57411 D i s c u s s i o n P a p e r s SUSTA I NABLE Developm ent East As i a and Pac i fic R egion Smart Green Infrastructure in Tiger Range Countries A Multi-Level Approach September 2010 Smart Green Infrastructure in Tiger Range Countries A Multi-Level Approach Juan D. Quintero, Roberto Roca, Alexis Morgan, Aradhna Mathur, and Xiaoxin Shi © 2010 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433, U.S.A. Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/eapenvironment/sea-asia E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved. October 2010 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. 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This report is one of the study reports of the World Bank's Technical Assistance Program "Developing Practice and Capacity of Strategic Environmental Assessments in East Asia and Pacific Region." It was prepared by the Sustainable Development Department of the East Asia and Pacific Region of the World Bank. Environmental and natural resources management issues are an integral part of the development challenge in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) Region. The World Bank's Environment Strategy in the East Asia and Pacific Region has provided the conceptual framework for setting priorities, strengthening the policy and institutional frameworks for sustainable development, and addressing key environmental and social development challenges through proj- ects, programs, policy dialogue, non-lending services, and partnerships. This study provides a forum for discussions on good practices and policy issues within the development community and with client countries. For more information and to view the reports of the SEA TA Program, please visit www.worldbank.org/eapenvironment/sea-asia. Sustainable Development Department East Asia and Pacific Region The World Bank Washington, D.C. Cover photos: Tiger, © Shutterstock Images, LLC; Bridge, M. Shresta. Inside cover photos: Tiger, © Shutterstock Images; Tiger with cubs, Global Tiger Initiative iii CONTENTS FOREWORD v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi ACRONYMS vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. INTRODUCTION AND THE GLOBAL TIGER INITIATIVE 3 2. EFFECTS OF INFRASTRUCTURE ON TIGER CONSERVATION 5 Shocking numbers 5 Roads to ruin 6 3. MULTI-LEVEL OPTIONS APPROACH 9 4. INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT AND NATIONAL POLICY-LEVEL OPTIONS 11 "No Go" areas 11 5. SECTORAL-LEVEL OPTIONS 17 5.1 Lessons learned and voluntary adoption of best practices 17 5.2 Strategic environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments 19 5.3 Avoidance policy and land-use planning in priority tiger conservation landscapes 20 5.3.1 Global priority tiger conservation landscapes and development restrictions 22 5.4 Professional training and awareness 24 6. PROJECT-LEVEL OPTIONS -- MAINSTREAMING TIGER CONSERVATION INTO ROADS, MINING, AND HYDRO PROJECTS 27 6.1 Transportation infrastructure/roads 27 6.2 Mining 29 6.3 Dams and hydroelectric power 29 iv SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES 7. PRIORITY ACTIONS 33 7.1 Funding agencies 33 7.2 Governments 33 7.3 Business and industry 34 8. CONCLUSIONS 35 BOXES 1 Simpang Pulai-Kuala Berang Road Wildlife Viaducts, Malaysia 7 2 Compensation schemes 13 3 Re-routing Russia's Siberian Pipeline to save endangered species 14 4 The Aceh Tiger Monitoring Program 25 FIGURES 1 Impact of transportation infrastructure 6 2 A tiered approach to strategic environmental assessment and project level environmental impact assessment 20 3 Simplified smart infrastructure planning flowchart 21 4 Relationship between environmental project costs, project cycle time line, priority tiger conservation landscapes, and land-use planning 22 5 Tiger-friendly road project and planning timeline 28 TABLES 1 The mitigation hierarchy 9 2 Summary of national policy options 15 3 Summary of voluntary sectoral options 24 4 Environmental issues in the hydroelectric planning process 30 5 Summary of project level options 31 6 Full summary of multi-level options 36 APPENDIXES -- CASE STUDIES 39 A Assessment matrix of tiger friendly policies and practices in tiger range countries 40 B Summary of sectoral case studies -- best practices and offsets 45 C A description of Smart Green Infrastructure (SGI) options 48 D1 Smart green infrastructure planning flowchart 50 D2 Example of question 2a and GIS spatial mapping 51 E Itegrating tiger-friendly filters into the mining project lifecycle 52 F Tiger-friendly transportation infrastructure options 53 G Recommendations for mining infrastructure and tigers 54 H Options for tiger-friendly hydroelectric power infrastructure 56 I Cumulative impacts from infrastructure in priority tiger conservation landscapes (Lao PDR- Vietnam-Cambodia) 57 J Tiger conservation landscape global priority areas (No-go areas) 58 K Case studies involving land-use planning and mitigation hierarchy and policy options 60 L The north south economic transport corridor (NSEC) in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) 64 REFERENCES 65 vi SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T his report presents the results of extensive work of vided by Pavit Ramachandran of the Asian Development the Smart Green Infrastructure Task Force com- Bank, S.C. Dey of the Global Tiger Forum, Anthony missioned by the World Bank under the Global Clevenger from the Western Transportation Institute Tiger Initiative (GTI). The team was led by Juan (Montana State University), Susan Lumpkin and vari- D. Quintero, Senior Environmental Specialist in the ous other reviewers. The earlier drafts of the paper were World Bank's East Asia Rural Development, Social, presented and widely discussed with experts and offi- and Environment Unit, and included consultants Alexis cials from 13 tiger range countries at the Global Tiger Morgan, Roberto Roca, Aradhna Mathur and Xiaoxin Workshop in Kathmandu (Nepal) in October 2009, at Shi. the First Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conser- vation in Hua Hin (Thailand) in January 2010 and used The report benefited from advice, ideas, and informa- in the curriculum of the GTI Executive Leadership Fo- tion about tigers and tiger-friendly infrastructure de- rum in Washington DC (USA) in April 2010.The au- velopment from staff at the World Bank, and from thors are indebted to these practitioners for their invalu- several institutions that promote tiger and biodiversity able common-sense advice and ground-truthing of the conservation throughout the world. We gratefully ac- paper's main ideas. Lastly, the paper was also discussed knowledge Eric Dinerstein (WWF-US), Jessica For- in a workshop in the East Asia and Pacific Sustainable rest (WWF-US), Barney Long (WWF-US), John Se- Development Department of the World Bank. idensticker (Smithsonian Institution), Steven Monfort (Smithsonian Institution), Mahendra Shrestha (Save The printing of the report was co-funded by the East the Tiger Fund), John Robinson (Wildlife Conservation Asia and Pacific Sustainable Development Department Society), Liz Bennett (Wildlife Conservation Society), of the World Bank and the Global Tiger Initiative Sec- Alan Rabinowitz (Panthera), Luke Hunter (Panthera), retariat. Special thanks are due to John Roome, Magda George Schaller (Panthera), Keshav Varma (World Lovei, Keshav Varma and Andrey Kushlin for the sup- Bank), Anand Seth (World Bank), Andrey Kushlin port provided for this publication. (World Bank), Anthony Whitten (World Bank), Kathy Mackinnon (World Bank), and Andrew Oplas (World This report was ably edited by Susan Lumpkin and Anita Bank). Gordon, and pictures and other graphic materials were provided by multiple sources. James Cantrell designed The authors are also grateful for the peer review com- the book. ments and edits provided by Mohinder Gulatti, Aurelio Menendez, Amreeta Regmi, and Kathy Mackinnon of This report is dedicated to the magnificent tigers still the World Bank. Lastly, input was also graciously pro- remaining in the wild. vii ACRONYMS BBOP Business and Biodiversity Offset Program CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDM Clean Development Mechanism CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna EA Environmental Assessment EAP East Asia and Pacific EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMS Environmental Management System ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment FSC Forest Stewardship Council GIS Geographic Information Systems GTI Global Tiger Initiative GTF Global Tiger Forum ICDP Integrated Conservation and Development Project IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LEED-AP Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Accredited Professional NGO Non-Governmental Organization NTAP National Tiger Action Plan PA Protected Area PES Payment for Ecosystem Services REC Renewable Energy Certificate REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SEPA State Environmental Protection Agency SGI Smart Green Infrastructure TCL Tiger Conservation Landscape TRC Tiger Range Country WBI World Bank Institute WCS Wildlife Conservation Society WWF World Wildlife Fund-US 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY T igers (Panthera tigris), are majestic animals that avoidance, mitigation, minimization and compensation of have captured the imaginations of many ancient impacts. It examines infrastructure policy challenges and and modern cultures. But tigers today are on opportunities, using lessons learned from case studies, along the brink of extinction in the wild as a result of with regional and in-country analyses. While there are poaching--including their prey--illegal trade, com- opportunities for improvement in all countries, Russia, bined with habitat loss and degradation. The world's India, Bhutan, and Nepal have, in particular, developed population of wild tigers has plummeted by 95 percent good foundations for tiger-related conservation, plan- in just over a century, from an estimated 100,000 in ning, and policy efforts. Best practices, drawn from case 1900 to about 3,500 today. In 2008, the World Bank, studies in non-tiger range countries , provide additional together with other stakeholders, established the Glob- insights into infrastructure practices that could benefit al Tiger Initiative (GTI)1 "to assist the 13 tiger-range tiger populations. countries (TRCs)A with their efforts to restore wild ti- gers and their habitats." Early on, tiger experts identified At the national level, government officials can use a range infrastructure (transportation, mining, and hydroelectric of regulatory and fiscal policies to promote tiger-friend- power in particular)2, as major factors contributing to ly infrastructure development. Regulatory options for habitat degradation. Although the situation for wild ti- controlling impacts on tigers and their habitats include gers is precarious, there are still excellent opportunities land-use and tiger-corridor planning, infrastructure per- for financing agencies, governments, business owners/ mits such as licenses, transfer mechanisms, in the form operators, engineers and local communities to ensure of payment for ecosystem services schemes, and both that infrastructure is tiger-friendly. We define such environmental impact assessments and strategic envi- Smart Green Infrastructure (SGI) as infrastructure ronmental assessments. Environmental compensation that avoids tiger habitats, minimizes and mitigates ad- policies and incentive programs can help drive invest- verse impacts through tiger-friendly design, and com- ments in alternative livelihoods, as well as drive smart pensates for any remaining damage to have a net posi- green infrastructure while preserving key habitat areas. tive impact. Avoiding Tiger Conservation Landscapes (TCLs) is This study addresses infrastructure's impacts on tigers at the best and cheapest option available to all parties for international, national, sectoral and project levels in com- saving wild tigers. We encourage a commitment from bination with the `mitigation hierarchy' which is based on tiger range country governments to designate core ti- ger population habitats as "no go" areas for infrastruc- ture development. In addition, it will not be possible to A. Tiger Range Countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, recover wild tiger populations without effective trans- India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, & Vietnam. 2 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES boundary conservation efforts, expanding the network and induced impacts, such as poaching, are minimized. of protected areas, creating buffer zones, restoring con- In terms of road infrastructure design, the primary focus nectivity between patches of habitat within landscapes, should be on `tiger friendly construction, for example reducing poaching and securing long-term funding. It is open-span bridges/bridge extensions, which are likely to also key to apply stringent infrastructure development be both cost-effective and preferred by both large cats policies that factor in both poverty reduction and the re- and their prey. Minimizing paving and design that con- duction of human-tiger conflict so communities benefit siders hydrological impacts is also important. Mining from and support tiger conservation. and hydroelectric infrastructure also have tiger-friendly options available throughout the project lifecycle. In Independent of government action, sectoral leaders particular, attention should be paid to limiting ancillary (private entities and industry involved in infrastructure) roads and settlements and establishing strict policies for must also begin to explicitly consider tigers and related workers with respect to hunting and poaching. biodiversity considerations. Industry has numerous op- tions within the mitigation hierarchy, including having Beginning with the choices available for a project's loca- explicit tiger conservation goals, effective stakeholder tion, SGI uses careful design, tiger-friendly construction engagement, environmental management systems, and practices, community engagement, strong assessments, biodiversity offsets. Placing emphasis on development monitoring, and adaptive management to ensure that that has a lower impact, such as railroads, may assist infrastructure does not interrupt natural ecological pro- tiger conservation. Overall, voluntary approaches at an cesses. While avoidance of all adverse impacts on tigers industry level that demonstrate leadership can play a and biodiversity in general should be a primary focus of critical role in tiger conservation. any infrastructure planning, there is an array of policies and practices that can help ensure that there is a future On a project level, engineers have various options avail- for wild tigers. able to them to ensure that habitat loss, fragmentation, 3 1. INTRODUCTION AND ThE GLObAL TIGER INITIATIVE O ver the years it has become apparent that public tion with the World Bank, established the Global Tiger works that support the way of life of millions of Initiative (GTI)9 "to assist the 13 tiger-range countries people in Asian countries--such as roads, hy- (TRCs) with their efforts in restoring wild tigers and droelectric dams, and mining operations--have their habitats"10. The World Bank has been, and contin- contributed to the loss of the region's biodiversity3. The ues to be, active in development projects as well as spe- loss of tigers is of particular concern as predators at the cific integrated conservation and development projects top of the food chain are critical to maintain the over- (ICDPs) in or adjacent to tiger conservation landscapes all health of various ecosystem processes. As top preda- (TCLs)11. The Bank shares the challenge of tiger conser- tors, tigers help keep populations of both prey and lesser vation along with various tiger range governments and predators in check4. Large, familiar animals such as tigers NGOs. are often considered wildlife ambassadors and therefore attract funding and wider conservation support. In ad- In the report A Future for Wild Tigers12, tiger experts iden- dition, tigers have symbolized beauty, power, religious tified infrastructure, noting transportation, mining and beliefs, and fierceness for more than 5,000 years5. Un- hydroelectric infrastructure in particular, as major con- fortunately, tigers are listed as endangered on the IUCN tributing factors in habitat fragmentation and conver- (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red sion in tiger conservation landscapes. Having identified List and are listed in CITES (Convention on Interna- the need to generate so-called "tiger-friendly infrastruc- tional Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and ture" or "smart green infrastructure (SGI)", the purpose Fauna) Appendix I6. Their conservation is a major focus of this paper is to develop a set of multi-level tiger-friendly of the IUCN Species Survival Commission/Cat Spe- options (at a policy, sector planning, and engineering level) cialist Group, and of many international and national based on best practices for government officials, financing non-governmental organizations (NGOs). agencies, and project managers. These options will highlight the basic elements throughout a project's lifecycle (including Tigers are threatened primarily by a combination of a) planning, optimal site selection, design, operations, and con- poaching and illegal trade in tiger parts and products struction) for roads, hydroelectric dams, and mining opera- and b) habitat fragmentation and loss7. Both threats re- tions in tiger conservation landscapes. SGI is defined as quire different and immediate interventions as the rapid infrastructure that avoids tiger habitats, minimizes pace of infrastructure development, land-use change, and mitigates adverse impacts through tiger-friendly and population growth continues unabated throughout design, and compensates for any remaining damage to Asia8. The plight of the tiger in the face of these threats have a net positive impact. meant that in 2008, various stakeholders, in conjunc- 4 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES The ultimate goal is that options presented in this paper gaps existed, the SGI team conducted a multi-level will form the basis for improved decision-making and be assessment of the status of tiger friendly policies and incorporated into country-level tiger conservation plans, practices in tiger range countries (Appendix A). This was national conservation policies, sectoral planning, and then supported with an array of case studies highlight- the construction of local projectsB. In order to help de- ing best practices throughout the world (Appendix B). termine where policies were already in place, and where B. At the World Conservation Congress in Amman, Jordan, in October 2000, the IUCN Tiger Conservation Resolution was passed by consensus. It invited funding agencies and national, and local governments to desist from making financial investments that adversely affect tiger habitats and to heighten the priority given to tiger conservation within their policies. 