64605 e-SOURCEBOOK ICT IN AGRICULTURE Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions NOVEMBER 2011 REPORT NUMBER 64605 e-SOURCEBOOK ICT IN AGRICULTURE Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions R epor t Num ber 64605 © 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone 202-473-1000 Internet www.worldbank.org All rights reserved. This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encour- ages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. All the queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover photo: Neil Palmer, CIAT. A Kenyan farmer uses a mobile phone in the field. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E C O N T E N TS III TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW OF ICT IN AGRICULTURE: OPPORTUNITIES, ACCESS, AND CROSS-CUTTING THEMES Module 1: Introduction: ICT in Agricultural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Module 2: Making ICT Infrastructure, Appliances, and Services More Accessible and Affordable in Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Topic Note 2.1: Making ICTs Affordable in Rural Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Topic Note 2.2: Public Innovations in Universal Access to Telecommunications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Turkey’s Oligopolistic Infrastructure Sharing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Dabba’s Experience with Unlicensed Wireless Services in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Bhutan’s Community Information Centers Adapt to the Geographical and Consumer Context. . . . . . . . 34 Topic Note 2.3: Mobile Money Moves to Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Pakistan’s Tameer Micro�nance Bank for the Economically Active Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Topic Note 2.4: Delivering Content for Mobile Agricultural Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 First Mover Advantage Bene�ts Reuters Market Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Long Experience in Farm Communities Bene�ts IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, One Query at a Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Module 3: Anytime, Anywhere: Mobile Devices and Services and Their Impact on Agriculture and Rural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Topic Note 3.1: Key Bene�ts and Challenges Related to Mobile Phones and Agricultural Livelihoods . . . . . . 52 Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Mobiles Are the Heart of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Topic Note 3.2: Two Typologies and General Principles for Using Mobile Phones in Agricultural Projects. . . . . 61 Mobile Service Gives Local and Global Edge to Chilean Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 For Reuters Market Light, the Wider Network of People Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Nokia Life Tools Uses Simple Technologies to Deliver New Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Module 4: Extending the Bene�ts: Gender-Equitable, ICT-Enabled Agricultural Development . . .71 Topic Note 4.1: Entry Points for ICT and Gender in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Community Knowledge Worker Initiative in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK IV C ONTENTS ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY ON THE FARM Module 5: Increasing Crop, Livestock, and Fishery Productivity through ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Topic Note 5.1: Achieving Good Farming Practices through Improved Soil, Nutrient, and Land Management . . 91 Seeing-Is-Believing Project Improves Precision Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Improving Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Monitoring Livestock to Prevent Pasture Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Topic Note 5.2: Preventing Yield Losses through Proper Planning and Early Warning Systems . . . . . . . . . . 103 Radio Frequency Identi�cation to Prevent and Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database for the Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation Systems in Mali. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Module 6: ICTs as Enablers of Agricultural Innovation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Topic Note 6.1: ICT in the Agricultural Research Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Advances in ICTs Increase the Utility of African Sites for Testing Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 KAINet Kenya Knowledge Network Anchored in Partnerships and Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Topic Note 6.2: Using ICT in Extension and Advisory Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Farm Radio International Involves Men and Women Farmers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 E-Extension in the USA and Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 TECA Uganda Exchange Group Offers Practical Advice for Smallholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Participatory Video and Internet Complement Extension in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Topic Note 6.3: E-learning as a Component of Agricultural Innovation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Innovative E-Learning for Farmers through Collaboration and Multi-Modal Outreach . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Module 7: Broadening Smallholders’ Access to Financial Services through ICT. . . . . . . . . . 151 Topic Note 7.1: The Use of ICT-enabled Financial Services in the Rural Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and Rural Finance in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 RFID Facilitates Insurance and Credit for India’s Livestock Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Topic Note 7.2: Policy Strategies and Regulatory Issues for ICT-enabled Rural Financial Services . . . . . . . . 163 Kenya’s DrumNet Links Farmers, Markets, and Financial Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 A Common Platform Delivers Financial Services to Rural India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Module 8: Farmer Organizations Work Better with ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Topic Note 8.1: Finding Better Marketing and Sharing Technical Information Using ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Zambia’s National Farmer Organization Develops SMS-Based Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Burkina Faso Farmers Use ICTs to Share New Production, Processing, and Marketing Skills . . . . . . . . 185 The SOUNONG Search Engine for Farmer Organizations in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Topic Note 8.2: Dairy Cooperatives Lead the Way with Computerized Systems to Improve Accounting, Administration, and Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 IT Tools for India’s Dairy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 CoopWorks Dairy and Coffee, Open-Source Software Launched in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 ICTs Improve Marketing and Governance for Malian Coop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Topic Note 8.3: Giving Farmers a Voice and Sharing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Community Listeners’ Clubs Empower SocialNetworks in Rural Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Through Radio and Television, Thai Bank Gives Rural Voices a Wider Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E C O N T E N TS V ACCESSING MARKETS AND VALUE CHAINS Module 9: Strengthening Agricultural Marketing with ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Topic Note 9.1: Mobile Phones as a Marketing Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Topic Note 9.2: ICTs Improve Logistics, Lower Transaction Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 In South Asia, Mobile Phones Amplify Investments in Extension and Infrastructure to Bring Farmers to Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Across Africa, Mobiles Ease Market Logistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Topic Note 9.3: ICTs Facilitate Market Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Evidence of the Impact of Immediate Market Information in Asia and Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Web Portals Offer the Big Picture on Markets in Africa, Europe, and Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Topic Note 9.4: ICTs Facilitate Access to and Delivery of Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Agribusiness Advises India’s Farmers through e-Choupal Kiosks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Zambian Farmers Buy Subsidized Inputs via Mobile Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Module 10: ICT Applications for Smallholder Inclusion in Agribusiness Supply Chains . . . . 239 Topic Note 10.1: Private-sector Efforts to Integrate Smallholders in Commercial Supply Chains through ICT Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 EID Parry’s Indiagriline Services Improve Sugarcane Production and Sourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Virtual City’s AgriManagr Builds Better Supply-Chain Links with Farmers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Topic Note 10.2: Public-sector Efforts to Integrate Smallholders in Commercial Supply Chains through ICT Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 ACDI/VOCA’s ICT Solutions Help Private Companies Source from Smallholders in India . . . . . . . . . . . 254 TIPCEE’s ICT Applications Bring Ghanaian Smallholders into Export Supply Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Module 11: ICT Applications for Agricultural Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Topic Note 11.1: ICT Applications for Mitigating Agricultural Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Through mKRISHI, Farmers Translate Information into Action to Mitigate Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Topic Note 11.2: ICT Applications to Transfer Agricultural Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 ICTs Enable Innovative Index-based Livestock Insurance in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Kilimo Salama Delivers Index-based Input Insurance in Kenya through ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Topic Note 11.3: ICT Applications for Coping with Agricultural Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Electronic Vouchers Are a Targeted, Traceable Lifeline for Zambian Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda Link Farmers and Experts to Cope with Risk . . . . . . . . . . 279 Module 12: Global Markets, Global Challenges: Improving Food Safety and Traceability While Empowering Smallholders through ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Topic Note 12.1: The Importance of Standard Setting and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Mango Traceability System Links Malian Smallholders and Exporters to Global Consumers . . . . . . . . . 301 Topic Note 12.2: Traceability Technologies, Solutions, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 ShellCatch in Chile Guarantees Origin of the Catch from Artisanal Fishers and Divers . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK VI C ONTENTS IMPROVING PUBLIC SERVICE PROVISION Module 13: Strengthening Rural Governance, Institutions, and Citizen Participation Using ICT . 313 Topic Note 13.1: Public Agencies and the Provision of E-government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Building Public Service Provision through Internet Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Agricultural and Rural Information through Ministerial Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Using Biometrics to Provide Rural Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 E-Government to Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 E-Government to Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Topic Note 13.2: Civil Society and the Provision of E-Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Providing ‘Hubs’ for ICT Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 E-Learning through the Web and SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Collecting Data to Protect Local Knowledge and Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Topic Note 13.3: Increasing Citizen Participation through E-Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Information Kiosks in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Virtual Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Government Responsiveness through Citizen Participation in Digitized Political Processes . . . . . . . . . 336 Digital Media Forums in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Module 14: ICT for Land Administration and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Topic Note 14.1: Supporting Land Markets with ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 ICT-based Property Value Estimate Information Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 European Land Information Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Topic Note 14.2: ICT Support for Land Management, Planning, Development, and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 E-Planning Portal in Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Virtual Landscape Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Topic Note 14.3: ICT Support for Land Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Sweden’s Large-Scale Land Consolidation Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Turkey Land Consolidation Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Topic Note 14.4: ICT Support of Good Governance in Land Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 ICTs and the Land Governance Assessment Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Improving Public Access to Land Administration Services in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Topic Note 14.5: Public-sector Information Policy Supporting Effective ICT-based Information Services . . . . . 364 A Policy Framework to Support Lao PDR’s National Land and Natural Resource Information System . . . . 365 Vietnam’s One-Stop Shop for E-Government Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Topic Note 14.6: Sustainable Funding of ICT in Land Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 ICT Derived Ef�ciencies in Kyrgyz Republic Bene�t Land Of�ce Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Philippines—A Public-Private Approach to ICT Financing and Risk Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Topic Note 14.7: Designing Scalable and Interoperable Land Information Infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Combining Open-Source Solutions with Open Geospatial Consortium Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Kyrgyz Republic’s Open-Source Strategy and GIS Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Social Tenure Domain Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E C O N T E N TS V II Module 15: Using ICT to Improve Forest Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Topic Note 15.1: Pillar 1—Transparency, Accountability, and Public Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Participatory Mapping in Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 The Central Vigilance Commission Website—India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 PoiMapper in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Topic Note 15.2: Pillar 2—Quality of Forest Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Fire Alert Systems Integrating Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Kenya: Solving Human-Elephant Conflicts with Mobile Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Topic Note 15.3: Pillar 3—Coherence of Forest Legislation and Rule of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Ghana National Wood Tracking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Liberia: LiberFor Chain of Custody. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Topic Note 15.4: Pillar 4—Economic Ef�ciency, Equity, and Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 RFID Chips for Ef�cient Wood Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK VIII FIGUR ES LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Percentage of the World’s Population Covered by a Mobile Cellular Signal, 2003 Compared to 2009 . . . . . 6 Figure 1.2: African Undersea Cables, Those Working and Those in Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 1.3: Global ICT Development from 2000–2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 2.1: Access to ICT Infrastructure, Appliances, in Services and the Access Rainbow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 2.2: Access to ICTs by Level of Development, Based on the ICT Development Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Figure 2.3: ICT Price Subbaskets by Level of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Figure 2.4: Telecommunications, IT, and Media Industry Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Figure 3.1: Global Mobile Cellular Subscriptions, Total and per 100 Inhabitants, 2000–2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 3.2: Information Search Cost by Stage of Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 5.1: De�ning the Relationship Between ICTs and Yield Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Figure 5.2: Organic Carbon, Percent in Subsoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Figure 5.3: Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Distributed Collection Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Figure 5.5: Akvasmart Doppler Pellet Sensor Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Figure 5.6: Precision Farming through Satellite Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Figure 6.1: Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration Tools in the Research Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Figure 7.1: Smallholder Farmers Are the Largest Group of Working-Age Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 7.2: Low Access to Financial Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 7.3: Low Utilization of Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 7.4: Access Is Worse for Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 7.5: Commercial Banks Are Main Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 7.6: ICT and the Rural Finance Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Figure 7.7: Channels for Financial Inclusion for Bolsa Familia Bene�ciaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Figure 7.8: Bene�ts to Stakeholders in DrumNet’s Sunflower Supply Chain Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 7.9: Flow of Goods, Information, and Money in DrumNet’s Sunflower Supply Chain Partnerships . . . . . . . . 166 Figure 7.10: Other ICTs Used by the Financial Inclusion Network and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Figure 7.11: Cost Structure of Micro�nance Institutions (MFIs) in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figure 7.12: Financiers of the Financial Inclusion Network and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Figure 8.1: Conceptual Technological Framework for the SOUNONG Search Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Figure 9.1: Percentage of Farmers Relying on a Given Information Source, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Figure 9.2: Farmers’ Differing Information Priorities and Sources of Market Information in Indonesia, India, and Uganda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Figure 9.3: Ugandan Farmers’ Use of Voice- and SMS-Based Agricultural Information Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Figure 9.4: Commercial Farmers and Small Agribusinesses Rate the Relative Importance of Using Mobile Phones on a Scale of 1 to 4 (Very Useful), Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Figure 9.5: ICT Inputs to Marketing Along the Agricultural Value Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Figure 9.6: Transport Costs for Different Vehicles in Developing Countries (US$ per Ton-Kilometer) . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Figure 9.7: Transport Costs in Relation to Demand, by Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E FI G U R E S IX Figure 9.8: The Emergence of Primary Rural Wholesale Markets at Well-Located Weekly (Haat) Markets in Assam. . . 219 Figure 9.9: Farmers’ Incomes Are Highly Sensitive to Market Issues: Prices, Volume, and Enterprise Diversi�cation . . 222 Figure 9.10: Commercial Farmers’ Information Needs and Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Figure 9.11: Traders’ Perceived Bene�ts of Using Mobile Phones, Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Figure 9.12: Traders’ Perception of the Bene�ts of Using Mobile Phones, Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Figure 9.13: How Farmers Use Market Information to Improve Prices and Pro�ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Figure 9.14: Aggregate Consumer Demand by Agricultural Product from 2005 to 2020 at a 5.5% Yearly Growth in GDP, India (Rs Billion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 9.15: Projected Consumer Expenditures in India from 2005 to 2020 and Additional Farm-Gate Income (Rs Billion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 9.16: Prices Paid to Soybean Farmers in Areas with and without Market Information from e-Choupals (Internet Kiosks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Figure 9.17: Vegetable Marketing Channels, Republic of South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Figure 9.18: Average Tomato Sales for Three Fresh Produce Markets, South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Figure 9.19: India’s Farmers See the Bigger Picture: AGMARK’s Market Price Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Figure 10.1: Examples of Value Chains, Their Participants, and the Value Added Along the Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Figure 10.2: Drivers of ICT Applications for Including Smallholders in Supply Chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Figure 10.3: Typical ICT Applications and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Figure 10.4: Cases and Examples Discussed in Topic Notes and Innovative Practice Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Figure 10.5: The AgriManagr System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Figure 10.6: The Process by Which Dunavant and MTZL Collaborate to Pay Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Figure 10.7: Partnerships Involved in Developing freshConnect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Figure 10.8: Declared and Actual Area Can Differ Signi�cantly (Citrus farms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Figure 11.1: Ownership of Radios and Mobile Phones in Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Figure 11.2: The mKRISHI Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Figure 11.3: Value and Quantity of Electronic Voucher Transactions in Zambia, 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Figure 12.1: Coffee: Attributes of Interest and Depth of Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Figure 12.2: Mobile Technology as a Key Enabler of Information Counterflow from Farmers to Markets . . . . . . . . . 291 Figure 12.3: Soybean Traceability System in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Figure 12.4: Scottish Borders TAG Cattle Tracing System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Figure 12.5: Incentives for Investment in Traceability Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Figure 12.6: Peanut Corporation of America Recall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Figure 12.7: Fresh Food Trace Web Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Figure 12.8: ICTs Enable Information Flow from Farmers to Markets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Figure 12.9: Embayment Management and Shell�sh Traceability in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Figure 13.1: Relationships Between Key Stakeholders in the Agrarian Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Figure 13.2: Singular Infrastructure versus Centralized Infrastructure in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Figure 14.1: Bene�ts of Good Land Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Figure 14.2: Evolution of ICT in Land Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Figure 14.3: Sustainable Development Needs Both Urban and Rural Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Figure 14.4: Influences on the Land Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Figure 14.5: A Property Information Service in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Figure 14.6: Example of E-Planning Portal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Figure 14.7: Parcels Before and After Land Consolidation with New Irrigation Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK X IM A GES LIST OF IMAGES Image 1.1: Soil Data Can Be Collected and Disseminated by a Variety of ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Image 1.2: Google Map of Kampala, Uganda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Image 1.3: Public-Private Partnerships Often Lead to More-Sustainable Services for Rural People. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Image 1.4: Determining Levels of Inclusiveness Is a Critical Factor in ICT Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Image 1.5: A Collaborative Effort Among Diverse Actors Is Important for ICT in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Image 2.1: Cell Services in Rural South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Image 2.2: Ghana’s Telecommunications Infrastructure Expands the Use of Mobile Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Image 2.3: Girl Uses Phone in Community Meeting in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Image 3.1: Mobile Phones Can Help Fishermen Sell Their Catch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Image 3.2: Other Challenges, Like Inadequate Transport, Affects Mobile Phone Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Image 3.3: The Reuters Market Light Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Image 3.4: The Agriculture Package in Nokia Life Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Image 4.1: Levels of Literacy Affects Women’s Participation in Agriculture Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Image 4.2: Women Often Integrate Domestic Roles with Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Image 4.3: Women Can Play a Signi�cant Role in Acquiring Family Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Image 4.4: ICT Often Requires Additional Inputs to Be Effective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Image 5.1: Nitrogen-Sensor Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Image 5.2: WSN Can Help Monitor the Quality of Pastures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Image 5.3: Farmers Learn to Use Images of Their Farms to Improve Productivity and Resource Management . . . . . 101 Image 5.4: Infrared Sensor Technology Increases the Cost-Ef�ciency of Nitrogen Fertilizer Applications in Yaqui Valley . . 102 Image 5.5: Mobile Applications Help to Monitor and Protect Fishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Image 5.6: Satellite Image of Vegetation Changes from 1998 to 2004 (Red Indicates Decreasing Vegetation and Green Indicates an Increase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Image 5.7: Two Examples of Digital Orthophoto Quads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Image 6.1: Specialized Knowledge on Farm Practices Can Result in Pro�table Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Image 6.2: ICT Must Be Complemented by Other Inputs Like Improved Seedlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Image 6.3: Open Access to Genetic Information Can Improve Yields Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Image 6.4: AGORA Provides Open Access to Agriculture Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Image 6.5: Accessing Private Sector Research Could Have Wide Impacts on Poor Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Image 6.6: Matching ICT to the Diverse Needs of Farmers Is Critical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Image 6.7: Timely Advisory Services Improve the Effectiveness of Other Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Image 6.8: New Technologies Have Allowed for More Innovative Radio Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Image 6.9: Farmer-Led Documentation Processes Can Use Digital Tools in Place of Paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Image 6.10: Women Can More Easily Participate in Rural Radio Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E IMAGES XI Image 6.11: E-learning Creates Opportunities for Rural Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Image 6.12: Women Use Mobile Phones to Learn Better Goat Production Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Image 7.1: RFID Can Be Used to Track Cattle and Manage Herds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Image 8.1: Indian Woman Text Messages on Phone in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Image 8.2: Telecenters Can Attract a Wide Range of People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Image 8.3: Women’s Cooperative Processing Shea Butter in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Image 8.4: ICT Programs Like SOUNONG Helps Cooperatives Identify Livestock Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Image 8.5: Many Enablers Are Needed to Ensure Coop Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Image 8.6: Women Speak About the Livelihood Challenges They Face on the Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Image 9.1: The Bangladeshi Community Who Solved Their Chicken Marketing Problems Through Mobile Phones . . . 218 Image 9.2: Produce for Sale at an Assamese “Super-Haat� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Image 9.3: Inventories of Karaya Gum Mapped and Displayed Through a Mobile Phone Application . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Image 10.1: ICT-Enabled Kiosks in Rural India Can Help to Inform Rice Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Image 10.2: Indiagriline Logon Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Image 11.1: Unexpected Changes in Climate Contribute to Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Image 11.2: The mKRISHI Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Image 11.3: Pastoralism in Africa Is a Critical Means to Rural Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Image 11.4: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Marsabit District, Kenya, February 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Image 11.5: Weather Station in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Image 11.6: Map of Flood Reports, Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Image 11.7: Transactions Using Mobile Phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Image 11.8: Community Knowledge Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Image 12.1: Mango Growers in Mali Use Mobile Devices to Log Traceability Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Image 13.1: Online Access to Public Data Such as the Ghana Living Standards Surveys Can Stimulate Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Image 13.2: Biometric Identi�cation Can Replace Traditional Forms of Identi�cation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Image 13.3: One-Stop Shops Using ICT Can Increase Ef�ciencies in SME Start-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Image 13.4: mLab in East Africa Assists Agricultural Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Image 13.5: CyberTracker Gives Users Icon and Word Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Image 13.6: Rural Kiosks Can Lead to Information Sharing Between Agrarian Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Image 13.7: ICT Can Support Well Water Infrastructure Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Image 14.1: Women Use GIS Instruments to Map Land and Measure Soil Qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Image 14.2: LARASITA: A Mobile Land Of�ce in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Image 15.1: Scanning Barcodes in Forests Increases Enhanced Forest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Image 15.2: Long-Term Investments Are Critical to Scaling Up Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Image 15.3: User-Friendly Tools Allows Local Participation in Forest Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Image 15.4: POIMapping in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Image 15.5: Satellite Imagery Can Map Levels of Vegetation, Forest Cover, and Forest Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Image 15.6: Tracking through Barcodes, RFID, GPS, and Other Technologies Improves the Chain of Custody . . . . . . 398 Image 15.7: Online Timber Sales in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK XII TA B LES LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Themes Treated in Sourcebook Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Table 2.1: Characteristics of Universal Access and Universal Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Table 2.2: Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan. . . 35 Table 2.3: Lessons Learned from Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Table 2.4: Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Mobile Financial and Income Services Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . 42 Table 2.5: Lessons Learned from Mobile Financial and Income Services in Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Table 2.6: Key Enabling Factors for Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda. . . . . . . . . 46 Table 2.7: Lessons Learned in Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Table 3.1: The Impact of Mobile-Based Livelihood Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Table 3.2: Various Roles for Mobiles in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Table 6.1: Radio Access and Frequency of Listening in the Household (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Table 8.1: Speci�c ICTs Discussed in This Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Table 9.1: Summary of ICT’s Impact on Farmers’ Prices and Incomes, Traders’ Margins, and Prices to Consumers . . 208 Table 9.2: Current and Future Roles of ICT in Agricultural Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Table 9.3: Size of Loads and Distance Covered in Moving Rural Goods Produced by Small-Scale Farmers, Various Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Table 9.4: Average Time and Cost Savings Occurring When Ghanaian Onion Traders Substitute Phone Communication for Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Table 9.5: Information Priorities of Farmers Using Mobile Phones in India (Ranked) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Table 9.6: Agricultural Interventions Made through e-Choupal Kiosks and Their Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Table 10.1: The Business Case for and Against Procuring from Small-Scale Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Table 11.1: Farmers’ Information Needs in Relation to the Crop Cycle and Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Table 12.1: Examples of Food Safety Outbreaks (1971–2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Table 12.2: Traceability Systems Adopted in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Table 12.3: Examples of Food Traceability-Related Regulations and Standards, with Particular Application in Food Safety and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Table 12.4: Traceability Applications in Agriculture and Agrifood Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Table 13.1: Examples of ICT in E-Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Table 13.2: E-Government Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Table 13.3: ICT-Enabled Agriculture Interventions and Their Impact on Rural Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Table 13.4: Comparing Costs for Electronic Toll Collection, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Table 14.1: Where Registering Property Is Easy and Where It Is Not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Table 15.1: Pillars of Forest Governance and ICT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Table 15.2: Summary of Field Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E BOXES X III LIST OF BOXES Box 1.1: Globalizing Food Markets and New Challenges for Smallholder Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Box 2.1: The Risks of Picking Winners in the Rapidly Evolving IT Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Box 2.2: Singapore’s Simpli�ed Licenses Encourage Innovative, Cost-effective ICT Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . 20 Box 2.3: Balancing Quality and Service in Reaching Rural Areas: Fixed-line versus Wireless Backhaul . . . . . . . . 23 Box 2.4: Chile’s ICT Policies for Connectivity and Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Box 2.5: Lessons from South Africa’s Experience in Migrating to Digital Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Box 2.6: CDMA450 Technology Connects Rural Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Box 2.7: Mobile Phones with Features Attract Rural Users in China and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Box 2.8: MXit Blends Entertainments and Practical Content in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Box 2.9: India Exempli�es Evolution in the Public Provision of Low-Cost Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Box 3.1: What Is a Mobile Application? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Box 3.2: Mobile Phones Enable Kerala Fishers to Identify Better Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Box 3.3: One Device, Many Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Box 3.4: Mobile Phones, Agriculture, and Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Box 3.5: An Esoko Transaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Box 3.6: Kilimo Salama Demonstrates the Convergence of Mobile Phones and Sophisticated Mobile Services . . . . 63 Box 4.1: Key Constraints Restricting Women’s Access to ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Box 4.2: Policy Recommendations for Gender-Aware Universal Access and Rural Development . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Box 4.3: Mobile Phones and Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Box 5.1: The Food Security Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Box 5.2: Gender in Agricultural Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Box 5.3: Using Remote Sensors and Similar Tools to Measure Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Box 5.4: Collecting African Soil Data Over Time to Understand Soil Degradation Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Box 5.5: Rewarding Farmers for Carbon Sequestration in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Box 5.6: Web-Based GIS for Paddy Precision Farming, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Box 5.7: Crowdsourcing Prevents Cassava Losses in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Box 5.8: Modeling India’s Groundnut Yield through Climate Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Box 6.1: Datasets on Amazon Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Box 6.2: Social Media Support Research Project Review and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Box 6.3: Innovation Brokers at the Heart of Networking and Communication in Agricultural Information Systems . . 116 Box 6.4: Key Considerations When Using ICT in AIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Box 6.5: ICTs Engage Stakeholders in Formulating an Ambitious Research Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Box 6.6: Rural Tanzanians Update Researchers on Spreading Cassava Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Box 6.7: Web-Based Tools Facilitate Research Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Box 6.8: Dataverse: An Open Application for Storing and Analyzing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Box 6.9: Mendeley: ICT to Expand the Literature Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Box 6.10: Driving Developing County Access: The CIARD Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK XIV B OX ES Box 6.11: Rural Radio Lets Listeners Speak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Box 6.12: Mobile Phones as Tools for Farmer Surveys and Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Box 7.1: Farmers Require Four Kinds of Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Box 7.2: ICT Increases the Availability of Rural Finance in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Box 7.3: In Rural Kenya and South Africa, ICT Applications Reduce the Cost of Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . 157 Box 7.4: Increased Operational Ef�ciency in Africa through ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Box 7.5: Financial Service Providers in the United States and Mozambique Use ICT to Improve Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Box 7.6: Using ICT to Identify Financial Service Clients in Africa and South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Box 8.1: Factors that Can Hamper Women’s Uptake of ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Box 8.2: Telecenters Build Skills, Directly and Indirectly, in Members of Farmer Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Box 8.3: Unintended Consequences of Not Including Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Box 8.4: Chile’s Coopeumo and the Mobile Information Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Box 8.5: A Checklist of Considerations for Designing an Effective, Sustainable ICT-Based Project to Support Farmer Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Box 8.6: Considerations for Effectively, Sustainably Computerizing Farmer Organizations and Cooperatives . . . . . 191 Box 8.7: What Is ERP? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Box 8.8: Considerations for Effectively, Sustainably Enabling Farmers to Share Information and Gain a Greater Voice in the Agricultural Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Box 9.1: Changing Sources of Information for Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Box 9.2: The Spread of SMS-Based Services and Prospects for Reducing Their Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Box 9.3: Winter Salad Grower in Georgia Improves His Negotiating Position with Itinerant Traders by Mobile Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Box 9.4: Government-Provided Information on Market Prices: A South Asian Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Box 10.1: Functions of Supply-Chain Management Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Box 10.2: Companies Use Enterprise Resource Planning Software to Manage Smallholder Suppliers . . . . . . . . . 247 Box 11.1: Reuters Market Light Disseminates Early Warnings to Mitigate Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Box 11.2: How Does Insurance Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Box 11.3: What Is Index Insurance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Box 11.4: Commodity Futures Markets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Box 11.5: Information Services Used by Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Box 14.1: Outcomes of Automating Land Registration in Andhra Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Box 14.2: Augmented Reality in Real Estate Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Box 14.3: Reducing Corruption in Land Of�ces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Box 14.4: Creative Commons Supports Open Government Licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Box 15.1: The Building Blocks of Forest Governance and Their Principal Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Box 15.2: Vietnam—Management Information System for the Forestry Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Box 15.3: Website of the Forestry Commission, United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Box 15.4: Advocacy and Awareness Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Box 15.5: Uganda—Environment Alert: Civil Society Organizations Use ICTs in Advocacy Campaigns . . . . . . . . . 384 Box 15.6: How Can Community Radio Bene�t Forest Governance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Box 15.7: Public Participation and Crowdsourcing of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Box 15.8: Citizen-Powered Urban Forest Map of San Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Box 15.9: MESTA—Participatory Forest Management Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Box 15.10: UNODC’s “Go� Family of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E FO R E W O R D XV FOREWORD The livelihoods of the world’s poor rise and fall with the fate of agriculture. Enhancing the ability of smallholders to connect with the knowledge, networks, and institutions necessary to improve their productivity, food security, and employment opportunities is a fundamental development challenge. Where once rural areas were largely disconnected from the greater world, today, networks of information and communication technologies (ICTs) enmesh the globe and represent a transforma- tional opportunity for rural populations, both as producers and consumers. However, climate change and price fluctuations in the global food market remind us that realizing this opportunity requires a long-term commitment to mobilizing appropriate resources and expertise. It is for this reason that we are particularly pleased to introduce the ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook. This resource was designed to support practitioners, decision-makers, and development partners who work at the intersection of ICT and agriculture. Our hope is that it becomes a practical guide in understanding current trends, implementing appropriate interven- tions, and evaluating the impact of those programs. It combines cutting-edge expertise in ICT with empirical knowledge of a wide range of agricultural sectors, from governance to supply chain management. As an online knowledge source, it will continue to evolve and be updated to reflect the emerging and changing challenges and opportunities facing the sector. This activity was carried out as part of the program on Creating Sustainable Businesses in the Knowledge Economy, for which the Government of Finland provided generous support. The publication represents a partnership of infoDev and the Agriculture and Rural Development Department of the World Bank Group, with significant contributions from outside experts. It is also a companion piece to the Agricultural Innovation Systems Sourcebook (World Bank, forthcoming). We are grateful for the contributions and look forward to continuing work that assists in meeting the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people suffering from extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. Valerie D’Costa Juergen Voegele Program Manager Director infoDev Agriculture and Rural Development The World Bank The World Bank E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK XVI A C K NOW LED GEM ENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook, available at www.ICTinAgriculture.org, is made possible by a number of key individuals, donors and partner organizations. It was financed by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland under the Finland / infoDev / Nokia program on Creating Sustainable Businesses in the Knowledge Economy, whose generous contributions and ideas served as a foundation for its production. The e-Sourcebook was managed by a core team led by Eija Pehu (World Bank) and Tim Kelly (infoDev), which included Cory Belden (World Bank) and Kevin Donovan (infoDev). Acknowledgements are also due to members of the Steering Committee for the Creating Sustainable Businesses in the Knowledge Economy program, who include Pertti Ikonen (Nokia) and Amb. Markku Kauppinen (Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland), Ilkka Lakaniemi (Nokia), Valerie D’Costa (infoDev) and Janamitra Devan (World Bank), Ilari Lindy (World Bank), Philippe Dongier (World Bank), and Riikka Rajalahti (World Bank). Acknowledgements are also due to the authors of each module, who contributed their expertise and knowledgeable experi- ence. These authors include Henry Bagazonzya (World Bank), Peter Ballantyne (International Livestock Research Institute), Michael Barrett (University of Cambridge), Cory Belden (World Bank), Regina Birner (University of Hohenheim), Riccardo del Castello (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Tuukka Castrén (World Bank), Vikas Choudhary (World Bank), Grahame Dixie (World Bank), Kevin Donovan (infoDev), Philip Edge (Consultant), Tina George (World Bank), May Hani (FAO), Julie Harrod (Consultant), Pekka Jamsen (AgriCord), Teemu Jantunen (FM-International Oy FINNMAP), Nithya Jayaraman (Consultant), Ajit Maru (Global Forum on Agriculture Research [GFAR]), Suvranil Majumdar (World Bank), Cristina Manfre (Cultural Practice, LLC), Robin McLaren (Know Edge Ltd), Kerry McNamara (American University), Estibalitz Morras (FAO), Karin Nichterlein (FAO), Eija Pehu (World Bank), Madhavi Pillai (World Bank), Enrica Porcari (Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research [CGIAR]), Luz Diaz Rios (World Bank), Stephen Rudgard (FAO), Zaid Safdar (World Bank), Soham Sen (World Bank), Mira Slavova (International Food Policy Research Institute [IFPRI]), Lara Srivastava (Webster University), Victoria Stanley (World Bank), and Sophie Treinen (FAO). The e-Sourcebook was refined and improved by a large number of peer reviewers, whose work is gratefully recognized. These reviewers include Gavin Adlington (World Bank), Maria Amelina (World Bank), Simon Batchelor (Gamos Ltd), Brian Bedard (World Bank), Deepak Bhatia (World Bank), Fritz Brugger (Syngenta Foundation), Mark Cackler (World Bank), Tuukka Castrén (World Bank), Maria Collion (World Bank), Kristin Davis (Global Forum on Research and Advisory Services), Grahame Dixie (World Bank), Kevin Donavan (infoDev), Fionna Douglas, (World Bank), Shaun Ferris (Catholic Relief Services), Alexander Flor (University of the Phillippines), Steve Froggett (United States Department of Agriculture), Aparajita Goyal (World Bank), Guillaume Gruere (IFPRI), Willem Heemskerk (Royal Tropical Institute), Peter Jaegar (ACCORD), Teemu Jantunen (FM-International Oy FINNMAP), Mercy Karanja (Gates Foundation), Renate Kloeppinger (World Bank), Donald Larson (World Bank), Ilari Lindy (World Bank), Calvin Miller (FAO), Ken Lohento (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA)), Bart Minten (IFPRI), Jorge A. Muñoz (World Bank), Clare O’Farrell (FAO), Rodo Ortiz (World Bank), Kevin Painting (CTA), Andrea Pape-Christiansen (World Bank), Judith Payne (US Agency for International Development (USAID)), Eija Pehu (World Bank), Karl Prince (Iceni Mobile), Riikka Rajalahti (World Bank), Eva Rathgeber (Consultant), Lal Rattan (Ohio State University), Mike Robson (FAO), Deborah Rubin (Cultural Practice, LLC), Sandra Sargent (World Bank), Andrew Shepard (FAO), and William Zijp (Consultant). Very special thanks also goes to our editorial support team, which included Kelly Cassaday (Consultant) and Mike Donaldson (Consultant). The team is grateful to Kaisa Antikainen (World Bank) who led the publication process, as well as to the organiza- tions and individuals who contributed photos and other media. Also worthy of recognition are Kimberly Kweder (World Bank) and Ritesh Sanan (World Bank) who provided substan- tial technical web expertise. The team is also grateful to the organizers of infoDev’s 4th Global Forum on Innovation & Technology Entrepreneurship, where the e-Sourcebook was featured and previewed on May 31, 2011 in Helsinki, Finland. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E A C R O N Y M S AND ABBRE VIAT IONS X V II ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 2G, 3G, 4G second-, third-, and fourth-generation [developments in mobile wireless technology] ACDI/VICA Agricultural Cooperative Development International/Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance AIS agricultural innovation system B2B business-to-business BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy C Celsius CaFAN Caribbean Farmers Network CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (International Center for Tropical Agriculture) CIC community information center (Bhutan) CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) CKW community knowledge worker DIT Department of Information Technology (Bhutan) DFID Department for International Development (UK) DNE Dairy Network Enterprise DOQ digital orthophoto quad e- electronic EAP East Asia and Pacific ECA Europe and Central Asia ERP enterprise resource planning EU European Union FAPRI Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute FEPASSI Fédération Provinciale des Professionnels Agricoles de la Sissili (Federation of Agricultural Producers of Sissili Province) FINO Financial Inclusion Network and Operations G2P government-to-person (cash transfer) GAP good agricultural practice Gbps gigabit per second GDP gross domestic product Ghz gigahertz GigE gigabit Ethernet GIS geographical information systems GLN global location number GM genetically modified GNSS global navigation satellite systems GPRS general packet radio service E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK XVIII A C R ONY MS AND A B B R EV IATIONS GPS global positioning system GSM Global System for Mobile Communications GTIN global trade item number HACCP hazard analysis and critical control point HIC high-income countries IBLI index-based livestock insurance ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ICT information communication technology ICTs information communication technologies IDI ICT Development Index IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFC International Finance Corporation IFFCO Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative Limited IFMR Institute for Financial Management and Research (India) IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IICD International Institute for Communication and Development IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IKSL IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IP Internet Protocol IPS Innovative Practice Summary IRRI International Rice Research Institute IT information technology ITU International Telecommunications Union LAC Latin America and Caribbean Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic LiDAR light detection and ranging m- mobile Mbps megabit per second MENA Middle East and North Africa MFI microfinance institution Mhz megahertz MNO mobile network operator NAIP National Agricultural Innovation Project (India) NARO National Agricultural Research Organisation (Uganda) NGN next-generation network NGO non-governmental organization NSDI national spatial data infrastructure OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OS operating system PDA personal digital assistant PIN personal identification number PKGFS Pudhuaaru Kshetriya Gramin Financial Services IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E A C R O N Y M S AND ABBRE VIAT IONS X IX PSTNs public switched digital telecommunication networks RFID radio-frequency identification RML Reuters Market Light Rs rupees SA South Asia SCM supply-chain management SDI spatial data infrastructure SIM subscriber identification module SMS short messaging service SSA Sub-Saharan Africa U Sh Uganda shillings UA universal access [to communication networks for ICTs] UA/USFs univeral access/universal service funds UK United Kingdom UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe US universal service [from communication networks for ICTs] USA United States VANS value added network services VAT value-added tax VHRI very high resolution image VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol VSAT very small aperture terminal WFP World Food Programme WG-DSM International Working Group on Digital Soil Mapping WHO World Health Organization WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access Y Yuan ZNFU Zambia National Farmers Union E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK SECTION 1 Overview of ICT in Agriculture: Opportunities, Access, and Cross-Cutting Themes S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 3 Module 1: INTRODUCTION: ICT IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT KERRY MCNAMARA (American University), CORY BELDEN (World Bank), TIM KELLY (Infodev, World Bank Group), EIJA PEHU (World Bank), and KEVIN DONOVAN (Infodev, World Bank Group) INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION the most promise for pro-poor economic growth. In fact, agri- TECHNOLOGY: FINDING A PLACE IN THE culture is around four times more effective at raising incomes AGRICULTURE SECTOR among the poor than other sectors (World Bank 2008). No Information and communication have always mattered in less important, improved agriculture also has a direct impact agriculture. Ever since people have grown crops, raised live- on hunger and malnutrition, decreasing the occurrences of stock, and caught fish, they have sought information from famine, child stunting, and maternal infirmity. one another. What is the most effective planting strategy on steep slopes? Where can I buy the improved seed or feed this Given the challenges, the arrival of information communi- year? How can I acquire a land title? Who is paying the high- cation technology (ICT) is well timed. The benefits of the est price at the market? How can I participate in the govern- green revolution greatly improved agricultural productivity. ment’s credit program? Producers rarely find it easy to obtain However, there is a demonstrable need for a new revolution answers to such questions, even if similar ones arise sea- that will bring lower prices for consumers (through reduced son after season. Farmers in a village may have planted the waste and more-efficient supply chain management), con- “same� crop for centuries, but over time, weather patterns tribute to “smart� agriculture, and incentivize farmers (for and soil conditions change and epidemics of pests and dis- example, through higher income) to increase their produc- eases come and go. Updated information allows the farmers tion. Public and private sector actors have long been on the to cope with and even benefit from these changes. Providing search for effective solutions to address both the long- and such knowledge can be challenging, however, because the short-term challenges in agriculture, including how to answer highly localized nature of agriculture means that information the abundant information needs of farmers. ICT is one of must be tailored specifically to distinct conditions. these solutions, and has recently unleashed incredible poten- tial to improve agriculture in developing countries specifically. Agriculture is facing new and severe challenges in its own Technology has taken an enormous leap beyond the costly, right (see box 1.1). With rising food prices that have pushed bulky, energy-consuming equipment once available to the over 40 million people into poverty since 2010, more effective very few to store and analyze agricultural and scientific data. interventions are essential in agriculture (World Bank 2011). With the booming mobile, wireless, and Internet industries, The growing global population, expected to hit 9 billion by ICT has found a foothold even in poor smallholder farms 2050, has heightened the demand for food and placed pres- and in their activities. The ability of ICTs to bring refreshed sure on already-fragile resources. Feeding that population will momentum to agriculture appears even more compelling in require a 70 percent increase in food production (FAO 2009). light of rising investments in agricultural research, the pri- vate sector’s strong interest in the development and spread Filling the stomachs of the growing population is only one rea- of ICTs, and the upsurge of organizations committed to the son agriculture is critical to global stability and development. agricultural development agenda. It is also critical because one of the most effective ways of reducing poverty is to invest in and make improvements in But what exactly are ICTs? And can they really be useful and the agricultural sector. Even after years of industrialization cost-effective for poor farmers with restricted access to capi- and growth in services, agriculture still accounts for one-third tal, electricity, and infrastructure? First, an ICT is any device, of the gross domestic products (GDP) and three-quarters tool, or application that permits the exchange or collection of of employment in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 40 percent of data through interaction or transmission. ICT is an umbrella the labor force in countries with per capita incomes in the term that includes anything ranging from radio to satellite US$ 400 to 1,800 range works in agriculture (World Bank imagery to mobile phones or electronic money transfers. 2008). Because agriculture accounts for the vast majority of Second, these ICTs and others have gained traction even the poor’s livelihood activities, it is also the sector that holds in impoverished regions. The increases in their affordability, E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 4 MOD ULE 1 — INTR OD UC TION: IC T IN A GRICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT accessibility, and adaptability have resulted in their use even adapt to weather conditions) can now be answered faster, within rural homesteads relying on agriculture. New, small with greater ease, and increased accuracy. Many of the ques- devices (such as multifunctional mobile phones and nano- tions can also be answered with a dialogue—where farmers, technology for food safety), infrastructure (such as mobile experts, and government can select best solutions based on a telecommunications networks and cloud computing facilities), diverse set of expertise and experience. and especially applications (for example, that transfer money or track an item moving through a global supply chain) have The types of ICT-enabled services that are useful to improv- proliferated. Many of the questions asked by farmers (includ- ing the capacity and livelihoods of poor smallholders are ing questions on how to increase yields, access markets, and growing quickly. One of the best examples of these services BOX 1.1: Globalizing Food Markets and New Challenges for Smallholder Farmers Understanding and addressing global agriculture developments—both advantageous and not—are critical to improving smallholder livelihoods, in which ICT can play a major role. The continued increase in globalization and integration of food markets has intensified competition and efficacy in the agriculture sector, and has brought unique opportunities to include more smallholders into supply chains. Yet in the same vein, agriculture faces a range of modern and serious challenges, particularly in developing countries exposed to price shocks, climate change, and continued deficiencies in infrastructure in rural areas. When commodity prices rise quickly and steeply, they precipitate concerns about food insecurity, widespread poverty, and conflict—more so in countries that import high volumes of staple foods. Globalized food markets also increase the risk that some countries and many smallholders will remain marginalized from the expanding and more profitable agricul- tural value chains (such as premium foods, which have seen an increase in demand due to an expanding middle class) that rely on technical sophistication to ensure speed, scale, and customization. Climate change has also played an acute role in keeping smallholders in the underbelly of value chains. Farmers can no longer rely on timeworn coping strategies when all of their familiar benchmarks for making agricultural decisions— the timing of rains for planting and pasture, the probability of frost, the duration of dry intervals that spare crops from disease—are increasingly less reliable. Severe and unexpected weather are shrinking already-limited yields and promot- ing migration from rural areas and rural jobs. Weather-related events leave developing-country governments, who lack the resources and the private sector investment to provide risk management instruments, to cope with major crop fail- ures and the displaced victims only after the fact. It is in the context of globalizing agriculture where the need for information becomes most vivid. The smallholders, who still provide a significant portion of the world’s food, need information to advance their work just as much as industrial- scale producers. Comparing the two types of farmers—industrial and small-scale—exemplifies the latter’s disadvantages. Where wealthier industrial producers can use the Internet, phone, weather forecasts, other digital tools, and technolo- gies as simple as vehicles and infrastructure as basic as electricity to glean information on prices, markets, varieties, production techniques, services, storage, or processing, smallholders remain dependent primarily on word of mouth, previous experience, and local leadership. The smallholder disadvantage does not stop there. Financial and insurance services are often out of reach and poorly understood. Key intermediaries like producer organizations and rural institutions (including local government) could help alleviate the disadvantage, but in many places, the former are just emerging and the latter are inefficient and nontranspar- ent. Both require a variety of technical and financial support to grow and become inclusive and effective. Many of these challenges and others can be addressed by using ICT effectively. Source: Authors. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 5 IMAGE 1.1: Soil Data Can Be Collected and they can prepare for weather-related events. In resource- Disseminated by a Variety of ICT constrained environments especially, providers use sat- ellites or remote sensors (to gather temperature data), Internet (to store large amounts of data), and mobile phones (to disseminate temperature information to remote farmers cheaply)—to prevent crop losses and mitigate effects from natural adversities. Other, more-specialized applications, such as software used for supply chain or financial management are also becom- ing more relevant in smallholder farming. Simple accounting software has allowed cooperatives to manage production, aggregation, and sales with increased accuracy. The Malian Coprokazan, involved in shea butter production, began using solar-powered computers with keyboards adapted to the local language to file members’ records electronically. Along with electronic administration, the coop plans to invest in Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to obtain certifications and use cameras and video as training materials to raise the quality of production. From 2006 to 2010 alone, the coop’s membership grew from 400 to 1,000 producers (http://www .coprokazan.org/). These examples represent only a minute subset of the information and communication services that can be provided to the agricultural sector through increasingly Source: Neil Palmer, CIAT. affordable and accessible ICTs. Hundreds of agriculture- specific applications are now emerging and are showing great promise for smallholders, as illustrated in the more than 200 project-based case studies and examples in this is the use of mobile phones as a platform for exchanging infor- Sourcebook. In order to exploit the possibilities, countries mation through short messaging services (SMS). Reuters have two tasks: Market Light, for example, services over 200,000 smallholder subscribers in 10 different states in India for a cost of US$ 1.50 (A) To empower poor farmers with information and per month. The farmers receive four to five messages per day communication assets and services that will increase on prices, commodities, and advisory services from a database their productivity and incomes as well as protect their with information on 150 crops and more than 1,000 markets. food security and livelihoods, and Preliminary evidence suggests that collectively, the service may have generated US$ 2–3 billion in income for farmers (B) to harness ICTs effectively to compete in complex, (Mehra 2010), while over 50 percent of them have reduced rapidly changing global markets (avoiding falling their spending on agriculture inputs1. behind the technology curve). ICT-enabled services often use multiple technologies to pro- Accomplishing these tasks requires the implementation vide information (image 1.1). This model is being used to of a complex set of policy, investment, innovation, and provide rural farmers localized (non-urban) forecasts so that capacity-building measures, in concert with beneficiaries and other partners, which will encourage the growth of locally appropriate, affordable, and sustainable ICT infra- structure, tools, applications, and services for the rural 1 See Topic Note 9.4 in Module 9. economy. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 6 MOD ULE 1 — INTR OD UC TION: IC T IN A GRICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT Importantly, ICT is not an end to agricultural development. more accurately, subscriber identity module (SIM) cards— The excitement generated by ICTs as they spread through- are expected to be in use worldwide (Wireless Intelligence out developing countries has often masked the fact that 2011). Mobile phone penetration in the developing world their contributions to agriculture are both rapidly evolving now exceeds two subscriptions for every three people, and poorly understood. It is too early to have a clear idea, driven by expanding networks in Asia and in Africa. The abil- supported by rigorous analysis, of how ICTs support agricul- ity to purchase a low-cost mobile phone is complemented tural development, and under what conditions. While there by the expansion in telecommunications infrastructure; is credible evidence of positive impact, questions remain most countries now have more than 90 percent of their about how to make these innovations replicable, scalable, population served by a cell phone signal, including coverage and sustainable for a larger and more diverse population. A in rural areas (see figure 1.1). This rapid expansion results central goal of this Sourcebook is to analyze and disseminate from enabling regulations that ensure competition in the evidence of the impact of ICTs on agricultural development telecommunications sector as well as from high demand for and rural poverty reduction, exploring opportunities for long- mobile phone subscriptions. term and expansive efforts. The reach and affordability of broadband Internet is also improving dramatically—though somewhat slower—in THE WAY FORWARD: UNDERSTANDING THE WHY developing regions. In 2010, the number of Internet users AND THE HOW surpassed 2 billion and over half of these users are now in Each module in the Sourcebook discusses the key chal- developing countries. Internet connectivity around the world lenges, enablers, and lessons related to using ICTs in a spe- has grown exponentially since 2000, by over 480 percent cific subsector of agriculture. These are derived from a range (Internet World Statistics, 2011).The price of bandwidth has of experiences, and summarize the knowledge gained dur- continued to drop as well, driving down the costs of extend- ing pilot projects and wider initiatives. While different in type ing connections to isolated communities. In sub-Saharan of intervention and approach, a string of themes emerges Africa, which lags other regions in ICT accessibility, a recent from the modules. These themes—namely the why and surge of investments in international undersea cables and how of using ICT in agricultural development—demonstrate inland infrastructure to complete those connections is mak- the great potential of ICT and help to clarify the way forward. ing ICTs services substantially more accessible and afford- able across Africa (figure 1.2). By 2010, 12.3 terabits per second of backbone capacity was operational in Africa, up The Why: Drivers of ICT in Agriculture from less than 1 gigabit per second at the start of the decade Five main trends have been the key drivers of the use of (TeleGeography 2011). ICT in agriculture, particularly for poor producers: (1) low-cost and pervasive connectivity, (2) adaptable and more affordable Telecenters or other community-based facilities can provide tools, (3) advances in data storage and exchange, (4) innova- Internet access in locations where broadband is too expensive tive business models and partnerships, and (5) the democra- tization of information, including the open access movement and social media. These drivers are expected to continue FIGURE 1.1: Percentage of the World’s Population shaping the prospects for using ICT effectively in developing- Covered by a Mobile Cellular Signal country agriculture. 2003 2009 Low-Cost and Pervasive Connectivity The pervasiveness of connectivity—to mobile phones, Internet, 10% not covered and other wireless devices—is due to a number of factors, including decreases in costs, increases in competition, and 39% not covered 61% expansion of last-mile infrastructure. Several trends, working in covered tandem, are making ICT devices and services more affordable 90% covered in ways that also extend access to small-scale producers. Mobile phones are in the vanguard of ICTs in agriculture. By the end of 2011, over 6 billion mobile phone subscriptions—or Source: International Telecommunications Union. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EME S 7 FIGURE 1.2: African Undersea Cables, Those Working and Those in Development This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. IBRD 38933 The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank ESTONIA NOVEMBER 2011 Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Mediterranean Undersea Cables RUSSIAN FEDERATION RUSSIAN LATVIA 320 gigabits DENMARK FED. Atlas Offshore Active UNITED LITHUANIA KINGDOM THE 1280 gigabits IRELAND NETH. BELARUS SAS-1 Active GERMANY POLAND Highbridge Bude BELGIUM 3840 gigabits LUX. CZECH REP. UKRAINE SEA-ME-WE 4 Active SLOVAK REP. Penmarc'h FRANCE AUSTRIA HUNGARY MOLDOVA 3840 gigabits SWITZ. SLOVENIA ROMANIA I-ME-WE Active CROATIA BOSNIA SERBIA Marseille Monaco Vigo ITALY & HERZ.KOSOVO BULGARIA 3840 gigabits MONTENEGRO FYR KYRGYZ REP. PORTUGAL SPAIN ALBANIA MACEDONIA EIG Active Lisbon Seixal MONACO Palermo TURKEY TURKMENISTAN Sesimbra Chipiona Catania GREECE TAJIKISTAN Portimão Annaba Bizerte CHINA Gibraltar (UK) CYPRUS SYRIAN Asilah ARAB REP. TUNISIA LEBANON Tripoli ISLAMIC REP. Casablanca OF IRAN AFGHANISTAN Tripoli IRAQ ISRAEL West Bank MOROCCO Alexandria and Gaza KUWAIT Cairo Suez JORDAN PAKISTAN Buena Vista BAHRAIN ALGERIA NEPAL Alta Vista QATAR LIBYA ARAB REP. Former Fujairah Spanish OF EGYPT Karachi Sahara SAUDI U.A.E. ARABIA Muscat Jeddah INDIA MAURITANIA Port Sudan OMAN Mumbai Nouakchott CAPE VERDE MALI NIGER Praia SUDAN ERITREA REP. OF YEMEN Dakar To SENEGAL CHAD Malaysia, Banjul Chennai Thailand, BURKINA Singapore THE GAMBIA Bissau FASO Djibouti DJIBOUTI GUINEA BENIN Kochi Conakry NIGERIA GUINEA-BISSAU TOGO SIERRA LEONE CÔTE GHANA ETHIOPIA SRI Freetown D’IVOIRE Cotonou Lagos CENTRAL SOUTH LANKA Lomé Colombo Monrovia Abidjan Accra CAMEROON AFRICAN REP. SUDAN LIBERIA Limbé SOMALIA Douala Kribi MALDIVES To Bata Mogadishu UGANDA Penang Santana Libreville CONGO GABON KENYA DEM. REP. RWANDA EQU. GUINEA OF SEYCHELLES SÃO TOMÉ AND Pointe-Noire CONGO BURUNDI Mombasa Victoria To PR�NCIPE Fortaleza, Muanda TANZANIA Brazil Dar Es Salaam Cacuaco Luanda COMOROS Moroni ANGOLA Kaouéni MALAWI West Coast ZAMBIA Mayotte (Fr.) 340 gigabits SAT3/SAFE Active MOZAMBIQUE Toamasina 1920 gigabits ZIMBABWE Terre- MAURITIUS Rouge MaIN OnE Active NAMIBIA MADAGASCAR Savanne Saint-Paul 2500 gigabits BOTSWANA Réunion Swakopmund GLO-1 Active Toliary (Fr.) East Coast 320 gigabits 5120 gigabits Maputo SEAS Q3 2012 SWAZILAND WACS Q4 2011 1280 gigabits SOUTH Mtunzini TEAMs Active AFRICA LESOTHO 5120 gigabits 1280 gigabits Seacom Active ACE Q3 2012 Yzerfontein Melkbosstrand Cape Town 1280 gigabits Lion2 Q2 2012 12800 gigabits 1300 gigabits Lion Active SAex Q2 2013 4720 gigabits EASSy Active Source: Adapted from Steve Song, http://manypossibilities.net and TeleGeography. for individuals to use on their own. Internet access is also Adaptable and More Affordable Tools expected to increase through the continued rollout of third- and The proliferation of adaptable and more affordable technolo- fourth-generation (3G and 4G) mobile networks that greatly gies and devices has also increased ICT’s relevance to small- improved capacity for carrying data. Smartphones, such as holder agriculture. Innovation has steadily reduced the pur- BlackBerries or iPhones, which include 3G mobile services with chase price of phones, laptops, scientific instruments, and remote Internet connection, will increase access to information specialized software. Agricultural innovation in developed even to poor farmers. The International Telecommunication countries has become more applicable to developing-country Union (2010) reports that at the end of 2010, 143 countries needs. The intuitive design of many technologies and their offered commercial 3G services, providing at least 256 kilobits capacity to convey information visually or audibly make them per second of bandwidth and supplying voice and data simul- useful to people with limited formal education or exposure taneously (figure 1.3 shows the slow, but increasing rate of to technology. uptake of mobile broadband) and other ICT tools. E C O N O M IC AND S E CTOR WORK 8 MOD ULE 1 — INTR OD UC TION: IC T IN A GRICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT FIGURE 1.3: Global ICT Development from 2000–2010 100 90 Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions Internet users 80 Fixed telephone lines 70 Per 100 inhabitants Active mobile broadband subscriptions 60 Fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions 50 40 30 20 10 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: International Telecommunications Union’s World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database. Mobile-based applications are also becoming more suitable most likely to benefit from using e-vouchers to purchase for poor and isolated communities, especially though feature fertilizer). phones. Drawing on simple, available technologies such as SMS, service providers can offer mobile banking, other trans- Advances in Data Storage and Exchange actional services (selling inputs, for example), and information Greatly increased data storage capacity and the ability to services (market price alerts). Other publicly and privately access data remotely and share it easily have improved the provided services such as extension and advisory services use of ICT in agriculture. Sharing knowledge and exchanging are delivered over mobiles, which are increasingly not just data have created opportunities to involve more stakehold- “phones� but are actually multifunctional wireless devices. ers in agricultural research—involvement facilitated by an Geospatial information is also becoming easier to access and use as mapping tools, such as Microsoft Earth or Google Maps (image 1.2), bring geographical data information to IMAGE 1.2: Google Map of Kampala, Uganda. nonspecialist users. Scientists and development organiza- tions have created substantial sets of georeferenced data on population, poverty, transportation, and any number of other public goods and variables through more afford- able, usable geographic information systems available on standard PCs and mobile devices using web-based tools. Satellite images and similar representations have improved exponentially in quality and detail. These tools and remote sensors use less energy and require less human attention than in previous years. The capacity to overlay geospatial information with climate and socioeconomic data opens many options for analyzing biophysical trends (such as ero- sion or the movement of pathogens), making projections (about the effects of climate change or the best location of wholesale markets in relation to transport infrastructure), and selecting particular groups to test new technologies or farming practices (for instance, identifying farmers that are Source: Google Maps. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 9 improved e-learning environment and networking capacity. because they often lead to increased efficiency and revenue Advances in data storage and sharing have improved the abil- as well as extensions to client bases like isolated farmers. ity to exchange information—for instance, between depart- ments and levels of government—and avoid costs associ- New forms of business incubation and knowledge brokering ated with data transmission charges. are also contributing to ICT in agriculture. The private sector has a keen interest in investing in firms that come out of Improvements in data storage and sharing have underlying such incubation schemes, speculating on the ability of an causes. The capacity of hard drives and the speed of micro- innovative idea to expand into a highly profitable enterprise. processors have continued to rise, making it dramatically Incubators identify additional investors and other suitable cheaper to store data. Cloud computing offers access to partners, including technical experts. In many instances, numerous shared computing resources through the Internet, they develop enterprises through which private and public including sharable tools, applications, and intelligently linked providers of agricultural services collaborate to deliver prod- content and data. These advances address some of the ucts more efficiently to farmers; in developing, sharing, and information and communication constraints of agricultural capitalizing on innovations for agricultural development, they research institutions, government offices, cooperatives, almost always use ICT and often develop new ICT tools. and development organizations. Benefits of enhanced data capacity range from more accurate targeting of agricultural IMAGE 1.3: Public-Private Partnerships Often Lead to development programs to better preparation for handling More-Sustainable Services for Rural People surpluses or scarcities at the farm level. New Business Models and Public-Private Partnerships The development and use of many ICTs originated in the public sector but were quickly dominated by the private sector when their profit potential became clear. The public sector maintains great interest in ICT as a means of provid- ing better public services that affect agriculture (for instance, land registration, forest management, and agricultural exten- sion services), as well as for connecting with citizens and managing internal affairs. Private sector involvement in some of these efforts has enhanced the access, affordability, and adaptability of ICTs for development. Unlike other develop- ment strategies, which often struggle to survive or be scaled Source: Nokia. because the public sector cannot fund them, development strategies featuring ICTs have benefited from growing pri- Knowledge brokering, in which a private enterprise provides vate sector interest and public demand (image 1.3). information for a fee (for example, farmers obtain market, The entrepreneurial nature of ICTs attracts new partner- price, crop, and weather information via their mobile phones), ships and forms of investment. Mobile phone applica- is also gaining traction. This business model reduces the tions, software design, local language customization, and burden on the public sector while increasing the abilities of remote transaction services represent only a fraction of the brokers and farmers to profit from information sharing. opportunities for continued innovation. Private companies that have invested in technology and applications are often Democratization of Information, the Open Access interested in working with the public sector to provide their Movement, and Social Media products and services to smallholders. Mobile network The democratization of information and science facilitated by operators, for example, can invest by providing large text ICTs is also contributing to agriculture and rural development packages at a lower price, collecting premiums, distributing more broadly. Vast quantities of information held by institu- payments, or participating in extending networks to rural tions and individuals are becoming visible, publicly accessi- areas. Commercial enterprises such as processors, input ble, and reusable through the open access movement. Many suppliers, and exporters are also motivated to invest in ICT governments and organizations such as the World Bank, the E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 10 MOD ULE 1 — INTR OD UC TION: IC T IN A GRICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT Food and Agriculture Organization, the Consultative Group Concentrate on the Demand, Not on the Technology on International Agricultural Research are aiming to make The versatility and near-constant innovation that characterize data—like national surveys or research findings—publicly ICT can be a distraction: They can cause interventions to focus available. These actions have not only improved transparency more on the technology than on the priorities of the intended and accountability but have invited the public, private, and clients and the tradeoffs imposed by resource-constrained research sectors to participate in solving long-term economic environments. It is important to begin any ICT-in-agriculture and social problems, including those involving agriculture. intervention by focusing on the need that the intervention is purposed to address—not the need for ICT—but the need The expansion of open access software also enables grass- for better and more timely market information, better access roots community organizations to share knowledge with one to financial services, timely and appropriate crop and disease another. Social media, once used purely for entertainment, management advice, stronger links to agricultural value has great potential to be used for knowledge sharing and chains, and so forth. In some cases, ICT will not be an effec- collaboration even in agriculture. Although penetration of the tive means to meet these needs at all. most popular social medium, Facebook, was estimated at just 3 percent in Africa and almost 4 percent in Asia in 2010, Years of agricultural development experience show that proj- compared to 10.3 percent (over half a billion users) globally ects that involve new technologies require farmers’ engage- (Internet World Statistics, 2011), recent geopolitical events ment, right from the start. Interventions that make meager highlight the effectiveness of social media for sharing infor- efforts to involve farmers in planning and design result in low mation and motivating collective action—two key features of uptake, trust, and interest. The same is true for programs agriculture development. or strategies involving ICTs for development. A weak focus on farmers’ needs at the expense of ICT will ignore ancillary Finally, crowdsourcing, in which scientists, governments, needs for investment in human capacity, community partici- and development organizations request feedback from farm- pation, or infrastructure. ers and consumers through devices like mobile phones, is also facilitating agriculture development. Farmers can use Use Appropriate Technologies SMS to send critical local agricultural information like inci- The attractiveness of the newest ICTs can lead to a pref- dences of pests or crop yields that was previously difficult to erence for the latest technologies at the expense of older obtain without expensive surveys by researchers. Using the technologies (such as radio), yet the newest, most elaborate, digital tools available, consumers can also provide informa- or most innovative technology is not automatically the most tion related to changing consumption patterns and tastes to appropriate one. Moreover, an innovative mix of technologies private enterprise. (for instance, radio programs with a call-in or SMS facility for feedback) can be the most cost-effective solution. Well- reasoned assessment of the tradeoffs between the added The How: Lessons Learned So Far cost of a technology or service and benefits relative to other A number of key lessons related to ICT-in-agriculture options (technological and other) is important. policies and projects were gleaned during the research for this e-sourcebook. Using ICT to achieve agricultural The wide coverage of mobile devices reduces but does not development goals requires supplementary investments, eliminate these tradeoffs. In considering the appropriate- resources, and strategies. Flexible but strongly support- ness of technology, assessing the human capital available for ive policies and regulations, complementary investments developing and disseminating the ICT device or application is in physical infrastructure, support to men and women critical. The more complex the technology, the more training farmers of different age groups, technological appropri- and (qualified) extension support it will require. In environ- ateness, and the enabling environments for innovation ments where infrastructure is not conducive to a particular and new businesses will determine the long-term impact instrument, other means should be used. and sustainability of these efforts. These lessons are not conclusive—much remains to be learned—but they Finally, it is important to recognize that these newer technol- serve as sound considerations as investments are made ogies do not automatically replace the more traditional forms in future interventions. of communication, knowledge sharing, and collective action IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 11 that have evolved within a given community or region. In family income can prevent women from owning or even using designing ICT interventions, it is necessary to research and phones. However, the growing availability and lower cost of understand local information and communication practices, mobile phones, as well as other contributing factors, has the barriers to ICT-enabled empowerment, and priority informa- potential to meet women’s agricultural needs (image 1.4). tion and communication needs of end users. Using conven- tional information and communication tools to address the IMAGE 1.4: Determining Levels of Inclusiveness Is a needs of those who cannot access the ICT because of limita- Critical Factor in ICT Interventions tions related to literacy, isolation, and social norms is often required. Focus on Affordable Access and Use, Not Ownership In designing ICT-in-agriculture interventions, it is vital to bear in mind that “access� refers not only to the physical proxim- ity and accessibility of ICT infrastructure, tools, and services but also to their affordability, use, and usage models that are appropriate for the local physical, environmental, and cultural constraints. The specific mix of individual-user and shared- use/public-access models that is most appropriate and locally sustainable will vary depending on local needs and resources, and will change over time as devices and services diversify further and become even more affordable. As the costs of Source: Nokia. ownership of ICTs have come down, the affordability and accessibility divide has improved, especially for individual Social access issues extend beyond gender. A full under- user services. However, it also may be that in some cases, standing of the local, national, and regional agricultural learning is better facilitated through shared access than indi- economy is important for ensuring that ICT interventions do vidual access facilities. not restrict poor producers’ participation to the low end of agricultural value chains like other technologies have. ICT Actual use of the technology should also be monitored, in itself does not guarantee full participation by all social as a supplied technology does not necessarily imply that groups. Efforts to be inclusive must focus on the full range it is being used for economic means. Many times, mobile of capacities and resources that small-scale producers will phones and other devices function strictly as a tool for basic need to benefit from an intervention. Questions of social communication or entertainment. This is often a result of par- access should be raised consistently when using ICT to ticipants’ low exposure to ideas or methods on how the ICT improve rural livelihoods. Do sociocultural norms or divi- can be used to achieve agriculture or other economic goals. sions prevent certain groups from using the technology? Will better-off groups benefit more than poor groups? Will Be Aware of Differential Impacts, Including Gender floods of entertainment and spurious information dilute the and Social Differences in Access and Use knowledge needed for sustainable agricultural and rural Under certain conditions, ICT interventions can worsen development? Broad-based rural development depends on rather than alleviate underlying economic, social, and political monitoring and evaluating outcomes and making adjust- inequalities, including those between women and men. Rural ments along the way. women, face significant disadvantages in accessing informa- tion and communication assets and services. Many of the Create an Enabling Environment for Innovation in fixed-location ICT projects designed to enhance rural access Infrastructure Investment, Business Models, Services, to information assets and services were or are owned or man- and Applications aged by men. Cultural attitudes and women’s multiple roles Effective design and consistent, transparent implementation and heavy domestic responsibilities often exclude them from of appropriate policies and regulations guiding a country’s these services. The same attitudes and lack of control over investment in and provision of ICT infrastructure, tools, and E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 12 MOD ULE 1 — INTR OD UC TION: IC T IN A GRICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT services is key to enabling ICT interventions. In creating a multi-level policy makers; and farmers and farmers’ organi- supportive environment for ICT innovation and service provi- zations who can provide local know-how, are also often all sion, effective policies and regulations in a number of other needed in one way or another. key areas are equally important, such as public and private financing of infrastructure, the business environment, sup- Promote Leadership and Find Champions port for innovation, and intellectual property. ICT-in-agriculture Last, but not certainly not least, ICT interventions require interventions require a strong, but flexible, regulatory envi- leadership. Champions are needed to push projects forward ronment; the policy environment is further strengthened by in the development agenda and make them visible and incentives for the private sector to make investments. interesting to the stakeholders—farmers, businesses, and others—who need them. These leaders must operate at the Develop Sustainable Business and Investment Models national level where budgetary and strategic decisions are through Partnerships made. They must also operate at local levels, modeling the Public-private partnerships are now considered essential to effective use of a technology and building farmers’ trust in its the long-term viability of most interventions that use ICT efficacy. Leaders build public confidence in an intervention. in agriculture. The public sector in developing countries Uptake is typically low if confidence in the chosen ICT and particularly may need guidance in providing technological its potential impact is minimal. Leaders are needed for the services; a lack of human and financial resources as well as long haul, as interventions that require new infrastructure or the overwhelming needs of the agrarian population weaken policy and institutional reforms take years to complete. its ability to provide widespread services of acceptable quality. USING THIS E-SOURCEBOOK With private investment, public service provision can be more The ICT for Agriculture e-Sourcebook has been devel- sustainable. Other partnerships also appear important to oped jointly by the World Bank’s Agricultural and Rural sustainability (image 1.5). Technical experts with experience in various subsectors; information technology (IT) teams for Development Sector and infoDev, and has benefited from technological maintenance, design, and troubleshooting;generous funding from the Government of Finland under the Finland/infoDev/Nokia program IMAGE 1.5: A Collaborative Effort Among Many Actors Is Important for ICT Creating Sustainable Businesses in Agriculture in the Knowledge Economy. It is designed to support practitioners and policy makers in taking maxi- mum advantage of the potential of ICTs as tools for improving agricul- tural productivity and smallholder incomes, strengthening agricultural markets and institutions, improv- ing agricultural services, and build- ing developing-country linkages to regional and global agricultural value chains. It focuses primarily on how ICT can assist small-scale producers and the intermediate institutions that serve them, yet it also looks at how to link smallholders to ICT-enabled improvements in larger-scale farm- ing, markets, and agribusiness to Source: Neil Palmer, CIAT. stimulate the broader rural economy. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 13 The Sourcebook provides users with a fairly comprehensive  A number of Topic Notes that address subjects related overview of current and upcoming ICT-in-agriculture applica- to each focus area, pinpointing how ICTs can be used tions and how they might improve agricultural interventions to meet specific objectives; and or strategies. The Sourcebook is not a primary research  Innovative Practice Summaries and other exam- product nor does it claim to be the definitive treatment of a ples that demonstrate success and failure in sector that is evolving so rapidly. The modules are intended interventions. to serve as a practical resource for development profession- als seeking a better understanding of the opportunities and In the beginning of each module, an “In this Module� Box existing applications offered by ICT as tools for agricultural briefly describes the content in the modules, including the development. overview, Topic Notes, and Innovative Practice Summaries. The Innovative Practice Summaries are bulleted underneath Overall, each module seeks to provide guidance through the description of the Topic Note, and can be viewed directly real examples for development practitioners in the following by clicking on the title. Many of the tools, examples, and areas: projects discussed also include links to websites and other  Providing a landscape of existing ICT applications that useful resources. assesses applications in their local context. Due to the changing nature of ICT, the Sourcebook is pro-  Understanding current trends in ICTs as they per- vided electronically at http://www.ictinagriculture.org/. The tain to agriculture and the contributions that ICT can website provides a wide array of additional resources, fol- make to enhance agricultural strategies and their lows new private and public sector applications, reviews implementation. impact assessments and research, and presents updates  Designing, implementing, and evaluating appropri- from interventions discussed in the modules. In addition, ate and sustainable ICT components of agricultural the website maintains occasional forums and discussions, projects. creating a space for practitioners from various disciplines to  Building effective partnerships—public and private—to share knowledge and experiences. The online version also promote ICT access and innovation for agriculture. allows users to “build their own Sourcebook� by download-  Including ICT in policy dialogue and planning with ing modules relevant to their needs and linking directly from country counterparts on agricultural and rural develop- hyperlinks in the text to projects or technologies of interest ment goals and priorities. in the other modules or on the web. To facilitate learning, the Sourcebook is split into this introduc- Over time, the World Bank and infoDev will continue to build tory module plus 14 modules focusing on specific aspects collaborations with other organizations and subject mat- of the agricultural sector in relation to ICTs (table 1.1). Each ter experts to expand and update the Sourcebook as new module provides: examples, evidence, and good practices emerge. Given the  An overview of how ICT is used in each focus area, still-limited evidence on how to implement ICT-in-agriculture along with the current trends; initiatives, the World Bank plans to further develop its opera-  The challenges, lessons, and key enablers for using tional practices and country-specific technical assistance as ICTs; evidence and analysis accumulates. TABLE 1.1: Themes Treated in Sourcebook Modules OPPORTUNITIES, ACCESS, & ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY ACCESSING MARKETS IMPROVING PUBLIC SERVICE CROSS-CUTTING THEMES ON THE FARM AND VALUE CHAINS PROVISION Access and affordability Increasing productivity Market and price information Rural governance Mobile applications Agriculture innovation systems Supply chain management Land administration Gender and ICT services Rural finance Risk management Forest governance Farmer organizations Traceability and food safety E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 14 MOD ULE 1 — INTR OD UC TION: IC T IN A GRICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING UNFAO. 2009. How to Feed the World 2050. http://www.fao.org/filead- min/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_ International Telecommunications Union. 2010. International in_2050.pdf, accessed September 6, 2011. Telecommunications Union’s World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/, Wireless Intelligence. 2011. Global Mobile Connections to Surpass accessed September 5, 2011. 6 Billion by Year-end. https://www.wirelessintelligence.com/ analysis/pdf/2011-09-08-global-mobile-connections-to-surpass-6- Internet World Statistics. 2011. Facebook Users in the World. billion-by-year-end.pdf, accessed September 15, 2011. June 2011, http://www.internetworldstats.com/facebook.htm, accessed September 15, 2011. World Bank. 2011. Food Price Watch. February 2011, http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPREMNET/Resources/Food_ Mehra, A. 2010. “Small Technologies Fuel Big Results in the Price_Watch_Feb_2011_Final_Version.pdf, accessed September 4, Developing World.� The Huffington Post, September 13, 2010. 2011. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/amit-mehra/small-technologies- fuel-b_b_715274.html, accessed September 2011. World Bank. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture in Development. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/ TeleGeography. 2011. http://www.telegeography.com/, accessed Resources/2795087-1192111580172/WDROver2008-ENG.pdf, September 23, 2011. accessed September 10, 2011. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 15 Module 2: MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS MICHAEL BARRETT (University of Cambridge) and MIRA SLAVOVA (International Food Policy Research Institute) IN THIS MODULE Overview. What are “accessible� and “affordable� information communication technologies (ICTs)? What general policy strategies, infrastructure, technology, and business models mediate ICTs’ accessibility and affordability? Partnerships among organizations with different specialties, capacities, and profit motives are key to improving access and affordability. The task of regulation policy is to keep pace with technological developments and reduce inequalities within countries while maintain- ing sound business reasoning within the telecommunications sector. Policy interventions must consider ICTs and their users as a socio-technical system through which equitable access to ICTs translates into sustainable benefits for rural residents. Topic Note 2.1: Making ICTs Affordable in Rural Areas. In developing countries, infrastructure, appliances, and ser- vices influence the delivery of affordable ICTs. What wired and wireless infrastructure can improve domestic backbone and “last mile� connectivity in rural areas? What tradeoffs exist between quality and quantity of service? What devices appear most adaptable to the needs of rural users? Finally, how can services benefit from synergies among network infrastructure, connectivity modalities, access devices, and content? Topic Note 2.2: Public Innovations in Universal Access to Telecommunications. It is within the domain of govern- ment to provide innovative methods for access to ICTs in rural areas. Public agencies help develop infrastructure where incentives for private investment are insufficient; public policy encourages demand for telecommunications through such mechanisms as universal access/universal service funds or support for low-cost devices.  Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria  Turkey’s Oligopolistic Infrastructure Sharing Model  Dabba’s Experience with Unlicensed Wireless Services in South Africa  Bhutan’s Community Information Centers Adapt to the Geographical and Consumer Context Topic Note 2.3: Mobile Money Moves to Rural Areas. In developing economies worldwide, companies deliver finan- cial services and new sources of income outside of conventional bank branches, through mobile phones and nonbank retail agents. Mobile financial and income-generating services cost little and operate on all handsets, making them advan- tageous on a large scale, even in more remote rural areas.  M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service  Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile Commerce  Pakistan’s Tameer Microfinance Bank for the Economically Active Poor  Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused Workforce Topic Note 2.4: Delivering Content for Mobile Agricultural Services. New services offer critical information for farm- ers to improve their livelihoods. The technical aspects of delivering content and services that rural users value are influ- enced by the partners engaged in providing the service, the regulatory environment, business model, and the networks, infrastructure, and devices available.  First Mover Advantage Benefits Reuters Market Light  Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) Kisan Sanchar Limited  Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, One Query at a Time E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 16 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS OVERVIEW the mobile microfinance industry to grow. Topic Note 2.4 explores ICTs have a demonstrably positive effect on income growth efforts to build on expanding mobile networks in rural areas to in developing and developed countries (Röller and Waverman deliver value-added livelihood services to farmers (primarily infor- 2001; Waverman, Meschi, and Fuss 2005). In rural areas, ICTs mation to reduce agricultural losses and increase income). can raise incomes by increasing agricultural productivity (Lio and Liu 2006) and introducing income channels other than “Access� in Relation to Two Broad Concepts in traditional farm jobs. Current limited evidence from individual Telecommunications Policy: Universal Access and farmers and fishers in India supports the conclusion that ICTs Universal Service improve incomes and quality of life among the rural poor (Goyal Within telecommunication policy, “access� can be under- 2010; Jensen 2007). The idea that wider access to and use of stood in relation to two broad concepts: universal service and ICTs throughout a country will reduce inequalities in income universal access (Gasmi and Virto 2005). “Universal service�1 and quality of life between rural and urban residents is compel- is a policy objective primarily used in developed countries. ling. Despite the scarcity of evidence to support this notion It focuses on upgrading and extending communication net- (Forestier, Grace, and Kenny 2002), it underlies widespread works so that a minimum level of service is delivered to policy initiatives to ensure equitable access to ICTs in all areas. individual households, even in the least accessible areas. US objectives are generally pursued by imposing universal ser- Creating affordable ICT services in rural areas is a complex vice obligations on network operators. “Universal access,�2 a challenge. In these areas, the “last mile� of telecommunica- policy objective more typical for developing countries, seeks tions infrastructure is provided at a very high cost that may to expand the geographic access to ICTs of the population at not be justified by the resulting use and effects of the tele- large, and often for the very first time. UA obligations provide communications network. Affordable access to ICTs in rural for a minimum coverage, especially of remote communities, areas can be frustrated at the supply as well as the demand thereby allowing all citizens to “use the service, regardless of end of the service-provision chain. To supply ICTs and related location, gender, disabilities, and other personal characteris- services in rural areas, the main challenge is the high level of tics� (Dymond et al. 2010). Table 2.1 outlines the characteris- capital and operating expenses incurred by service provid- tics of universal access and universal service in terms of their ers. On the demand side, rural adoption of ICTs in developing availability, accessibility, and affordability. countries is curtailed by low availability of complementary public services, such as electricity and education, and by the In designing policy interventions to promote equitable access relative scarcity of locally relevant content. to ICTs, the technology and its users must be considered as forming a socio-technical system through which improved ICT Recognizing the equity implications of access to ICTs, govern- access translates into improved rural livelihoods and sustain- ments have adopted regulatory policies to enable the rollout of able benefits for rural residents. Many authors have considered ICT infrastructure and the supply of services in rural areas, and access to ICTs holistically, with an aim of understanding differ- they have addressed low rural demand by introducing locally ent aspects of how access is enabled or impeded, including relevant content in the form of e-government and e-agriculture technological, socioeconomic, and cultural aspects.3 This mod- services. The task of regulation policy has been to keep pace ule uses the Access Rainbow Framework (Clement and Shade with technological developments while maintaining licens- ing policies geared toward equity; in other words, to reduce 1 “Universal service (US) describes when every individual or inequalities within countries while maintaining sound busi- household can have service, using it privately, either at home or increasingly carried with the individual through wireless devices. ness reasoning within the telecommunications sector. For some services, a goal of full US would be too ambitious at present in a developing country, because the services must be This module describes what is meant by “accessible� and affordable as well as available. Goals may relate to the proportion “affordable� ICTs and discusses the more general policy strate- of the population that can afford private service (i.e., subscriber penetration targets)� (Dymond et al. 2010). gies that influence rural access to ICTs. Topic Note 2.1 is a rela- 2 “Universal access (UA) describes when everyone can access the tively technical review of the infrastructure, networks, devices, service somewhere, at a public place, thus also called public, and services for delivering ICTs affordably in rural areas. Topic community or shared access. . . . In general there would be at least one point of access per settlement over a certain popula- Note 2.2 considers the role of public innovation in achieving uni- tion size� (Dymond et al. 2010). versal access to infrastructure and appliances. The compounded 3 For example, Benkler (2006) focuses on technological aspects access problem, consisting of limited rural access to ICTs and and proposes a model of access consisting of a content layer, a service layer, a network layer (physical transport and logical limited rural access to financial services, is discussed in Topic transmission), and a device layer (logical device operating sys- Note 2.3. The discussion focuses on business models that enable tem (OS) and physical machinery). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 17 TABLE 2.1: Characteristics of Universal Access and Universal Service ASPECT UNIVERSAL ACCESS UNIVERSAL SERVICE Availability Focused coverage Blanket coverage Public access (e.g., at a pay phone or telecenter) Private service on demand Free emergency calls Free emergency calls Accessibility Walking distance, convenient locations and hours Simple and speedy subscription Inclusively designed premises (e.g., for wheelchair users); inclusively Inclusively designed terminals and services (e.g., for blind or deaf designed terminals or available assistance (e.g., for the blind or deaf) people) Assistance from an attendant Assistance through the terminal (e.g., by making calls or viewing help pages for the web) Adequate quality of service (e.g., having few failed call attempts) Reasonable quality of service (e.g., having few dropped calls) Affordability Options of cash and card payment Cost of average monthly usage is a small percentage of monthly GNI per capita Options of cash and card payment Options of cash, card, and electronic payment Payment per use (e.g., for a single call or message or an hour of Flat rate, bundles of services or low monthly subscription fee Internet access) Source: Dymond et al. 2010. FIGURE 2.1: Access to ICT Infrastructure, Appliances, in Services and the Access Rainbow Governance Literacy/social facilitation Access to services Service/access provision Content/services Software tools Access to appliances Devices Carriage facilities Access to infrastructure Source: Authors, following Clement and Shade 2000. 2000), depicted in figure 2.1, to understand access to ICTs. consisting of installed network capacity, network connectiv- The Access Rainbow Framework demonstrates the multifac- ity, and interoperability standards. In this module, this layer is eted nature of access to ICTs and captures the socio-technical interpreted as access to ICT infrastructure. Access to ICT appli- architecture instrumental to it. The framework goes beyond a ances is captured by the physical layer of ICT hardware devices mechanical understanding of ICT access by including enablers and the logical layer of software tools on these devices. With of ICT such as locally relevant content, ICT literacy, proximal ICT its twofold (hardware and software) nature, access to ICT appli- use,4 and social mechanisms for governing ICT use. ances links the supply of ICT infrastructure with the provision of services targeted at end users. Access to ICT services is The Access Rainbow provides a framework for discuss- a more amorphous concept, consisting of: (1) the ready avail- ing access to ICT infrastructure, appliances, and services. ability of content (resources), fulfilling users’ roles as citizens, The “carriage facilities� layer is a physical technology layer producers, and consumers; (2) the ready availability (to those who are not experts in the technology) of network access and 4 ICT use intermediated by skilled users in the rural community. appropriate support services through commercial vendors; E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 18 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS (3) the availability of formal and informal learning facilities FIGURE 2.3: ICT Price Subbaskets by Level for developing network literacy; and (4) the ready availability of Development of channels through which individual users can participate in 2009 decisions about telecommunications services, their social 250 Developed Developing inclusiveness, and the public accountability of their provision. 200 190 In considering interventions to improve access to ICTs, prac- PPPS titioners must consider the complexity of access to ICT infra- 150 structure, appliances, and services. It is important to locate the access layer within which an intervention is anchored 100 and to assess how it relates to contingent aspects of access. 