T H E W O R L D B A N K 49317 v1 Global Development Finance Charting a Global Recovery 2009 I : R E V I E W, A N A L Y S I S , A N D O U T L O O K Global Development Finance Charting a Global Recovery I: Review,Analysis,and Outlook Global Development Finance Charting a Global Recovery I : R E V I E W , A N A L Y S I S , A N D O U T L O O K 2009 T H E W O R L D B A N K © 2009 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 12 11 10 09 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. 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All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover art: Charles Arnoldi, "Jumbo," 2000 (detail). Cover design: Critical Stages. ISBN: 978-0-8213-7840-3 eISBN: 978-0-8213-7841-0 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8213-7840-3 ISSN: 1020-5454 The cutoff date for data used in this report was May 26, 2009. Dollars are current U.S. dollars unless otherwise specified. Table of Contents Foreword xi Acknowledgments xiii Selected Abbreviations xv Overview 1 The global recession has deepened 2 Private capital flows are shrinking at an unprecedented rate 3 Financing conditions have deteriorated rapidly 3 Building confidence and strengthening policy coordination are critical to recovery and long-term growth 4 The damage to low-income countries from the crisis must be mitigated 6 Chapter 1 Prospects for the Global Economy 7 Immediate impacts of the crisis 8 Global growth 11 Commodity markets 14 Exchange rates and inflation 17 Policy reactions 19 External balance and vulnerabilities 22 An uncertain medium-term outlook 25 Regional outlooks 27 Risks 31 Policy challenges 33 Notes 34 References 34 Chapter 2 Private Capital Flows in a Time of Global Financial Turmoil 37 The global financial crisis severely reduced private capital flows to developing countries in 2008 39 The downturn began in late 2008, as part of the global financial crisis 41 Remittance flows began to slow down in 2008 54 Prospects: The fall in private capital flows will continue in 2009 56 Annex 2A: Methodology for assessing trends in foreign direct investment 61 Annex 2B: Liquidity problems, bank solvency, and international bank lending to developing countries 62 v G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Annex 2C: Debt Restructuring with Official Creditors 69 Agreements with countries 69 Notes 70 References 71 Chapter 3 Charting a Course Ahead 73 Corporations in developing countries face severe financing difficulties 74 Countries with large financing needs face balance-of-payments crises 80 The potential for expansionary policies varies significantly among developing countries 89 The financial crisis has increased the importance of policy coordination 92 Annex 3A: Modeling the benefits of a coordinated regulatory response to common shocks to confidence 98 Annex 3B: A framework for measuring investor confidence 100 Notes 102 References 102 Appendix: Regional Outlooks 105 East Asia and Pacific 105 Europe and Central Asia 110 Latin America and the Caribbean 118 The Middle East and North Africa 126 South Asia 132 Sub-Saharan Africa 140 Notes 149 Boxes 1.1 Recent initiatives to bolster trade finance 14 1.2 Managing the recovery: Coping with the future impact of recent policies 22 1.3 Potential economic impacts of the A H1N1 flu outbreak 32 2.1 The impact of the current financial crisis has been much deeper and broader than previous crises 44 2.2 The composition of foreign direct investment in times of crisis in the host economies 53 2.3 Bank lending in developing countries and the presence of foreign banks 59 3.1 Foreign bank participation and the financial crisis 79 3.2 Methodology used to estimate external financing gaps 83 3.3 The response of international financial institutions to the trade finance contraction following the crisis 86 3.4 The origins of the financial crisis 94 Figures 1.1 The crisis shook confidence worldwide and resulted in a large decline in global wealth 10 1.2 Stock market wealth declined by 40 to 60 percent in dollar terms 11 1.3 Increased uncertainty caused households and firms to delay purchases of durable and investment goods 12 1.4 Capacity is being underutilized throughout the world 12 1.5 Reflecting increased precautionary saving, industrial production declined sharply 13 1.6 The sharp fall in commodity prices has now stabilized 15 1.7 Oil demand has fallen sharply along with global growth 15 1.8 Falling food and energy prices to bring inflation under control 18 vi T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S 1.9 Policy interest rates in both high-income and developing countries have been sharply reduced 20 1.10 The contraction in bank lending has been limited 20 1.11 Much weaker industrial production and exports will cut deeply into government revenues in developing countries 21 1.12 Government balances are expected to deteriorate most sharply in Europe and Central Asia 21 1.13 The crisis has reduced global imbalances 23 1.14 Many developing-country reserves have reached worrisomely low levels 25 1.15 Many countries will need to reduce imports sharply due to reduced access to foreign capital 25 1.16 Despite projected stronger growth, considerable excess capacity remains even in 2011 26 1.17 The recovery in East Asia and Pacific will be led by China 27 1.18 High short-term debt-to-reserves ratio in Europe and Central Asia 28 1.19 GDP growth deteriorated markedly in the fourth quarter of 2008 in several major economies in Latin America and the Caribbean 28 1.20 Growth to slow sharply for both oil and diversified exporters in the Middle East and North Africa 29 1.21 Government revenues in South Asia very dependent on trade 30 1.22 Economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to decelerate abruptly in 2009 to the lowest level in almost a decade 30 2.1 Net private capital inflows to developing countries, 2000­08 39 2.2 Net private capital inflows to developing regions, 2007­08 40 2.3 MSCI equity index from January 2007­February 2009 42 2.4 Declines in developing-country stock markets in 2008 42 2.5 Gross equity issuance by developing countries, 2006­08 43 2.6 IPO activities in developing countries, 2006­08 43 2.7 Emerging market bond spreads widened sharply at year's end, 2003­09 46 2.8 Bond spreads widened in all asset classes in 2008 47 2.9 Deteriorating credit quality for emerging markets in 2008 47 2.10 Sovereign five-year credit default swap spreads, July 2008­February 2009 47 2.11 Bond issuance by developing-country governments and firms, January­February 2009 48 2.12 Short-term debt flows to developing countries, 2007Q1­2008Q4 49 2.13 Spreads on trade finance credit spiked in 2008 50 2.14 Syndicated bank lending to developing countries, January 2008­April 2009 51 2.15 Quarterly FDI inflows to selected developing countries dipped in 2008 52 2.16 Distribution of income from FDI in selected economies, 2007Q1­2008Q3 52 2.17 Repatriation of assets by financial firms from selected developing countries, 2001­08 54 2.18 Cross-border M&A flows to developing regions, 2007Q1­2009Q1 54 2.19 Net private capital flows as a share of GDP in developing countries, 1970­2010 57 2.20 International banks' claims on emerging markets, 2004­08 58 2.21 Major international banks with cross-border lending exposure to at least 30 developing countries, 1993­2007 60 2B.1 Three-month LIBOR-OIS spread, July 2007­April 2009 62 2B.2 Five-year CDS sector index for banks in the United States and European Union, January 2007­April 2009 62 3.1 Gross external borrowing by developing country corporations, 1998­2008 75 3.2 Spreads on emerging market corporate bonds, February 2007­April 2009 76 3.3 Largest local-currency bond markets, 2007 78 vii G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 3.4 Pension assets in selected countries as a share of GDP, 2007 78 3.5 Corporate bond issuance in domestic markets, 2004Q1­2009Q1 78 3.6 Foreign holdings of domestic bonds, 2007 80 3.7 External financing needs of developing countries, 1990­2009 80 3.8 Estimated external financing needs of 102 developing countries in 2009 80 3.9 Equity price changes versus external financing needs of developing countries, August 2008­February 2009 81 3.10 Exchange-rate changes and external financing needs in developing countries, August 2008­February 2009 81 3.11 Change in sovereign bond spreads and external financing needs of developing countries, August 2008­February 2009 81 3.12 External financing needs in 2009, by region 84 3.13 External financing gaps in 2009, by region and under alternative scenarios 84 3.14 Real GDP growth in five Asian countries, 1996­98 88 3.15 Net ODA disbursements by DAC donors, 1991­2008 88 3.16 Policy interest rates in developing countries, January 2007­March 2009 89 3.17 Growth of foreign reserves in developing countries, 1996­98 and 2006­08 91 3.18 Fiscal stimulus measures by G-20 developing countries 91 3.19 Developing countries with fiscal deficits exceeding 3 percent of GDP at the onset of the financial crisis 92 3A.1 Record volatility in the global equity, credit, commodity, and foreign exchange markets, May 2007­April 2009 100 3A.2 Correlation of authors' composite global index of consumer confidence with State Street index of investor confidence 101 A.1 East Asia and Pacific production dropped sharply but shows signs of bottoming out 105 A.2 China is key to East Asian prospects 109 A.3 Output declined rapidly in the fourth quarter of 2008 111 A.4 Financial crisis increased the price of risk 112 A.5 High short-term debt to total reserves ratios in Europe and Central Asia 115 A.6 Lower commodity prices should see inflation decline 116 A.7 Improved initial conditions are helping Latin America and the Caribbean weather the crisis 119 A.8 EMBI sovereign spreads surged as the crisis shook investors' confidence 120 A.9 Economic conditions in Latin America and the Caribbean have deteriorated sharply 121 A.10 Sharply weaker investment growth has contributed to GDP slowdown 121 A.11 Output and current account balances will deteriorate in 2009, improving only modestly in 2010 123 A.12 Middle East and North Africa oil revenues hit hard by global recession in 2009 126 A.13 Middle East and North Africa bourses hit hard at the worst of financial crisis 127 A.14 Remittances, FDI and tourism revenues decline as a share of GDP 129 A.15 JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond Index (EMBI), stripped spreads 133 A.16 South Asian exports, values 134 A.17 Industrial production in South Asia 135 A.18 Government revenue in South Asia is very dependent on trade 140 A.19 Bond spreads in Sub-Saharan Africa widened sharply in the wake of the global financial crisis 141 A.20 Terms of trade losses since July have been significant in some countries as commodity prices plunged 142 viii T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S A.21 External trade and private consumption deteriorated markedly in the fourth quarter of 2008 in South Africa 142 A.22 Economic growth decelerated abruptly in 2009 to the lowest level in almost a decade in Sub-Saharan Africa 144 A.23 Large terms of trade losses expected in countries exporting minerals and oil 145 A.24 Terms of trade gains expected among oil-importing countries in 2009 145 Tables 1.1 The global outlook in summary 9 1.2 Investment demand fell sharply worldwide 11 1.3 Export volumes and production plummet into early 2009 13 1.4 Metal demand plummeted with industrial production 16 1.5 Most developing-country currencies depreciated sharply against the majors 17 1.6 Increase in the number of poor due to changes in food prices since December 2005 18 1.7 Policy interest rates have dropped across most of the world 19 1.8 Lower commodity prices have reduced imbalances 23 1.9 Lower commodity prices should improve terms of trade for oil importers 24 1.10 A protracted recession 33 2.1 Net capital inflows to developing countries 40 2.2 Net capital inflows to developing regions, 2005­08 40 2.3 Emerging market bond issuance in 2009 48 2.4 Major book-runners for emerging market bonds, 2007Q1­2009Q1 49 2.5 Short-term debt stock in developing countries by sector, 2008Q3 49 2.6 Major bilateral bank loans in February 2009 51 2.7 Remittance flows to developing countries, 2002­08 55 2.8 Outlook for remittance flows to developing countries, 2009­10 56 2A.1 Regression results of FDI forecasting model, fixed-effects panel regression 61 2B.1 Lending standards, interbank liquidity, and credit to emerging economies 64 2B.2 U.S. bank performance and credit to emerging economies 65 2B.3 U.S. bank capitalization and credit to emerging economies 67 3.1 Foreign debt contracted by developing-country corporations, 1998­2008 75 3.2 Estimates of developing countries' external financing needs in 2009 82 3.3 Estimated external financing gap in developing countries, 2009 82 3.4 Net official flows, 2002­08 84 3.5 Multilateral development bank's planned 2009­11 financial response to the crisis, as of April 2009 85 3.6 Total assets and equity of the major MDBs, 2007 87 3A.1 Evidence that investors' confidence is shaped by a combination of factors 102 A.1 Net capital flows to East Asia and Pacific 107 A.2 East Asia and Pacific forecast summary 108 A.3 East Asia and Pacific country forecasts 110 A.4 Net capital flows to Europe and Central Asia 113 A.5 Europe and Central Asia forecast summary 114 A.6 Europe and Central Asia country forecasts 117 A.7 Net capital flows to Latin America and the Caribbean 120 A.8 Latin America and the Caribbean forecast summary 122 ix G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 A.9 Latin America and the Caribbean country forecasts 124 A.10 Net capital flows to the Middle East and North Africa 128 A.11 Middle East and North Africa forecast summary 130 A.12 Middle East and North Africa country forecasts 131 A.13 Net capital flows to South Asia 134 A.14 South Asia forecast summary 137 A.15 South Asia country forecasts 139 A.16 Net capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa 141 A.17 Sub-Saharan Africa forecast summary 144 A.18 Sub-Saharan Africa country forecasts 146 x Foreword T HE CRISIS OF THE PAST TWO YEARS opened for producers in the developing world, and is having dramatic effects on capital flows prices lowered for consumers. But rising trade also to developing countries, and the world ap- widened channels through which a slowdown in pears to be entering an era of lower growth. This economic activity in one group of countries could edition of Global Development Finance revisits spread to other countries. Capital flows have the genesis of the turmoil--which began in a rela- grown with trade, and developing countries today tively small segment of the U.S. credit markets and are much more dependent on flows of private cap- mutated into a major worldwide financial and ital than they were at the peak of the boom of the economic crisis--and explores the broad approach 1970s. Once dominated by bank lending to sover- needed to chart a global recovery. eign governments, most capital now flows through This year, global output is projected to fall by a variety of transactions between private entities-- 2.9 percent; global trade by 10 percent. Growth in and those flows respond rapidly to financial dis- the developing world is expected to slow to 1.2 per- ruptions. Thus, even though most developing coun- cent. Excluding China and India, GDP in other tries maintain better policies and have stronger developing countries will fall at a rate of 1.6 per- institutions than they did at the onset of previous cent. Meanwhile, private investment flows to crises, more of them are nevertheless vulnerable to developing countries plummeted by more than external disruptions. Emerging-market equities and 40 percent in 2008 as access to international debt investments have always been sensitive to the markets dried up and portfolio equity inflows all global economic cycle, but the current downturn but ceased. has hit developing countries especially hard. Unprecedented situations call for unprece- Emerging-market borrowers, both private and dented policy responses. Through ambitious uni- public, will encounter increased competition from lateral and multilateral actions, both conventional developed countries as the latter dramatically ex- and unconventional, governments have drawn on pand government deficit debt financing as well as monetary policy, fiscal stimulus, and guarantee government-guaranteed bank debt issuance. programs to shore up the banking industry, which The crisis has affected the external financing lay at the epicenter of the crisis. Those actions are position of all developing countries--but not beginning to have a positive impact on financial equally. Those that have high levels of external markets, where liquidity conditions in global inter- debt, large current-account deficits, and shallow bank markets have begun to ease, credit risk pre- foreign reserves are more likely to encounter diffi- miums have narrowed, and equity markets have culties in obtaining the finance they will need to staged a tentative revival. However, the policy avoid a more severe contraction in growth. Many agenda for stabilizing financial markets and foster- private firms in the developing world will be hard ing global economic recovery is broad and com- pressed to service their foreign-currency liabilities plex. Major challenges remain. with revenues earned in depreciating domestic Greater integration of the global economy and currencies while confronting declining global the increasing importance of private actors in in- export demand. The likelihood of balance-of- ternational finance over the past three decades payments crises and restructurings of corporate have brought enormous benefits to developing debt in these countries warrant special attention. countries, but they also have widened the scope Countries that pursued prudent macroeconomic for economic turmoil. Consider trade and flows of policies in the years preceding the crisis have more private capital. The share of international trade in flexibility than others to respond to short falls developing countries' output grew from 35 percent with expansionary fiscal and monetary policies in 1980 to 57 percent in 2007. New markets and so keep their domestic industries afloat. xi G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Low-income developing countries, initially economy. The world is transitioning from an ex- cushioned from the direct impact of the financial tended credit boom and economic overheating to crisis, are now feeling effects that have spread an era of slower growth. Looking to medium-term through other channels. Net private capital flows developments, participants in the international fi- will be insufficient to meet the external financing nancial system--consumers, investors, traders, needs of many of these countries, and in view of and firms--must adapt their behavior to the new the intense fiscal pressures triggered by the crisis, realities of tightened credit conditions, a promi- the prospects for large increases in aid flows are nent role of the state in financial affairs, large dim. The bulk of new commitments by interna- excess capacity in many industrial sectors, and tional financial institutions will go to middle- more closely coordinated regulatory policy. Gov- income countries in 2009, and workers' remit- ernments, for their part, must support emerging tances to low-income countries are projected to signs of recovery in financial markets with persis- decline by 5 percent. Such sobering facts reinforce tent, robust policy efforts to transform the adverse the importance of broad international agreement feedback loop between the financial sector and the to mobilize the necessary resources to achieve the real economy into a positive one. In a world of MDGs. global financial institutions, effective oversight of The financial crisis in today's integrated the financial system can be achieved only through global economy has underlined the importance of coordinated efforts, because lax regulation in one coordinating policy so that measures taken in one jurisdiction makes it more difficult to enforce ade- country complement, rather than defeat, those quate standards elsewhere. Greater international taken in another. The economic channels through cooperation in sharing information and establish- which nations trade goods and services also serve ing broad standards for regulation is important to propagate crisis when countries resort to pro- to making national regulators more effective and tectionism. For that reason, it is imperative that thus the global financial system more stable. countries coordinate policies to provide adequate Global Development Finance is the World financing for trade and resist the politically tempt- Bank's annual review of global financial condi- ing tactic of protectionism--either in the trade or tions facing developing countries. The current financial arena. volume provides analysis of key trends and Recent actions by the world's central banks prospects, including coverage of the role of inter- illustrate the utility of concerted action. With in- national banking in developing countries. A sepa- ternational banks operating in a multiple-currency rate volume contains detailed standardized exter- world, central banks need ready access to several nal debt statistics for 128 countries, as well as major currencies to fulfill their role of providing summary data for regions and income groups. Ad- liquidity to their banks. Thus, the swap facilities ditional material and sources, background papers, that were created by the U.S. Federal Reserve and and a platform for interactive dialogue on the key the People's Bank of China in response to the crisis issues can be found at http://www.worldbank.org/ are likely to be reinforced by other central banks prospects. A companion online publication, acting in concert. Central banks in many coun- "Prospects for the Global Economy," is available tries, including some developing countries, also in English, French, and Spanish at http://www have acted together to reduce interest rates, ex- .worldbank.org/globaloutlook. pand their lending, provide guarantees to encour- age more private lending, and take other action to Justin Yifu Lin jump-start credit markets stalled by the crisis. Chief Economist and Senior Vice President Today's crisis constitutes a triad of tight The World Bank credit, diminished confidence, and global reces- sion, set in the context of an interconnected world xii . Acknowledgments T HIS REPORT WAS PREPARED BY THE Shetty, and Augusto de la Torre. The short-term International Finance Team of the World commodity price forecasts were produced by John Bank's Development Prospects Group Baffes, Betty Dow, and Shane Streifel. (DECPG). Substantial support was also provided Two background notes and papers were pre- by staff from other parts of the Development Eco- pared by experts outside the Bank: Paul Masson nomics Vice Presidency, World Bank operational (University of Toronto, international policy coordi- regions and networks, the International Finance nation) and Robert Hauswald (American University, Corporation, and the Multilateral Investment the impact of crises on international bank lending). Guarantee Agency. From within the Bank, notes and papers were The principal author was Mansoor Dailami, received from Constantino Hevia (foreign bank re- with direction from Hans Timmer. The report was sponses in Latin America), Oliver Fratzscher (corpo- prepared under the general guidance of Yifu Justin rate risk management), Sanket Mohapatra (workers' Lin, World Bank Senior Vice President and Chief remittances), Ismail Dalla (consultant, local capital Economist. The principal authors of each chapter market development and trade finance), and Dana were: Vorisek (monitoring of media coverage of the crisis). The online companion publication of GDF, Overview Mansoor Dailami "Prospects for the Global Economy," was prepared Chapter 1 Andrew Burns, Elliot Riordan, for the Web by Sarah Crow, Cristina Savescu, Yan and Annette de Kleine Feige Bai, and Maria Hazel Macadangdang, with the as- Chapter 2 Dilek Aykut, Eung Ju Kim, sistance of the global trends team. Technical help in Yueqing Jia, and Sergio Kurlat the production of the Web site was provided by Reza Chapter 3 Douglas Hostland, William Shaw, Farivari, Shahin Outadi, Malarvizhi Veerappan, and Mansoor Dailami Cherin Verghese, and Kavita Watsa. Preparation of the appendixes on official debt The report also benefited from the comments of restructuring was managed by Eung Ju Kim. the Bank's Executive Directors, made at an informal Augusto Clavijo provided support for formatting meeting of the Board of Directors on May 26, 2009. figures and tables for the final version of the Many others provided inputs, comments, guid- report, and Eugen Tereanu provided research ance, and support at various stages of the report's assistance for chapter 3. preparation. Merli Margaret Baroudi, Marilou Jane The estimates of financial flows and debt were Uy, Jeffrey Lewis, Robert Kahn, M. Willem van developed in a collaborative effort between Eeghen, and Charles Blitzer (International Mone- DECPG and the Financial Data Team of the Devel- tary Fund) served as peer reviewers during the opment Data Group (DECDG), led by Ibrahim Bankwide review of the manuscript. Within the Levent. DECPG's Global Trends Team, under the Bank, additional comments were provided by Luis leadership of Hans Timmer, was responsible for the Pereira Da Silva, Alan Gelb, Celestin Monga, Maria projections. The projections and regional appendix Soledad Martínez Peria, Augusto de la Torre, Sergio were produced by Oana Luca, Annette de Kleine Schmukler, and Norman V. Loayza. Feige, Elliot Riordan, Cristina Savescu, and Ivailo Steven Kennedy and Marty Gottron edited Izvorski, in coordination with country teams, the the report. Rosalie Marie Lourdes Singson pro- offices of the chief economists of the Bank's re- vided assistance to the team and to Merrell Tuck- gions, and the offices of directors of the Bank's Primdahl, who managed production and dissemi- Poverty Reduction and Economic Management nation activities. Book design, editing, and network. Among those who contributed were Luca production were coordinated by Aziz Gökdemir, Barbone, Marcello Guigale, August Kouame, Stephen McGroarty, and Denise Bergeron of the Ernesto May, Vikram Nehru, Ritva Reinikka, Sudir Office of the Publisher at the World Bank. xiii Selected Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank IMF International Monetary Fund AfDB African Development Bank IPO initial public offering BIS Bank for International Settlements LIBOR London interbank offered rate CDSs credit default swaps M&A mergers and acquisitions CIS Commonwealth of Independent States mb/d million barrels per day DAC Development Assistance Committee MDB multilateral development banks DRS Debtor Reporting System MDGs Millennium Development Goals EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Development Agency EU European Union NIE newly industrialized economy FDI foreign direct investment ODA official development assistance G-7 Group of Seven OECD Organisation for Economic G-20 Group of 20 Co-operation and Development GDP gross domestic product OPEC Organization of the Petroleum GTFP Global Trade Finance Program Exporting Countries GTLP Global Trade Liquidity Program PRGF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility HIPC heavily indebted poor country REER real effective exchange rate IADB Inter-American Development Bank saar seasonally adjusted annual rate IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction SADC Southern African Development and Development Community IDA International Development Association SDR special drawing rights IFC International Finance Corporation WTO World Trade Organization IFI international financial institutions xv . Overview A LMOST TWO YEARS AFTER PROB- at the time when the average cost of external bor- lems in the U.S. mortgage market set in rowing has increased to 11.7 percent, compared motion the biggest financial crisis since the with 6.4 percent in the pre-crisis years when the debt Great Depression, global financial markets remain was contracted. unsettled, and prospects for capital flows to the Although extraordinary policy responses by developing world are dim. The intensification of governments around the world have helped save the financial crisis in September 2008 dramatically the global financial system from systemic collapse, altered the world economic outlook. Global out- they have not, thus far, closed the negative feed- put is now expected to shrink by 2.9 percent back loop between financial instability and eco- in 2009, the first contraction since World War II. nomic recession. Fragile consumer confidence and International trade is likely to experience the a much-diminished appetite for risk among in- sharpest drop since that time. Unemployment, al- vestors in developed countries have all contributed ready soaring in industrial countries, will follow a to a plunge in global aggregate demand. Simulta- similar path in the export-dependent economies of neously, the deepening economic downturn has East Asia, as high-income countries reel from an caused major global banks to scale back domestic unprecedented asset-market bust, and global in- and international lending, thereby exacerbating vestors retreat from emerging markets. the credit crunch. Actual bank lending in the The implications of these unfolding events for United States and Europe, as well as surveys of investment flows to developing countries have bank intentions and credit terms, point to a slow- already been dramatic: total private capital flows in ing in the supply of bank credit to the corporate 2008 dropped to $707 billion (4.4 percent of total and household sectors. In recent months, that developing-country GDP), reversing the strong up- slowdown has become a decline. Likewise, foreign ward surge that began in 2003 and reached a pinna- claims on developing-country residents held by cle of $1.2 trillion in 2007 (8.6 percent of GDP). For major international banks reporting to the Bank 2009 the most likely scenario is that as global equity for International Settlements declined by $200 bil- markets regain momentum and credit markets heal, lion between December 2007 and December 2008 net private flows to developing countries will remain (from $4.3 to $4.1 trillion). positive--barely. But they will drop to $363 billion, To break the cycle and revive lending and approximately the level of 2004 and a decline of growth, bold policy measures, along with substan- 5 percentage points of GDP from 2007. The magni- tial international coordination, are needed. In this tude of the decline is troubling for its macroeco- regard, the joint announcement by the Group of 20 nomic consequences and for vulnerability to further (G-20) leaders at their London summit in April shocks, particularly in countries in which banks and 2009 was encouraging. The leaders vowed to firms have high levels of external debt. Much of the strengthen the capacity of multilateral financial $1.2 trillion external debt raised by emerging market institutions to lend to emerging economies facing banks and firms between 2003 and 2007 is now ma- traditional balance-of-payments shortfalls or ele- turing, putting pressure on the borrowers' finances vated risks from debt rollover and refinancing. 1 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Addressing the various regulatory failures, together with uncertainty about future demand, has bank governance shortcomings, and macroeco- delayed investments and caused a collapse in de- nomic imbalances that contributed to the crisis has mand for durable goods, resulting in a sharp con- been another focus of the international policy re- traction in the production of and global trade in sponse. Bad lending and poor investment decisions manufactured goods. World industrial production stemmed from lax regulation as well as from over- declined by an unprecedented 5 percent in the fourth confidence and euphoria associated with low real quarter of 2008 (or 21 percent at an annualized interest rates and ample liquidity. Therefore, new rate). Output continued to decline in the first quarter measures that embrace all systemically important of 2009, reducing the level of industrial production financial institutions (including hedge funds), that in high-income countries by 17.3 percent in March strengthen international accounting standards to 2009, relative to its level a year before, and in devel- improve transparency and asset valuation, and oping countries by 2.3 percent relative to March that bolster the Financial Stability Board are desir- 2008. The collapse in industrial production is truly able and timely, even if their immediate success global, with major producers of advanced capital cannot be guaranteed. goods particularly hard-hit--Japan (34 percent, In charting the course ahead, policy makers in year-on-year) as of March 2009, Germany (22 per- developed and developing countries should give pri- cent), and the Republic of Korea (12 percent). ority to four tasks: following up on the G-20's GDP growth in developing countries is pro- promise to restore domestic lending and the interna- jected to slow sharply but remain positive in 2009, tional flow of capital, addressing the external financ- moving from 5.9 percent in 2008 to 1.2 percent. ing needs of emerging-market sovereign and corpo- Nevertheless, developing countries as a whole will rate borrowers, reaffirming preexisting commitments outperform by a sizeable margin high-income to the aid agenda and the Millennium Development countries, whose aggregate GDP is projected to Goals (MDGs), and, eventually, unwinding govern- fall 4.5 percent in 2009. Two developing regions, ments' high ownership stake in the banking system Europe and Central Asia and Latin America and and reestablishing fiscal sustainability. the Caribbean, are likely to end 2009 with nega- Rapid progress on these fronts will make it tive growth. Moreover, when China and India are easier for low-income countries to cope with the excluded, GDP in the remaining developing coun- crisis. Already under severe strain, low-income tries is projected to fall 1.6 percent or 0.6 percent countries face increasingly grave economic in per capita terms, a real setback for poverty re- prospects if the dramatic deterioration in their duction. The simultaneous collapse in growth capital inflows from exports, remittances, and for- across high-income and developing countries can- eign direct investment (FDI) is not reversed in not be explained solely by trade links, for the do- 2010. As it stands, the amount of development as- mestic economies of a large number of developing sistance available to low-income countries will not countries have been directly affected by the finan- fully cover their external financing needs in 2009, cial crisis. The reversal of capital flows, the col- while the outlook for donor countries to increase lapse in stock markets, and the general deteriora- aid significantly is bleak, given the intense fiscal tion in financing conditions have brought pressures they face because of the crisis. investment growth in the developing countries to a halt. In many developing countries, investment is falling sharply. For developing countries that are significant The global recession has deepened commodity importers, one of the few silver linings T he tight links between global trade in durable, of the financial crisis is that commodity prices are capital, and high-tech goods, and the closely en- down some 35 percent from their record levels of twined investment spending that supports economic mid-2008, limiting current-account deficits and activity in both high-income and developing coun- helping to quell the inflation produced by high tries, can be detected in the vicious circle that now food and fuel prices during the years leading up to operates between the financial and real sectors of the the financial crisis. Lower commodity prices have global economy. The difficulty of obtaining capital, also had the salutary effect of mitigating the impact 2 O V E R V I E W of the current crisis on the poor. Commodity mar- Although interest-rate spreads in developing kets seem to have found a bottom, one that is still countries have not widened by as much as in nearly 60 percent above the price levels of the late past crises, the decline in private capital flows to 1990s. In several markets, commodity production developing countries is expected to set a record. is being reduced because the marginal costs of Net private debt and equity flows are projected exploiting the least resource-rich or most difficult- to decline from a record high of 8.6 percent of to-reach sites now exceed current prices. GDP in 2007 to just over 2 percent in 2009, ex- While the global economy is projected to ceeding the peak-to-trough drop during the begin expanding once again in the second half of Latin American debt crisis in the early 1980s 2009, the recovery is expected to be much more (3.3 percentage points) and the combined East subdued than might normally be the case. Global Asian and Russian crises of the late 1990s (2.4 per- GDP is forecast to increase a modest 2.0 percent in centage points). Unlike in these past crises, 2010 and 3.2 percent by 2011, as banking sector however, the decline in inflows has hit every consolidation, negative wealth effects, and risk developing region. The most affected region is aversion continue to weigh on demand throughout emerging Europe and Central Asia, which also the forecast period. Among developing countries, experienced the largest expansion of inflows expected growth rates should be higher (given between 2002 and 2007. Net private inflows to stronger underlying productivity and population the region were an estimated 6.4 percent of GDP growth) but remain similarly subdued at 4.4 per- in 2008, down from 15.1 percent in 2007. cent and 5.7 percent, respectively, in 2010 and Unlike portfolio equity and bond investments, 2011. Given the output losses already absorbed FDI decisions are made with long-term horizons in and because GDP only reaches its potential view. They express the intention to build productive growth rate by 2011, the output gap (the differ- manufacturing facilities, exploit natural resources, ence between actual GDP and its potential) and or diversify export bases. Thus, FDI flows are less unemployment are expected to remain high and likely to be liquidated or reversed in times of crisis. recession-like conditions will continue to prevail. Driven by the strong momentum of the first half of the year, FDI inflows to developing countries posted a slight increase in 2008, reaching $583 billion, equivalent to 3.5 percent of the aggregate GDP of Private capital flows are shrinking developing countries. Almost all the increase oc- at an unprecedented rate curred in middle-income countries, notably the W hile the global economic cycle has always Russian Federation, India, Brazil, and China. In colored the emerging-market asset class, the contrast, FDI inflows to high-income countries fell current downturn has been especially noteworthy in sharply--from $1.3 trillion in 2007 to $827 billion its impact on asset valuation in equity markets and in 2008. Most of the decline was concentrated in liquidity conditions in primary bond markets. Rela- Europe; flows to the United States were up slightly tive to their peers in mature markets, corporate and compared with previous years. sovereign bond issuers in emerging markets have been particularly affected by liquidity concerns and risk aversion among investors. There was virtually no issuance between mid-September and mid- Financing conditions have December 2008, in the wake of the collapse of deteriorated rapidly D Lehman Brothers. Local stock markets, meanwhile, eveloping countries will most likely face a experienced the worst yearly decline in recent history, dismal external financing climate in 2009. as the MSCI Emerging Market Index sank 55 per- With private capital flows expected to post a cent during the year, erasing some $17 trillion in dramatic decline, many countries will have diffi- market valuation. Investors' flight from perceived culty meeting their external financing needs, esti- danger contributed to the sharp drop in capital flows mated at $1 trillion, $600 billion higher than in to the developing countries, a trend that is very likely 2003 at constant 2009 prices. Private debt and to persist through the end of 2009. equity flows will likely fall short of meeting 3 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 external financing needs by a wide margin, esti- of major media, for example, shows that the mated at $352 billion. Capital flows from offi- number of occurrences of "restore confidence" in cial sources, along with drawdowns of foreign October 2008 was 624 percent higher than the av- reserves, will help fill the gap in some countries. erage for the first six months of 2008. But where countries cannot secure adequate Governments have, by and large, "walked their external financing, the external adjustment talk" through a furious combination of unilateral process will be abrupt--more so than projected and multilateral actions, drawing on a broad range for the developing world as a whole, requiring of conventional and unconventional monetary pol- an even greater decline in domestic demand and icy, fiscal stimulus, and government guarantee pro- putting additional pressure on the exchange rate. grams to shore up the banking industry. Such ac- A number of countries (Belarus, Georgia, Hungary, tions have achieved some easing of liquidity Iceland, Latvia, Pakistan, Romania, Serbia, and conditions in global interbank markets, have sup- Ukraine) already have received financial support ported a narrowing of credit risk premiums, and from official sources, primarily the Interna- have underpinned a tentative revival of equity mar- tional Monetary Fund (IMF), with additional kets. However, the policy agenda for stabilizing fi- support from the World Bank, regional develop- nancial markets and for global economic recovery is ment banks, and the European Union (EU) to broad and complex, and major challenges remain. help alleviate balance-of-payments difficulties. Several overarching themes will remain salient for The recent agreement by the G-20 to augment policy makers over the next few years: the lending capacity of the IMF and multilateral development banks will help high-income The global nature of the financial crisis places emerging-market and middle-income countries a premium on policy coordination meet their external financing needs. However, The deep international economic linkages among little of such financing can be made available to countries that provide the channels for negative low-income countries that have limited borrow- spillovers across borders also enhance the scope ing capacity. for beneficial policy coordination. Indeed, efforts The ability of countries to meet their external to stimulate aggregate demand through expan- financing needs will depend largely on the extent to sionary monetary and fiscal policies, to recapital- which firms can roll over their maturing debt. ize insolvent financial institutions, and to restore Some 700 corporations based in developing coun- the functioning of credit markets through the pro- tries issued international bonds during the boom vision of liquidity are more likely to be taken-- years of 2002­07, and almost 3,000 borrowed in and are more likely to be effective--if there is the international syndicated bank loan market. broad agreement among the major governments Those corporations account for the bulk of out- on policy direction. standing short-term external debt and around Governments' willingness to coordinate their three-quarters of the medium- and long-term pri- policies can help reestablish confidence by ruling vate debt coming due in 2009. Two decades ago, out beggar-thy-neighbor responses to the crisis. corporations accounted for only about 20 percent The danger of special interests using trade policy to of maturing medium- and long-term private debt. protect particular industries is especially severe in a downturn. As for financial policies, measures taken to recapitalize commercial banks with public funds have introduced pressures for banks to concentrate Building confidence and lending activity on the domestic market (the so- strengthening policy coordination are called home bias in lending practices), at the ex- critical to recovery and long-term pense of cross-border lending. In the years leading growth up to the crisis, a defining feature of global finance A mong government officials, policy makers, in developed countries was the escalating integra- and key market observers, calls to restore tion of the household sector into capital markets. confidence in the global financial system have be- Excessive credit creation, made possible through come an international mantra. A quick Web search the technology of asset securitization, yoked 4 O V E R V I E W consumer spending to the expansion and prof- remembered, however, that regulatory cooperation itability of the banking industry, with both serving is often resisted in normal times by policy makers as engines of economic growth. As household own- eager to protect or enhance the competitive advan- ership of equities and bonds increased, households' tage of financial firms based in their own country. wealth and income became more closely linked to Analysis conducted for this report suggests capital markets, forging closer linkages between that not only the incentive for coordination, but the real economy and financial markets--and in- also the gains to be had from it, are largest when creasing the likelihood of political intervention there is a large common shock to confidence. But when trouble appears. In the United States, for in- coordination must be in addition to, rather than a stance, almost half of households currently own substitute for, national action. Because national equities or bonds, up from 39 percent in 1989. regulators have the best access to information on While the case for fiscal policy coordination their domestic institutions, they must retain princi- is weak in normal times--because countries nor- pal responsibility for ensuring the stability of their mally face very different challenges and priorities-- own financial systems--without angling for a it is called for today, as all countries are facing the competitive advantage for domestic firms. same prospect of inadequate global demand. Stimu- lating aggregate demand through fiscal expansion is Over the medium term, governments must in everyone's interest at the moment, but each coun- reestablish fiscal sustainability try will be reluctant to undertake it on the necessary Recent measures by central banks in the Euro scale because some of the expansionary effects will Zone, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United spill over to other countries, and because any coun- States to purchase private and government debt as try that acts alone--even the United States--may a way of unfreezing credit markets have led to a sig- reasonably fear that increases in government debt nificant expansion of their balance sheets and rapid will cause investors to lose confidence in its fiscal growth of the monetary base in these countries, a sustainability and so withdraw financing. Both of process that has replaced, to a large extent, the ac- these constraints will be lessened by a commitment cumulation of foreign exchange reserves by other to coordinate a fiscal expansion globally. A joint in- central banks as the main engine of global liquidity. ternational commitment to maintaining open mar- Rising public debt levels and the rampant ex- kets for goods and services must be a central feature pansion of central banks' balance sheets will pose of governments' policy responses. considerable challenges to economic stability once the recovery gets under way. The major industrial A balance must be struck between national countries began the crisis with moderate debt-to- and international mechanisms for improved GDP ratios. However, the unprecedented amounts regulation and crisis prevention spent to bail out financial firms have already sub- In designing and implementing reforms to stantially inflated those ratios, and governments strengthen financial markets and regulatory have taken on contingent liabilities in connection regimes, the first line of responsibility lies with na- with various financial guarantees, the potential tional regulators, but greater international finan- effects of which on government debt are un- cial cooperation among regulators is an unavoid- known. Discretionary fiscal stimulus, as well as able imperative. Although changes in national the operation of automatic stabilizers, will further regulations have begun to improve transparency increase debt ratios, perhaps doubling them in and thwart excessive risk taking, today's highly some countries if the downturn turns out to be as integrated financial markets necessitate close coor- severe as is now envisaged. Government commit- dination among authorities in order to bolster ments will have to be financed, if not through market confidence and avoid regulatory arbitrage. taxation, then through the issuance of debt obliga- The international spillovers of the crisis in the tions. As the fiscal implications of such commit- financial area presently provide a powerful in- ments are factored in, interest-rate expectations centive for harmonization, because concerns over will be adjusted upward, raising the cost of capital stability temporarily outweigh the urge to seek for all borrowers, including those in developing advantages for the "home team." It should be countries. 5 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 The damage to low-income countries occasional project finance deals, largely in extractive from the crisis must be mitigated industries, and to the short-term loan market, W ith so much at stake, there is an urgent mostly bank loans for trade financing. need for the international financial commu- That sobering fact should reinforce the impor- nity to take a hard look at recent developments, tance of broad international agreement to mobilize assess the vulnerabilities and risks that are the un- the necessary resources to achieve the MDGs. intended products of current policy interventions After several decades of debt rescheduling through and market changes, and evaluate the likely ef- the mechanisms of the Paris Club, the sequence of fects of those interventions and changes on devel- official debt relief programs initiated under the opment finance. Most of the available resources Heavily Indebted Poor Countries measures of to be provided by the IMF and other international 1996 and culminating in the launch of the Multi- financial institutions are likely to be devoted to lateral Debt Relief Initiative in 2005 stand out as a high-income emerging markets and middle- remarkable exercise of multilateralism and sound income countries that are likely to be able to economic sense. With fewer resources now avail- repay the loans they receive. able in low-income countries to service external In this climate, low-income countries that are debt, it is especially important that the world already under strain deserve special attention. They should build on--and certainly not back out of-- have had little or no access to private foreign capital those agreements. even in good times. A combination of policy and These are the themes and concerns of this market failures has restricted their participation to year's edition of Global Development Finance. 6 . 1 Prospects for the Global Economy T HE FINANCIAL CRISIS THAT ERUPTED accounts of oil-importing developing countries, in September 2008--following more than a even as they reduced surpluses among developing year of financial turmoil--has become a oil-exporters by as much as 17 percent of GDP. global crisis for the real economy. Economic activity Policy reactions to the crisis have been swift in high-income and developing countries alike fell and, although not always well coordinated, have so abruptly in the final quarter of 2008 and in the first far succeeded in preventing a broader failure among quarter of 2009. Unemployment is on the rise, and financial institutions, and thereby avoided a much poverty is set to increase in developing economies, more severe collapse in production. In the absence of bringing with it a substantial deterioration in condi- public-sector assistance, the massive losses suffered tions for the world's poor and most vulnerable. by investment banks and other institutions would The outbreak of the financial crisis provoked have forced commercial banks to sharply reduce a broad liquidation of investments, substantial loss lending--forcing firms to cut back on investment in wealth worldwide, a tightening of lending con- and production even more forcefully. Instead, bank ditions, and a widespread increase in uncertainty. lending continued to grow until very recently, Higher borrowing costs and tighter credit condi- although much less rapidly than in the past. These tions, coupled with the increase in uncertainty policy measures have not been costless. Fiscal provoked a global flight to quality, caused firms to balances in 2009 are expected to deteriorate by cut back on investment expenditures, and house- about 3 percent of GDP in high-income countries, holds to delay purchases of big-ticket items. This and by about 4.4 percent of GDP in developing rapid increase in precautionary saving led to a countries. Longer term, increased high-income sharp decline in global investment, production, country indebtedness may raise borrowing costs, trade, and gross domestic product (GDP) during potentially crowding out developing-country private the fourth quarter of 2008, a trend that continued and public-sector borrowers. in the first quarter of 2009. The sharpest declines The drop in economic activity, combined with in economic activity were concentrated among much weaker capital flows to developing coun- countries specialized in the production of durable tries, is placing a large number of low- and and investment goods and in countries with seri- middle-income countries under serious financial ous pre-existing macroeconomic vulnerabilities. strain. Many countries are having difficulty gener- This suddenly very weak international envi- ating sufficient foreign currency from exports or ronment accelerated the fall in commodity prices borrowing to cover import demand. Overall, bor- that began in mid-2008. By end-May 2009, oil rowing needs for developing countries are ex- prices were down 60 percent from their peak and pected to exceed net capital inflows by between non-oil commodity prices, including internation- $350 billion and $635 billion (see chapter 3). ally traded food commodities, were off 35 percent. Many countries are meeting this financing gap by Lower food and fuel prices have cushioned the drawing down on the international currency poverty impact of reduced activity to a degree and reserves they built up during good times. However, helped to reduce the pressure on the current the sustainability of this strategy is uncertain. 7 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Since September 2008, 16 countries have consumed today's downturn has affected virtually the entire 20 percent or more of their foreign reserves, and the world, precluding the more typical scenario where current stock of reserves covers less than 4 months recovery from a more geographically isolated of imports in 18 countries. downturn is at least partly achieved by exporting to The challenges of widening current-account healthier and more rapidly growing countries. In deficits and deteriorating fiscal positions are most this scenario, global GDP, after falling by a record acute in the Europe and Central Asia region, 2.9 percent in 2009, recovers by a modest 2.0 percent partly because the recession is expected to be deep- in 2010 and by 3.2 percent in 2011 (table 1.1). est there, but also because many countries entered Banking sector consolidation, continuing negative the crisis period with double-digit current-account wealth effects, elevated unemployment rates, and deficits (as a share of GDP) and/or elevated gov- risk aversion are expected to weigh on demand ernment debt. If, as appears likely, financing is not throughout the forecast period. fully forthcoming for these economies, heavy com- Among developing countries, growth rates are pression of domestic demand and exchange-rate higher (given stronger underlying productivity and depreciation will be required to restore internal population growth) but remain similarly subdued at and external balances. 1.2, 4.4, and 5.7 percent, respectively, over 2009 Despite the rapid decline in GDP in high- through 2011. Given the output losses already ab- income countries during the first quarter of 2009, a sorbed--and because GDP only reaches its poten- number of indicators point to the beginnings of an tial growth rate by 2011--the output gap (or the economic recovery. Stabilizing and even recovering difference between actual GDP and its potential), stock markets, modest improvements in exports in unemployment, and disinflationary pressures are some countries, a recovery in consumer demand projected to build over 2009 to 2011. and the still-to-come demand-boosting effects of A more robust recovery is possible, fueled by discretionary fiscal stimulus measures are among the substantial fiscal, monetary, and sectoral initia- the factors pointing to the beginning of recovery. tives that have been put into place. So too is a much High frequency indicators vary distinctly by coun- weaker outcome. In the latter scenario, the drag of try at the moment, however, with data for the the financial sector on economic growth, which is a United States and China more suggestive of eco- key feature of the baseline, is projected to be more nomic revival than those for western Europe and intense, while even weaker confidence impedes re- other developing regions. Moreover, several fac- covery in discretionary investment and consumer tors point to continued weakness. Unemployment spending--leading to still slower growth. Moreover, continues to rise throughout the world, housing pressure on current accounts, exacerbated by a prices in many countries are still falling (adding to weaker recovery, could force a number of countries negative wealth effects), bank balance sheets are (notably, several in Europe and Central Asia) into a fragile, and much more consolidation and recapi- much less orderly process of adjustment, character- talization required. As a result, the timing and ized by substantial currency depreciation and strength of the eventual recovery in the global painful cuts in domestic demand. economy remain highly uncertain. Indeed, many countries are facing growing pressure on their cur- rencies and banking sectors. Already several high- Immediate impacts of the crisis W and middle-income developing countries have en- hat began in the summer of 2007 as an ex- tered into special borrowing agreements with the tended period of financial turmoil caused by International Monetary Fund (IMF) to prevent the losses in the U.S. subprime mortgage market, deteriorating external and fiscal positions from erupted into a full-blown and global financial crisis getting out of hand. in mid-September 2008, precipitated by the failure The baseline scenario presented in this edition of the investment bank, Lehman Brothers. The real- of Global Development Finance depicts a much ization that such a key player in the international more subdued recovery than during a normal financial system could fail shook the confidence of recession, partly because this downturn follows a fi- bankers, investors, and households alike and rever- nancial crisis--which tends to be deeper and longer- berated rapidly throughout the global economy lasting than normal ones--and partly because (figure 1.1). 8 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Table 1.1 The global outlook in summary (percentage change from previous year, except interest rates and oil price) 2007 2008 2009e 2010f 2011f Global conditions World trade volume 7.5 3.7 9.7 3.8 6.9 Consumer prices G-7 countries a,b 1.7 2.9 0.5 0.8 1.3 United States 2.6 3.8 0.3 1.2 2.0 Commodity prices (USD terms) Non-oil commodities 17.1 21.0 30.2 2.1 1.4 Oil price (US$ per barrel)c 71.1 97.0 55.5 63.0 65.9 Oil price (percent change) 10.6 36.4 42.7 13.4 4.6 Manufactures unit export valued 5.5 7.5 1.9 1.0 0.0 Interest rates $, 6-month (percent) 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 , 6-month (percent) 4.3 4.8 2.0 2.2 2.3 Real GDP growthe World 3.8 1.9 2.9 2.0 3.2 Memo item: World (PPP weights)f 5.0 3.0 1.7 2.8 4.0 High income 2.6 0.7 4.2 1.3 2.4 OECD countries 2.5 0.6 4.2 1.2 2.3 Euro Area 2.7 0.6 4.5 0.5 1.9 Japan 2.3 0.7 6.8 1.0 2.0 United States 2.0 1.1 3.0 1.8 2.5 Non-OECD countries 5.6 2.4 4.8 2.2 4.6 Developing countries 8.1 5.9 1.2 4.4 5.7 East Asia and Pacific 11.4 8.0 5.0 6.6 7.8 China 13.0 9.0 6.5 7.5 8.5 Indonesia 6.3 6.1 3.5 5.0 6.0 Thailand 4.9 2.7 3.2 2.2 3.1 Europe and Central Asia 6.9 4.0 4.7 1.6 3.3 Russian Federation 8.1 5.6 7.5 2.5 3.0 Turkey 4.7 1.1 5.5 1.5 3.0 Poland 6.7 4.8 0.5 0.9 3.5 Latin America and the Caribbean 5.8 4.2 2.2 2.0 3.3 Brazil 5.7 5.1 1.1 2.5 4.1 Mexico 3.3 1.4 5.8 1.7 3.0 Argentina 8.7 6.8 1.5 1.9 2.1 Middle East and North Africa 5.4 6.0 3.1 3.8 4.6 Egypt, Arab Rep. ofg 7.1 7.2 3.8 4.2 5.0 Iran, Islamic Rep. ofg 6.2 6.9 2.5 3.0 4.0 Algeria 3.0 3.0 2.2 3.5 4.0 South Asia 8.4 6.1 4.6 7.0 7.8 Indiag 9.0 6.1 5.1 8.0 8.5 Pakistang 6.4 5.8 1.0 2.5 4.5 Bangladeshg 6.4 6.2 5.0 4.5 5.0 Sub-Saharan Africa 6.2 4.8 1.0 3.7 5.2 South Africa 5.1 3.1 1.5 2.6 4.1 Nigeria 6.3 5.3 2.9 3.6 5.6 Kenya 7.1 1.7 2.6 3.4 4.9 Memorandum items Developing countries Excluding transition countries 8.2 5.9 1.8 4.7 5.9 Excluding China and India 6.1 4.5 1.6 2.5 3.9 Source: World Bank. Note: PPP purchasing power parity; e estimate; f forecast. a. Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. b. In local currency, aggregated using 2000 GDP weights. c. Simple average of Dubai, Brent and West Texas Intermediate. d. Unit value index of manufactured exports from major economies, GDP growth on a calendar year basis expressed in USD. e. GDP in 2000 constant dollars; 2000 prices and market exchange rates. 2008 2009e 2010f 2011f f. GDP measured at 2000 PPP weights. Egypt, Arab Rep. of 6.7 5.1 4.2 4.6 g. In keeping with national practice, data for the Arab Republic of Egypt, Iran, Islamic Rep. of 6.9 2.5 3.0 4.0 the Islamic Republic of Iran, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are reported India 7.3 5.9 8.1 8.5 on a fiscal year basis. Expressed on a calendar year basis, GDP growth in Pakistan 6.1 3.3 1.8 3.5 these countries is as in the table on the right. Bangladesh 6.3 5.6 4.7 4.8 9 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 1.1 The crisis shook confidence worldwide The initial loss of confidence in the financial and resulted in a large decline in global wealth system provoked a liquidity crunch in the interbank a. Difference between interbank interest rates market (these events and their implications for fi- and overnight interest-rate swaps nancial flows to developing countries are discussed Basis points in further detail in chapter 2). Banks became ex- 400 tremely reluctant to lend to one another, and liquid- ity dried up rapidly, causing spreads between the in- 350 US terest rates banks charge each other (LIBOR, or the 300 London Interbank Offer Rate for overnight funds) 250 and what they expect to pay central banks (the 200 overnight index swap rate) to jump to unprece- UK 150 dented levels (see figure 1.1, panel a). Uncertainty 100 about the future and fears that the crisis could pro- 50 voke a deep recession or even depression skyrock- Euro Area eted, evidenced, for example, by some 4,500 stories 0 about the financial crisis and its potential negative 50 effects appearing in major English-language print Jan. 2007 Jul. 2007 Jan. 2008 Jul. 2008 Jan. 2009 media in September 2008 (see figure 1.1, panel b). b. Newspaper articles citing financial crisis, The sudden drying up of liquidity and in- depression, recession creased uncertainty also yielded a change in the Number of articles in the English-language press pricing of risk throughout the global economy. In- 5,000 terest rate spreads on riskier assets, including the 4,500 bonds of firms in developing- and high-income 4,000 countries, and, to a lesser extent sovereign states, 3,500 increased substantially (see figure 1.1, panel c). In- 3,000 creased risk aversion, a reassessment of growth 2,500 prospects, and the need for firms and investors in 2,000 high-income countries to strengthen their balance 1,500 sheets resulted in a large-scale repatriation of capi- 1,000 tal from developing countries. As a consequence, 500 stock markets the world over lost between 40 and 60 percent of their dollar values--the currencies of 0 Jan. 2007 Jul. 2007 Jan. 2008 Jul. 2008 Jan. 2009 almost every country in the world depreciated against the U.S. dollar--implying a massive loss in c. Increased spreads on developing-country sovereign debt global wealth (figure 1.2). Basis points Successive interventions by authorities in both high-income Europe and North America (includ- 1,000 Europe and Central Asia ing substantial efforts by the Federal Reserve in 900 the United States to intermediate directly between 800 banks) have helped restore short-term liquidity. 700 Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa As of end-May 2009, interbank spreads are 600 North Africa down some 350 basis points since September 2008 500 South Asia in the case of the United States and by 200 basis 400 East Asia and Pacific points in the Euro Area. This, plus the fact that 300 there have been no additional failures of major fi- 200 nancial institutions or significant currency crises, 100 Latin America and the Caribbean has brought about a near-stabilization and even im- 0 provement in financial conditions over the period Jan. 2007 Jan. 2008 Jan. 2009 since March 2009. Spreads on developing-country Sources: World Bank; JP Morgan-Chase; Thomson Datastream. bonds have narrowed (see figure 1.1, panel c), with the market now distinguishing better between the 10 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Figure 1.2 Stock market wealth declined by Global growth 40 to 60 percent in dollar terms he eruption of the financial crisis and the uncer- Morgan Stanley Capital International Indexes T tainty that it provoked a crisis in the real econ- 12 September 2008 = 100 omy. Individuals, suddenly uncertain about their job 120 prospects and facing more expensive and difficult- Middle East and North Africa 110 to-obtain financing, delayed purchases that could be East Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa put off, typically consumer durables such as 100 Pacific automobiles, refrigerators, and televisions. Similarly, South Asia Latin America and 90 the Caribbean firms delayed the implementation of investment pro- 80 jects, preferring to wait and see if such projects would remain profitable under future demand and 70 financing conditions. This increase in precautionary 60 saving (and the associated reduction in investment 50 and consumer demand), together with increased Europe and Central Asia borrowing costs and tighter lending standards, 40 explains the unprecedentedly rapid fall in global demand for manufactured goods during the fourth 09/15/2008 10/15/2008 11/15/2008 12/15/2008 01/15/2009 02/15/2009 03/15/2009 04/15/2009 quarter of 2008 and the first quarter of 2009. Sources: World Bank; Morgan Stanley; IFC/S&P. Moreover, while consumer demand has and will recover, saving rates are unlikely to return to earlier low levels, because households will continue to save to restore a proportion of the financial wealth destroyed during the crisis. risks posed by different countries. At the same time, The cutback in fixed investment spending was stock market valuations are regaining ground in a widespread (table 1.2). It involved countries di- number of countries. rectly affected by the financial crisis, those with Still, conditions continue to be tight and mar- close links to affected commercial and investment kets nervous. Interbank spreads remain above his- banks, and those that suffered through the indirect torical levels, and the IMF estimates that only a third channel of falling export demand. For some of all financial sector losses have been booked at this economies, notably those with large current- stage (IMF 2009b). Similarly, developing-country account deficits, these transmission channels were spreads remain high, and, even though the base rates further amplified by a reversal in private capital against which these spreads are calculated have de- flows, which forced a much sharper decline in clined in response to the post-crisis relaxation of domestic demand (see chapter 2). monetary policy in high-income countries, yields Investment activity fell by an average of 4.4 and borrowing costs for developing-country firms percent (at a 16.5 percent annualized rate) in 27 of have increased substantially--doubling in some 30 high-income countries in the fourth quarter cases--with potentially important effects on debt of 2008. The slowdown was not limited to the high- sustainability and the profitability of future invest- income countries where the financial crisis origi- ment (see below). nated. In the 25 developing economies that report Table 1.2 Investment demand fell sharply worldwide Russian United States Japan Germany Korea, Rep. of Brazil Federation Malaysia Mexico Lithuania (Growth in real investment, seasonally adjusted annual rates, percent) 2007 3.1 0.7 4.5 4.2 13.7 21.1 9.6 5.0 20.8 2008Q3 5.3 9.7 0.8 0.2 38.0 13.9 1.7 1.9 9.5 2008Q4 22.0 14.6 10.2 23.6 33.9 23.4 34.5 13.2 45.2 2009Q1 37.3 27.5 28.6 0.7 -- 30.4 13.7 -- 65.8 Sources: World Bank; national statistical agencies. Note: -- Not available. 