5 2. EFFECTS OF INFRASTRUCTURE ON TIGER CONSERVATION Shocking numbers exist for most of them. The remaining tiger habitat is spread across 13 countries and faces many challenges as T a result of human population growth and development igers (Panthera tigris) are majestic symbols in pressures9. These pressures vary from country to country, many ancient and modern cultures and are rec- so solutions must be customized for each country and ognized by various civil society groups and gov- region. ernments as being important to save from extinc- tion6. Tigers are on the brink of disappearing from the wild. The world's population of wild tigers has plum- Tigers have been reduced in number throughout their meted by 95 percent in just over a century, from an es- range primarily due to a combination of overhunting timated 100,000 in 1900 to approximately 3,500 today. and poaching, loss of prey, and habitat degradation15. Tigers, have already disappeared from Central Asia. In While addressing the former two factors is critical to Java and Bali in Indonesia, they occupy only 7 percent stop the immediate loss of tigers, the latter driver, habi- of their historic range--and their range has shrunk by tat loss, is typically a result of either land-use conversion, 40 percent in the last decade alone13. Tigers are divided usually for agriculture or human settlement, or infra- into six living subspecies: the Bengal (Panthera tigris structure development. Although the relative contribu- tigris), Indochinese (Panthera tigris corbetti), Malayan tion of infrastructure development to the tiger's decline (Panthera tigris jacksoni), Sumatran (Panthera tigris su- is less significant than poaching and land-use conver- matrae), Siberian or Amur (Panthera tigris altaica), and sion, its magnitude should not be underestimated9. In South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis), and three fact, investments in both the urban and rural areas of extinct subspecies: the Bali tiger (Panthera tigris balica), Asia and the Pacific are estimated to reach US$4.7 tril- the Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica), and the Cas- lion over the next 10 years in order to sustain growth in pian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata)C. The South China ti- the region, with two-thirds of that amount going to new ger is critically endangered, with as few as 20 remaining infrastructure16. As economic development, resource in the wild14. While the subspecies' populations vary in demand, and population growth continue to increase, size and health, significant conservation opportunities infrastructure expansion will attempt to meet transpor- tation, mining, and energy demands. Moreover, given C. In a recent genetic study (Driscoll C.A., Yamaguchi N. the historical failure of efforts to avoid degradation of Bar-Gal G.K., Roca A.L., Luo S., et al. 2009. Mitochondrial core tiger habitat, it is imperative that decision-makers Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger. PLoS ONE 4(1): e4125. consider long-term environmental and economic im- doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004125), the authors concluded that P. pacts and not allow short-term political rationale to t. virgata+P. t. altaica should be taxonomically considered a single subspecies. 6 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES trump decisions relating to core tiger populations and reach remote areas which once provided refuge for tigers the placement of infrastructure. and their prey. Roads also create the means for export- ing tiger parts as most of the illegal tiger trade occurs by Habitat loss and fragmentation has already occurred roads and trains23. While tiger populations may suffer within tiger conservation landscapes, where many pro- few road-related casualties in an absolute sense because tected areas have become insular and often unable to of their small population size, the loss of even a few indi- support viable populations of tigers8. Thus, the creation viduals might lead to their local extinction24. Roads often of effective corridors that connect protected areas, forest produce induced impacts and these cumulative impacts reserves, and large intact habitat blocks using optimal can ultimately jeopardize tiger populations25. Nonethe- approaches to conservation landscape design is essen- less, well-designed infrastructure projects do have the tial in most tiger conservation landscapes17. In 2007, in potential to freeze and even reverse the degradation of Asia and the Pacific, the terrestrial area designated as le- natural habitats and the loss of biodiversity26. For a more gally protected was around 10 percent of total land area, detailed discussion of the impacts of roads on tropical slightly lower than the global average18. Forests outside biodiversity, and governments' response, see Laurence et protected areas are also at risk in tiger range countries. al. (2009)27 and Box 1. From 1990­2005, more than half of the countries in Asia and the Pacific for which data are available reported net The current trends in tiger numbers, habitat fragmenta- losses in forest cover. tion, and infrastructure development in Asia underscore the fact that project-level mitigation efforts to date have Currently, only 30 percent of the land area in Asia and not adequately included tiger conservation programs. the Pacific is covered by forest--one of the lowest pro- The trends highlight the need for more comprehensive portions among global regions. Four countries acceler- ated their loss of cover between 1990 and 2005: Viet- nam, Nepal, Indonesia and Cambodia, with Indonesia Figure 1 Impact of transportation infra- and Nepal reporting the greatest losses--more than 20 structure (adapted from J. A. Jaeger, L. Fahrigh, percent of 1990 levels19. and K. C. Ewald. Does the configuration of road networks influence the degree to which roads affect The largest tiger conservation landscapes occur in wildlife populations?) Myanmar (249,389 km2), Russia (241,868 km2), In- dia (197,199 km2), Thailand (115,884 km2), Indonesia ImpactofTransportationInfrastructure (88,314 km2), and Cambodia (74,749 km2), where con- trolling land-use change and habitat fragmentation has 1.Habitat 2.Mortalityfrom 5.Induced 4.Barrierto been identified as a critical issue8. Loss PoachingandTraffic Impacts movement 3.Population Subdivision Roads to ruin Less accessibility Transportation infrastructure generates serious direct Lesshabitat available tomates, habitat,food, and cumulative adverse impacts if poorly planned. Road etc. Decreased density can affect wildlife movement, cause population Increased immigration; mortality increased fragmentation, and give people greater access to wildlife vulnerabilityto stochasticity areas20; these impacts increase as road density increas- es21,22 (Figure 1). Roads often have downstream hydro- ReducedTigerPopulationSize logical impacts. Perhaps most important, roads open up intact habitat and create opportunities for poachers to ReducedTigerPopulationPersistence A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 7 Box 1 Simpang Pulai-Kuala berang Road Wildlife Viaducts, Malaysia Major highways can act as significant barriers to wildlife movement as they fragment habitat and increase road kill. In response to this issue, in 2007, the Malaysian government completed the Simpang Pulai-Kuala berang road, and along with it, a first for Southeast Asia: three wildlife underpass viaducts. These three crossing structures are located in the valleys of Sungai Kelempai, Sungai Kembur, and Sungai Purun and are intended to provide con- nectivity for large mammals such as the elephant, sun bear, tiger, tapir, and gaur. While the initial environmental impact assessment had suggested fences to mitigate impacts to wildlife, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (Perhilitan) insisted that the viaducts were necessary, along with a realignment of the road further away from the Taman Negara National Park boundaries, to restrict access for poachers. policies, regulations, and protocols to safeguard tiger infrastructure projects tiger-friendly is only a part of populations and tiger conservation landscapes from the complex set of actions needed to be adopted to ad- poorly conceived infrastructure-sector planning and in- dress the impacts of encroachment, land-use conversion, vestments. Beginning with the choices that determine poaching, and illegal trade. While the situation for tigers a project's location (see Appendixes D1 and D2), SGI in the wild is precarious, excellent opportunities exist for uses careful sector-planning design, community en- government officials, business owners/operators, engi- gagement, strong assessments, monitoring, and adap- neers, and local communities to ensure the development tive management to ensure that infrastructure does not of SGI. interrupt natural ecological processes. However, making 9 3. MULTI-LEVEL OPTIONS APPROACh B ecause traditional project-based mitigation has hierarchy (Table 1): First, and most important, avoid, proven to be insufficient to halt habitat fragmen- then minimize, then rehabilitate/restore, and then final- tation and tiger population decline, a multi-level ly, when all options are exhausted, compensate. In other approach is proposed here. Beginning with the in- words, avoidance, which lies at the top of the mitigation hi- ternational conventions and frameworks, tiger-friendly erarchy, should be the primary aim of any policy or program infrastructure must be driven and supported at all lev- designed to save wild tigers. els--the national policy level, the sectoral planning level, and finally, at the project level. With the mitigation hierarchy in mind, the remainder of this paper sets out various options at the policy, sec- All the tiger-friendly infrastructure options presented toral, and project level. below can be framed in the context of the mitigation TaBle 1 The mitigation hierarchyD Avoidance: The preferred measures taken to avoid creating impacts from the outset, such as careful spatial or temporal placement of elements of infrastructure, in order to completely avoid impacts on certain components of biodiversity. This results in a change from a `business as usual' approach. Minimization: Measures taken to reduce the duration, intensity and/or extent of impacts that cannot be completely avoided, as far as is practically feasible. Rehabilitation/restoration: Measures taken to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems or restore cleared ecosystems following exposure to impacts that cannot be completely avoided and/or minimized. Offset: Measures taken to compensate for any residual significant, adverse impacts that cannot be avoided, minimized and/or rehabilitated or restored, in order to achieve no net loss or a net gain of biodiversity. Offsets can take the form of positive management interventions such as restoration of degraded habitat, arrested degradation or averted risk, and protecting areas where there is imminent or projected loss of biodiversity. D. The World Bank also subscribes to the mitigation hierarchy via its safeguard policies including Operational Policy OP 4.04 Natural Habitats, which looks to avoid habitat impacts and minimize/restore habitats. The Bank promotes and supports natural habitat conservation and offsets. The Bank does not support projects that involve the degradation of critical natural habitats. Mitigation measures include, as appropriate, minimizing habitat loss (for example, strategic habitat retention and post-development restoration) and establishing and maintaining an ecologically similar protected area. 11 4. INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT AND NATIONAL POLICY-LEVEL OPTIONS T iger range country governments are in the position ture; they should also underscore the inclusion of tiger- to set the stage for tiger conservation as it relates friendly development policies as part of the planning of to infrastructure development. With a mandate infrastructure projects near or within existing tiger con- to drive the economic, social, and environmental servation landscapes through adequate political support, wellbeing of their respective countries, governments, financing, and legislation. There are numerous policy op- through their policies, can have a profound impact on tions available to decision makers which, in some cases, tiger conservation. can be tailored to be sector-specific. International agreements often form the basis for na- tional legislation. International expectations are usually harder for governments to ignore than local pressure. All "No Go" areas tiger range countries are parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and, as signatories, have le- Of particular note is a suggestion put forth by the GTI-SGI gally binding responsibilities. Such commitments set the team to develop "no go" areas. Given the critical state of wild stage for biodiversity conservation and theoretically re- tiger populations, it is suggested that all core tiger habitats quire countries to create legislation to protect threatened be designated as "no go" areas for infrastructure development species including tigers; however, protecting tiger habi- (see section 5.1 for more details). It is the GTI's hope that tats is not an explicit obligation being enforced through governments can signal their intentions to pursue tiger- the Convention. The Global Tiger Forum (GTF) rec- friendly infrastructure through a commitment such as ognizes that efforts by national governments, both indi- this at the Year-of-the-Tiger Summit, November 21-24, vidually and as parties to multilateral agreements such as 2010, in St. Petersburg. CITES, require additional and complementary support to guarantee the survival of tigers in the wild. Subsequent In addition to such commitments, the following are to the first general assembly of the Global Tiger Forum highlights of some of the primary options and tools in 2000, all tiger range countries have developed, updat- available to government officials (a more comprehensive ed, or approved National Tiger Action Plans (NTAPs). list may be found in Appendix C): These Plans give tiger range countries an opportunity to develop innovative approaches and more effective ac- · Land-Use Planning Policy/Framework: A ro- tions to address the multiple threats faced by tigers in bust and systematic national land-use planning the wild. A common approach to the implementation policy is the foundation for avoiding impacts to of National Tiger Action Plans is essential. These Plans tiger conservation landscapes. By concentrating should not only identify the threats posed by infrastruc- development in lower-value habitats with exist- 12 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES ing human presence, areas of higher biodiversity be put in place. These can come in the form of value, including core tiger areas, can be spared expedited approvals, lower interest rates, taxation for tigers and provide critical ecosystem services benefits, or direct cash subsidies. Encouraging at the same time. FragmentationE analyses can the adoption of voluntary sectoral market cer- be a useful tool to inform the designation of "no tifications, such as Forest Stewardship CouncilF go" areas. Furthermore, Spatial Decision Sup- (FSC), through various means (such as national port Systems (as illustrated in the NSEC SEA; marketing), can be an inexpensive way to improve see Appendix K) can provide an intuitive and tiger and biodiversity management within a given accessible approach to delineate suitability lay- sector. Experience from around the world, par- ers for infrastructure investments. These systems ticularly in the industrialized countries, indi- can be used to identify vulnerability zones and in cates that a combination of financial incentive the design of avoidance/mitigation measures for programs, aggressive subsidy reforms, energy- land-use planning. efficiency policies, and renewable-energy legisla- · Tiger Corridor Identification: National-level tion can all be powerful motivators for affecting tiger corridor analyses, such as that for Terai development patterns. When the appropriate Arc20, are another valuable approach that can government institutions implement and enforce inform both the National Tiger Action Plans, these policies in conjunction with private play- as well as tiger-friendly infrastructure planning. ers and the domestic financial sector, it can go a These analyses identify particularly important long way toward greening infrastructure. It is also movement corridors for tiger populations, and worth noting that incentive schemes can be put can help to ensure connectivity between core tiger in place not only for developers, but also for local breeding habitats. Avoiding infrastructure devel- communities to help encourage tiger conserva- opment in these corridors should be a primary tion (and thus not request further infrastructure policy aim and should be a part of a comprehen- development). While such integrated conserva- sive land-use plan. tion and development projects (ICDPs) have met · Protected Area Networks: Protected area (PA) with mixed success, with improvement, such proj- networks form a critical part of tiger habitat con- ects have the potential to support and drive tiger servation and should form a cornerstone of any conservation and focus development away from National Tiger Action Plan and land-use frame- key habitats. Developing such tiger projects could work. Ensuring optimal overlap with tiger con- also potentially reduce human-tiger conflict. servation landscapes and connectivity between · Regulatory controls: Legislation is always an protected areas should be an explicit policy goal. option available to governments as a means of It should also be noted that infrastructure proj- controlling infrastructure development. Whether ects (via offsets such as those noted on page 14) through permitting processes or environmental can provide transfer funds for protected area acts, the government can use legal penalties as establishment and management. Software tools disincentives to projects adversely affecting tigers. such as MARXAN28 can be helpful in optimizing These regulatory controls are often sector specific protected area networks and informing land-use and can include requirements such as environ- planning. mental impact assessments (EIAs), strategic envi- · Financial incentives: Programs designed to pro- ronmental assessment (SEAs), financial sureties vide incentives to avoid (and to a lesser extent related to restoration, and legal measures related minimize, rehabilitate, and compensate) adverse to preventing tiger poaching and prey hunting. impacts on tiger conservation landscapes can