50 For public policy makers, a comprehensive understanding 28 21 16 18 15 of the processes determining ICT access is best achieved 0 within a holistic framework, but policy makers may also Fixed Mobile Fixed find some value in quantifying ICT access within countries telephone cellular broadband Source: ITU 2010. and drawing comparisons across countries. To measure the Note: PPP$ = GNI per capita in current international dollars, obtained using digital divide between countries and assess countries’ ICT Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) conversion factors. development potential, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) introduced the ICT Development Index (IDI) as an indicator of countries’ level of ICT development. The IDI “Affordability� as a Function of Pricing and Business Model measures access by considering ICT readiness and five addi- An affordable universal service is one in which the “cost of tional indicators: fixed telephony, mobile telephony, inter- average monthly usage is a small percentage of monthly gross national Internet bandwidth, households with computers, national income (GNI) per capita� (Dymond et al. 2010). As a and households with Internet (ITU 2010). Figure 2.2 shows concept, affordability is easier to measure than access. As a that in recent years (2002–08) developing countries have measure of affordability, ITU uses the ICT price basket, which exhibited considerably greater access values than developed includes price indicators for fixed telephones, mobile phones, countries, largely owing to explosive growth in mobile tele- and fixed broadband service (ITU 2010).5 Figure 2.3 clearly communications in developing countries. shows that by this measure fixed-line broadband was the sin- gle most expensive and least affordable service in developing countries as of 2009. In using this means of assessing afford- FIGURE 2.2: Access to ICTs by Level of Development, ability, however, it is vital to determine if the contents of the Based on the ICT Development Index price basket are relevant to the access problem at hand (for 7 example, Topic Note 2.1 questions whether in some contexts the affordability of fixed-line broadband infrastructure merits 6 concern). Access sub-index value 5 2002 2007 2008 The Access Rainbow Framework (introduced in the “Access 4 Concept� section) helps in understanding issues of afford- CAGR 2002–2008 5.8% ability and sustainability, because it represents the layered 3 system of interdependencies within which technology dif- 2 fusion, business development, and regulatory policies take 1 CAGR 2002–2008 9.4% 0 5 The fixed telephone sub-basket captures the average monthly Developed Developing cost of a basic, local, fixed residential telephone service. The mobile cellular sub-basket represents low monthly mobile Source: ITU 2010. usage, namely 25 outgoing calls per month (on-net, off-net, and Note: For each year, the figures use the simple average value of the IDI access subindex over all developed or developing countries. The compound to a fixed line, and for peak, off-peak, and weekend periods) plus annual growth rate (CAGR) of the IDI access subindex is computed by the 30 SMS messages. The fixed broadband sub-basket represents formula (Pv / P0)(1/n) − 1, where Pv = present value, P0 = beginning value, n = a typical monthly offer based on a 256 kilobit connection and a number of periods. The result is multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage. minimum of 1 gigabyte of data. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 19 place. For example, the ICT layer carrying the highest value and upper bounds on the number of subscribers, which proposition for end users is the content/service layer.6 The skewed the viability of fixed-line rollouts by private conces- framework makes it possible to consider the financial viabil- sion holders. ity of all contingent layers (network capacity, availability of appliances, customer support, and so on) and how they may In addition to competition, technology neutrality is another affect the value derived from the content/service layer. leading regulatory policy principle for ensuring the affordabil- ity of ICTs. Technology neutrality is the principle of refraining From a regulatory standpoint, the Rainbow approach cap- from specifying technology requirements within telecom- tures the significance of the separation between layers, munications licenses. Historically, specifying technology most prominently the separation between the carriage and requirements was a means of stimulating domestic equip- the content layers. Focusing regulatory efforts within lay- ment manufacturing, but technology neutrality is advisable ers and enabling competition within and between layers is within the present rapidly evolving IT industry, because regu- central to achieving quality end-user services at affordable latory decisions on technology selection can be risky (box 2.1 prices. From a regulatory policy perspective, the layered presents an example from Korea). structure illustrates the trend in policy to enable competition among technologies delivering comparable functionality by BOX 2.1: The Risks of Picking Winners in the Rapidly following the principles of competition, technology neutrality, Evolving IT Industry and licensing flexibility. In Korea, the licensing of new technologies arguably Ensuring competition within each of the layers is a longstand- led to market growth for domestic equipment manufac- ing policy priority, especially where the economies of scale turers such as Samsung and LG, yet this strategy may are conducive to monopolistic market structure.7 Market lib- prove more risky in the IT domain. Government support eralization and free entry give incumbents incentives to pur- for WiBro, a Korean version of mobile WiMAX (a tele- sue a higher quality of service. For example, starting in 1992 communications protocol that provides fixed and mobile Thailand sought to break up the Communication Authority of Internet access), has since been viewed as misguided. Thailand’s monopoly over international gateway services by By the end of 2008, WiBro had attracted only 170,000 introducing concessions to private companies under build- customers for Korea Telecom and SK Telecom combined, transfer-operate agreements. The entry of the private sector a fraction of the government’s expected 1.4 million sub- alongside state-owned enterprises, such as the Telephone scribers. Within the Korean market, LTEa mobile broad- Organization of Thailand, led to remarkable expansion of sub- band services were emerging as a more viable alterna- scriptions for both fixed and mobile services. Yet the level tive to WiBro, and both Korea Telecom and SK Telecom and the degree of competition in the fixed line and mobile announced plans to launch commercial LTE services at subsectors varied considerably because of the number of the expense of languishing WiBro services. concessions and their terms and conditions (Nikomborirak Source: Author, based on Kim 2009a, 2009b. and Cheevasittiyanon 2008). Competition in the mobile mar- (a) Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a preliminary mobile communication ket yielded improved connectivity and affordability, while the standard, formally submitted as a candidate 4G system to ITU-T in late 2009. Commitment to LTE among mobile network operators has been fixed-line subsector stagnated. growing steadily. The lesson is that the welfare benefits of market liberaliza- tion are achieved by implementing complementary policies on competition that enable market pricing and restrict preda- Because no specific technology standards are designated, tory pricing by incumbents facing new entrants throughout technology neutrality widens the scope for competition the structural layers of the ICT sector. In Thailand, fixed-line within each layer of the Access Rainbow. Competing opera- concessions were restricted by stipulated fixed-call rates tors choose the technology standards that allow them to deliver services cost-effectively. The regulatory policy drift 6 Layer number 4 in figure 2.1. toward technology neutrality is supported by technology 7 International Internet gateways and local-loop or “last mile� fixed developments that lead to increased standards of interoper- networks are examples. Local-loop networks are the fixed net- ability (see Rossotto et al. 2010). works that deliver connectivity from the local exchange to the homes of end-users. Because of the high cost of entry in devel- oping these networks, this segment is conducive to a monopo- The main policy lever for assuring market competition and listic market structure. technology neutrality is flexible licensing policies and the E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 20 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS enforcement of flexible spectrum rights. Strict licenses and KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS spectrum rights can be counterproductive if they restrict the The challenges and enablers related to making ICTs more services that can be provided or the technologies used to widely and affordably available to rural people in developing provide the services (for example, WiMAX licenses have countries are discussed in the sections that follow. Particular been issued limiting service provision to fixed broadband, attention is given to the kinds of partnerships, regulations, to the exclusion of mobile broadband). In addition to lim- and policies needed to reach that goal. iting the technology possibilities, restricted licenses and spectrum rights can also reduce the bidding incentives in Partnerships spectrum auctions. Technology flexibility can be achieved Considering the multilayered nature of the problem of ensur- within each of the interconnected layers of the ICT system ing affordable rural access to infrastructure, devices, and through unified licenses and simplified licenses (Rossotto services, partnerships among organizations with different et al. 2010). Box 2.2 describes Singapore’s experience with specialties, capacities, and profit motives appear to be a key facilities-based and service-based operating licenses. way to improve access and affordability. Partnerships serv- ing as critical mechanisms for improving rural ICT access can BOX 2.2: Singapore’s Simplified Licenses Encourage take the form of partnerships within the public sector, negoti- Innovative, Cost-effective ICT Infrastructure ated public-private partnerships, private agreements among stakeholders in the telecommunications sector, or informal By ensuring that the installation and operation of any net- understandings between service providers and stakeholders work infrastructure in Singapore is covered by a license, the at the community level. Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore ensures Enabling such partnerships and maintaining them remains a the development of innovative and cost-effective infra- key government role. For example, the public sector played structure. Simplified licenses are issued to facilities-based a considerable within the M-PESA collaborative partnership operators (FBOs) and services-based operators (SBOs) of (see IPS “M-PESA’s Pioneering Money-Transfer Service� in telecommunications networks. FBOs include companies Topic Note 2.3). This role involved financially supporting the deploying submarine cables to improve international con- collaboration among mobile network operators (MNOs) dur- nectivity infrastructure, companies rolling out fiber-optic ing software development. In Bhutan, partnerships among cables to improve domestic backhaul connectivity, and departments within government were instrumental to the companies setting up broadband Internet Protocol (IP) or rollout of community information centers in remote areas infrared networks. Wireless networks making demands (see IPS “Community Information Centers: Bhutan,� in Topic on scarce spectrum resources are licensed separately and Note 2.2). subject to comparative selection or auctioning. The opera- tions of FBOs effectively remain within the carriage layer, A variety of motives engender private partnerships that but FBOs have the flexibility to deploy and/or operate any improve rural access to infrastructure and services. For form of telecommunication networks, systems, and/or example, in infrastructure-sharing arrangements discussed facilities on a technology-neutral basis. in Topic Note 2.2, explicit agreements were enacted to share SBOs remain within the service/access provision layer, passive infrastructure costs and implement 3G technology. but they have full flexibility to choose their technology. Agreements between commercial and nonprofit partners Individual SBO licenses are intended for companies also make a compelling case for the significance of part- that plan on leasing international connectivity capacities nership in implementing projects to deliver improved rural installed by FBOs. Individual SBO licenses cover ser- access to ICTs. For example, the Farmer’s Friend service vices such as international simple resale, public Internet could be implemented only through collaboration incorporat- access services, and store-and-forward value-added ing Grameen Foundation’s understanding of the nonprofit services. SBO class licenses cover store-and-retrieve sector, Google’s technology expertise, MTN’s network cov- value-added network services, Internet-based telephony, erage, and the local agricultural knowledge of the Busoga resale of public switched telecommunication services, Rural Open Source Development Initiative. and other services. Source: Halewood 2010. Regulation and Policy Challenges Note: One result of this clear, flexible approach to ICT development is Singapore’s extensive e-governance system, described in Module 13. Although the evolution of ICTs in developing countries has far to go, it has moved significantly forward in the past decade. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 21 The rapid expansion of mobile phone networks and market with pure data transmission regulations (UNCTAD 2010). In uptake of Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) terms of competition, policies fostering the effective man- technologies8 following liberalization and deregulation are the agement of competitive markets, interconnection regimes, most frequently cited examples of this evolution. and mobile termination rates can provide incentives to invest in quality of service, differentiation, and innovation. Informed and effective regulation is necessary for creating an enabling environment that will maximize entrepreneurs’ abilities With the increasing adoption of ICTs and growing promi- to expand market offerings and minimize the negative effects nence of ICT-enabled services in consumers’ lives in devel- of competition on consumers. Barriers such as a monopoly oping countries, it is worth emphasizing the significance of operator, excessive licensing regimes in some contexts (for consumer protection regulation for ensuring the effective example, requiring local community networks to have licenses) governance of multilayered ICT access. Recurrent problems can negatively affect business potential. At the other end of include gaps between advertised “headline� broadband the spectrum, a supportive fiscal and financial environment access speeds and what subscribers actually experience, and entrepreneurs’ access to financial services can enable and lack of transparency in the pricing of mobile voice and data increase the number of socially oriented services. services, lack of effective mobile number portability, and excessive SMS pricing. Consumer-focused regulations Significant regulatory issues in the telecommunications sec- should also target improvements in the legibility and ease tor include taxes, licensing, liberalization, and competition of comprehension of transactions, made possible through policies. Taxes on communication services strongly influence improved ICT access. Consumer protection can pursue such the affordability of ICTs in Africa, for example, given the low goals through measures for mobile phone number registra- average incomes. Import duties on IT equipment, value- tion, identity verification, confidentiality, and privacy. added tax (VAT) (ranging from 5 to 23 percent) on goods and services, and excise taxes on communications services all Finally, the advent of financial services implemented on mobiles raise prices, discouraging use. Excessive licensing can also makes it essential to create an environment that integrates stifle the delivery of various content-based ICT services. financial regulation and telecommunication regulations. These Regulations on content broadcasting should be synchronized services are discussed in greater detail in Topic Note 2.3. Topic Note 2.1: MAKING ICTS AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS TRENDS AND ISSUES Convergence (as the name implies) blurs the distinctions “Fixed-mobile convergence� is the increasingly seamless between the domains of Internet service providers, cable connectivity among wired and wireless networks, devices, television media companies, fixed-line telecommunication and applications, which permits users to send and receive companies, and operators of mobile telephony networks data regardless of device and location. Convergence is the (figure 2.4).9 With this context in mind, the discussion that result of converting content formats (text, images, audio, follows examines how technology trends in infrastructure, video), devices for creating and communicating this content, appliances, and services can influence the delivery of afford- and telecommunications infrastructure to digital standards. able ICTs in developing countries. Device convergence allows devices to support different functionalities and different network access technologies. INFRASTRUCTURE Service convergence means that end users are able to What are the current wired and wireless options to improve receive comparable services via different devices and tech- domestic backbone and “last mile� connectivity? As noted, nologies for accessing networks. Network convergence wired telecommunications infrastructure tends to reach rural means that a single network is able to carry voice and data areas in the wake of complementary rural access infrastruc- formats and can support access by different technologies. ture such as roads and electricity and the expansion of public 8 GSM standards for 2G cellular networks serve an estimated 9 Offers that span three out of these four services have become 80 percent of the global mobile market, according to the GSM known as “triple play� offers. (Sunderland 2007) points to such association (http://www.gsm.org/). offers in Cape Verde and the Caribbean. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 22 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS FIGURE 2.4: Telecommunications, IT, and Media Industry Convergence mobile networks fibre optical networks mobile data Mobile TV circuit switched package switched voice data global networks FMIC managed network & ICT World Telecom Industry application services VoIP Collaborative Internet computing client-server web-services technology Triple/Quadruple main frames desk top computing (PC) enterprise integration Play mini computers advanced planning systems ERP, CRM, SCM & business intelligence Home IT Industry packaged software automation media centre IP TV gaming Narrow digital audio & video digital photography casting radio, television & print electronic publishing optical storage Video on (CD/DVD) digital broadcasting demand Media Industry incl. Consumer Electronics flat screen technology 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: Caneval Ventures, “ICT and media industry� (http://www.caneval.com/vision/ictmediaindustry.html, accessed July 2011). services such as education. The lag between the arrival of In considering how best to develop affordable telecommu- complementary infrastructure and public services and the nications infrastructure in developing countries, all three establishment of wired ICT infrastructure in rural areas can connectivity segments of the network need to be taken be considerable, but the introduction of wireless, especially into account: (1) the international and domestic connectiv- mobile, infrastructure is bound neither by the presence of ity that makes up the network’s backbone capacity, (2) the roads nor by access to the electricity grid. domestic backhaul connectivity that enables the intermedi- ate links, and (3) the local loop or “last mile� connectivity that Rural infrastructure development needs to be considered in serves end-user access at the edges of the network. (Each light of the different opportunities offered by wired and wire- of these networks segments is discussed in greater detail less technologies and the fixed-mobile convergence occur- in “Domestic backbone and rural backhaul connectivity� and ring throughout the ICT sector. Sunderland (2007) notes that “local loop or ‘last mile’ connectivity.�) The expansion of fixed-mobile convergence differs in developed and developing backhaul connectivity and the provision of “last mile� con- countries, where fixed-line teledensity is low. As a result, con- nectivity pose particular challenges to extending ICTs to rural vergence in developing countries largely amounts to conver- areas in an affordable way (box 2.3). gence in the delivery of Internet access and voice telephony services over wireless networks. For example, in rural Africa Wireless infrastructure may be an economical option, but it where the teledensity of fixed networks is low and their roll- has certain cost constraints. Buys et al. (2009) show that the out can be prohibitively expensive, fixed-mobile convergence probability of the presence of mobile tower base stations is enables the use of wireless “last mile� infrastructure, while the positively correlated with the potential demand (population backhaul traffic is carried on fixed fiber-optic cables because of density, per capita income), as well as with the absence of their high capacity. In small-island developing countries, fixed- factors that increase operational and capital expenditures, mobile convergence allows for international connectivity via such as elevation, slopes, lack of all-weather roads, unreli- satellite rather than undersea cable. able power supplies, and even insecurity. (See IPS“Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria� in Topic Note 2.2.) Telecommunications networks comprise a hierarchy of links that connect users at the “edge� of a network to its “core,� At the carriage level, network convergence is associated with also called the “backbone� (the high-capacity links between the transformation from circuit-based public switched digital switches on the network). The backhaul portion of a network telecommunication networks (PSTNs) to packet-switched consists of the intermediate links between subnetworks at networks using the Internet Protocol (IP) and known as next- the users’ end and the core network. generation networks (NGNs). Both PSTNs and NGNs are IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 23 BOX 2.3: Balancing Quality and Service in Reaching Rural and delay can mar the quality of the connection. A comparison Areas: Fixed-line versus Wireless Backhaul between traditional fixed-line telephone services and voice over IP (VoIP) clearly demonstrates the difference between Even though wireless is accepted as an economical the two types of networks. NGNs completely separate the option for delivering “last mile� connectivity, backhaul packet-switched transport (connectivity) layer and the service traffic is usually carried via fiber-optic networks because layer, enabling any available fixed-line carriage infrastructure of their high capacity. Connectivity is often limited by the to be used efficiently for any service. limited penetration of the fixed-line backhaul that sup- ports it. The delivery of connectivity to rural areas lacking Domestic Backbone and Rural Backhaul Connectivity fixed-line backhaul involves balancing concerns about ICT access, connection quality, and the expenditures As end users’ demand for additional bandwidth grows, insuf- and delays entailed in rolling out fixed lines and sup- ficient domestic backbone can pose a considerable chal- porting infrastructure. The benefits of wireless backhaul lenge to the roll-out of fixed-line broadband services. In the technology are worth considering in such cases. mobile sector, insufficient backhaul capacity is becoming a limitation, particularly with the increase of rural 3G data use. Wireless backhaul is increasingly recognized as an Government interventions in support of rural backhaul solu- option for combating the expenditures involved in pro- tions have included the introduction of public-private funding viding fixed-line rural connectivity. Wireless network mechanisms (as in Korea and Chile; see box 2.4), construc- backhaul solutions can take the form of point-to-point tion subsidies (as in Canada), and the rollout of fiber-optic or point-to-multipoint wireless Ethernet bridges or wire- networks connecting public institutions (Rossotto et al. 2010). less mesh networks. They can use licensed or unli- Complementary regulations can be used to ensure competi- censed microwave links (see Unlicensed Wireless Use). tive conditions in the provision of domestic backbone and rural With throughput from as low as 10 Mbps up to GigE backhaul. The policy tools for supporting domestic backbone full duplex (with gigabit wireless), a licensed microwave rollout and rural backhaul connectivity include infrastructure link or wireless bridge can provide sufficient capacity for sharing,10 functional separation,11 and cross-ownership restric- many rural applications. Because it is compatible with tions, allowing for interplatform competition12 (Dartey 2009). mobile phone standards (GSM, CDMA), the WiMAX standard offers opportunities for rolling out affordable wireless rural backhaul. Advocates of the technology are Local Loop or “Last Mile� Connectivity optimistic about its potential for linking wireless fixed- The delivery of network access in the “last mile� is the most location base stations to the core network. costly and challenging element of rural deployments. The Source: Authors. technology options for delivering wired local loop broadband Note: Mbps = megabit per second; GigE = Gigabit Ethernet; GSM = Global System for Mobile Communication; CMDA = Code Division Mul- connectivity include the rollout of xDSL,13 cable, and fiber to tiple Access (CDMA) 2000, a wireless air interface standard; WiMAX = the home infrastructure. Wireless options include the rollout Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. of mobile (2G, 3G, 4G),14 wireless broadband (WiMAX, Wi-Fi, made up of telephone lines, fiber-optic cables, microwave 10 “Infrastructure sharing� is a mechanism for reducing capital expenditures and operating expenditures. Passive infrastructure transmission links, mobile networks, communications satel- sharing consists of colocating competitors. Active infrastructure lites, and undersea telephone cables. sharing consists of sharing the network base station controllers, both circuit-switched and packet-oriented domains, mobile ser- vices switching center, GPRS support node, and so on. The difference between the two kinds of networks lies in 11 In “functional separation,� an incumbent operator is required to their switching mechanisms. Under circuit switching, the establish separate divisions for managing fixed-line services and providing wholesale services to retail competitors. connection is established on a predetermined, dedicated, 12 Cross-ownership restrictions prevent operators, such as tele- and exclusive communication path for the whole length of phony operators, to control competitive network infrastructure, the communication session. Consequently, PSTN connectiv- such as cable television networks. For example, restrictions may be placed on the simultaneous control of telephony and cable ity is costly. In packet-switching protocols, such as IP, the television network infrastructures in a specified area. communicated data are broken into sequentially numbered 13 xDSL refers to all digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies. packets, each of which is transmitted to the destination via 14 2G mobile wireless has basic functionality: voice and short mes- saging service (SMS); 3G has advanced functionality: general an independent path, and then the packets are reassembled. packet radio service; and 4G has broadband functionality: long- In packet-switching, the potential for congestion, packet loss, term evolution (LTE). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 24 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS BOX 2.4: Chile’s ICT Policies for Connectivity and WLAN),15 and satellite very small aperture terminal (VSAT) Economic Growth infrastructure. Within cell-based (mobile) wireless standards, all users connect to a single base station, and the transmis- Chile regards ICT policies as important tools for increas- sion bandwidth has to be shared among all users in the cell’s ing the nation’s economic growth. The government has coverage area. introduced policies addressing both the supply of and demand for ICT. These policies go beyond infrastructure Within a short range, wireless broadband transmission is to include programs for e-literacy, e-government, and possible at relatively high data rates—hundreds of megabits ICT diffusion. (Mbps) to a few gigabits (Gbps)—but services of such high quality are not foreseeable for existing mobile standards. Chilean ICT policies consistently distinguish between Conversely, mobile technologies have the advantage of reli- the domains of the private and public sector and rely pri- ability within a greater access range. Point-to-multipoint solu- marily on market forces to dictate the development of tions, combining VSAT terminals with wireless broadband the telecommunications sector. For example, the broad- local access, are increasingly viable and promising. Unlike band market in Chile has high levels of interplatform cell-based connectivity, satellite connectivity does not distrib- competition: Multiple operators offer competing broad- ute the available bandwidth among the users; instead, each band services through different networks. Government user is connected independently, so satellite solutions can involvement is limited to cases where market forces offer better quality of service. Yet the low density of wired alone fail to provide incentives for growth in the sector. infrastructure, combined with the limited domestic fiber Starting in 2002, for example, government investments backbone in developing countries, makes wireless a practical focused on improving the connectivity of rural schools, option for connectivity in rural areas, despite the limitations developing fiber backbone infrastructure, and training imposed on users by sharing capacity. people in remote areas in computer skills. In 2008, the government embarked on a more ambitious project to As this discussion implies, finding the network solution extend at least 1 megabits per second connectivity to that can ensure affordable ICT in rural areas can be an inno- 92 percent of the population and intensify the use of vative, challenging, and exhausting process. The choice ICTs in agriculture and tourism. Candidates for deliver- depends largely on the availability of technology, of rural ing this project were selected through a reverse auc- backhaul, and of complementary infrastructure. It also tion. The Chilean government participated by offering a depends on the flexibility and responsiveness of the regu- subsidy of US$ 70 million and the spectrum in the 3.5 latory framework to the prevailing technology constraints gigahertz band. and opportunities. The Chilean Universal Access/Universal Service Fund Polices related to the development of rural wireless infra- has been praised for its accomplishments. Between structure require careful study of the trade-offs between 1994 and 2002, by providing public pay phones to more affordability and usability. Policy makers must determine than 6,000 rural locations, the fund reduced the frac- where the value lies (in terms of use) in developing the infra- tion of the population living without access to basic structure. Regulatory policy must consider the trade-offs voice communication from 15 percent to 1 percent. between reach, speed, frequency, and transmission. For The subsidies required to achieve this goal cost less example, the choice to use technology with low transmis- than 0.3 percent of telecommunications sector reve- sion power can lead, on the one hand, to a great increase in nue over the same period. The opportunity for existing the available bandwidth per user, but on the other hand, it and new operators to use the subsidized pay phone may require a direct line of sight between the antenna and infrastructure to provide individual telephone lines and the user. Consequently, the number of access points needed value-added services (voice mail, Internet access, and to cover a fixed area, and therefore the required capital so on) was key to success. An interconnection rate expenditures, will rise considerably. with access charges capable of surpassing 40 percent of rural operating revenues was the other key to com- mercial success. 15 WiMAX (worldwide interoperability for microwave access); Wi-Fi Source: Mulas 2010; Wellenius 2002. (wirelessly connecting electronic device); WLAN (wireless local area network). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 25 Several key technology parameters should be considered in BOX 2.5: Lessons from South Africa’s Experience in decisions about the expansion of rural connectivity and the Migrating to Digital Television choice of technological delivery mechanism. They include the availability of spectrum frequencies, number of base stations South Africa developed a digital migration strategy needed to cover an area of specific size given a fixed operat- to stimulate growth in its electronics manufacturing ing frequency, achievable connection speed, data transmis- sector. The strategy featured a digital switch-on date sion rates, and downlink and uplink speeds. in 2008 and an analog switch-off date at the end of 2011. The reduced costs of simultaneous analog and Given the complexity of such decisions, the role of the regula- digital broadcasting (€ 750 million for three years) tory environment should be to expand the set of viable tech- were considered a strong advantage of the ambi- nology options. Flexibility in allowing licensed and unlicensed tious, three-year migration plan. Other expected costs use of operational frequencies can be advisable. Wellenius included € 800 million for the digital rollout, as well (2002) describes how Chile identified cost-effective solutions as € 2.5–3.5 billion for subsidies to local manufactur- to reduce the gap between urban and remote areas in access ers producing digital set-top boxes. In early 2011, the to basic communications technology. South African minister of communications announced that the switch from analog would be postponed until The “digital dividend� has been widely hailed as the solu- December 31, 2013. Observers have raised ques- tion to urban-rural inequities in digital ICT access. The “digi- tions about the practicality of the plans and even the tal dividend� is the reassignment of operational frequencies postponed date. The lesson is that the certain costs that become available following the switch from analog to of switchover plans need to be balanced against their digital television broadcasting. The Geneva 2006 Agreement uncertain benefits, including the uncertain demand sets June 17, 2015 as the final date for protecting currently for the released telecommunications spectrum and assigned analogue television transmission frequencies. The for additional digital TV services. digital dividend spectrum is found between 200 megahertz Source: Author, based on Pham 2009; Armstrong and Collins (MHz) and 1 gigahertz (GHz). It offers a combination of 2011; and Government of South Africa, “Statement by Minister of Communications,� January 14, 2011 (http://www.doc.gov.za/ transmission capacity and distance coverage conducive to index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=478:statement- the extension of wireless broadband infrastructure in rural by-the-honorable-minister-of-communications-mr-radhakrishna-l- padayachie-roy-on-progress-made-with-regards-to-the-digital-migration- areas. Using this spectrum, a few stations can transmit with process&catid=88:press-releases, accessed July 2011). high power, thereby providing Internet coverage to large rural areas where population is low and demand sparse. The advantage is the low capital expenditure required; the downside is the low bandwidth available to individual users. used for this purpose in Kazakhstan; see box 2.6). CDMA450 The process is accepted as inevitable, however, and it pro- is a cellular technology based on the CDMA2000 standard, vides opportunities for efficient spectrum management in with an operating frequency of 450 MHz. The technology rural areas. uses the same air interface as CDMA2000 but operates at a lower frequency and is able to offer the same basket of How to reassign digital dividend frequencies efficiently high-speed voice and data connectivity over a greater range, remains open to debate. Some advocate the reassignment thereby implying lower capital expenses. In rural settings, of analog transmission frequencies to MNOs, without impos- CDMA450 has a range of up to 50 kilometers. Owing to a ing requiring that rural infrastructure investments be tied to process known as “cell breathing,� however, such ranges urban infrastructure investments (Picot et al. 2010). Others are not achievable under cell loads approaching cell capac- propose allocating the digital dividend frequencies to short- ity. CDMA450 appears to be best suited to mixed urban-rural range communications. Countries’ experiences with the deployments, in which urban deployments are capacity- crossover to digital television have varied and remain difficult centric and rural deployments are coverage-centric. Another to evaluate, as the process is still unfolding (box 2.5 has an disadvantage of CDMA450 is the large antenna required to example from South Africa). allow the extended coverage for meeting low rural demand. The major limitation of CDMA450 solutions is the scarcity Some observers (Nedevschi et al. 2010) have considered of mobile devices that can use the 450 MHz frequency (the CDMA450 a solution to rural connectivity problems (it is majority operate at 900–1800 MHz. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 26 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS BOX 2.6: CDMA450 Technology Connects Rural smartphones and Netbook appliances). Conversely, bulkier Kazakhstan stationary devices such as the desktop computer have evolved functionalities traditionally associated with more por- Kazakhtelecom, the biggest telecommunications opera- table devices, such as VoIP telephony and on-demand radio tor in Kazakhstan, introduced CDMA450 technology in and TV broadcasts. rural areas in the north. The CDMA450 base stations cover 25–35 kilometers and can serve up to 1,000 Among rural users in developing countries, the trend is to subscribers. The project, which began in 2008, had move from mobile phones with basic voice and text message installed 399 base stations by 2010, providing connec- capabilities to feature phones. Feature phones are low-end tivity to approximately 1,800 rural settlements. The proj- phones that access various media formats in addition to ect intends to roll out 900 base stations throughout the offering basic voice and SMS functionality, capturing the func- country by 2013, enabling voice and Internet access ser- tionalities of multiple ICT devices that are also available as vices at speeds up to 3.1 Mbps. standalone appliances. Rural consumers prefer the combined Source: Author, based on “Implementation of CDMA-450 in North devices because of their affordability. Features appreciated Kazakhstan,� August 5, 2009, Cellular News (http://www.cellular- by consumers in developing countries include digital camera, news.com/story/38960.php, accessed July 2011) and “Base stations WLL CDMA cover about 80% rural settlements in Kyzylorda oblast,� voice recorder, flashlight, radio, and MP3 player. Bluetooth Kazakhtelecom press release (http://www.telecom.kz/?muin= and general packet radio service (GPRS) are the most widely 1240831664&mchapter=1272548824&lang=eng&n_date=2010-04- 29&act=archive, accessed July 2011). available connectivity options in addition to GSM. Chinese mobile phone manufacturers tend to be at the forefront of making devices that are particularly affordable and attuned to APPLIANCES the needs of rural users in developing countries (box 2.7). From a user’s perspective, device convergence has two main The demand for features tends to vary depending on the avail- aspects. First, users can access content in different formats ability of complementary rural services. For example, radio is a (audio, data, location data, pictures, maps, text) and with dif- feature very commonly targeted at the rural market, owing to ferent dynamic properties,16 produced by different authors, the traditional significance of radio broadcasting in rural areas. on the same device. Second, users can take advantage of Nonetheless, the choice of radio devices by rural residents is different options (radio, GSM, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite) for largely determined by the availability of electricity. The radio accessing that content. feature of mobile phones tends to consume the device bat- tery fairly fast. Rural residents off the electricity grid find this The evolution of appliances in the mobile phone market illus- feature uneconomical, because the cost of recharge services trates these two trends. The discussion that follows focuses provided by local entrepreneurs are not negligible. Rural on portable devices that support multiple functionalities or residents at locations off the electricity grid in Ghana report multiple connectivity options, because they are vast majority paying 0.50 cedis per charging, comparable to the price for of ICT appliances available in the world today. one kilogram of plantains or oranges.17 In agricultural areas such as northern Ghana, solar-powered and windup charging Portable devices, including but not limited to mobile phones, devices have durability and maintenance issues (although they are starting to allow users dual (or multiple) mode flexibility. appear useful elsewhere; see IPS “Long Experience in Farm For example, dual connectivity (Wi-Fi/GSM and Bluetooth/ Communities Benefits IFFCO� in Topic Note 2.4).18 By com- GSM) enables mobile phones to conduct both VoIP and stan- parison, traditional, battery-powered, dedicated radio receiv- dard mobile calls. Dedicated telephone devices are able to ers appear to be a more affordable choice. process VoIP phone calls using Session Initiation Protocol, as well as regular phone calls using analog signals. Gains in processing power allow functions with higher technol- ogy requirements to work on smaller devices (high-end SERVICES Services entail much more than access to hardware; they 16 Such as “online� and “offline� content; “online� content is encompass affordable access to locally relevant rural content communicated but not recorded or reusable (such as a radio broadcast),whereas “offline� content is recorded and reusable, once it has been communicated (such as audio podcasts, SMS 17 See Esoko (http://www.esoko.com). messages, or voice mail). 18 Details available from the authors. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 27 BOX 2.7: Mobile Phones with Features Attract Rural Users in China and Beyond Chinese mobile phone producers are concentrated in the city of Shenzhen, Guangdong Province. They, as well as their products, have become known as shanzhai.a At least two innovative features associated with shanzhai devices have wider relevance to rural consumers’ use of, and preferences for, devices in developing countries. The first feature is that they allow users to store multiple (physical) SIM cards within the device, which allows them to switch between carriers without having to reboot the device. This feature responds to the price sensitivity of rural con- sumers in developing countries, who switch between carriers to take advantage of preferential termination rates for the carrier of their calling destination. Because the choice of mobile network operator can be limited in rural areas, consum- ers have strong incentives to take advantage of cost-saving opportunities when they exist. This demand-driven innovation has made no inroads into the products of popular mobile phone manufacturers, which are reluctant to undermine the business models of mobile network operators worldwide. Consumers who cannot purchase these devices can achieve the same results through street-level hack services offering software to configure from 6 to 16 SIM card identities on one physical SIM card, enabling users of unlocked mobile phones to switch conveniently among carriers. A second feature of devices from Chinese mobile phone manufacturers (relevant to convergence in the “infocom� sec- tor) is the addition of analog television reception. This feature is found in phones with large LCD screens like those of smartphones. The features in these devices illustrate ways that the global mobile phone industry could choose to respond to the demands and constraints of rural consumers—but has not. The preference of rural consumers in developing countries for access to television over radio is well established but constrained by poor access to the electricity grid. Unlike dedicated radio receivers, television sets have not evolved to operate on dry cell battery power alone, and mobile phone devices with analog television functionality are the exclusive option for rural populations. Given that television remains an effec- tive means of delivering agricultural extension messages, the lack of support for these and other innovative features introduced by Chinese phone manufacturers represents a missed opportunity in rural communication. Source: Authors; Chipchase 2010; Abbey-Mensah 2001. (a) Shanzhai signifies Chinese imitation and pirated brands and goods, particularly electronics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanzhai, accessed July 2011). through connectivity providers, content creators and dissemi- use time, quantity of data transferred, or communications dis- nators, information intermediaries, social facilitators, informa- tance covered. Such models increasingly are replaced by more tion literacy educators, and the governance channels steering flexible subscription models and models centered on realized the performance of these services.19 Concerns with rural interactions and transactions, paid for via micropayments. In content have traditionally been alien to public policies aimed at developing countries, where consumers are more price sensi- universal service and universal access, but the convergence of tive and less willing to pay, the trend toward micropayments the mass media and telecommunications sector, as well as the poses a considerable challenge to content and value-added rise of the information society, make such concerns increas- service providers. The challenge is compounded by the mar- ingly prominent and crucial to unleashing a virtuous cycle of ICT ginal success of government and donor efforts to provide adoption and use in rural areas. The delivery of content-based content-driven rural services in developing countries. agricultural services is discussed in Topic Note 2.4. Traditionally, rural information services focused on provid- The service layer reflects the synergies (or lack thereof) ing broadcasting (“push�) content, such as rural radio pro- among network infrastructure, connectivity modalities, access gramming, but the ubiquity of mobile devices enables the devices, and content. The dynamics of the worldwide content sourcing and sharing (“pull�) of rural content. The presence marketplace point to the dying out of traditional communica- of mobile technology as an authoring tool in rural areas pres- tions business models, which centered on tariffs anchored in ents an untapped opportunity to engage rural users in author- ing content, thereby increasing the demand for existing rural 19 See the earlier discussion of the layered nature of access infrastructure. Mobile devices, in combination with broad- (“Access Concept�) and the Access Rainbow Framework. casting technologies such as radio, enable rural residents to E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 28 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS participate in public discourse and influence decision making. who cannot afford their own phones or are not permitted to In reviewing communication and media needs at the com- use personal phones of family members (Burrell 2010). The munity level in Ghana, (Dartey 2009) points out that call-in sharing and collaborative use of personal mobile phones can radio programs have become widely popular. Such programs enhance social ties but may also cement social inequalities. allow Ghanaians to express their opinions on issues of local concern. Another trend to be noted is the divergence in focus and targets of local (especially rural) demand-driven information The provision of rural ICT-based services in developing services relative to supply-driven services. Content-focused countries has a few discernible characteristics. One recur- service innovations tend to respond to local needs within the rent characteristic in successful business models is found entertainment, social networking, game, and music domains. at the literacy/social facilitation level of the Access Rainbow If managed carefully, such services can be legitimate drivers Framework. Successful business models manage to lever- of ICT use for demand-driven services in education, public age social networks and social value (UNDP 2008). Engaging awareness, health, and agriculture. Introducing immediately rural residents as individuals rather than as beneficiaries popular content is a way to attract and retain users. Once the appears to be essential in delivering a worthwhile value prop- user base is established, there is room for introducing more osition. Allowing rural residents to be trainers, to facilitate practical content, such as mobile banking (box 2.8). access to content, and to provide local support and mainte- nance appears to be a successful business strategy for the delivery of rural services (image 2.1). BOX 2.8: MXit Blends Entertainments and Practical Content in South Africa IMAGE 2.1: Cell Services in Rural South Africa Founded in 2003, MXit is a pioneering mobile media and social networking company based in South Africa. Initially community issues and causes formed a strong focus for the networking it facilitated. Subsequently it has expanded to cover entertainment (music downloads, mul- tiplayer games, TV polls), dating, classifieds, education, counseling (drugs, youth helpline), and mobile banking. The primary MXit product is software allowing mobile users to use instant messaging to participate in com- munity forums on different topics. The software can be installed for free, and there is no subscription and no charge for messaging. By using IP-based (GPRS, 3G) connectivity, MXit allows instant messaging at a cost Source: John Hogg, World Bank. per character hundreds of times smaller than the cost of an equivalent SMS message. These costs are cov- ered by revenues from advertising (wallpapers, promo- Even though the diffusion of personal mobile phones has tions, brand portals) and content sales (skinz, music, eroded the business logic behind well-documented models classifieds). such as the Grameen Village Phone (an owner-operated GSM Source: Chigona et al. 2009; Prows 2009; Ramachandran 2009. payphone) (Futch and McIntosh 2009), the significance of social value remains a key building block of business models aimed at delivering rural ICT-based services. As pricing plans have changed over the past few years, the mobile payphone Currently, prepaid subscription models appear to be the has become less profitable as a business asset. Even so, standard operational mode for providing services in devel- the impersonal nature of mobile payphones is instrumental oping-country markets. Yet as Topic Note 2.4 indicates, this to addressing concerns related to equal access. From the strategy may be impractical for rural content providers, given standpoint of public service provision, equal access to public the risks involved in subscription renewal and the high fixed phones continues to be significant, especially for women costs of generating relevant rural content. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 29 Topic Note 2.2: PUBLIC INNOVATIONS IN UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS TRENDS AND ISSUES Broadening Mandate of Universal Access/Universal With technology moving toward fixed-mobile convergence, Service Funds the provision of minimum services (other than telephony) The main vehicles for improving access to ICTs in rural areas and public access to ICT devices has fallen within the man- have been the univeral access/universal service funds (UA/USFs) date of universal service regulations. This note examines established in the 1990s. The funds originally offered an opportu- the public sector’s changing and recently expanding role in nity for funding and access to ICT solutions in underserved areas providing affordable access to ICT infrastructure, appliances, (Hudson 2010). Dedicated at first to increasing the penetration and services, including the growing use of universal access/ of landline telephone services, the funds now support mobile universal service funds. network development and Internet services in most countries.20 In some countries, such as Ghana and Mongolia, funds are Changing Role of the Public Sector disbursed to aid the provision of rural public access telephony Public involvement in the telecommunications sector evolved and Internet facilities. Although the expansion of mobile net- in a nonlinear way (Gómez-Barroso and Feijóo 2010). An early works has reduced the urgency of public access to voice tele- monopolistic stage after the Second World War was suc- phony, arguments based on gender inequality and perceptions ceeded by a series of crises in the 1970s as services came of social obligation still favor the provision of public access to be considered a “public matter� demanding closer govern- (Burrell 2010). In allocating UA/USF funds toward services ment involvement. In the 1980s, the public sector started other than voice telephony, some governments specify addi- giving way to the private sector, which was considered better tional criteria such as the nearby presence of public-access equipped to deliver value and efficiency. facilities (telecenters, libraries, Internet cafes, and so on). The public sector’s current role in telecommunications can be Since cost-effective technologies for the delivering rural described as promoting the information society. Governments access to ICTs are evolving constantly, it is essential that act as facilitators and enablers of universal access to telecom- UA/USFs do not limit their technological scope and maintain munications, and the public sector has re-emerged as an technological neutrality. It is advisable for UA/USFs’ tender active participant in the sector. In both developed and devel- requirements to specify coverage, bandwidth, quality of ser- oping countries, public agencies are regarded as partners in vice, target price, and so on—but not technology. Rural areas funding infrastructure in areas where the incentives for private where the profitability of telecommunications services is low investment are insufficient; they are also regarded as partners can be of limited commercial interest to telecommunications by virtue of their role in encouraging demand for telecom- companies. Consequently, the UA/USF levy can run the risk of munications. In developing countries, local governments and becoming a simple direct tax on the operator, and a strategic international development partners actively facilitate access approach is needed to deliver ICT services and “unlock� the to ICTs at all levels (infrastructure, appliances, and services). potential of UA/USFs (especially in Africa) (UNCTAD 2010). It is within the domain of local government and public admin- istration to provide innovative methods for access to ICTs Public Support for Low-Cost Devices in rural areas. Effective partnerships and public support are Unlike public support for the provision of infrastructure, pub- capable of overcoming obstacles at different access layers. lic support for the provision of low-cost devices has experi- Until recently, the public sector was not considered an inves- enced considerable criticism. The most prominently instance tor in telecommunications, but under the increasing pres- sure of the international financial crisis, governments have 20 The objectives of UA/USFs can be at very different stages of development and maturity. Hudson (2010) reviews key lessons looked to ICTs as fiscally sound investments relative to other related to UA/USFs’ management, professional capacity, size public stimulus options. Investments in broadband and next- of funding, and expanding mandate. Stern, Townsend, and Ste- generation networks are proving to work as countercyclical phens (2006) recommend the accelerated, simplified, and diver- sified use of UA/USFs. UNCTAD (2010) discusses in detail the tools for creating jobs and as building blocks of long-term challenges and opportunities for financing ICTs in rural areas of economic recovery (Qiang 2010). developing countries through UA/USFs. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 30 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS BOX 2.9: India Exemplifies Evolution in the Public infrastructure sharing is distinguished from “active infrastruc- Provision of Low-Cost Devices ture sharing,� which can involve the shared use of electronic infrastructure such as network components (for example, India’s Union Minister for Human Resource Development access node switches), radio transmission equipment, and announced that the government would continue to sup- core network software systems (Ghosh, Aggarwal, and port development of a low-cost device with computing Marwaha 2009). Although active infrastructure sharing can and communication capabilities. The cost of the tablet raise concerns among mobile network operators, passive device, commonly known as the “Sakshat� (“before infrastructure sharing has become established as a reliable your eyes�), currently stands at US$ 35, but it is pro- mobile network expansion strategy, particularly for expen- jected to decline to US$ 10 through continuing research sive rural sites with high transmission and power costs. and development cooperation with private manufactur- ers. The government is committed to first provide the Nigeria has been named one of the telecommunications technology to 110 million schoolchildren. markets with the most promising potential for growth. Even so, the National Communications Commission has identi- The Indian program clearly demonstrates how the fied several issues as detrimental to this growth, including scope of public initiatives providing access to low-cost poor public power supply, poor security, and high operational devices has evolved, largely as a result of the compre- costs (Onuzuruike 2009). In Gupta and Sullivan (2010) found hensive approach of the One Laptop per Child project. unreliable electricity and insecurity to be the main challenges Government initiatives aimed at the development of low- to operating mobile networks. These challenges were much cost technology devices include the active participation more prominent in Nigeria compared to other West African of technology development partners (for example, the countries with more reliable access to the electricity grid Indian Institute of Technology Rajasthan) as well as fur- (such as Ghana, Cameroon, and Côte d’Ivoire). Gupta and ther development and investment in communication lay- Sullivan (2010) calculated that costs of fuel for generators, ers other than the appliance itself. The Indian Ministry for including a minimum of 20 percent of fuel lost to theft, Human Resource Development is simultaneously tack- amounted to 60–90 percent of the costs of running network ling the problems of device/hardware affordability and sites in Nigeria. Base station costs in Nigeria add up to content creation by ensuring that electronic content for US$ 200,000–250,000, 3.5 times higher than in India (US$ the devices is generated under the National Programme 60,000–70,000). Some of these limitations are at last being on Technology Enhanced Learning. overcome through passive infrastructure sharing. Source: Author, based on “India to Unveil £ 7 Laptop,� The Guard- ian, February 2, 2009 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/feb/02/ india-computer-cheapest, accessed July 2011); “Undia Unveils World’s Helios Towers Nigeria (http://www.heliostowers.com/ Cheapest Laptop,� The Guardian, July 23, 2010 (http://www.guardian. homepage) significantly decreases the impact of such issues. co.uk/world/2010/jul/23/india-unveils-cheapest-laptop. , accessed July 2011); “Low Cost access-Cum-Computing Device Unveiled by Shri In 2005 Helios Towers became Africa’s first independent Kapil Sibal,� The Hindu, July 23, 2010 (http://www.thehindu.com/news/ resources/article529944.ece, accessed July 2011). mobile tower company, enabling wireless network operators to share infrastructure. The organization buys nonelectronic infrastructure at the cell site from telecommunications provid- ers, such as towers and power supplies, or develops new infra- was government involvement in the One Laptop per Child structure where none exists. Telecommunications companies project (Burke 2006; Hollow 2009; Kleine and Unwin 2009). rent space at the towers and access to other elements of the Yet government efforts to provide low-cost devices persist communications infrastructure, sharing it with other providers. and are evolving (box 2.9). Helios Towers estimates that clients colocating on one of their towers can save over US$ 200,000 in capital expen- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY ditures and up to 20 percent in operating expenditures. Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria Helios Towers also provides wireless operators with power, “Passive infrastructure sharing� is the sharing of nonelec- round-the-clock security and access (shelters have typically tronic infrastructure, equipment, and services at mobile been subject to vandalism), as well as other services such network base stations, including the site space, buildings, as installation and maintenance. According to its website, towers, masts, and antennas; power supply, back-up bat- the company’s large-scale and numerous sites allows it to teries, and generators; security; and maintenance. Passive offer a guarantee of 99.9 percent uptime for service users, IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 31 compared to a 70 percent industry average. Network opera- problems faced by operators in operating and managing wire- tors thus improve the quality of service for customers and less infrastructure. As Onuzuruike (2009) notes, tower manage- can pass the associated cost reductions on to them. ment companies usually enjoy scalable and long-term recurring revenues with contracted annual escalations. They also benefit The economies of scale that Helios Towers and companies from low churn rates and low operating and capital costs. Hence like it generate enable them to provide access in areas where they are able to ensure the fair treatment of new entrants while it would not be financially advantageous for other companies, satisfying incumbents (by purchasing their infrastructure and such as the network operators, to do so. Access is increased allowing the operators to outsource at a lower cost), at the in rural areas, for example, or areas where power supplies same time providing more comprehensive service to end users. previously were poor. Helios Towers depends on wireless operators buying into its Helios Tower’s first site went live in June 2006, and since service. The company is able to offer a basis for partnership then the company has expanded to include over 1,000 four- that makes their proposition highly attractive to corporate operator sites across Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones. Through clients: infrastructure sharing lowers the risk represented by them, MTN Nigeria provides services in 223 cities and towns, investment in network expansion and upgrades. The company more than 10,000 villages and communities, and a growing counters the rising price of site rentals by sharing this cost number of highways across the country. In August 2004, MTN among partners; site owners, in response to the rising demand had coverage in all 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory for provision in underserved areas, have increased their rents, Abuja, and their signal reached 80.9 percent of Nigeria’s total and local government restrictions on new tower construction population, living in 58.33 percent of its landmass.21 Similarly, owing to health and environmental hazards have only increased through Helios Towers, Zain Nigeria22 (MTN Nigeria’s largest the attractiveness of passive infrastructure sharing. competitor) currently covers over 1,500 towns and 14,000 communities across all six geopolitical zones. Zain was the To retain its many partners (aside from MTN and Zain, they first telecom operator to serve all of the zones.23 Considerable include EMTs, Starcomms, Reliance Telecoms, and Visafone) overlap in the coverage offered by these and other network and provide comprehensive nationwide service, Helios offers operators provides significant advantages to end users: The services to the full range of wireless operators: GSM, CDMA, resulting competition lowers tariffs and enhances choice. and WiMAX operators utilizing 2G, 3G, and 4G technology platforms. It is also prepared to build towers where there The National Communications Commission supported this are none, even when it is not financially advantageous in the new business model and developed a regulatory framework short to medium term, to improve its network and remain for potential colocators. This framework suggests how to the dominant supplier. As a result, operators can expand into share infrastructure to promote fair competition and infra- rural markets and other underserved areas while keeping structure sharing among the telecoms’ licensees. It effec- their costs—and, crucially, their tariffs—low. tively enables organizations such as Helios Towers to operate with state support and gives network operators a strong incentive to align with such a powerful ally. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Turkey’s Oligopolistic Infrastructure The business model developed by the growth of tower man- Sharing Model agement companies such as Helios Towers has helped erase The Turkish mobile telecommunications market is dominated by Turkcell, Vodafone Turkey, and Avea (a wholly owned 21 See http://www.mtnonline.com/index.php/about.html, accessed subsidiary of Turk Telekom, the largest telecommunications July 2011. 22 In 2010 Bharti Airtel of India completed the acquisition of the Zain company in Turkey). Following an agreement announced by Group in a US$ 10.7 billion deal (Pan 2010), which included own- Turkcell and Turk Telekom in August 2009, the two compa- ership of Zain’s assets in Africa (network operations in Burkina nies (and to a lesser extent Vodafone) have made strides to Faso, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Kenya, Ghana, Malawi, Madagascar, Niger, Nigeria, Tan- reduce the costs of introducing 3G mobile broadband tech- zania, Sierra Leone, Zambia, and Uganda). In these countries, nology in Turkey through passive infrastructure sharing.24 Zain operations are currently known as Bharti Airtel. This section maintains references to Zain Nigeria. 23 Coverage information publicized online (http://www.ng.zain.com/ 24 “3G in Turkey: By Sharing Infrastructure?�, Developing Telecoms, System/AboutUs/tabid/59/Default.aspx) by Zain Nigeria, prior to August 12, 2009 (http://www.developingtelecoms.com/3g-in- its acquisition by Bharti Airtel. turkey-by-sharing-infrastructure.html) , accessed July 2011. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 32 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS They have signed contracts with Huawei, ZTE, and Ericsson by the highly competitive business models of infrastructure for this purpose. providers, which enable more and later entrants to the mar- ket (such as ZTE). The price-competitive business model has This highly interesting development in infrastructure also enabled customers to receive services at lower prices: sharing involves competition from both ends of the part- Ericsson, Huawei, and ZTE must streamline their own profits nership. Unlike in Nigeria, where Helios Towers enjoyed to offer the MNOs maximum cost savings (to gain market unparalleled relationships with both Zain and MTN, here share), and Turkcell, Vodafone, and Telekom Turk must pass the infrastructure managers must fight to retain convivial on a significant proportion of these savings to customers relationships with their clients. This competitive landscape (again to achieve greater market share). reflects the business model promoted by Turkey’s regula- tory framework. Although the partnership structure that has evolved in Turkey is less convivial than that in Nigeria, it has still been key Turkey’s ICT sector lags its European counterparts in some to implementing 3G technology. The agreement between areas, with declining numbers of fixed telephone lines (27.3 Turkcell and Telekom Turk to jointly reduce infrastructure percent of the population in 2000, compared with 24.6 per- costs has been particularly instrumental in avoiding another cent in 2007) and slow penetration of the Internet market (2.2 false start in bringing 3G to Turkey (Rossotto et al. 2010). percent in 2000 to 6.3 percent in 2007) but rapid growth in mobile subscriptions (rising from 23.9 percent penetration in The competition among key players in the infrastructure 2000 to 83.9 percent in 2007) (Rossotto et al. 2010:229–30). provision industry has ensured comprehensive coverage This sector profile reflects Turkey’s young population: 92.9 of the different routes and technologies into mobile broad- percent are under the age of 64 (Rossotto et al. 2010:230). band: Ericsson’s Converged Package Gateway, for example, This demographic suggests the huge potential of wireless is suitable for operators “providing high performance broad- broadband in Turkey, which is why international players band LTE services, CDMA operators moving to LTE, and such as Vodafone, Huawei, and Ericsson are keen to invest operators wanting to provide mobility between LTE, 3GPP heavily in the country and compete among themselves for and ‘non-3GPP’ access networks such as wireless LAN or market dominance. Because contracts were exchanged only Wimax.�26 ZTE and Huawei provide similarly encompassing recently (2009), it is still difficult to evaluate the impact of the services. technology or the competitive business model under which it is provided.25 INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Regulatory reform of the Turkish telecommunications indus- Dabba’s Experience with Unlicensed try has been a concern. Rossotto et al. (2010) report that Wireless Services in South Africa regulators seek to promote a fully competitive market sector One obstacle to expanding wireless technologies is the unli- through plans modeled loosely around the EU framework. censed use of wireless services. The main problem associ- Although Turk Telekom (privatized in 2005) dominates the ated with unlicensed multipoint wireless services is interfer- telecommunications industry with its 93 percent market ence arising from the operations of other wireless networks share, this dominance is being most convincingly challenged within an area. Interference often causes unlicensed wire- in mobile communications. Turkcell and Vodafone both enjoy less services to have much higher error rates and interrup- greater market share in this subsector, thanks to the regula- tions than equivalent wired or licensed wireless networks tory efforts made to ensure fair competition. (for example, copper telephone, coaxial cable, and mobile Despite these efforts at promoting competition, a market networks). For these reasons, unlicensed multipoint services share analysis demonstrates that the market is moving often grow slowly and lose customers; their operators may toward an oligopolistic structure in terms of competition be required to rethink their business model. among mobile network operators as well as among infra- Interference problems have yielded several responses. An structure managers such as Ericsson. This shift is reflected organizational response has been to establish voluntary 25 “Ericsson to Build 3G Network for Turkcell,� Ericsson, March 11, 2009 (http://www.ericsson.com/news/1296824, accessed July 26 See http://www.ericsson.com/ourportfolio/telecom-operators, 2011. accessed July 2011. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 33 spectrum coordination organizations, entirely independent of Dabba offers free calls within the local network and pay- government, to coordinate the actions of unlicensed wire- as-you-go cards for users who wish to place distance calls less network operators and minimize disruptions through (avoiding subscription fees). the maintenance of an operator frequency and sources data- base. Cooperation with the voluntary coordination body is Initially, Dabba exploited the new regulatory freedom pro- enforced through peer pressure by cooperative operators on vided by an August 2008 High Court Ruling, which ruled that uncooperative operators.27 anyone in possession of a Value Added Network Services (VANS) license (which Dabba held) was entitled to “self- A technology-centered approach to the interference issue is provide� and compete in the formerly oligopolistic market the development of adaptive and mesh network technolo- (Esselaar et al. 2010). The market grew from four players to gies. Adaptive networking improves performance by devel- potentially hundreds overnight. Dabba took this relative free- oping dynamic interference and fault detection and recon- dom beyond its regulatory limits, however, and was found to figuration protocols. Mesh networking optimizes quality over be using ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical) Wi-Fi bands, routing and the possible paths for the delivery of service to for which it was not licensed, and using equipment that was customers. Neither technology is yet capable of delivering not type-approved.29 high-speed, low-latency, business-class, and reliable local loop service, however.28 Such unlicensed use perhaps derived from Dabba’s business model, with its ever-pressing need to reduce operating costs. As partners of The Village Telco service in South Africa, the Dabba adds value for consumers by offering them the least company Dabba and the Shuttleworth Foundation in the expensive rates (free local calls, pay-as-you-go distance calls, Orange Farm Settlement provide telephone and mobile no subscriptions). Cheap service compensates for the lower access through VoIP wireless routers. Founded by Rael quality of service that Dabba’s technologies sometimes pro- Lissous in 2004, Dabba reprogrammed Wi-Fi routers as base vide. Although this model enabled Dabba to grow quickly in stations and used open source firmware to make up the its pilot area, where customers had little to lose by joining components of a telecommunications network. Following the network, it generated enormous pressure to operate complaints to the Independent Communications Authority of cost-effectively. South Africa by the incumbent operator Telkom that Dabba was interfering with its licensed service provision, Dabba’s This pressure has abated through Dabba’s new partnership equipment was seized in February 2009. Dabba has since with Cisco. Cisco has provided new equipment and support returned to work with a new business partner, Cisco, the and has provided 100,000 rand to initiate an ICT entrepreneur international networking and communications expert. program, enabling Dabba to expand into two new town- ships.30 Dabba has also received additional support from Dabba is an example of innovation to avoid the high costs the Shuttleworth Foundation, which underwrites all of their typically associated with telecommunication service provi- work. Dabba can now pursue its original business model sion to rural and unserved areas. Wi-Fi enables access to while remaining more firmly within South Africa’s regulatory large areas at a low cost, as hot spots with amplifiers can framework. cover ranges of up to 8 kilometers, allowing Dabba to serve entire townships with minimal outgoing expenses. In the The lightweight Ubiquiti equipment employed since Cisco’s densely populated townships, this has proved a winning involvement is inexpensive. It uses solar energy and bat- formula for providing telecommunications to large numbers tery packs connected by locally made antitheft brackets to of people and for passing on the low costs to the end user. reduce costs further. This setup, combined with the use of Wi-Fi and wireless mesh networks, make Dabba well- suited to provide coverage for small, local groups and 27 BANC (Bay Area Network Coordination), the first voluntary coordination body, was founded in 2003 by NextWeb, Etheric Networks, GateSpeed and a handful of other companies. BANC comprised the majority of operators in California’s Bay Area and 29 “ICASA defends Wi-Fi equipment confiscation in South Africa,� used peer pressure to get uncooperative operators to conform. Balancing Act, Issue 443, February 27, 2009 (http://www BANC was subsequently deployed in Los Angeles. Despite their .balancingact-africa.com/news/en/issue-no-443/internet/icasa- efforts, some members of BANC switched to licensed opera- defends-wifi-e/en), accessed June 2011). tions because of the high costs of interruptions, and the system 30 “Low-cost phone and voice operator bounces back with entre- foundered. preneur support from Cisco,� Balancing Act, Issue 451, April 23, 28 The source for this paragraph is http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 2009 (http://www.balancingact-africa.com/news/en/issue-no-451/ Wireless_local_loop. top-story/low-cost-phone-and-v/en, accessed June 2011). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 34 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS townships, where large, centralized projects could not They also suggest that Bhutan’s relatively young population provide services that most users could afford. Dabba is an indication of the potential impact of the telecommunica- has renewed its operations so recently, however, that its tions sector. impact remains unclear. A key factor enabling development of the CICs is that they not only receive strong government support but are in fact gov- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY ernment led and organized and in effect also self-regulating. Bhutan’s Community Information Centers Adapt As long as local managers produce a profit and offer the ser- to the Geographical and Consumer Context vices detailed in the government guidelines, they are free to operate their CICs as they see fit. Running the centers is thus Bhutan’s Department of Information Technology (DIT) has rendered attractive to local entrepreneurs. established a series of community information centers (CICs) to provide sustainable, commercially viable ICT services in This business model of local autonomy underwritten by rural areas. DIT provides all of the equipment for offering government support is crucial to the CICs’ success. Some CIC services, and the local community provides an individual villages are so remote (in extreme cases, several days walk who is employed to promote and maintain those services. from the nearest road) that only locals can understand the Services available at the CICs include basic and advanced market conditions.34 By international standards, Bhutan’s computer training, non-Internet-based games, digital repro- national media (particularly its newspapers) are weak, and duction, Internet, telephone facilities, government informa- rural service users are likely to have higher levels of trust tion and forms, and lamination and scanning. in local business managers. However, central intervention will be necessary to subsidize the high costs of access- In line with the government’s ninth five-year plan, the CICs ing some rural areas, which is crucial if telecommunica- represent an updated effort to provide rural Bhutan (just over tions are to reach the population at large. The partnership 79 percent of the population) with some telecommunica- between local and players and government strikes a favor- tions connectivity. Bhutan’s mountainous, forested terrain able balance. (forests occupy nearly three-quarters of its land area)31 have made wired Internet and telephone connectivity prohibitively The Government of Bhutan plans to provide a hub-and-spoke expensive for operators and end users. The CICs reduce the network, enabling it to overcome the difficulties associated costs for the end user, who pays on demand only for the with placing infrastructure in mountainous and remote ter- services required, and public access through CICs renders rain. It seeks to provide a network of broadband connection service provision more attractive by expanding the customer through fiber-optic cables from the capital and out to the 20 base. Individuals who could never afford their own personal districts (dzongkhag) and village groups (gewog). The con- connection to the telecommunications network may still nection from districts to village groups and on to the villages prove a significant source of income to the CIC, especially will be provided by wireless technologies such as GSM. when such individuals are considered in the aggregate (vil- These “spokes� lead to the CICs.35 lages average 43 households).32 The CIC initiative is still in its infancy; the decision to move LESSONS LEARNED from government-owned facilities to commercial, locally The enabling factors and lessons surrounding regulation, managed centers was made in late 2008. Microsoft’s base- business models, partnerships, and infrastructure for these line surveys suggest that when access to telecommunica- initiatives in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan are tions was available, “the population was adept at using the summarized in tables 2.2 and 2.3. devices and their usage permeated . . . the community.�33 31 Tobgyl (n.d.:3). 32 Tobgyl (n.d.:4). 33 Bhutan Department of Information Technology, “Microsoft 34 Tobgyl (n.d.:4). Unlimited Potential Baseline Survey on Socio-economic Demo- 35 Ministry of Information and Communications (Bhutan), “Vision graphics and Information Needs,� (http://www.dit.gov.bt/content/ for Information Society� (http://www.moic.gov.bt/pdf/Vision%20 microsoft-cic, accessed July 2011. for%20information%20Society.pdf, accessed July 2011), p. 10. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 35 TABLE 2.2: Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan HELIOS TOWERS, NIGERIA INFRASTRUCTURE SHARING, DABBA WIRELESS COMMUNITY INFORMATION TURKEY SERVICES, SOUTH AFRICA CENTERS, BHUTAN Regulation  Support from Nigerian ICT  Telecommunications sector  Changes to VANS licensing  Government-led and organized, regulatory body recently focused on regulatory opened a formerly restrictive hence effectively self-regulating  Framework to suggest how to reform and promoting a fully telecommunications market to service share infrastructure to promote competitive market structure new players such as Dabba,  Local entrepreneurs free to act fair competition and infrastruc-  Allows companies like Vodafone allowing them to “self-provide� as they feel most appropriate, ture sharing among telecoms’ and Turkcell to thrive; enables if they did not cause interfer- provided they make a profit and licensees backs Helios business new companies to enter the ence to licensed networks and offer the services detailed by model market used type-approved equipment government guidelines (within the framework of other laws) Business  Scalable and long-term recur-  Oligopolistic model has led  Low-cost/lower-capabilities  Local autonomy underwritten Model ring revenues, low churn rates, to price competition, giving model: Offers customers a by government support enables and operating costs: allow consumers connectivity at lower-commitment approach to the CICs to combat the remote NMOs to achieve savings increasingly lower prices telecommunications nature of some locations through outsourcing while  Network managers such as  Free Internetwork calls and pay- and the lack of inbuilt trust retaining profit themselves Ericsson must pass more of as-you-go card for distance and in national communication their own savings on to MNOs international calls systems (due to a weak national media) Partnerships  Large numbers of corporate cli-  Agreement between major  Cisco has offered equipment  Partnership between govern- ents, rendering Helios dominant mobile telecommunications and financial support ment departments and villages network: financial capability to operators to share infrastructure  Has paid to initiate an entre- (gewog) to provide national expand throughout Nigeria and costs in the implementation of preneurship scheme, enabling service in remote areas become most comprehensive 3G technology Dabba to expand into two new  Microsoft involved in planning network  On-record support for passive townships and development, bringing infrastructure sharing from experience and expertise in multiple players systems implementation Network and  Helios offer services to the full  Comprehensive service provided  Lightweight Ubiquiti equipment  Hub and spoke network, with Infrastructure range of wireless operators: due to network management is low cost and uses solar fiber-optic broadband connec- GSM, CDMA, and WiMAX companies’ desire to remain energy and battery to reduce tion to the districts (dzongkhag) operators using 2G, 3G, and 4G competitive: Variety of entries costs further passed on through wireless platforms provided to mobile broadband  Wi-Fi and wireless mesh technologies to the gewog and  Willing to build new towers service networks well-suited to provide eventually individual villages. where there are none coverage for small, local groups combats problems of wired and townships access in difficult terrain Source: Authors. TABLE 2.3: Lessons Learned from Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan INFRASTRUCTURE SHARING, DABBA’S WIRELESS SERVICES, COMMUNITY INFORMATION HELIOS TOWERS, NIGERIA TURKEY SOUTH AFRICA CENTERS, BHUTAN  Outsourcing can lower costs:  Companies must adapt to the  Consider regulatory issues:  Geography matters: Bhutan may Economies of scale enabled Helios existing market structure: Dabba lost valuable time and equip- have to accept that nationwide con- Towers to make a profit in difficult Attempts to produce fully competi- ment investment by working outside nectivity is not financially feasible areas and enabled MNOs to enter tive markets have stalled in the face of regulatory approval in the short to medium term due to previously unserved areas of Turkey’s dominantly oligopolistic  Employ local expertise: Antitheft the remoteness of some villages and  Service provision is a vital part system brackets produced in the network’s rough terrain of product provision: Helios has  Powerful players can lead area and other locally made equip-  Adapt the service to consumer offered security assurance and to consumer savings: Turkey’s ment has helped keep costs down needs: Studies have shown that 24-hour access, alongside its towers telecommunications industry is the people of Bhutan have found and connectivity, to assuage fears oligopolistic in multiple and vital little need for technologies such affecting MNOs’ own operations sectors, forcing all to use economies as fax; implementers should offer (e.g., vandalism) of scale to provide savings to clients technologies in such a way that their consumer added value is immedi- ately apparent Source: Authors. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 36 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS Topic Note 2.3: MOBILE MONEY MOVES TO RURAL AREAS TRENDS AND ISSUES IMAGE 2.2: Ghana’s Telecommunications Infrastructure One consequence of improved access to ICT infrastructure, Expands the Use of Mobile Money appliances, and services in rural areas may be that rural peo- ple will gain better access to financial services and additional sources of income (image 2.2). The telecommunications and microfinance industries have grown rapidly in recent years and are overcoming the traditional challenges of reaching rural and formerly underserved areas. This topic note exam- ines specifically the business models and enabling factors that are making new sources of financing and income acces- sible in rural areas. Mobile banking is a logical consequence of the growth of telecommunications and microfinance. In developing economies worldwide, companies have sprung up to deliver Source: Arne Hoel, World Bank. financial services outside of conventional bank branches, through mobile phones and nonbank retail agents. A particu- larly well-known service is M-PESA. Operated by Safaricom Such ventures are united by the goal of enabling the eco- in Kenya, M-PESA allows users to transfer money through nomically active poor to use telecommunications technology their mobile phones, without having to register or qualify for to help themselves. Mobile financial and income-generating a bank account. services such as M-PESA, Zain Zap, easypaisa, and txteagle, M-PESA does not operate in a vacuum: easypaisa in Pakistan, discussed in this note, cost little and operate on all hand- G-Cash in the Philippines, and Bancosol in Bolivia are just a sets, making them advantageous on a large scale, even in few enterprises that provide some form of mobile financial more remote rural areas where previous efforts made few services to the un- and underbanked poor. One rural bank, inroads. Advances such as smartcards, fingerprint-sensitive Green Bank, has calculated the substantial savings from ATM machines and market kiosks equipped with electronic using mobile technology: By switching from field-based to point-of-sale devices have also made such programs vastly text-based collection, they reduced their interest rates from easier to implement (and more likely to reach the intended 2.5 to 2 percent and their service charges from 3 to 2.5 beneficiaries). percent, yet profits rose by US$ 16 for every US$ 400 loan (Kumar, McKay, and Rotman 2010). INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY The rise of mobile income sources is another trend behind M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service the demand for mobile financial services. In recent years Based on a pilot funded in part by public funds from the UK conditional cash transfer programs in many countries have Department for International Development, Vodafone and provided government payments to economically and socially Safaricom launched M-PESA in Kenya in February 2007 in disadvantaged households, especially the economically partnership with Sagentia.36 The M-PESA pilot focused on active poor, conditional on measurable actions (for example, microloans and repayments, but research indicated that con- enrolling girls in school, obtaining consistent prenatal care, sumers primarily would use the service for person-to-person or using agricultural inputs). Telcommunications technol- money transfers. ogy is transforming governments’ capacity to deliver these additional sources of income quickly, reliably, and at a lower Following the pilot, M-PESA launched with a person-to- cost. It is also allowing farmers to access commercial banks person business model in which customers can buy e-money and critical services including credit, savings accounts, and remote transfers even despite distance and lack of local banking facilities. 36 “M� for “mobile; “pesa� for “money� (Swahili). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 37 from agents throughout Kenya. Any commercial space may The importance of this flexible “proportional risk� system of become an agent, making this model particularly effective regulation is evident in M-PESA’s stalled attempts to operate in rural areas. Mobile phones are used to perform financial in India, where regulators insisted on a connection with a transactions such as sending money to others, paying bills, licensed bank. In Afghanistan, regulations to prevent money and even withdrawing cash from an ATM (without needing a laundering have constrained M-PAISA’s development as a bank account). E-money can be cashed in with agents who money transfer service, and it operates predominantly as receive a commission for the services they provide and for a microfinance service. The need for identification details registering customers. detracts from M-PAISA’s simplicity and thus its appeal. M-PESA’s great innovation has been to provide a service accessible to the unbanked populations of emerging econo- A Business Model that Sidesteps the Banking Sector mies at a low cost. M-PESA costs users about one-third as The M-PESA business model is characterized by low margins much as using a money-transfer company such as Western and high volumes, whereas banks traditionally need relatively Union, and it is cheaper still than the banks. Such companies high margins from far fewer people with bank accounts. cannot match M-PESA’s low rates because their operating Independence from the banking sector opened up a huge costs are higher (Omwansa 2009:6). untapped market for M-PESA: 90 percent of Kenyans did not have a bank account. Although only registered users can initi- M-PESA now has over 10 million customers in Kenya, and ate transactions, anyone may receive money from M-PESA services have been introduced in Tanzania and Afghanistan and withdraw it as cash. This positive nonuser experience (called M-PAISA in the latter); a number of other deploy- was crucial to the user network’s growth. This business ments are planned across Africa and Asia.37 Success has model has allowed M-PESA to become the dominant and so exceeded expectations that M-PESA has faced system most attractive network. M-PESA’s low costs have enabled capacity and cash flow problems. Cash flow problems have it to challenge money transfer companies and banks even arisen internally (as agents are paid to register customers, where they are present. Yet over time many M-PESA users who take time to become profitable) and at the point of use graduated to having bank accounts, and M-PESA is now inte- (agents run out of both e-money and cash). The problem par- grated with the banking system. ticularly affects rural areas, where people receive remittances from urban workers and withdraw it as cash. To counteract Partnerships Facilitate Marketing and Technical this problem, larger agents now act as “super-agents,� selling Operations e-money and cash to smaller agents. M-PESA’s collaborative nature is fundamental to its success. Vodafone, as well as providing the initial funding, holds a A Flexible Regulatory Environment coordinating role. Safaricom has provided a brand that many Flexible regulation has been critical to M-PESA’s success. Kenyans trust, and its nationwide airtime reseller distribu- Working with the UK Treasury, the Central Bank of Kenya tion network easily transformed into a network of dedicated set up special provisions for M-PESA to launch its product M-PESA agents, enabling more rapid market penetration. with limited risk to the consumer but without being linked Vodacom undertakes Safaricom’s role in Tanzania (and is its directly to a bank and with relatively low levels of regulation. sister company); in Afghanistan, Roshan, a large MNO, has Subsequently the Central Bank provided informal monitoring been vital in developing the service. Sagentia (IBM as of as opposed to formal regulation. By the time banks and com- September 2009) provided key technical expertise. The use petitors realized M-PESA’s potential and began to demand of public funds during the development stage is regarded as its regulation, the firm was already well established and crucial for maintaining interest in the telecommunications respected. At the urging of the banks, the Central Bank con- sector during the pilot, which took longer than expected. ducted a thorough audit of M-PESA and found it to be fulfilling all its consumer obligations; the Central Bank has therefore Networks, Appliances, and Infrastructure continued enabling this special regulatory environment. Registering with M-PESA requires proof of identity, a SIM card, and the submitting of a PIN. In addition to providing 37 Safaricom statistics, June 2010 (http://www.safaricom.co.ke/ security, another key success factor was the added conve- index.php?id=1073, accessed June 2011). nience of the customer being able to retain his or her phone E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 38 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS number. Since applications are on the SIM cards, they do not In 2010, Zap expanded to Niger and Sierra Leone, and it has depend on the functionality of the handsets, a factor crucial a pilot scheme in Malawi. Zain claims Zap is now the most for making M-PESA financially accessible: M-PESA works on comprehensive mobile commerce service in Africa, with even the most basic and inexpensive handsets. In Tanzania, over 150 million customers. This claim suggests significant M-PESA uses USSD technology, which does not require impact in some of the world’s most unbanked populations, the SIM card to be replaced and allows transactions to be particularly in rural areas without physical bank facilities. Zain completed in real time without any application stored on the eventually plans to roll out Zap in all 24 countries in Africa phone. and the Middle East where it has mobile networks. If regula- tion permits this growth, Zain’s infrastructure leaves it better M-PESA has a widespread and dense network of agents. placed for such expansion than M-PESA. Kenya had 7,000 M-PESA agents in April 2009 but only 750 bank branches, allowing M-PESA to reach significantly more people, especially rural people, than competitors.38 Thriving within Regulatory Constraints The advantage obtained by being first in the market allowed Zain’s expansion has been checked by regulatory constraints: M-PESA to build the dominant network in its pilot country Zain operates in Lebanon and Zambia without One Network and become the most attractive network for new customers because it has not yet received governmental approval in and businesses (as with companies such as eBay). these countries. However, Zain makes good use of its various partners to ensure that national and international banking regu- lations are met, and the company seems happy to operate INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY within this framework. Zain works with the National Bank of Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile Commerce Malawi and NBS bank in Malawi, Eco-bank in Niger, and Zenith Bank in Sierra Leone. In Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Citibank Zain Zap is a mobile phone–based banking service.39 As and Standard Chartered work in partnership with Zain. M-PESA’s largest competitor, Zain Zap allows clients to trans- fer money via mobiles but requires each user to have a bank account. Although registering with Zap is more complicated A Business Model Seeking to Balance Availability than registering with M-PESA, Zap offers potential access to and Accessibility a greater number of services. In partnership with banks in Zain’s business model treads a fine line between widespread Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Zap provides platform access availability and accessibility. Its interaction with banks and its to financial services to people without a nearby bricks-and- provision of mobile banking opportunities to all its dispersed mortar bank. customers allow greater possibilities for the business to grow in rural areas, as small-scale business owners gain access to Zain Zap has differentiated itself from M-PESA by inno- financial services they previously lacked. Zain’s only source vating along international lines, operating across Kenya, of revenue comes from a fixed fee for every transfer made Tanzania, and Uganda without subjecting users to addi- through Zap, however. It does not attempt to make money tional fees, administration, or regulation. It forms part of a on deposits or withdrawals but recommends a fee to agents, wider Zain Network, called One Network, which provides who are then free to charge as much as they like. This prac- international mobile coverage without the expensive rates tice could lead to very high prices for customers, especially usually associated with cross-border communication. until other agents appear. Before Zap, Celtel (now Zain) introduced a competing product soon after the launch of M-PESA, but the product’s very different pricing structure caused it to be withdrawn Partnerships with Big Banks and Big Clients due to low demand. Non-Zain mobile operators can buy a place in the service: In November 2009, Egypt’s Mobinil joined, adding 24 million 38 See “M-PESA power: Leveraging service innovation in emerging customers to the platform. This practice aids international economies,� M. Barrett, M. H.S.A Kim, and Karl J. Prince (2009). expansion and allows for the inclusion of local expertise in Case study and teaching note, available through www.ecch.com. 39 After the 2010 acquisition of Zain Group’s African assets by Bharti the business model. As well as partnering with large-scale Airtel, the Zain Zap platform has been rebranded as Airtel Money. banks, Zain has also signed deals with large corporate clients Bharti Airtel mobile network operators from Africa maintain their participation in the One Network, alongside Zain mobile network such as Coca-Cola and Kenya Airways to allow users to pay operators in the Middle East. for these companies’ products through their mobiles. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 39 Networks and Infrastructure a strong opportunity for income generation in underbanked The primary factor in Zap’s successful development is that it areas. Though Tameer largely operates through bank branches belongs to Zain’s One Network, the world’s first borderless at present (despite its branchless banking license), and thus mobile service. According to Zain’s corporate website, One favors urban areas, the rise of its easypaisa service looks set Network offers over 90 million of Zain’s (and partner mobile to counteract this imbalance. operators’) customers relatively inexpensive rates, free of Since its commencement, Tameer has disbursed more than high roaming charges for cross-border communications. 3.5 billion rupees (Rs), with an active portfolio of Rs 1.4 billion One Network not only aids rapid expansion by giving Zap a and over 80,000 loan customers. The total customer base of pretargeted customer base, it also offers consumers large Tameer is over 170,000; it employs 1,100 staff.41 incentives to join Zain’s network and use its services (over others, such as M-PESA). A Business Model Benefits from Microfinance Regulation As CEO Nadeem Hussain noted, one of the major enabling INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY factors for Tameer was the SBP 2001 Microfinance Ordinance, Pakistan’s Tameer Microfinance Bank for the which regulates the creation of commercial microfinance Economically Active Poor banks. Tameer argues that unless microfinance is financed Tameer Microfinance Bank describes itself as “one of the through commercial sources, it will remain in the realm of first nationwide, private sector, non-NGO transformed, com- development aid and its growth will be limited.42 For this mercially sustainable microfinance institutions in Pakistan.�40 reason, the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor has been A majority share is held by Telenor Pakistan. Tameer has involved with branchless banking regulation in Pakistan from produced an innovative hybrid of M-PESA and Zain Zap’s ser- the beginning. Regulation has allowed the use of retail stores vices for the economically active poor in Pakistan. as agents. With its new easypaisa service, Tameer matches M-PESA’s Regulation also made it possible for bank and telecom opera- ability to reach the unbanked. Currently, easypaisa is available tors to enter into a business model conducive for commercial to pay utility bills, but it plans to expand into sending and success. The two partners offer those services that each is receiving money within Pakistan and receiving money from best placed to deliver: Telenor acts as a distribution arm for abroad. As with M-PESA, customers do not need a bank branchless banking, organizes channel management and account and can access the service from a variety of portals, retail setup, and hosts the technology and operation of a call including their mobile phones. Tameer also operates as a center that provides customer service and complaint han- bank much as Zain’s Zap platform does, although not through dling. Tameer is responsible for operating accounts, creating partnerships with other banks. Since it became the first bank ledgers, reconciliation, fund settlement, risk, and compliance to gain a branchless bank license in Pakistan (2008), it has and fraud investigations.43 been able to offer loans, deposits, overdrafts, insurance, and domestic remittances. Partnerships Tameer’s innovations are notable for their focus on entrepre- In May 2010, Tameer joined with Pakistan Telecommunication neurs and the self-employed. Their aim is to actively gener- Company Limited (PTCL), Pakistan’s largest national telecom ate income in underserviced, frequently rural, areas, often by solution provider. PTCL will provide network connectivity to freeing customers from moneylenders and their prohibitive all of Tameer’s outlets. This provision of centralized connec- interest rates. Prior to Tameer’s penetration of the market, tivity has been one of the key enabling factors in easypaisa’s such moneylenders were generally the only option for small- success and, crucially, has allowed them to provide easily scale businesses in need of cash. Tameer loans have been accessible, low-cost services. used to buy new equipment, buy raw materials when they are cheapest, enlarge or purchase new property, and provide insurance against business failure. As such, they represent 41 Easypaisa (http://www.easypaisa.com.pk/about-tameerbank.php, accessed April 2010). 42 Easypaisa, (http://www.tameerbank.com/ceomsg.htm, accessed 40 Tameer Microfinance Bank (http://www.tameerbank.com/about April 2010). .htm, accessed April 2010). 43 Mir (2010). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 40 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS Networks and Infrastructure Asia, and the Americas, as the market for mobile phones Tameer’s large agent network allows customers to access expands rapidly in such areas as rural China and India. services in a number of ways: via mobile phone, easypaisa authorized shops, Telenor franchises, Telenor sales and ser- An Outsourcing Model Outside the Regulatory Flow vice centers, or Tameer Microfinance Bank branches. Like Txteagle operates fairly unconstrained by regulation M-PESA, Tameer uses USSD, so customers do not need because it is classified as a financial creditor, rather than new SIM cards to store the application. This lowers the cost as any form of banking or microfinance institution. This of signing up to the service even further. Tameer does offer setup gives txteagle a great deal of flexibility in its busi- new SIM cards for purchase, however, on which the Tameer ness model and where it operates, enabling rapid inter- application has already been uploaded. national expansion. As clients become more diverse, this operational flexibility will become a key asset, as txteagle will need workers with different languages and skills sets. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused Workforce Txteagle’s business model enables outsourcing at a lower A large, global, and reasonably educated workforce remains cost because of savings in office-based costs and its access underused because of poverty and isolation, especially in to a previously isolated workforce. Low costs and a guar- rural areas. With the rapid penetration of telecommunica- antee of quality (clients pay only for adequately completed tions in developing economies, Txteagle believes this work) attract corporate clients. situation can change, particularly as more economies launch payment platforms like M-PESA. Txteagle is a mobile Adapting to Partners’ Needs phone-based SMS server application that takes tasks from Txteagle partners with a number of providers of wireless corporate clients (such as Nokia and Google), breaks them services, such as Safaricom in Kenya, Telefónica México in down into multiple microtasks, and sends them out for Mexico, MTN across Africa and the Middle East, and Viva completion to registered users. Targeted users are the rural in the Dominican Republic. As it relies on these partners poor in developing economies, who, through their mobile to provide its service, txteagle is eager to adapt to their phones, supplement their incomes with these microtasks. needs, from configuring the txteagle platform to operate Tasks include translation, image sorting, and audio tran- only during off-peak times, to providing assistance to their scription. Txteagle is similar in some respects to Amazon’s customer support teams. This situation has led to worries Mechanical Turk, which also divides up tasks, but differs in that txteagle could prove exploitative unless well regulated. that it distributes them by mobile phone, a technology with a higher penetration rate. Network and Infrastructure Txteagle operates primarily in East Africa, where it relies on A key enabling factor in txteagle’s business model is its technologies such as those developed by M-PESA, but it also Accuracy Inference Engine (AIE), which, once tasks have sends work to users in Asia and the developing economies been broken into microtasks, can monitor user performance. of the Americas. In areas not covered by payment platforms The AIE platform is a set of computational routines that can such as M-PESA, users are paid in airtime credited to their dynamically predict which available workers will be most mobile phones. likely to complete the given task successfully, correctly infer when the job has been satisfactorily completed, and differen- Txteagle’s impact is unclear because the company is still in tially pay workers in proportion to their level of contribution, its start-up phase. Given the growing number of subscribers all to within a 99 percent confidence interval of accuracy.45 to wireless phone technology (more than 1 billion people in The firm also uses a database that monitors and records user the developing world had a mobile phone in 2006),44 tech- performance. As the system learns more about the capabili- nologies such as txteagle have the potential to enjoy great ties and expertise of its individual users, it updates the algo- success. If txteagle can maintain and expand its systems rithms used to assign tasks to make the service as efficient capacity, it has the potential to extend its workforce in Africa, as possible. 44 Tryhorn (2009). 45 Txteagle (http://txteagle.com/technology/aie, accessed April 2010). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 41 LESSONS LEARNED between allowing the freedom for such ventures to become Mobile phones have the potential to provide low-cost banking commercially attractive and the constraints to ensure that wherever there is network coverage, but the use of mobile they do not exploit the people they aim to help. Chile’s con- banking services has been held back because mobile bank- gress has only just approved a law demanding network neu- ing services and microfinance institutions often play quite trality, guaranteeing that Internet service providers cannot different roles that prevent them from leveraging their full interfere with content accessed by Internet users. As Chile is potential. There is a wide variety of mobile services; some among the most progressive of the Latin American and other do not involve banking licenses and are therefore nonbank developing economies in its governance of Internet use, its implementations, while others may involve banking partners. position demonstrates the great strides regulators must take Mobile banking companies such as M-PESA primarily work in this emerging area, if mobile and Internet technologies with money transfers and payments, using some of the most (such as mobile banking) are to become widely and equitably advanced infrastructure available. By contrast, microfinance accessible. institutions tend to focus on credit and savings, and use less One of the biggest challenges for regulators is to find a bal- advanced technologies. A marriage between the two can ance between delivering the financial services that meet produce commercially attractive coverage of the market, as inclusion targets and at the same time combat fraud and seen with Telenor and Tameer Microfinance Bank, but such terrorism. The temptation is always to overregulate, to err on partnerships can be difficult to source and sustain. Indeed, in the side of safety. The World Bank has been working to cre- the future, traditional banks may also find themselves trying ate guidelines for services such as money transfer to encour- to deliver these services. age them to operate under tough regulation. The emergence of competition in the sector (such as between M-PESA and Zain Zap) has begun to erode differences in the Apart from these regulatory issues, service users have roles of mobile banking services and microfinance institu- demonstrated the wider applicability of the technologies tions, however. In May 2010, M-PESA joined with Equity involved by manipulating them to their own advantage. Bank in Kenya to produce its most integrated product yet: a Bancosol in Bolivia, for example, has implemented a partial low-cost, low-entry microsavings account called M-Kesho. It use of the technology by providing SMS information services hopes to provide its 9.4 million users with accessible bank before committing to full mobile banking. The Rural Bankers’ accounts, which will allow them to hold savings and take Association of the Philippines has made GXI’s G-Cash ser- out microinsurance and microloans, all managed from their vice possible in rural areas by grouping 60 rural banks to act mobile phones. as agents and to use G-Cash to pay their employees. Alone, these banks were too small to be commercially interesting The competition between Zain Zap and M-PESA in particu- to the mobile service, but through collective action they have lar highlights interesting considerations for the future. With become a significant business proposition. network-based firms such as eBay and Wikipedia, the more dominant a single network becomes, the more attractive it Customers have found moneymaking opportunities in becomes to new users (because it is the most comprehen- these financial services of which their founders did not sive), and it compounds its success. Should either Zain Zap dare to dream. M-PESA’s users have translated access to or M-PESA win the battle for dominance in Kenya, the winner secure money transfers into innovative income-generation could offer a more comprehensive and more widely acces- opportunities, often in rural areas. By transferring primar- sible service. The ensuing lack of competition could raise ily to M-PESA-based payments, users enjoy the safety of prices, however, cutting off access to the poorest sectors being able to travel without cash and have reduced service of the community. The regulation of competition between times (customers no longer fumble about with change). The these networks will determine the shape of the industry— growth of the network of agents has created a large num- and of commerce in Kenya—in the future. bers of jobs, many in the rural areas in which M-PESA, and institutions like it, flourish. M-PESA has benefited from relative regulatory freedom to become a comprehensive mobile financial service provider Tables 2.4 and 2.5 summarize the key enablers of the innova- and harness the negotiating power of Equity Bank. If such tive financial service models described here and the lessons innovations are to spread, regulators must walk a fine line derived from their experience. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 42 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS TABLE 2.4: Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Mobile Financial and Income Services Worldwide M-PESA (EAST AFRICA, ZAIN ZAP (AFRICA AND TAMEER MICROFINANCE TXTEAGLE (AFRICA, ASIA, SOUTH ASIA) MIDDLE EAST) (PAKISTAN) LATIN AMERICA) Regulation  Lack of regulation of new tech-  Works with banking partners to  Microfinance Ordinance  It is classified as a financial nology in Kenya: Establishes ensure international financial allowed the creation of com- creditor rather than a banking self in regulation vacuum regulations are met mercial microfinance banks: or microfinance institution,  Willingness to adapt when  Seems happy to work within Allows for wider growth so it can operate fairly free of regulation necessitates: More regulatory framework, rather  Allowed use of retail spaces regulation closely resembles a microfi- than seek to bypass it as rivals as agents nance service in Afghanistan have done Business  Initial independence from bank-  Users must have a bank  Easypaisa concentrates on  Use of mobile technology to Model ing sector and bricks-and-mortar account: Potential to provide paying bills, with expansion into reach previously untapped banks allowed provision of a more diverse services than money transfer market: Relatively educated low-cost service rivals  Clients do not need a bank rural poor  Allow nonuser trial: M-PESA  Users send funds across country account, but Tameer offers  Offers additional source of becomes dominant network boundaries without paying diverse financial services as it income to isolated workers additional fees is itself a bank and opportunity for corporate  Fixed fee for transfers; other  Focus on entrepreneurs and clients to save money in their fees set by agents: Potential for self-employed outsourcing large profits encourages busi- nesses to become Zap agents. Partnerships  Backed by large MNO: Vodafone  Signed deals with large  Tameer is itself a bank and  Works with local wireless ser-  Local brand equity and distribu- corporate clients to encourage so is not reliant on deals and vices (e.g., Safaricom in Kenya tion network from Vodafone user growth partnerships with other banking and Viva in the Dominican subsidiary: Safaricom  Non-Zain MNO can buy into institutions Republic)  Use of local companies (e.g., One Network, increasing  Partnership between a bank  Signs up large corporate clients Roshan in Afghanistan) provision and a telecom operator: Allows such as Google services to be provided and distributed in-house Network and  Widespread and dense network  Use of Zain’s One Network:  Large agent network: Customers  SIM card functionality: Works Infrastructure of agents: Uses first mover Infrastructure and distribution can access services from their on the most basic handsets advantage to become dominant network already widely avail- mobile phone, easypaisa autho- Accuracy Inference Engine network able in multiple countries rized shops, Telenor franchises, monitors individual perfor-  SIM card functionality: Telenor sales and service mances and assures quality Customer can use existing centers, or Tameer Microfinance control to corporate clients phone (more affordable service) Bank branches Source: Authors. TABLE 2.5: Lessons Learned from Mobile Financial and Income Services in Rural Areas M-PESA ZAIN ZAP TAMEER MICROFINANCE TXTEAGLE  Consider regulatory issues:  Strategies need to be imple-  Entrepreneurs make good cli- Not so much what has been learned, M-PESA has struggled to take hold mented to combat first mover ents: Tameer has found a new and but what it is vital to learn: in countries where regulation has advantage: Zain has had to offer loyal market in Pakistan by focusing  The move away from “charity� to proved tighter than in Kenya more services and work with big on this group (previously forced to helping people help themselves  Be adaptable: M-PESA changed name brands to combat M-PESA’s rely on extortionate moneylenders) should not be a move toward the its business model when money dominant network in Kenya  Rural areas can be profitable: exploitation of a still-vulnerable transfer proved more popular than  Customer service is vital: Zap has Tameer has rolled out easypaisa group: Deference to corporate microfinance in the pilot phase lost customers to M-PESA due to its to meet the needs of the rural clients and local MNO partners  The move toward also providing more complicated sign-up procedure workforce, recognizing that rural should not mean that workers are bank accounts is another sign of and the poor service and large fees areas hold large numbers of the paid unfairly for their contributions flexibility and may help solve regula- levied by some agents commercially minded self-employed or abandoned when microtasks such tory problems as those provided by txteagle run out Source: Authors. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 43 Topic Note 2.4: DELIVERING CONTENT FOR MOBILE AGRICULTURAL SERVICES TRENDS AND ISSUES farmers is seen throughout developing economies. Prominent The value of knowledge in the world economy has grown with examples include the Agricultural Market Information Systems increased technological innovation in distributing information in Bangladesh, Farmer’s Friend (a Google product) in Uganda, and greater incorporation of information in economic activity. and Ovi Life Tools by Nokia. The latter started off in partnership As developed economies become increasingly knowledge and with RML in India but wanted to offer a wider range of informa- service based, developing economies (agricultural or industrial) tion. It now provides education and entertainment services and must be capable of communicating in and using the language of has rolled out in Indonesia and China as well as India. knowledge if they are to be economically active on a global scale. This sourcebook describes a number of efforts to benefit from The spread of telecommunications technologies over the past mobile telecommunications in agriculture. Two of the examples decade has outpaced the spread of Internet technologies, discussed below are also discussed in Module 3 (RML) and which require more costly infrastructure, particularly for rural Module 6 on AIS (Farmers’ Friend), yet they are reviewed here users. In India, for example, mobile technology has reached to highlight technical considerations in delivering content and over 30 times as many people as the Internet.46 Because much services that rural users value. IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited of India, like many developing economies, remains predomi- and RML have been implemented through a variety of plat- nantly agricultural, thought has turned to using mobile technol- forms and business models, with voice and text-based plat- ogy for the benefit and service of agriculture (image 2.3). Rural forms being the primary competing modes of delivery. Farmer’s economies lose billions of dollars each year because critical Friend differs from those services by using Google’s experience information is inaccessible: information on production prac- as a search engine to provide an on-demand service and a data- tices, information on impending extreme weather or epidem- base that may be searched in the same manner as the Internet. ics, or information that could enable farmers to transport crops more effectively to markets and sell them at better prices. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Reuters Market Light (RML) offers farmers information on First Mover Advantage Benefits Reuters Market Light crops, diseases, and market prices, as does the subsidiary group of the Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative, Kisan Reuters Market Light (RML) is a subscription-based SMS Sanchar Limited. This trend toward mobile services for service providing Indian farmers with information that helps them increase productivity, maximize revenue, manage risk, and reduce waste. The service, launched in late 2007, pro- IMAGE 2.3: Girl Uses Phone in Community Meeting in vides localized and personalized information on commodity India prices, crop cultivation (covering 17 crops), and the weather.47 Mobile telecommunication was the obvious platform for pro- viding this service, as India has one of the fastest-growing mobile markets in the world, with over 427 million mobile connections. By contrast, there are only 37.5 million landline connections and 13.5 million Internet subscribers.48 The predominance of agriculture (which employs slightly more than half of India’s 523.5 million strong workforce) gives Reuters a large potential audience. As of February 2010 it had more than 200,000 subscribers in 15,000 villages across 10 states. Supply chain and information failures cause Indian farmers to receive 47 “Reuters Market Light Wins Award for Innovation,� Thomson Source: Simone D. McCourtie, World Bank. Reuters Press Release, April 6, 2010 (http://thomsonreuters.com/ content/news_ideas/articles/financial/RML_wins_award,accessed June 2011). 46 Prakash and Velu (2010). 48 Prakash and Velu (2010). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 44 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS about half of the value of their crops that their Western counter- communications and thus requires mobiles to be GPRS parts do (20–25 percent). If the service helps farmers to resolve enabled (adding to their cost and decreasing their accessibility). these problems, the potential benefits for farmers are large. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Regulation: Freedom to Develop Its Business Model Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits RML used its first mover advantage in India to become a trusted IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited network—a necessary strategy given that their main competi- IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL), another information ser- tor, IKSL, is active in rural areas through its links with the IFFCO vice for farmers, is a joint venture between the telecom network farmer cooperatives. Active support from the government has operator Airtel and the Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative given RML relative freedom to develop its business model. Limited (IFFCO, from which the initiative takes part of its name). In addition to crop advice and the weather, IKSL provides advice The subscription-based business model allows RML to derive on animal husbandry, rural health initiatives, and the availability a steady and regular flow of income, allowing for future plan- of products such as fertilizer. Unlike RML, IKSL’s information ning toward expanding the service. The lack of reliable address arrives via voice rather than text message. databases prevents sales staff from locating farmers and con- solidating the customer base. Another drawback is that the Users access the service through traditional wired tech- subscription fee makes RML expensive relative to on-demand nology based at kiosks at rural cooperative societies services (like those provided by Farmer’s Friend in Uganda, throughout India. The kiosks are supplemented by mobile discussed later). A survey of 1,000 households in 100 vil- technology: Mobile phones are sold bundled with the Airtel lages by the South Asia Sustainable Development Agriculture mobile network, which essentially converts the phones department in the World Bank found that only around half of into personalized communication kiosks. Members of the RML users planned to renew their subscription. Of those who service receive five free voice messages a day with agricul- had not signed up to the service, 95 percent cited cost factors tural information and advice; they also have free access to as the reason (G. Dixie, personal communication). a dedicated agricultural help line. IFFCO has around 40,000 societies, is present in 98 percent of India’s villages, and In response, RML has enabled post offices across the states brings a receptive audience to the enterprise. This extensive covered by Reuters to provide the information service to coverage and wide farmer base gives IKSL the potential to unregistered users. This adjustment in its distribution platform make a significant impact on agricultural communities. makes the service available to those who do not own a mobile phone as well as those who wish to try the service before IFFCO is clearly attuned to making its products and services they commit. The postal network has been crucial for RML’s accessible to rural people. Mobile phones are accompanied presence in rural areas and the growth of its user network. by a hand-cranked charger. This innovation is crucial, given the scarcity and cost of power in much of rural India. IKSL’s wired Partnerships with Multiple Operators Offer Scalability information kiosks can be operated through pedal power. RML’s regulatory freedom is complemented by partnerships These adaptations ensure that the service is not a drain on a with multiple operators, which frees the system’s content highly limited resource and should permit its wider use. from dependence on any single network and is crucial to the scalability of the business. The links with the post office are Regulation for Quality and Compliance with Standards a valuable asset for RML’s distribution network. RML is dis- IFFCO is subject to high levels of regulation owing to its domi- cussing a more formal association with the Indian Council of nant presence in the fertilizer trade, which is regulated by the Agricultural Research or Punjab Agricultural University, which government. To ensure compliance with the standards set for contribute some of the service’s crop information. IFFCO as an organization, IFFCO’s off-shoots are regulated by an in-house Representative General Body made up of members Network, Appliances, and Infrastructure of the Board of Directors and representatives of the larger mem- RML is “network agnostic,� meaning that it is not constrained ber societies in every state/territory.49 To ensure quality, Kisan by the limitations of any one MNO, and its service has SIM Sanchar is assessed by experts from the agricultural universi- rather than handset functionality. Information is provided by ties, and peer reviews are conducted by panels of scientists.50 SMS and therefore can be accessed from the most basic hand- sets, even those only possessing text capabilities. This deliv- 49 See http://www.iffco.nic.in/ifc/web.nsf. 50 “Content Management� (http://www.iffco.nic.in/iksl/ikslweb ery format contrasts with that of RML’s former partner Nokia, .nsf/ef05d07df0ecee65652575040037b375/733c79d21f573e whose Life Tools uses voice recordings instead of text-based 15652577a7002b2cd4?OpenDocument, accessed July 2011). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 45 A Business Model to Deliver More Diverse Agricultural forecasts and agricultural advice, Farmer’s Friend forms part of a Information to an Extensive Rural Base wider initiative that includes health tips, a clinic finder, a Google IFFCO has branched out from its original business as a fertilizer trading service for agricultural commodities, and other products. cooperative into many other areas, and it has a great deal of This innovation differs from RML and IKSL in that it is not experience in growing new businesses in rural India. The part- prepaid; the system is a search engine, and the user pays nership between IFFCO and another large company, Airtel, has for each query at the point of purchase. Customers text been crucial to success. As one of the largest MNOs in India, their query and location and receive a nearly instant reply. Airtel can provide cellular connectivity to areas where it is not The service is currently free from Google, but customers financially advantageous (an example is the Aruku Valley in the are charged by their network operator for each query. Pilots Visakhapatnam District). Access at cooperative societies, facili- demonstrate significant uptake of the AppLab’s services: the tated by IFFCO, is also crucial to the success of IKSL, because 10 SMS applications that were trialed generated more than new users can try the service before they commit to it, allow- 54,000 inquiries among their 8,000 respondents. ing for the growth of the network. This capacity ensures that IKSL achieves maximum coverage and consumer awareness. Farmer’s Friend also generates employment among farmers, some of whom are hired to collate data and pictures of sick In this way IKSL’s business model carefully navigates plants on local farms. They provide Grameen with more compre- between the steady income of a subscription service and hensive information and the potential to offer for better advice. the value added for the consumer by offering flexibility. Users pay Rs 47 to activate the mobile service, which lasts a life- Farmer’s Friend launched at the end of June 2009. Like many time, and then 50 paise per minute for calls between IFFCO efforts initiated recently in rural areas, its impact is not yet members (the rate is slightly higher for calls to nonmembers). apparent. The service has the potential to achieve significant Membership comes with five free daily messages, as noted. penetration in rural areas because it can leverage MTN’s net- work of over 10,000 village phone and other shared phone ISKL’s information is more diverse than that available from by operators, as well as all of the privately owned mobiles. RML, although it is still centered on agriculture (for example, farmers can obtain information on fertilizer and farming equip- ment and limited information on rural healthcare). In offering Regulation a more comprehensive service, IKSL may be attempting to Farmer’s Friend’s regulatory framework is derived from that combat the first mover advantage of its nearest rival. of its parent organizations. Google adheres to US Safe Harbor Privacy Principles, is registered with the US Department of Network, Appliances, and Infrastructure Commerce’s Safe Harbor Program, and works with appropri- ate local regulatory authorities, primarily local data protection The innovation is SIM rather than handset dependent but authorities.51 The service self-regulates through its guidelines does not work on the most basic handsets unless they are and maintains that it is “ready to assist any government that updated. IKSL hopes the kiosks will counteract this problem. wishes to seriously work to create an enabling environ- The prices of the phones used in the pilot—made by Sinocell ment.�52 The Grameen Foundation has criticized the very and sold for about Rs 4,000—would deny the poorer seg- loose regulatory framework surrounding Farmer’s Friend. ments of the population access to the technology, but Alcatel, Philips, and Samsung have developed less expensive models that may solve this problem. IKSL also has the potential to A Business Model Designed to Increase Access develop a suitable phone. The voice recordings are provided Farmer’s Friend’s business model is specifically designed in all local languages where the service is provided, a key to increase access. The service works on the most basic enabling factor in the challenge to increase access. handsets. The organization’s membership in a much wider platform (which includes Google Trader and health advice) ensures a broader base of awareness in the community and INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY further opportunities to develop brand loyalty. The pay-on- Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, demand system increases access because the financial com- One Query at a Time mitment is far smaller than with subscription models; RML Farmer’s Friend is a Ugandan mobile phone application by Grameen Foundation’s AppLab. Working with MTN Uganda as 51 For details on the Safe Harbor certification program and privacy principles, see www.google.com/privacy/privacy-policy.html. its MNO and using the Google SMS search platform, it provides 52 http://www.grameenfoundation.org/recommendations-creation- information on demand for farmers. In addition to weather pro-microcredit-regulatory-framework, p.6. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 46 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS membership lasts an average of five months (Preethi 2009). buy the equipment and profits from reselling the services the Farmer’s Friend users can return to the service at any time. phone offers. Farmer’s Friends expects to establish 5,000 Village Phone operators over time. Each is expected to serve An Array of Strong Commercial and Noncommercial as many as 2,000 people, greatly enhancing Farmer’s Friend’s Partners prospects for growth. (See IPS “Community Knowledge Worker Initiative in Uganda� in Module 4.) A key enabling factor of the initiative has been its marriage between strong commercial and nonprofit partners. The non- LESSONS LEARNED profit Grameen Foundation increases access to technologies. As well as using the search expertise of Google and the network Table 2.6 recapitulates the factors enabling farmers to receive coverage of MTN Uganda (Uganda’s largest MNO), Grameen agricultural information through the increasingly accessible receives agricultural information from the Busoga Rural Open mobile phone services in rural areas—whether the information Source Development Initiative, a local NGO that collects local arrives through personal or shared phones. The lessons learned farming expertise from networks of farmers. Weather reports so far from the new services are summarized in table 2.7. are provided by Uganda’s Department of Meteorology. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Networks, Appliances, and Infrastructure Abbey-Mensah, S. 2001. “Rural Broadcasting in Ghana.� Presented As noted, the services work on the most basic handsets and at the International Workshop on Farm Radio Broadcasting, February 19, FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/ are not handset specific, but users need to be part of the x6721e/x6721e12.htm, accessed July 2011. MTN Uganda network. To widen its distribution network, Armstrong, C., and R. Collins. 2011. “Digital Turmoil for South African Grameen is trying to establish Village Phones in rural Uganda. TV.� International Journal of Digital Television 2 (1):7–29. As mentioned in this overview, this service, successfully Benkler, Y. 2006. The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production used by Grameen in Bangladesh, involves public pay phones Transforms Markets and Freedom. New Haven: Yale University run by local entrepreneurs. An entrepreneur obtains a loan to Press. TABLE 2.6: Key Enabling Factors for Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda REUTERS MARKET LIGHT, INDIA IFFCO KISAN SANCHAR LIMITED, INDIA FARMER’S FRIEND, UGANDA Regulation  Actively supported by the Indian government:  IFFCO regulated by Indian government  Derives regulatory framework from parent Operates with relative regulatory freedom and expert assessment from agricultural organizations universities  Google works with US Department of  IFFCO regulates all of its suborganizations to Commerce and local regulatory authorities ensure they comply with its own standards Business  Subscription-based service: Regular local  Voice rather than SMS information provision  On-demand rather than subscription service. Model information for farmers, steady income for  More diverse information than rival RML: Service is free from Google, but users are RML Also provides advice on animal husbandry charged by their MNO  The potential to try the service in post and products such as fertilizer  Rather than simply receiving advice, users offices before subscribing has been crucial  Wireless technology supplemented by can make queries based on specific needs in the growth of the user network kiosks in cooperatives and commercial  Supplemented by village phone operators  Service provided in multiple languages areas: Increases distribution and market in areas with few mobile phones: Income penetration generation for vendor and wider use Partnerships  Subsidiary of large, powerful company,  IFFCO uses experience of growing new busi-  Marriage between strong commercial and Thomson Reuters: strong financial backing in nesses in rural India nonprofit partners: Farmer’s Friend enjoys implementation stages  Airtel (one of the largest MNOs in India) multiple brand equities and financial backing  Crop advisory tips are derived from trusted creates wide coverage by setting up towers in implementation stages sources (e.g., Indian Council of Agricultural at sites provided by IFFCO cooperatives and  Partnership with Busoga Rural Open Source Research) by providing connectivity in areas where Development Initiative uses networks of it is not financially advantageous to do so: farmers to provide localized information: Combats first mover advantage of RML Encourages user support Network and  Network agnostic: allows for maximum  Free, dedicated help line for service users  Part of wider information platform, which Infrastructure coverage, as not restricted to one operator  SIM rather than handset dependent, so has includes health tips and a trader function:  Information is provided by SMS, so it works the potential for extensive uptake: SIMs Diverse capabilities offer greater potential on the most basic handsets, even those with must be updated for frequent use and opportunities to develop only text functionality (unlike competitor brand loyalty  Widespread cooperative-held kiosks help Nokia’s Life Tools, which requires mobiles to provide service to poorer customers and  Queries access information database: be GPRS enabled to receive voice messages) allow for trial: Helps grow user network Provides Internet-style capabilities where no  Single, automated platform for customer such platform exists  IFFCO has cooperative presence throughout services rural India: Strong agent network allows  Work on the most basic mobile phones IKSL to become dominant (including SMS only): Greater market pen- etration potential Source: Authors. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 47 TABLE 2.7: Lessons Learned in Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda REUTERS MARKET LIGHT, INDIA IFFCO KISSAN SANCHAR LIMITED, INDIA FARMER’S FRIEND, UGANDA  Subscription services can be problematic:  Access is a balancing act: The use of voice  Diverse capabilities offer greater potential to 64% of users feel RML helps them achieve higher technology in a variety of local languages combats develop brand loyalty: Farmer’s Friend’s position prices, but only around half plan to renew their the problem of illiteracy, but at the same time within a wider information service provided by subscription increases the required capability (and therefore Grameen and Google affords it greater publicity.  Higher costs decrease access: 95% of those cost) of the handsets providing the service As customers use one service to positive effect, who haven’t bought into the service state that this  The use of branded handsets in the trials of the they become aware of and begin to trust the other, is because of its cost. Subscription fees increase innovation have increased this problem related services costs relative to on-demand services  Alternatives must be provided: IKSL has sought  On-demand payment can prove effective:  Database management is crucial: Problems to combat access issues through the use of kiosks Though providing less stable revenue, the lower with finding subscribers by their listed addresses held by the farmers’ cooperatives (offshoots of cost commitments involved for users allows them and the difficulty of reaching them in their rural IFFCO) in villages: Less expensive wired technol- to come back to the service at any time locations have negatively affected subscriptions ogy supplements the convenience of wireless  Strong financial backing plays a key role: All to RML developments three of the initiatives are backed by large-scale commercial and nonprofit organizations, which are able to support the innovators in their rollout phases, provide brand equity, and provide key technical expertise Source: Authors. 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IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 49 Module 3: ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT KEVIN DONOVAN (InfoDev, World Bank Group) IN THIS MODULE Overview. What has been the impact of mobile phones on agriculture and rural development? This module describes current knowledge, innovative practices, opportunities, and challenges in using mobile phones to benefit agriculture. Based on what has been learned to date, it provides principles for practitioners seeking to use the mobile platform to improve farmers’ livelihoods. Topic Note 3.1: Key Benefits and Challenges Related to Mobile Phones and Agricultural Livelihoods. Mobile phones may help to increase income, improve the efficiency of markets, reduce transaction costs, and offer a great opportunity for innovative interventions, especially in service delivery. Yet to realize the full potential of enhanced com- munication of market information, the use of mobiles must be coupled with additional investments (in roads, education, financial services, and so forth). Mobile services and applications also need to provide compelling value. They must be affordable and have useful content. Finally, mobile phones may not confer their benefits in an equitable fashion or be used in other socially and economically beneficial ways. Context matters. Technology cannot be airdropped into a situa- tion and guarantee positive results.  Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in Turkey  Mobiles Are the Center of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace Topic Note 3.2: Two Typologies and General Principles for Using Mobile Phones in Agricultural Projects. Two frameworks help for understanding and designing initiatives that use mobiles for achieving development goals. One typology focuses on the services that operate through mobile phones to improve aspects of agricultural livelihoods. A second focuses on the various forms that mobile applications might take to develop the agricultural sector. A number of principles improve the chances of sustainable impact: understand users and the technology; engage in participatory, iterative project design; identify partners with the appropriate knowledge, collaborative capacity, and alignment of goals; ensure that the technology is widely accessible; develop a viable business plan to ensure sustainability; and use moni- toring and evaluation to develop a better understanding of outcomes, which would help in designing new interventions.  Mobile Service Gives Chilean Farmers a Local and Global Information Edge  For Reuters Market Light, the Wider Network of People Matters  Nokia Life Tools Uses Simple Technologies to Deliver New Functionality OVERVIEW can be found in the pockets of the wealthy and poor alike. In July 2010, the number of mobile phone subscriptions sur- Even in rural areas, mobiles are growing in number and passed the five billion mark (figure 3.1), further establishing sophistication. Recent figures suggest that although only mobile phones as the most popular form of global connectiv- 81 million Indians (7 percent of the population) regularly use ity.1 In their various designs and capabilities, mobile phones the Internet, price wars mean that 507 million own mobile phones. Calls cost as little as US$ 0.006 per minute, and Indian operators are said to sign up 20 million new subscrib- 1 According to https://www.wirelessintelligence.com/. ers per month (The Economist 2010). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 50 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Figures for access to mobiles are higher than ownership rose from 12 percent of the global population to nearly figures. A survey in Uganda found that 86 percent of those 76 percent. A series of innovations drove this adoption, espe- asked claimed to have access to a mobile phone, although cially in developing countries, which had 73 percent of the only one-quarter of farmers said they actually owned one world’s mobile phones in 2010.2 Like other digital technolo- (Ferris, Engoru, and Kaganzi 2008). gies, mobile phones benefit from Moore’s law, which states that computational power doubles approximately every two This module highlights the impact of mobile phones on years. The newest smartphones are far more sophisticated agriculture and rural development by outlining current knowl- than the more affordable models populating poor regions, edge and describing innovative practices. The discussion but those simple phones are still leaps and bounds ahead of complements information in Module 2 on technical aspects devices that were cutting edge a decade ago—and they are of increasing mobile phone use in rural areas and agriculture. entirely relevant to agriculture. It also serves as a preface to numerous other descriptions of mobile phone applications throughout this sourcebook. An additional reason for focusing on mobile phones is that regulatory design has improved in recent decades, boost- The rise of the mobile phone has been one of the most stun- ing competition among telecommunications companies. ning changes in the developing world over the past decade. Competition has spurred significant innovation in business The increasing ubiquity of mobiles in developing countries models. For example, in most of the developing world, in presents both opportunities and challenges, especially for contrast to practices in some wealthy countries, only the critical sectors such as agriculture. Like other technologies person making the phone call pays. Moreover, mobile phone before it, the mobile phone is likely to be the subject of airtime is available in prepaid bundles, allowing poor custom- inflated expectations and hopes. To caution against the hype, ers to avoid lengthy contracts and manage their expenditure this module also explores barriers to using mobile phones in a discrete, granular manner. For those at the bottom of to benefit agriculture and provides recommendations for the pyramid, where income is indeterminate and manag- practitioners seeking to use the mobile platform to improve ing finances is very important, this model is a key driver of farmers’ livelihoods. access and use. (For additional discussion and examples of regulation and business models as key enablers of mobile FIGURE 3.1: Global Mobile Cellular Subscriptions, Total telecommunications, see Module 2.) and per 100 Inhabitants, 2000–2010 These supply-side improvements have met strong demand 6000 100 from customers around the globe. Like all networked tech- Subscriptions (millions) Per 100 inhabitants 90 nologies, mobile phones exhibit network effects, making 5000 Subscriptions (millions) 80 them more valuable as more devices are in use. Also, in Per 100 inhabitants 70 contrast to landlines, the mobility and personal nature of this 4000 60 technology have a strong appeal to users. Being connected 3000 50 means being reachable (Ling and Donner 2009). The mobile 40 phone adds a layer of security, allowing someone to reach 2000 30 loved ones or assistance following an accident. It also allows 20 1000 for microcoordination of activities, limiting the need for plan- 10 ning and the cost of changing plans on the fly (Ling 2004). 0 0 Finally, as anyone who has made a phone call while waiting 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 2010* *Estimates for the bus or checked his or her BlackBerry during a meeting Source: ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database. knows, mobile phones allow for multitasking. What this proliferation means is that while mobiles may be Why Mobile Phones? a substitute or complement for landlines in rich countries, Mobile phones are but one form of ICT. Personal computers, they are more frequently the first form of telephony for many laptops, the Internet, television, radio, and traditional news- of the world’s poor. Through allowing communication at a papers are all used to promote improved rural development. distance, mobile phones allow users to overcome limits of So why focus on mobile phones? time and space. The most obvious answer is the sheer scale of adoption. In the ten years before 2009, mobile phone penetration 2 See ITU (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 51 Why Agriculture? BOX 3.1: What Is a Mobile Application? In many countries, agriculture accounts for the overwhelm- ing majority of rural employment. The manifold benefits A mobile application is a piece of software on a portable that accompany improvements in agricultural productiv- device (such as a mobile phone handset, personal digi- ity are well known: Farmers’ incomes rise, food prices tal assistant, or tablet computer) that enables a user to fall, and labor is freed for additional employment. In some carry out one or more specific tasks that are not directly instances productivity improvements have proven elusive, related to the operation of the device itself. Examples as climate change and uncertain commodity prices have include the ability to access specific information (for worsened agrarian conditions for many rural communities. instance, via a website); make payments and other Development practitioners have rightly focused on the dif- transactions; play games; send messages; and so on. ficult situations of many farmers, especially smallholders, The application (app) might come preinstalled but more who have little room for error and even less protection from usually is downloaded (for free or for payment) from a social safety nets. Technical innovation, most prominently wireless network from an online store and may require demonstrated in the Green Revolution, has been key to a live connection to function effectively. Simple apps improving agricultural markets in the developing world. may make use of the built-in low-speed data communi- Mobile phones, despite their recent entry into agrarian com- cation facilities of digital mobile phones, such as short munities, are already helping those communities improve message service (SMS) or unstructured supplementary their agricultural activities. service data (USSD). On many low-cost phones, appli- cations are available through Java software. More com- plex apps use the Internet protocol-based data commu- THE VIRTUOUS CIRCLE OF MOBILES nication facilities of higher-speed networks on third- or AND AGRICULTURE fourth-generation mobile phone networks. The broad Advances throughout the mobile phone ecosystem tend to range of applications available includes: act as a positive feedback loop. This “virtuous circle� of inno-  Stand-alone software apps downloaded onto vation enables a number of benefits, even for smallholder a device, such as an iPhone app. As of April 2010, farmers: third-party developers provided 185,000 apps, and more than 4 billion had been downloaded since  Access. Mobile wireless networks are expanding as the iPhone was launched in July 2008, based on technical and financial innovations widen coverage to Apple’s presentation at the iPhone OS 4 media more areas. preview event.  Affordability. Prepaid connectivity and inexpensive  Applications that require an elaborate eco- devices, often available second hand, make mobile system to support them, such as Safaricom’s phones far cheaper than alternatives. M-PESA application for mobile payments in Kenya.  