11 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 quarterly national accounts data, investment because savings rates in most economies were not as growth in the final quarter of 2008 fell by an depressed as they had become in the United States. average of 6.9 percent, or at an annualized pace of Nevertheless, increasing unemployment and the 25 percent. Investment demand continued to decline growing recession has pushed consumer confidence precipitously in the first quarter of 2009. Invest- to all-time lows, which, in addition to the negative ment fell at a 37 percent annualized pace in the wealth effects from falling equity and housing prices, United States, and by close to a 30 percent annual- is weighing on--and will continue to weigh on-- ized rate in Japan, Germany, and Russia (table 1.2). consumer demand for some time (the value of house- Consumer savings increased sharply as house- hold assets in the United States declined by 14.7 per- holds cut back or delayed large expenditures. In the cent, or $11.3 trillion, between the fourth quarter United States, the personal saving rate increased of 2007 and the fourth quarter of 2008). For from 0.6 percent in 2007 to more than 5.7 percent developing-country commodity exporters, the de- in April 2009. Demand for consumer durables fell cline in incomes resulting from lower commodity at a 22 percent annualized rate in the fourth quarter prices is exercising a similar effect, although lower of 2008 in the United States, and by 20 percent in food and energy prices will tend to boost the purchas- high-income Europe. Worldwide demand for autos ing power of consumers in commodity-importing plummeted by 30 percent in the quarter, sending countries (see below). firms in the United States, Europe, and Japan to national governments for emergency financial sup- Weak investment and consumer durable port. Data for the first quarter of 2009 suggest that demand cut into global industrial consumer demand for durable goods may be stabi- production . . . lizing or even advancing--partly in response to The pullback in demand for consumer durables government-sponsored incentives in several coun- and investment was reflected in a steep 13 percent tries. In the United States, consumer spending fall in global industrial production between Sep- increased at a 1.6 percent annual pace in the first tember 2008 and March 2009. Virtually every quarter, led by a 9.6 percent annualized gain in country that reports production data witnessed a durable goods (figure 1.3). sharp fall in output, and a wide range of countries The falloff in consumption growth was less are reporting capacity utilization rates below 70 per- pronounced in other countries, save Japan, in part cent (figure 1.4). Figure 1.4 Capacity is being underutilized throughout the world Figure 1.3 Increased uncertainty caused Industrial capacity utilization rates--selected countries (percent of capacity, most recent observation) households and firms to delay purchases of Slovak Rep. durable and investment goods Russian Fed. Latvia Quarterly growth in selected components of U.S. GDP, percent Thailand Peru 10 Seasonally adjusted annualized rate Estonia Lithuania Japan Turkey 0 Bulgaria Korea, Rep. of United States Italy 10 Euro Area Greece Germany Romania 20 Gross domestic product (GDP) Finland Spain Personal consumption Mexico expenditures 30 Brazil Of which durable goods Philippines South Africa Of which investment goods 40 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 2008Q2 2008Q3 2008Q4 2009Q1 Percent Source: United States Bureau of Economic Analysis. Source: Thomson Datastream. 12 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Two groups of economies have been hardest Figure 1.5 Reflecting increased precautionary hit: those specialized in investment, high-tech saving, industrial production declined sharply goods, and consumer durable goods; and those Industrial production; percent change, January 2009 versus with large current-account deficits.1 At the coun- July 2008 try level this is reflected in sharp declines in 0 industrial activity in countries, like Japan and 5 Germany, that specialize in the production of 10 investment goods. Economies in Europe and Central Asia were also hit hard, both because 15 their industrial sectors tend to be closely tied to 20 high-income Europe and because the drying up of 25 international capital flows (see chapter 2) has 30 forced many into an even sharper domestic downturn (figure 1.5). 35 Specialized in investment and durables production 40 With large current-account deficits . . . contributing to steep declines in 45 global exports of Because consumer durables and investment goods ChinaJapan Spain Estonia Rep. Brazil Hungary Thailand Portugal FinlandTurkey Bulgaria Singapore Germany Malaysia tend to be heavily traded, the sharp uptick in firm Federation Taiwan, Korea, and household saving in the fourth quarter trans- Russian lated into an equally steep and rapid fall in global Sources: World Bank; national agencies. trade (table 1.3). The world dollar value of goods trade declined some 30 percent between September 2008 and March 2009. Much of the decline reflected weaker trade in manufactured goods, the dollar value of which dropped 33 percent over the and transport equipment exports fell 12.5 percent same period. The volume of exports of manufac- in December (year-on-year), representing a quarter tured goods from member countries of the of the total decline in goods exports. Organization for Economic Co-operation and This very strong contractionary force was am- Development (OECD), as a group, were down plified to an uncertain degree by a shortfall in trade 10.8 percent in December 2008 from a year earlier.2 finance. These short-term credits, which have a typ- Across OECD countries, the value of machinery ical tenor of 120­180 days, are used to facilitate Table 1.3 Export volumes and production plummet into early 2009 Export volume growth (percent) Industrial production growth (percent) 2008 2009 2008 2009 (Whole year) (Y/y latest) (Whole year) (Y/y latest) World 4.5 24.1 0.5 12.8 High-income 1.7 24.3 1.9 17.6 United States 6.0 16.2 2.2 12.5 Japan 1.6 36.0 3.2 34.0 Germany 1.1 22.6 0.0 21.7 All developing 5.0 22.5 6.2 2.5 East Asia and Pacific 4.8 25.0 11.2 4.6 China 14.6 22.7 13.0 7.4 Europe and Central Asia 1.7 32.0 0.7 14.0 Russian Federation 0.0 38.0 2.3 16.8 Latin America and the Caribbean 7.0 11.0 1.0 10.2 Brazil 2.1 29.0 2.9 13.3 Middle East and North Africa 6.5 3.5 3.6 0.5 South Asia 10.4 23.7 4.1 4.4 Sub-Saharan Africa 7.1 5.0 1.0 4.5 Source: World Bank. 13 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Box 1.1 Recent initiatives to bolster trade finance T he World Bank has contributed $1 billion as a for letters of credit and other forms of trade finance. The partner in the Global Trade Liquidity Program, a resources of the program have been tripled from $1 billion coordinated global initiative involving governments, to $3 billion. development finance institutions, and private sector The Bank is also helping countries improve their com- banks expected to support up to $50 billion of trade in petitiveness and reduce trading costs through its Trade developing markets over three years. The Bank's private Facilitation Facility, a new $40 million multi-donor trust sector arm, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), fund focused on measures to improve infrastructure, is acting as an agent on behalf of the program partners transport, logistics, and customs procedures. and plays a central role in mobilizing funds for trade Lending for trade-related infrastructure, regional inte- finance. gration, export development, and competitiveness and The Bank is also supporting trade in emerging trade facilitation programs is also to be more than doubled markets through the IFC's Global Trade Finance Program, to $3.6 billion in fiscal year 2009, up from $1.4 billion in which assists smaller banks and entrepreneurs to arrange FY2008 (July 2007­June 2008). deals between distant partners with limited knowl- November and December 2008; U.S. consumer edge or business experience of one another. Al- demand rose in the first quarter of 2009; and data though they cover only between 10 and 20 percent suggest that the slide in the U.S. housing market of all trade (most trade is conducted on an "open- may have found bottom. Moreover, in both high- account" basis between regular business partners), income Europe and North America a large part of short-term credits tend to be most important for demand is being met through inventory reductions small and medium-sized exporters. Indeed, the share rather than production--a process that cannot of such transactions in regional trade represents an continue indefinitely and that if ended could add estimated 40 percent in the East Asia and Pacific re- as much as two percentage points to GDP growth. gion in part because of the prevalence of such small However, these signs of recovery are tenta- traders. Recent research (Humphrey 2009) suggests tive, and should there be another round of bad that for a sample of 30 African firms, a lack of bank news, confidence and uncertainty could be aggra- financing has not constrained exports, although vated, delaying the recovery (see below). For anecdotal evidence from the same research suggests example, business surveys suggest that investment that firms in Latin America, the Caribbean, and growth will turn around in the second and third Africa seeking to establish trade links have been quarters of 2009. But, during 2008Q4 and more directly affected through this channel. As part 2009Q1, investment demand fell by almost 11 of its efforts to temper the impacts of the crisis on percent (38 percent at an annualized rate) in the developing countries the World Bank has put in United States. place a number of initiatives to bolster trade finance (see box 1.1). Overall, high-income and developing economies are in the midst of a steep and synchronized reces- Commodity markets T sion. However, there are early signs that the rate of he slowing of global growth, which preceded decline in output is slowing. Consumer confidence the financial crisis by several months, is improving in both high-income Europe and the prompted commodity prices to start falling in United States, as are forward-looking indicators of mid-2008 (figure 1.6). The eruption of the full- business confidence. Similarly, the most recent blown crisis and the rapid drop-off in economic monthly data suggest that the sharp slide in export activity since September of that year accelerated growth in the Group of Seven (G-7) countries may this process markedly. Demand for most com- be easing. The value of goods exports in January modities (notably, in high-income industries and in and February fell by 3.4 and 2.4 percent, respec- China) slowed or declined, particularly for oil tively, contrasted with 8.5 percent in each of and metals. By December 2008, crude oil prices 14 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Figure 1.6 The sharp fall in commodity prices has Figure 1.7 Oil demand has fallen sharply along now stabilized with global growth Index, January 2000 = 100 Change in world oil consumption growth since same quarter a year before (mb/d) 600 3.5 Energy 500 2.5 400 1.5 Metals and minerals 300 0.5 0.5 200 1.5 100 Foods OECD Other Asia 2.5 China Rest of the world 0 Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. 3.5 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 1Q00 1Q01 1Q02 1Q03 1Q04 1Q05 1Q06 1Q07 1Q08 1Q09 Source: World Bank. Source: International Energy Agency. had dropped to $41 a barrel, down more than deliveries are expected to fall by 0.3 mb/d this 70 percent from the July peaks, while non-energy year. This, coupled with expectations of a slow prices, including food, had declined by nearly recovery in global growth, has contributed to the 40 percent. Since December, prices have firmed, recent recovery in oil prices. Prices are expected to with crude oil prices up to $58 on average continue rising at a moderate pace over the in May 2009, and prices for internationally medium term, with the weak pace of global GDP traded foods and metals up 6 and 7 percent, re- and ample spare capacity precluding a rapid rise in spectively.3 oil prices. How successful OPEC is in cutting The sharp decline in crude oil prices, from supply will affect outturns in the short term. more than $140 a barrel in July 2008, reflected Should OPEC members reduce oil production by weaker global demand and the relaxation of some enough, prices could fall below the projected aver- refining capacity constraints4 that had contributed age of $55.5 a barrel for 2009.6 to high prices in the first half of the year.5 World The financial crisis and the steep falloff in crude oil demand fell 3.6 percent between the first economic activity have disrupted the develop- quarter of 2008 and the first quarter of 2009, with ment of long-term supply in the hydrocarbon demand in OECD countries off 5.1 percent sector. A number of smaller producers have been (figure 1.7). The fall in demand reflected both the forced to scale back operations due to financial declines in industrial activity and the effects of constraints and several high-cost investment high oil prices during the first half of 2008. Al- projects in the sector have been cancelled or though non-OECD demand continued to grow deferred, notably oil sands projects in Canada. during the first three quarters of 2008 (led by However, planned investment among the major strong gains in the Middle East), it too turned neg- companies has remained relatively high and their ative in the first quarter of 2009 as Middle Eastern major projects, e.g., deepwater offshore, are ex- demand growth slowed substantially and Chinese pected to be completed. Moreover, the weaker demand declined. investment demand has relaxed some of the For 2009 as a whole, world oil demand is pro- acute constraints in the supply of investment in- jected to fall by 2.6 million barrels a day (mb/d), puts (oil rigs, materials, specialized equipment, with continuing large falloffs in high-income coun- and skilled labor), and, as a result, exploration tries and slight declines across most developing and exploitation costs have declined. Most of regions. Production by members of the Organiza- the obstacles to future supply are "above-the- tion of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) ground" constraints (as opposed to a shortage of is being curtailed sharply, while non-OPEC oil oil in the ground)--such as access to reserves 15 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 (three-fourths of the world's reserves are con- declining because lower prices have rendered many trolled by national oil companies), political prob- difficult-to-exploit mines uncompetitive. The down- lems, and the reluctance of national oil companies turn has led to a buildup of spare capacity, which to engage international companies to facilitate the can be brought back into production relatively eas- extraction and discovery of reserves. Nevertheless, ily, and should keep prices from rising by much all major oil-exporting countries are investing in when demand recovers. However, because prices new capacity, and Saudi Arabia has repeated its have been just covering exploitation costs, no fur- intention to maintain surplus capacity. ther major declines in metals prices are expected, Medium-term prospects are difficult to judge, with the possible exception of copper, where prices and while the consensus in the industry is for a remain above the marginal cost of production. Over further spike in oil prices, this appears unlikely. the forecast period, metal prices are expected to re- High prices have stimulated development of alter- main broadly stable--rising in line with inflation in native technologies, and pushed governments and 2010 as demand recovers. consumers to use energy more efficiently. Con- sumers' shift away from fuel-inefficient cars, the Prices of agricultural commodities fall mainstreaming of hybrid automobile technologies, to pre-crisis levels the recent passage of laws tightening U.S. energy Improved supplies resulting from favorable harvests efficiency standards, increasing environmental have boosted global stocks of most agricultural pressures--coupled with the modest pace of the commodities. This, along with weaker demand for expected recovery--all argue against OPEC's more internationally traded food commodities, has al- than 6 mb/d in spare capacity being reabsorbed lowed prices to fall back to their December 2007 very quickly. levels--with the largest declines among agricultural products whose prices had increased the most. In Demand for metals weakens; prices expected particular, lower crude oil prices coupled with pres- to remain soft sure in many European countries to reconsider Most metals prices peaked in March 2008 (nickel biodiesel mandates, has reduced the attractiveness and zinc prices peaked much earlier), but the of using edible oils for biodiesel production and collapse of economic growth and with it demand contributed to a substantial decline in their prices. for many metals (table 1.4) caused prices to drop Overall, concerns about the adequacy of global much further into 2009 before rebounding some- food supplies have subsided, and many of the what in recent months on strong import growth export bans and high export taxes that were put in into China, mainly due to re-stocking. place during the food price spike of 2008 have Metals prices are expected to be relatively stable either been eliminated or substantially reduced. over the remainder of 2009, with most of the 41 per- Most of the price swings in agricultural raw cent decline projected between 2008 and 2009 hav- materials reflect changes in rubber prices, which ing already occurred. As a result, spending on new track the price of crude oil. Increased production extraction projects has been slashed, and output is and wider use of genetically modified cotton in Table 1.4 Metal demand plummeted with industrial production 2002­06 2007 1H08 2H08 1Q09 (Annualized percent increase) World Oil 2.0 1.2 0.9 1.5 3.7 Aluminum 7.5 10.4 5.6 6.0 20.3 Copper 3.0 6.6 1.4 2.3 -- China Oil 9.1 4.6 5.0 3.6 3.5 Aluminum 19.9 42.8 15.9 4.7 10.4 Copper 9.6 34.6 5.3 12.8 -- Sources: CRU International Limited; International Energy Agency; World Bureau of Metal Statistics. Note: -- Not available. 16 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Table 1.5 Most developing-country currencies depreciated sharply against the majors 2008-Q3 September 2008 to date USD/LCU REER USD/LCU REER (Percentage change, year-on-year) United States ..... 6.5 ..... 16.1 Euro Area 8.3 5.6 5.7 2.0 Japan 10.5 3.4 10.8 16.8 Brazil 16.6 20.8 30.4 15.9 Russian Federation 7.8 7.5 34.4 9.0 India 5.3 8.1 14.8 5.5 China 9.7 6.6 0.4 6.6 Memo items: World 6.2 1.8 9.7 1.1 High-income countries 6.3 1.4 7.8 0.6 All developing countries 6.1 2.4 15.3 2.8 East Asia and Pacific 5.1 4.9 4.5 1.2 Europe and Central Asia 12.3 3.7 32.1 3.0 Latin America and the Caribbean 7.1 5.8 20.4 17.0 Middle East and North Africa 4.5 1.9 6.8 7.2 South Asia 6.1 21.3 11.9 1.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 0.0 ..... 16.4 0.8 Source: World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Note: USD/LCU: Exchange rate expressed as dollars per local unit (an increase implies appreciation of the local currency); REER: real effective exchange rate (an increase implies an appreciation of the local currency in real terms versus all countries). China and India meant that the price of cotton did United States. The need to repatriate liquid assets to not increase during the boom, and in the past cover losses elsewhere and an increase in home bias months the price has declined due to weak import on the part of global investors, caused the demand from China, the world's largest cotton user currencies of almost all developing economies to (and textile manufacturer). Prices of beverages depreciate against the U.S. dollar (table 1.5). The declined 30 percent between their peak in June and collapse in commodity prices also played a role in December 2008, as both coffee and cocoa supplies exchange-rate depreciation for developing com- appear to be ample. modity exporters, such as Argentina, Brazil, and the Looking forward, agricultural markets are Russian Federation, and also for high-income com- likely to remain well supplied, and stocks are be- modity exporters such as Australia and Canada. In ginning to return to normal levels, although the immediate aftermath of the crisis, only a few weather-related production problems (especially in currencies appreciated or held their ground against South America) could always intervene. Easier the dollar, among them the Chinese renminbi and market conditions are likely to prevail for several the currencies of several oil exporters that are years. As a result, agricultural prices are antici- pegged to the dollar. Many developing currencies pated to average 21 percent lower in 2009 than in depreciated by 20 percent or more, but the extent of 2008, and prices in 2010 are expected to remain depreciation was much less severe in real effective broadly stable. terms--because most currencies depreciated against the dollar simultaneously.7 The depreciation of developing countries' cur- rencies has meant that the local currency price of Exchange rates and inflation many commodities fell much less sharply than the T he intensification of the financial crisis in dollar price of these commodities. For example, September 2008 inspired a significant reversal the Brazilian price of internationally traded wheat in capital flows, away from developing countries and oil fell by 12 and 25 percent, respectively, and toward high-income countries, notably the between July 2008 and February 2009, contrasted 17 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 with a drop of 25 percent and 65 percent in dollar Figure 1.8 Falling food and energy prices to terms. In addition, the depreciations have in- bring inflation under control creased the local currency cost of servicing dollar- Percent change in developing-country consumer prices, denominated debt. While depreciation will im- historical and dynamic simulation prove the competitiveness of affected countries, 15 the extent to which this can be translated into increased exports will be diminished by the depressed state of world demand. Actual inflation 10 Commodity prices and headline inflation Consumer price inflation in the G-7 countries is projected to decline from 2.9 percent in 2008 5 to 0.5 percent in 2009 due to lower commodity Dynamic simulation prices, weak demand, and rising unemployment. Global consumer price inflation is projected to de- 0 cline, but deflation is not expected to be an endur- Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 ing problem because of the additional liquidity that has been placed into financial markets, and Source: World Bank. because stabilizing commodity prices will no longer be exercising a strong negative influence on below zero in several developing countries, the the overall price level. risk of widespread deflation remains limited. Among developing countries for which sepa- The fall in internationally traded food prices rate food price data are available, econometric evi- and the anticipated decline in domestic inflation dence suggests that median inflation, after increas- should alleviate some of the more acute increases in ing from about 6 percent in 2007 to a peak of poverty incurred during the first half of 2008. Up- more than 16 percent by mid-2008, could decline dated estimates suggest that the increase in local to less than 2 percent by the end of 2009 (fig- food prices between January 2005 and their average ure 1.8). Headline inflation is projected to pick up level of 2008 may have increased extreme poverty in 2011 to near 5 percent, as underlying core infla- by between 186 and 226 million people.8 The de- tion once again becomes the dominant influence cline in international prices since that time has con- on overall rates of price changes. This general pat- tributed to a reduction in domestic food prices--but tern is likely to be observed in all developing coun- with a lag. Projections of local prices for the remain- tries but should be most striking in those countries der of 2009 suggest that for the year as a whole, the (notably in Sub-Saharan Africa) where food repre- number of people drawn into extreme poverty sents a large share of total consumption expendi- because of higher food prices could decrease to ture. Even if headline inflation temporarily falls between 96 and 109 million (table 1.6). Table 1.6 Increase in the number of poor due to changes in food prices since December 2005 (millions) Given food prices in 2008 Given expected food prices in 2009 Region Lower bound estimate Upper bound estimate Lower bound estimate Upper bound estimate East Asia and Pacific 112 133 66 78 Europe and Central Asia 8 9 2 3 Latin America and the Caribbean 1 2 0 0 Middle East and North Africa 26 37 8 11 South Asia 14 20 2 5 Sub-Saharan Africa 24 26 21 22 Developing world 186 226 96 109 Source: World Bank, Global Income Distribution Dynamics Model. Note: Lower bound estimate assumes low-income farm laborers work for low-income farm owners. Upper bound estimate assumes low- income farm laborers work for rich farm owners (see World Bank 2009). Poverty line is 1.25 international 2005 dollars per day. 18 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Policy reactions offered guarantees on securities backed by auto G overnments and central banks have responded loans, credit card loans, student loans, and certain to the crisis in a generally decisive and small business loans). Notwithstanding these helpful--if not always well-coordinated or efforts and private sector recapitalizations, much orchestrated--manner (chapter 3 provides a more restructuring is required. The IMF (IMF comprehensive review of the policy response to the 2009b) estimates that total write-downs related to financial crisis). High-income countries, where the crisis in the banking sector will probably total the bulk of the banking sector adjustment must $4.1 trillion. Of that, it estimates that U.S. banks take place, have expanded the scope of deposit will require further capital injections of $525 bil- insurance schemes to cover larger deposits and new lion and that European banks may require as much institutions, recapitalized some banks, taken equity as $1.27 trillion. positions in others, extended the range of securities Countries have also responded by easing mon- accepted as collateral in central bank lending, and etary conditions. Policy interest rates have been re- provided unprecedented amounts of funding to duced sharply throughout the world and especially banking systems in general. By reducing the in the United States. Among high-income coun- uncertainty of holding funds in high-income tries, rates have fallen by an average of 180 basis countries, many of these moves have had the unin- points since mid-September 2008 (table 1.7). Con- tended side effect of increasing the relative risk of tinued weak financial conditions also led major holding funds in developing countries. As such, they central banks to adopt unconventional expansion- may have contributed to the capital outflows from ary measures, including purchases by the U.S. Fed- developing economies and the increase in their risk eral Reserve and the Bank of England of long-term premiums that has been observed. government securities, interventions by the Fed in Governments have also offered guarantees to the mortgage and commercial paper markets, and specific markets (for example, the United States has purchases of corporate bonds and commercial Table 1.7 Policy interest rates have dropped across most of the world Change since Dec-07 Sep-08 Dec-08 Latest September 15, 2008 Nominal policy rates United States 4.52 1.94 0.52 0.15 1.79 Euro Area 4.00 4.30 2.70 1.14 3.16 Japan 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.30 0.50 Developing countries 8.20 8.75 9.10 8.00 0.75 East Asia and Pacific 7.40 7.30 5.50 5.30 2.00 Europe and Central Asia 6.00 6.30 6.50 6.40 0.10 Latin America and the Caribbean 8.20 9.15 9.20 6.87 2.28 Middle East and North Africa 9.00 11.20 11.50 11.50 0.30 South Asia 8.55 9.15 9.70 9.45 0.30 Sub-Saharan Africa 10.50 10.50 10.00 10.00 0.50 Real policy rates United States 0.42 3.00 0.43 0.90 3.90 Euro Area 0.90 0.40 1.30 0.67 0.27 Japan 0.10 1.30 0.00 0.60 1.90 Developing countries 2.25 0.75 1.64 1.64 2.39 East Asia and Pacific 1.10 4.50 2.20 3.37 7.90 Europe and Central Asia 2.40 4.80 0.50 1.65 6.40 Latin America and the Caribbean 0.10 1.00 1.50 1.67 2.66 Middle East and North Africa 2.10 2.50 2.50 3.50 6.00 South Asia 0.25 3.95 4.70 1.60 5.55 Sub-Saharan Africa 4.60 3.00 2.45 2.45 0.55 Sources: World Bank; Thomson Datastream. Note: Policy rates for developing regions are medians; real interest rates are calculated as nominal rate less current-period CPI inflation (y/y), using median inflation rates for developing countries. 19 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 1.9 Policy interest rates in both high- Figure 1.10 The contraction in bank lending has income and developing countries have been been limited sharply reduced Banking sector credit extended to the private sector Policy interest rate, percentage points Index, 2003Q2 = 100 14 200 12 Developing countries (simple average) 180 United Kingdom 10 160 8 140 6 Euro Zone 120 United States United States 4 Euro Zone 100 2 Japan 80 Japan 0 03/01/2000 03/01/2003 03/01/2006 03/01/2009 60 2000Q1 2002Q1 2004Q1 2006Q1 2008Q1 Sources: World Bank; Thomson Datastream. Source: National authorities. paper by the Bank of Japan. As a result of these States and the United Kingdom during the period, steps, the balance sheets of central banks have possibly suggesting that the "credit crunch" was expanded at an unprecedented rate. The U.S. not the key reason for the sharp falloff in invest- monetary base increased from $900 billion in ment. In contrast, corporate lending in Europe was September 2008 to $1.5 trillion by February 2009. stagnant,9 and the latest data suggest that credit in Developing countries have also reversed the Europe stopped expanding in the first quarter of overall stance of monetary policy, with policy in- 2009. Whether this slowdown reflects weaker de- terest rates having been cut in three-quarters of the mand for loans or constrained supply is not clear. countries for which data are available (figure 1.9). But data on bank lending do not capture the As a result, the median policy rate for developing precipitous decline in securitization and other countries has declined from 8.1 percent in Decem- financial innovations that underpinned the rapid ber 2008 to 6.6 percent at the end of May 2009. rise in liquidity during 2003­07. By one measure, Despite relatively modest declines in nominal pol- in the months before the crisis, loans held as icy interest rates in developing countries, real in- securitized assets in the "shadow banking system" terest rates in these countries have declined to (banks' off-balance-sheet structured investment around 1.6 percent on average, because high com- vehicles) were more than half again as large as those modity prices drove up inflation in 2008 and the held on balance sheet and included in the data in decline in commodity prices has yet to pass figure 1.10 (Helleiner 2009). More than 20 percent through fully to local prices (see above). of U.S. private credit market debt was securitized by So far, efforts to support banks have prevented the end of 2008 (Federal Reserve 2009). a sharp decline in lending, although the pace at which lending has increased has slowed (fig- Fiscal responses ure 1.10). The money pumped into the banking sec- High-income countries and a number of middle- tor has been intended directly or indirectly to shore income economies have responded to the crisis by up capital and to prevent banks from being forced approving proactive countercyclical spending, and to cut sharply into their lending. Based on the most by letting automatic stabilizers, such as unemploy- recently available data, total bank credit to the ment insurance and welfare systems, operate. private sector continued to grow in all of the major Government deficits in high-income countries economies during the fourth quarter of 2008. are expected to increase by around 3 percent of Indeed, the stock of outstanding corporate loans GDP on average during 2009. The increase reflects increased at double-digit rates in both the United a number of factors: reduced tax revenues (taxes 20 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Figure 1.11 Much weaker industrial production Figure 1.12 Government balances are expected and exports will cut deeply into government to deteriorate most sharply in Europe and Central revenues in developing countries Asia Key sources of central government revenues among developing Projected change in fiscal balance between 2008 and 2009, countries percentage points of GDP 0 Taxes on goods and services 1 2 Grants and other revenue 3 Taxes on income, 4 profits, and capital gains 5 Low and middle income Taxes on 6 High income international trade 7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 ica an Asia Asia and Percent share of government revenues Eastica ica Ameribbean East Pacific Asia Afr Afr al South Middleth Europe Source: World Bank. LatinCar and Sub-Sahar Nor Centr the and and Source: World Bank. on business profits tend to be particularly volatile); upfront contributions to support finan- to economic management once recovery takes hold cial systems (including capital injections, pur- (box 1.2). chases of assets and lending by the treasury, and The fiscal positions of developing countries backing by the treasury for central bank sup- are also expected to deteriorate, perhaps by more port);10 automatic stabilizers (rising expenditures than those of high-income countries. Lower levels for unemployment insurance and welfare systems); of industrial activity will reduce indirect taxes on and proactive stimulus packages. domestic goods and services (which account for Overall, the discretionary component of the some 33 percent of developing-country tax re- easing is expected to amount to only 1.6 percent ceipts) and on trade (8 percent of receipts) (fig- of high-income GDP, with automatic stabilizers ure 1.11). Resource-related revenues of many accounting for the remainder (IMF 2009b). The commodity exporters are also falling with the largest discretionary stimulus packages announced decline in commodity prices. And higher bond so far are in Spain (2.3 percent of GDP), the United spreads imply higher borrowing costs on new debt States (2.3 percent), Australia (2.1 percent), and the issuance (especially problematic for countries with United Kingdom (2 percent). Smaller measures have a high proportion of debt in short-term instru- been announced among major European countries ments). A further potential public-sector liability (0.7 percent of GDP for France, 1.5 percent for may arise if high interest rates force private (or Germany, and 0.2 percent for Italy). However auto- public) companies, the bulk of whose debt tends matic stabilizers tend to be more pervasive and re- to be concentrated in short-term instruments, to active in Europe. Such expenditures are projected come to the government for assistance (as already to increase by 2 percent of GDP in the United has happened in a number of countries). Kingdom and France, contrasted with 1.5 percent The largest increases in fiscal deficits are ex- of GDP in the United States. While the widening of pected to arise in developing Europe and Central fiscal deficits, coupled with the financial measures Asia, where contraction in trade and production is described above, will likely help to reduce the depth particularly severe, social safety nets have broad and prospective length of the global recession, the coverage, and the private sector has a large debt additional debt and increase in long-term spending burden denominated in foreign currency (fig- obligations they entail will also present challenges ure 1.12). The next largest increase is anticipated 21 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Box 1.2 Managing the recovery: Coping with the future impact of recent policies T he expansionary policies and financial sector interven- the reestablishment of sustainability can be. This will be tions undertaken by governments and central banks especially difficult if interest rates rise to reflect the over the past months should reduce the depth and length increase in debt ratios or higher inflation, adding to gov- of the recession. They also, however, will pose a challenge ernments' borrowing costs. Already the costs of buying to economic management once the global economy begins credit protection on government debt issued by ad- to recover. vanced economies have increased sharply, particularly First, governments in high-income countries, including for the United Kingdom and Spain, both hard hit by the Belgium, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, the United downturn (see figure). Among the negative effects of Kingdom, and the United States, have increased their stakes large-scale government borrowing will be crowding out in the financial system to an extent not seen since the Great of other borrowers--private firms and developing- Depression. They have become involved in compensation, country borrowers--whose revival will be key to a dividend, and risk management decisions that governments resumption of global economic growth. Thus govern- may not be well placed to make. An eventual return to pri- ments should be vigilant to reverse quickly the fiscal vate sector control of the banking system is critical to stimulus that is now necessary. reestablishing an efficient financial sector. Second, the huge expansion of the money supply, reflected in the surge in central bank balance sheets, will Markets are pricing in an increased risk of sovereign need to be unwound to contain inflationary pressures once default on the debt of Spain and the United Kingdom investors and consumers begin to spend again. Spreads on five-year credit default swaps Third, reducing fiscal deficits to maintain debt Basis points sustainability will be an important political challenge. The major industrial countries (save Japan) began the crisis 180 with modest ratios of debt to GDP. However, the unprece- 160 dented amounts spent to bail out financial firms, discre- Spain 140 tionary fiscal stimulus measures, and the impact of the recession on taxes and transfer payments have already 120 substantially increased those debt ratios. Moreover, 100 governments have taken on additional contingent liabilities 80 related to various financial guarantees, and the potential 60 United Kingdom effects of these liabilities on government debt remain unknown. For example, the quality of the assets on the 40 balance sheets of some central banks has deteriorated 20 markedly. Well-timed disposal of these assets as market 0 conditions improve will be important to limit fiscal losses. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Experience with unsustainable increases in fiscal 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 deficits during the 1970s and 1980s showed how painful Source: Thomson Datastream. for Sub-Saharan Africa, where government revenues savings in the United States over the past several are especially dependent on indirect taxes, and in the years, has greatly reduced the extent of the global case of commodity exporters, on ad valorem taxes imbalances that had been characterized by very and fees on commodity exports. high current-account deficits in the United States and surpluses elsewhere, notably in China (figure 1.13). The current-account deficit of the United External balance and vulnerabilities States diminished to an estimated 3.5 percent of T he crisis has gone a long way to unwinding-- GDP in the first quarter of 2009, down from more in an admittedly disorderly fashion--many of than 6 percent during the course of 2007; and the tensions that precipitated it. Sharply higher China's trade surplus, though still very high, has 22 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Table 1.8 Lower commodity prices have reduced imbalances Change in current 2nd oil shock Commodity boom Financial crisis account balance 1979­82 2005­08 2009­10 2009/2008 Oil exporters Current-account balance % of GDP (percentage points) High-income 5.2 3.8 0.4 5.8 OECD 0.1 0.3 1.1 2.1 Non-OECD 29.6 29.8 5.2 27.9 Developing 2.6 6.3 1.2 7.8 East Asia and Pacific 1.2 4.8 2.2 2.6 Europe and Central Asia ... 7.1 2.2 6.6 Latin America and the Caribbean 3.3 1.6 1.4 4.7 Middle East and North Africa 0.4 19.8 7.8 20.7 Sub-Saharan Africa 5.0 7.9 2.5 16.5 Oil importers High-income 0.6 1.3 0.2 1.0 OECD 0.6 1.6 0.4 1.0 Non-OECD 1.5 5.1 4.6 1.0 Developinga 4.3 3.0 3.4 1.2 East Asia and Pacifica 6.3 2.1 1.2 0.4 Europe and Central Asia 4.5 6.4 5.3 2.0 Latin America and the Caribbean 5.8 0.5 2.8 0.1 Middle East and North Africa 7.3 4.9 4.3 4.9 South Asia 1.7 2.2 1.7 2.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 3.3 6.7 8.1 0.1 Source: World Bank data. Note: a. excluding China. Figure 1.13 The crisis has reduced global (table 1.8). The current-account balances of devel- imbalances oping oil-exporting countries are projected to Current-account balance as percent of world GDP move from a surplus of 6.3 percent of GDP during the 2005­08 commodity boom to a surplus of 1.0 1.2 percent in 2009­10. While the increase in U.S. savings and lower 0.5 interest rates have contributed to the reduction in its current-account deficit, longer-term prospects 0 for imbalances are less certain. The very large 2003 0.5 monetary and fiscal stimulus that has been put in 2006 place will reduce overall savings (the sum of pri- 2009 1.0 vate and public saving) in the United States, espe- cially if the authorities have difficulty in reversing 1.5 the stimulus when the economy recovers. More- Oil importers Oil exporters over, the monetary expansion has already regener- 2.0 ated the low interest rates that contributed to the excess liquidity in the first instance. If too expan- States Zone Japan China) China veloping veloping sionary, these stimulus measures could regenerate Euro (ex. de High-income De United high-income very strong demand conditions and a return to low Asia Other Other East savings rates in the United States. Source: World Bank. Lower oil prices should provide current-account relief for many countries also declined as a share of GDP. Lower commodity The decline in oil and other commodity prices has prices have reduced current-account surpluses improved the terms of trade for many developing among oil exporters and deficits among importers countries. For oil-importing developing countries, 23 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 lower import and higher export prices have in- of overall merchandise imports (such as Benin, creased incomes by about 1.2 percent of GDP be- Comoros, Eritrea, Haiti, Senegal, Somalia, and the tween 2009 and 2008 (table 1.9). For countries Republic of Yemen). such as Fiji, Jordan, and the Seychelles, the esti- The region that stands to lose most is the Middle mated impact of these price changes exceeds 10 per- East and North Africa, which is projected to suffer a cent of their GDP. Other countries with positive terms-of-trade decline of close to 12 percent of GDP gains in their terms of trade (in excess of 5 percent in 2009, followed by Sub-Saharan Africa, dropping of GDP) are Nicaragua, the Kyrgyz Republic, Togo, 16.1 percent. In contrast, South Asia and East Asia Honduras, Lebanon, and Dominica. Terms-of- and the Pacific--regions heavily dependent on oil trade effects between early 2009 and the average imports--will register the largest terms-of-trade price of 2008 are most pronounced for oil-export- gains: 2.7 and 1.7 percent, respectively. ing countries. On average, oil-exporting develop- ing economies are projected to suffer terms-of- trade losses equivalent to 6.8 percent of their GDP. Serious vulnerabilities remain The largest income losses are for Equatorial While the current-account positions of oil-import- Guinea, the Republic of Congo, the Islamic Re- ing developing countries are expected to improve public of Iran, and Azerbaijan, amounting to over the course of 2009, deficits in a number of about a quarter of their 2008 GDP. For metals-ex- countries remain exceptionally high. More than 43 porting countries, the deterioration in terms of low- and middle-income countries registered cur- trade has been less marked but is still large--in rent-account deficits in excess of 10 percent of part because lower food and fuel prices have offset GDP during 2008. In years past, these deficits some of the terms-of-trade losses from lower met- were relatively easily financed by strong capital in- als prices.11 Compared with 2007--when commod- flows. However, the financial crisis has sharply ity prices were closer to their current levels--all of curtailed such flows, with total private inflows these terms-of-trade effects are much more modest. projected to decline from more than $1 trillion in The impact of lower food prices on terms of 2007 to just $360 billion in 2009. At the same trade for most economies will be relatively small, time, the external financing requirements of devel- because most food consumed in developing coun- oping countries are expected to have increased, tries is produced domestically. Exceptions tend to implying a financing gap of between $350 billion be small island economies and other countries for and $635 billion in 2009. which food imports account for a large share The effects of this shortfall have already been manifested in the pressures on the banking sector and currencies of a number of developing and high- Table 1.9 Lower commodity prices should improve income countries. Several countries have opened terms of trade for oil importers lines of credit with the IMF, while others are meeting Terms of trade as shortfalls by reducing their international financial Country groups % GDP, 2009/2008 reserves. Many developing countries have seen their Net oil exporters reserves fall by 20 percent or more since September All developing 6.8 2008. For several, the decline in reserves followed an East Asia and Pacific 0.3 Europe and Central Asia 7.9 earlier period of accumulation, and reserve levels Latin America and the Caribbean 3.8 remain comfortable. But for at least 18 countries, Middle East and North Africa 16.3 reserves have been depleted to the point where they South Asia ... Sub-Saharan Africa 13.4 no longer cover four months of imports (fig- ure 1.14). In most of these countries, reserve levels Net oil importers All developing 1.2 have stabilized more recently, but in at least five, East Asia and Pacific 2.1 reserves continued to decline by 5 percent or more Europe and Central Asia 1.1 a month during the first quarter of 2009. Latin America and the Caribbean 1.1 Middle East and North Africa 4.2 Other countries have been forced to deal with South Asia 2.7 much tighter borrowing conditions and large Sub-Saharan Africa 0.7 current-account deficits by reducing imports and Source: World Bank. current-account deficits. Fully 20 countries whose 24 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Figure 1.14 Many developing-country reserves An uncertain medium-term outlook have reached worrisomely low levels P rospects for the recovery of the global econ- Developing countries whose reserves have declined by 20 percent omy are unusually uncertain. The sharp decline or more since August 2008 and whose current levels are low in global GDP, industrial production, and trade in Belarus the fourth quarter of 2008 and the continued Countries where Malawi reserves: weakness in the first quarter of 2009 are without Sri Lanka Continued to modern precedent. So, too, is the extent to which Sudan decline rapidly El Salvador in 2009Q1 the cycle has been synchronized across the planet. Pakistan Stopped rapid The fragility of banks and other financial institu- Latvia decline in Côte d'Ivoire 2009Q1 or no tions further complicates the assessment of when Dominica 2009Q1 data and how the recovery will take shape. Mexico available While there are incipient signs of a stabiliza- Costa Rica Ecuador tion of activity in the United States (a recovery in Bangladesh consumer demand, increased housing sales, a re- Central African Rep. Kenya bound in the stock market) and of recovery in Zambia China (an increase in industrial production, ac- Cape Verde celeration of credit supply, and sharp gains in Paraguay government spending), there are also ample indi- 0 1 2 3 4 5 cators of a deepening and spreading recession. Reserve levels expressed as months of 2007 imports Unemployment is rising, housing prices continue Sources: World Bank; Thomson Datastream. to decline--adding to negative wealth effects. And, although no major bank has failed since October 2008 and many reported positive earn- current-account deficits in 2008 totaled 10 percent ings in the first quarter of 2009, huge losses or more of GDP are expected to undergo internal (IMF 2009b), restructuring, consolidation, and adjustments that lower that deficit by 6 percent or government intervention remain the order of the more of GDP (figure 1.15). day. A subdued recovery Figure 1.15 Many countries will need to The baseline projection presented in this edition reduce imports sharply due to reduced access of Global Development Finance is characterized to foreign capital by a subdued recovery from the current deep re- Countries with large current-account deficits that are projected cession. The main cyclical factors that made the to undergo large real-side adjustments downturn so steep--the sharp fall in investment, Dominican Republic rapidly rising precautionary savings, the use of St. Lucia Bulgaria inventories rather than new production to meet Sierra Leone demand, and the postponement of durable goods Vanuatu Kyrgyz Republic purchases--are likely to ease in the second half of Honduras 2009 and push growth into positive territory by Ghana Madagascar 2010. Cost-cutting measures and inventory re- Cambodia ductions are running their course, and at some Togo Seychelles point firms will stop drawing down on and begin Lebanon taking orders for new industrial output to catch Nicaragua Moldova up to underlying demand. In high-income coun- Dominica Jamaica tries, consumer demand and manufacturing Eritrea orders have already improved or are improving, Jordan Fiji although for the moment available data do not 0 5 10 15 20 25 show a similar turnaround in investment de- Projected change in current account mand. These normal drivers of cyclical recovery balance, 2008­09 (percent of GDP) will be amplified as the already-passed monetary Source: World Bank. and fiscal stimulus measures kick in during the 25 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 second half of 2009--boosting consumer and merchandise trade, global trade of goods and investment demand directly through government services is expected to decline by an unprecedented expenditure and transfers, and indirectly through 9.7 percent in 2009, before picking up to a 3.8 per- very low interest rates. cent and 6.9 percent rate of increase in 2010 and However, the expected recovery is projected 2011, respectively.13 to be much less vigorous than normal. The large GDP in high-income countries is projected to overhang of devalued assets and nonperforming fall 4.2 percent in 2009, recovering only modestly loans will limit the extent to which the banking to a 1.3 percent pace in 2010 and to 2.4 percent in sector is able to finance new investment and 2011. Notwithstanding the return to positive consumer spending. Banking-sector consolidation, growth, these economies will remain depressed combined with mounting unemployment, nega- even in 2011. Unemployment will only be starting tive wealth effects, and increased risk aversion to decline at that time, and the output gap, the will drag on growth throughout the forecast pe- difference between the productive capacity of an riod. Because GDP growth only reaches its poten- economy and the actual level of demand, will tial pace by 2011, the output gap (the difference likely have reached some 6 percent of GDP. between actual GDP and its potential), unem- Prospects for developing countries are for an ployment, and disinflationary pressures continue almost equally sharp 4.7 percentage point decelera- to build (figure 1.16). tion of GDP growth in 2009. The GDP of all devel- Notwithstanding the beginning of a recovery oping countries combined is projected to increase in the second half of the year, global GDP is pro- by only 1.2 percent, or by only 0.1 percent in per jected to contract by a record 2.9 percent in 2009 capita terms. Excluding India and China, economic considered as a whole (the first decline in world output in the developing world is projected to fall output since the 1960s and probably since World 1.6 percent, or 2.9 percent in per capita terms. GDP War II).12 Output is then expected to rise a modest is projected to decline in two developing regions: by 2.0 percent and 3.2 percent in 2010 and 2011, re- 2.3 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean and spectively. After falling a projected 10.4 percent in by 4.7 percent in Europe and Central Asia. 2009, tight financing conditions and abundant The recovery of output in developing countries spare capacity should keep gains in global invest- is projected to be even more sluggish than in high- ment to a modest 2 percent and 4.7 percent in income countries. GDP growth is expected to 2010 and 2011, respectively. Partly because of increase by only 4.4 percent in 2010 and by 5.7 per- the heavy share of investment goods in global cent in 2011, as still weak activity in high-income Figure 1.16 Despite projected stronger growth, considerable excess capacity remains even in 2011 Output gap: difference between actual GDP and potential output as a percent of potential output Percent of potential output Percent of potential output 6 High-income countries 6 Developing countries 4 4 2 2 0 0 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Source: World Bank. 26 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y countries drags on growth, and capital inflows to Figure 1.17 The recovery in East Asia and Pacific developing countries remain about half their pre- will be led by China crisis levels (see chapter 2). GDP growth in percent In this weak overall environment, commodity 14 prices are projected to recover only slowly. After China Other East Asia and Pacific 12 halving in 2009, oil prices are forecast to rise by less than 10 percent a year over 2010­11, as de- 10 East Asia and Pacific region mand for oil increases slowly and continued sur- 8 plus capacity prevents any return to the price levels of the first half of 2008. The recovery in the prices 6 of metals and minerals will be even slower, while 4 agricultural prices are projected to remain stable in 2010­11 (after the 21 percent drop forecast for 2 2009). Thus producers of commodities (other than 0 oil) are expected to see a continuing decline in their terms of trade vis-à-vis manufactured goods. 2 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Source: World Bank. Regional outlooks China declined at an unprecedented 25 percent an- nualized rate during the first quarter of 2009 (saar). More detailed discussions of prospects for de- Partly as a result, the region's GDP growth is pro- veloping regions, including country-specific jected to slip to 5 percent in 2009 from 8 percent projections, are available in the Regional Out- during 2008, with China's 6.5 percent advance al- looks appendix at the end of this volume and most fully offsetting the 0.2 percent GDP decline for online at www.worldbank.org/globaloutlook. the remainder of the region (figure 1.17). Faced with a quickly deteriorating situation, most developing economies in East Asia and Pa- E ast Asia and Pacific had little direct exposure to cific eased monetary policy aggressively by lower- the toxic securitized assets and other sources of ing interest rates, reducing reserve requirements, financial turbulence that originated in the financial and in some cases, providing direct liquidity into centers of the OECD. But the region has felt the cri- the banking system. To the extent affordable, most sis particularly hard because of its well-developed have launched fiscal stimulus programs; the most trade links with the high-income countries and sub- ambitious of these is in China. stantial capital inflows that over the past years have GDP for the region is anticipated to revive helped fuel an investment boom. over the course of late 2009 and into 2010, Investment in developing East Asia and Pacific though for several countries, including Malaysia, represented 36 percent of GDP in 2008, much Thailand, and the Philippines outright recession is higher than its 26 percent share in the rest of the anticipated this year. Recovery is expected to be developing world. As the international environ- relatively gradual, reflecting substantial fiscal ment deteriorated beginning in September 2008, stimulus in China combined with a gradual recov- private investment in East Asia and Pacific came ery of demand for the region's exports among under substantial pressure. The rising cost of capi- high-income countries. GDP should increase by tal, falling equity prices, rising bond spreads, and 6.6 percent in 2010 and by 7.8 percent by 2011. rapidly declining foreign demand sent exports and manufacturing production in the region to double- Europe and Central Asia has been the region most digit declines. adversely affected by recent developments, and Regional exports in dollar terms dropped a economies in the region may be the most at risk. full 48 percent between September 2008 and Febru- Since the end of the Cold War, growth in the region ary 2009, while industrial production declined has relied heavily on increased trade linkages and in- 4.6 percent over the same period.14 In turn, vestments from the European Union (especially for investment spending for the countries outside of the countries of central and eastern Europe). As a 27 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 result, the abrupt reversal of capital flows and 2009 and recover only modestly in 2010, growing weaker demand for exports hits particularly hard. by 1.6 percent. Continued adjustment and nega- Sharply declining economic activity in Russia has tive wealth effects suggest that even in 2011, also produced considerable spillover effects across growth at 3.3 percent will be below the region's the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). potential rate, and little progress is likely to be Conditions have been made more difficult by made in reducing unemployment. the large current account deficits that evolved during this period and for which financing now appears in Latin America and the Caribbean entered this cri- short supply. Many countries entered the global fi- sis period supported by much stronger fiscal, cur- nancial crisis with current-account deficits in excess rency, and financial fundamentals than the region of 10 percent of GDP, which made them especially had in the past. Nevertheless, it is feeling the crisis vulnerable to a reversal of capital flows. Further on the financial side. Foreign funds were with- buildup of foreign debt has become problematic, drawn quickly, equity markets tumbled, and ex- and meeting repayment obligations on short-term change rates have plummeted. Some countries are debt might become difficult in a number of countries suffering more than others because of the close (figure 1.18). The adjustment process is especially trade and remittance ties they have with the harsh because exports to the Euro Area are declin- United States, while others are feeling the effects of ing, and oil revenues--which fueled demand and sharply lower commodity prices and of markedly remittances in the CIS--are falling. weaker external demand that have cut into incomes. The currencies of a number of economies in These factors have contributed to a sharp deceler- the region are under pressure and several countries ation and even contraction in GDP growth in the have sought the assistance of the IMF in order to final quarter of 2008 in several economies in the forestall a serious crisis. At the household and firm region (figure 1.19). levels, the accumulation of large debt levels de- Brazil's large resilient domestic market has of- nominated in foreign currencies raises the risk of fered some cushion against declines in exports; how- default and potential systemic difficulties in the ever, it will be increasingly squeezed if external event of adverse currency movements. demand slides further. Countries such as Chile and Under these very trying circumstances, output Peru have used good years to improve their fiscal and in the region is projected to fall 4.7 percent in reserve positions, creating room for expansionary Figure 1.18 High short-term debt-to-reserves ratio Figure 1.19 GDP growth deteriorated markedly in Europe and Central Asia in the fourth quarter of 2008 in several major economies in Latin America and the Caribbean Short-term debt in 2009 as percent of February 2009 reserves Percent, year-on-year Belarus Latvia 9 Bulgaria Q1 Q3 Poland Q2 Q4 Macedonia, FYR Moldova 6 Romania Kazakhstan Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Georgia 3 Armenia Albania Azerbaijan Serbia 0 Russian Federation Ukraine Kyrgyz Republic Turkey 3 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 azil xico Rica Percent Br Chile Me B.de Argentina Venezuela, R. Colombia Ecuador Costa Sources: International Financial Statistics; Bank for International Settlements; World Bank. Source: World Bank. 28 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y policies, but an extended, deep recession will take a offset the heavy falloff in export volumes and inter- toll on growth. Tourism and remittances have also national services revenues attendant upon the deep suffered, particularly affecting countries in Central recession in the Euro Area. As a result, current- America and the Caribbean. account balances are projected to deteriorate. Output for the region as a whole is projected to The recovery among Middle East and North decline by 2.3 percent following gains of 4.2 percent African developing countries is expected to be less in 2008. However, this aggregate masks diverse out- vigorous than elsewhere, partly because the slow- comes. Mexico, having suffered significant disrup- down had been less pronounced and because oil tion due to the novel A H1N1 flu, and having strong demand and prices are expected to remain low. financial and trade ties with the United States, is Growth is projected to pick up by just seven-tenths projected to see output fall by 5.8 percent in 2009. of a percentage point in 2010 to 3.8 percent before GDP is projected to contract less sharply in countries improving to a 4.6 percent pace by 2011. The di- like Brazil that have a more diversified portfolio of versified economies should see growth pickup to a export markets and resilient domestic demand. faster clip than the oil-dominant economies over Weaker terms-of-trade for commodity exporters will 2010­11, as the array of factors that restrained pressure budgets in a number of countries, some of their growth turn more favorable (figure 1.20). which failed to build up sufficient buffers during the commodities boom. Moreover, the scope for fiscal In South Asia, GDP is projected to expand 4.6 per- stimulus varies greatly across countries in the region. cent in 2009, down from 6.1 percent in 2008. Cap- Reflecting Latin America and the Caribbean's ital inflows have diminished considerably, which improved fundamentals, its recovery is projected has contributed to a falloff in investment growth. to be fairly robust, with growth reaching 2 percent Although the decline in oil prices since the middle in 2010 and 3.3 percent by 2011. of 2008 has improved terms of trade for the region, weakening demand in South Asia's export markets The Middle East and North Africa region has been is being felt sharply in the manufacturing sector less directly affected by the credit crunch than other and has tempered the growth of services exports, regions. But local equity and property markets have including high-tech and tourism. Remittance in- come under intense pressures, and weaker GDP flows have decelerated sharply or contracted in re- growth and flows of foreign direct investment from cent months, and are expected to decline in 2009, the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council are albeit with some lag as conditions in host countries cutting into activity among the developing countries of the region. Moreover, the effective collapse of growth in the Euro Area (a critical export market Figure 1.20 Growth to slow sharply for both oil for the region) has resulted in sharp declines in non- and diversified exporters in the Middle East and oil exports, remittances, and tourism receipts, fur- North Africa ther dampening prospects for the more diversified GDP growth, percent economies. Remittances, services exports, and FDI 7 flows to the region are expected to fall fairly sharply Oil exporters as a share of GDP from a peak of 9.5 percent in Diversified exporters 6 2007 to 7.2 percent by 2011. Middle East and North Africa Growth is projected to halve to 3.1 percent in 5 2009, from the strong 6 percent advance during 4 2008. Fiscal revenues and expenditures in oil- exporting countries will be adversely affected by the 3 sharp decline in oil prices. Oil revenues among de- veloping exporters are estimated to drop precipi- 2 tously from $320 billion in 2008 to $140 billion 1 during 2009, the change equivalent to 28 percent of the group's GDP. Although lower food and fuel 0 prices should boost incomes among oil and food 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 importers in the region, that will not be sufficient to Source: World Bank. 29 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 falter. GDP growth rates are projected to rebound threat to long-term growth, weighing on potential fairly briskly, with regional output increasing by output by crowding out private investment due to 7.0 percent in 2010 and 7.8 percent in 2011. increased public-sector borrowing and higher Given already high budget deficits, countries interest rates. in the region have limited room to expand fiscal policy. Food and fuel subsidy bills have begun to Sub-Saharan Africa. The global financial and shrink, which is creating some space on the expen- economic crisis has hit Sub-Saharan Africa hard, diture side, even if only for shifting outlays to meet because of reduced external demand, plunging other demands. Lower commodity prices have export prices, weaker remittances and tourism provided a strong disinflationary impulse to revenues, and sharply lower capital inflows, no- economies in the region, which has allowed policy tably FDI. Growth in the region is expected to makers to pursue more expansionary monetary decelerate sharply this year to 1 percent down policies. The pressure on current accounts from from an average of 5.7 percent the previous three reduced exports, combined with lower capital in- years (figure 1.22). GDP declined during two flows, was initially met by drawing down interna- quarters in South Africa, the region's largest tional currency reserves to support their exchange economy, for the first time in 17 years and some rates. More recently, countries have shifted to a large oil-exporting and mineral-dependent posture of conserving reserves, and permitted their economies are also expected to see output drop. currencies to devalue. As elsewhere, the expected recovery in 2010 will Downside risks to the forecast are pro- be weak, with growth rising to a below-trend nounced. On the domestic front, they are centered 3.7 percent for the region as a whole, 4.3 percent on the region's large fiscal obligations and rela- excluding South Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa's dis- tively high reliance on taxes on trade and large appointing growth outturn will translate into a subsidy programs, both of which would lead to decline in per capita GDP of close to 1 percent in heightened fiscal pressures in the event of a pro- 2009, the largest since 1994, marking a pause in tracted global recession (figure 1.21). Ongoing poverty reduction. budgetary pressures are also likely to lead to cuts Reflecting slow GDP growth, low commod- in development spending, which could have long- ity prices and government revenues that are rela- term effects. Large fiscal deficits also represent a tively dependent on formal and traded activities, Figure 1.21 Government revenues in South Asia very dependent on trade Shares as of 2007 for countries (except Bhutan = 2004) Figure 1.22 Economic growth in Sub-Saharan and 2006 for income groups Africa is projected to decelerate abruptly in 2009 to the lowest level in almost a decade Low and middle income Annual growth, percent High income 10 Oil exporters Oil importers Bangladesh Maldives Nepal 5 India Sri Lanka Pakistan 0 Afghanistan Bhutan 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 Taxes on international trade (percent share of total revenue) 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 30 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y both current-account and fiscal balances are set respond with a relatively quick tightening of to deteriorate markedly this year, and improve policy measures that could induce a second only marginally in 2010, impeding the implemen- round of below-potential growth toward the end tation of counter-cyclical policies. In countries of the projection period. heavily reliant on commodity export revenues, fiscal balances will deteriorate sharply, cutting A protracted recession into much-needed infrastructure expenditure The main downside risk to the outlook is that the and social programs, while borrowing confidence and wealth effects of the financial crisis requirements crowd out the private sector in- are much more persistent than in the baseline, and vestment. On the positive side, widening output that the consolidation efforts of banks constrain gaps and lower food and energy prices are lending more durably. In this scenario, second- putting downward pressure on inflation, al- round effects intensify--including rising unem- though the impact of last year's high food and ployment and the bankruptcy of firms that might fuel prices is still being felt in many countries in have survived a milder recession and unemploy- the region. Much weaker demand and price con- ment. Instead of recovering somewhat during ditions in the mining sector have reduced em- 2010, global investment could decline by another ployment in the sector, cutting into remittances 5.5 percent, with the sharpest contractions in in many countries, notably those in southern those countries experiencing the most marked re- Africa. versals in capital flows and in investor confidence. Prospects for continued diversification away In this scenario, the projected rebound in from the primary sector and toward higher private consumption would be much weaker due to value-added sectors have weakened because the slower income growth and higher savings, notably, region's manufacturing sectors have been dealt a in high- and middle-income countries where house- heavy blow. holds have more discretionary income with which to maneuver. As a result, instead of rebounding as in the baseline, global trade would continue to de- cline, intensifying the pressures on the most vulner- Risks able middle-income countries (those with current- G iven the severity of the downturn, its synchro- account deficits in excess of 10 percent of GDP). nized nature, and the weakened state of the In the protracted recession scenario reported in world's major financial institutions, there is much table 1.10, this causes severe currency crises charac- more than the usual level of uncertainty surround- terized by sharp exchange-rate depreciations and ing future prospects. As the recent outbreak of a even more significant reductions in domestic spend- novel form of influenza in Mexico serves to re- ing in many economies. mind us (box 1.3), the world's economy is at a Overall, this scenario implies that the fall in particularly vulnerable juncture, where an event world output in 2009 would be deeper than in the that might otherwise have carried relatively minor baseline because the recovery expected in the second economic consequences could have a much broader half fails to emerge. Output would stagnate in 2010, impact. before rebounding by 3 percent in 2011. World Not all of the uncertainty concerns the pos- trade volumes would fall a further 4.7 percent in sibility of slower growth, although the economic 2010, bringing global trade volumes almost 17 per- and human costs of a deeper or more protracted cent below 2008 levels. In this scenario, GDP in de- recession are most troubling. One upside sce- veloping countries would register a very modest nario concerns the possibility that private sector 2.0 percent increase in 2010, with the bulk of the confidence and the financial sector respond more weaker performance concentrated in Europe and robustly and more quickly than is assumed in the Central Asia, where GDP is projected to decline by baseline. Under such circumstances, the fiscal an additional 1.5 percent. Not all countries in the re- and monetary stimulus already in place could gion would be affected equally, and several (such as provoke a more rapid recovery than anticipated, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Russian Federation) are which could rekindle inflationary pressures. In projected, even in this downside scenario, to experi- this scenario, the authorities would be forced to ence stronger growth than in 2009. 