E. Fragmentation is defined as a disruption of ecological interrelation F. FSC is an independent, non-governmental, not-for-profit between two locations and structurally as obstacles to the movement organization established to promote the responsible management of of animals between separate patches of habitat. the world's forests. A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 13 Box 2 Compensation schemes Case Study a: Brazilian environmental Compensation law. In 2000, brazil passed a legal act based on the "polluter-pays" principle. It requires that development projects with a significant environmental impact (deter- mined via an environmental impact assessment) must compensate for biodiversity losses by paying a sum (the specific amount varies by the degree of the impact) which is at a minimum 0.5 percent of total project costs and more than 6 percent in the case of sensitive rainforest. This money is paid to the National System of Protected Areas (locally known as SNUC) to set aside conservation and sustainable-use units. While the project developer proposes how the money should be used, it is the environmental authority (national or regional) that makes the final choice, with the money ultimately used to create and maintain only strictly protected areas.31 Case Study B: Compensatory afforestation Fund in india. In 2002, the Indian Supreme Court ordered that any development project on forest land would have to pay the intangible benefits against loss of forests (in Net Present Value) in addition to the loss of trees, which was being charged till then as a compensatory afforestation cost. The scheme is called Compensatory Afforestation Fund and is to be administered by the Compensatory Af- forestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA). The value of forests for this purpose was set at an ad hoc amount between Rs 5.8 and 9.2 lakh per hectare (approx US$12,000 and US$19,000) and agencies have to pay a one-time fee. The money from various states was pooled in a central fund, to be managed by CAMPA. As of July 2009, Rs 11,000 crore, (approx US$2 billion) had been collected. The money will be released in phases; Rs 1,000 crore (approx US$200 million) every year for five years. Each state will get an amount proportionate to its contribution. Environmental Impact Assessments: EIAs integrates environmental considerations into are of particular importance in mainstream- policies, plans, and programs and evaluates ing environmental and social issues into infra- inter-linkages with economic and social con- structure development and merit additional siderations. Strategic environmental assess- consideration. National environmental regula- ment is a relatively new concept and only tions in most tiger range countries have ref- China and Vietnam currently have regulatory erences to environmental impact assessments, frameworks for conducting them. Strategic but only in the past 10 years have countries environmental assessments are necessary in implemented formal regulations making them many cases because only a relatively small mandatory for projects. The degree of matu- proportion of proposed actions and decisions rity and quality of environmental assessment are subject to environmental impact assess- practices varies from country to country, with ments. They are conducted at a later stage in implementation challenges existing almost the decision-making process, after selection of everywhere. Some, including China, India, major alternatives is complete. Because tiger and Indonesia, have well developed environ- populations are most affected by the cumula- mental impact assessment policies while Ban- tive impacts of infrastructure siting, the envi- gladesh, Myanmar, and Cambodia are at an ronmental impact process is often too late to earlier stage and trying to build basic capacity. effect change. The strategic assessments pro- Countries such as Vietnam and Lao PDR are vide the opportunity to identify and avoid in between. Appendix A provides a full break- tiger conservation landscapes earlier in the down of environmental impact assessment development process, saving money, time, and regulations and other efforts in the tiger range most important, tigers. countries. · Biodiversity/Tiger Offsets: Major infrastructure Strategic Environmental Assessments: projects also offer unique opportunities to create Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is and enhance the connectivity of critical habi- an analytic and participatory approach that tats for tigers. Compensation actions have been 14 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES described using numerous terms including `bio- nance mechanisms will be indispensable to create an diversity offsets', `compensatory mitigation', `com- enabling environment for greening infrastructure. En- pensatory conservation', `net conservation ben- forcement and ensuring compliance has often proven efits,' and `environmental enhancement', among to be a challenge to tiger conservation and should be a others (see Box 2). However, offsets are actions strong focus of all tiger range country governments to of last resort, to be taken only after all reason- ensure the success of policy-based solutions. able measures have been taken first to avoid and minimize the impact of a development project Box 3 Re-routing Russia's Siberian Pipeline to and then to restore biodiversity at the site29. The save endangered species goal of biodiversity offsets is to achieve no net loss and preferably a net gain of biodiversity on the In 2004, the Russian government announced that ground with respect to species composition, habi- the state-owned company Transneft would build the world's longest pipeline to transport oil from Siberia tat structure, ecosystem function, and people's use to the Sea of Japan.1 The pipeline would end in Per- and cultural values associated with biodiversity30. evoznaya bay, southwest of Vladivostok. Perevoznaya 3132 bay forms a territory of Kedrovaya Pad State bio- Various mechanisms for financing offsets include tax sphere Reserve, Far-Eastern Marine Reserve, and bar- and subsidy shifts, protected-area transfer funding, and sovy federal wildlife refuge.2 More than 15 percent of payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes. Of par- the animal species registered on Russia's endangered species list, including the Amur Leopard inhabit these ticular note are both adaptation efforts and the emerg- areas.1 A number of national and international NGOs ing market for carbon sequestration through reduction launched a campaign to change the pipeline route of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and terminal site in order to protect the endangered (REDD). To date, tiger range countries have shown a species in the region. After a series of reviews by both strong interest in advancing and incorporating these in- the Ministry of Natural Resources and the federal ex- struments into their environmental portfolios. While the pert committee, combined with visits by President Putin's representative for the Russian Far East, a deci- proposed REDD schemes do not necessarily target areas sion was taken in 2007 to re-route the pipeline to a of high biodiversity value and core tiger habitats33, there new terminal site in Kozmino bay. This project dem- are opportunities to combine ecosystem-based mitiga- onstrates that both natural habitat conservation, tion (forest/soil carbon capture and sequestration), eco- specifically big cat conservation, and construction of system-based adaptation (maintenance of habitat and large infrastructure projects can occur simultaneously ecosystem services), and tiger-habitat conservation22,34. if there are adequate stakeholder consultations and political will. Similar opportunities exist around the emerging discus- sion of biodiversity offsets within the Business and Bio- diversity Offset Program (BBOP). 1. http://www.tigrisfoundation.nl/cms/publish/con- tent/showpage.asp?pageID=24 Lastly, but critically, in addition to the various policies, 2. http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/success- regulations, and fiscal measures noted above, dedicated es/?96640/Worlds-longest-oil-pipeline-re-routed-in- Russias-Far-East-endangered-leopard-habitat-spared and properly resourced institutions with strong gover- A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 15 TaBle 2 Summary of national policy options Level Project life cycle Option Land-use planning framework (including strengthening property rights, restrictions, tiger corridor analysis) Designing protected-area networks (new protected areas/ strengthening existing ones) Environmental impact assessments (including mandating stakeholder engagement and fragmentation analysis) Strategic environmental assessments Leveraging tiger/biodiversity funds from infrastructure project as compensation mechanism Payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes including carbon (REDD), watershed- Applicable to services, and biodiversity offsets National policy all stages Tiger-friendly construction permits Restrictions on ancillary infrastructure development Promoting and providing incentives for alternative livelihoods, such as eco-tourism/ tiger viewing, as integrated community development projects that support tiger conservation Strong compliance monitoring and enforcement via institutional strengthening Legal requirements regarding financial sureties Enforcement of remediation and removal of ancillary infrastructure 17 5. SECTORAL-LEVEL OPTIONS H aving indicated some of the governmental policy learned at a sectoral level then explore these various op- instruments that would make infrastructure ti- tions. ger-friendly, the next step is to explore sectoral- level options. Sectoral options must begin with the acknowledgement that developers and financial institutions have a significant role to play in wild tiger 5.1 Lessons learned and conservation as it relates to infrastructure development. While economic development is highly desirable, there voluntary adoption of best is a general appreciation that it cannot come at the practices expense of social and environmental values. As devel- opers have often learned, ignoring these values carries The loss of biodiversity, including the decline of tigers, significant risk, from project delays and legal battles to has allowed researchers to learn a great deal about ame- bad publicity and mitigation costs. Invariably, finding liorating the affects of human activity such as infrastruc- solutions that meet the so-called "triple bottom line" ture development on biodiversity. Successful SGI proj- (economic, social, and environmental well-being) is in ects designed to improve populations of large carnivores everyone's interest35. Based on this premise, there are a often employ the following best practices: number of actions that the private and public sectors-- infrastructure being mainly in public hands--in tiger · Commitments to entirely avoid large, intact habi- range countries can take throughout the lifecycle of an tat blocks with core tiger populations; infrastructure project (see Appendixes E, F, G, H). · Identification and use of natural corridors to situ- ate wildlife crossings; At the forefront of sectoral options are sector-level · Innovative and locally-customized engineering plans. This report suggests that all sectoral plans rooted in and design; a strategic environmental assessment should include a frag- · Environmentally-friendly operations with envi- mentation analysis, tiger-specific considerations about tiger ronmental management systems that explicitly conservation landscapes and core habitats, funding transfer take biodiversity (such as tigers) into account mechanisms including payment for environmental services, when examining significant impacts; offset options, and minimization of cumulative, ancillary, · Explicit goals to restore native habitat and pro- and induced impacts. In addition to planning, sectors can vide "net positive impact" compensation related commit to voluntarily adopt best practices and seek ad- to biodiversity. Efforts to establish new protected ditional training and awareness-building for their work- areas are started during project preparation when ers. The remainder of this section will assess the lessons impacts are identified; 18 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES · Community-based environmental awareness/ possible for them to make a truly professional or inde- education programs; pendent evaluation. Furthermore, biodiversity concerns · Robust monitoring and evaluation plans that are (raised through EIA/SEA) can be perceived as costly implemented at an early stage; issues with the potential to prevent foreign investment. · Strong, independent environmental impact assess- ments conducted by accountable consultants; Enforcement and Penalties: Pursuit of short-term eco- · Well-defined terms of reference with explicit tiger nomic benefits override considerations of longer-term (and other biodiversity) goals; costs (including the degradation of ecosystem services) · Early involvement of stakeholders to improve and become a main driver of weak enforcement of laws project design, operation, and management; safeguarding biodiversity (such as the widely established · Careful considerations related to construction legal statues of environmental impact assessments in the including the timing of construction, rules for region). The recent "EIA storms" in China appropriately contractors (especially related to hunting/poach- illustrates this problem. Thirty projects, mainly in the ing), noise and dust abatement during construc- power sector and involving investment of US$1.3 bil- tion, and restrictions around settlement and lion in total, were suspended in 2005 by the State Envi- ancillary development. Induced effects of camp ronmental Protection Administration because they had followers and boom towns that accompany large been implemented without application or approval of infrastructure projects in or near tiger areas should environmental impact assessments36. In this case, devel- also be closely monitored and removed as part of opers knew that the penalties associated with govern- the overall plan; ment regulations were too low to prevent them from · Localized projects enable more in-depth, site- carrying out these types of projects; they simply accepted specific actions such as good environmental man- the penalties and went ahead with the development. agement programs (EMP) during construction and post-project monitoring21. Lack of Coordination among Authority Channels and Agencies: There is poor coordination at both local and Environmental impact assessments in tiger range coun- central levels. The authority of the environmental agency tries are at various stages of maturity in terms of their to formulate and implement environmental impact as- coverage of environmental and social impacts (see Ap- sessment guidelines is disregarded during the processes pendix A for full details). In the course of developing of evaluation and approval of environmental impact as- this paper, several learning points emerged around the sessment reports, especially when the projects are under problematic areas for environmental impact assessment the authority of the sector ministries. Effective coordi- implementation. These challenges can be categorized as nation can become quite complicated for cross-agency follows: projects. It is critical that political support exists for en- vironmental agencies to ensure that proper environmen- Timing of the Environmental Impact Assessment and tal procedures are followed. Implementation: Timing issues are a common problem throughout the tiger range countries. Often the assess- Lack of Public Consultation and Information Disclo- ment starts when decisions on the project, including sure Mechanism: Consultation is typically an evolving design, site, and construction preparation, have already area in the implementation of EIA/SEA in the region. been made. The EIA/SEA is often implemented too late There are numerous possible explanations for this trend, to have a meaningful impact. including historical top-down administrative traditions in many countries. Public consultation is also impeded Government Models: In many cases the offices respon- by the small number of effective information channels sible for safeguarding the environment are under the available to the public, and the limited time given to authority responsible for the projects. It is thus hardly members of the public to assess the information, un- A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 19 derstand the process, and express opinions, despite the fact that these activities are often stipulated in the regu- 5.2 Strategic environmental lations. Finally, in many cases there are no mandatory assessments and actions or decisions that must be taken in response to concerns and complaints raised by the public. environmental impact assessments Lack of Resources: There is often modest funding to collect data. From initial baseline data to follow-up A second option at the sectoral level involves strategic monitoring and related activities, a lack of environmen- planning including conducting strategic environmental tal information often affects the assessment and evalua- assessments. These should be conducted proactively at tion of infrastructure projects. For example, in Indonesia the initial stages of the decision-making process. Stra- baseline research on ecological areas at the national scale, tegic environmental assessments serve as an early warn- which is the precondition for regional environmental ing tool for the long-term cumulative, induced, and impact assessments, is far behind schedule because of ancillary impacts of a policy, plan, or program, as com- lack of resources. In contrast, extensive monitoring of pared to environmental impact assessments, which are highway modifications in Banff, Canada, has resulted in project-specific and usually conducted at the end of the improved design, reduced costs, and strong conservation decision-making cycle. For example, a strategic environ- results. This problem is further compounded by a paucity mental assessment of a land-use plan can take account of qualified staff in governmental agencies. Ultimately, of tiger habitat fragmentation associated with proposed resource constraints result in deficient data sets, inad- development, or a strategic environmental assessment of equate conservation science, and poorly informed infra- a national road-building program can address its impli- structure development. cations for an entire tiger conservation landscape. Outdated Growth Paradigms: The prevailing paradigm Strategic environmental assessments complement the of profitability and development is via growth and eco- environmental and social impact assessment process by nomic expansion. At a sectoral level, businesses and gov- streamlining their scope and costs