involved an average spending of subsides targeted workers mostly through employers 0.36 percent of GDP (US$0.88 billion) in the countries in the formal sector and were mostly implemented by with available data. HICs. Income tax relief and public works were the least common income support policies. Overall, the average spending on policies benefiting firms was more than 3.5 times higher Over 60 percent of the countries implemented than for policies targeted at individuals. Based labor market regulation adjustments to respond on the sample, the average expenditure was 3.33 to the crisis. This involved an average expenditure percent of GDP (US$32.1 billion) and 1.06 percent of 0.25 percent of GDP (US$0.14 billion). Changes to (US$7.9 billion) on firm‑related measures and programs working conditions were the most common type of benefiting individuals, respectively. This difference labor regulation adjustment. The implementation of was more prominent in HICs than in the rest of the these regulatory changes has lower financial implications income groups. and was more commonly used by LICs. However, given the typically high level of informality in these countries, these policies are less likely to protect workers. Finally, active labor policies including job placement, training assistance, and entrepreneurship support were implemented in over half of the countries. 14 ANNEXES ANNEX A. COUNTRIES AND TERRITORIES INCLUDED IN THE BRIEF TABLE A.1 Countries and territories included in the brief Region Countries and territories list East Asia and the Pacific American Samoa, Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Cook Island, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Kiribati, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Macao SAR, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Taiwan, China, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Vietnam Europe and Central Asia Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, Greenland, Guernsey, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Isle of Man, Italy, Jersey, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Türkiye, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and Uzbekistan Latin America and the Caribbean Anguilla (UK), Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Caribbean Netherlands, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Montserrat (UK), Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Martin (French part), Sint Maarten (Dutch part), St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos islands, Uruguay, República Bolivariana de Venezuela, and Virgin Islands (US) Middle East and North Africa Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, the Arab Republic of Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, West Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of Yemen North America Bermuda, Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon (France), and the United States South Asia Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka Sub-Saharan Africa Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Réunion (France), Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe 15 ANNEX B. COVID-19 SPJ POLICY INVENTORY The COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory collects data on social protection and labor policies introduced by countries to address the challenges brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals, households, and firms. • Data are collected for the following World Bank regions: Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, and South Asia. A total of 224 countries and territories are included in the inventory. • The focus is on public programs introduced between January 2020 and January 2022. This includes newly created programs as well as adaptations to existing measures aimed at mitigating the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. • Data are collected across three social protection and labor areas: social assistance, social insurance, and labor market. For this brief, the types of policies included in each area are as follows: Cash transfers to households and individuals (excluding economically active persons), Social assistance non-contributory social pensions, food and in-kind transfers, school feeding, utility and financial waivers and reductions. Contributory pensions, social security contributions, paid by individuals, paid leave, Social insurance and health insurance. Cash transfers to economically active persons, public works, unemployment benefits, Labor market and jobs activation measures, wage subsidies, entrepreneurship support, labor income support, labor regulations, and firm liquidity. • By January 2022, the inventory included 5,782 policies across the three areas of social protection. Out of these 3,436 were labor-related policies. • Descriptive and quantitative data in the inventory are collected using a variety of sources which include government documents, official websites and government social media platforms, reports, newspapers, and other policy trackers. • The inventory contains qualitative information on programs such as benefit name, associated program (if the benefit is part of a larger program), starting year, ending year, targeting mechanism, related laws, and sources of information. For labor market programs targeted at firms, information on sector, size, and eligibility requirements is also collected. • The inventory also contains quantitative information on programs such as planned and actual expenditure and beneficiary data, as well as benefit amounts. 16 REFERENCES De La Flor, Luciana, Ingrid Mujica, Maria Belen Fontenez, David Newhouse, Claudia Rodriguez Alas, Gayatri Sabharwal, and Michael Weber. 2021. “Taking Stock of COVID-19 Labor Policy Responses in Developing Countries. Jobs Watch COVID-19.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35331. Gentilini et al. , U., Almenfi, M. B., Iyengar, T., Okamura, Y., Downes, J. A., Dale, P., Weber, M. Newhouse, D., Rodriguez Alas, C., Kamran, M., Mujica Canas, I., Fontenez, M., Asieduah, S., Mahboobani, V., Reyes, G., Demarco, G. Abels, M., Zafar, U., Urteaga, E., Valleriani, G., Muhindo, J., Aziz, S. 2022. “Social Protection and Jobs Responses to COVID-19: A Real‑Time Review of Country Measures.” Miscellaneous Knowledge Notes. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37186. Khamis, Melanie, Daniel Prinz, David Newhouse, Amparo Palacios-Lopez, Utz Johann Pape, and Michael Weber. 2021a. “The Early Labor Market Impacts of COVID-19 in Developing Countries: Evidence from High-Frequency Phone Surveys (English).” Policy Research Working Paper No. WPS 9510, World Bank Group, Washington, DC. Khamis, Melanie, Daniel Prinz, David Newhouse, Amparo Palacios-Lopez, Utz Pape, and Michael Weber. 2021b. “The Evolving Labor Market Impacts of COVID-19 in Developing Countries. Jobs Watch COVID-19.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36032. Ohnsorge, Franziska, and Shu Yu. 2021. The Long Shadow of Informality: Challenges and Policies. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35782. 17 This note was prepared by Mareeha Kamran, Ingrid Mujica, María Belén Fonteñez, David Newhouse, Claudia Rodriguez-Alas, and Michael Weber as part of the World Bank’s JobsWatch COVID-19: Monitoring Labor Market Impacts and Policy Responses to the Pandemic in the Developing World. It is a joint product of the Jobs Group, the Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice, and the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. The authors would like to thank the following World Bank staff: Sonia Madhvani and Ankit Grover for helpful comments; Ugo Gentilini, Mohamed Almenfi, and Miglena Abels for sharing data; Luciana De la Flor for her valuable contributions; Gayatri Sabharwal, Ana Veronica Lopez, Ana Patricia Quiroz, Georgina Marin, Dea Tusha, Muhammad Ezzat, Sandra Asieduah, Vikesh Ramesh Mahboobani Martinez, Barbara Cedillo, Kana Matsuno, Urantsetseg Ulziikhuu, Leticia Donoso, Jessica Chilin, and Varsha Kumar for help with data collection; and Loli Arribas-Banos, Benu Bidani, Ambar Narayan, and Ian Walker for their guidance. The production and publication of this report has been made possible through financial support from the World Bank’s Jobs Umbrella Multi-donor Trust Fund (MDTF), which is supported by the UK’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office/UK AID, the Governments of Austria, Germany, Italy, Norway, the Austrian Development Agency, and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. All Jobs Group’s publications are available for free and can be accessed through the World Bank or the Jobs and Development Partnership website. Please send all queries or feedback to Jobs Group. Join the conversation on Twitter: @WBG_Jobs #Jobs4Dev. 18