31 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Box 1.3 Potential economic impacts of the A H1N1 flu outbreak A t the time of this writing (June 1, 2009), the outbreak Although the spread of A H1N1 appears to have of H1N1 flu has not run its course, although there are eased, its spread is likely to pick up as the flu season begins encouraging signs that it is neither as deadly nor as easily in the southern hemisphere and again when it returns in spread as might have been first thought. Initial estimates the northern hemisphere. Even if it does not mutate into a suggest that its clinical severity is similar to that of the more deadly form, a second wave of the flu in low-income Hong Kong flu of 1968­69 and that while its infectious- countries' could have serious consequences--given poor ness (rate of spread) is higher than normal flu it is in the countries limited capacity to monitor and treat an outbreak lower range of previous influenza pandemics (Fraser and and the higher incidence of chronic disease within their others 2009). Younger populations and individuals with populations (the pre-existence of chronic health conditions chronic disease appear to be most vulnerable, in part and delays before medical intervention appear to be among because as much as 33 percent of people 60 and older the factors that have contributed to deaths where they appear to have some immunity to it (Centers for have occurred). More worrisome is the possibility that Disease Control and Prevention, 2009). H1N1 could mutate into or combine with a more aggres- To date, the World Health Organization reports sive form of the flu--such as H5N1 (avian influenza). As a some 12,954 laboratory confirmed cases of the flu in flu for which much of the world's population has limited 46 different countries, and 92 deaths. More than 90 per- pre-existing immunity (WHO 2009), A H1N1 could infect cent of the cases recorded so far are in North America, as much as 35 percent of the world's population (WHO with all but 12 deaths having been in Mexico--which 2006)--spreading throughout the world in as few as accounts for about one-third of all cases. 180 days during flu season. It is not yet known what explains the much lower As compared with a normal flu season, where some mortality rates outside of Mexico. Possible explanations 0.2­1.5 million die (WHO 2003), deaths from even a mild include: a much higher incidence of disease than reported new flu might include an additional 1.4 million people in Mexico and therefore a lower mortality rate, the timing worldwide. A more virulent form, such as the 1918­19 flu, of the outbreak toward the end of the flu season in the which was more deadly for healthy adults than a normal Northern hemisphere, and some aggravating and as yet flu, could have much more serious consequences, killing as unknown cofactor. many as 1 in 40 infected individuals (Barry 2005), or some So far, the economic costs of the epidemic have been 71 million. Some authors suggest that as many as 180 mil- concentrated in Mexico and in the transportation sectors. lion to 260 million could die in a worst-case scenario (Os- Air travel to and from Mexico is down by 80 percent, and terholm 2005). hotels in popular resorts report vacancy rates as high as Simulations of the potential economic and human 80 percent. Overall, tourism revenues are down an costs of a global pandemic undertaken for the 2006 estimated 43 percent, increasing Mexico's external financ- Global Development Finance report in the context of ing gap because tourism is an important source of foreign avian influenza (Burns, van der Mensbrugghe, and currency. Following an initial closure of restaurants, Timmer 2006, 2008) suggest that the costs of a global theaters, and sports stadiums, the Mexican authorities influenza pandemic could range from 0.7 to 4.8 percent ordered all businesses to shut down for five days in an of global GDP depending on the severity of the out- effort to stem the spread of the disease. Because this last break. The lower estimate is based on the Hong Kong measure fell over a long weekend, its economic effect flu of 1968­69, while the upper bound was bench- was much smaller than it would have been had it been marked on the 1918­19 Spanish flu. In the case of a declared during the course of a full business week. serious flu, 70 percent of the overall economic cost Should recent levels of disruption in the commerce, restau- would come from absenteeism and efforts to avoid infec- rant, hotel, and transportation businesses in the Mexico tion. Generally speaking, developing countries would be City region (representing 30 percent of the country's GDP) hardest hit, because higher population densities, rela- persist, they could reduce second-quarter GDP by as much tively weak health care systems, and poverty accentuate as 2.2 percent. the economic impacts in some countries. 32 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Table 1.10 A protracted recession (percentage change from previous year, except interest rates and oil price) 2007 2008 2009e 2010f 2011f Global conditions World trade volume 7.5 3.7 11.9 4.7 5.8 Real GDP growtha World 3.8 1.9 3.6 0.4 3.0 Memo item: World (PPP weights)b 5.0 3.0 2.4 0.2 3.8 High income 2.6 0.7 4.8 1.2 2.2 OECD countries 2.5 0.6 4.8 1.2 2.1 Euro Area 2.7 0.6 5.3 2.8 1.7 Non-OECD countries 5.6 2.4 5.8 1.2 4.2 Developing countries 8.1 5.9 0.5 2.0 5.5 East Asia and Pacific 11.4 8.0 4.2 3.9 7.5 Europe and Central Asia 6.9 4.0 5.8 1.5 3.0 Latin America and the Caribbean 5.8 4.2 2.7 0.2 3.1 Middle East and North Africa 5.4 6.0 3.0 3.4 4.5 South Asia 8.4 6.1 4.0 4.7 7.6 Sub-Saharan Africa 6.2 4.8 0.2 0.6 5.3 Memorandum items Developing countries Excluding transition countries 8.2 5.9 1.2 2.4 5.7 Excluding China and India 6.1 4.5 2.2 0.3 3.7 Source: World Bank. Note: PPP purchasing power parity; e estimate; f forecast. a. GDP in 2000 constant dollars; 2000 prices and market exchange rates. b. GDP measured at 2000 PPP weights. Policy challenges unless additional support from high-income coun- D eveloping countries face an extremely challeng- tries is forthcoming. ing policy environment. Falling government The implications for poverty reduction and the revenues and limited access to external sources of Millennium Development Goals of a failure to main- capital constrain most countries' ability to respond tain social spending could be far-reaching. For exam- with countercyclical fiscal policies. Based on past ex- ple, following the East Asian crisis in the late 1990s, perience, an inability to maintain spending at earlier it took almost a decade for the poverty headcount to levels--let alone to increase outlays to meet the chal- regain its pre-crisis level in affected countries. Very lenges associated with the slowdown--will oblige young children who are seriously affected by poor many governments to pursue a procyclical policy nutrition may endure permanent cognitive impair- cutting back on spending precisely when it is most ment and never catch up to their peers who were needed. born in more fortunate times. Following the Indone- Demands on social assistance programs are sian crisis in 1997­98, the number of children 7 to climbing; these are immediate and pressing needs. As 12 years old not enrolled in school doubled in rural a result, spending on longer-term issues such as infra- areas to 12 percent in a few years. The crisis also af- structure, health, and education tends to take a back fected health outcomes; infant mortality increased seat or even get cut when additional financing is un- by over 3 percentage points during the crisis. available. Just maintaining core public spending on Not only is social spending essential to protect education and health and preventing a widening of the vulnerable and avoid loss of human capital, it infrastructure gaps would require an estimated also is a more effective form of fiscal stimulus than $200 billion in 2009. About $42 billion of addi- tax cuts. Investments that reduce infrastructure tional external financing would be required in 2009 bottlenecks in developing countries can have even to assist those countries with limited fiscal capacity. larger multipliers (IMF 2009a; Hooper and Sløk In the current context, with external finance 2009).15 Raising the infrastructure services of all heavily constrained (see chapter 3), many develop- Sub-Saharan countries to the level in Mauritius ing countries will be unable to meet these challenges could add as much as 2.2 percentage points to per 33 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 capita growth (Calderón and Servén 2008), while 12. Calculations of global GDP before 1960 are com- achieving the level in the Republic of Korea could plicated because large parts of the world were not covered raise growth by 2.6 percentage points. by national accounting statistics before that date, and indeed, many developing regions had yet to emerge from colonial rule. Maddison (2004) has made a valiant effort to estimate global GDP during this and even earlier periods. Notes 13. The projection for 2009 is broadly consistent with 1. Econometric evidence suggests that a 10 percent rise in the recently reported forecast of the World Trade Organiza- capital spending in developed countries will elicit a 6.6 percent tion for a 9 percent decline in merchandise trade. The value increase in global manufacturing output. Country sensitivities reported here is higher mainly because it includes the vary, with stronger links in the United States, and the Republic growth in internationally traded services, which are much of Korea (both with elasticities of 2.1), Singapore, and the less cyclically sensitive than goods alone. Central European countries (1.5). 14. Industrial production in this reference excludes 2. Data refer to 28 OECD countries, excluding China, as difficulties in seasonally adjusting the time series Canada, Greece, and Mexico, for which the OECD Stat data for output over the months covering the annual Lunar does not report monthly data. The 28 countries are New Year introduces substantial distortions that render the Australia, Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, variable noncomparable with others in the database. Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, 15. Hooper and Sløk (2009) report multipliers for Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, the Nether- different forms of fiscal expenditure. The mean of these lands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak multipliers ranges from 1.2 for purchases of goods and ser- Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United vices (including infrastructure spending) down to 0.2­0.5 Kingdom, and the United States. for various forms of tax cuts. 3. Over the same period, the dollar appreciated against most currencies, rising by 4.4 percent in real effective terms. 4. Refineries struggled to produce sufficient distillates to meet newly mandated ultralow sulfur diesel fuel stan- References dards in high-income countries. Lack of refining capacity to produce this distillate from lower-grade oils increased de- Barry, John M. 2005. The Great Influenza: The Epic Story mand (and the price) for light, sweet crude oil by between of the Deadliest Plague in History. London: Penguin 3.2 and 5.1 million barrels a day at the peak. Books. 5. World Bank (2009) provides more in-depth discus- Burns, Andrew, Dominique van der Mensbrugghe, and sion of the causes of the run-up in commodity prices during Hans Timmer. 2006, 2008. "Evaluating the Economic 2008 and their long-term prospects. Consequences of Avian Influenza." World Bank, 6. Prices during the first five months of 2009 averaged Washington, DC. http://siteresources. worldbank.org/ $46, thus even if prices continue to rise from their end-of EXTAVIANFLU/Resources/EvaluatingAHIeconomics_ May level of $58, the average price of oil during the whole 2008.pdf. year will be lower than its current level. Calderón, César, and Luis Servén. 2008. "Infrastructure and 7. The real effective exchange rate is an index of a Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa." country's exchange rate with that of its key trade partners Policy Research Working Paper 4712, World Bank, (weighted by export and import shares) and corrected for Washington, DC. http://www.federalreserve.gov/ inflation differentials. RELEASES/z1/Current/z1.pdf, accessed May 14, 2009. 8. These estimates are consistent with the methodology Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. "Serum used in World Bank (2009), but are based on a more com- Cross-Reactive Antibody Response to a Novel In- plete history of local food prices in 2008 and an enhanced fluenza A (H1N1) Virus After Vaccination with Sea- methodology for estimating the influence of international sonal Influenza Vaccine" in Morbidity and Mortality prices on domestic prices. Weekly Report. Vol. 58, No. 19, pp. 521­524. 9. Corporate lending rose at an annualized rate of 22 per- Federal Reserve. 2009. Flow of Funds Accounts of the cent and 15 percent, respectively, in the United States and the United States: Flows and Oustandings, Fourth Quarter United Kingdom during the fourth quarter of 2008, despite the 2008. Board of Governors, Federal Reserve System, sharp contraction in activity. Some observers attribute this Washington, DC. development to firms arbitraging the low interest rates on Fraser, Christopher and Christl A. Donnelly, Simon existing credit lines or compensating for reduced access. Cauchemez, William P. Hanage, Maria D. Van 10. The eventual cost of these up-front contributions is Kerkhove, T. Déirdre Hollingsworth, Jamie Griffin, difficult to estimate because it depends on the extent to Rebecca F. Baggaley, Helen E. Jenkins, Emily J. Lyons, which the assets acquired hold their value over time. Thibaut Jombart, Wes R. Hinsley, Nicholas C. Grassly, 11. Metals exports represent close to half of the Francois Balloux, Azra C. Ghani, Neil M. Ferguson, merchandise export revenues in countries such as Chile, Andrew Rambaut, Oliver G. Pybus, Hugo Lopez- Guinea, Jamaica, the Kyrgyz Republic, Mali, Mauritania, Gatell, Celia M Apluche-Aranda, Ietza Bojorquez Mongolia, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Surinam, Chapela, Ethel Palacios Zavala, Dulce Ma. Espejo Tanzania, and Zambia. Guevara, Francesco Checchi, Erika Garcia, Stephane 34 P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E G L O B A L E C O N O M Y Hugonnet, Cathy Roth, The WHO Rapid Pandemic ______. 2009b. World Economic Outlook. Washington, Assessment Collaboration. 2009. "Pandemic Potential DC: IMF. of a Strain of Influenza A (H1N1): Early Findings." Maddison, Angus. 2004. The World Economy: Historical Sciencexpress. Report, May 14, 2009. http://www Statistics. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co- .sciencemag.org/cgi/rapidpdf/1176062.pdf, accessed operation and Development. May 17, 2009. Osterholm, Michael T. 2005. "Preparing for the Next Helleiner, Eric. 2009. "Crisis and Response: Five Regulatory Pandemic." New England Journal of Medicine 352 Agendas in Search of an Outcome." http:// (May 5): 1839­42. library.fes.de/pdf-files/ipg/ipg-2009-1/03_a_helleiner World Bank. 2009. Global Economic Prospects, 2009. _us.pdf. Washington, DC: World Bank. Hooper, Peter, and Thorsten Sløk. 2009. "Quantifying the World Health Organization. 2003. "Influenza." Fact Sheet Impact of Fiscal Stimulus Packages." Global Economic 211, Geneva. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ Perspectives (Deutsche Bank Securities Inc., Frankfurt), factsheets/fs211/en/index.html. April 8. ------. 2006. Avian Influenza ("bird flu") Fact Sheet. Humphrey, J. 2009. Are Exporters in Africa Facing Re- Geneva (February). http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ duced Availability of Trade Finance? Brighton, UK: factsheets/avian_influenza/en/index.html. Institute of Development Studies. ------. 2009. "Assessing the Severity of an Influenza Pan- International Monetary Fund. 2009a. "Regional Economic demic." 11 May 2009. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ Outlook: Europe, Addressing the Crisis." World Eco- swineflu/assess/disease_swineflu_assess_20090511/en/ nomic and Financial Surveys. Washington, DC: IMF. index.html. Accessed May 17, 2009. 35 . 2 Private Capital Flows in a Time of Global Financial Turmoil T HE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS THAT The growing integration of developing- followed the September 2008 collapse of country economies into the global economy, and the several major financial institutions, includ- increasing importance of their firms and households ing Lehman Brothers, severely constrained devel- in international finance over the past decade, have oping countries' access to international financial brought enormous economic and financial benefits markets, as investors deserted developing-country (World Bank 2007). But the same developments markets for what they perceived to be safer secu- have also widened the scope for economic turmoil rities. In October, developing countries' access to when global conditions deteriorate. Indeed, the external finance further deteriorated, as sovereign broad reach of the current crisis can be traced bond spreads reached a seven-year high of 874 through the dense web of trade and financial link- basis points--levels not seen in six years. No ages among countries. Developing countries are developing-country government or firm issued a much more dependent on private capital flows single bond on international markets in October today than during the 1990s. Almost one-quarter or November. A principal index of emerging stock of their total domestic capital formation was market prices (MSCI) plummeted 42 percent be- funded, in the years immediately preceding the tween Lehman's collapse and mid-December, as crisis, by foreign capital. For the past three years, panicked investors sold off holdings on a large more than one-third of developing countries re- scale and currencies came under heavy downward ceived private capital flows in excess of 6 percent pressure. Spreads on trade credit for several major of their GDP. In several countries of Eastern borrowers rose to three to five times their record Europe--notably Bulgaria, Kazakhstan, Latvia, low 2007 level. Romania, and Ukraine--the levels were 20 percent The effects on capital flows to developing or more. The downside of that greater dependence countries were dramatic. Despite strong perfor- is that a withdrawal of capital flows has a broader mance in the first half of 2008, net private capital and deeper impact. inflows dropped to $707 billion (4.4 percent of The composition of private debt flows has developing-country GDP) by the end of the year, changed as well. Once dominated by bank lending reversing an upward trend that had begun in 2003 to sovereign governments, capital now flows and that peaked at $1.2 trillion in 2007. As in- through a variety of transactions between private flows sagged, net capital outflows increased. Net entities--and those flows respond rapidly to finan- equity outflows reached $244 billion (1.5 percent cial disruptions. The growing share of countries of GDP) in 2008, up from $190 billion (1.4 per- with open capital accounts has greatly magnified cent of GDP) in 2007. Emerging Europe and the potential for rapid changes in capital outflows Central Asia bore the brunt of the financial crisis, in response to changes in economic conditions. accounting for 50 percent of the decline in capital Thus, even though most developing countries flows. But the downturn touched all regions, with maintain better policies and have stronger institu- the exception of the Middle East and North tions than they did at the onset of previous crises, Africa, where flows increased slightly. more countries are nevertheless vulnerable to 37 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 external disruptions. The situation is particularly funds as industrial-country governments dire for the many countries that face the possibility begin in earnest to issue the securities neces- of a downgrade in their credit rating, because sary to finance their fiscal stimulus and bank lower ratings will make it more difficult for rescue plans. borrowers--corporate and sovereign--to manage · The role of international banks in intermedi- their external liabilities and fund investment ating capital flows to developing countries is projects by accessing international bond markets. changing, as banks adjust to new realities This chapter first reviews financial flows to born of the crisis. The implications of greater and from developing countries in 2008, describing government involvement and tighter regula- how the crisis has affected emerging markets since tion for banks' lending to developing coun- the collapse of Lehman Brothers. It then discusses tries are now coming into view, as the total the prospects for capital flows and workers' remit- amount of loans outstanding with banks tances in the medium term. reporting to the Bank for International Settle- The key messages are highlighted below: ments (BIS) declined in the last quarter of 2008, with all signs pointing to a continua- · The tendency of risky assets to underperform tion of that trend through 2009. Tight liquid- in a cyclical financial downturn notwithstand- ity conditions in interbank markets drove ing, the dramatic plunge in emerging local banks' lending decisions in the early phase of equity markets, coupled with the widening of the crisis--a restraint on credit that now has spreads on dollar-denominated bonds and been moderated by massive liquidity injections downward pressure on borrowers' currencies, from major central banks. More recently, the bespeak a degree of large-scale capital repatri- forces driving banks' credit decisions have ation not seen in recent years. As global been directly and indirectly related to the onset portfolio managers came under increasing of the global economic recession, the associ- liquidity pressures, they sold off emerging ated weakening of the banks' balance-sheets, market assets to fund their own capital and the further tightening of credit standards. redemptions. Evidence available to date seems Econometric analysis conducted for this re- to indicate that much of the repatriated in- port confirms the importance of these two vestment was drawn out of markets in East channels--the erosion of large lenders' Asia and the Pacific, which are more liquid balance-sheet quality (captured by various than those in some other developing regions loan-performance and capitalization measures) and have been a dominant destination for and the tighter credit standards (measured by emerging-market equity investors. At the opinion surveys of loan officers). It therefore same time, multinational companies began to appears that the recently formed consensus to reduce their exposure through higher repatria- focus policy attentions on the health of the tion of profits. international banking system should benefit · International capital inflows are projected to developing-country borrowers, to the extent decline further in 2009, sinking to $363 bil- that banks' balance sheets can be repaired and lion (2.5 percent of GDP) before recovering in recapitalized. 2010 in tandem with the recovery in global · Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows--the economic growth discussed in chapter 1. largest component of international capital Developing countries' participation in interna- flows to the developing world--are also proj- tional bond markets picked up in the first ected to decline by 30 percent to $385 billion months of 2009, but the prospects for contin- in 2009. Driven by the strong momentum of ued improvement in access to international the first half of the year, FDI inflows to devel- sources of capital are limited. The severe oping countries posted an increase in 2008 global downturn anticipated for this year and remained at 3.5 percent of their combined (chapter 1) will continue to depress lenders' GDP. Many factors that had led to the expan- interest in developing countries and reduce in- sion of cross-border mergers and acquisitions vestment flows. Going forward, developing (M&As)--chiefly high economic growth, countries may face sharp competition for favorable financing conditions, high corporate 38 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L profits, booming stock markets, and increased The global financial crisis severely involvement by private equity firms, hedge reduced private capital flows to funds, and sovereign wealth funds--are now developing countries in 2008 T absent. With weak corporate earnings and he global financial crisis brought to an abrupt tough bank financing of deals, M&A transac- end the surge in private capital flows to devel- tions are now more difficult to initiate and oping countries that had occurred during 2003­07. fund. Significantly lower M&A transactions In 2008, total net international flows of private cap- in the first quarter of 2009 signal weaker FDI ital to the developing world fell to $707 billion inflows to developing countries. (4.4 percent of developing-country GDP) from the · Of the many consequences of the 2008 crisis, record-high level of $1.2 trillion (8.6 percent of the most significant for development finance GDP) reached in 2007 (figure 2.1 and table 2.1). is likely to be the shift among foreign in- Net portfolio equity flows plunged by almost vestors from private to public risk in emerging 90 percent from $139 billion to a mere $16 billion markets. The shift, if enduring, could be par- in 2008. Similarly, private debt flows declined sub- ticularly costly for emerging market corpora- stantially to $108 billion from $499 billion, driven tions. Before the crisis, a growing number of by the sharp fall in short-term debt flows, which such corporations enjoyed access to interna- moved from $202 billion in 2007 into negative tional debt markets for the sophisticated territory ( $16.3 billion), and in bond financing, financing they needed to grow and build a which came to just $11 billion in 2008, compared global presence through trade, investment, with $85 billion in 2007. Net medium- and long- and cross-border M&A. Between 2003 and term bank flows were $123 billion, 40 percent 2007, firms based in emerging markets lower than in 2007. The rate of increase in FDI raised $1.2 trillion in external debt via slowed markedly, ending the year at an estimated syndicated bank deals and bond issues, while $583 billion, $60 billion higher than 2007. only $237.2 billion went to the sovereign The downturn affected all developing regions sector. So far in 2009, the balance of exter- but to various degrees, with the exception of the nal financing between sovereign and corpo- Middle East and North Africa, where flows in- rate shifted, with the share of corporate creased slightly (table 2.2). Emerging Europe and sector declining to 66 percent of the total Central Asia were the hardest hit, accounting for from 90 percent in 2008. As initial public half of the $451 billion decline in capital flows offerings fell steeply in 2008 and local stock (figure 2.2). Across regions, the decline was con- markets' share prices plunged, corporate centrated in short-term debt flows (48 percent), finance in emerging markets faltered, signal- ing weaker growth prospects and fewer opportunities to generate employment in Figure 2.1 Net private capital inflows to developing countries, 2000­08 emerging economies. · In the past, remittances have been stable, or $ billions Percent even countercyclical, during economic down- 10 Debt FDI Portfolio equity turns in the recipient economy. The present 600 crisis, however, is affecting the countries from 8 500 Net private flows/ which remittances originate. Future flows are GDP (right scale) 400 bound to be affected by the simultaneous eco- 6 nomic recession in the high-income countries 300 and lower growth in the developing countries, 200 4 each of which host half of migrants from the developing world. Although the aggregate de- 100 2 cline in worldwide remittance flows as a result 0 of the crisis is expected to be small, the situa- 100 0 tion may prove more serious for some small, 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008e poor countries where remittances make up a Sources: World Bank Debtor Reporting System; staff estimates. relatively large share of GDP. Note: 2008 figures are estimated. 39 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Table 2.1 Net capital inflows to developing countries $ billions 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008e Current account balance 15.5 68.6 118.4 171.2 306.6 438.2 406.1 377.9 Financial flows: Net private and official inflows 224.2 162.4 258.6 370.7 498.7 668.3 1157.7 727.3 Net private inflows 197.3 156.8 269.1 396.5 569.7 739.2 1157.5 706.9 Net equity inflows 172.3 161.5 181.0 254.7 347.2 462.7 658.6 599.0 Net FDI inflows 166.0 152.5 155.5 216.0 279.1 358.4 520.0 583.0 Net portfolio equity inflows 6.3 9.0 25.5 38.7 68.1 104.3 138.6 15.7 Net debt flows 51.9 0.9 77.6 116.0 151.5 205.6 499.1 128.3 Official creditors 26.9 5.6 10.5 25.8 71.0 70.9 0.2 20.4 World Bank 7.5 0.3 0.5 1.6 2.8 0.4 4.9 7.1 IMF 19.5 14.1 2.5 14.7 40.1 26.7 5.1 10.9 Other official 0.1 8.2 12.5 12.7 33.7 43.8 0.4 2.4 Private creditors 25.0 4.7 88.1 141.8 222.5 276.5 498.9 107.9 Net M-L term debt flows 2.1 0.7 26.6 73.3 135.9 166.4 296.4 124.2 Bonds 10.2 10.1 20.4 36.0 56.2 26.6 85.4 10.5 Banks 1.9 3.2 10.4 41.3 84.2 144.6 214.5 123.0 Other private 6.2 6.2 4.2 4.0 4.5 4.8 3.5 9.3 Net short-term debt flowsa 22.9 5.4 61.5 68.5 86.6 110.1 202.5 16.3 Balancing itemb 159.1 69.9 90.7 144.9 419.5 476.6 486.3 657.7 Change in reserves ( increase) 80.4 160.6 285.5 396.2 385.5 629.9 1077.3 447.3 Memorandum items Private inflows excluding short-term debt 174.4 170.7 203.9 340.7 483.3 629.1 955.0 723.2 Net FDI outflows 12.7 16.8 22.4 44.5 59.2 125.2 138.8 164.0 Net portfolio equity outflows 10.8 6.0 8.2 7.2 11.6 21.5 50.6 80.0 Workers' remittances 95.6 115.9 143.6 161.3 191.2 229.0 265.0 305 Source: World Bank Debtor Reporting System and staff estimates. Note: e estimate. a. Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and capital outflows from developing countries. b. Net bank lending numbers might be different from numbers in GDF 2009, volume 2. Table 2.2 Net capital inflows to developing Figure 2.2 Net private capital inflows to developing regions, 2005­08 regions, 2007­08 $ billions $ billions 2005 2006 2007 2008e $221 billion 500 ( 47%) 2007 2008e Total 570 739 1158 707 By region: 400 East Asia and Pacific 187 206 281 203 Europe and Central Asia 192 311 472 251 $78 billion Latin America and the Caribbean 113 85 216 128 300 ( 28%) Middle East and North Africa 19 25 21 23 $88 billion South Asia 25 72 113 66 ( 41%) Sub-Saharan Africa 33 40 55 36 200 $46 billion Source: World Bank Debtor Reporting System and staff estimates. ( 41%) $19.5 billion Note: e estimate. 100 ( 35.3%) $2.5 billion (+11%) 0 portfolio equity (26 percent), and bonds (20 per- ECA LAC EAP SAR SSA MENA cent). Almost all regions experienced significant Source: World Bank Debtor Reporting System and staff estimates. setbacks in short-term debt flows. Short-term debt Note: e = estimate. accounted for a major share of the decline in East Asia and the Pacific (67 percent), South Asia FDI inflows rose slightly in 2008. Most of the (56 percent), and Europe and Central Asia (45 $63 billion increase flowed to the East Asia and percent). In Sub-Saharan Africa, on the other Pacific and South Asia regions. FDI inflows to hand, two-thirds of the $15 billion decline came in India doubled, reflecting economic reforms in re- portfolio equity, with the rest in bond financing. cent years and progress in opening up additional 40 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L sectors for foreign investment. The high commodity end are first converted into dollars before calculating prices that persisted through most of 2008 continued changes in reserves from the end of the previous year. to support investment in resource-rich developing In contrast, the various current and capital account countries such as Angola, Brazil, Chile, Kazakhstan, flows are converted into dollars at average exchange and the Russian Federation. Because the unfolding rates. The following exercise was undertaken to de- crisis had an even more profound effect on FDI termine the importance of exchange rate valuation within the industrialized world (causing a 40 percent effects on reserves: A portfolio of reserve holdings drop in 2008), the developing world increased its wasconstructedbyallocatingthedollarvalueheldby share in global FDI to a record 40 percent in 2008 developing countries into the four main reserve cur- from an average of 25 percent over the last decade. rencies (U.S. dollar, euro, pound sterling, and Japan- (Global FDI amounts to about $1.4 trillion.) ese yen). After changes in reserves were calculated for In 2008, foreign exchange reserves accumula- each reserve currency in each year, the resulting flows tion in the developing world slowed considerably, as were reconverted to dollars. Calculating exchange many countries drew down reserves to cope with the rate valuation effects on reserve changes in such a impact of the financial crisis (see chapter 3 for a de- manner instead of on reserve holdings raises the tailed discussion on foreign exchange reserves). The estimate of reserve accumulation by $108 billion year ended with reserves up only $447 billion, about (14 percent)in 2008andreducesitbyaround$80bil- half of the almost $1 trillion increase seen in 2007. lion in 2006­07 (11 percent), which acts to stabilize The "balancing item" that reconciles the the year-to-year fluctuations in the balancing item. balance-of-payments accounting identity between the current and capital accounts and changes in for- eign reserves fell by $172 billion to ­$657.7 billion The downturn began in late 2008, (see table 2.1). This item captures capital outflows as part of the global financial crisis M as well as the various errors and omissions that are ost of the decline in net private capital entailed in measuring capital- and current-account flows to developing countries in 2008 oc- transactions in the balance of payments. With curred in the last quarter of the year, following growing financial integration, capital outflows the deterioration of global financial markets. As from developing countries have increased signifi- discussed in chapter 1, the financial turmoil began cantly in recent years. Driven by ample liquidity in the summer of 2007, as the distress in U.S. sub- and a desire to diversify their assets, investors and prime mortgage markets became increasingly multinational companies in developing countries clear through a string of events that culminated in have acquired assets and invested in debt markets the collapse of Lehman Brothers in September abroad--both in developed and developing coun- 2008 (GEP 2008).1 Those events depressed the tries. Part of the balancing item can be explained confidence of investors and financial institutions by the resulting increase in net equity outflows, in the ability of counterparties to make good on which reached $244 billion (1.5 percent of GDP) their financial commitments. Uncertainty over the in 2008 from $190 billion (1.4 percent of GDP) in ability of major financial institutions to survive 2007. Net FDI outflows increased by $20 billion the crisis, coupled with the sharp rise in volatility, to an estimated $162 billion in 2008, led by the drove investors toward safe assets. Meanwhile, Russian Federation ($50 billion), China ($25 bil- financial institutions intensified their deleveraging lion), Brazil ($18 billion), Malaysia ($15 billion), process--shedding assets and raising capital-- and India ($13 billion). Most of the outflows from leading to major outflows from global markets, Russia and China reflected investments in extrac- including the developing-country markets re- tive industries, whereas the Malaysian investments viewed in the previous section. were in financial services and the Indian in energy and services. Portfolio equity outflows also rose to The resilience of developing countries to the $80 billion in 2008, from $50 billion in 2007. global financial crisis broke down after Another part of the balancing item stems from September 2008 the way that exchange rate valuation effects are Developing countries exhibited a certain degree of taken into account in calculating changes in foreign resilience to the emerging crisis during the first reserves. Reserve holdings in each country at year- half of 2008. As the crisis intensified in September, 41 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 2.3 MSCI equity index from Figure 2.4 Declines in developing-country stock January 2007­February 2009 markets in 2008 Total return (%) Index (Jan. 2007 = 100) 150 Chile Jan.­Jun. South Africa Jul.­Dec. Emerging markets 120 Mexico 2008 Brazil Sri Lanka 90 Mature markets Malaysia Thailand Argentina 60 Phillippines Turkey 30 Indonesia Poland India 0 Pakistan Russian Fed. 2007 y 2007 .2007 2008 y 2008 .2008 2009 y 2009 Vietnam Jan. Ma Sep Jan. Ma Sep Jan. Ma China Source: Bloomberg Data Service. Romania Ukraine Bulgaria however, with a massive retreat from risky assets 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 all around the world, the financial markets in de- veloping countries felt the heat. Their stock mar- Source: World Bank staff estimates. kets joined those in high-income countries, falling 40 percent in dollar terms (figure 2.3). Bond spreads spiked, bond flows dried up, and (although With several other financial institutions coming difficult to document) there was a sharp increase under increasing stress during the second half of in capital outflows. Virtually all the currencies in 2008, major international banks, hedge funds, and the world depreciated against the U.S. dollar, with other investors--especially highly leveraged ones-- some developing-country currencies losing more than were impelled to sell off their riskier assets, produc- 50 percent of their value. ing major outflows from emerging market equities The downturn in equity prices began early in and equity funds. Emerging market equity funds 2008 but intensified dramatically in September posted a record net outflow of $48.3 billion in 2008, (figure 2.3). The MSCI index (measured in U.S. dol- compared with a net inflow of $54 billion in 2007. lars) dropped by 13 percent between January and Outflows initiated by foreign portfolio investors June, then another 13 percent from July to mid- were $30 billion in the third quarter alone, the high- September, as markets in major commodity ex- est quarterly level since 1995. Outflows continued porters such as Brazil and Russia reacted to the drop in October and November but ceased in December, in commodity prices. It then plummeted by 42 per- when the leak was breached by net inflows of $1 bil- cent between mid-September and mid-December. lion. Most of the repatriated capital was drawn out Following further declines in January and of East Asia and the Pacific, traditionally a domi- February 2009, the fall in global equities ceased in nant destination for emerging-market equity in- March, led by financial stocks, as investor senti- vestors. Foreign investors withdrew $25.7 billion ment improved amid tentative signs of greater from emerging-country Asian stocks in 2008. In global economic optimism. But it is uncertain at contrast, investors pulled out only $4.9 billion from this point whether stock markets have turned the funds in emerging Europe and $5.9 billion from corner. Upcoming economic data and corporate funds in Latin America. earnings reports still carry relatively high down- The impact of the sell-off on local equity mar- side risks. Surprisingly, emerging market equities kets was widespread among developing countries, fared much better since March 2009, posting a but some were hurt more than others (figure 2.4). gain of 60 percent, compared with the mature mar- Stock markets in Brazil, China, India, and Russia kets' gain of 33 percent. experienced some of the biggest declines in 2008. 42 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Russia was the worst performer of the four, public offerings (IPOs) (figure 2.6). About 52 IPO chalking up a 72.5 percent decline in local currency deals were withdrawn or postponed in 2008, the terms. The fall of share prices resulted in margin highest annual total on record. The value of com- calls and severe trading losses among major domes- pleted IPO deals in 2008 was $27.7 billion from tic banks, which brought the country's money mar- 149 issues, down 78 percent from record highs of ket to a halt. Markets in the other three countries $124.4 billion from 403 issues in 2007. lost more than half of their value--Brazil posted a The sharp decline in IPO activity was due in 40 percent decline, India 52 percent, and China part to the lack of participation by hedge funds, 66 percent. The magnitude of the correction during many of which have suffered major losses in the the second half of the year was much more severe ongoing crisis. Hedge funds in recent years have for Brazil and Russia than for China and India, re- become a dominant force in primary emerging flecting the fact that the sharp drop in commodity equity markets. They are now considered a cru- prices affected the first two countries more than the cial part of IPO transactions--in developed and second two. Even the best-performing emerging developing countries alike--owing both to the markets--those in Chile, Mexico, and South volume of their purchases and their early involve- Africa--posted losses of more than 20 percent in ment in the IPO process. But lately many hedge 2008. Those with heavy external financing needs funds have faced a wave of fund withdrawals and (especially certain emerging European economies) significant losses. The industry as a whole shed a suffered larger declines in stock market prices fifth of its value last year, shrinking from its 2008 (chapter 3). Due to the broad scope of the crisis, its peak of $1.9 trillion to $1.5 trillion at the end of impact on equity prices in developing countries has the year. been deeper and broader in comparison to past IPO activities are off to the slow start this year episodes (box 2.1). as a total of 11 deals by developing countries Equity issues in developing countries plunged raised only $300 million in the first quarter of with the fall in stock markets. Gross equity issuance 2009, the lowest quarterly volume since the third fell to $67.6 billion in 2008, compared with quarter of 2001. This compares with 39 deals in $202.16 billion in 2007 (figure 2.5). Developing- the first quarter of 2008 that raised $9.3 billion. country companies only raised $3.8 billion in the There was no IPO activity at all in Latin America fourth quarter of last year, posting the worst quar- and Sub-Saharan Africa during the first quarter of terly volume since the third quarter of 2004. The 2009. Most of the quarterly volume occurred in same picture emerges from the collapse in initial East Asia, where nine deals were made. Figure 2.5 Gross equity issuance by developing Figure 2.6 IPO activities in developing countries, countries, 2006­08 2006­08 $ billions $ billions 80 50 160 70 45 140 Number of IPOs 40 60 (right axis) 120 35 50 100 30 40 25 80 30 20 60 15 20 40 10 10 20 5 0 0 0 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 Source: World Bank staff estimates. Source: World Bank staff estimates. 43 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Box 2.1 The impact of the current financial crisis has been much deeper and broader than previous crises F inancial crises in developing countries over the past Countries with declines in equity prices during 50 years fell most heavily on a limited number of three crises countries that had built up significant weaknesses. Other countries also were affected, owing to trade ties with the Percent With equity price declines (in $US) most-affected countries or the presence of similar weak- 100 exceeding 40 percent nesses, which led investors to anticipate similar crises, and to the tendency of investors to withdraw from high-risk Developing countries assets in times of economic difficulties. Nevertheless, in 75 Industrial countries previous crises many developing countries were able to maintain their growth rates and escape significant financial disruptions. Although the full impact of the current finan- 50 cial crisis on growth is still unfolding, virtually all developing and high-income countries have suffered 25 a deterioration in equity prices and, in the case of developing countries, sovereign bond spreads. The broad scope of the crisis greatly complicates prospects 0 for recovery. Jul. 1997­Aug. 1998 Mar. 2000­Sep. 2001 Aug. 2007­Mar. 2009 Developing countries' equity prices illustrate the Source: World Bank staff calculations based on equity price data from broad reach of the present crisis in comparison to past MSCI Barra and nominal exchange rates from Datastream. episodes. Two in three developing countries have experienced equity-price declines of more than 40 percent in local currency, and three in four in U.S. dollars, since the peak reached in October 2007. During the Asian than in previous crises (figure below). This time and Russian crises (July 1997 to August 1998), the pro- around, the composite index for emerging markets portion was just one in two (in U.S. dollars) (see figure on (MSCI equity index) has fallen by almost 80 percent the right). from the peak reached in October 2007, much greater The average decline in developing countries' equity than the 57 percent fall during the Asian and Russian prices (in U.S. dollars) also has been more pronounced crises. International equity prices, January 1998­January 2009 U.S. dollars Index (Jan 1988 =100) Oct. 2007­Mar. 2009 1,250 Jul. 1997­Aug. 1998 1,000 Mar. 2000­Sep. 2001 750 Emerging markets 500 250 Mature markets 0 Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Source: JP Morgan. 44 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Changes in emerging market bond spreads during two major economic crises Asian crisis--Jul. 1997­Aug. 1998 Current crisis--Jun. 2007­Mar. 2009 Median = 444 Median = 336 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 Basis points Basis points Source: JP Morgan. More developing countries also have experienced a increase in U.S. interest rates) the yield on emerging mar- substantial widening of secondary-market spreads in this ket sovereign bonds leaped to a record high of more than crisis than in previous episodes. For example, while the 23 percent (figure below). median rise in developing countries' secondary-market spreadsa since mid-2007 has been 336 basis points, spreads have widened by more than 1,000 basis points in five countries (Argentina, Ecuador, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and Emerging market sovereign bond spread and yield, Ukraine). During the Asian and Russian crisis, the median January 1994­March 2009 increase was higher (444 basis points), but only two coun- Percent tries (the Russian Federation and República Bolivariana de 25 Venezuela) experienced an increase of more than 1,000 Implicit yield on basis points (figure above). emerging market sovereign bonds Note that during the current crisis, with significant 20 monetary easing by major central banks, the decline in Bond spread (EMBIG composite index) benchmark interest rates (2.6 percentage points from mid- 15 2007 to end-2008 for 10-year U.S. treasury notes) has moderated the impact on borrowing costs: the yield on 10 emerging market sovereign bonds tied to 10-year U.S. treasuries rose by only 330 basis points. The benchmark 5 interest rate also declined during the Asian and Russian Yield on 10-year crisis but to a lesser extent (140 basis points between US treasury note September 1997 and September 1998). During the 0 Mexican peso crisis (which was triggered by a sharp 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Source: JP Morgan. ________ a. In 2009, countries with secondary-market spread information include Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Colombia, Ecuador, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Russian Federation, South Africa, Turkey, Ukraine, and Vietnam. 45 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Developing countries' access to international end of last year, closing at 464 basis points in late bond markets suffered as well May. The tightening in spreads occurred across the International bond issuance by developing coun- entire spectrum of credit risk, reflecting a slight in- tries contracted as the crisis unfolded. The crease in investors' appetite for riskier assets. reassessment of credit risks and increased risk aver- Credit quality declined as bond spreads sion on the part of international investors led to a widened, with 17 downgrades of emerging market surge in bond spreads worldwide. The high-yield sovereign bonds in the fourth quarter of 2008--and spreads in industrial countries widened by more- no upgrades (figure 2.9). The deterioration in credit than 1,000 basis points between mid-September ratings was largely concentrated in Latin America and early-December of 2008. Emerging market and emerging Europe, with recent downgrades spreads were less affected than high-yield corpo- registered in the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, rate borrowers in mature markets, widening by Kazakhstan, Romania, the Russian Federation, only 385 basis points over the same period. Never- and República Bolivariana de Venezuela. So far in theless, spreads on developing countries' sovereign 2009, another 7 credit downgrades have occurred: bonds reached a seven-year high of 874 basis in Jamaica, Latvia, Lithuania, Mongolia, Russia, points in late October, comparable to levels Thailand, and Ukraine. reached at the height of the Russian crisis a decade The escalation of the global crisis increased ago (figure 2.7). investors' fears that developing countries would In the last quarter of 2008, spreads on higher- default on their debt. In times of distress, when a risk bonds rose more than those on lower-risk country loses access to international capital bonds, reflecting the increased risk aversion markets, the prices of sovereign credit default swaps among investors. The average spread in the B- (CDSs)--a form of insurance protection against rated category widened by 728 basis points, while debt default--are often considered a leading indica- spreads on bonds rated investment grade widened tor of the perceived risk of government debt. by an average of just 310 basis points (figure 2.8). Traders use them to speculate on changes in sover- The difference reflects both tiering within the cor- eign credit quality. For example, in October 2008, porate market and higher increases in spreads on sovereign CDS spreads in emerging market corporate versus sovereign bonds. economies widened sharply, particularly in So far in 2009, the spreads for emerging mar- Argentina, South Africa, Turkey, and Ukraine ket debt tightened by 260 basis points from the (figure 2.10). Some of these countries were considered risky because of their need for substan- tial external financing (see chapter 3 for further discussion). In Argentina, however, five-year CDS Figure 2.7 Emerging market bond spreads spreads skyrocketed to more than 4,000 basis widened sharply at year's end, 2003­09 points (representing a cost of more than $4 million Basis points to insure $10 million of government debt over five 1,000 years) after the government carried out a de facto nationalization of the country's private pension 800 fund system. CDS spreads on Ukraine also spiked to 2,849 basis points in October, as the country sought 600 and received $16.5 billion in emergency loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Some 400 emerging market countries that are considered rela- tively stable, such as Brazil and China, were also hit hard, signifying growing aversion to the perceived 200 riskiness of emerging market countries as a class in the worsening global economic climate. 0 The financial crisis had a marked impact on bond issuance worldwide. The decline in global 01/02/200310/02/200307/02/200404/02/200501/02/200610/02/200607/02/200704/02/200801/02/2009 bond issuance began in the second half of 2007, Source: Bloomberg. and the volumes remained low throughout 2008. 46 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Figure 2.8 Bond spreads widened in all asset Figure 2.9 Deteriorating credit quality for classes in 2008 emerging markets in 2008 Basis points Upgrades-downgrades 1,250 40 After Sep. 15 Before Sep. 15 30 1,000 20 750 10 500 0 250 10 0 20 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009* Asia Latinica x x Europe ade Inde Inde Sources: JP Morgan; Bloomberg. Composite Amer CreditSub CreditSub Inv Gr CreditSub BB B *As of April 2009. EMBIG Sources: JP Morgan; Bloomberg. Issuance was surprisingly strong in the first two months of 2009. Sovereign borrowers have But the impact became definite in developing continued to tap the market, taking advantage of countries after September. Not one developing- improving market conditions. In fact, sovereigns country firm or sovereign issued a bond on have dominated borrowing activity so far in 2009, international markets in October or November accounting for $12 billion of the almost $17 bil- (figure 2.11), although December saw a $300 mil- lion in total borrowing (table 2.3). The sovereign lion issue by a Russian corporation and a $2 bil- bond market in 2009 remained open not only for lion issue by the Mexican government. creditworthy borrowers, such as Brazil and Figure 2.10 Sovereign five-year credit default swap spreads, July 2008­February 2009 Basis points 5,000 4,500 Argentina 4,000 3,500 Venezuela, R. B. de Ukraine 3,000 2,500 Philippines Kazakhstan 2,000 Brazil Bulgaria China 1,500 Mexico Indonesia Russia South Africa Turkey Colombia 1,000 500 0 Jul. 2008 Aug. 2008 Sep. 2008 Oct. 2008 Nov. 2008 Dec. 2008 Jan. 2009 Feb. 2009 Sources: JP Morgan; Bloomberg. 47 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 2.11 Bond issuance by developing-country the market. Indonesia raised $650 million from governments and firms, January­February 2009 sales of its five-year global Islamic bond, part of $ billions the country's budget financing plan for 2009. The 18 issue marked the first U.S.-dollar-denominated Sovereign Islamic bond this year. The reception was strong, 16 Corporate with more than $4 billion in orders. The Colom- 14 bian government also tapped the international 12 debt market for $1 billion by reopening its 10 10-year, dollar-denominated bond. The govern- 8 ment may have been pre-financing for 2010. 6 Colombia sold the bond initially in January to cover this year's external funding needs, part of an 4 early rush in bond issuance from emerging mar- 2 kets that required issuers to offer an enhanced risk 0 premium to entice investors. On the corporate 2008.2008.2008.2008y 2008 2008 2008 2008.2008 2008v.2008 2008 2009.2009.2009.2009 side, much of the 2.3 billion issuance was by the Jan. Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep Oct. No Dec. Jan. Feb Mar Apr Russian gas company, Gazprom. Source: Dealogic Loan Analytics. The collapse of the stand-alone investment banks seems to have had little impact on the developing-country bond market, as other interna- Poland, but also for B issuers, such as Turkey tional financial institutions filled the gap, and the and the Philippines. Poland also made a successful concentration of emerging market bond arrangers return to the market at the end of January, with a increased only slightly after the collapse (table 2.4).2 1 billion Eurobond sale, even as three emerging Since the last quarter of 2008, HSBC has almost Europe sovereigns suffered ratings downgrades, tripled its market share to 14.4 percent from 5 per- with a subsequent widening of spreads. In con- cent during the previous seven quarters. With its trast, corporate borrowers, most in Latin America, acquisition of Lehman Brothers' U.S. investment raised just $5 billion over the same period. Cor- banking business at the end of the third quarter of porate issuance has been limited to high-grade last year, Barclay Capital also gained a larger share borrowers, suggesting that the market remains in the market. closed to high-risk corporate borrowers. As a re- sult, the share of sovereign in bond financing The reversal of short-term debt was surged to 70 percent compared with the average of significant . . . 35 percent over the past few years (2005­08). Flows of short-term debt (debt with an original In April, bond issuance by developing countries maturity of one year or less) to developing coun- was limited. Only Colombia and Indonesia came to tries were strong during the first half of 2008. Table 2.3 Emerging market bond issuance in 2009* Country Announced Maturity Size ($ billion) Yield to maturity (%) Issue price Brazil 6-Jan-2009 15-Jan-2019 1.0 6.223 98.135 Colombia 6-Jan-2009 18-Mar-2019 1.0 7.634 99.136 Turkey 7-Jan-2009 14-Jul-2017 1.0 7.629 100.000 Philippines 7-Jan-2009 17-Jul-2019 1.5 8.668 99.158 Poland 22-Jan-2009 3-Feb-2014 1.3 5.940 99.725 Mexico 11-Feb-2009 17-Feb-2014 1.5 6.102 99.424 Indonesia 26-Feb-2009 4-Mar-2019 2.0 12.097 99.276 Lebanon 13-Mar-2009 19-Mar-2012 0.4 7.500 100.000 Panama 18-Mar-2009 15-Mar-2015 0.3 7.162 101.000 Peru 25-Mar-2009 30-Mar-2019 1.0 7.326 99.500 Colombia 14-Apr-2009 18-Mar-2019 1.0 7.509 99.990 Indonesia 16-Apr-2009 23-Apr-2014 0.7 8.994 100.000 *As of April 28th. Source: Dealogic Loan Analytics. 48 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Table 2.4 Major book-runners for emerging market bonds, 2007Q1­2009Q1 2007Q1­2008Q3 2008Q4­2009Q1 Rank Bookrunner Deal value ($ billion) % share Rank Bookrunner Deal value ($ billion) % share 1 Deutsche Bank 25 12.7 1 HSBC 25 14.4 2 Citi 23 11.8 2 Goldman Sachs 23 9.8 3 Credit Suisse 19 9.4 3 Barclays Capital 19 9.7 4 ABN AMRO 17 8.5 4 Citi 17 8.3 5 UBS 16 8.1 5 UBS 16 8.1 6 JP Morgan 14 7.3 6 Morgan Stanley 14 8.1 7 Barclays Capital 12 6.0 7 Credit Suisse 12 7.0 8 HSBC 10 5.0 8 JP Morgan 10 6.9 9 Bank of America/Merrill Lynch 9 4.4 9 Deutsche Bank 9 4.9 10 Morgan Stanley 8 4.1 10 VTB Capital 8 4.1 77.3 81.2 Source: Dealogic Loan Analytics. However, flows became negative in the third example, short-term debt fell more sharply in quarter of the year and later registered a sharper developing countries than did other flows. The drop ($113 billion) in the last quarter of the year reason may be that in times of crisis lenders tend following the deterioration of the global financial to shift their portfolios to more creditworthy bor- markets (figure 2.12).3 For the year, the stock of rowers, which are in a better position to serve short-term debt in developing countries declined longer-maturity loans. by $16 billion to $831 billion, well below the peak reached in 2007 (see further discussion in Access to trade finance has become chapter 3). more difficult Short-term debt flows have exhibited higher Many countries borrowed short-term to finance volatility than medium- and long-term flows, par- their growing trade as firms contracted short-term ticularly during crises. During the Asian crisis, for loans to finance imports and prepay for exports. In China, for example, trade finance in 2007 amounted to $133.1 billion, accounting for more Figure 2.12 Short-term debt flows to developing than half of the country's short-term debt. Simi- countries, 2007Q1­2008Q4 larly, all of India's $45 billion in short-term debt is trade-related (table 2.5). $ billions 100 Table 2.5 Short-term debt stock in developing 50 countries by sector, 2008Q3 Corporate 0 Country Banks Total Trade credit Russia 63.6 38.4 -- 50 Brazil 46.4 1.1 0.3 Turkey 26.2 28.1 26.0 100 Poland 28.5 21.2 17.3 Mexico 4.5 21.3 7.6 Indonesia 7.3 10.8 1.6 150 South Africa 21.3 5.5 3.4 Thailand 4.4 16.2 11.7 Chile 3.2 15.4 12.3 2007Q1 2007Q2 2007Q3 2007Q4 2008Q1 2008Q2 2008Q3 2008Q4 India -- 46.8 46.3 Source: World Bank staff estimates based on Bank for International Malaysia 36.4 2.2 -- Settlements data. Total 226.1 202.7 126.7 Note: Flows are calculated as the change in the stock between Memo: China 133 69 -- periods. These numbers might vary from the data reported by the World Bank due to difference in sources for some countries. World Sources: World Bank Quarterly External Debt Statistics (QEDS) Bank Debt Reporting System (DRS) data are obtained, whenever (except for China); Central Bank of China (for China). available, directly from country authorities. Note: -- Not available. 49 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 As a result, the sharp drop in short-term debt more than doubled in 2008. Similarly, spreads for has also strained trade finance. Many developing several Sub-Saharan countries jumped from 100 countries worried that limited access to trade basis points to 400 basis points, and most banks credit would affect global trade. In fact, in early moved away from funding open-account facilities October 2008, the Brazilian government an- to more traditional forms of cash-backed or collat- nounced that because its exporters were having eralized letters of credit. trouble obtaining trade credit it would use its re- Several countries entered into bilateral agree- serves to maintain the flow of credit and keep ments to ease the strains on access to foreign cur- trade moving. Monthly balance-of-payments data rencies, including trade credit. In December for Brazil indicate that net flows of trade credit 2008, the U.S. Federal Reserve entered into cur- provided by nonresidents turned negative in rency swap agreements with some of its counter- October 2008 and remained so into December parts, including Brazil and Mexico. Each partner (BIS 2009). Amid concerns about the cost and in the agreement received a swap line of $30 bil- continued availability of trade finance, the World lion. In addition, the United States and China-- Trade Organization (WTO) held an experts meet- acting through their respective import-export ing on November 12, 2008. Several measures banks--created a bilateral trade facility of were floated, including an increase in trade $20 billion. In March 2009, China entered into finance. similar agreements with its major trading part- In part, these changes reflected the higher cap- ners (Argentina, Belarus, the Republic of Korea, ital requirements that banks faced as the credit- Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines) by worthiness of recipients of trade credit was down- providing swap facilities in its currency. graded. Indeed, capital requirements for trade finance tripled under the Basel II Accords over The decline in syndicated bank lending was Basel I. In 2008 as the financial crisis intensified, more gradual than that of other debt flows the spreads on trade finance credit increased by a in 2008 . . . factor of three to five in major emerging markets, Several developing countries continued to access including China, Brazil, India, Indonesia, Mexico, bank credit following the collapse of Lehman and Turkey (figure 2.13). For example, the spread Brothers. Syndicated bank lending commitments (over the 6-month LIBOR) for Turkey jumped to (the only segment of international bank lending for 200 basis points in November from 70 basis which high-frequency data are available) declined points in the third quarter, while Brazil's spread by $80 billion in 2008, a drop of 25 percent, from record-high levels in 2007. The drop in syndicated bank lending was Figure 2.13 Spreads on trade finance credit spiked modest compared with the 75 percent decline in in 2008 bond financing and 50 percent decline in portfolio Basis points equity issuance during the same period. Even in the fourth quarter of 2008, syndicated loan commit- 250 Brazil Indonesia ments totaled $39.8 billion, down just $13 billion India Russian Federation China Turkey from the same period in 2007--but the number of 200 transactions was halved. The bulk of the deals in the fourth quarter involved large long-term financ- 150 ing for energy projects. During October and No- vember, Chinese banks financed energy projects in 100 Kazakhstan ($7.5 billion) and Uzbekistan ($3.5 bil- lion). Although most of the deals were guaranteed 50 by the creditor's government, almost 90 percent of the loans went to the private sector. In contrast to 0 project finance, syndicated loans for refinancing 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008e totaled only $2.7 billion, compared with an aver- Source: World Bank staff estimates based on information from age of $10.4 billion for the first three quarters of various international bank documents. Note: e = estimate. the year. 50 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Figure 2.14 Syndicated bank lending to As of the end of April, only five deals valued at developing countries, January 2008­April 2009 $1.1 billion had been made. $ billions 35 100 There was an increase in bank-lending from Number of loans other sources . . . (right axis) 30 80 In contrast to syndicated bank lending, the first 25 months of 2009 were an outstanding period in terms of (bilateral) bank lending from other 60 20 sources to developing countries--although the pic- 15 ture is skewed by the presence of a few very large 40 loans. In February, five large loans valued at $32 bil- 10 lion were made, a volume comparable to that of 20 5 all such loans made in 2007 ($32.4 billion) and 2008 ($36 billion) (table 2.6). The two loans that 0 0 a the China Development Bank granted to Russian 2008 .2008 2008 2008 2009 .2009 oil companies are the largest bilateral bank loans Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Apr ever made in the developing world. The record- Source: Dealogic Loan Analytics. setters are 20-year pre-export loans with special a. April 2009 data is until April 26, 2009. clauses governing oil delivery for the duration of the loan. In most of the bilateral loans made so far in 2009, the lender was a quasi-governmental entity. Even FDI inflows--the most stable . . . but deteriorated significantly in the first international capital flows--showed signs quarter of 2009 of slowing in the last quarter of 2008 But in the first quarter of 2009, syndicated FDI inflows to developing countries tend to be bank lending to developing countries fell sharply more stable than other kinds of capital flows (figure 2.14). Only 46 transactions totaling a mere because FDI investors--mostly multinational $17 billion took place in the first quarter of the companies--take a longer-term view than most year, the lowest since 2003. While syndicated bank portfolio investors and lenders. Nevertheless, the lending exhibits high volatility when viewed global financial crisis has begun to cut into FDI through high-frequency data (monthly or quar- inflows to developing countries. In the fourth terly), the first quarter of 2009 marks a sharp de- quarter of 2008, flows to 25 middle-income coun- cline from the same periods in 2007 ($81 billion, tries declined to their lowest level since the fourth 171 transactions) and 2008 ($63 billion, 156 quarter of 2006 (figure 2.15). transactions). In January, three large syndicated loans valued at $8 billion were made to private In some countries, multinationals repatriated companies in Mexico and Russia.4 After an larger shares of their income from direct unprecedentedly subdued February, the Brazilian investment energy company Santo Antonio Energia managed During the first three quarters of 2008, multina- in March to arrange a 25-year loan valued at tional corporations repatriated growing shares of $3.5 billion in local currency for project financing. income from some large countries, leaving less Table 2.6 Major bilateral bank loans in February 2009 Borrower (Country) Lender (Country) Sector Value ($ billion) Rosneft (Russia) China Development Bank (China) Oil & Gas $15 Transneft (Russia) China Development Bank (China) Oil & Gas $10 SamrukKazyna (Kazakhstan) Vnesheconombank (Russia) Finance $3 Prominvestbank (Ukraine) Vnesheconombank (Russia) Finance $1 Source: Dealogic Loan Analytics. 