by ensuring that proj- ernments need to re-evaluate this approach in an effort ect proposals are set within a policy framework that has to distinguish between "more" and "better." Approaches already been subject to environmental scrutiny39. such as clustered development (transportation), demand management (water and energy), and recycling (min- The strategic environmental assessment process has to ing) all present opportunities to increase profits and be rooted in legislation as an approach to sustainable development ("better" development) while not placing development rather than only to mitigate damage, or additional infrastructure in intact habitats ("more" de- even as an end in itself40. The process has to link with velopment). other policy approaches, ensuring the sustainability of the outcomes, and has to be integrated into all phases In light of these lessons learned and the derived best of the planning process from the earliest stage rather practices, one of the first options available to sectoral than applied as a separate procedure. Different levels of leaders is to commit to voluntarily follow best practic- integration include41: es. Sectors have a long history of such commitments. Examples include the chemical industry's Responsible · Vertical integration of assessments, which are under- Care voluntary commitment,37 and the industry-created taken at different stages in the policy, planning, Sustainable Forestry Initiative38. Developing an equiva- and project cycle (`tiering' ­ see Figure 2); lent commitment related to tigers, or biodiversity more · Horizontal integration of assessments, that is, bring- broadly, is one option available to sectors. ing different types of impacts--environmental, 20 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES economic, and social--into a single overall assess- the evolution and uneven degrees of maturity of envi- ment at one or more stages in the planning cycle; ronmental impact assessments in tiger range countries, · Integration of assessments into decision-making, we propose using adequate legislative and political chan- that is, integrating the assessment findings into nels to strengthen environmental impact assessments decision-making at different stages in the plan- and to incorporate strategic environmental assessments ning cycle. throughout those countries. Both instruments can help conserve tiger populations, assuming that tiger-friendly The broadness and complexity of biodiversity issues re- filters are mainstreamed into the planning, design, and quires a participatory mechanism. Biodiversity-inclusive construction of infrastructure projects regardless of their strategic environmental assessments and environmental scale. impact assessments can facilitate a transparent decision- making process by serving as platforms for public par- ticipation. They can also provide operative frameworks through which ecosystem service valuation approaches 5.3 Avoidance policy can be practiced. Impact assessment should be adaptable to local planning processes and not be an `add-on' pro- and land-use planning in cess. Although we have mainly focused on large-scale priority tiger conservation sectoral plans, it is equally important to include bio- diversity-inclusive environmental impact assessments landscapes and "tiger-friendly filters" in small rural infrastructure (for example, rural roads, water) projects in or near tiger Another sector-level option is to voluntarily commit to a core areas. These projects are usually carried out by rural tiger-friendly approach to land-use planning that evalu- development agencies and townships or municipalities ates the consequences of potential land-use change on with little oversight and without sufficient necessary en- core tiger populations and habitats. Here we present a vironmental planning before construction. As a result, framework, flowchart (Figure 3), and spatial methodol- these projects are very likely to increase fragmentation ogy to help integrate tiger-friendly policies into land- of core habitats and the likelihood of additional en- use decision making and apply the avoidance principle croachment and illegal tiger hunting and trade. Given in global priority tiger conservation landscapes. Figure 2 A tiered approach to strategic environmental assessment and project level environmental impact assessment Stages in the development cycle Feedback to higher Plans and SEA levels of planning and decision- programs making Stragegic environmental Increasing management plan levels of detail Projects Project EIAs Implementation and monitoring Environmental management plan 22 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES A key step included in the more detailed flowchart of Figure 4 Relationship between environ- Appendix D1 involves the application of Geographic mental project costs, project cycle time line, Information System (GIS) cost-surface analysis (see priority tiger conservation landscapes, and Appendix D2, question 2a example). The cost-surface land-use planning approach involves scoring various areas depending on their suitability for tigers; high- and low-cost areas are then mapped against proposed infrastructure to evaluate thresholds for "go" or "no go." Such cost surfaces could also guide the degree or cost of mitigation or compen- sation. This approach could safeguard tiger populations from further infrastructure development in priority ti- ger conservation landscapes (Appendix J). It is recognized that the priority tiger conservation land- scapes presented in Appendix J are clusters that need further refinement and prioritization; however they pro- vide a useful framework for applying the tiger-friendly policies presented here. Successful Smart Green Infrastructure projects de- signed to improve populations of large carnivores Research indicates that avoidance is the least costly so- often depend on commitments to entirely avoid lution to environmental problems created by major in- large, intact habitat blocks with core populations. frastructure projects in high biodiversity areas42. Linear biodiversity-inclusive and tiger-friendly strategic en- infrastructure is frequently associated with economic vironmental assessments and environmental impact assessments can provide the operative framework to development, but it is often implemented without con- identify avoidance priorities and adequate mitigation sideration for its economic feasibility or efficiency in activities during the project lifecycle. terms of all of the costs, beyond planning and construc- tion. It does not consider costs associated with defores- tation, habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, and loss of ecosystem services within or near protected ar- eas43. Unfortunately, it is not uncommon to see political 5.3.1 Global priority tiger discussions lead to approval of economically inefficient conservation landscapes and projects. Frequently overlooked in road infrastructure development projects are the environmental and longer- development restrictions term social and economic costs of the project (see, for instance, the cost-benefit analysis for Madidi NP in Ap- WWF, WCS, the Smithsonian, and Save the Tiger pendix K). Appendix K summarizes not only exemplary Fund identified 76 tiger conservation landscapes across cases but also current challenges and potential policy the tiger's remaining habitat44. These areas tend to be options for following the tiger-friendly policies pre- clustered, offering the potential to form even larger sented here. landscapes if habitat connectivity between them could be reestablished. For example, there is a cluster of tiger conservation landscapes in the Terai Arc of India and Major cumulative impacts from infrastructure proj- Nepal; another set in central India; and another in cen- ects could easily occur in priority tiger conservation tral Indochina, including Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand landscapes if the avoidance principle is disregard- (see Appendix J). Such landscape clusters are large ex- ed (see Appendix I). Tiger range countries includ- panses of suitable habitat separated by four kilometer or ing China, Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Thailand are al- longer stretches of terrain hostile to tigers. ready including avoidance and mitigation principles in major infrastructure projects (see Appendix K). A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 23 Several tiger conservation landscapes cross political Critically important for global tiger conservation are two boundaries, and each mainland tiger range country hosts areas that represent no less than seven biomes among part of at least one trans-boundary tiger conservation them: the Russian Far East and the Northern Forest landscape. For example, the Northern Forest Complex- Complex-Namdapha-Royal Manas. When combined Namdapha-Royal Manas has within its boundaries six with Corbett-Sonanadi, the Tenasserims, the Southern different biomes and crosses the boundaries of Bhutan, Annamites, and the Sundarbans, these six landscapes Myanmar, and India. The Russia Far East bioregion capture the largest areas of habitat within all the major contains two tiger conservation landscapes, including biomes for tigers across their range. All of these areas the world's largest, which is 270,000 square kilometers. have breeding populations and some conservation mea- This landscape is primarily in Russia, but extends into sures in place. northeast China, which has recently recorded tigers on its side of the border45. A new genetic study found that the Bengal tigers liv- ing in India have much higher genetic variation than There are a total of 342 nature reserves (including those wild tigers elsewhere. Despite having experienced recent in all IUCN categories) representing 23.1 percent of demographic declines and extensive habitat loss, wild ti- the land area within all tiger conservation landscapes. gers in India retain 76 percent of the mitochondrial di- Restricting those protected areas to those in IUCN versity and 63 percent of the species' nuclear genetic di- Categories I through IV, these areas form 12.5 percent versity and are adapted to a greater diversity of habitats of the land under protection. More than 87 percent of than tigers elsewhere49. The study also identified a few major core tiger habitat is not protected in tiger range protected landscapes in India with high tiger densities countries46. and potential habitat connectivity. Conservation efforts must be focused in places such as the Western Ghats, Scientists developed a method to prioritize the tiger Central India, and the alluvial flood plains in the Hi- conservation landscapes47, with the assumption that ti- malayan foot hills that potentially support large, high- ger populations in larger habitat areas would be more density tiger populations. India's tigers are thus critically resistant to future disturbances. They established three important from demographic, evolutionary, and ecologi- well-defined priority levels: cal perspectives for the future survival and recovery of the species. · Global priorities for tiger conservationG · Regional priorities for tiger conservation Accordingly, the SGI team identified "no-go" areas · Long-term priorities for tiger conservation based on the following criteria: global priority, presence of tiger populations, growing threats, high biodiversity In total, 20 tiger conservation landscapes are "Global values, and genetic variation. The no-go areas thus iden- Priorities for Tiger Conservation" representing all the tified are: major biomes and bioregions where tigers occur48. Global priority tiger conservation landscapes are the best places 1. Russian Far East-Northeast China to conserve tigers based on ecological, conservation, and 2. Terai Arc Landscape of India and Nepal threat criteria, and therefore form the framework for ap- 3. Northern Forest Complex-Namdapha-Royal plying tiger-friendly policies in terms of infrastructure Manas (Bhutan/Myanmar/India) development. 4. The Tenasserims Semi-Evergreen Rain Forests of Thailand and Myanmar 5. Central Western Ghats (India) 6. Central Indian Landscape (India) 7. The Southern Annamites Montane Rain Forests G. Global priority tiger conservation landscapes are classified as Class I: landscapes that have habitat to support at least 100 tigers, of Lao PDR and Vietnam evidence of breeding, minimal-moderate levels of threat, and 8. Sumatran Lowland Rain Forests (Sumatra) conservation measures in place. 24 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES 9. Lower Mekong Forests (Cambodia, Lao PDR, tation for their professional members. Leadership in Vietnam, and Thailand) Energy and Environmental Design Accredited Profes- 10. Peninsular Malaysian Rain Forests (Malaysia sional, or LEED AP50, is an example. Sectors often of- and Thailand). fer training to their members to enhance credibility and ensure that professionalism is maintained. The various The list could be further refined using GIS to show sectors that develop infrastructure often have little expe- where major ongoing and proposed infrastructure proj- rience dealing with biodiversity challenges, let alone the ects overlap with the above areas; however, securing specifics of tiger conservation. Developing tiger-specific tiger populations and core habitats in the largest tiger training for workers, from the on-the-ground construc- conservation landscapes will be critical to meeting the tion workers, through the project managers, and right up goal of restoring tiger populations. This will not be pos- to designers and engineers, on how to build smart green sible without effective trans-boundary conservation ef- infrastructure would be very helpful. forts, expanding the network of protected areas, creat- ing buffer zones, restoring connectivity between patches To help facilitate this, large institutional players may of actual habitat within landscapes, reducing poaching, want to consider some of their available instruments for securing long-term funding, and applying stringent in- capacity building. For example, the World Bank Insti- frastructure development policies that factor in poverty tute has committed more than US$1 million to build reduction and reduce human-tiger conflict so communi- a "Conservation and Development Network that will ties benefit from and support tiger conservation. train hundreds of rangers, foresters, and other habitat managers in the latest cutting-edge practices in biodi- versity management, with a specific focus on preserv- ing and increasing wild tiger populations."51 Extending 5.4 Professional training and similar programs to the sectoral level is an opportunity awareness that could be pursued. This would have numerous ben- efits in areas from sectoral planning to project design and implementation. Finally, sectors have a history of coming together to pro- vide professional training and certification or accredi- TaBle 3 Summary of voluntary sectoral options Level Project Life Cycle Option Applicable to all Adopting best practices throughout the mitigation hierarchy, avoiding past mistakes, stages and pursuing voluntary commitments (see 5.1) Develop national sectoral plans that include: integration of land-use planning (including fragmentation analysis and protected areas establishment), strategic environmental Applicable to all assessments that include tiger-specific considerations, funding transfer mechanisms Sectoral stages including payment for environmental services (for example REDD), tiger-friendly project planning design and construction, compliance guarantees, considered construction rules and minimization of cumulative, ancillary, and induced impacts (see 5.2). Siting & development Specific avoidance or "no go" of the 10 priority tiger areas (see 5.3) Applicable to all Professional training and awareness building for workers on tiger conservation (see 5.4) stages A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 25 Box 4 The Aceh Tiger Monitoring Program The Aceh Tiger Monitoring (ATM) program is designed to monitor tiger numbers and habitat in Indonesia's Aceh province. The program involves on-the-ground surveys covering 1,300 square kilometers in Ulu Masen and 4,251 square kilometers in the Leuser Ecosystem to determine tiger population numbers. The program also employs sat- ellite imagery and conservation planning tools, to identi- fy core tiger areas and put management systems in place. Key to the success of the program has been the creation of strong local support and the empowerment of com- munities living in close proximity to tigers. Threats to ti- gers have been reduced through a community and forest ranger training effort. This aspect of the ATM program provides alternative employment for ex-loggers, ex-tiger poachers, and ex-combatants, and has already trained some 346 forest rangers and 46 community rangers. The training program has been instrumental in putting an end to illegal activities. The ATM program is an excellent example of what can be achieved for tiger conservation when monitoring is combined with local support. 