51 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 2.15 Quarterly FDI inflows to selected the first three quarters of the year compared with developing countries dipped in 2008 the same period a year earlier. $ billions Several factors (such as stable payment of 140 dividends, tax rates, and other regulations) affect corporate decisions to reinvest or repatriate equity 120 earnings (World Bank 2007). During the previous 100 crises centered in host economies, multinational companies repatriated earnings in excess of cur- 80 rent income or called in intra-company loans to re- 60 duce their exposure to a country quickly without selling assets (box 2.2). Following the Asian crisis, 40 for example, U.S. multinationals repatriated all 20 their FDI income from the region (World Bank 2004). Over the last 10 years, by contrast, multi- 0 nationals have reinvested 30 to 40 percent of their income from foreign operations back into the host 2007Q1 2007Q2 2007Q3 2007Q4 2008Q1 2008Q2 2008Q3 2008Q4 country. Reinvested earnings and intra-company Source: World Bank staff estimates based on data from central banks loans made up 20 percent and 15 percent of FDI of selected developing countries. flows to developing countries, respectively. Note: Countries include Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Croatia, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland, Romania, Russia, South Africa, Some troubled financial institutions have Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and R. B. de Venezuela. begun to repatriate assets Some financial institutions, positioning themselves to weather the crisis, have been raising capital by Figure 2.16 Distribution of income from FDI in selling assets (mostly in their noncore business) in selected economies, 2007Q1­2008Q3 developed and developing countries. The sales lead $ billions Percent to direct disinvestments from developing countries 60 80 when domestic companies buy the assets. For ex- Reinvested earnings (left axis) Repatriated earnings (left axis) 70 ample, in 2008, two troubled institutions, Ameri- 50 Repatriation can International Group Inc (AIG) and Citigroup, 60 (% of income; right axis) sold their shares in Brazil's Unibanco (for almost 40 50 $1 billion) and in India's Global Services Ltd (for 30 40 $500 million) to local companies. In December 2008, AIG sold its consumer finance businesses in 30 20 Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico. More 20 recently, it also sold its subsidiaries in Thailand to 10 10 a local company for $500 million.5 0 0 In 2008, the value of such sales by developed- 2007Q1 2007Q2 2007Q3 2007Q4 2008Q1 2008Q2 2008Q3 country financial firms to local companies in devel- Source: World Bank staff estimates. oping countries doubled to $11 billion, well up Note: Countries include Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, India, Poland, from $5 billion in 2007 (figure 2.17). Anecdotal ev- Russian Federation, and Thailand. idence indicates that this trend has continued in 2009. While the amount of these sales is small in the for reinvestment (figure 2.16). Repatriation as a aggregate, it may represent a considerable decline in percentage of income increased to as much as FDI inflow for some of the affected countries. 70 percent during the second and third quarters of the year, compared with an average of 50 per- A sharp drop in cross-border M&A cent in previous quarters. Nevertheless, because transactions in developing countries signals of the significant rise in FDI income in 2008, the weak FDI flows in 2009 value of earnings reinvested in the same economies An early indicator for the projected decline in FDI still increased by $5 billion (to $47 billion) during inflows is the slowdown in cross-border mergers 52 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Box 2.2 The composition of foreign direct investment in times of crisis in the host economies B y definition, foreign direct investment (FDI) comprises component of FDI may be subject to the same degree equity investment, reinvested earnings (earnings not of volatility as international debt flows (World Bank distributed as dividends and earnings of branches not 2004). remitted to the direct investor), and intra-company debt Crises can also affect companies' dividend repatria- transactions (OECD 2008). Intra-company debt transac- tion strategies. Companies usually expect steady dividend tions include the borrowing and lending of funds, includ- flows from their subsidiaries, implying that reinvested ing debt securities and trade credits, between parent and earnings fluctuate with the company's income (World subsidiaries and among subsidiaries. Bank 2008). Following a crisis, however, companies may The resilience of FDI can be traced to its equity increase their dividend repatriation significantly. For component, which reflects the long-term strategic behavior example, after the Asian crisis, in 1999, U.S. companies of foreign direct investors. In contrast to the relatively in affected countries repatriated income in excess of their stable equity component, intra-company loans and earnings that year from developing countries. Thus, their reinvested earnings are often used as a means to adjust FDI reinvested earnings became negative (figure at right). exposure (World Bank 2004). During a crisis in a host Similarly, in the midst of Argentina's financial crisis in country, repaying loans or repatriating earnings is often 2002, repatriated earnings outstripped equity earnings easier than selling off direct equity. Also, a direct equity by a factor of five, as corporations attempted to evade holding usually reflects a long-term strategic commitment the introduction of controls on outflows and foreign and may not change immediately following a crisis-- exchange transactions. although it may change if the crisis is prolonged. This can Other factors, such as investment climate, may play a be seen from the experience of some countries that faced role in multinationals' repatriation strategies. The portion financial crises, where the decline in intra-company loans of equity earnings that is repatriated tends to be lower following the crisis was significantly larger than the decline (and thus the share of reinvested earnings higher) in in the equity component of FDI (figure on the left). In the countries with better investment climates. Sudden shifts case of Argentina, for example, intra-company loans fell in political risk and the imposition (or threat) of capital 464 percent between 2000 and 2002, indicating that controls can lead to abrupt changes in repatriated earnings subsidiaries paid back their (accumulated) intracompany (World Bank 2004; Lehmann and Mody 2004; Desai, loans to their parents. At times, the intra-company-loan Foley, and Hines 2002). Intra-company loans versus equity components Distribution of US earnings in developing countries of FDI during financial crisis $ billions 100 80 Reinvestment 70 Repatraition 0 60 100 50 40 200 30 300 20 Intra-company loans 10 400 Equity capital 0 500 10 Thailand Indonesia Argentina Brazil Mexico 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 (1997­99) (1997­99) (2000­02) (2000­02) (1994­96) 53 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 2.17 Repatriation of assets by financial Figure 2.18 Cross-border M&A flows to developing firms from selected developing countries, regions, 2007Q1­2009Q1 2001­08 $ billions Number $ billions Number 70 500 12 70 Number of deals 60 (right axis) 400 60 10 50 Number of deals (right axis) 50 8 300 40 40 6 30 200 30 Total value of 20 4 deals (left axis) 20 100 10 2 10 0 0 0 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2007Q1 2007Q3 2008Q1 2008Q3 2009Q1* Source: Staff estimates are based on the M&A data compiled from Bloomberg. Source: See figure 2.17. Note: Only cross-border acquisitions, in which the acquiring firm buys more than 10 percent of the target firm are included. The countries are Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Romania, Russia, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and Vietnam. the U.S. recession, especially in the construction sector, has reduced the employment and income of Latin American (especially Mexican) migrants. and acquisitions (M&As) in developing countries. It should be noted, however, that tighter enforce- M&A flows have been one of the main drivers of ment of immigration rules in the United States FDI inflows in developing countries in recent may well have pushed more remittances into years, accounting for some 30 percent of FDI. In hand-carried and other unrecorded channels. the first quarter of 2009, M&A activity declined Remittances continued to grow in 2008 in to $16 billion in inflows, compared with more other regions, although the pace of growth began than $30 billion in the previous two years to slow in the second half of the year. Growth was (figure 2.18). Lower acquisitions by developed- particularly impressive for countries in South and country multinationals--reflecting lower earnings East Asia, which are relatively less dependent on and less financing available for investment-- remittances from the United States and more de- accounted for much of the decline. pendent on the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). High oil prices (until mid-2008) and robust economic growth in the oil-exporting countries of the Middle East contributed to strong Remittance flows began to slow demand for migrant labor from South Asia. down in 2008 Bangladesh and Nepal have reported a surge-- T he value of the remittances that migrant work- year-on-year growth of more than 40 percent ers send home to their families in developing through September 2008--in remittance inflows, countries increased to $305 billion (1.9 percent of although the pace of growth moderated in the GDP) in 2008 from $281 billion (2.1 percent of fourth quarter of 2008 in response to the sharp de- GDP) in 2007 (table 2.7). However, the pace of re- cline in the price of crude oil--and as the crisis mittances slowed sharply beginning in the third spread to the GCC countries. Officially recorded quarter of the year as the economic crisis gathered remittance flows to South Asia are estimated to have strength in the countries where migrants work. swelled by 31 percent in 2007 and by 27 percent in Recorded flows to Latin America and the 2008 to an estimated $66 billion in 2008. But re- Caribbean have already stagnated since 2007, as mittances to Sub-Saharan Africa appear to have 54 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Table 2.7 Remittance flows to developing countries, 2002­08 (US$ billion) 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008e All developing countries 115.5 144.3 164.4 194.8 228.7 280.8 305.4 as % of GDP 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 1.9 By region East Asia and Pacific 29.5 35.4 39.2 46.7 53.0 65.3 69.6 Europe and Central Asia 13.7 15.5 22.2 31.2 38.3 50.4 53.1 Latin America and the Caribbean 27.9 36.6 43.3 50.1 59.2 63.1 63.3 Middle East and North Africa 15.2 20.4 23.0 24.3 25.7 31.3 33.7 South Asia 24.1 30.4 28.7 33.1 39.6 52.1 66.0 Sub-Saharan Africa 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.4 12.9 18.6 19.8 Source: World Bank staff estimates. Remittances are defined as the sum of workers' remittances, compensation of employees, and migrant transfers ­ see www.worldbank.org/prospects/migrationandremittances for data definitions and the entire dataset. Note: e estimate. decelerated sharply from a high growth rate of 44 on large reserves accumulated over the years. It is percent the previous year, in part because of a unlikely that such countries will delay infrastruc- slackening in flows to Nigeria following the 70 per- ture investments and lay off migrant workers in cent increase recorded in 2007.6 large numbers. Remittance flows from the GCC countries are forecasted to decline modestly by 3 per- Remittance flows may fall with the global cent in 2009 (Ratha and Mohapatra 2009). financial crisis Increased uncertainty about exchange rates In the past, remittances have been stable, or even during a period of unusually high volatility may countercyclical, during economic downturns in the further depress remittance flows. In the last quar- recipient economy. The present crisis, however, is af- ter of 2008 and early 2009, the U.S. dollar gained fecting the countries from which remittances origi- strength against the currencies of many major mi- nate. Future flows are bound to be affected by the grant destinations, such as the Euro Area, the simultaneous economic recession in the high-income United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New countries--including the United States and Western Zealand. The appreciation of the U.S. dollar has Europe, which account for almost two-thirds of the depressed the value of remittances from these remittances that migrants send home to developing countries, at least in U.S. dollar terms. A similar countries--and lower growth in the developing effect was at work in Russia, a major source of re- countries that account for about 10­30 percent of mittances to countries such as Tajikistan, as the remittance flows to other developing countries. ruble depreciated against the U.S. dollar by more Remittance flows from the countries of the than 35 percent between August 2008 and March GCC may fall slightly, as the recent decline in oil 2009. A similar decline in outward remittances in prices and the spread of the crisis to the financial dollar terms is also expected in other important sector of these countries--especially Dubai in the South-South remittance corridors, such as India United Arab Emirates (UAE)--depresses the con- to Nepal, South Africa to the countries of the struction activities that employ thousands of mi- Southern African Development Community grants from developing countries in South Asia (SADC), and Malaysia to Indonesia. and the Middle East and North Africa. However, Under the base-case scenario, in which the it is important to distinguish between the impact number of migrants remains constant at its 2008 of the crisis on Dubai, which is more dependent on levels, remittance flows to developing countries are trade, finance, and real estate than are other parts expected to decline by 5 percent to $290 billion in of the UAE and other GCC countries, which de- 2009 and to recover to $299 billion in 2010 (table pend primarily on oil revenues. In recent years, re- 2.8). In the Middle East and North Africa, remit- mittance outflows from Saudi Arabia have been tance flows for 2009 are expected to decline mod- uncorrelated with oil prices. Like Saudi Arabia, estly by 1.4 percent from their 2008 levels in dollar many GCC countries are following a long-term terms. The expected decline will be more than 4 strategy of infrastructure development, drawing percentage points in East Asia and the Pacific, Latin 55 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Table 2.8 Outlook for remittance flows to developing countries, 2009­10 Base case Low case 2008e 2009f 2010f 2009f 2010f All developing countries 305 290 299 280 280 By region: East Asia and Pacific 70 67 68 64 64 Europe and Central Asia 53 48 50 46 47 Latin America and the Caribbean 63 60 62 58 58 Middle East and North Africa 34 33 34 32 32 South Asia 66 63 65 61 62 Sub-Saharan Africa 20 19 20 18 18 Source: Ratha and Mohapatra 2009. Note: e estimate; f forecast. America and the Caribbean, South Asia, and Sub- countries such as Russia, which is the main source Saharan Africa. Flows to emerging Europe and of remittances for Central Asian countries such as Central Asia, on the other hand, are expected to Armenia, Moldova, Kyrgyz Republic, and Tajik- decline in U.S. dollar terms by 10 percentage points. istan. Many of the workers from these countries Faced with weakening job markets, many des- are employed in the oil and gas industry in Russia, tination countries are tightening immigration ac- sectors already suffering from a precipitous decline cess. The impact of the crisis on remittance flows in global prices. Compounding that decline, may be accentuated if new migration slows signifi- Russia's currency depreciated sharply in the sec- cantly and if some migrants are forced to return ond half of 2008 and into early 2009 (when the home in response to the crisis. In this low-case sce- ruble fell about 35 percent against the U.S. dollar), nario, remittances to developing countries would significantly reducing the local-currency value of register a sharper decline of 8.2 percent to $280 ruble-denominated remittances. billion in 2009, and remain stagnant in 2010. In A similar decline in outward remittances in 2009, if the low-case scenario held, all developing dollar terms is also expected from India to Nepal, regions would suffer a larger drop in flows, with South Africa to SADC countries, and Malaysia to the Europe and Central Asia region experiencing Indonesia. This kind of decline need not mean any the largest decline. An additional risk not reflected significant loss of purchasing power for the benefi- in the low case reported in table 2.8 may arise ciaries of remittances, but the falling dollar volume from unexpected movements in exchange rates. can make it more difficult for governments to meet For example, a depreciation of the euro from its their external payment obligations. Furthermore, a current level may result in an even larger decline in strengthening dollar also means that goods and remittance flows expressed in U.S. dollar terms. services and assets back home are significantly cheaper in dollar terms, which may encourage mi- The situation is particularly serious for grants to send more remittances for investment countries in which remittances are a large purposes. This latter effect--a surge in remittances share of GDP as the local currency depreciates against the U.S. Although the aggregate decline in worldwide re- dollar--was evident in the U.S.-Mexico corridor in mittance flows as a result of the crisis is expected October 2008, and is believed to be going on cur- to be small, the situation may prove more serious rently in South and South-East Asia, and to an for some small, poor countries where remittances extent in Moldova and Tajikistan. make up a relatively large share of GDP, such as Tajikistan (45 percent), Moldova (38 percent), Tonga (35 percent), Lesotho (29 percent), and Prospects: The fall in private capital Honduras (25 percent). For these and other coun- flows will continue in 2009 T tries, declines in remittance inflows have been he present crisis already ranks as one of the compounded by the strengthening of the U.S. dollar most difficult financial and economic episodes against the currencies of migrant-destination in modern history--and it is not yet over. Its full 56 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L impact on developing countries, in terms of interna- FDI inflows are expected to fall for the first tional financial flows and the real economy (chap- time in a decade ter 1), will not become apparent until later in the In 2009, FDI in developing countries is projected year. Despite some signs of a turnaround, with out- to fall by 30 percent to $385 billion--a decline of flows from several emerging equity markets appear- about 1 percentage point of GDP. (Annex 2A des- ing to slow, markets have remained highly volatile. cribes the forecasting model.) The fall is less sharp Developing-country sovereigns have carried out than that projected for debt flows (more than only a few international bond issuances so far in 4 percentage points). But, if realized, the expected 2009, while developing-country corporations-- decline in FDI will mark the first fall of more than which have major refinancing needs--are likely to 10 percent since 1986. The relative resilience of continue to be shut out from international bond FDI stems from the longer view of its investors and financing. Bank lending has fallen considerably the large fixed costs that multinational firms incur through the first quarter of 2009, and risks remain to develop an integrated network to support FDI in the sector. Even more worrisome is the increasing operations. Rapid disinvestments of large, fixed, evidence of a major plunge in FDI inflows to devel- illiquid assets are considerably more difficult than oping countries. the pulling of loans or the sale of stock holdings. In Taken together, the signs point to a continued previous crises these factors were enough to sustain drop in private capital flows to developing coun- direct investments in the face of economic down- tries in 2009. Net private debt and equity flows, turns (Albuquerque, Loayza, and Servén 2005; which comprise net debt flows (incoming disburse- Lipsey 2001; World Bank 1999).7 ments less principal repayments) and net equity Slower global growth in 2008 squeezed the flows (FDI and portfolio inflows less outflows), profitability of almost all multinationals, while are projected to decline from a record high of tight credit conditions and weak global demand 7 percent of GDP in 2007 to just 2.6 percent in are limiting the ability and willingness of multina- 2010 (figure 2.19), exceeding the peak-to-trough tionals to expand. FDI flows may also be affected decline during the Latin American debt crisis in by the drop in commodity prices, as oil and min- the early 1980s (3.3 percentage points) and the eral investments played an important role in the Asian and Russian crises of the late 1990s surge in FDI to developing countries after 2003. (2.4 percentage points). As in previous crises, the Several energy companies have already announced decline is expected to affect all categories of cutbacks in their investment plans, and some en- debt--bonds, bank loans, and short-term debt. ergy deals have been postponed or canceled.8 Global investors also have concerns over policies of nationalization and state control in some coun- tries, as well as signs of protectionism. Still, Figure 2.19 Net private capital flows as a share of energy-oriented FDI will not cease completely for GDP in developing countries, 1970­2010 several reasons. Chief among them are that many Percent companies with expertise in energy exploration 8 still have a strong cash position, the prices of 2007­10 developing-country energy assets are falling 1980­83 1997­2002 sharply, and some state-owned firms will continue 6 to invest to promote energy security. 4 A sharp decline in private debt flows is expected in 2009 . . . Private debt flows to developing countries are pro- 2 jected to fall in 2009 to ­0.3 percent of GDP, with much of the movement in short-term debt. Al- 0 though medium- and long-term debt is not pro- 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010P jected to slide into negative territory, it is expected Source: World Bank Debt Reporting System and staff estimates. to be limited in 2009. The fact that lenders tend to Note: Estimate for 2008; projections for 2009­10. lengthen the maturity structure of their portfolio 57 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 during crises is likely attributable to a composi- Figure 2.20 International banks' claims on tional effect: lenders shift their portfolios to more emerging markets, 2004­08 creditworthy borrowers, who are in a better posi- $ billions tion to service longer-maturity loans. 4,000 In the current crisis, three factors seem to be International claims 3,500 Local claims affecting the supply of credit from international banks to developing countries. Those factors are 3,000 (a) mounting pressure on major banks' capital 2,500 positions; (b) liquidity problems in the global inter- 2,000 bank market; and (c) a tightening of credit stan- dards in the face of the global economic recession. 1,500 The liquidity factor was in full force in 2007, as 1,000 heightened counterparty risk and the seizing up of 500 securitized funding sources made banks hesitant to 0 lend to each other (World Bank 2008). The impact of this factor seems have eased temporarily, as .2004 .2004 .2005 .2005 .2006 .2006 .2007 .2007 .2008 .2008 banks continued to lend both domestically and in- Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep ternally through the first half of 2008. But with the Source: World Bank staff estimates based on Bank for deepening of the global economic recession in the International Settlements data. second half of 2008 the credit supply behaviors of international banks changed markedly vis-à-vis both dramatic reversal in investors' risk tolerance has home-country and developing-country borrowers. greatly increased the cost of external financing for Total foreign claims on developing countries all but the most creditworthy borrowers. held by banks reporting to the BIS are a key mea- Going forward, significant downside risks sure of international bank activity in developing remain related to the ability and willingness of countries. The amount of such claims declined to financial institutions to lend, particularly across $3 trillion in the second half of 2008, a drop of borders. First, the health of the balance sheets of some $500 billion. The decline involved both international banks remains as uncertain as the banks' cross-border lending as well as their lend- depth and duration of the economic contraction. ing through local affiliates in developing countries In the first months of 2009, many international (figure 2.20). Econometric analysis (annex 2B) banks continued to announce further losses and reveals that although frictions in the interbank write-downs. Additional losses are widely ex- money market remain a problem, monetary easing pected to be reported through 2010, a sign that and liquidity injections by major central banks problems in the banking sector are not yet over helped to offset the effects of the liquidity squeeze (IMF 2009). In addition, growing concerns over on emerging-market borrowers in the early phase credit risk and problems with cross-currency and of the crisis. However, as their financial health foreign-exchange swap markets are likely to came under increasing pressure in the last quarter sharpen the so-called home bias in bank lending. of 2008, banks reduced their exposure to emerg- In addition, in the interest of improving their ing market borrowers, and overall lending fell for capital ratios, banks may prefer to continue limit- the first time in six years. ing their cross-border exposures, which typically involve higher regulatory capital charges to com- . . . and prospects for international bank pensate for currency or country risk. lending remain gloomy The risk that banks may reduce their support Ongoing problems in the global financial industry for subsidiaries in developing countries has also are likely to curtail the lending capacity of many grown (box 2.3). Intrabank lending (loans made major global financial institutions for some time, from a parent bank to a subsidiary or branch) has causing financing shortages to appear even as the played a prominent role in bank lending in some decline in global economic activity (chapter 1) cuts countries, particularly those in emerging Europe corporations' planned investment expenditures and Central Asia. This type of flow is believed to and associated financing needs. In addition, the have contributed to the relative resilience of bank 58 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Box 2.3 Bank lending in developing countries and the presence of foreign banks T he participation of foreign banks in developing coun- The rising share of foreign banks in many developing tries' financial systems has increased rapidly in recent countries has been accompanied by robust growth in inter- years. At the end of 2007, the 910 foreign banks with a national claims. Particularly in emerging Europe, a sub- presence in developing countries controlled combined as- stantial share of bank activity is believed to depend on sup- sets in excess of $1.2 trillion and accounted for more than port from the parent banks, as these have injected funds 39 percent of total domestic banking assets. Foreign-owned through their subsidiaries and branches (BIS 2009; World lenders account for a particularly high proportion of local Bank 2008). In 2008, such support protected countries banking assets in three regions--70 percent in several Eastern from a sudden cutoff of the credit spigot, but whether it European countries, and approximately 40 percent in some will continue remains uncertain, given the poor health of Latin American and Sub-Saharan countries (see figure). In many international banks. some countries, such as Peru and Mozambique, their share The literature highlights several factors, including is almost 100 percent, while in others, such Albania and home- and host-country conditions, as well as characteris- Croatia, one or two foreign banks control the largest share tics of the subsidiaries themselves, to explain variations in of the local banking system (World Bank 2008, chapter 3). the level of support that parent banks provide to their subsidiaries (de Haas and van Lelyveld 2006a; Stein 1997). Share of banking assets held by foreign banks, by A multinational bank holding company may support sub- region, 2007 sidiaries with capital and liquidity in cases of significant losses (support effect), but it also tries to allocate capital Percent across all of its subsidiaries depending on their expected 60 1995 risks and returns (substitution effect). Several factors shape 2000 the net outcome. Some subsidiaries may be more indepen- 50 2007 dent than others, for example (de Haas and van Lelyveld 2006b). Or negative capital shocks in host economies 40 may force banks to reduce their assets to satisfy capital 30 requirements (Van den Heuvel 2002). In the current crisis, several of these factors are in 20 play. With limited access to international debt markets, many of the subsidiaries of foreign banks have no choice 10 but to rely on their parents for funds. Given the limited funding available also to those parents, however, intra- 0 bank loans may fall significantly in certain economies as All SAR MENA EAP LAC SSA ECA parents reallocate these funds based on relative growth developing regions prospects and credit quality of the countries. lending to developing countries in 2008. In the The growing role of the state in some of the current environment, however, where the finan- major international banks may affect their opera- cial crisis has hit both the home and host coun- tions and cross-border lending practices. Since tries of international banks, the relation between October 2008, several developed-country govern- parent and subsidiary has become much more ments have injected capital into large interna- complex. For example, the deteriorating financial tional banks to improve their capital ratios in ex- strength of subsidiaries in developing countries-- change for ownership shares ranging from 10 to particularly several Eastern European countries 70 percent. For example, the British government that were hit the hardest by the crisis--has taken now owns 66 percent of both Lloyds and the a toll on the balance sheets of the parent banks, Royal Bank of Scotland. Similarly, the German a toll serious enough in some cases to imperil the government now owns 25 percent of the com- credit rating of the parent. Any downgrade in bined assets of Commerzbank and Dresdner creditworthiness would raise the cost of capital Bank--which Commerzbank acquired last year. for the affected bank. In March 2009, Citigroup was still in talks with 59 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 2.21 Major international banks with cross-border lending exposure to at least 30 developing countries, 1993­2007 Number of countries 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ´te´ KBC CitibankSociee´raleBank estLB feisen Bank HSBC Mitsui Bank Bank ParibasNatixisW AMRO Calyon Agricole ´n ING CharteredBarclaysLyonnaisRaif Dresdner Ge -Mitsubishi Erste BNP ABN Indosuez RoyalScotland Commerzbank . Landesbank of Credit DeutscheBOT Credit Sumitomo Standard Bayer Source: World Bank staff estimates based on data from Bankscope. the U.S. government for additional aid in ex- Hence, the projected sharp decline in interna- change for an additional ownership stake, which, tional capital flows, together with expected if realized, may raise the government's share in the decreases in workers' remittances and other cross- banking giant to 40 percent. Several of the affected border flows, is likely to oblige developing coun- banks had been active in lending to developing tries to make major macroeconomic adjustments countries (figure 2.21). Although no general and to restrict their ability to finance current- change in official lending practices has been an- account transactions. The narrowing of access to nounced so far, governments tend to encourage international debt markets will be especially hard banks to lend domestically.9 Given already limited on developing-country corporations, some of funds, that tendency may further hamper cross- which may be unable to refinance their obligations. border lending to developed and developing As a result, the incidence of restructuring and countries alike. bankruptcy among developing-country banks and companies is expected to rise in coming months. The reversal of international capital flows While the impact will be widespread, low-income to developing countries will have major countries and countries with high current-account consequences deficits will have to go through the most serious The growing integration of the global economy macroeconomic and social adjustments. and the increasing importance of private actors in The level and duration of the contraction in cap- international finance have provided enormous ital flows to developing countries, and its overall benefits to developing countries, while widening impact, will depend on how fast international the scope for economic turmoil when global con- investor confidence is restored, how soon conditions ditions deteriorate. Developing countries are much in international financial markets return to normal, more dependent on private capital flows today and the degree to which international cooperation than ever before. The growing dependence has can mitigate the worst of the damage. The revitaliza- greatly magnified the potential impact of changes tion of the world economy, and its prospects in com- in global economic conditions. Thus, even though ing years, will be determined by the success of the most developing countries maintain better policies national and international policy measures taken to and have stronger institutions than they did at the address the present crisis. The importance of interna- onset of previous crises, more countries are never- tional efforts to reverse the deterioration of the global theless vulnerable to external disruptions. economy is one of the key topics of the next chapter. 60 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Annex 2A: Methodology for assessing trends in foreign direct investment T he forecasts of FDI flows presented in this Table 2A.1 Regression results of FDI forecasting chapter are based on an econometric model model, fixed-effects panel regression that uses the following explanatory variables: Explanatory variable Coefficient GDP growth rate of the top seven industrial coun- 0.152 G-7 growth rate tries, the major suppliers of FDI; the difference be- (3.19)*** tween the GDP growth rate of each developing GDP growth rate ­ G-7 growth rate 0.032 country and that of the G-7 countries (three-year (3-year moving average) (3.59)*** moving average) as a proxy for investors' expecta- 0.012 Institutional Investor rating (t-1) tions about excess rates of return in the medium (2.27)** term; the rating of Institutional Investor magazine 0.011 Oil price (5.16)*** (lagged one year) as a proxy for the investment cli- 0.011 mate; the price of oil to capture resource-industry- Volatility factor (t-1) (3.12)*** related foreign investment; a volatility factor10 0.514 (lagged one year) as a proxy for global economic FDI (t-1) (9.01)*** uncertainty; and the lagged dependent variable 2.618 Constant (FDI), representing the persistence of FDI flows (6.43)*** over time. In addition, country fixed effects ac- Within R2 0.63 count for the size of the economy and other char- Overall R2 0.77 acteristics. The model uses panel data for Observations 416 1994­2008 from 34 developing countries that ac- Source: World Bank staff. counted for about 90 percent of FDI flows to de- Note: Coefficients computed using White heteroskedasticity- consistent standard errors. Statistical significance at the 1% (***) veloping countries in the last five years. Regression and 5% (**) levels. results are summarized in table 2A.1. The model builds on those used in previous editions of Global Development Finance. 61 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Annex 2B: Liquidity problems, bank solvency, and international bank lending to developing countries F inancial shocks affect lending by international Figure 2B.1 Three-month LIBOR-OIS spread, banks to emerging-market borrowers through July 2007­April 2009 three major channels: balance-sheet effects, Basis points changes in interbank liquidity, and changes in 400 lending standards. To assess the likely impact of 350 each, we specify linear regression models of the flow of credit to emerging economies as a function 300 of variables capturing a particular monetary- 250 policy channel, a lagged dependent variable, and 200 various macroeconomic and institutional control 08/10/2007 variables. We explore how the effects have differed 150 since the onset of the financial crisis and whether 100 the economic forces shaping capital flows to 50 emerging economies have changed during the cur- rent economic turmoil. 0 The dependent variable is the (log of the) 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 . v. . y .2008 .2008 2009 2009 2009 v . y quarterly foreign-bank claims (FC) compiled by Jul. Sep No Jan. Mar Ma Jul. Sep No Jan. Mar Ma the Bank for International Settlements on up to Source: Bloomberg. 105 emerging economies from the fourth quarter of 2001 to 2008 (see figure 2.20). Throughout the analysis we distinguish between the precrisis and crisis periods. We date the beginning of the finan- cial crisis to the run-up in the LIBOR-OIS spread in August 2007, which indicated growing liquidity Figure 2B.2 Five-year CDS sector index for and problems of counterparty risk in the interbank banks in the United States and European Union, market (figure 2B.1). Accordingly, we create a January 2007­April 2009 binary variable (Crisis) that takes the value 1 from Basis points the third quarter of 2007 onward and 0 before 600 that time. To assess whether the various factors con- US Banks 5Y CDS Index 500 tributing to the crisis also exert differential effects on the provision of credit to developing countries, 400 we further divide the crisis period into two subpe- 300 riods. In line with figure 2B.2, which shows how widespread bankruptcy fears in the U.S. and Euro- 200 pean banking sectors caused premiums on credit default swaps to spike during the first quarter of 100 2008, we conjecture that liquidity factors domi- EU Banks 5Y CDS Index nated the early phase of the crisis (up to the second 0 quarter of 2008), whereas solvency issues have 2007 .2007 2007 2007 2008 .2008 2008 2008 2009 .2009 since come to the fore in the banking sector. Hence Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Apr we create binary variables Liq and Solv. Liq takes Source: Bloomberg. 62 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L the value 1 from the third quarter of 2007 to the To put this effect into perspective, an increase of first quarter of 2008 and 0 at other times. Solv 100 basis points in the spread can be expected, takes the value of 1 from the second quarter of according to our results, to reduce the flow of 2008 onward, and 0 before that time. To clarify credit to developing countries by 15 percent. The whether the crisis and conjectured solvency and interaction terms suggest that the crisis is primarily liquidity effects independently affect credit to responsible for this effect. However, the lagged emerging economies, we interact the various crisis OIS-Crisis term also reveals how the unprece- dummies with our key explanatory variables and dented injection of liquidity into the banking sys- their lags. We estimate the various specifications tem during 2007 has counteracted the global credit with country fixed effects (FE) and clustered stan- retrenchment. For instance, specification 5 shows dard errors or regional dummy variables. P-values that the net effect of an increase of 100 basis points are reported in parentheses. in the spread reduces emerging-market lending by To capture the traditional credit channel, we only 17 percent over two quarters, although the rely on the LIBOR-OIS spread (OIS) as an indica- initial effect suggests a reduction of about 50 per- tor for the availability of liquidity and for counter- cent (specification 5). Taken together, the results are party risk in interbank lending. Similarly, we mea- consistent with the conclusion that monetary pol- sure banks' risk tolerance ("risk-taking channel") icy partially offset the effects of the liquidity crisis by the proportion of respondents who report in in 2007 on emerging-market borrowers. By con- the Federal Reserve Board's "Senior Loan Officer trast, such measures seem to have failed in 2008, Opinion Survey on Bank Lending Practices" that when bank-solvency issues came to the forefront their institution has tightened its lending standards (results are not reported). for commercial and industrial loans (Tightening). The crisis also seems to have affected the state To investigate the importance of the "balance- of the lending cycle or, equivalently, banks' willing- sheet channel" for the provision of credit to ness to take credit risks as measured by the fraction emerging markets, we use the quarterly average of of banks tightening their lending standards for com- noncurrent loans (Noncurrent: future problems) mercial and industrial (C&I) loans. Before the cri- as a fraction of outstanding loans, net charge-offs sis, lending standards apparently had a negligible (Charge-offs: past problems) as a fraction of out- economic effect on emerging-market lending. For standing loans, and the fraction of unprofitable the crisis period, however, our results are consistent lenders (Unprofit) as a proxy for the health of the with the view that the global recession has induced global banking system. Given the need to restore lenders to tighten their credit standards, thereby re- bank capitalization to meet international stan- stricting access to global lending for marginal credit dards, we also use their leverage (Leverage), Tier-I, risks (an effect known as the "flight to quality"). and total risk-based capital ratio (RBCap) to mea- Specifications 3, 4, and 6 indicate that rising lending sure balance-sheet effects. The sample consists of standards further exacerbate the impact of the approximately 114 U.S. banks with foreign offices financial crisis: a 10-percentage-point increase in (with small variations by year and quarter through banks tightening their lending standards reduces the mergers, international expansion, and retrench- flow of credit to developing countries by 4 percent ment) that hold about 12 percent of all foreign for the crisis period (steady state), for an overall claims on emerging economies. This sample is a decline of 3.8 percent. Furthermore, the delayed good proxy for global institutions that extend nature of the effect--tighter credit standards tend credit to borrowers in developing countries. In to take two quarters to filter through to emerging- fact, the monthly correlation between U.S. and market lending--bodes ill for the future provision European bank credit default swap indexes is of funds to borrowers in developing countries. 0.904 (figure 2B.2), so that the U.S. data provide Table 2B.2 summarizes our estimates of the im- excellent instrumental variables for the health of pact of bank performance--that is, the health of the global banking system. global banking as proxied by that of U.S. foreign The results indicate that the lack of interbank lenders--on the flow of credit to developing lending, as measured by the LIBOR-OIS spread, countries. According to the balance-sheet view of adversely affects the provision of credit to emerg- monetary-policy transmission, frail financial institu- ing economies (table 2B.1, specifications 1, 2, and 5). tions (as measured by their operating performance) 63 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Table 2B.1 Lending standards, interbank liquidity, and credit to emerging economies Dependent Var Log(Foreign Claims) 1st difference log(FC) (1) FE (2) FE (3) FE (4) FE (5) FE (6) FE Lagged log(FC) 0.8133 0.861 0.819 0.8654 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Log(GDP) 0.1674 0.1925 0.2434 0.2243 0.0357 0.0508 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.1200) (0.008)*** Inflation 0.0023 0.0497 0.0546 0.0284 0.0481 0.0432 (0.9790) (0.5160) (0.5450) (0.7100) (0.5630) (0.6030) Growth 0.0008 0.0013 0 0.0009 0.0016 0.0017 (0.5880) (0.3390) (0.9860) (0.5170) (0.2440) (0.2270) ICRG Composite 0.0029 0.0024 0.0004 0.0003 (0.069)* (0.1290) (0.8240) (0.8440) OIS spread 0.0006 0.0038 0.0037 (0.8180) (0.073)* (0.093)* Lagged OIS 0.0040 0.0057 0.0035 (0.065)* (0.002)*** (0.061)* OIS*Crisis 0.0004 0.005 0.005 (0.8950) (0.026)** (0.035)** Lag-OIS*Crisis 0.0039 0.0055 0.0033 (0.074)* (0.002)*** (0.074)* Volatility of OIS 0.0006 0.0005 0.0003 (0.1390) (0.1100) (0.3230) Lagged volatility 0.0016 0.0013 0.0012 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.001)*** Vol-OIS*Crisis 0.0006 0.0005 0.0003 (0.1610) (0.1190) (0.3340) Lag-vol*Crisis 0.0018 0.0015 0.0014 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Tightening 0.0014 0.0021 0.0017 (0.076)* (0.002)*** (0.013)** Lag1-Tight 0.002 0.0026 0.0024 (0.019)** (0.000)*** (0.001)*** Lag2-Tight 0.0011 0.0009 0.0009 (0.014)** (0.026)** (0.028)** Tight*Crisis 0.0019 0 0.0002 (0.2250) (0.9750) (0.8960) Lag1-Tight*Crisis 0.0006 0.0011 0.0007 (0.7980) (0.5380) (0.7100) Lag2-Tight*Crisis 0.0048 0.0047 0.004 (0.004)*** (0.000)*** (0.005)*** Constant 0.0849 0.532 0.9551 0.982 0.3092 0.4916 (0.7480) (0.026)** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.2180) (0.011)** Observations 2,902 2,297 2,902 2,297 2,291 2,291 Countries 108 85 108 85 85 85 R-squared 0.832 0.905 0.831 0.905 0.036 0.034 Source: World Bank staff estimates. Note: *, **, *** denote statistical significance at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively. 64 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Table 2B.2 U.S. bank performance and credit to emerging economies Dependent Var Log(Foreign Claims) 1st difference log(FC) (1) FE (2) FE (3) FE (4) FE (5) FE (6) FE (7) FE Lagged log(FC) 0.855 0.852 0.856 0.854 0.853 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Log(GDP) 0.169 0.195 0.185 0.195 0.226 0.023 0.022 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.3680) (0.3670) Inflation 0.145 0.123 0.14 0.125 0.101 0.101 0.102 (0.077)* (0.1500) (0.097)* (0.1410) (0.2330) (0.2580) (0.2520) Growth 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 (0.5580) (0.4650) (0.4340) (0.3990) (0.3780) (0.2800) (0.3130) ICRG Composite 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.001 0.001 (0.002)*** (0.003)*** (0.004)*** (0.006)*** (0.003)*** (0.4800) (0.5410) Noncurrent 6.32 12.956 1.447 (0.2420) (0.2430) (0.9090) Lag1-Noncur 24.531 9.501 5.181 (0.038)** (0.6020) (0.8140) Lag2-Noncur 26.352 7.508 9.659 (0.000)*** (0.4260) (0.4040) Noncur*Liq 26.543 25.257 (0.2750) (0.3390) Lag1-Noncur*Liq 32.329 27.108 (0.2710) (0.4850) Lag2-Noncur*Liq 4.289 (0.8100) Noncur*Solv 40.295 23.276 (0.010)*** (0.1730) Lag1-Noncur* Solv 192.147 177.621 (0.024)** (0.048)** Lag2-Noncur* Solv 175.596 183.061 (0.071)* (0.072)* Charge-offs 0.71 2.486 2.159 (0.8710) (0.5700) (0.6360) Lag1-Charge 12.332 11.526 16.594 (0.028)** (0.037)** (0.004)*** Lag2-Charge 19.014 17.497 16.867 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Charge-offs*Crisis 40.16 (0.000)*** Lag1-Charge*Crisis 33.829 (0.011)** Lag2-Charge*Crisis 20.083 (0.1250) Charge-offs*Liq 26.409 22.194 (0.038)** (0.1230) Lag1-Charge* Liq 30.156 ­29.708 (0.053)* (0.094)* Lag2-Charge* Liq 3.501 (0.8370) Charge-offs*Solv 82.188 77.496 (0.002)*** (0.005)*** Lag1-Charge* Solv 32.96 ­43.168 (0.083)* (0.030)** Lag2-Charge* Solv 84.475 ­67.461 (0.011)** (0.050)* Unprofitable 0.363 (0.034)** Lag1-Unprof 0.574 (0.000)*** Lag2-Unprof 0.46 (0.000)*** Unprof*Crisis 0.547 (0.003)*** Lag1-Unprof*Crisis 0.713 (0.001)*** Lag2-Unprof*Crisis 0.123 (0.6200) Constant 0.057 0.354 0.287 0.417 0.684 0.07 0.083 (0.8060) (0.2030) (0.2570) (0.1040) (0.008)*** (0.8100) (0.7590) Observations 2,214 2,214 2,214 2,214 2,214 2,209 2,209 Countries 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 R-squared 0.900 0.901 0.901 0.901 0.900 0.031 0.037 Source: World Bank staff estimates. Note: *, **, *** denote statistical significance at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively. 65 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 hinder the provision of credit to the real economy. by writing down and making provisions for prob- The results suggest that the quality of banks' loan lem loans. These actions further reduce banks' portfolios and their general profitability signifi- lending activities and narrow the access of emerg- cantly affect their ability to lend to developing ing-market borrowers to credit. We first assess the countries. For instance, a one-percentage-point effect of bank leverage on the availability of credit increase in noncurrent loans, which indicates future to borrowers in developing countries. Specifica- balance-sheet problems, decreases the flow of credit tions 1, 2, and 5 in table 2B.3 provide evidence by 5.44 percent (specification 6). The fact that these that emerging economies benefited in recent years effects primarily occur from the second quarter of from banks' unprecedentedly high leverage. A 2008 onward is consistent with the interpretation 10-percentage-point increase in bank leverage that bank-solvency issues now dominate not only raises the flow of credit by about 5 percent. Con- the financial crisis but also emerging-market lend- sistent with the balance-sheet-channel view, lever- ing. We take these findings as evidence that the fun- age does not seem to have played any role during damental economic forces currently shaping global the early liquidity phase of the financial crisis. By finance are associated with the postulated balance- contrast, excessive leverage has harmed emerging- sheet channel of monetary policy. market borrowers during the current solvency cri- To further clarify the economic forces that af- sis. When viewed in isolation, leverage during the fect the provision of credit to developing countries latter part of 2008 seems actually to have shrunk since the onset of the financial crisis, we also in- the flow of credit to emerging markets: during this vestigate the direct effect of credit losses. The re- subperiod, a 10-percentage-point increase in lever- sults reveal that credit charge-offs, indicative of age reduces the provision of credit to developing past loan-portfolio problems, depress emerging- countries by 35 percent, a finding consistent with market lending, as do drops in the general prof- the view that bank-solvency issues now dominate itability of the banking sector. Regarding the for- global financial flows. mer, the impact is more evenly distributed across Our analysis also gauges the effect of capital the two crisis subperiods. Our estimates suggest adequacy standards on lending to developing that an increase in charge-offs by 10 basis points countries. A rise in the Tier-I capitalization ratio reduces the flow of credit to developing countries unsurprisingly appears to reduce credit to such by 4 percent as a direct consequence of the finan- markets. In normal times, an increase by one cial crisis, whereas the noncrisis net effect is eco- percentage point in the Tier-I capitalization ratio nomically insignificant. The results for the fraction reduces the flow of credit by 15 percent (specifica- of unprofitable banks (specification 5) confirm tion 6), with the financial crisis further exacerbat- these findings: as profitability in global banking ing this effect. However, these effects clearly de- falls, institutions cut back on marginal activities pend on the extent of regulatory enforcement of such as lending to developing countries, which capital-adequacy standards. Risk-based capitaliza- naturally reduces the flow of funds to borrowers tion ratios (specifications 4 and 7) provide a much in such markets. better gauge of the economic consequences of the The recapitalization of banking sectors that banking sector's deleveraging for emerging-market suffered dramatic losses in investments and loan borrowers. A one-percentage-point increase in portfolios is currently a regulatory priority in banks' risk-based capitalization appears to reduce many countries. Under pressure from investors the flow of credit to developing countries by about and regulators, banks are striving to improve their 10 percent (specification 7), suggesting that restor- capitalization through a mixture of new private ing financial order to the balance sheets of global and public equity injections, complemented by ac- banks, a precondition for continued lending in de- tions to shrink their balance sheets and improve veloping countries, may hurt emerging-market the quality of the assets they hold--for example, borrowers in the short term. 66 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Table 2B.3 U.S. bank capitalization and credit to emerging economies Dependent Var Log(Foreign Claims) 1st difference log(FC) (1) FE (2) FE (3) FE (4) FE (5) FE (6) FE (7) FE Lagged log(FC) 0.858 0.857 0.854 0.855 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Log(GDP) 0.2170 0.2270 0.2110 0.2040 0.044 0.048 0.039 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** (0.021)** (0.028)** (0.1220) Inflation 0.1 0.075 0.097 0.114 0.075 0.072 0.084 (0.2300) (0.3660) (0.2450) (0.1780) (0.3880) (0.4100) (0.3450) Growth 0 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 (0.9320) (0.5490) (0.6070) (0.4200) (0.2690) (0.2340) (0.2660) ICRG Composite 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.001 (0.054)* (0.018)** (0.013)** (0.007)*** (0.6230) (0.7140) (0.6150) Leverage 0.734 4.899 8.233 (0.9130) (0.4760) (0.2510) Lag1-Lev 22.754 24.679 26.893 (0.007)*** (0.003)*** (0.002)*** Lag2-Lev 20.566 24.046 26.372 (0.001)*** (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Lev*Crisis ­3.957 (0.6030) Lag1-Lev*Crisis 59.158 (0.000)*** Lag2-Lev*Crisis 63.081 (0.000)*** Lev*Liq 22.28 16.808 (0.2610) (0.4170) Lag1-Lev* Liq 22.663 8.106 (0.2480) (0.7860) Lag2-Lev* Liq 8.762 (0.6840) Lev*Solv 1.56 2.531 (0.8520) (0.7710) Lag1-Lev* Solv 61.591 64.524 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Lag2-Lev* Solv 59.4630 61.009 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** TierI 8.398 1.018 (0.1010) (0.8500) Lag1-TierI 3.467 5.798 (0.5630) (0.3670) Lag2-TierI 18.744 15.264 (0.000)*** (0.007)*** TierI*Crisis 15.433 (0.085)* Lag1-TierI*Crisis 28.19 (0.058)* Lag2-TierI*Crisis 42.889 (0.000)*** TierI*Liq 26.072 (0.2610) Lag1-TierI* Liq 32.693 (0.2190) Lag2-TierI* Liq 6.603 (0.7360) TierI*Solv 27.261 (0.1010) Lag1-TierI* Solv 26.572 (0.1750) Lag2-TierI* Solv 53.192 (0.001)*** RBCap 2.634 1.543 (0.4810) (0.6950) Lag1-RBCap 6.005 5.887 (0.1270) (0.1610) Lag2-RBCap ­10.972 ­11.012 (0.001)*** (0.003)*** RBCap* Liq 22.356 13.948 (0.061)* (0.2680) Lag1-RBCap* Liq ­22.189 ­16.389 (0.064)* (0.2740) (table continues on next page) 67 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Table 2B.3 U.S. bank capitalization and credit to emerging economies (continued) Dependent Var Log(Foreign Claims) 1st difference log(FC) (1) FE (2) FE (3) FE (4) FE (5) FE (6) FE (7) FE Lag2-RBCap* Liq 2.457 (0.8090) RBCap* Solv ­32.981 ­36.488 (0.008)*** (0.005)*** Lag1-RBCap* Solv ­25.88 ­28.253 (0.068)* (0.056)* Lag2-RBCap* Solv 59.433 65.042 (0.000)*** (0.000)*** Constant ­0.908 ­0.546 1.466 0.367 0.201 0.532 0.14 (0.052)* (0.2590) (0.054)* (0.5680) (0.6900) (0.5440) (0.8380) Observations 2,214 2,214 2,214 2,214 2,209 2,209 2,209 Countries 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 R-squared 0.900 0.901 0.900 0.901 0.038 0.033 0.033 Source: World Bank staff estimates. Note: *, **, *** denote statistical significance at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively. 68 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L Annex 2C: Debt Restructuring with Official Creditors T his annex lists official debt restructuring The Gambia. On January 24, 2008, Paris agreements concluded in 2008. Restructuring Club creditors agreed to a debt reduction for The of intergovernmental loans and officially guaran- Gambia, which reached its completion point under teed private export credits takes place under the the enhanced HIPC Initiative in December 2007. aegis of the Paris Club. These agreements are con- As a means of restoring the country's debt sustain- cluded between the debtor government and repre- ability, the Paris Club decide to cancel debt valued sentatives of creditor countries. Paris Club treat- at $11.6 million in nominal terms. The stock of ments are defined individually, by consensus of all debt owed to Paris Club creditors by The Gambia creditor countries. Most treatments fall under the was estimated at about $40 million in nominal following predefined categories, listed by in- value as of December 1, 2007. The Gambia agreed creased degree of concessionality: "Classic terms" to allocate the resources freed up by debt relief to represent the standard treatment; "Houston priority areas identified in the country's poverty terms" are for highly-indebted lower-middle- reduction strategy. income countries; "Naples terms" are for highly- Liberia. The government of Liberia reached indebted poor countries; and "Cologne terms" are its HIPC decision point in March 2008 and en- for countries eligible for the Heavily Indebted tered an agreement with Paris Club creditors in Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. To make the April 2008 to restructure its external public debt. terms effective, debtor countries must sign a bilat- As of January 2008, the stock of debt due to Paris eral implementing agreement with each creditor. Club creditors by Liberia was estimated to be more than $1.5 billion in nominal terms, of which more than 97 percent consisted of arrears and late interest. Liberia's agreement with its creditors, Agreements with countries under Cologne terms, rescheduled $1.043 billion, Guinea. On January 23, 2008, Paris Club credi- of which $1.028 billion comprised arrears and late tors reached agreement with the government of interest. The agreement also led to immediate can- Guinea to restructure its external public debt, fol- cellation of $254 million in debt and a reschedul- lowing the IMF's approval in December of the ing of around $789 million, which will be consid- country's arrangement under the Poverty Reduc- ered for debt relief when Liberia reaches is HIPC tion and Growth Facility (PRGF). The agreement, completion point. Several creditors also com- concluded under Cologne terms, consolidated mitted on a bilateral basis to grant additional about $300 million in debt, of which $160 million relief, fully canceling the country's debt. consisted of arrears and late interest. The agree- Togo. Following the IMF's approval of a new ment resulted in the immediate cancellation of three-year arrangement under the PRGF in April $180 million of debt, and the rescheduling of 2008, Paris Club creditors agreed to a debt-relief about $120 million. On an exceptional basis, the package for the government of Togo in June 2008. agreement also deferred until after 2010 the repay- This agreement consolidated $739 million, can- ment of arrears accumulated by Guinea. These celed $347 million, and rescheduled $392 million measures would reduce by $378 million all debt- under Naples terms, whereby repayment is ex- service payments to Paris Club creditors falling tended over 40 years with a 16-year grace period. due between January 1, 2008, and December 31, On an exceptional basis, this agreement also re- 2010. quired no payments from the country between 69 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 April 1, 2008, and March 31, 2011. Paris Club 3. The discussion here is based on quarterly short-term creditors also committed to further debt reduction debt data from Bank for International Settlements. Flows are calculated as the change in the debt stock between periods. as soon as Togo successfully reaches its decision These numbers might vary from the short-term debt data point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative. reported by the World Bank (table 2.1) due to differences in Djibouti. In October 2008, Paris Club credi- sources for some countries. World Bank Debt Reporting tors agreed with the government of Djibouti to a System (DRS) data are obtained, whenever available, directly restructuring of its external debt. This decision fol- from country authorities. DRS only reports annual data. 4. In January, Mexican multinational companies lowed the IMF's approval of the country's arrange- Grupo Bimbo (food processing) and Cemex (cement) bor- ment under the PRGF on September 17, 2008. rowed $2.3 billion for acquisition and $1.4 billion for refi- This agreement concluded under Houston terms, nancing purposes, respectively. Also, there was a $1.4 bil- with exceptional additional measures considering lion syndicated loan to Russian oil company Rosneft for the country's limited capacity for repayment. The trade finance purposes. 5. AIG finalized its sale of its credit card and banking agreement consolidated around $76 million in assets in Thailand to Bank of Ayudhya. The company re- debt, of which $58 million consisted of arrears ceived proceeds of about $45 million from the sales but also and late interest. Some $64 million was to be disclosed that it had also been able to pay off intercompany rescheduled and the remaining $12 million was to debt of $495 million with the transaction. http://uk.reuters. be deferred. As a result, the country's debt owed to com/article/marketsNewsUS/idUKN0852725120090408. 6. Nigeria recently revised upward to $18 billion for Paris Club creditors was reduced to $19 million 2007 the data it reports to the IMF. This represents a 450 per- from $85 million, a 79 percent reduction. cent increase over inflows for 2005, raising suspicion that Republic of Congo. On December 11, 2008, the increase may mask the inclusion of other types of pri- Paris Club creditors agreed with the government vate flows, such as trade payments. Our estimates for 2006 of the Republic of Congo to a reduction of its ex- and 2007--$5.4 billion and $9.2 billion, respectively--were therefore constructed using data reported for 2005 to the ternal public debt. This decision followed the IMF and the growth of remittance inflows reported in a IMF's approval (on December 8, 2008) of the global survey of central banks conducted by the World country's contract under the PRGF. This agree- Bank's Development Prospects Group in mid-2008. The ment was conducted under Cologne terms, and Arab Republic of Egypt reported $7.6 billion in remittances will result in the cancellation of $805 million in for 2007, a significant increase from 2006. 7. During the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s debt and the rescheduling of $155 million over the the fall in other long-term (and short-term) flows from banks three-year consolidation period. In accordance and the bond market was seven times greater that that of FDI. with Cologne terms, concessional assistance Similarly, during the Mexican debt crisis in 1994, FDI inflows (ODA) is to be repaid over 40 years with a grace fell by 27 percent and recovered fully by 1997. However, period of 16 years. Ninety percent of the commer- portfolio equity and debt flows fell by 89 percent and 45 per- cent, respectively, in just one year, from 1994 to 1995. The cial debt was to be canceled, with repayment 1997 currency and banking crisis in East Asia (Indonesia, of the remaining 10 percent rescheduled over Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand) saw a drop 23 years with a 6-year grace period. The stock of of 22 percent in net long-term inflows to these countries, debt owed to Paris Club creditors by the country while FDI fell by less than 5 percent from 1997 to 1998. as of July 1, 2008, was estimated to be more than 8. For example, Mexican Quimpac canceled its acquisi- tion of Colombian mining company Prodesal because of the $3.4 billion in nominal terms. financial crisis (http://global.factiva.com/ha/default.aspx). See also http://uk.reuters.com/article/UK_SMALLCAPSRPT/ idUKL521661520090105. Notes 9. French banks that tap government assistance have 1. Financial distress escalated in the United States and pledged to increase lending by 3­4 percent annually. ING, a Europe over the course of 2008, beginning with the Dutch bank, announced on January 26 that it would extend takeover of Bear Sterns by JP Morgan in March, and culmi- 25 billion ($32 billion) to Dutch businesses and consumers nating by September when several other financial institu- in return for another round of government assistance. tions came under stress including American International http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id Group (AIG) and Lehmann Brothers in the United States and =13057265. Lloyds TSB in the United Kingdom (Global Economic 10. The market volatility index is derived as the pre- Prospects 2008, page 20). dicted common factor in a factor analysis of eight variables: 2. By the end of September 2008, investment banks VIX, US$/euro volatility, US$/yen volatility, US$/sterling Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers had collapsed, Merrill volatility, agriculture commodities price index volatility, Lynch had been acquired by Bank of America, and Goldman energy price index volatility, industrial metals price index Sachs and Morgan Stanley had become commercial banks. volatility, and TED spread. 70 P R I V A T E C A P I T A L F L O W S I N A T I M E O F G L O B A L F I N A N C I A L T U R M O I L References OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2008. Benchmark Definition of For- Albuquerque R., N. Loayza, and L. Servén. 2005. "World eign Direct Investment, 4th Ed. April. Available at Market Integration through the Lens of Foreign Direct http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/50/40193734.pdf. Investors." Journal of International Economics 66 (2): Ratha, Dilip, and Sanket Mohapatra. 2009. "Revised Out- 267­95. look for Remittance Flows 2009­2011: Remittances Bank for International Settlements (BIS). 2009. "Interna- Expected to Fall by 5 to 8 percent in 2009." Migration tional Banking and Financial Market Developments." and Development Brief 9, Migration and Remittances BIS Quarterly Review. March. Team, Development Prospects Group, World Bank, De Haas, R. T. A., and I. P. P. Van Lelyveld. 2006a. "For- Washington, DC. March. Available at www.worldbank. eign Banks and Credit Stability in Central and Eastern org/prospects/migrationandremittances. Europe. A Panel Data Analysis." Journal of Banking Stein J. C. 1997. "Internal Capital Markets and Competi- Finance 30: 1927­52. tion for Corporate Resources." Journal of Finance 52: ------. 2006b. "Internal Capital Markets and Lending by 111­34. Multinational Bank Subsidiaries." EBRD Working Van den Heuvel, Skander. 2002. "Does Bank Capital Matter Paper 106. January. for Monetary Transmission?" FRBNY Economic Re- Desai, Mihir A., C. Fritz Foley, and James R. Hines, Jr. view, May, 259­65. 2002. "Repatriation Taxes and Dividend Distortions." World Bank. 1999. Global Development Finance 1999. National Tax Journal 54 (4): 829­51. Washington, DC. IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2009. Global Finan- ------. 2000. Global Development Finance 2000. cial Stability Report. March. Washington, DC. Lehmann, Alexander, and Ashoka Mody. 2004. "Interna- ------. 2004. Global Development Finance 2004. tional Dividend Repatriations." IMF Working Paper Washington, DC. 04-05, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. ------. 2007. Global Development Finance 2007. Lipsey, Robert E. 2001. "Foreign Direct Investors in Three Washington, DC. Financial Crises." NBER Working Paper 8084, Na- ------. 2008. Global Development Finance 2008. tional Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Washington, DC. http://www.nber.org/papers/w8084. 71 . 3 Charting a Course Ahead T HE GLOBAL ECONOMY FACES A the lending capacity of international financial crisis of staggering proportions that has institutions, an issue that played a prominent role reduced confidence in the prospects for in the G-20 Leaders' Summit in April, 2009. We then growth and depressed economic activity almost consider a few key issues facing policy makers in everywhere in the world. While recent data indi- developing countries, assessing the scope for ex- cate that the fall in global production and trade pansionary policies at the country level, while may be slowing, prospects remain uncertain and stressing the importance of international policy the potential for a further downturn is not negligible. coordination and the need to strengthen the inter- For developing countries, the breadth and severity national financial regulatory framework. of the crisis have underscored the risks of global- The main messages that arise from this analy- ization. Over the past 15 years, many of those coun- sis are as follows: tries had opened to the world, revamping their macroeconomic policies and their framework for · Corporations in developing countries face private investment. With expanding opportunities severe financing difficulties. Unlike most crises for trade and strong inflows of capital, those im- over the past three decades, the impact of the provements made possible a long run of rapid eco- current crisis on developing countries has been nomic growth, accompanied in many places by im- transmitted primarily through the corporate pressive reductions in poverty. Unfortunately, the sector. As firms' reliance on short-term debt has channels of integration with the world economy increased, so has the probability of default, par- have operated in reverse during the current crisis, as ticularly in highly leveraged firms. As refunding a falloff in demand for developing countries' goods pressures are building, sources of finance are and services and reduced access to international drying up. Many private firms will be hard- capital markets have sparked a sharp decline in pressed to service their foreign-currency liabili- growth and in capital flows to developing countries. ties with revenues earned in sharply devalued This chapter considers how policy makers in domestic currencies. In addition, the financial developing countries and the international com- positions of some developing-country firms munity more generally can chart a course toward a that participated in the global expansion of de- robust recovery that can be sustained over the long rivatives have been weakened by huge losses on term. We first examine the intense pressures on speculative financial instruments. Corporations many corporations in developing countries that in countries with well-developed domestic cor- are facing heavy refinancing needs under very porate bond markets are better positioned to harsh financing conditions. Private capital flows to weather the crisis, as such markets can provide developing countries are expected to decline an alternate source of funds when external debt sharply in 2009 and fall short of meeting their flows cease suddenly. But where foreign in- external financing needs by a wide margin-- vestors play a prominent role, domestic bond estimated at between $352 billion and $635 bil- markets can also be vulnerable to a sudden shift lion. This discussion highlights the need to expand in external financial conditions. 73 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 · Countries with large external financing needs The financial crisis in today's integrated global face balance-of-payments crises. The current economy has underlined the importance of crisis has affected the external financing posi- coordinating policy so that measures taken in tion of virtually all developing countries, al- one country do not defeat those taken in an- though not equally. Countries that have high other. The economic channels through which levels of external debt, large current-account nations trade goods and services also serve to deficits, and inadequate foreign reserve hold- propagate the crisis if countries severely re- ings are more likely to encounter difficulties in strict imports. A clear danger to coordinated obtaining the finance they will need to avoid recovery is the politically tempting tactic of a more severe contraction in growth. Balance- protectionism, either in its classic expression of-payments crises and corporate debt restruc- (selective trade barriers) or in proposed mea- turings are particularly likely in countries sures to restrict stimulus spending to domesti- where the corporate sector accounts for a cally produced goods and services. large share of external borrowing. · Fault lines in the international financial regu- · Low-income countries lack the resources to latory framework are in need of major repair. respond to the crisis. Most of the resources of The main driver of this crisis--excessive risk international financial institutions are likely taking in the financial system--underlines the to be allocated to high-income emerging mar- importance of tighter and more comprehen- kets and middle-income countries that have sive supervision and regulation. In a world of the ability to repay the loans they receive. global financial institutions, effective control Low-income countries, by contrast, face grave over the financial system can be achieved only economic prospects, especially if their ex- through coordinated efforts, because lax regu- ports, workers' remittances, and foreign direct lation in one jurisdiction makes it more diffi- investment (FDI) fail to recover quickly from cult for other jurisdictions to enforce more the dramatic deterioration in 2009. The stringent standards. National regulators have amount of development assistance presently privileged access to information on financial available to these countries is inadequate institutions operating within their borders. to meet their projected external financing For that reason, they should retain primary needs. At the same time, given the intense fiscal responsibility for supervision. But greater in- pressures resulting from the crisis, donor ternational cooperation in sharing informa- countries will be hard-pressed to increase aid tion and establishing broad standards for reg- significantly. ulation is needed to make national regulators · The potential for expansionary policies varies more effective. significantly among developing countries. Sev- eral governments have adopted emergency legislation aimed at raising expenditures and cutting taxes, while automatic stabilizers such Corporations in developing countries as unemployment insurance and income- face severe financing difficulties U related transfers have further boosted fiscal nlike many other emerging market crises over expansion. However, the scope for using such the past three decades, the impact of the pre- policies has varied significantly across coun- sent crisis on developing countries has been trans- tries. Countries that faced excessive inflation- mitted primarily through the corporate sector. ary pressures with little fiscal room and insuf- Corporate borrowing expanded rapidly during the ficient reserve holdings at the onset of the recent boom in capital flows. External bond is- crisis had few viable policy options. More- suance and bank borrowing by corporations in de- over, countries with large external financing veloping countries rose from $81 billion in 2002 needs may find themselves compelled to sup- to $423 billion in 2007, before falling last year to press demand further in order to meet their $271 billion as global financial turmoil increased external obligations. (figure 3.1). Corporations account for the bulk of · International policy coordination will play an developing countries' short-term debt (debt with important role in securing a global recovery. an original maturity of one year or less), which 74 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D Figure 3.1 Gross external borrowing by developing Developing countries in all regions partici- country corporations, 1998­2008 pated in the boom in corporate borrowing from $ billions external sources (table 3.1). However, Europe 450 and Central Asia accounted for the largest share Bond issues 400 of the increase, as corporate borrowing shot from Syndicated bank loans 350 $19 billion in 2002 to $197 billion in 2007. South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa registered the 300 largest percentage increases in corporate borrow- 250 ing from 2002 to 2007, given that borrowing was 200 minimal prior to the boom. By the standards of 150 these regions, the rise in corporate borrowing in 100 Latin America and the Caribbean and in East 50 Asia and the Pacific was relatively modest. All re- 0 gions, except the Middle East and North Africa, 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 participated in the 2008 drop in corporate bor- rowing. Interestingly, despite the presumably Source: Dealogic DCM Analytics and Loan Analytics. higher risk of private versus public sector corpo- rations, the public sector accounted for a larger percentage decline in corporate borrowing; the rose to almost 25 percent of total external debt in public sector's share of external corporate bor- 2007, compared with just 12 percent in the late rowing fell from 30 percent in 2007 to 25 percent 1980s. Corporations' share of total medium- and in 2008. long-term external debt held by developing coun- Refunding pressures are building, as corpo- tries also reached about 50 percent in 2008, up rate debt falling due in the first half of this year is from only 5 percent in 1989.1 estimated at $17 billion per month, well above the Table 3.1 Foreign debt contracted by developing-country corporations, 1998­2008 (billions of dollars) 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Total 107.3 86.9 99.2 91.7 81.5 108.6 147.4 219.9 300.6 423.3 271.2 By instrument Bond 32.2 23.9 17.3 23.9 22.6 35.2 50.2 61.4 77.7 107.3 38.5 Bank lending 75.1 63.0 81.9 67.8 59.0 73.4 97.2 158.4 222.9 315.9 232.8 By Region LAC 63.4 49.4 57.2 57.1 25.5 38.5 45.6 54.3 88.9 97.1 48.5 EAP 16.2 12.6 12.7 9.6 23.7 21.3 24.7 36.1 42.7 54.2 40.3 ECA 16.5 12.9 18.0 12.8 19.2 30.9 52.6 95.7 122.5 196.9 136.6 SSA 5.2 5.6 6.2 7.4 7.5 8.4 8.6 12.6 20.6 33.5 9.7 MENA 1.7 3.3 2.3 2.6 3.9 6.4 7.5 10.1 6.1 5.6 15.1 SAR 4.3 3.1 2.8 2.3 1.8 3.1 8.5 11.1 19.9 35.9 21.0 By ownership Public 38.0 23.5 22.9 26.4 23.9 33.9 43.8 82.4 80.8 126.2 67.3 Private 69.3 63.5 76.3 65.3 57.6 74.7 103.6 137.5 219.8 297.1 203.9 By sector Finance 29.4 20.9 23.7 20.5 14.7 24.5 40.2 64.1 92.2 98.2 56.4 Oil & Gas 21.4 13.3 19.8 21.7 23.5 28.2 29.4 61.5 46.2 99.1 60.1 Telecommunications 16.8 14.4 15.5 11.7 9.1 7.6 17.3 19.8 35.3 45.4 19.3 Utility & Energy 13.8 15.2 15.5 10.6 8.0 14.4 7.5 9.5 13.2 24.2 28.1 Metal & Steel 2.9 1.2 2.5 1.6 1.1 3.4 6.6 8.4 12.8 20.0 25.0 Mining 3.9 3.1 2.2 3.0 3.6 4.3 8.4 6.4 30.8 24.6 17.2 Construction/Building 1.8 1.8 4.1 3.5 1.2 1.5 4.2 8.7 14.9 30.9 11.3 Other 17.3 17.0 15.9 19.2 20.4 24.8 33.8 41.4 55.2 80.9 53.9 Source: World Bank staff estimates based on Dealogic Loanware and Bondware. 75 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 recent levels of issuance (IIF 2009). Simultaneously, These pressures have been exacerbated by huge sources of finance are drying up. For example, the losses on speculative financial instruments. Many hedge funds that made a major contribution to the developing-country firms participated in the global expansion of the Asian corporate sector in recent expansion of derivatives. In India, for example, the years are now attempting to sell their largely illiq- stock market boom was accompanied by futures uid assets (IMF 2009c). In Sub-Saharan Africa, trading that was at least six times the turnover in trade finance volumes have declined (in part be- spot markets (Sen 2008). Exchanges in developing cause of lower demand), while spreads on trade fi- countries, including Brazil, India, Malaysia, and nance transactions have increased from 100­150 Mexico, were among the top 10 derivatives ex- basis points over LIBOR to 400 basis points. changes in terms of the number of contracts traded At the same time, firms' cost of capital has risen (Basu and Mukhopadhyay 2006). The average daily substantially. The global recession cut sharply into turnover in over-the-counter derivatives in develop- the revenues of developing-country firms, raising the ing countries increased from $27 billion in 2001 to risk of corporate debt default, while investors' toler- $99 billion in 2007, or to about 2 percent of the ance for risk waned. Taken together, these factors global market (Saxena and Villar 2008). have raised the cost of capital dramatically, especially Most of these instruments were designed to for less creditworthy borrowers. Spreads on emerg- hedge foreign exchange risk in response to several ing market corporate bonds, which averaged about factors: (a) higher demand from firms and house- 200 basis points in 2007, jumped to more than 1,000 holds, as rising wealth increased their holdings of basis points by end-October 2008 (figure 3.2),2 foreign assets; (b) the increased exchange rate volatil- though they have since declined to below 800 basis ity of more open economies; (c) the more prominent points. Corporate bond spreads widened dramat- role played by foreign investors; and (d) the experi- ically in mature and emerging markets alike, ence of the late-1990s crises, when firms and house- including China and others in relatively strong posi- holds suffered from large exchange-rate exposure. tions to withstand the financial repercussions of the Many emerging market exporters sought protection crisis. At the same time, the crisis has led to greater against gradual currency appreciation by writing differentiation among developing countries, with options on their foreign exchange earnings. firms in Europe and Central Asia experiencing much "Carry trades" were a common speculative greater increases in spreads than firms in other vehicle, with an estimated volume of between emerging markets. $200 billion and $1 trillion in recent years (BIS 2008).3 These trades kept high-yielding currencies rates (such as the Indonesian rupee, Mexican peso, South African rand, and Brazilian real) at relatively Figure 3.2 Spreads on emerging market high appreciated levels. However, sudden with- corporate bonds, February 2007­April 2009 drawals from the affected countries, as investors Basis points sought safe havens in U.S. Treasury securities, led to 2,000 rapid depreciations. Estimates of recent losses by 1,800 emerging market corporations from their foreign ex- 1,600 ECA change positions exceed $40 billion, with perhaps 1,400 the largest losses in Brazil (where some 200 firms in- 1,200 curred losses of an estimated $28 billion, according All corporate 1,000 to Marques and Moutinho 2008), Poland (where au- 800 thorities estimate total losses at $5 billion), and the Republic of Korea (where the government had spent 600 LAC $1.3 billion by January 2009 to stave off bankrupt- 400 cies of firms with derivative losses). Several commer- 200 China cial banks--for example, Hana Bank (Republic 0 of Korea), Bank Millennium (Poland), Banorte 2007. 2007 2007 2007 2007. 2007 2008. 2008 2008 2008 2008. 2008 2009. 2009 2009 (Mexico), and the government-owned development Jan. Mar May Jul.Sep. Nov Jan. Mar May Jul.Sep. Nov Jan. Mar May bank BNDES (Brazil)--also chalked up substantial Source: JP Morgan (CEMBI-Global). credit losses as a result of corporate bankruptcies. 76 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D The unwinding of these speculative positions, in Authorities in some countries have already turn, accentuated the fall in emerging market taken steps to rein in such speculative trades. Some currencies (for example, in Mexico, according to are tightening suitability rules, whereby banks Nanto 2009), despite cuts in high-income official must certify that nonfinancial participants in for- rates that increased short-term interest differentials eign exchange derivative markets can hedge only in favor of emerging markets. their net currency positions. Market participants The case of Korea illustrates the risks of assum- have also started litigation against banks that ing cheap foreign-currency financing. The won/yen offered structured products with an unlimited exchange rate has been very stable over the past downside (such as KIKO products in Korea), and decade, in part because of policy support. Thus several cases are pending in court, creating legal firms could generate large profits by borrowing in uncertainty as to the enforceability of exotic deriv- yen at low interest rates (including issuance of atives contracts. Industry groups are advocating Samurai bonds) and using the proceeds to invest in stronger efforts to develop local-currency bond higher-yielding won-denominated instruments. markets to alleviate the pressure to seek foreign fi- Moreover, firms reduced the funding costs by nancing. Policy makers have stepped up calls for assuming so-called KIKO ("kick-in, kick-out") improved surveillance of systemic risks, where the options offered by banks as part of structured prod- derivatives exposures of corporations will require ucts, whereby funding was subsidized in return for better monitoring and containment of the very the firm writing a put option with unlimited payout large flows moving through carry trades, as well as in case of a currency depreciation. The firms' the substantial leverage that characterizes such rationale for making this bet was that their export transactions. receipts would rise in step with any depreciation of the won, enabling them to cover the put option. In Domestic bond markets have helped cushion turn, banks used these options to cover the protec- the impact of the crisis in a few countries tion that they had offered to carry-trade investors. Domestic bond markets have become an important However, the financial crisis simultaneously cut alternate source of funds in major emerging market firms' export revenues (as global demand plum- economies. The dollar value of the outstanding meted) and put the won under pressure (because of local-currency bonds in 20 developing countries the flight to quality). As a result, the firms suffered jumped from $2.9 trillion in 2005 to $5.5 trillion massive losses through these derivative trades (for by end-June 2008, or to 9 percent of global bond example, Daewoo reported $1.7 billion in losses issuance.4 Reliance on local currency bond markets from foreign currency derivatives trades in 2008), can help limit mismatches of currencies and maturi- and the banks then suffered losses when firms could ties in countries affected by the crisis, thus con- not repay their loans. Eventually a portion of the tributing to financial stability. However, just eight banks' losses were covered by the government. countries--Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Mexico, The case of Poland illustrates the fallacy of pro- South Africa, Thailand, and Turkey--accounted for jecting stable exchange rates for EU countries that almost 90 percent of local-currency bonds out- are expected to adopt the euro. Authorities estimate standing in June 2008. Relative to the size of these that 80 percent of nonfinancial firms took on sub- economies, local-currency bond markets have stantial currency exposure through derivative grown to levels comparable to some of the financial trades, although with a rapid global recovery the re- centers of the high-income economies (figure 3.3). sulting losses may eventually be offset by stronger Domestic institutional investors (pension export revenues. For the time being, however, Polish funds, insurance companies, and mutual funds) have banks have experienced rising nonperforming cor- been the primary investor base. In some countries porate loans. In addition, about 60 percent of the (Malaysia and Thailand), domestic bond markets mortgages issued by Polish banks were denominated have also attracted retail investors looking for in Swiss francs, and the franc has appreciated by relatively safe instruments with higher yields than 40 percent against the zloty since October 2008. bank deposits. The assets managed by domestic The Polish Financial Supervision Commission esti- institutional investors have grown substantially mated that as of February 2009 corporations had because of several factors--chief among them are lost $5.5 billion from currency derivatives. high savings rates (particularly in several East Asian 77 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 3.3 Largest local-currency bond markets, Figure 3.4 Pension assets in selected countries as 2007 (percent of GDP) a share of GDP, 2007 Percent Chile 250 Bolivia El Salvador 200 Costa Rica Peru 150 Brazil Uruguay 100 Colombia Argentina 50 India 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 y azil ica Percent States Japan ysia xico rkey Br man China Afr India Me Tu Mala Canada Ger Thailand Kingdom Source: OECD Private Pension Outlook 2008. United South United Sources: BIS and World Bank staff calculations. government bonds ($110 billion) and the nation's external debt ($66 billion) by a wide margin. China dominates domestic corporate bond issuance in the countries), pension reforms (Brazil, Chile, Mexico, 20 developing countries, accounting for two-thirds and Thailand), rapid growth of the insurance indus- of the total amount issued over the past five years try (China and Thailand), and the expansion of (figure 3.5). Domestic bond issuance by Chinese collective-investment schemes, such as mutual corporations reached a record high of $80 billion funds, in most major emerging markets. Pension in 2008Q4 amid all the turbulence in international funds and insurance companies have long-term financial markets. By contrast, the volume of liabilities that are best funded by high-quality debt issuance by corporations in domestic bond markets instruments such as long-term government bonds. of other developing countries declined from record The volume of pension-fund assets is already signifi- highs reached in early 2008. The difference partly re- cant in many Latin American countries (figure 3.4), flects large movements in exchange rates. Currencies and there is potential for substantial growth in such assets in countries such as China, India, Russia, and Thailand. That growth will help develop domestic Figure 3.5 Corporate bond issuance in domestic bond markets in those countries. markets, 2004Q1­2009Q1 Corporations in countries with a well-developed $ billions domestic corporate bond market are better posi- 100 tioned to weather the current crisis, especially if they China face heavy refinancing needs. In 2008 corporate Other developing countries (financial and nonfinancial) bonds accounted for 75 29 percent of the total domestic bond market in the 20 developing countries, up from 25 percent in 2007, 50 indicating that the domestic bond market has be- come an increasingly important source of funding for corporations. There is, however, wide variation 25 across countries. Corporate bonds accounted for more than a third of the total domestic bond market in six countries but were negligible in nine other 0 countries. In the case of Malaysia, the value of Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 outstanding corporate bonds issued in the domestic 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 market ($168 billion in 2008) exceeds the value of Source: Dealogic Analytics. 78 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D in many of the developing countries with active accounting information, the small base of domestic corporate domestic bond markets (Brazil, India, and investors, and weak corporate governance. Mexico, in particular) depreciated by more than Despite their clear value in expanding the 30 percent against the dollar in 2008, while the range of options available for governments and Chinese renminbi appreciated by 5 percent. corporations to meet their financing needs, domes- The deep domestic market for corporate bonds tic bond markets can be vulnerable to a sudden in countries like Brazil, China, Malaysia, Mexico, shift in external financial conditions in cases South Africa, and Thailand will help to attenuate where foreign investors play a prominent role in the impact of the crisis. The development of a do- the market (similar issues are raised with the large mestic market for corporate bonds in other coun- foreign bank participation in many emerging tries is limited by several factors, including the markets--box 3.1). Foreign investors account for small size of corporate bond issues, the lack of a only about 10 percent of the amount outstanding market-based yield curve, incomplete disclosure of of bonds issued in the domestic markets of the Box 3.1 Foreign bank participation and the financial crisisa F oreign participation is a concern in the domestic banking similarly to the global financial crisis. Foreign banks sector of some developing countries, as foreign affiliates accounted for 23 percent of total bank lending during may tend to cut off credit when their parent banks suffer an 2006­08 in Brazil, 24 percent in Colombia, and 50 percent adverse liquidity shock (Cull and Martinez Peria 2007). The in Peru. In Brazil, the slowdown in domestic credit creation host country in such cases stands to suffer a larger credit was modest, and credit creation by domestic banks shrank contraction than if banks were predominantly owned by more from the peak than that of foreign banks (see box domestic investors. Although it is far too soon to come to a figure). In Colombia, the rate of growth in bank lending has reliable conclusion on the impact of foreign bank ownership been decelerating since 2007, but there is no evidence of a on developing countries' experience during the financial sharper decline in the wake of the financial crisis--if any- crisis, preliminary evidence does not support the view that thing, domestic banks reduced credit creation more than did foreign banks' subsidiaries bear an inordinate responsibility foreign banks. In Peru, the pace of lending by domestic and for observed contractions in domestic credit. foreign banks has remained roughly stable since early 2008. Evidence gathered for three Latin American countries in which foreign banks have a prominent role suggests that ________ foreign bank subsidiaries and domestic banks responded a. For a detailed discussion of this issue see chapter 3 in World Bank (2008). Real credit growth by ownership of banks Percent change 40 Brazil 40 Colombia 40 Peru Domestic banks Domestic banks Domestic banks 30 30 30 20 Foreign banks 20 Foreign banks 20 Foreign banks 10 10 10 0 0 0 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 . . 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 . . 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2009 . . Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Apr Jul. Oct. Jan. Source: World Bank staff estimates based on data from national authorities. Note: This figure plots the yearly month-to-month growth rate of total by domestic (private) and foreign banks, measured at fixed January 2006 local currency prices. 79 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 3.6 Foreign holdings of domestic bonds, Figure 3.7 External financing needs of developing 2007 countries, 1990­2009 Share of total Trillions of constant 2009$ Percent 1.5 12 China Thailand Percent of GDP Pakistan (right scale) India 9 Brazil 1.0 Russia Mexico 6 South Africa Indonesia Real terms Chile 0.5 (left scale) Colombia 3 Malaysia Turkey Argentina 0.0 0 Peru 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Poland Philippines Source: World Bank staff estimates. 0 10 20 30 40 Percent Sources: IMF; BIS; World Bank staff calculations. to expand, while growth is now slowing. The present ratio of financing needs to GDP for the 97 countries is estimated at 7.8 percent, up from 20 developing countries for which BIS data are 6.2 percent in 2006. External financing needs in available. However, foreign participation varies 25 of the 98 countries are expected to exceed 20 per- widely from country to country. In 2007, foreign cent of their GDP (figure 3.8). Overall, external investors held more than one-third of the amount financing needs are projected to decline slightly in outstanding of domestic bonds in Argentina, constant dollar terms in 2010­11, as developing Peru, Poland, and the Philippines, but less than 5 percent in China, Thailand, Pakistan, and India (figure 3.6). Figure 3.8 Estimated external financing needs of 102 developing countries in 2009 Countries with large financing needs face balance-of-payments crises T he projected sharp decline in private capital flows follows a long period of increase in developing countries' reliance on external finance. Most countries will require significant capital inflows to meet their external financial needs, defined as the external funds required to finance current-account deficits and make scheduled payments on private debt coming due this year. In 97 of 108 developing countries for which data are available,5 the total financing needs in 2009 are estimated to be $1 trillion, $600 billion higher than in 2003 in constant 2009 prices (figure 3.7). Strong growth during 2004­06 enabled developing countries' financing needs to decline as a share of 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 GDP, even as the dollar amount rose. However, in Percent of GDP the past two years, financing needs have continued Source: World Bank staff estimates. 80 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D countries reduce their current-account deficits and Figure 3.10 Exchange-rate changes and external their reliance on short-term debt. Given the antici- financing needs in developing countries, August 2008­February 2009 pated recovery in output, this projection implies Percentage change in exchange rate against U.S. dollar that by 2011 external financing needs will fall back for period to 2006 levels as a share of GDP. Change in exchange ratesa The crisis has had a larger impact on 80 countries with heavy external financing needs Equity price declines have been larger in countries 60 with heavy external financing (figure 3.9), espe- R2 = 0.32 cially in emerging Europe and Central Asia and other areas where financing gaps loom large. 40 Between August 2008 and February 2009, equity prices (measured in U.S. dollars) fell by around 20 65 percent in Bulgaria and Latvia, where external financing needs for 2009 are estimated at more than 65 percent of GDP. By contrast, the relation- 0 ship between equity prices and financing needs is 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 less apparent for countries whose external financ- External financing needs as a share of GDPb ing needs are more moderate (less than 20 percent Sources: Datastream and World Bank staff estimates. of GDP). Countries that will need a large amount Note: a. Percent change in $ nominal exchange rates between of external financing in 2009 also experienced August 2008 and February 2009; increase reflects depreciation b. Current account balance projected for 2009 and principal larger average depreciations in exchange rates in repayments on private debt coming due as a ratio to GDP. late 2008 (figure 3.10). By contrast, the correlation between external financing needs and the rise in Figure 3.11 Change in sovereign bond spreads sovereign bond spreads is quite weak (figure 3.11). and external financing needs of developing This illustrates that the financing needs are countries, August 2008­February 2009 concentrated in the corporate sector. Sovereign Change in EMBIG spreadsa spreads widened the most in countries with impending fiscal pressures or uncertain political 1,400 situations. For example, sovereign bond spreads R2 = 0.01 1,200 1,000 Figure 3.9 Equity price changes versus external financing needs of developing countries, 800 August 2008­February 2009 600 Change in equity prices 400 0 200 20 0 R2 = 0.29 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 External financing needs as a share of GDP 40 Sources: Datastream and World Bank staff estimates. Note: a. Change (bps) in EMBIG spread between August 2008 and February 2009. 60 widened by more than 1,000 basis points in 80 Ecuador, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and República 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 Bolivariana de Venezuela, where external financ- External financing needs for 2009 as a share of GDP ing needs are estimated at less than 15 percent of Sources: MSCI Barra and World Bank staff estimates. GDP. 81 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Table 3.2 Estimates of developing countries' external financing needs in 2009 $ billions Countries with Countries with Countries with no financing needs financing gaps financing gaps Number of countries 98 59 39 External private debt: 3134 2760 374 Short-term 611 535 76 Medium & long term 2524 2226 298 External financing needs: 1066 959 107 Current account 224 217 7 Principal repayments on private debt 842 742 100 Short-term 611 535 76 Medium & long term 231 207 24 Private sources of external financing: 764 607 157 Net equity flows 169 90 79 Disbursements of private debt 786 691 95 Short-term 562 492 70 Medium & long term 224 199 25 Unidentified outflows 191 173 17 Estimated financing gap: 352 -- Source: World Bank Debtor Reporting System (DRS) and staff estimates. Note: n.a. not applicable. Many countries will find it very difficult to from 59 to 69 in the low-case scenario (table 3.3). meet their external financing needs from The 10 additional countries with external financing private sources of capital gaps in the low case have external financing needs of Our estimates indicate that equity flows and new just $47 billion. However, net private capital flows to disbursements of private debt will not meet the 69 countries is much lower compared with the external financing needs for 59 of the 98 countries base case. According to these estimates, capital flows that have such needs, leaving a total financing gap from private sources will fall short of meeting devel- (external finance required after accounting for oping countries' financing needs in 2009 by between new loans and investments from private sources) $352 billion to $635 billion. of $352 billion (column two of table 3.2). The 59 countries with a financing gap have financing needs of $0.9 trillion, more than half of which is Table 3.3 Estimated external financing gap in short-term debt ($535 billion). These 59 countries developing countries, 2009 are projected to receive the bulk of private sources $ billions of external financing in 2009 ($607 billion of the Base case Low case $764 billion going to all 98 countries), most of which will take the form of new disbursements of Number of countries with ext. fin. gaps: 59 69 short-term debt ($492 billion). This calculation External financing needs:a 959 1,005 Private capital flows 607 371 depends critically on assumptions concerning the Equity flowsb 90 70 rollover rate on private debt coming due (disburse- Principal repayments on private debt 691 520 ments divided by principal repayments), net equity Short-term 492 380 Long-term 199 141 flows, and unidentified capital outflows. The as- Unidentified outflows 173 219 sumptions underlying the projection are outlined External financing gap: 352 635 in box 3.2. Source: World Bank Debtor Reporting System (DRS) and staff We illustrate the sensitivity of our projections estimates. to these assumptions by comparing the base- and Note: low-case scenarios outlined in box 3.2. The number a. Current account balances - principal repayments due on private debt. of countries with external financing gaps increases b. FDI and portfolio equity inflows less outflows. 82 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D Box 3.2 Methodology used to estimate external financing gaps T he purpose of this exercise is to estimate the extent to Net equity flows are projected to decline from $339 which capital flows from private sources will meet billion in 2008 to between $303 billion and $227 billion developing countries' external financing needs in 2009. in the base- and low-case scenarios. These figures include We first estimate developing countries' external financing both inflows and outflows of net foreign direct investment needs, defined as the current-account deficit (as projected and portfolio equity flows. in chapter 1) plus scheduled principal payments on private Unidentified capital outflows. A definition of and debt (based on information in the World Bank's Debtor historical data for "unidentified capital outflows" are pro- Reporting System). We compare this estimate to a projec- vided in chapter 2. Briefly, this is a balancing item that is tion of private capital flows, which includes new loans on equal to the difference between the current-account deficit private debt, net equity flows, and net unidentified capital and all identified capital-account transactions, on the one outflows. The difference between the estimated financing hand, and the change in reserves, on the other. A portion needs and projected private capital flows is the financing of this balancing item represents private capital transac- gap, which is reported in table 3.2. Projections of private tions that are not reported to the authorities. Another capital flows in 2009 are discussed in chapter 2. portion represents inconsistencies within the balance-of- New loans on private debt. Net private debt flows payments reporting system. The magnitude of unidentified are projected to decline from $108.5 billion in 2008 to capital outflows is expected to decline substantially in between $56 billion and $300 billion in the base- and 2009 as residents of developing countries drawdown for- low-case scenarios. Countries with financing gaps are ex- eign assets held abroad. For example, residents of develop- pected to have more difficulty rolling over their debt than ing countries reduced their deposits at BIS-reporting banks those without financing gaps (countries where financing abroad by over $300 billion (18 percent) over the course needs are met by net private capital flows). Moreover, we of 2008. Many transactions of this nature are not fully also assume that private creditors will be more willing to recorded. We assume that unidentified capital outflows fall refinance sovereign debt and private debt that is publicly from $658 billion in 2008 to $281 billion in the base case guaranteed. Rollover rates (disbursements of new loans/ scenario and $340 billion in the low case. principal repayments maturing in 2009) underlying the projection are reported in the table below. Rollover rates on private debt coming due Percent Base case Low case Countries with Countries without Countries with Countries without financing gaps financing gaps financing gaps financing gaps Short-term 92 100 65 100 Medium & long term Public and publicly guaranteed (PPG) 129 150 85 100 Private non-guaranteed (PNG) 86 100 55 70 The underlying nature of financing needs the two scenarios (figure 3.13). The estimated varies widely across regions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, financing gap for emerging Europe and Central Asia current-account deficits are the major item requiring varies by $145 billion from the base- to low-case external financing, while in the other regions princi- scenarios, compared with a variation of just $15 bil- pal repayments (on short-term debt in particular) lion for Sub-Saharan Africa. A similar result holds account for the bulk of financing needs (figure 3.12). when the estimated financing gap is broken down by The estimated financing gaps in regions with high income classification. The estimated financing gap volumes of short-term debt coming due (notably Eu- for the upper-middle-income countries varies by rope and Central Asia and Latin America) are quite $192 billion, compared with just $11 billion for sensitive to the different rollover rates assumed in low-income countries. 83 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 3.12 External financing needs in 2009, by already have drawn down their reserves signifi- region cantly, as described later in this chapter. Remain- $ billions ing reserves fall short of the estimated external 100 financing gap for 2009 in 9 countries in the base- case scenario and 13 countries in the low case. 0 Further reductions of reserves in those and other countries could increase the risk of interruptions 100 in international payments. 200 Financing from official sources is limited 300 Short-term debt due Our estimates of the financing gap do not take Long-term debt due into account capital flows from official sources, 400 Current account since the aim of the exercise is to gauge how much financing from official sources would be required 500 ECA LAC EAP SSA SAS MENA to meet countries' external financing needs after taking into account projections of financing from Source: World Bank staff estimates. private sources. Most low-income countries depend heavily on Figure 3.13 External financing gaps in 2009, by official sources to meet their external financing region and under alternative scenarios needs. Our projections indicate that net private $ billions capital flows will be insufficient to meet the exter- 0 nal financing needs of 30 of the 40 low-income countries for which data are available. If official capital flows to those 30 countries were to remain at the average levels observed in 2007­08, they 100 would cover the entire external financing gap in just two of the 30 countries in the base-case sce- nario and not a single country in the low case. 200 Thus many countries will need substantially Low case Base case more official finance to close their financing gap, and the official community is responding. In re- 300 sponse to the crisis, net official lending jumped to ECA EAP LAC MENA SAS SSA $20.4 billion in 2008 (including assistance from Source: World Bank staff estimates. the International Monetary Fund, IMF) after five years in which repayments exceeded disbursements Reserves are unlikely to be sufficient to meet (table 3.4). Net lending by official creditors was financing gaps negative over the past five years because improved Some countries will be able to rely on reserves financial conditions in developing countries had built up over the past few years to help meet their reduced demand for multilateral lending and facil- external financing gap. However, many countries itated repayments (and prepayments) to the Paris Table 3.4 Net official flows, 2002­08 $ billions 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008e World Bank 0.3 0.5 1.6 2.8 0.4 4.9 7.1 IMF 14.1 2.5 14.7 40.1 26.7 5.1 10.9 Other official 8.7 13.3 12.8 34.0 43.8 0.2 2.4 Total 5.1 11.3 25.9 71.3 70.9 0.0 20.4 Source: World Bank Debtor Reporting System; IMF. Note: e estimate. 84 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D Club. The drop in lending also reflected the grow- bilateral loans from member countries and later ing importance of grants from the International through an expanded and more flexible scheme Development Association (IDA), which is not known as New Arrangements to Borrow), along included in the net lending data.6 Amortization with an allocation to members of special drawing payments to official creditors (including the IMF) rights (SDR) equivalent to $250 billion and urgent fell from $130 billion in 2006 to $55 billion in ratification of the Fourth Amendment, which 2008, while purchases from the IMF jumped to would result in an additional SDR allocation of $14 billion (compared with $2 billion in 2007 and $34 billion to some members. These SDR mea- $4 billion in 2006). Three-quarters of the pur- sures, if implemented, would enable member coun- chases came in the fourth quarter in response to tries to draw on their share of the total $284 billion. the slump in economic activity and the freezing of Furthermore, the G-20 leaders also pledged to credit in industrial countries. Developing countries provide resources to finance $250 billion in trade entering into standby arrangements with the IMF through 2011. in the fourth quarter of 2008 included Hungary Since September 2008, multilateral develop- ($15.7 billion), Latvia ($2.4 billion), Pakistan ment banks (MDBs, listed in table 3.5) have acted ($7.6 billion), Seychelles ($26 million), and to lessen the impact of the global liquidity crisis on Ukraine ($16.4 billion). In March 2009, Romania developing countries, especially low-income coun- negotiated a $17.5 billion package from the IMF. tries. As of April 2009, the MDBs had collectively The IMF has overhauled its lending frame- committed $88 billion in funding to developing work, creating a new flexible credit line and countries to deal with the fallout from the global doubling access limits for all borrowers. Mexico financial crisis (table 3.5). The commitments cover became the first country to access the new flexible a broad range of areas, including development credit line with a $47 billion precautionary arrange- policy loans, trade finance, political insurance, ment approved in April 2009. Poland and Colombia and equity investment funds for bank restructuring have also arranged precautionary credit lines of in emerging market countries. A substantial por- $20.5 billion and $10.4 billion, respectively. tion of the total (or $73 billion) came in the form The international community has taken major of development policy loans aimed at providing steps to enhance the lending capacity of the IMF. liquidity support to emerging market countries. In April 2009 the G-20 leaders endorsed an expan- While the total support for trade finance was just sion of the IMF's lending capacity from $250 billion $13 billion, the impact of the resources committed to $750 billion (initially to be financed through is expected to be much greater. For example, the Table 3.5 Multilateral development banks' planned 2009­11 financial response to the crisis, as of April 2009 $ billions Trade finance Political Equity Liquidity risk Name of institution Lending investment Guarantee facility insurance Total Asian Development Bank 5.7 0.9 6.6 African Development Bank 1.0 1.0 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 1.4 1.0 2.4 Inter-American Development Bank 6.0 1.0 6.0 13.0 World Bank Group 60.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 65.0 IBRD 60.0 60.0 IFC 1.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 MIGA 1.0 1.0 Total MDBs 73.1 1.0 4.9 8.0 1.0 88.0 Sources: World Bank staff estimates based on several sources, including MDBs' press releases. Note: The amount in this table represents announced increases over the pre-crisis level, and does not include the multiplier or leveraging effects of such new initiatives. 85 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Box 3.3 The response of international financial institutions to the trade finance contraction following the crisis T he World Bank Group responded to alleviate the in collaboration with other multilateral development impact on developing countries of the sudden evapora- banks, bilateral organizations, export credit agencies, and tion of trade finance following the bankruptcy of Lehman several large banks, in March 2009, IFC created a Global Brothers in September 2008. That response, like those of Trade Liquidity Program (GTLP) of up to $5 billion to other international financial institutions (IFIs), has been meet participating banks' growing demand for liquidity. aimed at the global level as well as the country level. At the The GTLP is estimated to be able to support around global level, the IFIs worked closely with the World Trade $48 billion of developing-country trade over three years. Organization to address finance issues. The World Bank In addition to IFC, the European Bank for Recon- Group, acting through the International Finance Corpora- struction and Development, the Asian Development Bank, tion (IFC), doubled the Global Trade Finance Program and the Inter-American Development Bank have been ac- (GTFP)a from $1.5 billion to $3 billion. Under the GTFP, tive in trade facilitation efforts. The EBRD program began IFC guarantees a percentage of the exposure that interna- in 1999; ADB's was launched in 2003. In addition to pro- tional banks incur when they confirm letters of credit, viding guarantees to banks, the EBRD extends to banks book acceptances, or purchase trade-related notes issued short-term loans that are on-lent to local companies to or guaranteed by local banks. The liquidity crisis of 2008 provide the working capital necessary to fulfill foreign has dramatically increased the demand for IFC's facility, trade contracts. During this crisis, ADB and IADB have as actors in major emerging markets find it increasingly increased the size of their facilities to $1 billion each. difficult to obtain trade finance from traditional banking EBRD has increased its facility from 800 million to sources. 1.5 billion. Up to now, IFC has focused on providing guarantees ________ to participating banks (issuing and confirming). However, a. IFC's GTFP became operational in 2005. new IFC's Global Trade Liquidity Program initia- long-term, interest-free loans to help the world's tive of $5.0 billion (including $4 billion from poorest countries cope with the impact of the global other MDBs and bilateral agencies) is expected to financial crisis. On the private sector front, the In- support up to $48 billion in trade (box 3.3). ternational Finance Corporation (IFC) in December The strong financial position of the Interna- 2008 launched a global equity fund to recapitalize tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development distressed banks, with $1 billion provided by the (IBRD) on the eve of the crisis allowed it to respond IFC and $2 billion by Japan. The IFC also created quickly and substantially to developing countries' an infrastructure crisis facility to provide rollover requests for financial assistance. Loan commit- financing to help recapitalize existing, viable, pri- ments are expected to reach $35 billion in the cur- vately funded infrastructure projects facing finan- rent fiscal year (ending June 30, 2009), compared cial distress, with $300 million provided by the IFC with $13.5 billion for the previous year. And net and $1.5 billion from other sources. In addition, the lending may rise from near zero over the past few IFC took steps through its trade finance facilitation years (mainly reflecting some borrowing countries' program to ease access to trade credit by develop- decisions to repay IBRD loans earlier than sched- ing-country firms. Similarly, the Multilateral Invest- uled) to $15­20 billion over the next three years. ment Guarantee Agency, another part of the World Since the last months of 2008 the World Bank Bank Group, is providing guarantees of up to Group, of which the IBRD is a part, has taken vari- $1 billion to foreign banks to help inject liquidity ous steps to assist developing countries in dealing and bolster confidence in the financial systems of with the global financial crisis. In December 2008, Russia, Ukraine, and Eastern European countries. the Bank Group's International Development Asso- The response of other development banks is largely ciation (IDA) launched a $2 billion Financial Crisis synchronized with the actions of the World Bank Response Fast-Track Facility to speed up grants and Group. 86 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D Table 3.6 Total assets and equity of the major gaps. Furthermore commitments to an SDR allo- MDBs, 2007 cation have not historically been followed by swift $ billions ratification by national governments. For exam- Asset Capital ple, regarding the last SDR issuance dating from Asian Development Bank 69.5 14.3 1997, as of April 1, 2009, 131 members represent- African Development Bank 12.1 4.7 ing 77.68 percent of the total voting power had European Bank for Reconstruction and 46.1 13.9 accepted the Fourth Amendment, falling short of Development Inter-American Development Bank 69.9 20.4 the required 85 percent.7 Moreover, a third of the World Bank Group 248.5 53.8 pledged money is to come from direct lending of which from member governments. Some governments al- IBRD 207.9 39.8 IFC 40.6 14.0 ready have made this money available, but others have yet to do so. Therefore it is not clear that all Total MDBs 446.1 107.1 of the money will be available immediately. And Source: Financial statement of each institution in its 2008 Annual while the total amount of funds committed would Report. be sufficient to cover our estimate of developing countries' financing gaps in 2009, disbursing all of this money this year would leave nothing available if difficult financing conditions persist into 2010, Facing capital constraints, many MDBs have not an unlikely scenario. sought capital increases to enable them to respond more effectively to the requirements of their mem- The inability to meet financing needs could ber countries. The participants in the G-20 meet- have grave economic consequences ing held in April 2009 committed to review the The previous discussion has shown that for many adequacy of the capital resources of all MDBs to developing countries, the availability of reserves, provide appropriate increase in funding to miti- private external finance, and official support is gate the impact of the crisis (see table 3.6 for unlikely to be sufficient to cover their current ac- MDBs' capital and assets, as of 2007). The G-20 count deficits and principal repayments on out- endorsed a 200 percent general capital increase standing debt. These countries will be faced with for the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and a difficult choice. They could postpone debt ser- agreed to review the need for capital increases at vice payments, either by delaying government the Inter-American Development Bank, the African debt service or imposing capital control on pri- Development Bank, and the European Bank for vate borrowers. Alternatively (or in combina- Reconstruction and Development. The ADB's tion), they could impose restrictive fiscal and Board of Governors agreed to triple ADB's capital monetary policies (perhaps in conjunction with base from $55 billion to $165 billion, substantially capital controls) to the point where the fall in im- increasing its support to countries affected by the port demand sufficiently reduces external finan- global downturn. The ADB plans to increase its cial requirements.8 lending assistance by more than $10 billion in None of these options is palatable. Efforts to 2009­10, bringing total ADB assistance for these renegotiate external debt service payments, or out- two years to about $32 billion, up from about $22 right defaults, are likely to impair access to interna- billion in 2007­08. The ADB will establish-- tional capital markets for some time to come, and pending approval from its board of directors--a could result in interruptions in payments systems if $3 billion fund (the Countercyclical Support Fa- creditors attempt to attach the country's foreign ex- cility) to support fiscal spending by member coun- change holdings. Reducing economic activity tries needed to overcome the crisis. It is crucial for through higher interest rates or an improved fiscal multilateral agencies to be adequately capitalized balance in the midst of a global recession could to increase their ability to respond to this and fu- have grave implications for welfare and poverty re- ture crises and to meet the funding requirements duction. Using capital controls to attain either of of the developing countries. these ends has the added disadvantage of impairing Despite these efforts, commitments are not yet the efficiency of production and encouraging cor- sufficient to cover developing countries' financing ruption. While many developing countries have 87 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 controls on capital account transactions, most per- of the hard-earned gains in poverty reduction mit foreign exchange outflows for current account attained in earlier years. In the current context of transactions or for the purpose of repaying debt. stagnant global export demand and the large over- Extending capital controls to these activities risks hang of corporate foreign debt, the real economy gravely undermining both the functioning of the costs associated with the process of adjustment economy and the credibility of government policies. to external financing gaps would be very high, as Countries that encounter external financing con- would be the costs of large-scale corporate debt straints run the risk of going through an even more insolvency and restructuring. Such costs would painful adjustment process because a further depre- vary across countries, depending on their foreign ciation in the real exchange rate and steeper con- debt exposure, local capital market development, traction in growth would be required to bring and the exchange rate regime. about an abrupt improvement in the current ac- count. Both channels would be particularly painful Many low-income countries may be unable to at the current juncture, when GDP growth in de- meet their external financing needs veloping countries with financing needs is already Many low-income countries will face particular forecast to decline to 1.7 percent in 2009, down difficulties in obtaining sufficient finance. Recog- sharply from 4.7 percent in 2008, and in many of nizing this, the G-20 leaders agreed to provide an those countries substantial exchange-rate deprecia- additional $6 billion in concessional and flexible tions have already reduced real purchasing power. IMF financing for low-income countries over the In short, many governments will face a difficult next 2 to 3 years. Nevertheless, their historical re- choice between imposing credit controls, postpon- liance on official development assistance (ODA) is ing payments on their external debt, and going likely to be accentuated as export revenues and through an even more painful economic adjustment other sources of capital recede in 2009, while the process. prospects for substantial, additional ODA are not This dilemma is well illustrated by the experi- favorable. ODA disbursements by the 22 member ence of East Asian economies during the financial countries of the Development Assistance Commit- crisis of the late 1990s, when high levels of capital tee did rise to $114 billion last year, up $10.5 bil- flight forced the most affected countries into sharp lion (10.2 percent) from 2007 (figure 3.15), but exchange rate depreciations and restrictive macro- the sharp rise in industrial countries' fiscal deficits economic policies to reduce demand, inducing is likely to constrain further increases. Recent severe recessions (figure 3.14) that reversed some forecasts from the OECD envision a rise in the Figure 3.14 Real GDP growth in five Asian countries, 1996­98 Figure 3.15 Net ODA disbursements by DAC Percent donors, 1991­2008 10 Constant 2007$ billions Percent 120 .40 Debt relief ODA less debt 5 ODA less debt relief relief/GNI 100 (right scale) .35 0 80 .30 60 .25 5 40 .20 10 20 .15 1996 1997 1998 0 .10 15 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2008e Indonesia Thailand Malaysia Korea, Philippines Rep. of Source: OECD Development Assistance Committee. Source: World Bank staff estimates. Note: e = estimate. 88 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D aggregate deficit of its member countries from conditions, drawdowns of reserves, and expan- 2.4 percent of GDP in 2008 to about 4 percent in sionary fiscal policies. However, developing coun- 2009­10. And these forecasts are subject to con- tries differ greatly in their ability to use such poli- stant revision, as spending plans remain in flux cies to support demand. As noted in the previous and revenue estimates extremely uncertain.9 section, the many countries with large financing It is likely that expenditures not directly con- gaps may find themselves compelled to suppress nected to domestic growth will come under in- demand further to meet their external obligations, creasing scrutiny, especially in Greece, Ireland, or risk the difficult-to-estimate but potentially and Spain, where sharp increases in debt levels severe consequences of default. Other countries, have resulted in warnings about bond ratings.10 by contrast, retain some space for expansionary The intense pressures stemming from the sharp policies to compensate for the reduction in exter- downturn in global growth will make it politically nal demand and in private external finance. difficult for donors to meet their ODA commit- Monetary policy. There is some evidence that ments, even though such commitments are small monetary policy is easing in many developing coun- relative to their fiscal revenues and expenditures. tries. The median policy interest rate for 22 major The 22 DAC member countries would have to developing countries increased over the course of enhance their net ODA disbursements by an aver- 2008 in response to rising inflation and in the age annual rate of 7.0 percent in 2009­10 in order context of a generalized belief that developing to meet their existing commitments. Although economies would remain largely decoupled from such an objective might sound modest, net ODA the crisis unfolding in mature markets. Neverthe- disbursements were augmented at an average an- less, in most countries policy rates did not rise as nual rate of only 6.7 percent over the past five fast as inflation, indicating some easing of mone- years when growth was robust and fiscal pressures tary conditions. The perceptions of partial immu- were limited. nity from the crisis were dispelled by the sharp decline in global economic activity in late 2008. Now, about half of the 22 developing countries The potential for expansionary are well into an easing cycle aimed at supporting policies varies significantly among aggregate demand (figure 3.16). For example, pol- developing countries icy rates in China, India, and Turkey declined by P olicy responses in several developing countries more than 2 percentage points from August 2008 have focused on short-term measures to sup- to February 2009. Some countries--essentially port demand, including an easing of monetary those experiencing severe balance-of-payments Figure 3.16 Policy interest rates in developing countries, January 2007­March 2009 Percent Percent 15 Nominal 15 Real (adjusted for inflation) 90th percentile 10 12 90th percentile 5 9 Median Median 0 6 10th percentile 5 10th percentile 3 10 0 15 2007M1 2007M7 2008M1 2008M7 2009M1 2007M1 2007M7 2008M1 2008M7 2009M1 Source: Datastream. Note: Policy interest rates minus year-on-year change in headline consumer price index. 89 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 outflows and exchange-rate pressures--have Where this path is taken, it will be necessary to raised policy rates, including Russia (2 percentage establish a credible medium-term monetary policy points), Pakistan (1.25 percentage points), and anchor to replace the fixed exchange rate. Hungary (1 percentage point). Like many industrial countries, a few devel- The challenges of monetary policy vary oping countries have taken extraordinary financial widely across developing countries. In their deci- steps to support credit markets. For example, sions to limit interest-rate reductions, various Mexico and Russia have provided guarantees of central banks have cited the potential for addi- bank debt to maintain credit market access; tional currency weakness, greater inflation, and Indonesia and Russia have expanded deposit guar- rising inflationary expectations. Several of these antees to avoid runs; central banks in Brazil, In- countries may have space remaining for addi- donesia, and Mexico have provided new liquidity tional monetary easing, in part because inflation- facilities; and Brazil, the Republic of Korea and ary expectations are declining in many countries Mexico have entered into swap lines with the U.S. in Latin America and Asia. But monetary policy Federal Reserve to relieve pressures that emerged can have only a limited and temporary effect on in settling cross-border claims. These liabilities real exchange rates relative to underlying funda- will need to be carefully managed, and steps to mentals such as declines in export demand and in unwind some of these actions may be necessary as the terms of trade, which clearly have been the economies recover. main drivers of exchange-rate depreciation in Drawdowns of reserves. Several developing most emerging markets. countries (Belarus, Ecuador, Malaysia, Pakistan, A more acute dilemma faces many central Poland, and Russia) have drawn down their foreign banks in Central Europe and the countries of the reserve holdings to mitigate the impact of the cur- former Soviet Union. There, financing gaps tend to rent crisis. Until the crisis intensified in late 2008, be wide, and support for aggregate demand developing countries' reserves had expanded rapidly, (through lower policy rates) needs to be balanced growing at an average rate of more than 25 percent against the risks of capital outflows and the result- (figure 3.17). But reserve holdings dropped sharply ing damage to the balance sheets of banks, firms, in late 2008, declining by 8 percent over the latter and households. Heavy external borrowing earlier half of the year (or by 22 percent if one excludes in the decade has created significant currency China, which accounts for more than 40 percent of mismatches in the region, with the result that fur- all reserves held by developing countries). ther exchange rate depreciation could threaten the A reduction in foreign reserves on this scale is solvency of many financial institutions and corpo- unprecedented. Reserve growth averaged around 14 rate borrowers whose earnings come in local cur- percent until the Asian crisis began in mid-1997, de- rency. This perspective suggests that, despite clining to ­4.5 percent by the end of the year. Re- weakening aggregate demand, this group of coun- serve growth subsequently recovered to more than tries has very little room for rate cuts. In some 15 percent by mid-1998, only to decline to ­5.5 per- cases, rate increases may be needed to stem capital cent by year's end in the wake of the Russian debt outflows. crisis in August 1998. Furthermore, the current wave For countries with fixed or quasi-fixed of reserve depletion has been more widespread than exchange-rate regimes, the scope for independent in previous episodes. Over the latter half of 2008, monetary policy depends on the degree to which reserves fell by more than 10 percent in one-third of the capital account has been liberalized (in practice developing countries, with declines exceeding as well as on paper). For countries running current 25 percent in the six countries listed above. During surpluses or maintaining large reserves, some eas- the Asian crisis, reserves fell more than 10 percent in ing of monetary policy would be appropriate. just one in eight developing countries, with declines However, for those experiencing unsustainable de- exceeding 25 percent in just two countries. clines in reserves, such easing would not be appro- The appreciation of the dollar against other priate. Here, too, rate hikes might be necessary. major currencies has been an important reason for These countries may need to consider introducing the decline in reserve holdings measured in U.S. more flexibility into their exchange-rate regimes in dollars. The importance for each country of the re- order to gain more freedom for monetary policy. duction in the dollar value of its reserve holdings 90 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D Figure 3.17 Growth of foreign reserves in developing countries, 1996­98 and 2006­08 Percent Percent 50 Asian crisis (Jan. 1996­Dec. 1998) 50 Current crisis: Jan. 2006­Dec. 2008 All developing countries 25 25 Excluding China All developing countries Excluding China 0 0 25 25 1996M1 1996M7 1997M1 1997M7 1998M1 1998M7 2006M1 2006M7 2007M1 2007M7 2008M1 2008M7 Source: IMF International Financial Statistics. Figure 3.18 Fiscal stimulus measures by G-20 is affected by the share of its foreign exchange developing countries liabilities that are denominated in dollars. Average percent of GDP, 2009­10 Fiscal stimulus. Several developing-country gov- ernments have announced plans to support China aggregate demand and reduce job losses through fis- Russia cal stimulus. The IMF has evaluated the impact of Mexico such measures on the fiscal accounts of developing Indonesia countries that are members of the G-20. These esti- mates, based on announcements as of mid-February Argentina 2009, cover 2009­10, because expenditures pro- South Africa grammed in this year may not be disbursed until one India or two years down the road (IMF 2009a). As a pro- Brazil portion of GDP, the largest packages to date (calcu- Turkey lated by averaging the ratio of fiscal stimulus to GDP over 2009­10) are those of China (2.9 percent), Rus- 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Percent sia (2.0 percent), and Mexico (1.5 percent), with the smallest measures among the G-20 developing coun- Source: IMF, Global Economic Update, March 26, 2009. tries being taken by India (0.5 percent), Brazil (0.3 percent), and Turkey (0 percent) (figure 3.18).11 The factors that explain these differences in- The financial crisis also will lead to a deterio- clude the extent of automatic stabilizers and the ration of developing countries' fiscal accounts amount of "fiscal space" available in each country, through several channels over which governments both of which vary widely from one country to lack immediate control--chief among them auto- another. For example, China's relatively low deficit, matic stabilizers, reductions in tax revenues (dri- low level of public debt, and low interest rates be- ven by declines in equity prices, housing prices, fore the onset of the crisis leave it in a compara- and financial sector profits), decreased revenues tively favorable position to increase the nation's from commodity sales, and rising risk premiums fiscal deficit. But other countries are saddled with on government debt. The IMF estimates that fiscal higher levels of public debt (India) or higher interest deficits in the G-20 developing countries from rates (Brazil and Turkey), making it more difficult these nondiscretionary channels will be about for them to finance larger deficits. 3 percent of GDP in 2009 (IMF 2009a). 91 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Figure 3.19 Developing countries with fiscal efficient international framework to support deficits exceeding 3 percent of GDP at the onset of long-term growth. Opportunities for cooperation the financial crisis should be sought in four broad categories: Percentage of GDP; most recent value 0 · Fiscal and monetary policies · Stronger international financial regulations to 5 improve transparency and avoid excessive 10 risks that threaten stability · Greater resources for supranational financial 15 institutions · A more substantial role for developing coun- 20 tries in shaping the global financial order. 