27 6. PROJECT-LEVEL OPTIONS -- MAINSTREAMING TIGER CONSERVATION INTO ROADS, MINING, AND hYDRO PROJECTS W here infrastructure development cannot be (Appendix E). To evaluate the applicability of the tiger avoided within tiger conservation landscapes, filter and the options presented, the SGI team developed there are ways to mitigate traditional infra- a set of in-depth case studies, which were distributed at structure impacts through ecological engineer- the First Asian Ministerial Meeting on tiger conserva- ing design52. At the project level, planners and engineers tion held in Hua Hin, Thailand in January 2010. have a number of options available throughout the proj- ect lifecycle to help to ensure that infrastructure is both tiger and biodiversity friendly. The same principles can be applied in some cases where existing infrastructure is 6.1 Transportation going to be expanded or improved. Drawing upon both the lessons learned and best practices for infrastructure infrastructure/roads projects taken from throughout the world, we present various cost-effective options available to sectoral deci- Tigers are attracted to roads, a factor that should influ- sion-makers for project planning and development. An ence the type of infrastructure selected57. With respect overarching principle of good design is that it should to roads, engineers have an array of construction options meet the needs of multiple stakeholders and species, and to help ensure minimal impacts. These infrastructure be resilient to impacts such as climate change and seis- modifications should be designed and funded at the mic activity. While there has been very little infrastruc- beginning, before the project gets underway. Some re- ture design work applied directly to tigers, India has de- searchers have also suggested avoiding roads altogeth- veloped useful academic studies related to roads, spatial er and building railroads instead. Railroads have been analysis and landscapes, and wildlife53,54,55. Our recom- shown to result in fewer ancillary impacts than road in- mendations stem from the best practices available in frastructure58 such as requiring less land for right of way case studies from selected countries. These case studies or having induced impacts mainly at stations. illustrate the various options in practice, from avoidance and mitigation to leveraging funds from infrastructure Ideally, building infrastructure in large intact habitat projects to benefit biodiversity conservation56 (Appendix blocks should be avoided to lower the risk of poaching B). and breaks in habitat connectivity59. However, there may still be a need for "micro-siting" to determine the exact All of the following options are based upon the mitiga- location for infrastructure and when to apply tiger filters tion hierarchy, with an emphasis on avoidance. We ex- during the process (see Figure 5). Biologists, planners, plored both a so-called "tiger filter" (Appendix D1 and and engineers can assist in the mitigation of impacts to D2) as well as various infrastructure lifecycle options tigers by identifying and avoiding tiger corridors60. In 28 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES Figure 5 Tiger-friendly road project and planning timeline Stage1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 C O N S T Planning Environmental (EIAs) Social R Studies Assessments U C Preliminary Design Final Design T Determine Purpose and need I existing Traffic analysis O Preliminary options Geometric design RightofWay conditions; N Traffic forecasts; Technical studies Typical sections Plans; Engineering & Acquisition Analyze needs; Public outreach Grading Specifications RightofWay setting Conceptual Air quality Drainage and estimates; RightofWay engineering solutions; Noise analysis Structural Final Plans. Appraisals Preliminary cost W li Water quality Traffic T ffi Purchase offers estimates. Floodplain/Hydrologic Signing/striping Tiger friendly Counter offers Land use Lighting infrastructure Relocation Tiger Wetlands/Rivers Utilities specifications Asbestos clearing friendly Biodiversity analysis demolition filters and Direct & cumulative impacts Condemnation (if necessary) policies Hazardous materials Government regulations Cultural resources Socio/economic drivers Costbenefit analysis Social & Environmental Refine alternatives Safeguards; baseline and Alternative selection monitoring protocols Evaluation and decision situations in which infrastructure is unavoidable, and traps. The wildlife crossing options listed in Appendix F overlaps with a tiger conservation landscape, tiger cross- are largely derived from a recommendation report de- ings should be properly planned and engineered to help veloped for carnivore crossings in North America61. facilitate tiger movements. Appropriate mitigation of the barrier effect caused by transportation infrastruc- Appendix F provides a breakdown of options to help ture should be customized for tigers, taking into account make transportation infrastructure tiger-friendly. Over- their behavioral responses to habitats fragmented and all, research suggests that open-span bridges and bridge modified by roads, fences, overpasses and underpasses. extensions are recommended for mitigating road impacts There is a major need to monitor both the initial frag- on tigers, and should also work for other species, includ- mentation effects on tigers, as well as the effectiveness of ing prey and other large mammals such as elephants62. project-level mitigation efforts. Entrance to wildlife crossings should be natural, with To help identify the exact location of these tiger cor- gradients and curves rather than edges and lines63. ridors ("connectivity planning"), a number of methods Shielding tigers from the view of potential poachers is can be used including: aerial photography, vegetation critical. Discordant, non-natural features should be re- maps, topographic maps, wildlife habitat maps, road kill moved from the vicinity of the crossing, and the sub- information, interviews with local people and/or rangers strate should be similar to that of the surrounding area. (if applicable), footprint/scat trails, poaching informa- For all of the structures noted above, it is helpful to have tion, and ideally (if available) photographs from camera a full line of sight across the crossing64. Lastly, fencing A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 29 decisively enhanced the effectiveness of crossing struc- ing is increasingly being proposed in remote and biodi- tures in North America65. It is of note that elephants, versity-rich ecosystems that were previously unexplored which co-occur with tigers in many tiger conservation and undeveloped for minerals. Despite the significant landscapes66, are not always amenable to fencing solu- potential for negative impacts on tiger populations and tions67,68,69 so this problem will require further research their landscapes from mining operations, companies can and monitoring, in particular to identify whether migra- do a great deal to minimize or prevent such impacts in tory routes of elephants and general movement corridors areas identified as being appropriate for mining70. There for both species overlap or are separate. Should fencing are also many opportunities for companies to enhance prove to be an option in particular areas, research on cou- biodiversity conservation within their areas of opera- gars suggests that it should be at least 8 feet/2.5 meters tions. Appendix G presents a set of recommendations high (preferably higher) and should attach to the top of based on best practices. the crossing (versus the base). Furthermore, the fencing should run for longer than half a mile (>800 meters) and It is essential in tiger conservation landscapes that these it may be desirable to fully fence-in certain areas to serve practical realities be factored into the design of mitiga- the dual purpose of keeping tigers in, and poachers out tion hierarchy measures, into the allocation of respon- of, crossing areas. sibilities for implementing the measures, and into con- struction supervision to ensure that adequate protection No matter which crossing structures are used, monitor- is afforded to tigers, their landscapes, and affected stake- ing is critical to evaluate effectiveness, which in turn will holders. enable managers to adapt plans. Camera systems used for monitoring may also serve the secondary role of tracking tiger and prey populations and the incidence of poaching. 6.3 Dams and hydroelectric power 6.2 Mining The electric power and water demands of tiger range countries are growing rapidly71. Most of the countries already have multi-year development plans for dam con- Mining has the potential to directly and indirectly af- struction near or within tiger conservation landscapes72. fect tiger conservation landscapes and tigers throughout In addition to huge social impacts, large dams direct- the lifecycle of a project. Impacts from mining can re- ly impact rivers in a variety of physical and biological sult from any activity that involves land clearance (for ways. Most significant is the alteration of a river's flow, example access-road construction, exploration drilling, which affects downstream ecosystems and the landscape overburden stripping, or tailings impoundment con- through which the river flows73,74. Riverbeds down- struction) or direct discharges into water bodies (for ex- stream of dams are typically eroded by several meters ample riverine tailings disposal, tailings impoundment within the first decade following dam closing; the dam- releases, or unintended acid rock drainage), land use (for age can extend for tens or even hundreds of kilometers example overburden dumping), and inputs into the air below a dam75. During the flooding phase, large tracts of (such as dust or smelter emissions). forest are impacted directly76,77 and major tiger habitats could be lost irreversibly. The potential for significant impacts on tigers is greater when mining occurs within or near tiger conservation The majority of river basins within tiger conservation landscapes. Due to the continuing demand for miner- landscapes are noted as being at a high or very high risk als, the depletion of resources in readily accessible areas, of cumulative impacts from human activities, to which and changing legislation, fiscal and regulatory reforms, infrastructure is a significant contributor78,79. Accord- technologies, and economics in the mining sector, min- ingly, there is a strong need for integrated, precautionary 30 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES approaches to hydroelectric power planning and design, These principles can be augmented by many of those including avoidance of critical habitats. The same notions presented in the two previous sections on transporta- also apply to other forms of water-based infrastructure, tion and mining infrastructure, as well as hydroelectric such as pipelines. A strategic package of avoidance, pro- power-specific recommendations (see Appendix H). tection, and offset policies near tiger conservation land- scapes should include: The hydroelectric power sector usually deals with a set of strategic issues at the policy, planning, and program 1. Avoidance of core tiger habitats and trans-basin/ level of analysis that require different instruments (see river water transfers to prevent introduction of Table 4 below): exotic species; 2. Protection of high-value or un- and under- As a general frame of reference, the principles of the represented lowland tiger habitats, especially mitigation hierarchy provide a good-practice guide to in watersheds that remain largely in their natu- managing the impacts and risks of current and proposed ral state, supported by clustering of hydroelectric hydroelectric power development at all levels. In addi- power projects or their concentration in particular tion to a high quality environmental impact assessment, basins or parts of basins; a strategic environmental assessment to hydroelectric 3. Maintaining minimum downstream environ- power, road, and mining plans and projects (where they mental flows in terms of both water quality and impact tiger conservation landscapes and tiger popula- quantity; tions in particular and biodiversity in general) should 4. Provision for equivalent or nearest comparable be included in regional and project plans. In addition, offsets for all critical habitat loss or deterioration; more attention should be attached to the environmental and impacts from ancillary infrastructures of projects in en- 5. Fair valuation of losses and payments for main- vironmental impact assessments. Ancillary infrastruc- tenance of ecosystem services such as enhanced ture, such as access roads, transmission lines, and boom watershed protection. towns, can also inflict considerable damage to the ad- TaBle 4 Environmental issues in the hydroelectric planning process Level of Analysis Strategic issue Instrument Trade-offs: hydroelectric development vs. greenhouse-gas emissions Strategic environmental Loss of biodiversity assessment for energy matrix Policy Water allocation priorities Strategic environmental Water efficiency assessment for National Water Inter-basin transfers Resources Strategy "No-development" basins Environmental criteria for hydroelectric project selection Strategic environmental including impacts on critical natural habitats (tiger landscapes) assessment for 10-year Hydroelectric Plan Plan Water allocation tradeoffs in watershed Strategic environmental Water-use conflicts assessment for Watershed Environmental flows in watershed Water Resources Plan Program Cumulative impacts on biodiversity in watershed Strategic environmental Regional environmental programs for mitigating/compensating assessment for Watershed cumulative impacts on biodiversity Hydroelectric Development Program A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 31 jacent environment to main construction sites. Often, In summary, despite a track record of adversely affecting environmental impact assessments do not pay enough tiger conservation, infrastructure projects do have nu- attention to these ancillary impacts. Furthermore, stra- merous options for positively affecting wild tiger con- tegic decommissioning of infrastructure that is causing servation. These options, organized within the project great harm to tiger areas (such as old forest roads) should lifecycle, are summarized in Table 5. also be considered. TaBle 5 Summary of project level options Level Project life cycle Option Early stakeholder engagement (including benefit-sharing agreements and informed consent) Tiger/large intact habitat block avoidance (includes screening and "no go" commitments) Exploration, planning, Conduct baseline studies and monitoring and design Legal compliance with all regulatory requirements throughout project lifecycle (including both environmental impact assessments and strategic impact assessments even if they are not compulsory) Tiger-friendly design and engineering (emphasis on open-span bridges/bridge arches for roads) Minimizing ancillary infrastructure development and clustering development Project Construction Construction and worker behavior protocols (relating to workers, noise, dust, and induced development) Embedding tiger conservation performance objectives into environmental management systems Community tiger education programs Operations Ongoing monitoring of tigers, tiger habitats, and crossing structure use (by various species) Ongoing reporting and disclosure of information to stakeholders Tiger patrols and poaching/hunting restrictions on workers Closure and Post-project reporting and communication of lessons learned remediation 33 7. PRIORITY ACTIONS D uring 2009 and 2010, the GTI planned a series 5. Ensure safeguards are operationalized and made of meetings starting in Katmandu in October to be tiger-friendly. 2009 then Thailand in January 2010 and culmi- 6. Maximize the use of non-financial instruments nating in the Tiger Summit in November, 2010. such as advisory services, grants and capacity Here is a set of priority actions that would facilitate ac- development. tivities following the Tiger Summit in St. Petersburg in November. (see also Appendix C for long-term policy recommendations): 7.2 Governments 1. Publicly commit to a "no go" policy for infrastruc- ture development within priority tiger conserva- 7.1 Funding agencies tion landscapes. 2. Engage in policy analysis and debate about 1. Develop capacity for building tiger-friendly poli- appropriate options for tiger and tiger conserva- cies into sectoral planning. tion landscape protection instruments. 2. Initiate a policy of information sharing and open 3. Review and update national tiger action plans to access to basic infrastructure development infor- include tiger-friendly policies. mation among government agencies and, prefer- 4. Review land-use planning policy especially in ably, among other key partners, to assist in strate- and around priority populations/habitats to avoid gic environmental assessment and environmental tiger conservation landscapes. In cases where impact assessment, help interagency coordination, these habitats are trans-boundary, conduct bilat- and promote integrated planning. eral work. Protected area networks should also be 3. Mainstream environmental/biodiversity consid- reviewed to determine whether these tiger con- erations into the design, construction, and opera- servation landscapes can receive additional sup- tion of infrastructure projects through application port. of strategic impact assessment at a sectoral level; 5. Discuss the possible regulatory policy, fiscal poli- prepare sector-wide tiger-friendly environmental cy, and incentive program options presented here, safeguards including environmental protection with appropriate agencies. commitments; and disseminate best practices. 6. Consider and discuss inter-country commit- 4. Strengthen environmental policy and governance ments. oriented to tiger conservation landscapes. 7. Stipulate a tiger-friendly policy in EIA/SEA sys- tems. 34 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES 8. Ensure institutions responsible for tiger conserva- 2. Review planned and existing infrastructure proj- tion and general habitat protection are strength- ects within tiger conservation landscapes to incor- ened adequately to perform monitoring and porate tiger-friendly actions. In particular, ensure enforcement of policy. that there are explicit tiger conservation goals and strong community engagement. Conserva- tion planning tools for this sort of work, available 7.3 Business and industry from NGOs, could be used. 3. Research and review engineering guidelines for 1. Review corporate environmental/biodiversity carnivore crossings that are customized for appli- policies to incorporate tiger-specific actions. Poli- cation to tigers in Asia, along with performance cies should ensure that a strong mitigation hierar- monitoring for learning. chy is in place along with biodiversity- and tiger- specific elements. 