25 Coordination of fiscal and monetary policy 30 in advanced countries will continue to play . es bia nisia Rep ador itius a prominent role in the short term i Lanka Faso ysia Jordan PolandTu MaldivLebanon Ethiopia Namibia ab Albania Sr Tajikistan kina Pakistan Mala Colom Ar Salv Maur Since the onset of the crisis, central banks in the El Bur ypt, Eg industrial countries have worked in concert to support economic activity through massive lend- Source: World Bank. ing and sharp reductions in interest rates. By April 2009, the Federal Reserve's interest rate target had The lack of fiscal space poses a particularly been lowered to a range of 0­0.25 percent, and the serious challenge for many developing countries, Bank of Canada's and the Bank of England's to including many small low-income countries that 0.5 percent. The European Central Bank's rate lack significant local capital markets and where stood at 1.0 percent. With the zero bound on in- the monetization of large fiscal deficits could lead terest rates fast approaching, central banks have to inflation and capital outflows. Either of those turned to "quantitative easing"--expanding the results would exacerbate, rather than ameliorate, money supply directly through purchases of vari- economic weakness. Seventeen developing coun- ous securities--to provide further monetary stimu- tries were running relatively large fiscal deficits at lus. The Federal Reserve increased swap facilities the onset of the financial crisis (figure 3.19)--they for other central banks whose commercial banks are not likely to be able to undertake further fiscal needed access to dollar liquidity, extended the measures to support demand. term of existing facilities, widened the scope of Unless further external assistance is provided acceptable collateral, and broadened the scope of from official sources, those emerging market and institutions (including investment banks) that developing countries that have cramped fiscal space could access Federal Reserve lending. Other central will have to carefully prioritize their spending so banks--including the Bank of Canada, the Bank that they achieve an appropriate balance between of England, the European Central Bank, and the protecting vulnerable groups while preserving the Swiss National Bank--also expanded their liquid- components of government spending that are likely ity provisions and coordinated their announce- to have the greatest direct and indirect effect on ments of the extended facilities. To support com- growth, and poverty reduction. mercial banks, governments have purchased impaired assets, expanded guarantees, and in- jected capital. Most recently, the Bank of England The financial crisis has increased the and the Federal Reserve purchased long-term gov- importance of policy coordination ernment bonds in an attempt to lower long-term T he breadth and severity of the financial crisis rates and encourage purchases of corporate bonds. underline the importance of cooperative In a few instances, the absence of further efforts by both high-income and developing coordination has led to problems. When Ireland countries to foster recovery and establish a more initially guaranteed the deposits of domestic banks 92 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D only, the move provoked runs on branches of for- because some of the expansionary effects will spill eign banks operating in the country. Ireland later over to other countries, and because any one coun- extended the guarantee to all banks operating in try acting alone--even the United States--may Ireland, and other European countries also reasonably fear that increases in government debt widened the scope of their deposit insurance. will cause investors to lose confidence in that These policy measures have begun to ease country's fiscal sustainability and so withdraw liquidity conditions in global interbank markets, financing. These constraints can be lessened only with the LIBOR (London interbank offered rate) by a firm and credible commitment to global coor- and other key lending rates declining since late-Sep- dination of fiscal expansion. tember (although they are still hovering well above Governments' willingness to coordinate their pre-crisis levels). The same policies, however, will policies also can help reestablish confidence by present a significant challenge over the medium ruling out beggar-thy-neighbor responses to the term. The Bank of England and the Federal Reserve crisis. The danger that special interests will use have greatly expanded their balance sheets, taking trade policy to protect particular industries is espe- on exposure to a wide range of risky assets. This ex- cially acute in a downturn. In this context, recent posure will present the monetary authorities with a proposals in the United States and elsewhere to re- delicate balancing act once signs of a recovery are quire that funds appropriated for fiscal stimulus confirmed. Withdrawing liquidity from the finan- must be spent exclusively on domestically pro- cial system prematurely runs the risk of stalling the duced goods and services are extremely worri- recovery before it gets fully engaged; waiting too some. A joint international commitment to main- long runs the risk that the excess liquidity could ig- taining open markets for goods and services, such nite inflationary pressures. The implications of ex- as that highlighted at the G-20 Leaders' Summit in plicit sovereign guarantees of commercial banks' April 2009, must be a central feature of govern- assets and liabilities, and the potential for substan- ments' policy responses. tial contingent liabilities associated with corpora- tions deemed "too big to fail," have yet to be fully appreciated and assessed. Government commit- Reform of the international financial system ments will have to be financed, if not through taxa- is a top priority over the medium term tion, then through the issuance of debt obligations. The financial crisis and ensuing global economic As the fiscal implications of such commitments are downturn have raised fundamental questions about factored in, interest-rate expectations will adjust the role of financial markets in the global economy upward, raising the cost of capital for all borrow- and triggered demands for equally fundamental ers, including those in developing countries. Also, structural reforms to prevent a crisis of such severity the extensive state intervention in virtually all as- from recurring (see box 3.4 for a discussion of the pects of banking--including funding, loan portfo- link between the financial origins of the crisis and lio, and compensation and dividend policies--will the economic downturn).12 But significant reform of need to be managed effectively to avoid impairing the global financial system is inconceivable without these institutions' efficiency. policy coordination. Although globalization of mar- In addition to monetary action, several coun- kets and industries has multiplied the policy links tries also have undertaken fiscal expansion to spur among countries, the institutional mechanisms for recovery (see the previous section of this chapter coordinating those policies have not kept pace. and chapter 1). While the case for fiscal policy Those institutional mechanisms will now have to coordination is weak in normal times--because catch up fast. countries normally face very different challenges At their April summit, the G-20 leaders and priorities--it is called for today, because all announced an ambitious reform agenda aimed at countries are facing the same prospect of inade- preventing the excesses that characterized the quate global demand. Stimulating aggregate de- latest period of overlending and excessive risk mand through fiscal expansion is in everyone's taking, along with several concrete initiatives interest at the moment, but each country will be designed to strengthen the international financial reluctant to undertake it on the necessary scale system. A durable revival of economic activity 93 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Box 3.4 The origins of the financial crisis O ver the past six years, the global economy has low credit scores and by increasing levels of debt finance witnessed a classic boom-and-bust cycle, with asset predicated on ever-increasing prices. As housing prices prices far outstripping fundamental values in the boom turned downwards in 2006, the most over-extended bor- and then crashing, ushering in the most severe global rowers defaulted on their loans and/or unloaded their recession since the 1930s. houses on the market, further depressing prices and lead- The boom. The collapse of financial markets and the ing to more sales and foreclosures, in a downward spiral global recession had their roots in the 2003­07 boom, when that has reduced U.S. housing prices by more than a third global growth averaged about 5 percent (its highest sus- from the peak. tained rate since the 1970s) and equity markets and com- While the decline in U.S. housing prices had been an- modity prices surged. The decline in risk-free interest rates ticipated (see, for example, Shiller 2006), the financial con- (the U.S. Federal funds rate fell from 6 percent in early 2001 sequences were surprising. A number of financial institu- to 1 percent by mid-2003) precipitated a search for yield tions in major financial centers (notably the United States, that sharply increased the demand for more risky assets. For the United Kingdom, Germany, France, the Netherlands, example, one-year adjustable U.S. mortgage rates fell from Australia, and Canada) reported large losses on U.S. sub- 7.25 percent in late 2000 to 3.5 percent in mid-2004, while prime mortgage assets, sparking a sell-off of assets to meet capital flows to developing countries reached record levels margin calls and redemption orders in the case of some and spreads on emerging-market bonds narrowed sharply hedge funds. Write-downs on credit losses prompted indi- (see chapter 2). The boom was facilitated by financial inno- vidual banks to sell assets to restore capital ratios, which vations, including the explosion in securitized instruments in the aggregate further reduced asset values and thus and structured financial products (particularly collateralized worsened capital ratios. Investors became more concerned debt obligations), and was marked by a sharp increase in over both the likely extent of losses on high-risk invest- leverage throughout major financial systems. ments and the exposure of financial institutions, resulting Monetary authorities were initially reluctant to reduce in a flight to safety (U.S. Treasuries and bank deposits sub- asset-price inflation through tighter credit for fear of chok- ject to expanded guarantees) that severely depressed equity ing off the economic recovery. At the same time, regulators failed to rein in the rise in financial sector leverage, for sev- Spread between U.S. dollar London Interbank Offer eral reasons. Rising asset prices and opaque derivative in- Rate and the overnight index swap rate struments masked the risks confronting banks' capital posi- Basis points tions. A growing share of maturity transformation (formerly dominated by banks) was undertaken by the "shadow 400 banking system" through banks' off-balance-sheet transac- 350 tions or by institutions (such as investment banks) that were 300 not subject to the same level of regulation as deposit-holding 250 institutions. Moreover, regulators had increased their 200 reliance on banks' own evaluation of their capital positions, 150 which often failed to adequately reflect systemic risks. 100 The financial meltdown. The first crack in rising 50 global asset prices came in the U.S. housing sector. The 0 Case-Shiller index of U.S. housing prices nearly doubled from the first quarter of 2000 to the second quarter of 2007 .2007 .2007 2008 2008 2009 v .2008y 2008 .2008 .2008 v .2009y 2009 2006, fed by the growing involvement of purchasers with Jul. Sep No Jan. Mar Ma Jul. Sep No Jan. Mar Ma now hinges on working out detailed financial re- must be monitored and regulated; markets for forms in the following areas: those instruments must be transparent. · All institutions--banks and nonbanks alike-- · Governments must widen the scope of financial whose failure would compromise the func- regulation and supervision across institutions tioning of the entire financial system must be and financial instruments. The origination and regulated. None should be able to avoid regu- propagation of complex financial instruments lation through affiliates or off-balance-sheet 94 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D prices and raised yields on most investments. High-yield Firms that had traditionally relied on commercial paper corporate bond issues plummeted, the asset-backed com- and money markets to finance working capital experienced mercial paper market collapsed, and short-term money a sharp decline in access to finance. While bank lending did markets experienced massive outflows. not decline markedly, credit generated by the shadow bank- The collapse in asset values was greater and more ing system collapsed. The impact of the initial credit crunch destructive than expected. The mathematical models was exacerbated by cutbacks by firms determined to avoid used to evaluate highly complex derivative instruments massive losses in an uncertain environment. As time went tended not to reflect low-probability events, such as on, falling demand reduced profits and employment the systemic collapse that actually occurred. Moreover, throughout high-income economies. And households faced financial innovations had increased the procyclical with massive wealth losses (on the order of $15 trillion in nature of asset price changes.a The asset-price collapse the U.S. housing and financial markets alone-Weller and had a severe impact on banks because (contrary to one Lynch 2009) and uncertain employment prospects theory about the virtues of securitization) they had failed sharply increased savings, further depressing economic to offload much of the risks of securitized transactions, activity. The severity of the ensuing recession is discussed or for reputational reasons felt compelled to reabsorb in chapter 1. distressed Structured Investment Vehicles onto their Initially, many emerging markets appeared to enjoy balance sheets as the crisis worsened. some measure of insulation from the crisis in industrial The size of market disruptions can be seen in the un- countries, owing to improved policies that limited foreign precedented rise in the spread between the London Inter- currency borrowing, encouraged the development of local bank Offer Rate and the overnight index swap rate, an in- bond markets, reduced inflation and fiscal deficits, and in- dicator of market liquidity and risk. (See box figure, in creased international reserves. However, over time the seri- particular the shaded sections, which reflect the initial real- ous implications of the crisis for growth in developing ization of large losses on U.S. subprime mortgage assets, countries have become clear. The crisis has been transmit- the suspension of redemptions on some investment funds ted to developing countries through several channels: the by Bear Stearns and BNP Paribas, and the U.K. rescue of value of developing countries' overseas financial assets Northern Rock in the summer of 2007; the announcement have declined, in part through private-sector losses on de- of large write-downs by UBS and Lehman Brothers in rivative transactions; developing countries' access to for- December 2007; and the extreme financial turbulence eign bank lending, international capital markets, and for- initiated by the collapse of Lehman, U. S. government eign direct investment has deteriorated markedly; and the conservatorship of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and volumes and prices of their exports have plunged. Those government intervention in the American International likely to suffer the greatest impact are low-income coun- Group in the fall of 2008.) tries that are dependent on commodity exports, countries The impact. The crisis in financial markets, coupled with large current account deficits, and countries that have with self-reinforcing cyclical adjustments, precipitated a built up large stocks of foreign currency debt. sharp decline in economic activity in industrial countries. ________ a. This occurred because of increased participation by institutions with fixed rules for asset sales based on changes in credit ratings (e.g., insurance compa- nies), increased reliance on market value or credit ratings to trigger asset sales (e.g., provisions for the sale of junior classes of SIV holders to protect senior classes), and arrangements that increased collateral requirements as the credit ratings of counterparties fell (FSA 2009). holdings. In keeping with the widening of the originators of complex instruments should re- financial safety net in the United States from tain some exposure to them, so that they have commercial banks to broker-dealers and in- a continuing incentive to monitor the underly- vestment banks, all of the latter must also ing risks. Without necessarily becoming the come under the regulatory umbrella. object of regulation, the compensation paid by · Incentives must be revised to diminish short- financial-sector firms should be based on run risk taking. In particular, regulators should longer-term performance, not just the current revise the Basel II capital requirements to better year's return. reflect underlying risks and to minimize the · Regulators also need to strengthen the report- procyclicality of regulation.13 Banks also must ing requirements applicable to institutions that be required to maintain adequate liquidity. The are deemed not to be systemically important 95 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 (hedge funds, for example) and to scrutinize international body. Shoring up the roles of the Bank the activities of the agencies that rate the credit- for International Settlements and the Financial worthiness of firms and governments. Stability Forum in sharing information and iden- tifying international best practice would be a The measures that need to be taken vary from useful way of supporting more effective national country to country, because not all countries expe- regulation. rienced various regulatory failures to the same ex- The willingness to harmonize regulatory re- tent. Clearly, the initial problems related to sub- form is likely to be influenced by the stage of the prime mortgage markets and their securitizations financial crisis. While the present state of the finan- arose in the United States, and some of the needed cial arena provides a keen incentive for harmoniza- reforms are specific to that country, including re- tion, regulatory cooperation is resisted in normal forms related to the coordination of regulatory times as countries seek to protect or advance the responsibilities at the federal level and between competitive advantage of the financial firms located the states and various federal agencies. However, within their territory. However, the incentive for co- other countries also experienced a housing bubble operation among national regulators changes with and overlending by their banks, and lax regulation shifts in the tradeoff that regulators face between helped permit their purchases of U.S. mortgage- safeguarding national competitiveness and promot- backed securities without adequately accounting ing financial stability. A downward shock to confi- for risks. dence in financial stability makes increased regula- In the current era of globalized financial mar- tion desirable and provides an incentive for kets, national regulation can become ineffective if regulators to harmonize, because only by doing so not backed up by international policy coordina- can they avoid jeopardizing the international com- tion. At present, inadequate regulation in one petitiveness of their financial sectors. The most pro- country can have major repercussions in others. pitious time for action is during a crisis. Lack of coordination on minimum standards may Annex 3A provides a formal model of regula- lead to "regulatory arbitrage," as banks shift tory coordination, in which policy is chosen opti- activities to the country where regulation is most mally by each country to maximize an objective accommodating. The prospect of such arbitrage function that includes both maintaining competi- may induce each country to avoid imposing a com- tiveness and promoting financial stability. The petitive disadvantage on its own banks through model suggests that the gains from coordination too-stringent regulation. By contrast, an agreement may be largest when there is a large common by all financial center countries to impose mini- shock to confidence. Thus, it may be important to mum standards would offset the incentive to adopt seize the initiative while the current crisis prevails, regulatory laxity. And the increased confidence that because a return to normal times may remove the may be expected from financial reform may be fur- incentives to regulate adequately at the national ther enhanced by evidence that countries share the level and to coordinate regulation optimally at the same perspective on the required changes. A first international level. In the limiting case where fi- step in this direction was taken at the G-20 summit nancial stability is a global public good that is not in London. Moreover, the increased scope of cen- differentiated across countries, each country will tral bank regulation and supervision, along with want others to take action--each will want to be a the expansion of the lender-of-last-resort function free rider. In these circumstances it will be espe- to global nonbank financial institutions, will re- cially important to put in place global mechanisms quire increased cooperation.14 to strengthen regulation, because otherwise no Although the task of designing and implement- country will provide adequate regulation. In the ing reforms to strengthen financial markets and past, agreement among the hosts of the major fi- regulatory regimes cannot end with national regula- nancial centers--principally the United States and tors, it must begin with them. The actions of - the United Kingdom, with the support of Japan-- national regulators, which have the best access to has ensured some measure of global regulation information on their own financial institutions, (Masson and Pattison 2009), but the dispersion must be strengthened and harmonized--and not and globalization of financial centers have weak- superseded by a shifting of responsibility to an ened this discipline. 96 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D Recent initiatives adopted by the G-20 coun- swaps for sovereign and corporate debt that is not tries to strengthen international frameworks for widely traded. Over-the-counter derivative contracts prudential regulation are unlikely to have a major are more suitable for thinly traded assets, but they impact on the short-term prospects for capital carry the cost of higher counterparty risk. flows to developing countries. The G-20 leaders Measures taken to recapitalize commercial agreed to leave the international standard for min- banks with public funds have introduced pressures imum capital adequacy unchanged until recovery to force banks to concentrate their lending in the is assured. Guidelines for harmonization of the de- domestic market at the expense of cross-border finition of capital are to be produced by the end of lending--the so-called home bias in lending prac- 2009, and the Basel Committee on Banking Super- tices. Given the severity of present economic con- vision is expected to make recommendations on ditions, political pressures along these lines could capital adequacy levels in 2010. The recommenda- spread widely throughout the financial system, tions are likely to include raising minimum regula- curtailing the supply of private debt flows to de- tory levels for capital, enhancing the overall qual- veloping countries. ity of capital reserves, and developing a global framework for promoting stronger liquidity Confidence in the international financial buffers. Regulatory changes along such lines, system must be restored however necessary and desirable they may be, will On a final note, it is important to recognize how temporarily reduce the lending capacity of interna- the severity of the current crisis has undermined tional financial institutions--until the new re- confidence in the international financial system quirements are fully absorbed by the system. This (annex 3B). Many economic and financial indica- means that cross-border bank lending may be tors have exhibited unprecedented declines, mov- more subdued during the recovery phase, com- ing us into uncharted territory in several respects. pared with previous episodes. Uncertainty surrounding the outlook remains at There is also a risk that measures undertaken to an all-time high, suggesting that a nascent global promote standardization of credit derivatives mar- recovery will be vulnerable to after-shocks of the kets, and to increase their resilience, could shrink the present crisis and may not survive any marked investor base for some segments of the emerging deterioration in financial conditions. The ability of market asset class. Requiring all transactions to be the international community to take cooperative channeled through central clearing exchanges could action in a timely manner and to make meaningful make it more difficult for investors to purchase less- progress on the key areas outlined above would go liquid derivative contracts, such as credit default a long way in restoring confidence. 97 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Annex 3A: Modeling the benefits of a coordinated regulatory response to common shocks to confidence T his annex develops a formal model of regula- for finance, which we consider later below, would tory coordination, in which policy is chosen set 1. optimally by each country to maximize an objec- Let us consider the optimal amount of regula- tive function that includes both maintaining com- tion for each economy, first when each economy petitiveness and promoting financial stability. The chooses it independently (that is, under a Nash model suggests that the gains from coordination equilibrium) and second when all economies coop- may be largest when there is a large common erate in choosing a common level of regulation to shock to confidence. maximize joint utility. Technically, let us consider a formal model patterned after the informal discussion of these is- The Nash equilibrium: independent regulation sues by Singer (2001), in which the objective func- Here, each country maximizes equation 3.3 sub- tion of national regulators depends on improving ject to equations 3.1 and 3.2. The first-order con- the competitiveness of the country's financial firms ditions yield as well as promoting financial stability (which Singer calls "confidence"). We will assume that the Ri Rj ui S* (3.4) stringency of regulation, R, affects both variables: in a two-country world, competitiveness C is pro- Solving the two countries' reaction functions portional to the difference in regulation, while sta- together gives bility S in both countries depends directly on the 1 1 country's own regulation but also on the other Ri 1 S* (3.5) 1 2 ui uj country's (but with a weight less than one). For- mally, for countries i 1, 2, (and j 2, 1, the Note that if the two countries' confidence shocks foreign country): are equal, ui uj u, then equation 3.5 simplifies to Ci (R j Ri ) (3.1) 1 Si Ri Rj ui (3.2) Ri 1 S* u (3.6) Ui Ci (Si S*)2 (3.3) It can be seen that regulation is lower by an where S* is some target level of financial stability amount that depends on the negative effect of reg- that is subject to a (negative) confidence shock. The ulation on competitiveness ( ) and inversely on regulator's utility function, equation 3.3, is linear the weight of stability in the objective function ( ), in competitiveness, but quadratic in financial sta- while also being affected by the impact of foreign bility because the regulator internalizes the ineffi- regulation on stability ( ). ciencies that result from overregulation: there is an optimal amount of stability. The justification for The cooperative equilibrium: joint decision the coefficient in equation 3.2, with 0 1, making is that a country's regulation has a comparative Suppose instead that the two countries collaborate advantage in furthering its own country financial and jointly choose regulation to maximize an stability, presumably because some financial ser- equally weighted average of their two utility func- vices are not traded. A perfectly globalized world tions. In this case, they maximize utility U with 98 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D respect to both countries' regulation R R1 R2 and Ui are the utilities of country i evaluated at N where utility is given by Nash and cooperative equilibriums. When ui uj 2 U U1 U2 C1 C2 (S1 S*)2 Ui 4 (3.10) (S2 S*)2 (3.7) Thus, when the shocks to confidence are iden- Solving for R gives an expression for optimal regu- tical, the gains from coordination are always posi- lation: tive and are independent of the shock itself. The shock is completely offset by the coordinated poli- 1 1 u1 u2 R 1 S* 1 2 (3.8) cies, which achieve the goal S* for financial stability as well as maintaining equal competitive positions. Note that equation 3.8 is very similar to equa- For the general case when ui uj the solution is tion 3.5, but it is not reduced by the objective of ambiguous (Dailami and Masson 2009). gaining a competitive advantage over the other country and it depends on the average shock to Globalization confidence. The cooperative equilibrium leads to The case of increased globalization can be studied greater regulation on average, because each coun- by letting 1. In the limiting case, with a com- try knows that it need not worry about the other mon shock u to confidence, the first-order condi- country's attempt to become more competitive. tions become indeterminate. In the case of inde- Let us consider in some detail the case of iden- pendent (Nash) policies, the first-order conditions tical shocks. If the two countries' confidence are given by shocks are the same, then 3.8 simplifies to 1 R1 R2 u S* (3.11) R 1 S* u (3.9) and which again is similar to equation 3.6 but with the omission of a negative term that reduces the R2 R1 u S* (3.12) amount of regulation in both countries. Thus, a Nash equilibrium results in a suboptimal amount These two equations cannot be solved for of regulation. The cooperative equilibrium produces individual values of R1, R2, only for their sum. higher welfare in both countries by providing greater Doing so implies that the total of regulation R1 regulation--if the two countries can agree to coop- R2 is set optimally at a point that trades off finan- erate and not to try to gain a competitive advan- cial stability for competitiveness. But this can be tage over the other. Doing so is self-defeating, done through any arbitrary sharing of the regula- because in the Nash equilibrium both countries tory burden. Given this indeterminacy, countries adopt the same policies, with the result that nei- would no doubt prefer that the other country did ther succeeds in becoming more competitive rela- the regulating. In these circumstances, harmoniza- tive to the other. The gain in utility from coopera- tion would be necessary to rule out a downward tion can be written as Ui UiC Ui , where Ui N C spiral of deregulation. 99 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Annex 3B: A framework for measuring investor confidence R estoring confidence is a crucial step in repair- Brandt and Kavajecz 2004; Goldberg and Leonard ing financial markets and lifting the global 2003)--we postulate four dimensions of investor economy out of recession. How to measure confi- confidence: market volatility, market performance, dence, however, and how to go about restoring it, macroeconomic news, and government responses. are complex. This annex describes a framework We deal with each in turn. for gauging changes in investor confidence that Volatility. First, investor sentiment is strongly have potentially important market consequences. influenced by abnormal volatility in the market- Confidence in markets, institutions, and financial place, particularly when it spans several asset strategies depends on investors' beliefs about the classes, signaling an overall climate of uncertainty trends and dynamics of market expectations, the and risk aversion. In recent months, global equity, effect of policy on economic fundamentals (includ- credit, commodity, and foreign exchange markets ing the paths of employment, trade, housing all have shown record volatility (figure 3A.1). prices, and industrial production), and fallible Investment performance. Second, investors' human judgment. confidence is related to the performance of their Drawing on insights from three strands of investments, as measured by wealth creation or literature--behavioral finance (Thaler 1985, 1987; destruction. The contraction of financial wealth Loewenstein and Elster 1992; Nisbett and Ross that has occurred during the current crisis is 1980), investor sentiment (Barberis, Shleifer, and greater than any since the Great Depression. Vishny 1997; Froot, O'Connell, and Seasholes Macroeconomic indicators. Third, investors 2001; Froot and Ramadorai 2008), and market and traders typically look at a broad array of reaction to macroeconomic news (Balduzzi 2001; macroeconomic reports that provide insights into Figure 3A.1 Record volatility in the global equity, credit, commodity, and foreign exchange markets, May 2007­April 2009 Index value (normalized May 10, 2007 = 1) 6 Market volatility has increased VIX (equity) 5 MOVE (bond price) 4 3 2 OVX (crude oil price) 1 CVIX (forex) 0 2007 2007 2007 . 2007 2008 . 2008 2008 2008 2008 . 2008 2008 . 2009 May Jul. Sep. Nov Jan. Mar May Jul. Sep. Nov Jan. Mar Source: Bloomberg. 100 C H A R T I N G A C O U R S E A H E A D economic fundamentals and shape perceptions of assets, particularly equities (www.statestreet.com/ the future state of the economy. Relevant data investorconfidenceindex). The more investors are series include monthly payrolls, industrial produc- willing to allocate assets to equities, the theory tion, sales and trade data, personal income, and goes, the greater their risk appetite and confi- housing starts. These data typically lag behind the dence. An alternative proxy for confidence used in financial data, but throughout 2008 and into 2009 the literature (Qiu and Welch 2004) is a measure the one-sided stream of negative economic news of consumer sentiment or confidence. It provides a had a dramatic impact on confidence. survey-based measure of sentiment and has the Government policy pronouncements. Fourth, additional advantage of offering comparable data market participants and traders pay close atten- on a regular basis for several countries. tion to the stance of government policy makers We use both market- and survey-based prox- and continually assess the credibility of their ies to gauge investors' confidence, combining them words and actions. Governments can influence in- with measures of consumer confidence in Canada, vestors' confidence in many ways: through macro- Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the economic policy (for example, by easing monetary United States to extract a common global index, policy or providing fiscal stimulus), through regu- using the well-established method of principal latory policy, and through other legislative actions component analysis. This composite index is that can strengthen transparency and enhance cor- closely correlated with State Street's index of in- porate financial disclosure and integrity (for exam- vestor confidence (figure 3A.2), revealing that ple, actions taken by the U.S. government in the generally optimistic or pessimistic views about the aftermath of the Enron and Worldcom accounting economy translate into views on equity market scandals). conditions, and vice versa. A variety of market- and survey-based indica- The two approaches to measuring confi- tors are used to track and report consumer confi- dence generally confirm that investors care about dence, investor sentiment, and business confidence market volatility, the macroeconomic environ- concerning the future course of markets and the ment, and the performance of equity markets, as economy at large. A well-established market-based vindicated by the econometric results reported in index of investor confidence is provided by State table 3A.1. They also suggest that restoring in- Street Global Markets. It is based on measure- vestor confidence is a prerequisite for consumer ments of institutional investors' holdings of risky sentiment and a change in aggregate demand. Figure 3A.2 Correlation of authors' composite global index of consumer confidence with State Street index of investor confidence Consumer confidence common factor State Street investor index and 1.5 140 consumer confidence factor 1.5 State Street index (LHS) 1.0 120 1.0 Fitted model 1 0.5 0.5 100 0.0 0.0 0.5 80 Consumer 0.5 1.0 confidence 60 factor 1.0 1.5 Fitted model 2 Consumer 40 confidence factor 1.5 2.0 20 Sample correlation: 0.4 2.5 2.0 Since Jan. 2004: 0.7 3.0 0 2.5 2001m12001m72002m12002m72003m12003m72004m12004m72005m12005m72006m12006m72007m12007m72008m12008m72009m1 2001m12001m72002m12002m72003m12003m72004m12004m72005m12005m72006m12006m72007m12007m72008m12008m72009m1 Source: Dailami and Masson 2009. 101 G L O B A L D E V E L O P M E N T F I N A N C E 2 0 0 9 Table 3A.1 Evidence that investors' confidence is 7. Legislation containing the Fourth Amendment is shaped by a combination of factors currently under consideration in the U.S. Congress. 8. Capital controls could reduce the effective demand Dependent variable: consumer confidence factor for imports by imposing government rationing of foreign CC Volatility Macro Equities 1 2 3 exchange. Model 1 Model 2 9. For example, in March the U.S. Congressional Bud- get Office estimated the deficit for fiscal 2009 (October to 0.273*** 0.301*** Volatility factor September) at about $1.8 trillion, or 13 percent of U.S. GDP (0.056) (0.059) much greater than the December OECD forecast of less 0.233*** Macro environment factor than 7 percent. The $1 trillion toxic asset removal plan an- (0.056) nounced on March 23 by the Obama administration will 0.237*** Macro environment factor (t 1) further increase the deficit for 2009 and beyond. (0.051) 0.012*** 0.013*** 10. ODA expenditures that are tied to domestic pro- MSCI Developed World (0.003) (0.003) ducers may boost the demand for local products and thus be 0.050 0.069* more favored than general ODA. Constant (0.042) (0.040) 11. China and South Africa introduced stimulus mea- Observations 97 97 sures in 2008. 12. Several wide-ranging studies have argued that the R-squared 0.72 0.75 laxity of financial regulation and inadequacies in the man- Source: World Bank staff. agement of financial institutions were major contributors to Note: The dependent variable in the table is a common factor of the crisis. See, for instance, IIF (2008), the Group of Thirty consumer confidence indexes from Canada, Germany, Japan, the (2009), and Brunnermeier and others (2009). United Kingdom, and the United States. Volatility is the monthly 13. Capital requirements tend not to be binding in an average of the predicted daily common volatility of eight variables: upturn, because asset valuations are high and risk assess- VIX, US$/euro, US$/yen, US$/sterling, agriculture commodities ments optimistic, with the opposite occurring in a down- price index, energy price index, industrial metals price index, and turn. However, regulation should be more stringent in the the TED spread. The macroeconomic environment factor is the pre- upturn than in the downturn. dicted common factor across industrial production, employment, and export growth rates (year-on-year) in Germany, Japan, the 14. Buiter (2007) characterizes this expanded central United Kingdom, and the United States. Equity market growth is bank role as "market maker of last resort." Pervasive securi- represented by the change (year-on-year) in the MSCI for developed tization implies that stability in bank-based lending is not economies. The estimation sample covers the period from January sufficient to ensure even the basic functioning of the finan- 2001 to January 2009. cial system. Notes References 1. This calculation is based on data from the World Bank Debtor Reporting System (DRS) comparing private Balduzzi, P., E. Elton, and T. Green. 2001. 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With exports sharply down, companies moved to cut produc- 15 Malaysia tion and investment, while households have curbed consumption amid rising layoffs and eco- 30 nomic uncertainty. Countries more dependent on Thailand exports, especially on single products or single 45 East Asia and Pacific (excluding China)** markets, have seen activity fall faster and, in gen- eral, harder. Growth began slowing in most coun- 60 tries in the second quarter of 2008 and weakened 2007 y 2007 .2007 2008 y 2008 .2008 2009 sharply by the fourth, when all newly industrial- Jan. Ma Sep Jan. Ma Sep Jan. ized economies (NIEs) including Hong Kong, Source: World Bank data through Thomson Datastream. China; the Republic of Korea; Singapore; and Note: **Recent production data for China has been distorted by Taiwan, China, were in recession and output was vagaries of timing of the Chinese New Year--yielding difficulties in seasonally adjusting the data for presentation. contracting in Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand, measured in seasonally adjusted annual growth terms (saar). The pace of economic expan- banks have been largely unscathed by the interna- sion slumped further during the first quarter of tional financial turmoil, and it has the fiscal and 2009, with GDP in several NIEs falling at double- macroeconomic space to implement forceful stim- digit rates, and growth in the developing region ulus measures. A large government investment slumping to 3.5 percent (saar). Still, high- program, equivalent to 12 percent of 2008 GDP, frequency indicators, such as manufacturing was announced in late 2008. And combined with production, suggested that the pace of decline was monetary easing and other measures, domestic de- beginning to moderate (figure A.1). mand appears to be bottoming out, partly offset- China remains a brighter spot within the re- ting weak external demand and the effects of gion and the global economy, amid signs that the earlier efforts to combat overheating. Real GDP fall off in economic activity may be reaching a bot- growth eased to a 10-year low 6.1 percent in the tom there. The country is weathering the financial first quarter of 2009 (year-on-year) from 9 percent and economic crisis better than many others be- for 2008 as a whole and a record 13 percent in cause it does not rely on external financing, its 2007. 105 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Indonesia's slowdown came relatively late countries and Vietnam, cuts in rates for minimum and, so far, has been more moderate than that of required reserves (China, Indonesia for dollar de- many other countries in the region. Though the posits, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam), expansion of all components of GDP slowed in increases in rates paid on required reserves (Indo- late 2008, growth for the year amounted to nesia and Vietnam), and extensions of the cover- 6.1 percent, a pace little changed from 2007. But age and maturity of central bank obligations. The further decline in exports and slower consumption central bank of China also added to liquidity by and investment spending caused growth to fade to redeeming local-currency assets earlier. Several 4.4 percent in the first quarter of 2009 (year-on- countries also extended their deposit guarantee year). In Thailand, contracting foreign demand schemes to cover most or all deposits. combined with the impact of political uncertainty The middle-income countries of East Asia are weighed heavily on economic activity, transform- actively using fiscal policy to boost domestic de- ing the slow expansion of early 2008 into contrac- mand. The stimulus packages in aggregate are tion by the fourth quarter at a sharp 22 percent equivalent to 3.6 percent of regional GDP, with the pace (saar), while output continued to decline at a measures to be implemented in 2009 amounting to 7.3 percent annualized pace during the first quar- another 1.7 percent of GDP and most of the re- ter of 2009. mainder to be delivered in 2010. The role of auto- Cambodia experienced the sharpest growth matic stabilizers is smaller in East Asia than in slowdown in developing East Asia and Pacific. Ex- other regions, leaving the deterioration of fiscal ports, most of which are garments shipped to the balances broadly in line with that of the more de- United States, have suffered badly, as has construc- veloped countries. Nonetheless, the developing tion after a sharp downward correction in housing countries of East Asia have been more forceful prices, as well as lending and tourism. Real GDP than other groups in delivering support to economic growth slowed to 6.7 percent in 2008 following activity. 10.2 percent gains in 2007. In contrast, Vietnam's All middle-income countries have introduced growth slowed by much less in 2008 as the govern- discretionary fiscal stimulus packages. The low- ment tackled the threat of an overheating domestic income countries, typically with limited or no fiscal economy decisively starting in late 2007. In re- space and weak or limited absorptive and adminis- sponse to the first shock of the current crisis, the au- trative capacity, have been working to obtain a thorities shifted emphasis from growth to stabiliza- boost in external aid to create room for additional tion in March 2008. By November 2008, they outlays. Discretionary cuts in tax rates and in- shifted once more to supporting economic activity creases in spending have combined with lower rev- through large interest rate reductions, injections of enues in line with weaker growth and declining liquidity, and a fiscal stimulus package. The slow- commodity prices to increase fiscal deficits down in growth was limited to 6.2 percent in 2008 throughout the region. The largest increases have from 8.5 percent in 2007. been in China and Thailand, countries considered Facilitated by declining inflation (consumer to have the largest available fiscal space. There prices have eased substantially across East Asia as are substantial variations across fiscal packages, the food and fuel hikes of 2007­08 had more-than notably in the size, in the share of tax cuts versus fully unwound by mid-2009), and in response to expenditure increases or other measures, and in weakening economic activity and the impacts of whether the proposals target just 2009 or the international financial crisis, monetary author- 2009­2010. The packages in China and the ities in many countries have cut key policy interest Philippines incorporate measures to be financed by rates and employed other measures to help sustain both the public and private sectors. In contrast, domestic liquidity and the availability of credit. the package in Malaysia includes sizable credit Against a background of sound banking systems in guarantees and equity investments that do not add most countries, these measures have ensured that to the public sector deficit. liquidity in local currency has remained broadly Capital inflows diminish in 2008. Amid the adequate, and interbank rates have declined or re- surge and decline in commodity prices and the mained stable. Policy actions included reductions sharp contraction in trade during late 2008, cur- in key central bank policy rates in all middle-income rent account balances improved only in China and 106 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Malaysia, both countries with surpluses, and in weaken substantially. After peaking in 2007, net the Lao People's Democratic Republic, a country capital flows to East Asia and Pacific began slow- with a large deficit. In China, the surplus rose fur- ing in early 2008 before shifting to outflows dur- ther in 2008 in dollar terms, while monthly out- ing the second quarter in Malaysia and the NIEs; comes climbed to record highs late in the year as a and in the later part of the year in China and sharp decline in trade took firmer hold, but weak- Indonesia. For the region as a whole, a notable ened relative to GDP to about 10 percent. In Lao softening in portfolio equity flows, bond issuance PDR, commodity exports rose briskly in 2008 and and bank borrowing was in evidence in 2008, despite the decline in prices, outstripped the in- while FDI retained a relatively firm tone on crease in exports in value terms. While the full- average, increasing by $10 billion in the year year external shortfall worsened modestly in to $185 billion. Excluding official flows, resident Vietnam to about 10 percent of GDP, determined lending abroad, and errors and omissions items, policy measures to combat overheating have suc- private capital flows to the region fell from about ceeded in cooling the economy and have con- $280 billion in 2007 to $203 billion in 2008 tributed to a shift in recent months from a trade (table A.1). deficit to a surplus. In contrast to these develop- Nonresidents continued to sell equities, and in ments, current account balances worsened in the the second half of 2008, shifted to selling debt secu- rest of the region. For the developing countries of rities and selectively withdrawing bank deposits East Asia, the aggregate current account surplus held with domestic banks. Inflows of foreign direct decreased from 9.5 percent of GDP in 2007 to investment slowed sharply in the second half of 8.1 percent for 2008; but when China is excluded 2008, as companies completed projects that had these figures shift dramatically to a surplus of 5.2 already been started but delayed new commitments and 2.8 percent of GDP. and new construction. In some countries, earlier Global demand for developing-country assets agreed projects were cancelled, notably in real es- decreased amid increased risk aversion, ongoing tate development, mining, and manufacturing. deleveraging, and weaker growth prospects, caus- Lending by foreign banks also slowed sharply dur- ing capital flows to countries in the region to ing the year. Repayments to foreign banks began Table A.1 Net capital flows to East Asia and Pacific $ billions Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008p Current account balance 53.9 70.3 88.4 174.9 282.6 387.9 396.9 as % of GDP 2.7 3.1 3.4 5.8 8.3 9.5 8.1 Net private and official inflows 53.0 74.7 125.0 184.7 196.5 278.3 201.2 Net private inflows 60.7 81.9 130.2 187.6 206.0 281.2 203.0 Net equity inflows 63.2 69.3 89.6 130.1 161.4 210.5 192.5 Net FDI inflows 59.4 56.8 70.3 104.4 105.2 175.3 185.1 Net portfolio equity inflows 3.8 12.5 19.3 25.7 56.2 35.2 7.4 Net debt flows 10.2 5.4 35.4 54.6 35.1 67.8 8.7 Official creditors 7.7 7.2 5.2 2.9 9.5 2.9 1.8 World Bank 1.7 1.5 1.9 0.6 0.4 0.3 1.2 IMF 2.7 0.5 1.6 1.6 8.5 0.0 0.0 Other official 3.3 5.2 1.7 0.7 0.6 2.6 3.0 Private creditors 2.5 12.6 40.6 57.5 44.6 70.7 10.5 Net M-L term debt flows 12.4 9.7 7.9 12.1 15.4 28.1 16.2 Bonds 0.1 1.8 9.6 12.1 5.6 2.3 2.2 Banks 10.2 8.4 0.4 2.0 11.4 26.2 14.0 Other private 2.3 3.1 2.1 2.0 1.6 0.4 0.0 Net short-term debt flows 9.9 22.3 32.7 45.4 29.2 42.6 5.7 Balancing itema 17.5 7.7 23.4 143.3 187.1 130.8 170.2 Change in reserves ( increase) 89.4 137.3 236.8 216.3 291.9 535.4 427.9 Workers' remittances 29.5 35.4 39.2 46.7 53.0 65.3 69.6 Source: World Bank. Note: p projected. a. Combination of errors and omissions and net acquisition of foreign assets (including FDI) by developing countries. 107 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S during the second and third quarters, limiting full- Saharan Africa. Given that developing East Asia's year inflows to less than $20 billion. The countries nominal GDP is barely a tenth of global output, with the largest bank repayments in 2008 were the however, the region's contribution to incremental Republic of Korea ($17 billion), Malaysia ($13 bil- global GDP will only partially offset the collapse lion), and China ($9 billion). in output in developed countries. If China is ex- cluded, however, developing East Asia's perfor- Outlook mance is expected to be lackluster. The reason lies Weaker exports and slower expansion in domestic in the openness of the economies in the region and demand are set to slow real GDP growth in devel- the tight production networks organized to serve oping East Asia to 5 percent in 2009 from 8 per- the markets in the United States (and to a lesser cent in 2008, despite determined fiscal and mone- extent Japan). But just as these structural charac- tary easing. Sluggishness in domestic demand teristics have pulled down the growth performance reflects slower growth or declining investment of these countries during the global downturn, spending by the private sector that is only partly they will serve to support their performance once offset by stronger government investment outlays global growth resumes. in the middle-income countries. At the same time, Developments in the region in 2009 will be in- household spending falters as precautionary sav- fluenced heavily by China (figure A.2). The slump ings balances are built, amid rising unemployment in global demand will cause China's exports to fall and slower wage increases (table A.2). this year, the first decline in decades. Nonetheless, Thanks to China, growth in developing East a large monetary and fiscal stimulus should help Asia and the Pacific will be the fastest among the partly offset the decline in exports and contain the world's regions. The region's contribution to slowdown in growth, projected at 6.5 percent for global GDP will remain the largest, equal in dollar 2009 as a whole, down from 9 percent in 2008. terms to the sum of the contributions from the With growth below potential, excess capacity is other three regions with positive impacts: South likely to restrain market-based investment and Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, and Sub- result in downward pressure on prices, following Table A.2 East Asia and Pacific forecast summary annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 7.4 9.8 11.4 8.0 5.0 6.6 7.8 GDP per capita (units in $) 6.3 8.9 10.5 7.2 4.2 5.8 7.0 PPP GDPc 7.3 9.7 11.3 8.0 5.0 6.6 7.8 Private consumption 5.9 7.1 9.5 6.5 5.0 5.7 7.1 Public consumption 8.3 8.2 10.4 9.9 9.8 9.5 8.3 Fixed investment 7.9 8.8 9.5 8.3 11.5 6.8 7.5 Exports, GNFSd 12.7 19.0 15.3 9.7 8.7 5.1 8.7 Imports, GNFSd 9.8 12.6 11.0 11.8 2.9 4.6 8.6 Net exports, contribution to growth 1.1 4.3 3.7 0.5 3.6 0.7 0.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.2 8.3 9.5 8.1 7.5 6.7 5.8 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 5.9 1.3 1.8 6.4 6.0 2.5 2.2 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) 1.7 0.6 0.3 0.9 3.9 4.6 3.8 Memo items: GDP East Asia excluding China 3.5 5.7 6.2 4.8 0.2 3.5 5.1 China 9.1 11.1 13.0 9.0 6.5 7.5 8.5 Indonesia 2.7 5.5 6.3 6.1 3.5 5.0 6.0 Thailand 2.7 5.3 4.9 2.7 3.2 2.2 3.1 Source: World Bank. Note: a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services. 108 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.2 China is key to East Asian prospects Looking beyond 2009, scope for faster recov- GDP growth in percent ery in the region will be helped by China but will ultimately depend on the pace of recovery in the 10 2008 advanced economies. Even under the assumption 2009 that a pickup in growth in developed countries be- 8 2010 gins in 2010, a sizable output gap will remain for 2011 6 several years, including high unemployment and weak consumption and imports, sustaining down- 4 ward pressure on prices for manufactured prod- ucts. A pickup in 2010, moreover, is likely to be 2 relatively subdued, at 6.6 percent, up from the 5 percent trough of 2009, as consumers in 0 developed countries adjust to lower wealth levels and banks complete the deleveraging process. 2 Prospects for lower global growth--contrasted East Asia China Other East Asia with the average of the past decade--increase the Source: World Bank. importance of China's rebalancing its growth pat- tern, by moving away from reliance on export-led manufacturing, boosting the role of services, and several months of month-on-month declines in the stimulating domestic consumption and, inevitably, consumer price index. Even so, China will still imports. grow faster than most other countries in the world in 2009, including all countries in developing East Asia. Indeed, excluding China, GDP in the region Risks and uncertainties is seen to decline by 0.2 percent in 2009, the slow- The projections outlined in this report are sur- est since the crisis of the late 1990s. rounded by extreme uncertainties. While recovery In Malaysia and Thailand, among the region's among developed countries from most recessions other middle-income countries, output is projected has been relatively swift, an analysis of previous to contract in 2009 due to a drop in exports and recessions in advanced economies suggests that investment. In Malaysia, real GDP is projected to when accompanied by a credit crunch, housing fall by 4.4 percent, a result of high and undiversi- crisis, and equity bust, they tend to last twice as fied dependence on exports of electronics, oil, and long and are deeper than other "normal" reces- crude palm oil, all of which are falling sharply, sions. Further, while investment usually picked up coupled with its relatively small domestic market. strongly in past recoveries once inventories were In Thailand a slump in exports, exacerbated by exhausted, recovery from the current global reces- heightened political uncertainty, is set to cause sion may be more subdued because of the sub- output to contract at a 3.2 percent rate, following stantial destruction of wealth and ongoing the slowest expansion in developing East Asia dur- deleveraging in financial systems around the ing 2008. Some of the low-income countries are world. Continued problems in commercial banks hardest hit by the crisis. The deceleration in or even renewed financial market tensions could growth in Mongolia has been particularly swift, as delay recovery further and lead to another year of the collapse in commodity export prices exposed stagnating or even contracting global growth. an unsustainable fiscal situation with little saving Finally, even when recovery begins, the pace of from the commodity boom of 2007­08 and over- pickup is more likely to be subdued as global sized and untargeted social transfers. Whereas imbalances are gradually resolved (table A.3). The other major commodity exporters let their curren- low case scenario presented in chapter 1 of this cies depreciate as terms of trade deteriorated, the report highlights growth in East Asia and Pacific Mongolian authorities defended the currency peg registering 4.2 percent in 2009, easing further to the U.S. dollar, leading to a substantial loss of into 2010 to 3.9 percent before a stronger revival foreign exchange reserves that ultimately forced a sets in during 2011 at 7.5 percent (see table 1.10 sharp adjustment. in chapter 1). 109 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.3 East Asia and Pacific country forecasts annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Cambodia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 8.3 10.8 10.2 6.7 1.0 3.0 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.6 4.7 6.0 6.6 0.3 0.5 1.5 China GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 9.1 11.1 13.0 9.0 6.5 7.5 8.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.6 9.5 11.0 9.8 9.3 8.3 7.2 Fiji GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.3 3.6 6.6 1.2 2.5 2.0 2.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.8 7.5 37.7 44.3 22.1 25.5 29.0 Indonesia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.7 5.5 6.3 6.1 3.5 5.0 6.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.5 2.9 2.4 0.1 2.5 2.7 2.6 Lao PDR GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.2 8.1 7.9 6.9 5.0 8.0 8.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 9.2 1.5 2.7 0.4 1.2 1.0 1.2 Malaysia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.6 5.9 6.2 4.6 4.4 2.2 5.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.7 17.1 16.6 19.7 11.6 11.6 10.4 Papua New Guinea GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 0.7 2.6 6.2 5.8 3.5 5.0 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.0 14.6 17.5 18.7 5.6 3.6 1.2 Philippines GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.2 5.4 7.2 4.6 0.5 2.4 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.4 5.0 5.9 3.3 2.2 1.6 2.5 Thailand GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.7 5.3 4.9 2.7 3.2 2.2 3.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.9 1.1 6.5 0.1 3.8 3.6 3.4 Vanuatu GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.5 7.2 5.0 4.5 2.5 3.5 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 9.8 17.6 12.4 17.0 12.0 12.5 14.2 Vietnam GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 7.2 8.2 8.5 6.2 3.5 5.0 7.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.4 0.3 9.1 11.4 14.9 14.5 14.3 Source: World Bank. Note: In the current very volatile global environment, World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing assump- tions. Moreover, the confidence intervals around these point forecasts are larger than usual. As a result, the projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries' prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. American Samoa, Micronesia, Fed. Sts., Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Myanmar, Mongolia, N. Mariana Islands, Palau, Korea, Dem. Rep., Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. Europe and Central Asia 4.7 percent in 2009, driven by a collapse in capital Recent developments inflows, a sharp deterioration in terms of trade, A mong developing regions, Europe and Central and contraction in both domestic and external Asia has been hit the hardest by the global demand. economic and financial crisis. For several coun- The robust domestic demand that supported tries, a combination of international support, ad- growth throughout 2007 and through the first three justment programs, and perhaps even private sec- quarters of 2008 began to wane at the height of the tor debt restructuring will be needed to avoid crisis in September 2008. High levels of foreign- large-scale defaults. After years of growth over currency denominated private sector and house- 6 percent, real GDP growth in the region slowed hold debt, rising unemployment, and broadening to 4 percent in 2008 and is expected to drop recession in trade partner countries contributed to 110 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.3 Output declined rapidly in the fourth growth among commodity exporters in the first quarter of 2008 half of 2008 spiraled downward, external markets Real GDP, percent change year on year began to collapse, and capital flows reversed owing to heightened investor risk aversion. As a 10 consequence, growth rates between 2007 and 2008 decelerated from 8.8 percent to 6 percent in 5 private consumption and from 19.3 percent to 7.7 0 percent in investment activity. Weak domestic de- mand and investment contributed to a slowing in 5 import growth to 9 percent in 2008 from 18.8 per- cent in 2007, while stress in the external markets 10 reduced growth in exports of goods and services to 3.8 percent from 7.7 percent. 2008Q1 2008Q2 2009Q1 15 The most vulnerable group of countries within 2008Q3 2008Q4 the broader region, Central and Eastern Europe 20 (CEE), received shocks through several channels ia y simultaneously. In the capital markets, external aine Latvia Bulgar CroatiaTurkeyUkr EstoniaPolandHungarRomaniaRussianLithuania ation financing continued to decline, with total gross Feder capital inflows (syndicated bank lending, bond is- Source: NIA; national sources. suance, and equity initial public offerings) plum- meting from $56.6 billion in the second quarter of 2008 to a meager $3.9 billion in the first quarter of dramatic declines in GDP in several countries in the 2009. At the same time, spreads for government fourth quarter of 2008. The Baltic states of Estonia borrowing on international markets, a key measure and Latvia suffered the most adverse impact with of credit risk, widened to unprecedented levels. GDP falling by 9.5 and 10.5 percent relative to a Between September 2008 and March 2009, year earlier, with other emerging markets such as spreads on sovereign five-year credit-default swaps Turkey and Ukraine also recording negative growth. increased from a range of 68 to 270 basis points to In several countries with data available for the first 381 to 1,100 basis points. Vulnerabilities in the quarter of 2009, output deteriorated further on a banking sector and a general increase in the risk year-on-year basis. Economic activity continued to aversion toward emerging markets affected to dif- shrink in Hungary ( 4.7 percent), Lithuania ferent degrees each of the countries in the region. In ( 13.6 percent), and Latvia ( 17.9 percent), while Bulgaria and Romania spreads almost tripled, while Romania and Russia stepped for the first time into in Croatia, Lithuania, and Poland spreads widened negative growth territory ( 6.4 and 9.4 percent, by five times or more their levels in mid-2008 respectively). Poland, the only economy to show re- (figure A.4). As market sentiment started to im- silience, posted a modest GDP increase of 1 percent prove, credit-default swap rates eased in April and (figure A.3). May but continued to hover above pre-crisis levels. Unlike Latin America and the Caribbean and The drying-up of capital was amplified by ad- East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia verse developments in the product markets, where entered the global financial crisis highly dependent record growth prior to the financial crisis had been on foreign capital inflows. For example, Hungary supported by large trade flows with the Euro Area. had been sustaining twin deficits (on the current Rapidly shrinking consumer demand and invest- account and the government budget) for several ment spending across major West European part- years, while Romania had been accumulating ners quickly resulted in a sharp contraction in high levels of private sector foreign debt to trade. In the last quarter of 2008, real exports con- finance booming domestic demand. As the finan- tracted by 2 percent in Poland (year-on-year), by cial crisis took hold in September 2008, key 3 percent in Croatia, and by 6 percent in Bulgaria growth determinants for the region started to dete- and Latvia. Turkish exports declined the most, by riorate rapidly, unveiling deep vulnerabilities. 8 percent, on the basis of falling demand for its Surging commodity prices, which had spurred manufactured goods. 111 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.4 Financial crisis increased the price of risk Spreads on selected five-year sovereign credit default swaps Ukraine only 1,200 4,500 Latvia 4,000 1,000 Ukraine 3,500 800 3,000 Hungary Estonia 2,500 600 2,000 Bulgaria Russian Poland 400 Croatia Federation 1,500 Romania Czech Republic Lithuania 1,000 200 500 0 0 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 2009 Jan. Jul. Jan. Jul. Jan. Jul. Jan. Jul. Jan. Jul. Jan. Jul. Source: Thomson Datastream­CMA. The decline in both capital inflows and ex- With many migrant workers employed in the ports caused double-digit contractions in indus- European sectors hardest hit by recession (such as trial production at the beginning of 2009 across a household work, construction, and agriculture), range of countries. In the first quarter of 2009, in- receipts of remittances in the CEE region increased dustrial production fell by 10 percent in Croatia by only 5 percent in 2008, compared with 21 per- (year-on-year), by 11 percent in Poland, by 12 per- cent in the previous year. Lagging the first signs of cent in Romania, by 18 percent in Bulgaria, by decline in the real economy, unemployment in the 22 percent in Turkey, and by 24 percent in Latvia. CEE region rose in February-March by one per- In the first quarter of 2009, Turkey posted a con- centage point over the average rate prevailing in traction of 51 percent in the number of automo- the first half of 2008. biles produced relative to the first quarter of 2008. Pressures on the current account and financial Poland's industrial production of motor vehicles distress triggered a sequence of borrowing from the also fell by more than 25 percent, though fueled International Monetary Fund (IMF). Hungary to a large extent by slack domestic demand. The (which already had graduated from the group of Romanian auto industry, regarded as one of middle-income countries) and Latvia were among the most vulnerable in the region, benefited from the first to turn to the IMF in 2008, contracting the scrap-car program that boosted sales of new loans of $18.1 billion. Serbia followed soon after, cars in Germany. Car exports rose by 62 percent with a $530 million standby agreement targeted at in the first quarter of 2009 compensating for a maintaining market confidence in its economy. In 51 percent decrease in domestic sales of new cars March, Romania had to turn to the IMF for a loan during the first four months. of $17 billion after the national currency had lost In the labor markets, the crisis has reduced about 20 percent of its value relative to the euro personal income due to rising unemployment at over the previous 12 months. At the beginning of home and abroad, with the latter leading to lower April, Poland took advantage of a $20.5 billion workers' remittance inflows. Over 10 percent of flexible credit line from the IMF--a precautionary GDP in Albania and 5 percent in Romania and facility for countries with sound economic funda- Bulgaria came from migrant remittances1 in 2007. mentals--to boost its foreign currency reserves. 112 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Despite the initial resilience shown within the increased by political difficulties in implementing a Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), sequence of measures necessary to secure disburse- the group has not been spared by the global ments under an IMF stabilization loan agreement. meltdown. The sharp decline in international oil Gross capital inflows to the CIS area fell by 39 per- prices in the second half of 2008 adversely affected cent in 2008, after surging by 84 percent in the pre- hydrocarbons producers, particularly the oil- vious year. In the first quarter of 2009, flows to all exporting countries of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, member countries fell to zero with the exception of and especially the Russian Federation. In Russia, Russia (which brought a $500 million bond to mar- formerly the region's engine of growth, the ket and secured a syndicated bank loan of $1.35 collapse of oil revenues caused GDP to decline at billion) and Ukraine (which had a $7 million equity an annualized rate (saar) of 6.9 percent in the issuance) (table A.4). fourth quarter of 2008 and at a shocking 30.6 per- The CIS area also suffered a decline in cent pace in the first quarter of 2009, bringing the remittances, a major source of revenue for the level of GDP 9.4 percent lower than its level a year low-income economies in the group. In 2007, earlier. international remittance receipts were the equiva- In all CIS countries, dependence on external fi- lent of 46 percent of GDP in Tajikistan, 28 per- nancing exacerbated the adverse impact of falling cent in the Kyrgyz Republic, and 34 percent in commodity prices. A general deterioration in in- Moldova. In Moldova, more than 35 percent of the vestor confidence toward emerging markets population lived in remittance-receiving house- widened across the region, hitting Kazakhstan, Rus- holds in 2008.2 With oil revenue­driven growth sia, and Ukraine particularly hard. In Ukraine, slowing in Russia, the advance in total remittance spreads on five-year credit-default swaps increased receipts for the CIS region decelerated dramati- from 443 basis points in September 2008 to a cally to 7 percent in 2008 compared with record record high of 3,795 basis points in April 2009. In growth of 75 percent in 2007. Surging unemploy- addition to the economic slowdown and financial ment in Russia, which reached 10 percent in April turmoil, investors' concerns regarding Ukraine were 2009 (compared with 5.9 percent a year earlier), Table A.4 Net capital flows to Europe and Central Asia $ billions Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008p Current account balance 18.9 14.7 26.7 44.2 25.1 34.1 11.6 as % of GDP 1.9 1.2 1.7 2.2 1.1 1.1 0.3 Net private and official inflows 46.5 83.4 124.1 156.3 279.0 465.8 255.8 Net private inflows 43.7 89.3 134.3 192.1 311.3 471.4 250.5 Net equity inflows 22.0 31.2 59.1 70.8 125.4 180.8 162.4 Net FDI inflows 18.5 30.5 55.5 62.8 114.9 154.4 170.8 Net portfolio equity inflows 3.5 0.7 3.6 8.0 10.5 26.4 8.4 Net debt flows 24.5 52.2 65.0 85.5 153.6 285.0 93.4 Official creditors 2.8 5.9 10.2 35.8 32.3 5.6 5.3 World Bank 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.8 IMF 4.7 1.9 5.9 9.8 5.8 5.0 7.0 Other official 3.0 3.6 4.8 25.5 26.9 0.6 2.5 Private creditors 21.7 58.1 75.2 121.3 185.9 290.6 88.1 Net M-L term debt flows 17.0 24.2 54.8 101.0 131.2 189.3 93.8 Bonds 4.7 9.7 19.4 27.5 31.8 58.2 17.6 Banks 13.8 14.9 36.7 74.6 100.2 132.1 77.2 Other private 1.5 0.4 1.3 1.1 0.8 1.0 1.0 Net short-term debt flows 4.7 33.9 20.4 20.3 54.7 101.3 5.7 Balancing itema 34.5 45.4 78.9 110.0 127.7 194.7 307.9 Change in reserves ( increase) 30.9 52.8 71.9 90.6 176.4 237.1 63.8 Workers' remittances 13.7 15.5 22.2 31.2 38.3 50.4 53.1 Source: World Bank. Note: p projected. a. Combination of errors and omissions and net acquisition of foreign assets (including FDI) by developing countries. 113 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S forced hundreds of migrant workers to return to flat through 2010 as many economies in the region their home countries.3 In an attempt to cushion recover slowly from the crisis. The sharpest down- severe external shocks from sharply falling remit- turn will be felt in the Baltic states, as Latvia strug- tances, Tajikistan, the region's poorest country, gles to weather its sharp decline in GDP during turned to the IMF in April for a $116 million loan 2008 and as the falloff in private consumption under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility. widens in Lithuania. Latvia's GDP is projected to fall 13 percent in 2009, while Lithuania's GDP Outlook appears set to contract by 10 percent. Despite The aftershocks from the initial crisis in global relatively strong fundamentals, Poland will not re- financial and product markets will continue to main unscathed. GDP is anticipated to grow by just exact a painful toll on the growth outlook across 0.5 percent in 2009 as the country continues to be Europe and Central Asia. As many countries are exposed to spillover effects through trade flows and facing large balance-of-payments difficulties and financial vulnerabilities given the large presence of in some cases unavoidable adjustments to the real foreign-owned institutions in its banking system. side of their economies, the region will see the The CIS area is expected to face a deep reces- sharpest contraction among all developing regions sion in 2009, with real GDP contracting by (table A.5). Aggregate GDP is expected to contract 6.2 percent from growth of 8.6 percent in 2007 by 4.7 percent in 2009 but recover to reach still- and 5.6 percent in 2008. The slowdown stems to a subdued growth of 1.6 percent as markets begin to considerable extent from the projected 42 percent thaw by 2010. decline in international energy prices in 2009 (rela- In Central and Eastern Europe, GDP is ex- tive to the 2008 average). For the group of CIS oil- pected to decline by 1.6 percent and remain almost exporting countries, the decline in terms of trade Table A.5 Europe and Central Asia forecast summary annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.1 7.5 6.9 4.0 4.7 1.6 3.3 GDP per capita (units in $) 4.1 7.5 6.9 4.0 4.7 1.6 3.2 PPP GDPc 4.0 7.7 7.3 4.4 5.3 1.8 3.2 Private consumption 4.8 7.5 8.8 6.0 3.9 2.0 3.8 Public consumption 2.3 5.1 4.8 4.0 1.0 1.6 3.0 Fixed investment 5.1 16.0 19.3 7.7 19.5 0.4 3.0 Exports, GNFSd 7.9 8.3 7.7 3.8 6.2 3.2 5.1 Imports, GNFSd 8.8 14.3 18.8 9.0 12.0 2.9 5.5 Net exports, contribution to growth 0.2 2.4 4.9 2.7 3.4 0.1 0.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.8 0.9 1.3 0.4 1.2 0.5 0.5 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 17.2 8.9 8.8 12.3 2.1 5.0 5.0 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) 3.1 3.2 1.6 0.7 5.9 4.1 3.0 Memo items: GDP Transition countries 4.1 6.8 5.7 2.8 3.5 1.0 3.1 Central and Eastern Europe 3.9 6.6 6.7 4.6 1.6 0.6 3.2 Commonwealth of Independent States 4.1 8.5 8.6 5.6 6.2 2.5 3.5 Russia 3.9 7.7 8.1 5.6 7.5 2.5 3.0 Turkey 4.3 6.9 4.7 1.1 5.5 1.5 3.0 Poland 4.3 6.2 6.7 4.8 0.5 0.9 3.5 Source: World Bank. Note: a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services. 114 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S represents a loss of some 7.9 percent of their 2008 Figure A.5 High short-term debt to total reserves GDP. In Russia, the combination of declines in ratios in Europe and Central Asia Projected short-term debt due in 2009 (percent of reserves industrial output, soaring unemployment, and in February 2009) flight of foreign capital is expected to reduce GDP by 7.5 percent, sending damaging waves through- Belarus out the whole of the CIS through intraregional Latvia Bulgaria trade flows and transfers. Remittances to the Poland broader CIS region are expected to decline for the Macedonia, FYR Moldova first time in a decade, by 25 percent. The small oil- Romania importing countries in the CIS will be the most af- Kazakhstan Bosnia and Herzegovina fected owing to their close economic ties with Rus- Croatia sia. GDP is expected to fall by 6 percent in Georgia Armenia Armenia, by 3.3 percent in Belarus, and by 3 in Albania Moldova. Azerbaijan Serbia Financing requirements across the region are Russian Federation projected to remain substantial, due in part to Ukraine Kyrgyz Republic large current-account deficits. The prolonged Turkey credit crunch, untamed recession in the Euro Area, 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 and sharp contraction in Russia will continue to Percent put pressure on current accounts in a number of Sources: International Financial Statistics; Bank for International countries. Two economies that are likely to main- Settlements; World Bank staff calculations. tain large surpluses are Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan, which in 2008 generated record double-digit sur- pluses in net exports of 38 percent of GDP and Romania, and Bulgaria had short-term debt levels 16.2 percent of GDP, respectively. In 2009, Azer- above 50 percent of their reserves. So far, rollover baijan's current account surplus is projected to of short-term debt has not proved to be the prob- shrink to 10.3 percent of GDP, and Uzbekistan's to lem initially feared--in part because of moral 11.8 percent of GDP. Russia is also expected to suasion exercised by domestic and international post a current account surplus of 2.4 percent of authorities on lending banks. GDP as the fast rate of ruble depreciation has With the sharp fall-off in capital flows, tight slowed imports considerably. In other countries, capital markets, and large borrowing require- the sharp fall in exports of goods and services will ments, financing gaps5 in the region could be as be offset by contraction in imports through adjust- high as $102 billion, or 3.7 percent of GDP in ments to the real side of the economy. However, 2009. For those countries that lack large foreign these offsetting effects will not be enough to re- currency reserves, the gap will have to be bridged verse persistent deficits in current-account bal- either through capital flows from official sources ances. Overall in Europe and Central Asia, the or through internal adjustment. Between Septem- current account deficit will widen from 0.4 per- ber 2008 and May 2009, nine countries reached cent of GDP in 2008 to 1.2 percent in 2009. agreements with the IMF for a total of $55.8 bil- The region's large external financing require- lion in assistance,6 with additional funds being ments in 2009 also reflect the more than $283 bil- channeled through the World Bank, the European lion in short-term debt coming due.4 Among the Commission, and several other donors. Lithuania countries with high short-term debt levels, only and Turkey are exploring similar options and Russia could foot the bill from reserves or its might contract stabilization packages from the current-account surplus if external finance were IMF in 2009. not forthcoming. As of February 2009, Belarus, Although the surge in international official Bulgaria, and Latvia held insufficient international flows has offered some temporary relief, interna- reserves to cover debt coming due in 2009 tional assistance alone cannot make up for the (figure A.5). Kazakhstan, the Former Yugoslav sharp contraction in private capital flows, and Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, many countries in the region are undergoing painful 115 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S cuts in domestic demand as part of the adjustment number of countries the effect of slowing activity process. Current account deficits in five countries on domestic prices will be offset by downward in the region are projected to fall by 5 percent of pressures on local currencies. This is particularly GDP or more. In countries with floating exchange the case for net oil exporters and for those coun- rates, some of the adjustment will occur through tries that face large current account imbalances. depreciation but at the cost of higher debt for pri- Econometric estimation of the behavior of head- vate firms and households with loans denominated line inflation in response to changes in internation- in foreign currency. The currencies of several ally traded dollar-denominated commodity prices countries are expected to depreciate further during also suggests that the median inflation rate for the 2009. In countries with more rigid exchange rate region will stabilize within a 5.4 percent to 6.3 per- and/or monetary policy response, the adjustment cent band through 2010. will have to take place through a sharp contrac- Overall, average fiscal positions across the re- tion in imports and, thus, in domestic demand. gion are expected to deteriorate further in 2009, to In the second half of 2008, inflationary trends an average deficit of 5.9 percent of GDP, compared across the region were gradually replaced by disin- to surpluses of 1.6 percent in 2007 and 0.7 percent flationary pressures from fast-declining interna- in 2008. tional energy and commodity prices (figure A.6). Lower agricultural prices favored by improved Risks and uncertainties weather conditions and weaker domestic demand Risks to the outlook for the region remain skewed also contributed to this development. Projections to the downside (table A.6). In the short term, a for 2009 indicate that the region as a whole will worsening in financial constraints and commercial see a widening in the output gap, from output bank lending carries a high liquidity risk, which exceeding long-term potential by 8.4 percent in could increase pressures on the balance of pay- 2008 to output below potential by 2.4 percent in ments in several countries. The rapid expansion of 2009, which will put downward pressure on foreign currency borrowing in the years before the prices.7 The most affected will be countries in the crisis means that many such loans could become CIS, where output exceeded sustainable levels by nonperforming were domestic currencies to depre- 1.2 percent in 2008 but is projected to be below ciate sharply against the currency of the loan. This potential by 11.1 percent in 2009. However, in a in turn could threaten the solvency of banks in ways that have yet to emerge--posing further challenges for policy makers. The currencies of Russia and Kazakhstan have already depreciated, after initial attempts to defend the exchange rates Figure A.6 Lower commodity prices should see through massive drawdown on reserves. Other inflation decline countries with large current-account and/or Median inflation in the ECA region: actual and government deficits and relatively rigid exchange 0.14 projected (% change year over year) rate regimes may be at particular risk of such a 0.12 scenario. Actual inflation High levels of short-term debt also expose 0.10 many countries in the region to rollover risk. So far 0.08 this risk has not materialized. But the predomi- nance of foreign-owned banks in Central and 0.06 Dynamic Eastern Europe (foreign-owned lenders predomi- 0.04 simulation nantly headquartered in Austria, Greece, Italy, and Sweden account for 70 percent of local banking 0.02 assets in several countries)8 could expose countries 0 in the region to a sharp reduction in access to for- eign capital if parent banks in high-income coun- 2001m12002m12003m12004m12005m12006m12007m12008m12009m12010m12011m1 tries are forced to scale back lending in the region Source: World Bank. as they seek to bolster their own balance sheets. 116 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.6 Europe and Central Asia country forecasts annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Albania GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.4 5.0 6.0 6.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.5 7.3 8.4 12.4 10.7 8.9 8.1 Armenia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 8.6 13.3 13.8 6.8 6.0 2.0 1.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 11.7 1.8 6.7 12.2 12.1 10.3 6.5 Azerbaijan GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 10.2 34.5 25.0 10.8 3.3 5.2 9.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 16.6 17.7 29.5 38.0 10.3 15.5 19.0 Belarus GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.9 10.0 8.6 10.0 3.3 2.6 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.2 3.9 6.7 8.7 7.8 5.7 3.6 Bulgaria GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.2 6.3 6.2 6.0 1.5 1.5 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.6 17.9 23.6 23.1 14.1 10.8 8.7 Croatia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.1 4.8 5.4 2.3 3.0 0.3 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.5 7.7 8.6 10.5 7.6 5.6 6.4 Georgia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.6 9.4 12.3 2.2 1.0 2.0 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 8.1 16.2 22.0 22.5 19.6 16.8 15.5 Kazakhstan GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.4 10.7 8.2 3.0 1.5 1.5 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.3 2.5 7.9 5.5 8.4 7.8 6.3 Kyrgyz Republic GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.7 2.7 7.4 6.6 0.5 2.5 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.2 11.0 7.1 6.8 6.0 7.2 7.8 Lithuania GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.0 7.7 8.9 3.0 10.0 2.5 2.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.9 10.8 14.3 11.3 5.0 3.0 1.8 Latvia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.9 12.2 9.9 4.6 13.0 3.0 2.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.5 22.7 21.8 12.5 6.6 4.2 3.9 Moldova GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.3 4.8 3.0 7.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.9 11.3 16.7 17.8 12.1 10.1 9.3 Macedonia, FYR GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.2 4.0 5.1 4.9 1.2 1.0 2.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.5 0.4 8.2 13.8 11.6 11.4 11.7 Poland GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.3 6.2 6.7 4.8 0.5 0.9 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.3 2.8 5.0 5.6 4.3 4.0 3.7 Romania GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.1 7.7 6.0 7.1 4.0 0.5 2.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.8 10.5 13.7 12.4 8.4 7.5 8.7 Russian Federation GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.9 7.7 8.1 5.6 7.5 2.5 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.6 9.5 6.0 6.0 2.4 3.0 3.2 Turkey GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.3 6.9 4.7 1.1 5.5 1.5 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.4 6.0 5.9 5.6 1.9 1.9 2.0 (Continues) 117 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.6 (Continued) annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Ukraine GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.7 7.3 7.9 2.1 9.0 1.0 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.7 1.5 4.2 7.5 0.1 1.0 0.8 Uzbekistan GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.6 7.3 9.5 9.0 4.5 5.0 6.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.3 14.4 13.3 16.2 11.8 15.2 13.6 Source: World Bank. Note: In the current very volatile global environment, World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing assump- tions. Moreover, the confidence intervals around these point forecasts are larger than usual. As a result, the projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries' prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkmenistan are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. Latin America and the Caribbean The drop in external finance was com- Recent developments pounded by plummeting trade in goods and ser- A lmost six years of improving current account vices. During the fourth quarter of 2008, constant- positions (figure A.7, panel a), marked price exports fell by almost 14 percent in Costa terms-of-trade gains (panel b), declines in public Rica, by over 10 percent in Argentina, 8 percent in external debt relative to output (panel c), expan- Mexico, and almost 7 percent in Brazil and sions in international reserves (panel d), and República Bolivariana de Venezuela, (figure A.9, financial sector reforms have strengthened the panel a). The fall in commodity prices depressed ability of many countries in Latin America and commodity exporters' terms of trade, while pro- the Caribbean to weather external shocks. viding some relief to oil-importing countries Nevertheless, the region has not been immune to (panel b). However, for the region as a whole, the the global increase in risk aversion and fall in ex- fall in commodity prices between July 2008 and ternal demand resulting from the financial crisis May 2009 reduced incomes by an estimated 2.2 per- and growth has declined sharply in virtually all cent of GDP. Workers' remittances fell as host countries in the region. countries entered recession: between the first quar- Inflows of external capital from private ter of 2008 and the first quarter of 2009, remit- sources dropped sharply during 2008, and coun- tances to Guatemala declined by 5.9 percent, to tries experienced massive capital outflows in the Mexico by 4.9 percent, to Panama by 6.3 percent, last quarter of the year (for example, Brazil's and to Colombia by 11.6 percent. El Salvador, recorded portfolio outflows shifted by $30 bil- Jamaica, Honduras, Haiti, and Guyana, where lion, and Mexico's by almost $11 billion, from remittances exceed 15 percent of GDP, were also the preceding year). Secondary-market spreads adversely affected. Tourism receipts also declined on both sovereign and corporate bonds jumped sharply; for example, the number of non-resident (figure A.8). Domestic lending rates to the pri- tourists in the Dominican Republic fell 5 percent in vate sector rose by almost 1,400 basis points in the first quarter (year-on-year). Argentina, 530 basis points in Brazil, 521 basis Heightened uncertainty about the length and points in Chile, and 379 basis points in Paraguay depth of the crisis, increased risk aversion on the between September and November 2008, but part of international investors, and a drying up have come down since. Domestic financial mar- of finance caused a steep slowdown in growth of ket are deeper and play a bigger role in overall fixed investment spending in the fourth quarter of financial intermediation today contrasted with 2008 (figure A.10, panel a). In Chile, the year-on- the crisis periods of 15­20 years ago. year growth of investment fell from 29.9 percent 118 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.7 Improved initial conditions are helping Latin America and the Caribbean weather the crisis Terms of trade impact from changes in international prices between January 2002 and December 2007 a. Improved current account positions b. Favorable terms-of-trade developments for commodity exporters Percent of GDP Percent of 2007 GDP 18 Nicaragua Honduras Antigua Guyana 2002 2003 2004 2005 Jamaica Belize 12 2006 2007 2008 2009 Salvador Haiti Dominican Republic Costa Rica Panama Guatemala 6 Uruguay Brazil Mexico Paraguay Colombia Argentina 0 Peru Ecuador Bolivia Venezuela, R. B. de Chile Trinidad and Tobago 6 y 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 azil ru y Chile xico Pe BoliviaBr Me ugua B.de Argentina ColombiaEcuador ParaguaUr Venezuela, R. c. Reduced public sector debt d. Healthy international reserve stockpiles Percent of GDP International resources expressed in months of imports, latest data available 70 16 2007 60 14 2008 12 50 10 40 8 30 6 20 4 10 2 0 0 e azil ru xico azil ru B.de ChileMe xico Br Pe de Chile Pe Rica lic Me Br B. Bolivia Tobago Beliz Argentina Colombia Ecuador Ecuador Venezuela, R. Argentina ColombiaR. and GuatemalaCosta Dominican Repub Trinidad Venezuela, Source: World Bank. in the third quarter of 2008 to 10.4 percent in the decelerating investment and consumption meant a fourth quarter; in Brazil it slowed from 19.7 percent dramatic worsening of GDP growth in the fourth to 3.9 percent, and in Argentina from 8.6 percent to quarter of the year, ranging from a 1.6 percent fall minus 2.6 percent. In Mexico and Colombia, in Mexico, to gains of 1.2 percent in Brazil, investment stagnated. Private consumption slowed 0.3 percent in Argentina, and 0.2 percent in Chile or fell in most economies. Declines in net trade and (panel b). 119 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.7 Net capital flows to Latin America and the Caribbean $ billions Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008p Current account balance 15.7 7.7 19.9 33.5 47.0 15.4 27.1 as % of GDP 0.9 0.4 1.0 1.4 1.6 0.4 0.7 Net private and official inflows 38.0 61.8 59.9 81.7 64.8 215.1 130.9 Net private inflows 25.6 57.0 70.0 112.9 85.0 215.9 127.2 Net equity inflows 54.4 45.6 64.3 83.0 82.8 137.1 118.3 Net FDI inflows 53.0 42.3 64.9 70.8 71.6 107.5 124.8 Net portfolio equity inflows 1.4 3.3 0.6 12.2 11.2 29.6 6.5 Net debt flows 16.4 16.2 4.4 1.3 18.0 78.0 12.6 Official creditors 12.4 4.8 10.1 31.2 20.2 0.8 3.7 World Bank 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.7 3.4 0.1 2.4 IMF 11.9 5.6 6.3 27.6 12.1 0.0 0.0 Other official 1.1 0.4 2.8 2.9 4.7 0.7 1.3 Private creditors 28.8 11.4 5.7 29.9 2.2 78.8 8.9 Net M-L term debt flows 8.5 9.1 0.2 14.1 3.2 45.7 11.6 Bonds 0.8 11.0 0.5 15.6 16.2 8.7 9.4 Banks 6.2 1.4 0.8 1.4 19.9 37.0 21.8 Other private 1.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.8 Net short-term debt flows 20.3 2.3 5.5 15.8 1.0 33.1 2.7 Balancing itema 20.7 35.4 55.6 82.2 58.5 96.3 55.3 Change in reserves ( increase) 1.7 34.1 24.3 33.1 53.4 134.2 48.5 Workers' remittances 27.9 36.6 43.3 50.1 59.2 63.1 63.3 Source: World Bank. Note: p projected. a. Combination of errors and omissions and net acquisition of foreign assets (including FDI) by developing countries. Figure A.8 EMBI sovereign spreads surged as the crisis shook investors' confidence Basis points 7,000 Argentina 6,000 5,000 4,000 Panama Ecuador Uruguay 3,000 Peru Dominican El Brazil Republic Chile Colombia Salvador 2,000 Latin America Mexico Venezuela, R. B. de 1,000 0 Jan. 2000 Jan. 2001 Jan. 2002 Jan. 2003 Jan. 2004 Jan. 2005 Jan. 2006 Jan. 2007 Jan. 2008 Jan. 2009 Source: JP Morgan. The policy response May of 2009, central banks in Chile and Brazil Several regional governments undertook counter- cut interest rates by 700 and 350 basis points, cyclical fiscal policies to fight the recession. And respectively. Most countries with high inflation some central banks moved quickly to reduce in- initially took a cautious approach to monetary terest rates. For example, from January through expansion. Since March, however, deteriorating 120 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.9 Economic conditions in Latin America and the Caribbean have deteriorated sharply Terms of trade impact from changes in international prices between July 2008 and March 2009 a. Dismal export performance in b. Terms of trade have reversed since July the final quarter of 2008 as commodity prices plunged Percent growth, year-on-year Percent of 2008 GDP 15 Guyana Q1 Q3 Nicaragua St. Lucia Q2 Q4 Salvador 10 Haiti Belize Antigua Dominican Republic 5 Costa Rica Jamaica Guatemala Panama 0 Uruguay Brazil Mexico Peru 5 Colombia Bolivia Argentina Chile 10 Paraguay Ecuador Trinidad and Tobago Venezuela, R. B. de 15 azil ru 14 10 6 2 0 2 6 10 14 xico Br Chile de Pe Rica Me B. Argentina Venezuela, R. ColombiaCosta Ecuador Source: World Bank. economic conditions have spurred a dramatic shift these measures. In Colombia the fiscal stimulus for to aggressive interest rate cuts in Colombia (300 2009 is estimated at 4.5 percent of GDP; in Peru, basis points), Mexico (225 basis points), and Peru about 3 percent; in Mexico, about 1.5 percent; in (225 basis points). Most governments announced Argentina, 1.3 percent; and in Brazil, 0.4 percent. increased spending on infrastructure, reduced Including the recession-induced impact on tax rev- taxes, increased subsidies, or some combination of enues, automatic stabilizers, and other factors, the Figure A.10 Sharply weaker investment growth has contributed to GDP slowdown a. Investment growth plummeted b. GDP growth declined in the fourth quarter Percent growth, year-on-year Percent growth, year-on-year 40 9 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q2 Q4 30 6 20 3 10 0 0 10 3 azil ru xico azil xico Br Chile de Pe Rica Br Chile Rica Me B. Me Argentina Venezuela, R. ColombiaCosta Ecuador Argentina Venezuela, R. B.deColombia Ecuador Costa Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 121 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S region's fiscal balance is projected to deteriorate Outlook by 2.7 percent of GDP in 2009. Regional GDP is projected to fall by 2.2 percent Countries with flexible exchange rates, in par- in 2009, with uncertainty regarding the timing ticular those reliant on commodity exports or and strength of the recovery (table A.8). Weak tightly integrated with the U.S. economy, absorbed exports, tight credit conditions and significant part of the shock through significant exchange excess capacity are expected to cause fixed in- rate depreciation. Virtually all countries with some vestment to fall by 10.1 percent. Rising unem- exchange rate flexibility (in the region and else- ployment and difficulty in obtaining consumer where in the world) experienced a sharp deprecia- finance will continue to take a toll on private tion against the U.S. dollar with investors' flight to consumption, which is forecast to fall by safety. However, the extent of the depreciation 0.9 percent in 2009. Net exports are anticipated against other trading partners was more modest. to add 0.8 percentage points to growth, as im- Of the 18 regional countries with current data on ports fall by 9.0 percent. The import contraction effective exchange rates, only three experienced a would be even greater, if changes in reserves or nominal effective depreciation of more than 10 higher official flows were not available to percent from August 2008 to March 2009. Some finance deterioration in current-account balances countries intervened to stabilize currencies and (figure A.11). GDP growth is expected to recover saw a dwindling of reserves; international reserves to 2 percent by 2010, or less than 1 percent in per excluding gold fell by $12 billion (12.5 percent) capita terms. in Mexico, $2.9 billion (8.6 percent) in Peru, Brazil is more resilient to external demand and $10.4 billion (5 percent) in Brazil between shocks than many other economies in the region, September and December 2008. given the smaller share of trade in its overall GDP, Table A.8 Latin America and the Caribbean forecast summary annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.8 5.6 5.8 4.2 2.2 2.0 3.3 GDP per capita (units in $) 1.3 4.2 4.4 2.9 3.4 0.7 2.1 PPP GDPc 2.8 5.5 5.9 4.4 2.0 2.0 3.4 Private consumption 3.1 6.4 4.0 4.6 0.9 2.3 3.5 Public consumption 2.1 4.5 3.5 4.4 3.1 3.3 3.0 Fixed investment 3.5 13.5 21.3 11.6 10.1 0.8 4.4 Exports, GNFSd 6.4 7.3 5.0 1.6 7.7 2.3 5.1 Imports, GNFSd 6.6 14.2 12.2 8.8 9.0 2.9 5.9 Net exports, contribution to growth 0.1 1.6 1.9 2.0 0.8 0.3 0.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.7 1.6 0.4 0.7 2.3 2.1 1.9 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 7.1 6.8 4.5 7.9 10.7 6.0 6.1 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) 0.4 1.4 1.2 0.3 2.4 1.6 0.6 Memo items: GDP LAC excluding Argentina 2.9 5.1 5.3 3.8 2.4 2.0 3.6 Central America 3.6 5.0 3.7 1.7 5.0 1.7 3.1 Caribbean 4.4 8.7 5.9 3.5 0.1 2.3 4.6 Brazil 2.4 3.7 5.7 5.1 1.1 2.5 4.1 Mexico 3.6 4.8 3.3 1.4 5.8 1.7 3.0 Argentina 2.3 8.5 8.7 6.8 1.5 1.9 2.1 Source: World Bank. Note: a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services. 122 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.11 Output and current account balances 1.9 percent in 2010, boosted by stronger external will deteriorate in 2009, improving only modestly demand and a return to more normal agricultural in 2010 output. Percent change, percent of GDP In Chile, output is expected to fall by 0.4 per- 5 cent in 2009, compared with 3.2 percent growth GDP growth in 2008, as key exports (such as copper) decline 4 Current account balance sharply and fixed investment falls by 11.7 percent 3 (table A.9). The cancellation of several private projects is expected to depress imports. The econ- 2 omy is projected to expand by 2.7 percent in 1 2010, boosted by a moderate recovery in external demand and higher commodity prices. 0 Colombia's economy is likely to contract for the 1 first time since 1999 (by 0.7 percent), as exports and 2 investment plunge, while widening current-account and fiscal deficits limit the space for countercyclical 3 policies. Output growth may recover to 1.8 percent 2008 2009 2010 2011 in 2010 with higher external demand. Source: World Bank. In other economies, growth in Peru is expected to decelerate to around 3 percent from a very strong 9.8 percent in 2008. The economy of the República and has somewhat more room for monetary ex- Bolivariana de Venezuela has weakened markedly pansionary policies. Output is projected to contract with the decline in oil prices and macroeconomic by 1.1 percent in 2009 (after growth of 5.1 percent mismanagement and is the only regional economy in 2008) and to bounce back to 2.5 percent in expected to continue to contract in 2010. 2010 as external demand recovers and credit In Caribbean countries the number of tourists growth resumes, and as domestic demand remains and tourism revenues are expected to be affected, resilient. undermining private consumption, and also affect- Declining exports and remittance receipts (the ing government revenues substantially. Moreover, result of close links with the U.S. market) are ex- tourism-related construction will stall as occu- pected to lower Mexico's GDP by more than 5.5 pancy rates decline. Output in the Caribbean percent in 2009, after a decline of an estimated 8 economies is expected to remain flat in 2009, percent in the first quarter. The outbreak of in- compared to 3.5 percent growth in 2008, before fluenza A (H1N1), which reduced tourism and led rising to a below-trend 2.3 percent in 2010. to the closure of nonessential business from March Countries in Central America will be hit hard, through May 5, is estimated to have reduced an- as in many economies, remittances account for a nual growth by 0.8 percentage points. In 2010, significant share of GDP. Declining remittances the projected 1.8 percent recovery in U.S. GDP is will have marked consequences for private con- expected to facilitate an expansion of 1.7 percent sumption and investment, and the group's econ- in Mexico. omy is likely to contract by 5 percent, after a dis- Sharply weaker domestic demand and falling appointing 1.7 percent advance in 2008, before exports are expected to lower Argentina's GDP by returning to a similar pace in 2010 (1.7 percent). 1.5 percent in 2009. In addition to reduced export volumes (particularly the impact of lower Brazil- Risks and uncertainties ian demand on the auto sector), lower commodity Perhaps the principal danger facing the economies prices, tight credit conditions, and the worst of Latin America and the Caribbean is a deeper drought in seven decades will cut into exports. and more prolonged recession in advanced Unsustainable government policies are likely to economies than presently anticipated. Further re- further undermine investment, already suffering ductions in external demand would mean lower as a result of the global economic and financial export revenues, while further deleveraging in crises. The economy is projected to expand high-income country banks would make it more 123 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.9 Latin America and the Caribbean country forecasts annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Argentina GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.3 8.5 8.7 6.8 1.5 1.9 2.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.2 3.6 3.0 2.6 1.0 0.9 1.0 Belize GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.6 4.7 1.2 3.0 1.1 2.3 2.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 12.1 2.1 4.0 10.7 6.1 5.4 5.2 Bolivia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.3 4.8 4.6 5.8 1.8 2.6 4.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.0 11.3 13.3 12.1 1.4 0.1 0.2 Brazil GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.4 3.7 5.7 5.1 1.1 2.5 4.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.0 1.3 0.1 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.4 Chile GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.2 4.3 4.7 3.2 0.4 2.7 3.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.5 4.7 4.3 1.9 3.2 2.9 2.0 Colombia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.1 6.8 7.5 2.5 0.7 1.8 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.3 2.1 2.8 2.1 4.2 4.3 3.4 Costa Rica GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.5 8.2 7.8 2.7 0.6 1.8 3.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.0 4.5 6.3 8.8 5.5 5.1 5.3 Dominica GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.1 4.0 0.9 3.1 2.5 1.3 3.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 19.8 17.1 28.2 37.3 25.3 27.4 27.1 Dominican Republic GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.6 10.7 8.5 5.0 0.5 2.3 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.0 4.1 5.6 10.9 6.0 5.8 3.4 Ecuador GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.2 3.9 2.5 6.5 2.6 1.8 3.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.4 3.9 2.2 2.4 3.4 2.3 1.3 El Salvador GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.7 4.2 4.7 2.5 1.0 0.6 2.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.5 3.6 5.5 7.2 2.8 4.0 5.0 Guatemala GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.5 5.1 6.3 3.8 0.6 2.2 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.9 4.9 5.4 4.8 4.4 4.5 3.1 Guyana GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.7 5.1 5.4 4.2 1.8 3.2 4.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) 9.4 17.9 18.5 20.3 18.4 16.7 16.4 Honduras GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.8 6.4 6.3 4.0 0.8 2.1 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.6 4.7 11.6 14.1 8.2 8.6 7.2 Haiti GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 0.9 2.3 3.2 1.4 0.2 1.6 2.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.7 9.0 7.9 9.6 7.9 7.6 7.8 Jamaica GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 0.8 2.7 1.4 1.4 2.6 0.4 2.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.2 10.8 14.9 15.6 12.7 11.0 8.4 Mexico GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.6 4.8 3.3 1.4 5.8 1.7 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.9 0.3 0.8 1.6 2.7 2.6 2.3 Nicaragua GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.1 3.7 3.2 2.8 0.3 1.3 2.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 20.2 12.8 19.0 22.7 15.2 11.8 9.9 Panama GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.5 8.5 11.5 9.2 1.3 2.8 5.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.3 3.1 7.3 12.1 10.2 11.1 11.3 124 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.9 (Continued) Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Peru GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.3 7.6 9.0 9.8 3.0 4.3 6.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.3 2.9 1.3 3.3 3.6 3.3 2.9 Paraguay GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.2 4.3 6.8 5.8 0.9 1.8 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.5 2.8 0.7 1.4 2.0 1.7 0.7 St. Lucia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.6 5.0 3.2 2.4 1.4 1.7 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 13.8 32.7 31.4 32.0 26.1 26.4 25.8 St. Vincent and the Grenadines GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.2 6.9 6.7 2.3 1.0 2.1 2.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) 18.3 24.3 26.4 27.9 23.4 23.0 23.3 Uruguay GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.5 7.0 7.6 8.9 0.8 2.3 3.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.0 1.9 0.8 3.8 1.8 2.2 2.4 Venezuela, RB GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.6 10.3 8.4 4.8 2.2 1.4 1.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.5 14.7 8.8 12.0 0.8 1.2 1.2 Source: World Bank. Note: In the current very volatile global environment, World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing assump- tions. Moreover, the confidence intervals around these point forecasts are larger than usual. As a result, the projections presented here may dif- fer from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries' prospects do not significantly differ at any given mo- ment in time. Barbados, Cuba, Grenada, and Suriname are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. difficult for countries to roll over short-term measures that will attract retaliatory measures, debt (the region's external financing needs are potentially igniting a trade war. Already, domestic estimated at $268 billion in 2009). Several coun- purchase provisions of some stimulus packages tries would be faced with the choice between and other measures indicate the growing risk of even greater contractions in domestic demand to competitive trade restrictions. reduce imports to financeable levels or default- The risk of an A(H1N1) flu pandemic re- ing on external debt service obligations, with po- mains. Fortunately this flu, which has already had tentially severe implications for future access to a sharp negative output in Mexico, is less virulent finance. than initially feared. Moreover, its rate of spread Even with the anticipated recovery in ad- has diminished as both Northern and Southern vanced economies, foreign banks are expected to hemispheres have exited their respective flu sea- remain risk averse and reluctant to lend for a sons. Nevertheless, when flu season returns H1N1 sustained period of time, while bond issuances to is likely to re-emerge. Should it do so in a more finance fiscal deficits in high-income countries deadly form, the costs associated with mortality, could crowd out borrowing by both governments illness, and absenteeism, and efforts to avoid infec- and the private sector in developing countries. The tion could shave off more than 1 percent of GDP extent of the decline in foreign investors' appetite in countries affected. In the event of a pandemic, for claims on regional economies and the size of economies that rely heavily on tourism, would be high-income government borrowing are particu- severely affected. larly difficult to anticipate. Finally, the steps taken to contain the crisis The risk of protectionism has also increased. raise the risk of macroeconomic instability in the As unemployment rises, governments are more longer term. Public debt has increased sharply, a likely to adopt politically motivated protectionist result of fiscal stimulus packages and declines in 125 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S government revenues from plummeting commod- Figure A.12 Middle East and North Africa oil ity prices and lower domestic activity. Substantial revenues hit hard by global recession in 2009 monetary easing also raises the risk of building up Hydrocarbon (oil and gas) exports, billions of U.S. dollars inflationary pressures in the future if central banks 700 fail to appropriately retract monetary stimulus 2006 2007 as the output gap narrows. Borrowing costs for 600 2008 2009 Argentina, Ecuador, and the República Bolivariana 500 de Venezuela have already increased sharply due to concerns over potential debt service 400 interruptions. 300 The Middle East and North Africa 200 Recent Developments 100 G DP among the developing countries of the Middle East and North Africa region regis- 0 Gulf Cooperation Council Developing oil exporters tered a strong 6 percent gain during 2008, on the back of surging oil revenues during the year's first Source: IEA; OPEC; national agencies; World Bank. half, continued robust non-oil export performance for the diversified economies, and favorable flows of remittances, tourism receipts and foreign direct and the United Arab Emirates (figure A.12). Over investment (FDI).9 These conditions were not to recent years, these countries have become a key persist however, and the onset of the financial cri- source of investment financing (through FDI and sis in the United States during September 2008 other flows) as well as remittances for the diversi- began to exact a toll on regional growth into year- fied developing economies of the region. The end 2008 and 2009. GDP is anticipated to almost dampening of these income and investment flows halve to 3.1 percent during 2009 as the real-side is an important element contributing to the slow- effects of the crisis take firmer hold, and a return down in regional growth. to average growth for the region (near 4.5 percent) For the GCC in aggregate, oil and gas rev- is not expected before 2011. In the interim, those enues dropped from $670 billion in 2008 to an elements which supported growth over the last estimated $280 billion during 2009--a massive five years are anticipated to unwind: oil prices are decline equivalent to 38 percent of the group's projected to rise only modestly, averaging $66 in GDP. Revenues for the developing oil exporters of 2011; the European export market will remain the region, including Algeria, the Islamic Republic flaccid; and slowing of services receipts and remit- of Iran, Iraq, the Syrian Arab Republic, and the tances will exact a toll on growth for both devel- Republic of Yemen declined from $320 billion to oping oil exporters and the more diversified an estimated $140 billion, equivalent to 28 percent economies of the region. of GDP. Such severe revenue declines, against con- Initially, the developing countries of the tinuation of expenditures at a fairly rapid pace, has Middle East and North Africa region were less di- caused fiscal balances in a number of oil exporters rectly affected by the financial crisis than those of to go into deficit. As a result, the public sector's many other developing regions. The biggest direct capacity to mitigate some of the adverse conse- effect from the crisis was the acceleration in the quences of the crisis through targeted stimulus decline of oil prices. That decline of about 65 per- packages, and other measures, has been reduced. cent from near $150/bbl to near $60/bbl at present The financial elements of the global crisis has radically reduced government revenues among have already taken a toll on the region, particu- developing-country oil exporters, and especially larly through equity markets--affecting the cost of for the high-income Gulf Cooperation Council capital for firms and inducing a large-scale loss of (GCC) exporters. These economies include wealth for households and institutions. Some esti- Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia mates suggest that GCC sovereign wealth funds 126 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S lost 27 percent of their value in the 12 months 2008 from trading in currency derivatives. In re- ending December 2008, with losses as high as sponse, many banks across the region tightened 40 percent among those funds heavily allocated to lending standards, and, in some countries, reduced emerging markets and private equity placements.10 lending directly. The impact of the crisis on invest- GCC equity prices in dollar terms dropped by ment firms in the region is less clear, mainly be- some 58 percent between September 15, 2008 and cause of data unavailability. However, anecdotal March 12, 2009 (a period during which virtually all evidence suggests that some firms may have run bourses registered sharp declines). Over the same into financial difficulties due to maturity mis- period, equity prices in UAE plummeted by 70 per- matches on their balance sheets. As elsewhere, ac- cent, contrasted with a decline of 55 percent for all cess to external financing has become more diffi- emerging markets (figure A.13). Since mid-March cult and borrowing spreads increased for countries 2009, a global stock market rally has set in, in the region following the eruption of the crisis. grounded in improved expectations for the health Most countries did not need to borrow during the of the international banking system (in the wake of latter part of 2008 because they had generally fa- the G-20 London Summit and following measures vorable balance of payments positions and access undertaken by the U.S. Treasury). Middle East and to alternative sources of financing, such as remit- North African equities have participated in the up- tances, FDI, tourism receipts, foreign aid, and turn, with the GCC index gaining 37 percent international reserves. through end-May, contrasted with a 52 percent in- Table A.10 highlights the general financial crease in the MSCI-all market index over the pe- health of the developing region over the period riod. The moderate gains for regional bourses are since 2005, when higher oil prices, generally fa- nonetheless indicative of improving confidence in vorable terms of trade and export market growth the potential for the global economy to recover began to move current account surplus positions sooner rather than later. into double-digit shares of regional GDP. Net The banking sector in the region has weath- additions to reserves accumulated to more-than ered the crisis relatively well, in part because of $140 billion over the period, as aggregate current limited direct exposure to subprime mortgages account surplus positions were complemented by and related asset-backed securities. However, a increasing inflows of FDI, which rose from Kuwaiti bank suffered significant losses in late $7 billion during 2004 to $25 billion in 2006 Figure A.13 Middle East and North Africa bourses hit hard at the worst of financial crisis Equity indexes, March 2008 = 100 (U.S. dollar terms) 110 100 Morocco 90 Gulf 80 Cooperation Council MSCI-All 70 60 Egypt 50 40 30 20 UAE 10 Mar. 2008 May 2008 Jul. 2008 Sep. 2008 Nov. 2008 Jan. 2009 Mar. 2009 May 2009 Source: Morgan-Stanley. 127 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.10 Net capital flows to the Middle East and North Africa $ billions Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008p Current account balance 6.1 22.4 38.3 59.9 93.1 80.7 97.6 as % of GDP 1.6 5.3 7.9 10.9 16.3 13.0 13.0 Net private and official inflows 7.7 9.8 12.1 15.8 13.4 21.6 23.3 Net private inflows 9.8 11.9 15.8 19.1 24.7 21.0 23.3 Net equity inflows 4.2 7.8 7.6 16.5 26.0 22.1 24.5 Net FDI inflows 4.7 7.6 6.9 14.1 25.0 24.2 22.5 Net portfolio equity inflows 0.5 0.2 0.7 2.4 1.0 2.1 2.0 Net debt flows 3.5 2.0 4.5 0.7 12.6 0.5 1.2 Official creditors 2.1 2.1 3.7 3.3 11.3 0.6 0.0 World Bank 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.0 0.8 1.0 0.2 IMF 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.1 Other official 1.6 1.2 2.6 2.6 10.3 0.3 0.3 Private creditors 5.6 4.1 8.2 2.6 1.3 1.1 1.2 Net M-L term debt flows 5.4 0.8 2.6 2.8 1.6 1.8 0.8 Bonds 5.2 0.7 2.8 2.5 0.8 0.1 0.6 Banks 0.3 0.5 0.2 1.1 1.3 0.5 1.4 Other private 0.1 0.6 0.0 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 Net short-term debt flows 0.2 3.3 5.6 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.4 Balancing itema 2.5 10.4 36.1 55.3 70.2 58.7 78.3 Change in reserves ( increase) 11.3 21.7 14.2 20.3 36.3 43.6 42.6 Workers' remittances 15.2 20.4 23.0 24.3 25.7 31.3 33.7 Source: World Bank. Note: p projected. a. Combination of errors and omissions and net acquisition of foreign assets (including FDI) by developing countries. (or 4.5 percent of GDP). FDI was increasingly Output among the GCC exporters has been sourced from the GCC countries and targeted at trimmed by some 10.6 percent (year-over-year) a wide range of infrastructure, real-estate and in- over the course of the last months of 2008 through dustrial projects across the region, from Morocco May 2009, led by large cutbacks in Kuwait to Jordan. As global financial conditions began (14 percent) and Saudi Arabia (12.7 percent). Pro- to deteriorate during 2008, FDI flows receded to duction has been reined in by the developing ex- a still-high $22.5 billion. However, worker remit- porters of the region, with Algerian output declin- tances (bottom panel of table A.10) continued to ing 11 percent and that of the Islamic Republic of increase, helping to support reserve accumulation Iran by 7 percent. This development alone will re- at a substantial $43 billion pace in the year. duce growth in the oil economies of these coun- The collapse in global industrial activity as tries by substantial margins in 2009, carrying well as investment and consumer outlays during overall GDP growth lower by an average of some the fourth quarter of 2008 and first quarter of 5 percentage points compared with 2008. Both 2009 cut sharply into demand for oil. World crude Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are projected to slip into oil demand fell a hefty 3.7 percent between the recession during 2009, with growth for all ex- final quarter of 2008 and the first of 2009, stand- porters falling from 6.2 percent in 2008 to 2 per- ing more than 3 million barrels per day (mb/d) cent in 2009. Spillovers from this development to lower than a year earlier. For 2009 as a whole, oil the diversified group of economies are anticipated demand is anticipated to decline by 2.16 mb/d to be widespread and adverse, running the scope with continuing large falloffs in high-income coun- from reduced FDI inflows to lower remittances tries and only moderate gains across developing and reduced tourism from the Gulf to other coun- countries. Oil producers in the Middle East and tries in the region (earlier a quickly increasing North Africa region have responded quickly by re- trend). ducing supply in an effort to support prices at a For the more diversified economies, export tenable "floor level." volumes and values have declined by as much as 128 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S 35 percent in nominal terms since September Figure A.14 Remittances, FDI and tourism revenues 2008. A key determinant for this development is decline as a share of GDP the collapse of import demand in the Euro Area Flows in billions of U.S. dollars Share of regional GDP (as well as the United States). For example 50 10 French import volume declined 19 percent during 9 Total share the first quarter of 2009 on the heels of a 12 Remittances 40 of GDP % 8 percent contraction in the previous quarter Tourism FDI 7 (saar). Exports from Morocco dropped 45 per- 30 6 cent from September 2008 through February 5 2009, from Tunisia 31 percent, and from Jordan 20 4 18.4 percent. However, industrial production has 3 held up better than in most other developing re- 10 2 gions, with output over the same period down by 1 some 5 percent in most countries in the Middle 0 0 East and North Africa compared with 15 or more 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 percent for the world as a whole. For example, Sources: World Bank; United Nations; IMF. Egyptian production stood 30 percent above year ­earlier levels in November 2008 while in Jordan it was 26 percent higher in January 2009 than a year before. As more recent data become avail- able, they will undoubtedly show substantial countries in the region such as Morocco, Tunisia, deterioration for countries with important trade Lebanon, Jordan and Egypt plummeted. Inflation links to Europe. moved into double digits in several countries Countries such as Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, linked to the food and fuel price increases, and au- Jordan and Lebanon derive both balance of pay- thorities undertook measures to offset the more ments support and needed domestic income adverse effects on the poor, including increased through exports of services, notably tourism and subsidies, measures to boost incomes through business services, remittance receipts from workers higher civil service wages, and finally a move-up in abroad (largely from Europe and the GCC coun- interest rates in a number of countries to counter tries), and more recently, strong FDI flows, which the inflationary impulse. One brighter aspect of have helped to underpin and catalyze domestic pri- the current conjuncture is that inflation rates vate and public capital expenditures. Such flows across the region are easing, as the gains in both amount to substantial proportions of GDP for these food and fuel prices unwind, serving to boost the countries. In Egypt, for example, total flows repre- purchasing power of consumers. For example, sented 18.7 percent of GDP in 2007, of which re- Tunisian CPI inflation softened to 3.1 percent in mittances 5.7 percent, tourism 5.5 percent, and FDI February 2009 (year-on-year) from 4.9 percent 7.6 percent. Given the current global and regional during 2008, Jordan's to 1.5 percent from 14.9 economic environment, these income and invest- percent, while Saudi Arabian inflation has ment flows are slated to decline both in absolute dropped to 6 percent from 10 percent in 2008. terms and as a share of GDP, with negative conse- quences for current-account deficits and domestic Outlook demand (figure A.14). GDP growth for the developing countries in the re- A large number of countries within the region gion is projected to halve from 6 percent in 2008 to suffered heavily from the food and fuel crisis 3.1 percent in 2009 (table A.11). For the broadly which preceded the onset of the global financial geographic region, including the GCC countries, crisis. The Middle East and North Africa is the the slowdown is expected to be still more pro- world's largest net food importing region. As food, nounced, shifting from growth of 5.6 percent in notably grains prices escalated at a record pace 2008 to gains of just 1.6 percent in 2009, largely over 2006 to mid-2008, and oil prices moved up, reflecting the sharp decline in oil output (see Memo while terms of trade for countries oil-importing items to table A.11). 129 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.11 Middle East and North Africa forecast summary annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.4 5.3 5.4 6.0 3.1 3.8 4.6 GDP per capita (units in $) 2.7 3.5 3.6 4.2 1.3 2.1 2.9 PPP GDPc 4.5 5.3 5.5 6.1 3.0 3.6 4.4 Private consumption 4.1 5.8 6.1 7.2 2.8 4.0 4.9 Public consumption 3.4 4.2 3.1 6.6 8.6 7.6 6.8 Fixed investment 6.3 1.2 23.3 19.7 3.8 6.0 7.5 Exports, GNFSd 5.1 7.3 8.2 7.6 2.0 2.9 5.1 Imports, GNFSd 5.8 7.8 19.5 18.2 0.6 5.4 7.1 Net exports, contribution to growth 0.4 0.5 4.2 4.7 0.9 1.5 1.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.9 16.3 13.0 13.0 1.6 1.5 1.8 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 5.2 3.8 4.4 16.9 4.8 9.8 7.6 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) 5.0 2.7 0.5 1.5 5.4 3.6 3.5 Memo items: GDP MENA Geographic Regione 4.1 4.8 4.9 5.6 1.6 3.5 4.4 Selected GCC Countriesf 3.6 4.0 4.0 4.9 -0.5 3.0 4.3 Egypt 4.4 6.8 7.1 7.2 3.8 4.2 5.0 Iran 4.8 5.7 6.2 6.9 2.5 3.0 4.0 Algeria 4.0 1.8 3.0 3.0 2.2 3.5 4.0 Source: World Bank. Note: a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services. e. Geographic region includes high-income countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia. f. Selected GCC Countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia. Across countries in the region, the extent of these countries, with growth increasing only grad- the slowdown is expected to vary depending on ually to 3.0­3.5 percent in 2010 and to 4 percent trade links to Europe (falling export market by 2011. Because of the sharp falloff in oil prices, growth), reliance on oil revenues, and initial fiscal current account balances are projected to deterio- and external account positions. Oil exporters with rate sharply among developing oil exporters from large populations (Algeria, the Islamic Republic of 23.8 percent of GDP in 2008 to 3.5 percent by Iran, and the Syrian Arab Republic) are much 2011. more fiscally constrained than oil exporters with Prospects for several of the more diversified smaller populations; as a result these countries en- economies of the region, including Jordan and tered the crisis with significantly weaker fiscal and Lebanon, are dependent on remittances, FDI external positions. Governments, like Algeria, flows, tourism, and foreign aid, and therefore their with sufficient international reserves or large sov- prospects will depend on those of the Gulf States ereign wealth funds are using fiscal policy to cush- and to a lesser extent those of the international ion the downturn, while others with limited re- donor community. Growth in this group of coun- sources (such as the Islamic Republic of Iran) have tries is projected to decline from a relatively robust responded to the crisis and declining revenues by 5.6 percent in 2008 to 3.9 percent in 2009 reducing government spending pro-cyclically. (table A.12). Within this group, Lebanon and Growth in these countries is projected to decline, Jordan entered the crisis with weak macroeco- with total output growth decelerating in Algeria nomic positions--high debt, and current account from 3 percent in 2008 to 2.2 percent in 2009, and and fiscal deficits. GDP growth in both countries from 6.9 percent to 2.5 percent in the Islamic is projected to slow by more than 3 percentage Republic of Iran. points in 2009. Reduced remittances, FDI, and The projected weak recovery in global de- tourism are expected to weigh heavily on exter- mand for oil is expected to restrain the recovery in nal balances in both countries, especially given 130 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.12 Middle East and North Africa country forecasts annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Algeria GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.0 1.8 3.0 3.0 2.2 3.5 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 8.2 49.0 35.8 37.3 4.1 0.9 4.6 Egypt, Arab Rep. GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.4 6.8 7.1 7.2 3.8 4.2 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.4 2.4 0.3 6.5 6.1 5.8 5.3 Iran, Islamic Rep. GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.8 5.7 6.2 6.9 2.5 3.0 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.2 28.6 28.9 37.4 5.9 7.4 7.2 Jordan GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.7 6.3 6.6 5.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.0 11.3 17.0 27.5 10.1 10.3 10.4 Lebanon GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.3 0.6 7.5 6.5 2.5 4.5 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 19.5 5.4 8.0 14.7 6.1 5.4 4.8 Morocco GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.4 8.0 2.2 6.4 3.2 4.5 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.7 2.0 0.3 6.1 2.4 2.7 2.5 Syrian Arab Republic GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.2 5.1 4.2 5.2 3.0 3.5 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.0 2.5 2.1 0.9 7.7 6.9 6.7 Tunisia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.0 5.5 6.3 4.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.0 2.0 2.6 5.4 4.7 3.3 1.6 Yemen, Rep. GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.9 3.2 3.0 4.0 7.7 5.0 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.1 1.2 8.0 6.5 9.2 3.4 1.0 Source: World Bank. Note: In the current very volatile global environment, World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing assump- tions. Moreover, the confidence intervals around these point forecasts are larger than usual. As a result, the projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries' prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Djibouti, Iraq, Libya, and West Bank and Gaza are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. expected reductions in capital flows. Current ac- (Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia) entered the crisis counts in the two countries in 2008 represented 15 with relatively good macroeconomic positions and 27 percent of GDP, respectively. Lower oil and have experienced limited fallout in their own prices and a forced reduction in imports caused by financial systems. However, the real-side of the the lack of available external financing are ex- crisis has been keenly felt, because of their close pected to bring those deficits down by more than trade and financial ties to high-income Europe 10 percent in each country in 2009. and their reliance on European tourism and re- The Republic of Yemen is projected to buck mittance flows. In Egypt, fourth-quarter GDP ex- the global trend for slower growth in 2009 with panded by only 4.1 percent in 2008 compared the coming on-stream of new liquid natural gas with 7.7 percent a year earlier; monthly job cre- (LNG) plants. In Djibouti, the operation of a new ation fell by 30 percent and foreign investment port facility by Dubai World and spending by flows by 48 percent. Reflecting the continuation foreign military bases is projected to provide a of these trends into the rest of the year, GDP is cushion and prevent a sharp decline in GDP projected to slow by 3 percentage points or more growth. The diversified countries of North Africa in Egypt and Morocco, with the former's GDP 131 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S growth easing to 3.8 percent from 7.2 percent in The outlook for global energy demand and 2008, and Moroccan output down from 6.4 per- world oil prices is another key risk for the region. cent to 3.2 percent in 2009. In the baseline, energy demand is projected to re- Prospects for recovery in the developing coun- main low and oil prices are unlikely to increase tries in the Middle East and North Africa will de- much beyond current levels. With recent OPEC pend importantly on the strength of the eventual production cuts and with Saudi Arabia's increase revival of growth in Europe and in the GCC coun- in its production capacity to 12.5 million barrels a tries. Continued weakness in the price of oil, the day (thanks to recent investment), there is suffi- persistent drag of global finance, weak remittance cient slack to absorb any decline in supply that flows, and strong negative wealth effects from might be caused by unanticipated supply disrup- falling real-estate and equity prices in the region tions in other markets. are all projected to restrain recovery. GDP is expected to increase by 3.8 percent in 2010 and 4.6 percent by 2011, but because of the amplitude of the slowdown already experienced, unemploy- South Asia ment and spare capacity, especially in the oil sector, Recent developments A will continue to be issues even at the end of the mid the onset of the global crisis in September forecast period. This general pattern is expected to 2008, GDP growth in South Asia registered a be mirrored in both the resource-rich and resource- relatively resilient 7.1 percent in 2008, albeit down poor countries of the region, with the recovery still significantly from the robust 8.7 percent outturn of more muted among the oil exporters. 2007, on a calendar-year basis. This 1.6 percentage point falloff in growth compares favorably with Risks and uncertainties the 3.4 and 2.9 percentage point declines in the In many respects, the risks going forward for coun- East Asia and Pacific and Europe and Central Asia tries in the region are the same as for the global regions. South Asia's economies have been cush- economy. On the downside is the worrying risk ioned somewhat from the real-side effects of the that instead of a slow recovery, as projected in the crisis because exports represent a relatively small baseline, the recession lasts significantly longer and share of the region's GDP and because their finan- is associated with secondary crises in countries cial market integration is limited. Production is with large current account deficits (see chapter 1). less specialized in manufacturing or natural Although many countries in the Middle East and resources--sectors that have been hit particularly North Africa region would be affected negatively hard by the crisis. Real incomes and consumer by a further drying up of foreign capital flows, demand in the region have been bolstered by the weaker exports, and remittances, Jordan and collapse in global commodity prices, notably that Lebanon--two countries with large current- of oil. However, employment of migrant workers account deficits--face the largest risk of a balance- and remittances inflows to the region are facing of-payments crisis in a protracted recession sce- strong headwinds in the wake of the fall-off in ac- nario. Should a lack of access to foreign exchange tivity in high-income host countries. A number of form a binding constraint and official assistance economies have been forced to undertake sharp and remittance flows are unable to fill the gap, the adjustment measures to address macroeconomic countries could be forced into a very painful re- imbalances, which has led to a slowdown in do- structuring process accompanied by large currency mestic demand. Pakistan faced a balance- depreciation and a reduction in domestic demand of-payments crisis in the second half of 2008, even- in order to restore external balance. Inevitably, this tually reaching an agreement with the IMF toward would lead to much higher unemployment and in- the end of the year. Sri Lanka--currently in discus- creased social tensions. Other countries in the region sion with the IMF on a stand-by facility (as of would be less dramatically affected by a prolonged end-May)--and the Maldives are also struggling recession scenario. Weaker trade flows, lower remit- with large imbalances, especially so in the Maldives tances, and tourism receipts would likely extend the where the current account deficit surged to 53 per- growth recession further in the region and result in cent of GDP and the fiscal deficit increased to an even larger buildup in spare capacity. 