35 8. CONCLUSIONS T he fate of wild tigers hangs in the balance. Deci- level design elements that can minimize disruption to sion-makers who have the ability to guide infra- tiger (and their prey) movement, monitor performance, structure development in Asia will have a major and help to reduce habitat loss. The mitigation hierarchy say in whether or not tigers disappear from the can act as a useful framework for these various options wild within our lifetimes. While the challenges are com- (see Appendix I). plex, tiger-friendly options are available at various levels from national policies to business practices and project design. Case studies from all over the world (Appendix B) il- lustrate how governments, sector leaders, and private- Avoidance is by far the best, and cheapest, solution and sector players have developed projects that demonstrate should be adopted by tiger range countries. best practices in action. The significant lessons learned from these cases can help to inform actions of the tiger A "no go" commitment at the 2010 Tiger Summit, com- range countries. bined with the range of infrastructure options (Table 6), from regulatory policies to fiscal policies that provide Significant transformational action is required to save various incentive schemes, such as payment for ecosys- wild tigers and the ecological values they represent. If tem services and biodiversity funds, can help to promote we do not take action, the future will be bleak for the avoidance. billions of people whose lives and livelihoods depend on the ecological services, from carbon sequestration Sectoral-level policies can also avoid such areas on a vol- to watershed protection, of the forests and grasslands untary basis to minimize risk and avoid costly delays. that remain under the tiger's umbrella. Decision mak- There are also a number of cost-effective options around ers who have the ability to guide infrastructure devel- stakeholder engagement, education programs, offsets, opment throughout Southeast Asia will have a major and explicit incorporation of tiger conservation goals say in whether tigers, and the ecosystem services they into infrastructure projects that can help drive tiger con- represent, disappear from the wild within our lifetimes servation. Lastly, should it come to it, there are project- or not. 36 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES TaBle 6 Full summary of multi-level options Level Project Life Cycle Option Land-use planning framework (including strengthening property rights, restrictions, tiger corridor analysis, and tiger conservation landscape construction permits) Designing protected area networks (new protected areas/ strengthening existing ones) Environmental impact assessments (including mandating stakeholder engagement and fragmentation analysis) Strategic environmental assessments Leveraging tiger/biodiversity funds from infrastructure project as compensation mechanism National Applicable to all stages Payment for ecosystem services schemes including carbon, watershed-services, Policy and biodiversity offsets Tiger-friendly construction permits Restrictions on ancillary infrastructure development Promoting and providing incentives for alternative livelihoods, such as eco- tourism/tiger viewing, as integrated community development projects that support tiger conservation Strong compliance monitoring and enforcement via institutional strengthening Legal requirements regarding financial sureties Enforcing remediation and removal of ancillary infrastructure Adopting best practices throughout the mitigation hierarchy, avoiding past Applicable to all stages mistakes, and pursuing voluntary commitments Develop national sectoral plans that include: integration of land-use planning (including fragmentation analysis and protected area establishment), strategic environmental assessments that include tiger-specific considerations, funding Sectoral Applicable to all stages transfer mechanisms including payment for environmental services, carbon funding (for example REDD), tiger-friendly project design and construction, compliance guarantees, considered construction rules ,and minimization of cumulative, ancillary, and induced impacts Siting and development Specific avoidance or "no go" in the 10 priority tiger areas Applicable to all stages Professional training and awareness building for workers on tiger conservation A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 37 TaBle 6 Full summary of multi-level options (continued) Level Project Life Cycle Option Early stakeholder engagement processes (including benefit-sharing agreements and informed consent) Tiger/large intact habitat block avoidance (includes screening and "no go" commitments) Exploration, siting, and Conduct baseline studies and monitoring development Legal compliance with all regulatory requirements throughout project lifecycle (including both environmental impact assessments and strategic environmental assessments even if they are not compulsory) Tiger-friendly design and engineering (emphasis on open-span bridges and bridge arches for roads and tigers) Minimizing ancillary infrastructure development and clustering development Project Construction Construction and worker behavior protocols (relating to workers, noise, dust, and induced development) Embedding tiger conservation performance objectives into environmental management systems Community tiger education programs Operations Ongoing monitoring of tigers, tiger habitats, and crossing structure use (by various species) Ongoing reporting and disclosure of information to stakeholders Tiger patrols and poaching/hunting restrictions on workers Closure and remediation Post-project reporting and communication of lessons learned APPENDIXES -- CASE STUDIES 40 APPENDIX A: ASSESSMENT MATRIX OF TIGER FRIENDLY POLICIES AND PRACTICES IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES Environmental Policy instrument Indicators BD BH KH CN IN ID LA MY MM NP RU TH VN Membership of the Convention on Interna- Biological Diversity? tional International instruments conventions Membership of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Presence of National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP)? Is there an implementation strategy for the NBAP? Does the implementation strategy discuss infrastructure development? Are tiger corridors protected by law? Are wildlife/tiger corridors mapped? Are there restrictions for Biodiversity infrastructure development in the conservation corridors? National Are developmental activities policy prohibited in the core areas of protected areas? Is there a policy to avoid construction in large intact tiger habitat blocks? Does the country have laws/regulations/mechanisms for ecological compensation or transfer of funds from infrastructure sector to biodiversity? Is there a National Tiger Action Plan? Tiger Action SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES Plans Does the NTAP discuss infrastructure development in tiger Environmental Policy instrument Indicators BD BH KH CN IN ID LA MY MM NP RU TH VN habitats Does the NTAP explicitly lay out actions/guidelines for construction in tiger habitat? Is there a separate national A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h body/agency dedicated to tiger conservation? Is there a Ministry of Policy Environment/Government body implementing responsible for environmental institutions protection? Does the Environment Ministry have other responsibilities such as development or energy? Is there a national land use plan or zoning plan? Land use Is there a regional land use plan? planning Is the development occurring in the tiger landscapes compatible with the regional/district land use plans? Is there strategic environmental Environmental assessment (SEA) regulation? assessment Is there an environmental impact tools assessment legislation? Sectoral Biodiversity Are there SEA guidelines? level inclusive implemen- strategic Is compensation for biodiversity loss tation environmental required in SEA guidelines? 41 42 APPENDIX A (CONTINUED) Environmental Policy instrument Indicators BD BH KH CN IN ID LA MY MM NP RU TH VN Assessment Is biodiversity survey/analysis required for sensitive areas in SEA guidelines? Do SEA guidelines include addressing cumulative impacts? Do SEA guidelines include addressing fragmentation impacts? Has SEA been carried out in a tiger landscape? Is the EIA procedure clearly laid out in the EIA regulation Are there EIA guidelines? Do EIA guidelines include addressing fragmentation impacts? Do state authorities have the authority to approve EIAs? Is public participation/stakeholder involvement mandatory in the EIA Project process? level EIA policy Is project monitoring and post implemen- project monitoring mandatory? tation Are special permits/clearance required for projects in wildlife/tiger habitat Are penalties imposed for violating the provisions of the EIA regulations? Does public participation occur throughout the EIA process? Is compensation for biodiversity loss required in EIA guidelines? SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES Environmental Policy instrument Indicators BD BH KH CN IN ID LA MY MM NP RU TH VN Are biodiversity surveys/analysis required for sensitive areas in EIA guidelines? Have funds transferred from a project been used as a tool to compensate environmental impacts in tiger habitat such as anti- patrolling and tiger protection? Are there restrictions on ancillary A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h infrastructure development in tiger Management habitat instruments Are environmental management plans prepared? Is there any regulation which requires biodiversity awareness training for construction workers? Are signs and warnings for local fauna required for infrastructure projects? Potentially applicable case studies in the short term K, L, I, L, I, A, B, I, B, H, I, G, B, G, K, B, I F, E G, B, G, E, E M K, C G, I, E H, I, H, L, P I, H, K, K, C, L,P C, E L, L, A, P K, M P Policy is in place and favorable Policy is in place but has implementation issues Policy is not in place Data Pending BD = Bangladesh; BH = Bhutan; KH = Cambodia; CN = China; IN = India; LA = Laos; MY = Myanmar; MM = Malaysia; NP = Nepal; RU = Russia; TH = Thailand; VN = Vietnam 43 44 APPENDIX A (CONTINUED) Index for the Case Studies A. Amoyá River hydroelectric Project, Colombia b. banff National Park Wildlife highway Crossings Project, Canada C. Environmental Compensation Law, brazil D. Cerrejón Mine, Colombia E. Payment for Environmental Services, Costa Rica F. Gasbol Pipeline, bolivia and brazil G. Mining Association of Canada and the proposed Tuktusiuqvialuk National Park, Canada h. Economic Cost-benefit Tools and Madidi National Park, bolivia I. Noel Kempff Climate Action Project and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), bolivia J. North-South Economic Corridor SEA, Mekong region K. Orca Aggregate Quarry, Canada L. Oro Verde: Responsible Artisinal Gold & Platinum Mining, Colombia M. Santa Anna hydroelectric Project, Colombia N. TransMilenio: bogota's Rapid Transit System, Colombia O. hydro power SEA, Vietnam P. Corridors and Fragmentation: Ensuring conservation and connectivity for tigers The responses depicted in this matrix are a result of extensive surveys and interviews conducted with experts and government officials. * Environmental clearance refers to an additional no-objection certificate required from a relevant authority clearing the project. ** The rating of the environmental impact assessment systems is based on a comparison among the 13 tiger range countries and has not been compared to environ- mental impact assessments systems in other parts of the world. Adapted from World bank. (2006). Environmental impact assessment regulations and strategic environmental assessment requirements: practices and lessons learned in East and Southeast Asia. SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES APPENDIX b: SUMMARY OF SECTORAL CASE STUDIES -- bEST PRACTICES AND OFFSETS These cases provide an extensive set of lessons for the tiger range countries looking to emulate the success of such projects. In the table below is a summary of some of the lessons learned and significance that are drawn from throughout the case studies, all of which represent opportunities for the tiger range countries. A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h Case study Sector Lesson(s) learned Significance for tiger range countries Amoyá River Hydroelectric Demonstrates the potential for synergies between carbon Carbon financing resources could be used as a tool Hydroelectric Project power finance (Clean Development Mechanism, CDM) and GEF­ to foster some of the goals of the GTI in the context funded activities on adaptation. Some of these revenues of the local social and environmental circumstances could be invested in actions that would contribute to where each project is to take place, contributing to maintain a sustainable water cycle, currently threatened by the objectives of protecting core tiger habitats and global climate change and other anthropogenic impacts. populations. Banff National Park Transportation Mitigation measures for large mammals can be highly Proposed highway projects can amend design Wildlife Highway effective in reducing mortality; open-span bridges/ elements to incorporate experimental tiger/wildlife Crossings extensions hold promise for tigers; extensive monitoring is crossing structures and monitoring. critical. Brazilian All Sectors Large amounts of financial resources can be harnessed Funding for anti-poaching and habitat conservation/ Environmental from infrastructure projects. Implementation capacity restoration can be funded via infrastructure Compensation is fundamental to guarantee the success of any major compensation. compensation scheme. Cerrejón Mine Mining Significant and early investment in environmental action Since mining has the potential to both directly programs is critical (for example, environmental impact and indirectly affect tigers and their habitats assessments, air/water quality control systems, programs throughout the life cycle of a project, following best for land acquisition and rehabilitation, native flora/fauna environmental practices, as well as ensuring local management, monitoring and control programs, etc.). communities and key actors are included in the site Participatory decision making processes with stakeholders selection, design, and methodologies is fundamental. at an early stage are also very important in the long term. Mining operations near tiger conservation landscapes have the ability to contribute to the conservation of critical core habitats and tiger awareness programs. 45 APPENDIX b (CONTINUED) 46 Case study Sector Lesson(s) learned Significance for tiger range countries Costa Rican Payment All Sectors Costa Rica's payment for environmental services scheme The flexibility of payment for environmental services for Environmental took a long time to establish (more than two decades), schemes could benefit tiger range countries if Services (PES) but this was in part due to its pioneering aspects. Success projects are customized and designed to secure core has been heavily dependent on legislation (forestry tiger habitat by providing financial resources to land laws), measuring and monitoring of the environmental owners and local communities in the long term. services for the target market, adequate payment levels Initial efforts in Vietnam, China, and other tiger range (with low transaction fees), and financial mechanisms to countries can be built upon for specific tiger results. secure long term income streams. Significant numbers of environmental service providers and consumers are beneficial in a payment for environmental services scheme along with a strong governance structure for the funds. Gasbol Pipeline Oil & gas Careful and considered design around the location of the Carefully planning infrastructure developments pipeline is a primary concern; large infrastructure projects to avoid tiger conservation landscapes while also can drive both in situ and ex situ conservation; early and engaging local communities will be key for tiger continual stakeholder involvement is key; environmental conservation. Furthermore, the infrastructure can impact assessments underpinned the work. help drive tiger conservation through fund generation and insights from environmental impact assessments. Mining Association Mining Voluntary avoidance by sectoral representatives can Opening dialogues among environment ministries, of Canada and be successful to optimize both resource extraction and NGOs, and sectoral representatives can result in Tuktusiuqvialuk habitat/species conservation. improved land use planning. proposed National Park Madidi National Park Transportation, Traditional finance/economic cost-benefit tools can provide Proposed infrastructure projects should evaluate and economic oil and gas great insight into the ongoing costs of infrastructure initial and ongoing project costs, as well as lost cost-benefit tools projects that may have significant biodiversity impacts. revenue from ecosystem services when determining When opportunity costs are explored (let alone forgone project approvals. These tools can be brought to bear environmental service costs), the economic valuation of a in advance of conducting full EIA/SEA analyses. project may not appear as lucrative as originally perceived. Noel Kempff National Transportation REDD schemes, when conducted properly and with the Tiger range countries should look at win-win Park & REDD (various) right pre-conditions, can provide significant funding for opportunities where high-biodiversity/priority habitat conservation. tiger conservation landscapes overlap with carbon sequestration potential. North South Economic Transportation Strategic environmental assessment can provide a Strategic environmental assessment can be Corridor SEA communicative and elaborative platform to maximize adopted by tiger range countries to facilitate the SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES the potential of spatial planning tools to identify a "no- planning process to avoid infrastructure impacts in go" map with sensitive areas flagged for infrastructure tiger conservation landscapes with stake holders development. extensively involved. Case study Sector Lesson(s) learned Significance for tiger range countries Orca quarry Mining Strong community engagement complemented with Encouraging projects to go above and beyond voluntary measures (such as ISO 14001 EMS) that surpass regulatory compliance through community regulatory compliance can create highly successful projects engagement and strong minimization/mitigation (financially, socially and environmentally). aspects with continual improvement. Oro Verde Artisinal Mining Artisanal mining can be an effective means of local Tiger range countries can explore means of engaging Mine economic development whilst minimizing biodiversity in low-impact responsible artisanal mining where impacts. appropriate deposits exist as a means of retaining additional wealth and promoting community economic development. A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h Santana Run-of-River Hydroelectric Small-scale CDM hydroelectric projects can replace dirty Tiger range countries can adopt small scale CDM Hydroelectric Project power energy sources with clean energy; thereby lower the run-of-river CDM hydroelectric power projects threat of climate change and generate funds through generating income from CERs which in turn could Certified Emissions Reduction credits (CERs). Such small- be use to conserve tiger habitats and natural scale projects have minimal habitat disturbance but must corridors associated with protected areas and tiger be underpinned with comprehensive and successful conservation landscapes. stakeholder consultation processes. Bogota's Rapid Transit Transportation TransMilenio last year became the only large Energy and cost-effective Massive Transports Systems System: TransMilenio transportation project approved by the United Nations to such as TransMilenio could be adopted by tiger range generate and sell carbon credits. Developed countries that countries in order to generate CERs and long term exceed their emissions limits under the Kyoto Protocol, can funding which in turn could be used to support tiger buy credits from TransMilenio to balance their emissions awareness and conservation programs. budgets, bringing Bogotá an estimated US$100 million to US$300 million. Viet Nam SEA Hydroelectric Strategic environmental assessment can be flexibly Tiger range countries can adopt strategic power integrated with the sectoral planning at policy, plan environmental assessment as a potentially effective and program levels and provides a continuous view of tool to safeguard sectoral development initiatives addressing biodiversity issues in the decision formulation. with biodiversity, and especially tiger conservation issues, incorporated. Corridors and All sectors Mapping corridors of large cats is useful as a preliminary Conducting analyses to evaluate connectivity fragmentation: step in conservation. Effective mesh size--which measures between tiger landscapes is critical to ensure viable Ensuring conservation the degree of landscape fragmentation--is a useful populations. Furthermore, such analyses can inform and connectivity for indicator to evaluate fragmentation and connectivity. land-use planning and ensure infrastructure avoids tigers critical habitat (or minimizes its impacts). It can also be used to identify areas where compensation funds can be used to restore connectivity for tigers. 