14 percent of GDP. 132 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S The immediate impact of the crisis on the Figure A.15 JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond South Asian economy was most apparent in fi- Index (EMBI), stripped spreads nancial markets, although the banking sector Basis points over U.S. treasuries was relatively unscathed--given the region's 2,500 minimal exposure to toxic assets and the limited presence of foreign commercial and investment 2,000 banks. Stock markets were buffeted largely in line with global equities, especially through the 1,500 Pakistan end of 2008. Since that time, equity markets in the region have stabilized, with some bourses 1,000 Sri Lanka posting gains as of the end of May 2009. Stock markets in India, for example, advanced in April 500 and May, with a surge following recent elections that boosted market sentiment and underpinned Emerging markets 0 expectations of an accelerated reform program and greater openness to foreign investors. Mar- 1/1/2007 3/1/20075/1/20077/1/20079/1/2007 1/1/20083/1/20085/1/2008 7/1/2008 9/1/2008 1/1/20093/1/20095/1/2009 kets in Bangladesh witnessed less extreme 11/1/2007 11/1/2008 volatility than other regional stock markets, as Source: JP Morgan. its equity market is not highly capitalized, trading is thin, and foreign participation is low (2.5 percent of total assets are held by foreign in- primarily composed of bank loans, with a trickling vestors). Regional bond markets also suffered of equity inflows for the first quarter of 2009. from the sharp deterioration in investor senti- Gross financial flows posted a recovery in India ment and widespread deleveraging by commer- during April and May, as international investor cial banks in developed countries, which resulted confidence improved on early indications of a re- in a withdrawal of investment funds from emerg- covery for global growth and on expectations that ing markets in the fall of 2008. Bond spreads the country is well-placed to benefit from an even- surged for sovereigns in the region, and spreads tual turnaround. Markets have also reacted posi- for emerging market corporate borrowers effec- tively to the decisive election outcomes. tively barred them from the market--notably for Capital inflows, including recent record-high Pakistan and Sri Lanka. As global markets have FDI inflows, had become a significant source of begun to thaw, and after Pakistan and Sri Lanka finance for the rapid rise in regional investment began to work with the IMF on stabilization (particularly for corporate capital expenditures in packages, spreads have narrowed significantly. India) and a key driver of regional GDP growth As of late May 2009, spreads had declined to over recent years (table A.13). As a consequence, 1,298 basis points in Pakistan and 957 points in their reversal has contributed to a sharp falloff in Sri Lanka from 2,221 and 2,455 in December regional investment growth. For example, in and October of 2008, respectively. Nonetheless, Pakistan, FDI represented 13.4 percent of gross spreads remain substantially above the emerging domestic investment in 2007 but has since declined market average of 473 basis points (figure A.15). by more than half, sapping badly needed capital Gross capital inflows--international syndi- for investment programs. In India, FDI inflows fell cated bank lending, equity placements, and bond from 4.6 percent of gross domestic investment in issuance--to South Asia had surged in recent the third quarter of 2008 to only 0.7 percent dur- years, but collapsed in the aftermath of the crisis. ing the fourth quarter of the year. In contrast, in Flows to South Asia fell by 29 percent in 2008, Bangladesh, FDI has been relatively resilient. among the sharpest declines posted among devel- Despite the crisis, inflows between July 2008 and oping regions. In the first quarter of 2009, inflows February 2009 were twice as high as in the previ- to Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka fell to zero, ous year and are projected to reach 1.4 percent of while in India they were extremely subdued, down GDP in the current fiscal year. 64 percent relative to inflows recorded during the On a net basis, total private and official cap- first quarter of 2008. In India, gross inflows were ital flows to the region contracted by one-third 133 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.13 Net capital flows to South Asia $ billions Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008p Current account balance 11.4 12.5 1.0 12.4 16.6 20.5 59.1 as % of GDP 1.8 1.6 0.1 1.2 1.5 1.5 3.9 Net private and official inflows 7.4 13.8 25.4 28.6 76.6 116.5 77.0 Net private inflows 9.7 15.5 24.3 25.4 71.9 112.5 66.5 Net equity inflows 7.7 13.4 16.8 22.7 33.6 66.0 65.5 Net FDI inflows 6.7 5.4 7.8 10.3 23.2 29.9 47.5 Net portfolio equity inflows 1.0 8.0 9.0 12.4 10.4 36.1 18.0 Net debt flows 0.3 0.4 8.6 5.9 43.0 50.5 11.5 Official creditors 2.3 1.7 1.1 3.2 4.7 4.0 10.5 World Bank 1.0 0.1 2.1 2.3 1.9 1.9 1.4 IMF 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 3.2 Other official 1.4 1.5 0.7 0.9 2.9 2.2 5.9 Private creditors 2.0 2.1 7.5 2.7 38.3 46.5 1.0 Net M-L term debt flows 0.2 1.4 4.9 1.1 20.3 27.2 1.8 Bonds 0.7 3.1 4.1 2.9 4.3 9.5 1.5 Banks 1.0 4.5 1.1 4.1 16.0 17.7 5.9 Other private 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 5.6 Net short-term debt flows 1.8 0.7 2.6 1.6 18.0 19.3 0.8 Balancing itema 8.2 9.6 3.0 10.4 19.8 5.0 44.8 Change in reserves ( increase) 27.0 35.9 27.3 5.8 40.2 101.0 27.0 Workers' remittances 24.1 30.4 28.7 33.1 39.6 52.1 66.0 Source: World Bank. Note: p projected. a. Combination of errors and omissions and net acquisition of foreign assets (including FDI) by developing countries. in 2008 from a record-high $116.5 billion in Figure A.16 South Asian exports, values 2007. The contraction was led by a halving of 3mma, y/y percent change portfolio equity inflows plunging private creditor 50 bond issuance and syndicated bank loans, which India Bangladesh contracted 84 percent and 67 percent, respec- 40 tively. In contrast, during 2008, net FDI inflows 30 grew 59 percent, coming to represent nearly two- Pakistan 20 thirds of total net inflows. This sharp increase in 10 net FDI inflows was driven by surges in FDI to Sri Lanka India and Pakistan--largely accumulated prior to 0 the onset of the crisis--which registered gains of 10 52 percent and 59 percent, respectively. 20 Although less immediate than the transmis- sion to the financial sector, the crisis has also had a 30 severe impact on trade flows (figure A.16). This has become increasingly evident as the collapse in 2007M12007M32007M52007M72007M9 2007M11 2008M12008M32008M52008M72008M9 2008M11 2009M12009M3 demand--most pronounced among the high-income Source: World Bank. countries--led to a falloff in exports that has be- come more pervasive across the global economy in the first quarter of 2009. In the six months at double-digit annual rates (seasonally adjusted), through March 2009, regional merchandise ex- down 33 percent, 27.5 percent (both as of March ports in dollar terms fell by one-third from August 2009), and 11.6 percent (as of February), respec- 2008 pre-crisis levels. This stands in stark contrast tively. In Bangladesh, exports averaged 3 percent to the 17 percent boom in export growth posted annualized growth during the three months in the six months through March 2008. In India, through January 2009, down from a peak of Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, exports are contracting 72 percent in July 2008. Regional merchandise 134 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S imports have also contracted sharply, reflecting Figure A.17 Industrial production in South Asia weakening domestic demand and the steep fall in 3-month moving average, y/y % change, seasonally adjusted international commodity prices, particularly oil. 15 Bangladesh In the six months through March 2009, regional India merchandise import values fell 30 percent from 10 August 2008 pre-crisis levels, contracting just slightly less than the 33 percent recorded for ex- 5 ports over the same period. As the level of imports 0 is significantly larger than exports in most coun- tries, this has led to a general improvement in 5 Pakistan trade balances. The marked deterioration in investor confi- 10 dence, collapse in capital flows and plummeting external demand and trade are translating into a 15 significant falloff in industrial production. High frequency data for South Asia (where available) 2007M12007M32007M52007M72007M9 2007M112008M12008M32008M52008M72008M9 2008M112009M1 2009M3 show a decidedly sharp slowdown--if not outright Sources: World Bank; Thomson Datastream. contraction--in economic activity in recent months. Industrial production in India was down 2.4 percent in March 2009 from a year earlier and in Pakistan it was down 20.6 percent. In India, in- of 3.3 percent in May 2009. Disinflationary dustrial activity has been generally trending down- pressures are less pronounced elsewhere in the ward since late 2006, recording a halving of region, although also clearly evident. In India, growth to 4.4 percent in 2008, compared with wholesale producer prices moderated sharply outturns of 10 percent growth in both 2006 and (reaching close to a zero annual rate in March), 2007. In Pakistan, industrial production has although consumer price inflation has proven posted negative readings since July 2008, now more sticky downward (at just below 10 percent down 23 percent on an annualized basis as of in March). In Bangladesh, inflation moderated March 2009, from an expansion of 5.5 percent to 5 percent in March 2009, down from a recent during 2007. In Bangladesh, manufacturing out- peak of 10.8 percent in August 2008. In the put has slowed markedly, falling to 2.8 percent Maldives, inflation has also eased significantly in December (year-on-year). During the fourth to 11.2 percent in March, compared with a year quarter of 2008, production slowed to 4.4 per- ago, down from over 17 percent in July 2008. cent, nearly one-third the 12.6 percent pace In Pakistan, notably, inflationary pressures have recorded in the preceding quarter (figure A.17). proven more stubborn. While the consumer Reflecting the collapse in food and fuel price index in Pakistan is down by a marked prices since the recent peak in mid-2008 and 8 percentage points since August 2008, it re- falling domestic demand, regional inflationary mains in double digits at an annual rate of pressures have subsided and disinflation is evi- 17.2 percent in March 2009--among the highest dent across the region. Indeed, at one extreme, rates in the world. Inflation in Nepal also re- Afghanistan recently registered sharp deflation mains at double-digit rates (14.4 percent as of of 9.7 percent at an annual rate in April 2009. March), with limited pass-through to consumers This compares with a recent high rate of infla- of lower international commodity prices. tion of 47.8 percent in May 2008 and reflects a In the immediate aftermath of the crisis, sharp fall of food prices, as agricultural output remittance inflows to South Asia rebounded. has rebounded dramatically following the severe However, this was an apparently temporary phe- drought of last year.11 Elsewhere in the region, nomenon, because migrant workers who have lost the path of disinflation is particularly marked in foreign jobs are reported to be returning to their Sri Lanka, where the consumer price index has home countries with accumulated savings. More come down by 25 percentage points since a re- recently, remittance inflows have begun to dwin- cent peak in June 2008, reaching an annual rate dle, if not contract. For example, in Bangladesh, 135 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S although remittance inflows have continued to 20 percent against the US dollar from August 2008 grow, the rate of increase has declined sharply to March 2009, but by only 6.6 percent against the from an annual rate of 50 percent pace in August trade-weighted basket of currencies over the same 2008 to only 9.6 percent in April 2009. In Sri period. Adjusting for inflation rates across trade Lanka, net remittances inflows declined 3.8 per- partners, the pattern is more mixed. For instance, cent in March 2009 over a year ago, posting the the real effective exchange rates (REER) for the In- fifth consecutive month of decline (on the heels of dian rupee depreciated close to 9 percent between an 18 percent decline in February)--compared August 2008 and March 2009. In contrast, with over 22 percent annual growth rate for the whereas Pakistan's rupee depreciated by 13.5 per- third quarter of 2008. cent from August 2008 to March 2009 against Tourism, a key source of foreign exchange the US dollar, the REER for the Pakistani rupee and economic growth in a number of regional appreciated by just over 9 percent over the same economies, has also been negatively affected by the period--in part reflecting its significantly higher global crisis. In Bhutan, where tourism recently inflationary pressures compared with its trade contributed 7 percent to GDP growth, tourist ar- partners. rivals declined 37.8 percent (year-on-year) in Among developing regions, South Asia entered March 2009, compared with growth of 40 percent the crisis with the least fiscal space. Before the onset in 2008. In the Maldives, tourism activity, which of the crisis, general government fiscal deficits ex- represents over one-third of GDP, has declined by ceeded 5 percent of GDP in India, Pakistan, and about 10 percent. In Sri Lanka, the recently ended Sri Lanka, and in the Maldives it exceeded 10 per- civil war contributed to an 11 percent fall in cent. In Bangladesh the deficit represented close to tourist arrivals during 2008. In Nepal, tourist 4 percent of GDP. Despite limited resources, India, arrivals are mixed, shrinking 17.6 percent in and Bangladesh have introduced fiscal stimulus March 2009 over the previous year and growing packages to support domestic demand. In India, 15.8 percent in April. Until recently, tourism rev- where fiscal policy had already become much more enues in Nepal were rising rapidly, up to 2.3 per- expansionary before the crisis, the government in- cent of GDP in fiscal 2007/08 (through June troduced a fiscal stimulus package in late 2008. The 2008), roughly double the outturn of the previous fiscal 2008/09 stimulus measures, geared at boost- year on the improved security situation and ing demand, are equal to about 3.5 percent of emerging political stability. India's GDP. As a consequence, the public sector The policy response by regional governments deficit is projected to have increased from 5.8 per- to the slowdown has been mixed. Most countries cent of GDP in 2007 to 9.8 percent in 2008 and to have relied on monetary measures, because fiscal over 12 percent as of early-2009. In Bangladesh, the space is highly constrained. Monetary policy has government announced a stimulus package in late- been eased in line with significantly lower infla- April 2009, focused on providing assistance to the tionary pressures in most countries. In some cases, export sector, remittance flows, the annual develop- central banks rapidly introduced cuts to their ment program, and investment projects. For the benchmark rates after the credit crunch took hold final quarter of fiscal 2008/09 ending in June 2009, in September 2008. Regional exchange rate poli- stimulus spending from the package comes to 34 bil- cies have also shifted (notably in India, and more lion taka (or about 0.7 percent of 2007/08 GDP). recently in Sri Lanka), where countries relatively Meanwhile, in the Maldives, where the deficit quickly shifted from defending their currencies to a has surged to an estimated 14 percent of GDP, the posture of conserving international reserve hold- government is facing a fiscal crisis. The problem ings. Currencies across the region depreciated began building in 2005 in the aftermath of the against the dollar--a pattern evident across most December 2004 tsunami; as the government hiked developing countries--with international investors outlays for reconstruction, many recurrent expen- shifting to `safe-haven' assets. Against a trade- ditures were increasingly unrelated to the recon- weighted basket of currencies, in nominal terms, struction effort. While less extreme, fiscal pressures the extent of depreciation was more modest. For in Sri Lanka are also rising, in this case because of a example, the Indian rupee depreciated by close to steep decline in tax revenue. During the first two 136 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.14 South Asia forecast summary annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.0 9.0 8.4 6.1 4.6 7.0 7.8 GDP in calendar year basisc 6.1 9.3 8.7 7.1 5.5 7.1 7.7 GDP per capita (units in $) 4.1 7.3 6.8 4.6 3.2 5.7 6.4 PPP GDPc 6.0 9.1 8.5 6.1 4.6 7.1 7.8 Private consumption 4.7 6.3 7.3 3.8 3.7 5.6 6.3 Public consumption 4.9 10.4 6.3 17.5 8.9 4.7 4.0 Fixed investment 8.0 14.7 13.6 11.4 6.3 10.6 11.5 Exports, GNFSd 10.9 17.4 8.1 10.4 2.6 7.1 10.8 Imports, GNFSd 10.5 22.4 8.0 15.2 0.4 6.9 9.5 Net exports, contribution to growth 0.2 1.8 0.4 1.7 0.7 0.4 0.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.6 1.5 1.5 3.9 1.7 2.4 2.5 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 6.3 6.7 7.8 12.0 9.7 5.1 5.5 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) 7.7 5.6 6.4 8.9 10.9 11.3 9.2 Memo items: GDP South Asia excluding India 4.5 6.8 6.3 5.9 2.6 3.4 4.8 India 6.4 9.7 9.0 6.1 5.1 8.0 8.5 Pakistan 4.1 6.9 6.4 5.8 1.0 2.5 4.5 Bangladesh 5.3 6.6 6.4 6.2 5.0 4.5 5.0 Source: World Bank. Note: National income and product account data refer to fiscal years (FY) for the South Asian countries with the exception of Sri Lanka, which reports in calendar year (CY). The fiscal year runs from July 1 through June 30 in Bangladesh and Pakistan, from July 16 through July 15 in Nepal, and April 1 through March 31 in India. Due to reporting practices, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan report FY2007/08 data in CY2008, while India reports FY2007/08 in CY2007. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services. months of 2009, customs revenues are estimated to massive swings in commodity prices and exchange have shrunk by an annual rate of 50 percent. rate will ultimately affect different industries. The government of Pakistan is pursuing fiscal In the baseline scenario of a deep global reces- consolidation under the new IMF program reached sion followed by a slower-than-normal recovery, in November 2008, with the burden of adjustment GDP growth in South Asia is projected to slow falling primarily on expenditures. As of Decem- sharply to 5.5 percent in 2009, compared with ber 2008 (halfway through the fiscal year), the gov- 7.1 percent in 2008, on a calendar-year basis (table ernment is on track to reduce the deficit to 4.3 per- A.14). This compares favorably with the decelera- cent of GDP from 7.4 percent a year earlier. Nepal is tion in growth of 4.7 percentage points projected for also bucking the trend of growing deficits and is ac- all developing countries and especially with Europe tually expected to register a budget surplus, attribut- and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, able to improved tax receipts (up 38 percent) and and the OECD economies where output is projected reduced capital expenditures. to decline. All components of demand are being hit, with investment growth in particular being com- Outlook pressed by a contraction in external demand--with The outlook for regional growth remains highly world trade projected to contract 10 percent in uncertain, given the synchronized nature of the 2009. Private consumption is projected to decelerate slowdown in growth across the globe. There are in the wake of job losses, weaker remittance inflows, significant uncertainties tied to potential negative and heightened uncertainty. Government consump- feedback loops between the real and financial sec- tion is also projected to ease significantly, as a result tors within and among countries and about how of falling revenues and higher borrowing costs. 137 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S The regional fiscal balance is projected to dete- Sri Lanka (2007), 4 percent in Pakistan, and 3 per- riorate in 2009 to a deficit of 10.9 percent of GDP cent in India. In dollar terms, India received from an estimated 8.9 percent in 2008. On the $27 billion in remittance inflows 2007, the highest expenditure side, higher borrowing costs will also level of inflows among developing countries. In come into play. Interest payments represent over Pakistan, remittances are estimated to have cov- 20 percent of total outlays for South Asia, by far the ered 47 percent of the surging current account highest share among developing regions. India, deficit in fiscal year 2007/08. Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are most vulnerable in this Given the region's strong underlying growth respect, with interest payments accounting for dynamics, the negative impacts of the crisis are ex- 20 percent, 26.3 percent, and nearly 29 percent of pected to begin to unwind in 2010 and 2011, with central government expenditures, respectively. On a projected rebound in GDP growth to 7.1 percent the revenue side, the collapse in trade activity is dis- and 7.7 percent, respectively (table A.15). The rel- proportionately hitting the revenue stream because atively rapid recovery in regional activity to close taxes on international trade represent nearly 15 per- to potential output growth comes despite the weak cent of revenues for the region, more than double recovery projected elsewhere and reflects the the share for developing countries as a group. lagged impact of recent monetary policy easing-- Bangladesh and the Maldives are particularly reliant with some potential for further interest rate cuts. on taxes on trade, which represent 33 percent and Fiscal stimulus measures, where they are being 30 percent of their total revenues, respectively. pursued, should also provide a boost to household In response to the collapse in external demand, income and spending. Nevertheless, given the ex- regional exports of goods and services are proj- tent of the slowdown already absorbed, over the ected to contract in 2009. All export categories are forecast period GDP growth will persist below the facing downward pressures; information technol- 8.3 percent average outturn in the five years ogy industries (India) are considered especially vul- through 2007. nerable to the downturn in financial sector activity, and textile exports (Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) Risks and uncertainties and tourism (Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka) Given the recent extremely high degree of volatil- are vulnerable to cuts in discretionary spending. ity and massive shifts in demand across global However, the regional current account deficit is markets, the outlook remains highly uncertain, projected to shrink to 1.7 percent of GDP in 2009 particularly with respect to the timing of nega- from 3.9 percent in 2008 because import expendi- tive impacts and the rebound in activity. On the tures are projected to slow sharply with weaker upside, some industries could benefit from shifts domestic demand growth, given the projected im- to lower-cost providers, such as for low-end provement in the terms of trade. textiles (Bangladesh) and outsourcing (India). In Weak economic conditions in high-income India, the reform agenda of the newly elected countries are projected to reduce remittances in government has already improved investor senti- labor-exporting countries in 2009. For example, ment and could yield an even stronger recovery foreign employment of Bangladeshi workers de- in investment demand. In Sri Lanka, the recent clined 27.4 percent in the eight months ending end of the decades old civil war has buoyed March 2009, compared with the same period in domestic sentiment, which could also provide a the preceding year. Inevitably this decline will fillip to growth and stronger than envisioned result in a significant downward adjustment in outcomes. A recovery of global growth that is remittance inflows to the country over the coming stronger and more rapid than currently antici- period. Although remittances are typically pated would support higher growth outcomes for countercyclical--expatriates tend to send more South Asia, primarily through stronger external money to their country of origin in times of demand leading to higher export growth, and an need--the synchronized character of the global re- improved risk appetite translating into higher cession has made them procyclical. They represent capital inflows. a key supply of foreign exchange for regional Although such upside outcomes are possible, economies--equivalent to 18 percent of GDP in downside risks are more pronounced. More nega- Nepal, and 9 percent in both Bangladesh and tive growth outturns could be driven by a deeper 138 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.15 South Asia country forecasts annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Bangladesh GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.3 6.6 6.4 6.2 5.0 4.5 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.6 2.0 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.4 India GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.4 9.7 9.0 6.1 5.1 8.0 8.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.4 1.0 1.0 3.4 1.4 2.3 2.5 Nepal GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.1 2.8 3.2 4.7 3.0 3.5 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.5 0.0 2.6 1.1 2.5 2.0 1.3 Pakistan GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.1 6.9 6.4 5.8 1.0 2.5 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.1 5.4 5.8 8.4 5.2 4.5 4.3 Sri Lanka GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.5 7.7 6.8 6.0 2.5 4.0 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.2 5.7 4.5 9.3 3.6 3.8 3.7 Memo items: GDP on calendar year basis South Asia 6.1 9.3 8.7 7.1 5.5 7.1 7.7 Bangladesh 5.0 6.3 6.5 6.3 5.6 4.7 4.8 India 6.6 9.9 9.3 7.3 5.9 8.1 8.5 Nepal 3.9 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.8 3.3 3.8 Pakistan 3.7 7.3 6.6 6.1 3.3 1.8 3.5 Source: World Bank. Note: In the current very volatile global environment, World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing assump- tions. Moreover, the confidence intervals around these point forecasts are larger than usual. As a result, the projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries' prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Afghanistan, Bhutan, Maldives are not forecast owing to data limitations. National income and product account data refer to fiscal years (FY) for the South Asian countries with the exception of Sri Lanka, which reports in calendar year (CY). The fiscal year runs from July 1 through June 30 in Bangladesh and Pakistan, from July 16 through July 15 in Nepal, and April 1 through March 31 in India. Due to reporting practices, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan report FY2007/08 data in CY2008, while India reports FY2007/08 in CY2007. GDP figures are presented in calendar years (CY) based on quarterly history for India. For Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, CY data is calculated taking the average growth over the two fiscal year periods to provide an approximation of CY activity. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. and more protracted global recession as outlined in Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, where aid represents 21, 9, chapter 1. This would lead to weaker external de- and 9 percent of central government expenditures. mand and a slower rebound in investment growth On the domestic front, downside risks are tied in South Asia. A protracted global recession would in particular to the region's large fiscal obligations translate into a sharper decline in remittances than and relatively high reliance on taxes on trade and forecast, where Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, large subsidy programs, both of which would lead in particular, would be vulnerable. Additionally, in to heightened fiscal pressures in the event of a pro- such a scenario, foreign assistance could be curbed, tracted global recession (figure A.18). Ongoing as high-income countries face their own mounting budgetary pressures are also likely to lead to cuts fiscal pressures. Afghanistan, in particular, would in development spending. Large fiscal deficits also be exposed to significantly reduced aid flows, represent a threat to long-term growth, weighing on where aid accounts for two-thirds of central gov- potential output by crowding out private invest- ernment expenditures. However, given its geopoliti- ment through the increased call on capital by the cal importance, a falloff appears unlikely. Reduced public sector (by foreign and domestic agents) and aid would force a further contraction in fiscal higher interest rates. Growing public sector obliga- spending especially in countries like Bangladesh, tions also are likely to translate into increased debt 139 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.18 Government revenue in South mineral exports, and declining remittances and Asia is very dependent on trade tourism. Taxes on International Trade Partly because of increased uncertainty and Percent share of total revenue the generalized flight to quality that immediately Shares as of 2007 for countries (except Bhutan = 2004) and 2006 for income groups followed the outbreak of the crisis, but also be- cause lower commodity prices have reduced the Low and middle income attractiveness of private investment in the region, High income capital flows to the region declined sharply (table Bangladesh A.16). Some $5.7 billion in portfolio investment left South Africa during the fourth quarter of Maldives 2008, up from a $1 billion outflow in the third Nepal quarter. In Uganda the outflow was much India smaller--$119 million--but contrasted even more sharply with a $9 million inflow in the third quar- Sri Lanka ter of 2008. In South Africa, foreign direct invest- Pakistan ment fell to 3.3 billion rand in the fourth quarter Afghanistan from 22.4 billion rand in the third quarter. Bhutan The same factors that precipitated the reversal in capital flows also saw borrowing costs rise 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 sharply for those few countries in the region that Source: World Bank. have access to international bond markets. Initially, sovereign spreads jumped as high as 1,900 basis points in the case of Ghana, but have since de- ratios, raising the risk of default. Central gov- clined (figure A.19). Nevertheless, sovereign ernment debt represents 85 percent of GDP in spreads for Ghana and Gabon remain between Sri Lanka, over 70 percent in Bhutan, and close to 220 and 375 basis points above their pre-September 55 percent in India, the Maldives, and Pakistan. 15th level. For South Africa, spreads remain With slower growth outturns and rising un- 50 basis points higher. Partly as a result of sharp employment, higher poverty is a significant politi- increases in external borrowing costs and unwill- cal, humanitarian and economic risk. South Asia's ingness to lend, many countries and firms post- social protection spending is less developed than in poned issuing new bonds, with emerging frontier East Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East and economies in the region being the most affected. North Africa where social insurance spending rep- While official assistance to the region has in- resents 2.9 percent and 3 percent of GDP, respec- creased, the additional aid has not been sufficient tively. In South Asia it is less than half that amount to close the widening financing gap. For the region at 1.4 percent. as a whole the financing gap is expected to lie be- Separately, security threats, civil strife, and tween $30 billion and $45 billion in 2009 (see political uncertainties remain of concern across chapter 3). much of the region. Responding to the outflow of capital, curren- cies of countries in the region depreciated sharply against the dollar, as did those of virtually Sub-Saharan Africa every other country in the world, with the average Recent developments depreciation in countries in the region amounting A lthough many countries in Sub-Saharan to 25 percent. However, on a trade-weighted basis Africa have only weak links to international the depreciations were milder, precisely because all financial markets and relatively small manufac- countries depreciated. Of the countries with avail- turing sectors, the financial crisis had immediate able data only Lesotho, South Africa, and Zambia consequences for countries in Sub-Saharan depreciated by 10 percent or more. Africa. Output and incomes in the region have The rapid drop in global demand for indus- been negatively affected by falling commodity trial products accelerated the decline in global prices, falling volume demand for metal and commodity prices (see chapter 1). For African 140 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.16 Net capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa $ billions Indicator 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008p Current account balance 6.2 9.2 1.0 6.4 6.9 23.2 18.7 as % of GDP 1.7 2.1 0.2 1.0 1.0 2.7 1.9 Net private and official inflows 9.6 15.0 23.2 31.8 38.0 60.4 38.7 Net private inflows 6.9 13.5 20.9 32.8 40.3 55.5 35.9 Net equity inflows 9.8 13.6 16.6 24.2 33.5 42.1 35.6 Net FDI inflows 10.2 12.9 9.9 16.8 18.5 28.6 32.4 Net portfolio equity inflows 0.4 0.7 6.7 7.4 15.0 13.5 3.2 Net debt flows 0.2 1.4 6.6 7.6 4.5 18.3 3.1 Official creditors 2.7 1.5 2.3 1.0 2.3 4.9 2.8 World Bank 2.2 2.2 2.5 2.4 2.0 2.4 1.7 IMF 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.7 Other official 0.0 0.7 0.1 3.0 4.2 2.4 0.4 Private creditors 2.9 0.1 4.3 8.6 6.8 13.4 0.3 Net M-L term debt flows 1.1 0.9 2.7 4.9 2.1 7.9 1.3 Bonds 1.5 0.4 0.6 1.3 0.3 6.6 1.0 Banks 1.9 1.2 2.4 3.8 1.7 1.9 2.7 Other private 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.6 0.4 Net short-term debt flows 1.8 1.0 1.6 3.7 8.9 5.5 1.0 Balancing itema 3.2 2.0 0.6 18.6 13.2 11.0 0.9 Change in reserves ( increase) 0.2 3.8 21.7 19.5 31.7 26.1 19.0 Workers' remittances 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.4 12.9 18.6 19.8 Source: World Bank. Note: p projected. a. Combination of errors and omissions and net acquisition of foreign assets (including FDI) by developing countries. Figure A.19 Bond spreads in Sub-Saharan Africa 18 of 44 countries in the region between July 2008 widened sharply in the wake of the global financial and May 2009, with income losses in excess of crisis 10 percent of GDP in 7 of them (figure A.20). Basis points Another 26 countries recorded improved terms of 2,000 trade, largely because of lower fuel prices. Particu- larly strong gains came in countries such as Cape 1,800 Ghana Verde, Eritrea, Seychelles, and Togo that rely heav- 1,600 ily on oil imports to satisfy domestic demand. 1,400 Weaker economic conditions in high-income 1,200 countries have also negatively affected remittances 1,000 Gabon and tourism, two important sources of foreign 800 currency for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. 600 South Africa Tourism revenues weakened in the final quarter of 400 2008 and in the first few months of 2009, and re- 200 mittances are projected to decline by some 4.4 per- 0 cent in 2009. Despite currency depreciations (which tend to 07/01/0808/01/0809/01/0810/01/0811/01/0812/01/0801/01/0802/01/0903/01/0904/01/0905/01/09 increase the price of imported goods), inflation in Source: JP Morgan-Chase. more than half of the countries in the region for which data are available decelerated by more than commodity exporters, these lower prices repre- 2 percentage points between September 2008 and sented a significant loss in incomes and induced a March 2009, mainly because of falling oil prices. sharp deterioration in their current account posi- Internationally traded food prices have also de- tions. For oil importers, however, lower fuel prices clined, but food prices in individual countries have represented a favorable terms-of-trade develop- responded with a lag, and year-over-year measures ment. Overall, the terms of trade deteriorated in of food inflation remain high in many countries. 141 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Figure A.20 Terms of trade losses since July have and utility costs that contributed a similar been significant in some countries as commodity amount to headline inflation. prices plunged The credit squeeze, coupled with a rapid drop Terms of trade impact of changes in international prices between July 2008 and May 2009 in consumer and investor confidence, was reflected in a quick decline both in world demand for the Percent of 2008 GDP exports of African countries and in domestic de- Equatorial Guinea mand for investment and for consumer durable Republic of Congo goods. The fall in investment activity was espe- Angola Gabon cially pronounced in extractive industries, both be- Nigeria cause of reduced commodity prices and because Zimbabwe of reliance on external financing sources. The Guinea-Bissau Zambia sharpest decline was recorded in spending on Chad durable goods (transport equipment in particular). Mozambique In South Africa, growth in investment activity Cameroon Guinea more than halved to 3 percent (on a seasonally South Africa adjusted annual rate) from 7.3 percent, mainly Mauritania because of government restraint. Private sector in- Swaziland Côte d'Ivoire vestment (mainly reflecting mining sector activity) Lesotho continued to expand at a brisk 2.9 percent pace, 40 30 20 10 0 about the same rate as in the third quarter. Source: World Bank. In South Africa, tighter credit conditions and rising interest rates coupled with increasing unem- ployment have been reflected in declining consumer confidence. This, together with cuts in consumer For countries in west Africa, both overall in- wealth due to falling house and equity prices flation and food inflation came down sharply. For yielded a 2.7 percent (saar) contraction in house- example in Côte d'Ivoire, consumer price inflation hold consumption expenditure in the fourth decelerated to bel\ow 4 percent in March (year-on- quarter of 2008 (figure A.21). This followed a year) from almost 9.6 percent in September, as food inflation eased to 5.4 percent from close to 15 percent. Similarly in Mali, consumer price in- Figure A.21 External trade and private flation diminished to 5.4 percent from 12.3 per- consumption deteriorated markedly in the fourth quarter of 2008 in South Africa cent as food inflation eased to 6.4 percent from a peak of 17.5 percent in July. Annual growth, percent Food price inflation accelerated or remained 10 high in many east African countries, including Q3 Q4 8 Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. In Ethiopia, food price inflation slowed sharply 6 to 26.5 percent in March from 80 percent in 4 September, bringing overall inflation down to 23.7 percent from 60 percent. 2 In southern Africa, food inflation remains 0 above 20 percent in Botswana, keeping overall inflation high at 11.7 percent. In Zambia food in- 2 flation contributed 7.9 percentage points to the 4 14.7 percent inflation rate in May. In South Africa, overall inflation also remains high at 6 more than 8 percent, pushed by a 15.7 percent GDP Fixed Private Exports Imports surge in food and nonalcoholic beverage prices Government investment that contributed 2.4 percentage points to overall consumption consumption inflation in January 2009 and by rising housing Source: South Africa Reserve Bank. 142 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S 0.9 percent contraction the previous quarter and Côte d'Ivoire. Some fragile countries are continu- marked the first time since 1992 that consumer ing to enjoy a peace dividend. spending contracted for two consecutive quarters. Fiscal balances in oil-importing countries dete- The sharp decline in global trade during the riorated during the course of 2008 as governments fourth quarter of 2008 and into 2009 was reflected took a series of measures to delay the pass-through in much weaker export growth or outright contrac- to domestic prices of higher prices for food and tion for Sub-Saharan African countries, in particu- fuel imports in the first half of the year. The fiscal lar for countries with large mining operations like costs of these policies may have averaged 1 percent Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia. In South Africa, of GDP in 2008.12 Sharply falling activity merchandise exports declined 6.3 percent in the beginning in the fourth quarter of the year led to a fourth quarter (year-on-year). further deterioration in fiscal balances, as falling Weak demand, especially for durables and industrial and trade activity and declining com- cars, caused industrial output to fall in many modity prices disproportionately affect the formal countries. Industrial production fell by an annual- sectors from which most tax revenues derive. The ized 22.1 percent in the first quarter in South deterioration in fiscal positions in oil-importing Africa, while in Angola it fell by more than10 per- countries averaged 1.1 percent of GDP and is now cent between September 2008 and January 2009. limiting the fiscal space for countercyclical policies. Mining sectors also contracted markedly as exter- In Ghana, expansionary fiscal policy in an election nal demand plunged. In South Africa the mining year caused the budget deficit net of grants to al- sector contracted at an annualized 32.8 percent most double. Despite rising non-oil budget deficits, pace in the first quarter. In Zambia weaker de- the fiscal positions of oil-exporting countries im- mand for copper led to mine closures. In Namibia proved by about 3 percent of GDP in 2008, and Botswana (long a star performer in the re- boosted by high oil prices. However, the sharp de- gion), low demand for diamonds forced mine clo- cline in oil prices is now undermining government sures, leading to sharp declines in fourth-quarter revenues in oil-exporting countries. For example, output. In Lesotho, the contraction in the U.S. tax revenues in Nigeria were well below the gov- economy has badly affected the manufacturing ernment's target in the first quarter of 2009, reduc- sector, which benefited under the African Growth ing the space for fiscal stimulus. and Opportunity Act in previous years. Exports Current account positions in oil-importing from Lesotho, Namibia, and Swaziland were also countries other than South Africa deteriorated by hit hard by the contraction in South Africa, which 3.4 percent of their GDP in 2008 as a result of resulted in a reduction in workers' remittances terms-of-trade losses, sharp drops in exports in the that accounted for 30 percent of GDP in 2008 in last quarter of 2008, lower remittances, declining the case of Lesotho. tourism revenues, and lower aid inflows. Despite In Mozambique, the rehabilitation of roads lower oil prices in the second half of 2008, oil ex- and bridges continues to be a major growth stimu- porters in the region saw their current account lus for the country's secondary sector; construc- surpluses improve by 2.6 percentage points to tion output accelerated to 20.1 percent, from 6.2 percent of their GDP. In South Africa, the cur- 18.7 percent (year-on-year) in the second quarter rent account deficit narrowed to 5.8 percent of of 2008. However, the sharp fall in aluminum GDP in the fourth quarter of 2008, from 7.8 per- prices and in demand from the auto sector is cut- cent of GDP in the previous quarter, as the trade ting into industrial output. Côte d'Ivoire contin- deficit almost halved. ued its economic recovery in 2008, with growth accelerating to 2.5 percent from 1.5 percent previ- Outlook ously, pushed by a strong rebound in the construc- Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to decel- tion, food output, and telecommunications sectors. erate markedly in 2009, to 1.0 percent from an es- Other countries in the West Africa Economic and timated 4.8 percent in 2008. GDP in South Africa Monetary Union recorded an acceleration in will actually contract by 1.5 percent (table A.17). growth, helped by improved weather conditions Growth in oil-importing countries other than that bolstered output in the primary sectors, as well South Africa is projected to decelerate to 2.7 per- as by improvements in sociopolitical conditions in cent from an estimated 5.3 percent in 2008, while 143 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.17 Sub-Saharan Africa forecast summary annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.9 6.0 6.2 4.8 1.0 3.7 5.2 GDP per capita (units in $) 1.3 3.5 3.8 2.8 0.9 1.8 3.2 PPP GDPc 3.9 6.3 6.6 5.1 1.1 3.9 5.4 Private consumption 2.7 6.5 7.1 3.3 0.8 3.5 4.7 Public consumption 5.3 6.0 6.2 5.8 5.5 6.1 5.8 Fixed investment 7.4 18.7 20.5 12.4 2.6 3.9 7.7 Exports, GNFSd 4.8 5.1 4.1 4.7 3.2 4.2 6.4 Imports, GNFSd 6.2 12.7 11.9 6.6 3.0 4.7 7.3 Net exports, contribution to growth 0.4 2.9 3.2 1.2 0.2 0.6 0.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.8 1.0 2.7 1.9 8.1 7.0 6.2 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 7.3 7.7 7.3 10.2 5.5 5.0 4.5 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) 3.0 1.5 0.8 0.5 5.0 3.4 1.9 Memo items: GDP SSA excluding South Africa 4.5 6.2 7.0 5.9 2.4 4.3 5.7 Oil exporters 4.4 7.1 7.9 6.3 2.2 4.4 6.3 CFA countries 4.1 2.2 3.5 4.2 2.3 3.6 4.8 South Africa 3.3 5.3 5.1 3.1 1.5 2.6 4.1 Nigeria 4.6 6.2 6.3 5.3 2.9 3.6 5.6 Kenya 2.9 6.1 7.1 1.7 2.6 3.4 4.9 Source: World Bank. Note: a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services. for regional oil exporters growth is expected to consumption activity that has already occurred, ease to 2.2 percent, down sharply from the robust and growth should strengthen in most countries 6.3 percent pace in 2008 (figure A.22). during the second half of 2009. The projected re- Much of the decline in growth for 2009 re- covery is expected to be relatively slow, partly flects the sharp deceleration in investment and because of a muted recovery in global export de- mand, but also because mounting unemployment, Figure A.22 Economic growth decelerated abruptly lower incomes, and continued financial sector in 2009 to the lowest level in almost a decade in weakness will prevent consumer and investment Sub-Saharan Africa demand from rebounding quickly. Government Annual growth, percent spending, although projected to rise, is not ex- 10 pected to have a major offsetting influence on do- Oil exporters Oil importers mestic demand, except perhaps in oil-exporting countries where fiscal surpluses provide additional scope for a more expansionary course. Indeed, in 5 many oil-importing countries automatic stabilizers are small given the small share of government rev- enues in total GDP, and the fiscal space for discre- tionary spending is limited by tight financing 0 conditions. Some of the biggest slowdowns are projected to occur in smaller open economies like Botswana, Mauritius, and Seychelles. In Botswana, contrac- 5 tion in mining output is expected to cause an 8 per- 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 cent decline in overall GDP, while Seychelles' econ- Source: World Bank. omy will contract by more than 10 percent. 144 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Côte d'Ivoire is expected to buck the trend to- Figure A.24 Terms of trade gains expected among ward growth deceleration, because growth is oil-importing countries in 2009 Estimated terms of trade impact from changes in international slowly returning after several years of conflict- prices between 2008 and 2009 induced slowdown. GDP is projected to accelerate Percent of 2008 GDP slightly in 2009, as exports rise, and construction, food production, and government spending on Seychelles basic infrastructure, poverty reduction, and other Togo Eritrea post-conflict needs will make significant contribu- Cape Verde tions to growth. Comoros Current account positions in oil-exporting Sierra Leone Namibia countries are expected to deteriorate sharply due Mauritius to lower commodity prices in 2009. These will Madagascar cause large swings in trade balances, only partially Senegal offset by profit repatriation by oil companies (fig- Kenya Rwanda ure A.23). Oil-importing countries in the region Swaziland stand to gain from lower prices for imported fuel, Tanzania although lower remittances, services revenues, Mali Ethiopia and current transfer inflows will keep the current Malawi account balances at relatively high levels Benin (figure A.24). Burkina Faso Gambia Current transfers to the region are projected to Burundi weaken further, as remittances and aid flows suffer. Niger In Ghana, for example, net official transfers aver- Botswana aged $17.6 million in the last two quarters com- Central African Republic Dem. Rep. of Congo pared to $223.5 million in the first half of the year. In Uganda, current official transfers were down 0 5 10 15 20 7.8 percent year-on-year in the last quarter of Source: World Bank. 2008. Globally, remittances, which in Sub-Saharan Africa were equal to about two-thirds of FDI and about half of ODA in 2008, are projected to de- Figure A.23 Large terms of trade losses expected cline by about 4.4 percent in 2009, before recover- in countries exporting minerals and oil Estimated terms of trade impact from changes in international ing in 2010. Countries like Lesotho, Sierra Leone, prices between 2008 and 2009 Cape Verde, Senegal, and Togo, where remittances account for more than 8 percent of GDP will suffer Percent of 2008 GDP the most. Ghana Lesotho Fiscal balances throughout the region are Uganda projected to weaken further in 2009 due to low South Africa Côte d'Ivoire activity levels. While output growth will pick up in Mauritania 2010 and 2011, the slow pace of the recovery will Guinea mean that spare capacity, heightened unemploy- Cameroon Mozambique ment and weak government revenues will continue Chad to characterize the economic situation throughout Sudan Guinea-Bissau the projection period. Oil exporting countries will Zambia see their fiscal balances turn to deficits in 2009, to Zimbabwe Nigeria the tune of 4.0 percent of their GDP, as oil prices Gabon are markedly lower and as export volumes decline. Angola Congo Republic Meanwhile in oil importing countries fiscal deficits Equatorial Guinea will rise by 2.5 percentage points to close to 6 per- 40 30 20 10 0 cent of GDP in 2009, before narrowing moder- Source: World Bank. ately over the next two years. 145 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Prospects for 2010 and 2011 are for a slow assets.13 Credit conditions are therefore expected recovery in Sub-Saharan Africa with growth to be particularly tight there and will likely further picking up to about 3.7 percent in 2010 and undermine growth in the non-oil sector. Only 5.2 percent in 2011, as both domestic and exter- higher government spending is projected to pre- nal demand begin to recover. The overall pattern vent the economy from sliding even further. is similar for both oil-exporting and oil-import- ing countries (excluding South Africa), with Risks and uncertainties growth in 2010 projected to reach 4.4 percent for The risks for the Sub-Saharan Africa region are each group, accelerating to 6.3 percent and 5.2 per- heavily tilted to the downside. A deeper and pro- cent in 2011, respectively (table A.18). longed global recession would slow the recovery in The recovery in South Africa should follow a external demand, prevent a recovery in commod- similar profile as for the rest of the continent, with ity prices, and further depress tourism revenues, output projected to increase by 2.6 percent in remittances, aid, and private capital flows. Such a 2010 and by 4.1 percent in 2011, as weak finan- scenario (described in chapter 1) would imply ad- cial conditions and excess capacity in many sectors ditional widening of the output gap in the region mitigate against a sharp rebound in either invest- by about 3 percentage points and a continuation ment or consumption. In Nigeria, one of the coun- of recession-like conditions beyond the projection tries in Africa hit the hardest by the global financial period. crisis, the banking system is under stress, with Sharp contractions in remittances and official some estimates suggesting as much as half of bank aid flows also represent a risk for the region be- capital ($10 billion) is tied up in questionable cause many Sub-Saharan countries depend heavily Table A.18 Sub-Saharan Africa country forecasts annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Angola GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 8.3 18.6 23.4 14.3 1.9 6.5 10.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.4 16.9 15.3 19.4 5.8 0.1 2.2 Benin GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.6 3.8 4.6 4.9 2.9 3.7 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.2 7.1 10.9 12.3 10.7 9.9 9.1 Botswana GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.9 3.4 3.8 3.0 8.0 4.8 3.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 8.1 18.0 18.0 5.2 7.7 2.5 2.2 Burkina Faso GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.2 5.5 4.0 4.7 3.6 4.8 5.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.1 13.1 13.6 14.5 13.9 13.4 13.8 Burundi GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.0 5.1 3.6 4.4 2.6 3.7 5.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.8 35.9 29.6 33.3 27.8 26.6 26.0 Cape Verde GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.2 10.7 7.8 5.9 3.8 4.4 5.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.0 3.4 13.4 17.8 19.2 17.9 18.4 Cameroon GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.2 3.2 3.3 3.9 2.0 2.7 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.5 0.8 5.0 1.2 6.1 5.6 5.1 Central African Republic GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 0.7 4.0 4.2 3.4 2.7 3.4 4.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.4 7.6 8.5 9.0 7.7 8.0 8.3 Chad GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 8.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 2.1 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 24.2 7.2 11.5 9.0 11.5 9.7 10.2 (Continues) 146 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.18 (Continued) annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Comoros GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.1 1.2 1.0 0.6 0.2 2.1 2.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.3 5.5 8.1 12.9 8.4 9.6 10.8 Congo, Dem. Rep. GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 0.1 5.6 6.3 7.1 3.0 5.3 7.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.3 9.8 12.2 19.8 27.9 27.9 27.3 Congo, Rep. GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.4 6.2 1.6 6.1 7.4 9.7 10.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.2 1.7 25.4 6.4 17.7 6.4 0.0 Côte d'Ivoire GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.5 0.3 1.5 2.5 3.1 4.2 4.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.2 2.8 1.0 0.9 0.7 1.6 3.2 Eritrea GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.6 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.7 4.2 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 14.7 24.1 17.8 18.2 9.3 8.6 8.2 Ethiopia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.5 10.9 11.5 11.1 6.0 7.0 7.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.3 12.0 10.0 10.5 9.9 9.4 8.6 Gabon GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.0 1.2 5.6 3.0 0.2 2.3 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.6 15.6 16.2 16.8 2.4 1.6 0.2 Gambia, The GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.2 6.5 7.0 5.3 4.5 5.1 5.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.3 14.2 12.1 15.2 15.8 16.2 16.3 Ghana GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.7 6.4 6.1 7.1 4.1 4.6 5.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.4 8.1 14.3 20.5 14.1 13.7 14.5 Guinea GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.7 2.2 1.8 3.0 2.0 2.6 4.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.8 1.8 6.8 10.3 5.7 4.4 3.5 Guinea-Bissau GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 0.3 1.8 2.7 2.9 2.1 3.4 3.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 13.4 19.1 10.0 12.9 16.5 15.1 15.1 Kenya GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.9 6.1 7.1 1.7 2.6 3.4 4.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.5 2.0 4.7 6.8 4.8 5.0 4.5 Lesotho GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.0 7.2 4.9 4.1 0.9 2.2 3.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 20.6 4.4 8.4 17.0 16.4 16.9 16.7 Madagascar GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.1 4.9 6.5 6.0 3.5 4.8 6.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) 8.6 9.6 14.0 20.6 13.8 13.0 11.4 Malawi GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.4 7.9 7.4 6.9 6.6 5.6 4.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.7 16.7 15.5 17.5 13.5 13.4 12.2 Mali GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.8 5.3 4.3 5.0 3.7 5.1 5.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 8.7 5.7 8.3 9.9 8.3 10.2 11.3 Mauritania GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.3 11.7 1.0 2.2 2.7 4.1 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.3 2.8 7.0 11.0 11.4 16.2 16.4 Mauritius GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.8 3.5 4.2 5.8 2.4 2.8 3.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.1 9.5 8.4 8.8 10.0 10.9 8.4 Mozambique GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 8.0 8.0 7.0 6.4 4.5 4.9 5.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 15.1 11.3 16.1 19.3 19.7 16.0 11.5 (Continues) 147 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S Table A.18 Sub-Saharan Africa country forecasts (Continued) annual percent change unless indicated otherwise Forecast Country/indicator 1995­2005a 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Namibia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.1 2.9 5.9 2.7 1.7 2.1 3.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.2 3.6 2.3 10.6 11.8 10.5 10.9 Niger GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.5 5.2 3.2 6.9 3.6 4.9 5.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.1 8.6 10.0 13.3 16.3 15.9 16.6 Nigeria GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.6 6.2 6.3 5.3 2.9 3.6 5.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.4 20.6 4.7 6.1 8.7 6.2 4.6 Rwanda GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 8.3 7.2 7.9 8.4 5.1 5.5 5.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.1 12.3 12.7 17.6 13.4 13.2 12.9 Senegal GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.4 2.3 4.8 4.5 3.1 3.8 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 5.7 9.4 10.0 12.2 13.6 13.8 14.3 Seychelles GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.2 5.3 8.3 0.1 10.5 2.7 3.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) 13.8 18.7 22.2 32.0 29.7 24.0 20.4 Sierra Leone GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 4.5 7.4 6.5 5.8 4.0 5.5 6.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 12.4 9.5 8.0 11.2 6.6 6.9 7.6 South Africa GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.3 5.3 5.1 3.1 1.5 2.6 4.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.7 6.6 7.2 7.4 6.1 6.4 5.9 Sudan GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.2 11.3 10.2 6.1 4.1 5.3 6.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.6 14.3 5.9 4.4 7.5 6.6 5.7 Swaziland GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 1.9 2.8 2.4 2.2 0.8 1.2 1.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.0 14.0 21.3 27.4 23.2 22.7 22.3 Tanzania GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 5.4 6.7 7.1 7.5 4.8 5.5 6.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.3 8.3 11.1 12.0 10.0 10.3 10.9 Togo GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.3 4.1 2.0 0.8 2.2 2.4 3.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.7 9.9 7.5 9.6 9.3 9.8 9.5 Uganda GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 6.1 10.8 8.6 9.5 5.0 5.6 6.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.0 7.1 6.9 7.7 9.5 9.3 9.4 Zambia GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 3.8 6.2 6.3 6.0 3.0 4.9 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 12.8 0.7 6.1 9.8 11.5 12.5 12.0 Zimbabwe GDP at market prices (2000 $)b 2.4 4.2 6.3 4.9 4.6 3.1 2.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.5 30.7 42.1 28.3 16.3 13.5 15.6 Source: World Bank. . Note: In the current very volatile global environment, World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing assump- tions. Moreover, the confidence intervals around these point forecasts are larger than usual. As a result, the projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries' prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Liberia, Mayotte, Somalia, and São Tome and Principe are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2000 U.S. dollars. 148 A P P E N D I X : R E G I O N A L O U T L O O K S on aid flows for budget support and because re- 2. International Organization for Migration 2008 mittances represent an important cushion against survey. 3. Migrants return home to Tajikistan, BBC, April 28, poverty. The shortfalls in aid would intensify the 2009. fiscal problems, limiting further the fiscal space for 4. Short-term debt due in 2009 is calculated based on countercyclical policies at a time when they are the Bank of International Settlements reporting system and especially needed. data released in May 2009. An uncertainty clouding the medium term de- 5. In consistency with the methodology explained in chapter 3, the financing gap is defined as the difference be- rives from the sharp increase in developed-country tween total external financing requirements (current-account borrowing following the crisis and the possibility deficit plus scheduled principal payments on both short- that such borrowing crowds frontier economies in term and long-term private debt coming due in the year) the region out of international capital markets, and private capital flows (new loans on private debt, net eq- leaving countries with the large external financing uity flows, and net unidentified capital outflows). 6. Georgia, which signed a $740 million stand-by needs such as Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, agreement in September 2008, is excluded from this total South Africa, and Tanzania vulnerable. because the package was mainly targeted at helping eco- Among countries with relatively developed nomic recovery after the Russian war. financial markets,14 the sharp slowdown (or even 7. The output gap is defined as the difference between outright contraction in economic activity) could the actual and potential GDP as a share of the potential GDP in a given year. result in a big increase in the number of non- 8. See GDF 2008, chapter 3. performing loans--especially in countries where 9. The low- and middle income countries of the Mid- credit to domestic commodity exporters represents dle East and North Africa region include Algeria, the Arab a large share of total credit extended. This in Republic of Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, turn may require government support to financial Lebanon, Morocco, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, and the Republic of Yemen. Several developing economies are institutions and depositors adding further pressures not covered in this report due to data insufficiencies, includ- on government finances. ing Djibouti, Iraq, Libya and the West Bank and Gaza. Plummeting government revenues heighten High-income economies of the broader geographic region, the risk of large increases in public debt to unsus- including Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) members tainable levels. This will have long-term conse- Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Saudi Arabia are covered in this report under the category of "other high-income quences for growth, causing interest rates to rise, countries," but the importance of GCC developments for crowding out the private sector, and undermining the broader economic region should be underscored. long-term growth potential. This risk should be Among the GCC, insufficient data exits for inclusion of balanced against the acute need for fiscal stimulus Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. in the short term to help boost domestic demand 10. Council on Foreign Relations (2009). 11. Wheat production in Afghanistan is projected to and safeguard growth at a time of extremely weak rise by 40­50 percent over 2008, given improved weather external demand. It is very important that at a conditions, and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization time of scarce resources, spending undertaken by has reported that the country is likely to be self-sufficient in governments be the most efficient in terms of wheat this year. supporting growth, addressing bottle-necks, and 12. International Monetary Fund, Regional Economic Outlook Sub-Saharan Africa, April 2009. increasing long-run productivity. 13. Estimate of Eurasia Group. According to Bank of America Corp., banks have provided at least 1 trillion naira ($6.8 billion) of margin loans. Notes 14. African countries with more developed financial 1. Migrant remittances are defined as the sum of markets are Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, workers' remittances, compensation of employees, and Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Seychelles, South Africa, migrant transfers. Tanzania, Uganda. 149 ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank is committed to preserving Saved: endangered forests and natural resources. The · 8 trees Office of the Publisher has chosen to print · 5 million British Global Development Finance 2009: Vol. 1 on thermal units of recycled paper with 10 percent postconsumer total energy fiber in accordance with the recommended · 760 pounds of net standards for paper usage set by the Green greenhouse gases Press Initiative, a nonprofit program support- · 2,757 gallons of ing publishers in using fiber that is not waste water sourced from endangered forests. For more in- · 408 pounds of formation, visit www.greenpressinitiative.org. solid waste O ver the past two years, the world has seen turmoil in a growth once recovery takes hold. Going forward, national and relatively small segment of the U.S. credit markets morph international policy makers must support emerging signs of into a severe global economic and nancial crisis.Although recovery with persistent, robust e orts to restore con dence in aggressive monetary policy, scal stimulus, and guarantee the nancial system and transform the adverse feedback loop programs to shore up the banking industry have begun to between the nancial sector and the real economy into stabilize nancial markets and slow the pace of economic a positive one. contraction, policy makers face an extended battle to revive Global Development Finance 2009,I:Review,Analysis,and Outlook the global economy. is the World Bank's annual review of recent trends in and Bleak indicators abound.The global economy will contract by prospects for nancial ows to developing countries. Global 3.1 percent in 2009. Global trade will plunge by 10 percent. Development Finance 2009,II:Summary and CountryTables Developing countries are expected to register economic includes a comprehensive set of tables with statistical data for growth of just 1.3 percent, down from about 8 percent 128 countries that report debt under the World Bank Debtor in 2007.When China and India are excluded, developing Reporting System, as well as summary data for regions and economies as a whole are projected to shrink by 1.5 percent income groups. It contains data on total external debt stocks in 2009. Meanwhile, private investment ows to developing and ows, aggregates, and key debt ratios, and provides a countries plummeted more than 40 percent in 2008 as access detailed, country-by-country picture of debt. Debt data are also to international debt markets dried up and portfolio equity available in an electronic format: GDF Online (a subscription in ows dropped o signi cantly. database) and the GDF CD-ROM. Each of these databases Low-income developing countries, initially cushioned from provides access to more than 200 time series indicators from the direct impact of the nancial crisis, are now feeling e ects 1970 to 2007 and country group estimates for 2008. that have spread through other channels. Net private capital "Prospects for the Global Economy" is an online companion ows will be insu cient to meet the external nancing needs to Global Development Finance. It provides information on of many low-income countries, and the prospects for large the global economic outlook, detailed regional forecasts, and increases in other sources of nancing are poor as well.The additional features such as interactive graphs, analytical tools, bulk of new commitments by international nancial institutions and access to underlying data. It is available in English, French, will go to middle-income countries in 2009, and remittance and Spanish at www.worldbank.org/globaloutlook. ows to low-income countries are projected to decline by 5 percent.Absent substantial increases in o cial nance, The Little Book on External Debt is a publication that provides many low-income countries may have to resort to more a quick reference to key debt data in aggregate and for contractionary adjustment policies, with serious implications individual countries. for long-term development and poverty reduction. With analysis and data extending from short-term bank lending Underlying the current crisis is an interconnected world to long-term bond issuance in both local and foreign currency, economy that is in the midst of a tough transition from an Global Development Finance 2009 is unique in its breadth of extended period of abundant credit and economic overheating coverage of the trends and issues of fundamental importance to to a new era whose hallmarks will be a resurgence in the the nancing of the developing world, including coverage of role of government in global nancial a airs, quantitative capital originating from developing countries themselves.The easing by major central banks, continued consolidation of the report is an indispensable resource for governments, economists, nancial sector, large excess capacity in many industrial sectors, investors, nancial consultants, academics, bankers, and the and, compared to the rst half of the decade, slower global entire development community. THE WORLD BANK For more information on the analysis, please see 1818 H Street, NW www.worldbank.org/prospects; further details about Washington, DC 20433 USA the Summary and CountryTables can be found at Telephone: 202 477-1234 www.worldbank.org/data. For general and ordering Facsimile: 202 477-6391 information, please visit theWorld Bank's publicationsWeb Internet: www.worldbank.org site at www.worldbank.org/publications, or call 703-661- E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org 1580; within the United States, please call 1-800-645-7274. ISBN 978-0-8213-7840-3 SKU 17840