47 These case studies have numerous implications for the tiger range countries; the lessons can be applied directly to help to create tiger-friendly, smart infrastructure in a range of sectors. 48 APPENDIX C: A DESCRIPTION OF SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE (SGI) OPTIONS Regulatory Policies and Enforcement Description Designing Protected Area Networks (new protected Protected area networks that incorporate tiger conservation landscapes are a cornerstone to an effective national areas/strengthening existing protected areas) tiger plan. Effective and adequately funded enforcement is required to ensure tiger poaching does not destroy tiger populations. There are habitat types that are currently underrepresented in terms of tiger conservation. The majority of protected areas within tiger conservation landscapes are located in montane and pre-montane habitats despite studies in Russia and Sumatra that observe and predict higher numbers of tigers in lower altitudes areas. Accordingly, protecting low-altitude tiger conservation landscapes should be considered a priority. Furthermore, research from Linkie et al. indicates that lowland areas in Sumatra are experiencing the greatest human pressure from oil palm cultivation, commercial and illegal logging, mining, and agriculture. Research also indicates that riparian habitat zones should also be protected, even in degraded habitat areas, to maintain movement corridors and retain tiger habitat. Land-Use Restrictions Placing restrictions on land uses in and around infrastructure can be helpful for land-use planning. It is important to ensure that tiger conservation landscapes remain in land uses that are compatible with tigers and their prey. These legal restrictions are well served when complemented by incentive systems such as land easements. Tiger-friendly Permits Typically any form of major infrastructure requires a permit for construction. Governments have an opportunity, through such applications, to help ensure infrastructure is tiger-friendly. Appendix C provides an example of a decision-tree filter that could be used to assess infrastructure development proposals. This sort of permitting restriction also works well in conjunction with other regulatory and fiscal policies. Funding Regulatory Policies While regulatory policies can be very powerful, it is also very important to ensure that both new and existing legislation has the funding necessary to ensure effective implementation and enforcement. This includes areas such as land-use planning and, in particular protected areas and anti-poaching enforcement. Infrastructure Location Regulations Research on the impacts of infrastructure on wild tiger populations supports the concept that infrastructure would better support tiger conservation if it occurred in areas outside of tiger conservation landscapes. In essence, deciding where to locate infrastructure will determine the vast majority of the impact to tigers. Since often this decision is one of the least expensive to change, and since it has the greatest impact, it should be the primary focus of government regulatory policies for tiger conservation landscapes so business and industry minimize their impacts upon tigers and their habitat. Once this decision has been made, the remaining decisions in terms of ecological engineering (highlighted in the next section) are of greater financial cost and of lesser value to tigers. Environmental and Social Impact Assessments Tiger-friendly strategic environmental assessments Environmental impact assessments, as well as strategic environmental assessments have been shown to be a major and environmental impact assessments factor in well planned infrastructure projects when it comes to biodiversity. Traditional environmental impact assessments do not always cover the induced and cumulative impacts of infrastructure projects (to which tigers are SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES particularly sensitive) and thus strategic environmental assessments can play a key role in informing the range of factors to consider in advance of construction. Mandating strategic environmental assessments that evaluate tiger impacts specifically within tiger conservation landscapes would form a strong basis for smart green infrastructure development. Environmental Management Systems An environmental management system (EMS), such as ISO 14001, is designed to manage environmental concerns. Within this context, biodiversity, and specifically tigers, can be included when there is overlap with a tiger conservation landscape. Including tigers within the EMS framework ensures continual improvement of infrastructure management with respect to tigers. One particular element that should surface within the context of an EMS relates to human-tiger conflict. Therefore in areas where humans and tigers are likely to interact in proximity to infrastructure, strategies to mitigate conflict are important to consider. Incentive Programs Leveraging tiger/biodiversity funds from infrastructure Siphoning off 1-3 percent of the total funds allocated for development and using these funds to fund tiger and project biodiversity conservation efforts in the area of the project has been found to be an effective approach in other countries (see case studies). Such an approach can provide needed capital and operating funds for such measures as tiger patrols that would help mitigate the impacts of increased tiger poaching due to increased human access. A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes including A more recent approach that has been adopted in numerous countries, such as Costa Rica, is the notion of payment carbon/watershed for ecosystem services. Typically payment for environmental services schemes require the beneficiaries of ecosystem services to pay to ensure these services continue. For example, global carbon markets pay to set aside forests within a tiger conservation landscape (which acts as both a tiger habitat and a carbon store). Alternative Livelihoods - Eco-tourism/tiger viewing In numerous countries, there are examples of using federal funds to spur the development of industry. The development of tiger-viewing eco-tourism programs could help to link a sustainable livelihood for local communities to tigers, and also offset some of the opportunities lost by relocating infrastructure outside of tiger conservation landscapes. Stakeholder Engagement Early stakeholder engagement processes Stakeholder buy-in to an infrastructure project is often a key determinant of success and has been identified as a best practice. Engaging local and broader stakeholders early in the design process, including building and communicating the explicit tiger conservation goals, will help to lay a foundation for long-term success. Research suggests that community support for tiger conservation has a major role to play in ensuring that tiger poaching is minimized. Once the project is completed, local communities not only reap the benefits, but also ensure the continued success of both the economic development and environmental benefit. Providing local communities with an understanding, in the right language, of tigers, habitat connectivity, mortality impacts, and habitat loss is key for all parties. With the right understanding and incentives, engineers, officials, and members of the public can often develop strong solutions. This communication may require different approaches for each stakeholder group (for example. explain the requirements to engineers in terms of impacts on cost, timelines, and safety). Discussions should include an explanation of conservation efforts, benefit sharing, agreement upon "conflict," and understanding and clear delineation of protected areas and buffer zones. 49 A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 51 APPENDIX D2: EXAMPLE OF QUESTION 2A AND GIS SPATIAL MAPPING Example of a "cost surface" (red = high cost; grey = low cost). Such cost surfaces could also guide the degree and cost of mitigation and compensation. This "cost surface" could then be mapped against proposed infrastructure to evaluate thresholds for "go" or "no go." Source: WWF-US. 52 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES APPENDIX E: INTEGRATING TIGER-FRIENDLY FILTERS INTO ThE MINING PROJECT LIFECYCLE Adapted from: Good Practice Guidance for Mining and biodiversity. 2006. Published by International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM), London, UK. Available from: ICMM, www.icmm.com, info@icmm.com A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 53 APPENDIX F: TIGER-FRIENDLY TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE OPTIONS · Road Signs: Signs indicating the presence of tigers are a cost-effective means of lowering road strikes. Signage useful for protecting tigers and their habitat, serves as a warning to the general public and public works people such as for people laying down transmission lines. · Round Culverts: Culverts have been shown to be adequate for some large cat species such as cougars if they are of sufficient size (>10 feet/3 meters in height and >20 feet/6 meters in width). They may also be adequate for smaller prey species, but are considered only adequate (not ideal) for ungulates. · Multi-plate Arches: Multi-plate arches are tunnels that are put in below roads, often using large metallic culverts in combination with concrete arches. These are lower cost than some other options, but have also been shown to be less effective than bridges and overpasses. Nevertheless, so long as they are at least 20 feet (6 meters) in width and 10 feet (3 meters) in height, they should prove adequate for both tigers and their prey. · Open-span Bridges and Bridge Extensions: Open spans and bridge extensions are likely the best solution for tigers and road infrastructure. These solutions often take advantage of natural topography such as streams, val- leys, wooded corridors and other landforms to enable tigers to pass underneath roadways. Since these bridges are often required for the road itself, they are often very cost effective as they require only moderate modification to make them tiger-friendly. Not only have these been shown to be the best solution for large cats, but are also ideal for ungulate species. Open-span bridges and bridge extensions are the form of infrastructure recommended for mitigating road impacts to tigers. · Wildlife Overpasses: Overpasses are full bridges that enable wildlife to go over transportation infrastructure. These are the most expensive forms of mitigating infrastructure and while they will be used by large cats, and are highly effective for ungulates (especially if twinned), other forms of infrastructure are preferential for large cats (notably bridges--open span/extensions), especially given the high costs of overpasses. 54 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES APPENDIX G: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MINING INFRASTRUCTURE AND TIGERS Exploration: · Complete avoidance of certain areas, such as known and protected tiger core breeding areas, via "no-go" commitments; · Limit land clearing by using technologies and mining practices that minimize habitat disturbance; · Avoid road building wherever possible by using helicopters or existing tracks. If roads are to be constructed, use existing corridors and build away from steep slopes or waterways; · Use lighter and more efficient equipment to reduce impacts on biodiversity; · Position drill holes and trenches away from sensitive areas; · Cap or plug drill holes to prevent small mammals from becoming trapped; · Remove and reclaim roads and tracks that are no longer needed; · Use native vegetation to re-vegetate land cleared during exploration; · Make details of the exploration project and potential impacts available, in culturally appropriate forms, to affected communities and area residents in an appropriate language and format, and make them accessible to the public-- especially to marginal stakeholders. · To cover the lasting environmental impacts of the exploration phase, companies should provide adequate financial guarantees to pay for prompt cleanup, reclamation, and long-term monitoring and maintenance; · Companies should obtain the free, prior, and informed consent of indigenous peoples before exploration begins and before each subsequent phase of mining and post-mining operations; · Companies should enter into binding contracts with communities that specify the terms under which a particular phase of a mining project may proceed. Such agreements should be mutually agreed upon and enforceable through the national court system in the country of operation or through mutually acceptable arbitration procedures. Pre-feasibility--Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIAs): · Identify tiger conservation landscapes and tiger core habitats, whether protected or not, and the status of protected areas and tiger populations; · Fund and conduct adequate tiger/biodiversity baseline research; An initial review of possible mining options (underground versus open-pit, for example), processing options and likely waste products, water demands, options for waste rock or tailings storage, etc., and consideration of the merits of each from a technical, economic, environmental (including biodiversity), and social perspective; and preliminary assessment of potential impacts, taking into consideration possible timeframes for development; · Stakeholders should be given adequate notification, time, and financial support to pay for technical resources, and access to supporting information, so their participation in the environmental impact assessment process is effective; · Environmental costs, including those associated with regulatory oversight, reclamation, closure, and post-closure monitoring and maintenance, should be included in the environmental impact assessment; · Environmental assessment should include worst-case scenarios and analyses of off-site impacts. Companies should work with potentially affected communities to identify potential worst-case emergency scenarios and to develop appropriate response strategies; · Companies should conduct adequate pre-mining and operational mine sampling and analysis for acid-producing minerals, based on accepted practices and appropriately documented, site-specific professional judgment. Sampling and analysis should be conducted in accordance with the best available practices and techniques. Feasibility stage: · Confirm the implications of legal provisions, protected areas and species, and any interfaces with the mining project; · Assess results of baseline studies and evaluate the importance of tigers (from a technical perspective and based on in- depth consultations with a range of stakeholders) and a discussion of current threats to tiger conservation landscapes; · The proposed mining project's impacts on tiger conservation landscapes and tigers (direct, indirect, and induced) and on the users of biodiversity; · Discuss avoidance and mitigation measures (from construction through to closure), the prospects for successful implementation, and residual impacts on tiger conservation landscapes and tigers and related stakeholders; · Discuss options for tiger conservation or habitat enhancement including payment for environmental services and biodiversity offset schemes. The mitigation measures to address potential impacts on tigers would be included in an environmental management plan (EMP). A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 55 APPENDIX G (CONTINUED) Construction: During this phase, thousands of temporary workers or contractors' staff, along with related infrastructure, can have significant impacts on tiger conservation landscapes. Of particular concern in ecologically sensitive areas is the likelihood of more permanent immigration following the construction period. This can result in significantly increased pressures on the natural resource base in general and on tigers in particular. One solution is to accommodate temporary workers in construction work camps, but these present their own problems for biodiversity (along with a range of associated social impacts). For example, workers may engage in hunting or make other demands on natural resources (for temporary gardens, for example, or fuel wood). To control the impacts on biodiversity during construction, some companies have adopted strict policies banning firearms or hunting, or fishing for which violators are immediately fired. · Cluster construction and development as close as possible to existing infrastructure, in lower-quality/degraded tiger habitat; · Continue on-going tiger/biodiversity monitoring; · Adopt strict no-hunting/poaching policies; · Establish anti-poaching patrols; · Build tailings impoundments with liners if seepage would result in groundwater contamination, as well as monitor systems; · Implement maximum noise level requirements at the project boundary. Operation: · Whereas the focus of efforts during new project development is almost exclusively on impact prediction and mitigation, the operational phase often provides opportunities for biodiversity protection and enhancement. Biodiversity may also be affected by maintenance activities on linear infrastructure, particularly weed and invasive species control and the transport of hazardous chemicals and waste materials. This can be minimized by implementing integrated pest management and hazard and risk assessment plans. Poaching and hunting policies are strongly recommended, along with ongoing biodiversity monitoring and, ideally, tiger patrols that would help to minimize both poaching and human- tiger conflict. · Release data on tiger impacts (direct and induced) as well as mine discharge data to the public; · Minimize mine dewatering to prevent all undesirable impacts on ground and surface waters, including seeps and springs; · Do not use water bodies (rivers, lakes, etc.) for tailings disposal (including shallow-water waste disposal) or mine waste; · Isolate and treat acid-generating materials on site; · Give communities the right to establish independent monitoring and oversight of the performance of the mine. Closure implementation: Rehabilitation and pollution prevention This commits the company to implementing good practice rehabilitation aimed at reestablishing pre-existing conservation values, but acknowledges that some impacts may be unavoidable. In the case of tiger conservation landscapes, national policies should enforce both legal requirement for restoration of the pre-mining land use, and post-mining uses with the regulatory authorities or with a broader set of stakeholders. Progress towards achieving this objective can be measured by comparing biodiversity parameters in the rehabilitated area with those in selected un-mined reference sites. Other objectives may address more specific aspects, such as the provision of habitat for tigers. Of particular importance is eliminating road access and restoring habitat connectivity. Reclamation plans with detailed cost estimates should be developed before operations begin. All disturbed areas should be re-contoured and stabilized with quantitative targets in place for both stabilization and re-vegetation. Mines should be backfilled wherever possible, assuming that groundwater contamination via acid-generating materials is not a concern. Finally, financial sureties, which guarantee funds available for reclamation, should be placed in escrow, reviewed regularly (including by the public), and be independently guaranteed. These sureties should not be released until reclamation and closure are complete and audited by an independent, third-party reviewer. 56 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES APPENDIX h: OPTIONS FOR TIGER- FRIENDLY hYDROELECTRIC POWER INFRASTRUCTURE Planning In this case, all of the strategic and project specific mitigation measures apply, especially: · Reappraising the investment risks of the aggregate scale and regional distribution of hydroelectric power development and the policy options for addressing these, such as demand management, supply mix, and project scheduling and sequencing; · Relocation of dams/infrastructure to avoid impacting important habitats, to reduce fragmentation, or to minimize increased access; · National environmental and biodiversity protection policies, such as maintenance of minimum downstream flows and avoidance of trans-basin water transfers, to prevent introduction of exotic species and other impacts on biodiversity; · Guidelines for impact zoning in river basin planning and hydroelectric power-project design that implement the mitigation hierarchy (avoid, minimize, and compensate). For example, low-impact site criteria for reservoirs, infrastructure, and resettlement zones that avoid, wherever possible, critical natural habitats for tigers and areas of karst* and peat swamp or concentrated development at low altitudes (particularly below 300 meters). Construction If construction is still at an early stage and tiger conservation landscapes have not yet been impacted, the following options could be considered: · For projects with high potential for biodiversity impacts, rescheduling or relocation of development; · For all type of impact categories, assuming there is still time, modifications to project design and construction scheduling through measures such as a) inclusion of a regulation dam; b) operation of the main dam for continuous natural flow through construction and inundation stages; c) treatment of released water (to ensure a natural range of salinity, turbidity, temperature, oxygenation, etc); and d) various controls on access, hunting, and the like, and low-impact siting of resettlement areas and workforce camps. Operation In this case, direct impacts on biodiversity have occurred already and indirect impacts have begun. However, options to compensate for direct impacts or mitigate indirect impacts include: a) reducing, realigning, or rehabilitating the aggregate footprint of project infrastructure; b) identifying tiger-friendly offsets and compensatory opportunities for areas of high biodiversity value; c) supporting resettled people to achieve sustainable livelihoods; and d) development schemes for communities that are dependent on altered or affected resources. * Note: Karst is an area of limestone terrain characterized by sinks, ravines and underground streams. It is usually a region of unique biodiversity. A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 57 APPENDIX I: CUMULATIVE IMPACTS FROM INFRASTRUCTURE IN PRIORITY TIGER CONSERVATION LANDSCAPES (LAO PDR- VIETNAM-CAMbODIA) Southeast Asia has extensive infrastructure planned for the coming years. As can be seen in this example, the planned infrastructure fragments existing tiger conservation landscapes. Furthermore, where hydroelectric and mining projects are developed, additional ancillary road infrastructure will further compound habitat degradation and increase access to remote areas for poaching of tigers and hunting of prey. Below is a set of exemplary actions that could be taken at various levels to address the infrastructure seen in this example. AVOIDANCE: National policy to prevent infrastructure in core tiger population habitats as well as IUCN I-IV protected areas that occur within tiger conservation landscapes; laws related to mandatory strategic environmental assessments and payment for environmental services transfer schemes. MINIMIZATION: Strategic environmental assessment that identifies means to reduce cumulative impacts; land zoning around infrastructure to prevent settlement and land clearance; hunting/poaching HR policies for construction workers; bridge extensions in tiger corridors. RESTORATION: Re-planting native vegetation along roads, ancillary road removal. COMPENSATION: Transfer mechanism to provide funds for national parks and anti-poaching patrols By combining strong national policy that re-directs incentives, systemic sectoral planning, and designing tiger- friendly infrastructure at the project level, wild tigers do stand a chance. Proposed National Road 58 SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES APPENDIX J: TIGER CONSERVATION LANDSCAPE GLObAL PRIORITY AREAS (NO-GO AREAS) Priority areas listed below appear in the map on page 59. India Central Western Ghats Central Indian Landscape Kaziranga-Karbi-Anlong Sundarbans Nepal Terai Arc Bhutan- India-Myanmar Bhutan- India-Myanmar TCLs Thailand Kayeh-Karen-Tennaserim Lao PDR - Vietnam Nam Et Phou Loey Cambodia Lower Mekong Forest Malaysia Taman Negara ­Belum-Hala Bala Indonesia Leuser ­ Ulu Masen Central- Southern Sumatra Russia- China Russian Far East- North East China Sources: WWF, WCS, Save the Tiger Fund, and Smithsonian's National Zoological Park. TCLs, Tiger Historic Range, and Remaining Habitat: Sanderson et al. 2006, Dinerstein et al. 2007 A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h 59 APPENDIX J (CONTINUED) Map source: WWF-US 60 APPENDIX K: CASE STUDIES INVOLVING LAND-USE PLANNING AND MITIGATION hIERARChY AND POLICY OPTIONS Madidi Nationa Park and Integrated Management Area -- Bolivia Project Description Land-use Planning and Conservation Challenges Mitigation Hierarchy and Policy Options Apolo-Ixiamas road in Northwest Bolivia. This Cost-benefit Analysis: The larger goal of this project is to facilitate transportation road would bisect the Madidi National Park Construction of the Apolo-Ixiamas road would between the highlands (altiplano) and lowlands of La Paz. and Natural Integrated Management Area, result in a net loss to Bolivian society of US$16.31 For travel anywhere but Apolo and its nearest neighbors, opening vast inaccessible tropical forest million, before considering environmental costs the existing route is the lower-cost option for travelers areas to illegal colonization and resource associated with deforestation. The very high cost of all kinds. The sensible investment alternative would extraction. Madidi is widely recognized as of building a road in the rough terrain of the Madidi therefore be to upgrade the existing route. The cost- one of the most important protected areas protected area simply cannot be recovered due benefit analysis showed that increasing maintenance in the world. to the extremely low local demand for transport. from once every four months to once every two months Adding in the cost of carbon emissions from an would yield net benefits of US$3.56 million. estimated 30,000 hectares of deforestation induced by the road brings losses to a total of US$61.71 million. This project passes neither efficiency nor equity tests. It has a negative net present value (NPV) and transfers wealth to a very small group, consisting of a mix of poor rural people, logging company owners, land speculators, design and environmental impact assessment consultants, and construction firms. SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK ­ Assam, India Kaziranga is one of the oldest protected The main challenges come from outside, There is an urgent need to conduct a comprehensive areas in the world. It was decreed a forest particularly regional pressures at a landscape environmental impact assessment study and develop reserve in 1905. The park harbors a variety scale as a result of both the Assam government's appropriate mitigation options. Options may include of endangered species including rhino, development priorities and more diffuse pressures avoidance by re-aligning the expressway through Nagaon- elephant, tiger, wild buffalo, and swamp caused by rising population and higher economic Silghat-Tezpur-Lakhimpur-Jorhat to protect the ecological deer. The park currently covers 430 square expectations. Future success will depend on the integrity of this World Heritage Site. The Kaziranga- kilometers although there are proposals to Government of Assam's commitment to adopting a Meghalaya region is one of the priority tiger conservation add an area of 454.50 square kilometers by landscape approach to conservation. The National habitats in India. The application of a landscape approach including the Brahmaputra River to the north Highway (NH) 37 running parallel to Kaziranga for Kaziranga will require evaluation of current and A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h and part of the Miker Hills to the south. The National Park, between Bokakhat to Ghorakati future pressures (including strategic impact assessment), park was designated a natural World Heritage ranges, divides the landscape between the low- development of different scenarios, agreement on the site in 1985 on the basis of its outstanding lying grasslands in the north and the elevated Karbi optimal way forward and a series of strategic interventions, universal value. The 54-kilometer length Anglong hills in the south. During the rainy season carefully monitored so that adaptive management can be of the National Highway (NH) 37 along the when flooding in Kaziranga National Park forces the applied as necessary. southern boundary of the park has become wild animals to move south to elevated ground, a serious conservation issue due to the direct many wild animals are killed by vehicles while and cumulative impacts on the local wildlife. attempting to cross NH-37. Plans are underway to convert the existing NH-37 to a six-lane expressway. The Guiguang Railway Project in China The Guiguang Railway line crosses eight The final design of the Guiguang Railway in China An innovative three-fold approach to minimize nature reserves of various levels in the project avoided seven out of eight reserves by at least 300 environmental and social impacts in sensitive areas has corridor. The railway to be constructed will meters but has to cross the Shoucheng Nature been developed in the Guiguang Railway: (1) Avoidance: cross Shoucheng Natural Reserve mainly by Reserve (provincial level) through a tunnel-bridge- Alternative analysis has been regarded as one of the most tunnels. tunnel scheme. This crossing has received special important mitigation measures to minimize potential attention during project design. The railway to be adverse environmental and social impact. (2) Sound constructed will cross Shoucheng Natural Reserve Engineering: The project has been designed with state-of- mainly by tunnels (15.264 kilometers) and only the art engineering. Using tunnel-bridge-tunnel schemes a 1036 meter long railway line will be exposed avoids most sensitive issues. In some projects, close to between the exit of the Tiaopingshan Tunnel and 76 percent of the line comprise tunnels and bridges as the entrance to the Jiangjiashan Tunnel, joined by shown below for the Guiguang railway line, currently four bridges (668.4 meters long total), with the under construction in southern China, in which over 75 height from the rail foot in the bridges to the tunnel percent of this 100-kilometer railway line is composed of bottom of more than 8.5 meters with a maximum. tunnels and bridges. (3) Comprehensive Mitigation Plans: of 23 meters, to ensure free passages of animals. No detailed environmental design plans (green corridors 61 irreversible impacts will be generated on habitats and landscaping), environmental management plans, over the tunnels, and the proposed railway line will resettlement action plans, and ethnic minority plans have not fragment habitats in the reserve. been prepared in order to minimize unavoidable impacts from the project. 62 APPENDIX K (CONTINUED) Trung Son Hydroelectric Project in Vietnam Trung Song Hydroelectric Power Project is The Trung Son Hydroelectric Power Project (TSHPP) Overall this analysis should address the following issues: located in the middle part of the Ma River. is multi-purpose and includes (a) electricity Analysis of effects on terrestrial animal and plant species. The tail of the reservoir is 9.5 kilometers generation, with an installed capacity of 260 MW Pressures will stem from: (a) the opening of good-quality from the Lao border. The dam site is located that generates a total annual of 1.06 GWh which roads into remote areas; (b) the presence of a considerable in Trung Son village, Quang Hoa district, will be devoted to supply energy to the national work force (3,000 to 4,000) in and near protected areas; Thanh Hoa province, North Central Vietnam, grid; (b) flood control for the downstream stretch, in-migration due to increased economic opportunities about 195 kilometers northwest of Thanh by using 112 million m3 of the reservoir; (c) water from the project activities; and, (c) the resettlement of Hoa city. The project is about 0.7 kilometers supplementation during the dry season; and (d) an local communities to different areas near the protected downstream of the Ma River's confluence alternative energy resource for global greenhouse areas. As a result of these pressures, the natural reserves with Quang Brook. gases (GHG) emission reductions. Although the could see a progressive deterioration of vegetation cover direct impacts on natural terrestrial ecosystems due (bamboo and natural forests) from increased slash-and- to reservoir inundation are expected to be minor burn agriculture, and illegal hunting of wild animals for (no area of the nearby reserves will be flooded), food served in restaurants and camps and for commercial the additional pressures on natural resources in uses. the area of the dam are expected to be significant. Design of a plan to strengthen the protection of the natural reserves. This plan should be based on the existing management plan and the capabilities in the Reserve Management Authorities. SMART GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES The North South Economic Transport Corridor (NSEC) in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) The GMS NSEC is one of three priority The NSEC will link important economic hubs: (a) the A Spatial Multi-Criteria Assessment (SCMA) tool was corridors targeted for infrastructure Kunming-Chiang Rai-Bangkok route via Lao PDR and used to integrate a wide range of factors such as development under the GMS Economic Myanmar; and (b) the Kunming-Hanoi-Haiphong construction costs and value of assets to be connected; Cooperation Program (see NSEC map A in route through Yunnan province and entering it also considered spatial layers related to environmental appendix L). Vietnam at Lao Cai; and more recently through a and social factors such as biodiversity, water resources, second route in the Guangxi Zhuang autonomous livelihood and health, and securityall factors that region that passes through the capital of that add indirect costs if the targeted investment is not region, Nanning, and enters Vietnam through Lang harmonised with them. The strategic environmental Son. A number of major infrastructure investments assessment used a set of spatial tools ranging from basic A M U LT I - L E V E L A P P R O A C h in the NSEC are already being undertaken by GMS spatial overlays to complex thematic and predictive countries and more are planned. The cumulative modelling, which provided inputs to a specific stage of impacts of the improved connectivity and trade the strategic environmental assessment process. The along the corridor, and the sensitivity of the areas spatial work was split into three distinct components: along the corridor, highlighted the need for wide- a) baseline phase: overview of the present situation scale planning and environmental assessment to through map overlays, b) assessment phase: facilitating evaluate indirect/induced impacts on corridor better understanding of changes and impacts through natural assets and ecosystem services as well as predictive models, and c) alternatives/ mitigation phase: on poor and vulnerable populations. A strategic supporting the development of solutions through better environmental assessment was carried out. targeting investments and mitigation measures using a spatially explicit decision/criteria framework. Using map overlays resulted in a map which identifies areas of high suitability for a desired investment. At the same time, the SMCA outcome was used to identify areas of low suitability that are synonymous with vulnerable areas where the respective investments would come with considerably increased costs. The suitability map produced by the SMCA is also an ideal input into a least-cost path calculation, which can be used to find an optimal routing, such as a potential railroad alignment in the corridor (see map B in Appendix L). Sources: Fleck, L.C., Painter, L., Reid, J., Amend, M. (2006) A road through Madidi: An environmental-economic analysis. Conservation Strategy Fund. Technical Series No. 6. V.B. Mathur, Ashok Verma, Nigel Dudley, Sue Stolton, Marc Hockings, and Robyn James. Opportunities and challenges for Kaziranga National Park, Assam over the next fifty years. (2005). UNESCO Enhancing Our Heritage Project Team. EIA Trung Son Hydroelectric Project. 2009. Trung Son Project Management Board. 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