Appliances. Mobile phones are constantly increasing M-PESA (which operates in a number of countries) in sophistication and ease of use. Innovations arrive has some 15,000 agents and over 9 million users. through traditional trickle-down effects from expensive  Applications built upon a specific platform that models but have also been directed at the bottom of is itself an application. For instance, the MXit the pyramid. instant messaging platform, which began in South  Applications. Applications and services using mobile Africa, now supports 250 million messages per day. phones range from simple text messaging services It provides tools for users to develop their own to increasingly advanced software applications that applications running on the platform. provide both livelihood improvements and real-time Source: Author. public services (box 3.1). Through this expansion process, formerly costly technolo- The topic notes that follow review numerous ways that gies quickly become everyday tools for the bottom of the private industry, government bodies, and nonprofit orga- pyramid. Additional opportunities for more frequent and reli- nizations are using mobile phones in agriculture. Many of able information sharing will open as technological advances these programs are relatively new, and conclusive results lead to additional convergence between mobile phones and are difficult to ascertain. Most show promise, but there the Internet, GPS, laptops, software, and other ICTs. are reasons for caution and the barriers to surmount. Topic E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 52 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Note 3.1 focuses on what is known so far about the benefits, mobile phones as agricultural development technologies and challenges, and enablers related to using mobile phones help them determine whether and how to incorporate them to improve agriculture and rural welfare. Topic Note 3.2 in the design of new initiatives. The Topic Notes are followed describes two typologies that can help practitioners under- by Innovative Practices Summaries that highlight approaches stand the various roles and rationales surrounding the use of taken so far. Topic Note 3.1: KEY BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES RELATED TO MOBILE PHONES AND AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOODS TRENDS AND ISSUES but smallholder farmers, lacking a social safety net, are The proliferation of mobile phones across the globe has often highly risk averse and therefore not very market ori- impinged on agriculture in various ways. Mobiles are ented. A study from Uganda found that market participation being used to help raise farmers’ incomes, making agri- rose with mobile phone access (Muto and Yamano 2009). cultural marketing more efficient, lowering information Although better market access can be a powerful means of costs, reducing transport costs, and providing a platform alleviating poverty, the study found that market participation to deliver services and innovate. Whether the potential of still depended on what producers had to sell: Perishable these trends can be realized more widely, especially in rural bananas were more likely to be sold commercially than less- areas and in an equitable way, is uncertain. Every aspect perishable maize. of the technology is changing rapidly; the public sector, Mobile phones can serve as the backbone for early warning private sector, and private citizens are constantly experi- systems to mitigate agricultural risks and safeguard agricul- menting with new applications for it; and governments are tural incomes. In Turkey, local weather forecasts transmitted grappling with any number of strategies to ease the digital through SMS provided very timely warnings of impending divide. This note summarizes what is known so far about frosts or conditions that favored pests. the benefits, challenges and enabling factors associated with mobile phones in relation to several aspects of agri- Mobile platforms may also have potential for enabling rural cultural livelihoods. people to find employment. In Uganda, Grameen AppLab partners with government and NGOs to employ farmers to collect information (for more on Grameen, see Module 3). Helping Farmers Raise Their Incomes This method, which relies on local people to transmit data to In some instances, access to mobile phones has been associ- more centrally located research and extension staff, is much ated with increased agricultural income. A World Bank study less costly and can provide much more timely information conducted in the Philippines found strong evidence that than traditional disease surveys. purchasing a mobile phone is associated with higher growth rates of incomes, in the range of 11–17 percent, as measured Txteagle provides employment for relatively educated through consumption behavior (Labonne and Chase 2009). users (see “Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused Workforce� One reason for this finding is that farmers equipped with in Module 2), and even the very poor in rural areas could information have a stronger bargaining position within exist- eventually benefit from access to a mobile job board. ing trade relationships, in addition to being able to seek out Farmers could advertise when they need additional labor other markets. A study of farmers who purchased mobile for harvesting or other high-intensity tasks via mobile phones in Morocco found that average income increased by phone, creating a simple advertising portal. Workers could nearly 21 percent (Ilahiane 2007). find jobs without wasting time and money traveling. A group called BabaJob is developing such a service in India, Mobile phones seem to influence the commercialization of where recruiters and workers submit listings by SMS, but farm products. Subsistence farming is notoriously tenuous, it remains in the developmental stage. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 53 Making Agricultural Marketing More Efficient regions, fishers who were previously ignorant of daily prices At a fundamental level, markets are about distributing infor- in different markets were able to contact various ports to find mation. They do so through prices, which serve as a unifying the best offer for their catch. The result was demonstrable signal to participants to allow for the coordination of dis- welfare gains for fishers because fish were sold where they persed producers and consumers. Underlying this powerful were more highly valued. Waste decreased and prices equal- mechanism, though, is the assumption that everyone knows ized throughout the regional ports; there were even small the market prices for commodities, which is not the case in gains in consumer welfare (Jensen 2007). much of the developing world. Farmers have little information Other studies have confirmed this effect. Despite hav- about market prices in urban areas of their own countries, let ing the lowest mobile phone penetration in sub-Saharan alone internationally. The result of this information asymmetry Africa, Niger has seen important effects on agricultural is price dispersion—the same goods sell for widely different markets from mobile phone diffusion. As mobile networks prices in markets merely a few kilometers apart. have expanded, grain price differences have decreased Mobile phones, in addition to other ICTs, can overcome this by 20 percent, traders’ search costs have decreased by problem by informing both producers and consumers of the 50 percent, scarce resources have been better allocated, prices offered for agricultural products in various locations. A and consumers paid, on average, 3.5 percent less for grain, number of studies have shown that when mobiles are intro- which is equivalent to 5–10 days of grain consumption duced to farming communities that previously lacked any annually (Aker 2010a). A small study in Morocco found that form of connectivity, prices unify as farmers learn where they farmers with mobile phones increasingly dealt directly with can sell for a better price. (See Module 9 for more informa- wholesalers or larger-scale intermediaries than smaller tion on marketing through ICTs.) intermediaries (Ilahiane 2007). These studies, in conjunc- tion with a host of anecdotal and theoretical evidence, A striking example comes from the Indian state of Kerala point to the promise of mobile phones in making markets (box 3.2). As mobile networks were rolled out in coastal more efficient. BOX 3.2: Mobile Phones Enable Kerala Fishers to Identify Better Markets As mobile phone coverage increased in Kerala, fishermen bought phones and started phoning along the coast to look for beach auctions where supplies were lower and prices higher than at their home beach. Fishermen rapidly learned to calculate whether the additional fuel costs of sailing to the high-priced auction were justified. The figure below tells a vivid visual story of how phones affected prices (reduced volatility) and wastage (significantly reduced). Price dispersion was dramatically reduced, declining from 60–70 percent to 15 percent or less. There was no net change in fishermen’s average catch, but more of the catch was sold because wastage, which previously averaged 5–8 percent of the daily catch, was effectively eliminated. The rapid adoption of mobile phones improved fishermen’s profits by 8 percent and was coupled with a 4 percent decline in consumer prices. By 2001, over 60 percent of fishing boats and most wholesale and retail traders were using mobile phones to coordinate sales. The phones were widely used for fish marketing. Fishermen with phones generally carry lists with numbers of potential buyers. They typically call several buyers in different markets before deciding where to sell their catch. Boats using mobile phones on average increased profits by Rs 184 per day, compared to Rs 97 for nonusers who tended to follow the mobile phone users. Boats with mobile phones gained more (nearly twice as much) in part because they were on average larger boats and thus caught more fish and because they were more likely to be able to profitably exploit the small remaining arbitrage opportunities. Phones appear to be a worthwhile investment: The net increase of Rs 184 per day in profits for phone users would more than cover the costs of the phone in less than two months (assuming that there are 24 days of fishing per month, and given that the handset costs approximately Rs 5,000 and monthly costs are Rs 500). Fishermen are still using phones for marketing purposes to date. (continued) E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 54 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT BOX 3.2: continued Cell Phone Impact on Fish Marketing (SW India) REGION II 1 Phones Added .2 .4 .6 .8 2 pct_phone % with phone Cell phones purchased 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 Survey Week REGION II Reduced volatility and 4 6 8 10 12 Phones Added increased average price Price (Rs./kg) 0 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 Survey Week Fish wastage 5–8% .25 % fishermen with waste Fish wastage reduced to zero 2 pct_has_waste .2 .15 .05 .1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 Survey week Source: Jensen 2007. Lowering the Costs of Information These costs can account for a large share of the cost of a The most obvious and cross-cutting way that mobile phones farm enterprise. can improve agriculture is by improving access to informa- tion and making it less costly to obtain. In many rural areas, In a study that compared transaction costs throughout an the arrival of mobile coverage is a radical change in the extended period, 15.2 percent of the total cost of farming nature of the information ecosystem. Although simply hav- was transactional, and of that, 70 percent was informational ing more information is not sufficient to make advantageous (as opposed to, say, the cost of transporting crops to market). decisions (other resources may be needed to implement Undertaken in Sri Lanka, where an inconsistent subsidy on fer- them), it is a necessary step toward access to knowledge. tilizer introduces considerable uncertainty, the study found that 53 percent of the informational transaction costs were incurred Transaction costs are present throughout agricultural value during the growing season, when farmers were attempting chains, from initial decisions about whether and what to to ascertain fertilizer costs. As shown in figure 3.2, another plant, to all of the operations during the growing cycle, 24 percent were incurred during the initial decision to plant or harvesting, postharvest and processing operations, and sell- not, while only 9 percent of the costs related to information ing (to intermediaries, consumers, processors, exporters). were incurred during the selling stage, where studies typically IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 55 FIGURE 3.2: Information Search Cost by Stage production cycles. Farmers who use mobiles can also save of Farming on transport costs (Overa 2006)—an effect that is stronger the more rural the area (Muto and Yamano 2009). Harvesting, packing, and storing Transportation cannot be avoided entirely: Crops need to get to Selling customers. Although mobiles can inform farmers where they should travel to market their crops, evidence suggests that the Decision wealthy maintain an advantage in their ability to make use of Seed purchase this information (Fafchamps and Hill 2004). In combination with and seed bed improved rural roads, ICT will encourage larger truck-traders to Land preparation and planting visit harder-to-reach areas, connecting rural and urban regions. Growing As noted in Module 9, the onion wholesalers known as “Market Queens� increasingly use mobile phones to coor- Source: Adapted from De Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008. dinate supply among themselves and to improve profits by facilitating reductions in their transportation and opportunity focus (De Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008). It is easy to under- costs (Overa 2006). These costs are particularly high in com- stand how mobile phones could reduce farmers’ informational modity chains that are geographically extensive and organiza- transaction costs at critical points in the production cycle. tionally complex, such as the onion trade in Ghana. Reducing Transport Costs Mobile phones may help users to substitute phone calls A Platform for Service Delivery and Innovation for travel. Where safety standards are minimal, roads are in The numerous capabilities of mobile phones (box 3.3) pro- disrepair, and distances are great, substituting phone calls vide ample opportunities to deliver traditional and innovative for travel reduces farmers’ time and cost burdens. Time sav- services. Traditional agricultural extension agents are increas- ings are important for agricultural households, because many ingly being outfitted with mobile phones through programs crops have extremely time-sensitive and labor-intensive to increase their effectiveness by networking them to BOX 3.3: One Device, Many Channels Mobile phones are multifunctional devices. From smartphones to models available secondhand in rural markets, mobiles do much more than simply place voice calls. In designing a mobile intervention or project, it is important to keep in mind the various channels through which populations can be reached. In much of the world, voice is still king, owing to widespread illiteracy, but other considerations such as cost, ease of use, and trust influence users’ choices. In Africa, the high cost of calls has made 160-character text messages (SMS) very popular. As networks and devices acquire more capabilities, richer uses of phones are unfolding, and information channels are converging. Camera phones send images, data transfer brings the mobile Internet to the bottom of the pyramid, down- loaded software applications provide advanced functionality, and GPS sensors provide mapping functionality. Emerging market consumers are more likely to have their first contact with the Internet through a mobile device, and many are mobile-only users.a Cisco estimates that by 2015 there will be 788 million mobile-only Internet users, and though rural areas will lag behind, the highest rates of growth will be in the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and Eastern and Central Europe.b In Kenya, Safaricom recently unveiled a service that converts e-mails to SMS messages and an interactive voice response (IVR) service, in which a computer responds to voice inquiries. Combining mobile phones with other technolo- gies, such as radio or telecenters, can enhance their capabilities. This potential is important to understand. It shows how adaptable the technology is and how it can be used in areas where smartphones are likely to remain inaccessible to many in the near future. (continued) E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 56 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT BOX 3.3: continued Each form of mobile communication has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, SMS requires some form of literacy and is limited to 160 characters (although some mobile information interfaces are striving to become more visually intui- tive). Data transfer is inexpensive but not available on most phones. The table summarizes types of mobile technologies and their availability. Types and Availability of Mobile Technologies TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION AVAILABILITY Voice The most basic channel; avoids most literacy or Basic phones linguistic barriers Short Message Service (SMS) Ubiquitous text-based messaging limited to Basic phones 160 characters Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) A protocol used by Global Service for Mobile Basic phones Communications (GSM) phones to communicate with the mobile network Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Computer programs that respond to the voice input Basic phones of callers General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Low bandwidth data service Midrange phones Software App (e.g., Java or iOS) Preinstalled or downloaded software of varied Midrange, but increased sophistication with sophistication smartphones Mobile Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) A limited manner of browsing the Internet Midrange phones Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) SMS-based technology to transmit multimedia Midrange phones (including images and video) Camera For capturing still or moving images Midrange phones Bluetooth Protocol for transmitting data over short distances Midrange phones Mobile Web Full-fledged web access Smart phones Global Positioning System (GPS) Technology allowing for location-based information Smart phones Source: http://www.crisscrossed.net/2009/11/01/the-many-potential-channels-for-mobile-services/; (a) http://www.slideshare.net/ondevice/the-mobile- only-Internet-generation; (b) Cisco (2010). knowledge banks. Extension can reach more clients through political voice, raising the level of interaction between mobile-based learning platforms—textual or richer platforms, policy makers and their constituents. Mobile phones can such as video—that provide tips to farmers to improve agri- be used to direct bottom-up insights towards the appropri- cultural skills and knowledge. (See the detailed discussion of ate recipients, informing and improving governance (see advisory services and ICTs in Module 6.) Module 13). Significantly, mobiles are also a platform for user innovation. Mobile money services, now so prominent in countries such as LESSONS LEARNED Kenya and the Philippines, originally began as informal mecha- nisms between family and friends. Software engineers in devel- As mobile phones come into more widespread use and oping countries are creating locally appropriate applications to phone applications for agriculture increase, it is clear that be deployed inexpensively. This form of innovation is possible they have the potential to confer significant benefits. To due to the functionality of mobile phones, but capacity needs to summarize, they may help to increase income, improve be grown and technological barriers, such as incompatible net- the efficiency of markets, reduce waste, and improve works, need to be addressed (see the discussion in Module 2). welfare. They can reduce agriculture’s significant transac- tion costs, displace costly and time-intensive travel, and Finally, the popularity of mobile phones means that previ- facilitate innovative interventions, especially in service ously excluded populations can have considerably more delivery. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 57 Yet as many examples in this sourcebook indicate, mobiles and Soysa 2008). But when mobiles were used for timely and ICTs more generally may serve agricultural development interventions through SMS, up to 40 percent of wastage best when accompanied by complementary investments could be prevented, a service for which farmers were willing and reforms. For example, shoddy roads—or no roads—limit to pay (De Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008). farmers’ ability to sell their grain in prime markets. Poor access to education can prevent many rural people from Because mobile phones may be purchased as a status sym- taking advantage of mobile phone services that depend on bol, and because their uses are not necessarily economically being able to read. valuable (entertainment and other social uses are popular), some mobile phone owners may decide to substitute their A lack of financial services can undermine the new options use for important expenditures such as school fees or food. that mobile phones allow. As discussed, Kerala’s fishers saw Given this possibility, it is even more important that devel- their welfare increase through the use of mobile phones opment practitioners promote policies and programs that (image 3.1), but they ran into another financial barrier. Without improve livelihoods (Heeks 2008). access to capital, the fishers cannot own their boats. The phones eliminated some intermediaries, but boat owners An additional caution is that without specific attention to may still force the fish to be sold in a less-than-optimal port. equity issues, mobile phones may reinforce inequitable social Small-scale producers and fishers can gain better access to structures. Larger traders are more likely to own mobiles services if they organize (see Module 8), but in many set- than small-scale traders (Overa 2006). Compared to men, tings, increasing the bargaining power and political clout of women are less likely to have access to mobile phones3 small-scale producers remains an issue (Reuben 2007). (box 3.4 provides additional insight into the role of mobiles in relation to gender equity). To avoid exacerbating such inequalities, agricultural programs using mobiles should be IMAGE 3.1: Mobile Phones Can Help Fishermen Sell designed with equity in mind from the start. Their Catch Finally, context matters. Technology cannot be airdropped into a situation and guarantee positive results, and mobile phones may not necessarily be directed at economically useful behavior. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in Turkey A project recently implemented by the Government of Turkey in collaboration with international donors is an exemplary model of local weather forecasting.4 Rather than focusing on aggregate, national data, this project, implemented by the Agriculture Directorate of Kastamonu Province, focused on the microclimatic conditions essential for monitoring pests Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank. and diseases accurately and increasing productivity. To succeed, mobile services and applications also need to The Problem and the Technology provide compelling value, especially for the poor. Access to Most producers in Kastamonu maintain orchards, which devices and networks is insufficient; the technology also are extremely susceptible to frost and local pests. Before must be affordable and have useful applications and content. For example, in Sri Lanka, where researchers found signifi- cant potential cost savings from the use of mobile phones, 3 See “mWomen� under http://gsmworld.com/our-work/mobile_ farmers rarely used their phones to obtain market data planet/development_fund/index.htm. because they could not obtain accurate and timely informa- 4 This section draws on World Bank (2010) and personal communi- cation from H. Agah, Senior Rural Development Specialist, World tion. Instead, farmers made frequent and costly trips to dis- Bank (interview with C. Belden, Agriculture and Rural Develop- tant markets to determine prices (Ratnadiwakara, De Silva, ment, World Bank, March 22, 2011). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 58 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT BOX 3.4: Mobile Phones, Agriculture, and Gender The larger development community recognizes the importance of emphasizing equitable opportunities and benefits for both genders (for example, see the Gender and Agriculture Sourcebook)—a principle endorsed for the use of ICT in agri- culture as well. Access to and use of ICTs are often unequal, with women suffering the consequences. In a number of cases, however, ICT has been used to benefit agriculture while empowering women. Kenya is a country of 5 million farmers, ranging from the smallest subsistence growers to large industrial agricultural- ists. It is also increasingly a hotbed of technological innovations such as M-Farm, a mobile service that aims to improve Kenya’s agricultural sector by connecting farmers with one another, because peer-to-peer collaboration can improve mar- ket information and enhance learning opportunities. Based around farmers’ traditional needs, such as the need for market price and weather information, M-Farm is a rela- tively new subscription service that also works with larger institutions, such as NGOs and the government, to connect them with farmers. The idea was generated at IPO48, a weekend-long “boot camp� where technologists and entrepre- neurs bring businesses from idea to initial product in only 48 hours. M-Farm, created by AkiraChix (an all-female team of developers who are now pursuing the project full time) won the 2010 IPO48 competition’s first-place prize of more than US$ 10,000. AkiraChix is also the recipient of an infoDev/World Bank grant to facilitate monthly networking events for mobile entrepreneurs and developers in Nairobi. Both networking and incentives such as IPO48 have proven essential to facilitate the rapid creation of sustainable busi- nesses based on mobile devices and the empowerment of women. Though IPO48 and M-Farm are new and their impacts still limited, they are expected to generate widespread improvements in agricultural marketing, particularly for women. The Village Phone program of the International Finance Corporation may also benefit rural women. The program provides microloans to rural entrepreneurs who purchase a mobile phone, long-range antenna, solar charger, and airtime. The recipient earns a livelihood by operating a phone kiosk in areas underserved by mobile networks. As is typical in micro- finance, the loan recipients tend to be women. Since the program’s inception, nearly 6,000 women have received loans and close to 10,000 have been trained in countries such as Madagascar, Malawi, and Nigeria. Source: Author. the project commenced, producers had little time to react these stations, the province maintains 14 reference farms to weather that might harm their orchards, because national where temperature is measured and pest cycles are moni- weather forecasts for the next day were broadcast in the tored. Monitoring the life cycle of pests, along with collecting evening (both FM radio and broadband Internet were unavail- climate data, allows researchers to predict pest outbreaks able). Given these constraints, mobile phones with SMS more accurately, because pest maturation depends largely were the most applicable ICT for the project. on environmental conditions. National aggregate weather forecasts are not particularly With localized weather indicators disseminated daily through useful for pest management and frost prevention in rural SMS, producers can apply pesticides when needed and in locations. Local, specific conditions vary widely from farm to appropriate amounts. In the first two years of the project, pro- farm depending on such variables as humidity, precipitation, ducers’ costs fell dramatically. Pesticide applications dropped crop type, and soil fertility. In addition, rural weather is often a by 50 percent in one year, saving farmers around US$ 2 per few degrees cooler than weather in urban areas where most tree. Considering the size of the orchards, overall production forecast data are generated. costs could be reduced by as much as US$ 1 million each year. The provincial directorate established five mini meteoro- A similar design was used to avert frost damage. Climate logical stations in rural areas throughout the province. The change and shifting temperatures have increased spring stations collect data on variables such as temperature, pre- frosts in Kastamonu Province. If the meteorological stations cipitation, wind, leaf wetness, and soil moisture, most of measure lower-than-normal temperatures, subscribers with which are not collected at the national level. In addition to personal digital assistants (PDAs) and mobile phones receive IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 59 alerts at 4:00 P.M., giving them sufficient time to prepare for challenges. Turkey’s national meteorological system is more the cold snap. advanced than the system of most of its neighbors. High- resolution images and national capacity for weather forecasting are necessary to achieve local efforts. Because global satellites Anecdotal Evidence of Impact provide basic climate information free of charge, they may fill Though the project has not gone through rigorous assess- the technological gap in some countries, but their resolution ment, anecdotal evidence clearly points to its success. The is low. Alternative strategies like climate modeling have suc- means chosen to disseminate information were essential to ceeded in Latin America and Africa, but they have not been the project’s success, because mobile applications matched empirically tested for their effectiveness in forecasting weather. the technological capacity of the area. Other dissemina- tion and awareness strategies raised the project’s visibility, Anecdotal evidence also shows that technological capacity including the mass media, village leaders, and other forms of is not the only factor influencing success. Institutional capac- human interaction and leadership. It is likely that the weather ity is equally important. The local government’s high level of forecasts had the ripple effect common to other ICT projects, commitment to the project and consistent implementation because those who received the service shared the informa- were crucial to building client trust and ensuring that the tion with family and neighbors who did not. Farmers who technologies were used appropriately. participated in the project were successful in planting and protecting their crops. Of 500 farmers reached through this information channel, not one experienced crop losses from INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY frost, although farmers who did not receive the service did. Mobiles Are the Heart of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace Scaling Up and Sustaining the Benefits Esoko (http://www.esoko.com/) (which began as TradeNet in 2005) is a market information service that provides price The project could be scaled up, but cost is a concern. For information and a virtual marketplace for buyers and sellers of the first two years, project costs were fairly low. The five sta- agricultural commodities to connect through mobile phones tions, telecoms, software, and system upkeep cost around and the Internet.5 Mark Davies, a successful British technol- US$ 40,000. Costs will climb over time, however, as donor ogy entrepreneur who also manages Ghana’s largest ICT cen- financing ends and climate conditions change (which could ter, BusyLab, set up Esoko.6 Since then, it has become one make it important, for example, to change the system to of Africa’s most successful agricultural services using ICTs. include other variables). Esoko’s technology is used in nine African countries and is Several strategies could reduce the cost to government once expanding quickly. Mobiles are at the center of the system. external funding ends. For example, the government could partner with the private sector. Firms interested in domestic Services or export markets for the area’s crops may have an incentive to Esoko provides four key services: fund some of the technologies or develop the content. Revenue could also be collected through small or tiered subscriber fees  Live market feeds. Real-time SMS alerts on mar- (daily forecasts in the Kastamonu Province are currently free). ket prices and offers are delivered automatically to subscribers. Users can submit offers directly into the Scalability is also difficult because of the nature of this system using SMS. particular project. Site-specific climate information is more expensive to obtain than aggregate temperature predictions. 5 Aside from the sources cited in the text, this summary also draws on Gakuru, Winters, and Stepman (2009). Moreover, other areas will produce crops vulnerable to a dif- 6 Esoko, which began as a private initiative with encourage- ferent spectrum of biological and climate stress, making each ment from FAO and the UN, became a partner with USAID’s target group fairly small. One way to reduce these costs and MISTOWA program in West Africa and CIAT’s FoodNet program in Uganda, and it was supported with a grant of US$ 11 million. broaden the scope of a similar program might be to focus More recently, IFC (a member of the World Bank Group) and the first on crops or livestock that represent the most widely Soros Economic Development Fund (a nonprofit investment fund pursued or highest-value enterprises. that works to alleviate poverty and community deterioration) each invested US$ 1.25 million of equity into Esoko. The invest- ment will give smallholder African farmers and businesses timely Transferring this kind of early warning system to Central Asian crop information that can be shared via text messaging, enabling countries as planned by the World Bank may pose particular farmers to increase their incomes. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 60 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT  Direct SMS marketing and extension. This service farmer groups. The firm also publishes the first commodi- targets specific user groups or sends extension mes- ties indexes in Africa. These powerful tools ensure that sages, which reduces travel and communication costs. farmers are fairly compensated for their crops, as formal  Scout polling. It is possible to set up automatic SMS commodity exchanges are very rare on the continent. The polling for field activities to track inventories and crop company is initially publishing two indexes that provide activities (among other things) and monitor and report prices for 12 agricultural commodities in 7 markets in on crop cycles and yields. Ghana.  Online profiling and marketing. All users can have a customizable web space to advertise their goods and Impact services. This space can be updated using Esoko’s The impact of this information on traders, exporters, trans- mobile2web content management service. porters, procurers, and others in the agricultural value chain is still to be determined. The service is believed to have Participants throughout agricultural value chains can the potential to reduce inefficiencies in the value chain. For exchange real-time market information. Farmers receive cur- example, an exporter took 60 days and needed 5 people in rent demands, prices of crops, and the location of seed and the value chain to procure a natural plant product, but with fertilizer outlets directly on their mobile phones. Businesses Esoko’s technology, the procurement process required 31 can track how their products are used and market themselves days and 3 people, improving both the major traders’ and to new customers. Associations and governments can share producers’ share of the export price. Free field trials for critical information with thousands using a simple feature for farmers elicited self-reported evidence of a 20–40 percent bulk text messaging. improvement in revenue. Sixty-eight percent of farmers Anyone in the world can visit esoko.com and register for a said that they would pay for the service; every farmer free account. There, in addition to 800,000 prices from hun- who received information would forward it to an additional dreds of markets, users will find a library of resources and 10 farmers. thousands of members offering to buy and sell agricultural products. Prices and transactions are also available via the Building and Sustaining a Business Model universal SMS channel, and for slightly more sophisticated The idea driving the model is that most businesses in the phones, a downloadable application offers additional func- agricultural value chain collect and deliver their own data; tionality. Users can even receive automated SMS alerts for Esoko will provide tools and a platform and co-opt busi- certain commodities in a given market (box 3.5). Because nesses to generate content for the platform. Esoko pays on anyone with a mobile phone may post offers to the website an incentive basis to acquire information, using targets and through SMS, smallholder farmers are able to reach a far bonuses. Their revenue-generation model is based on levels wider audience than they typically would. Esoko users also of subscriptions (bronze, silver, gold, platinum), each with are in a better position to negotiate with buyers owing to a different pricing structure and its own mix of content and their enhanced knowledge of prices in other markets. tools. Esoko offers training and strategy sessions on how to For a US$ 1 per month subscription (beginning in 2011), use the platform and can provide customer services for farmers automatically receive information on commodities, markets, and other topics of interest. In developing a model BOX 3.5: An Esoko Transaction for selling information to farmers, Esoko encountered a few challenges. Farmers are widely dispersed in the field and Here’s how it works: A farmer in northern Ghana is sell- hard to reach. It is also difficult to quantify the exact value ing 20 tonnes of millet. The farmer texts in SELL MILO that the service generates for farmers. 20MT to TradeNet’s international number, and that infor- mation is processed by the software and immediately Esoko provides additional functionality for other users, includ- published on the website. The same details are also ing organizations that would like to customize the technology redistributed to every other user that has signed up to for their needs. For example, paying subscribers can access receive alerts on millet sales in Ghana. Esoko’s supply chain tools, which allow harvest activities to Source: Quoted from Bartlett 2008. be tracked. Mark Davies (quoted in Magada 2009) believes this holistic approach, as opposed to simply providing price IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 61 information, is key: “While running TradeNet, we realised operate the hardware and work in the commodity mar- that there was a need for a platform to integrate the whole kets collecting prices and news. To support this activity, supply chain, not to just provide prices. . . .We’re missing the in addition to the tiered subscriptions mentioned above, point if we don’t integrate the whole industry.� Esoko pursues public-private partnerships (Donner 2009). Partnerships are key, with governments, donors, and the But this scale requires significant investment; whereas Esoko Networks, a group of affiliated companies, using Davis started the business with US$ 600,000 of personal and building upon the platform. Esoko demonstrates money and US$ 200,000 from donors, he has suggested that finding the right business model is not easy, but that nationwide rollouts require US$ 1 million in funding. donors and government have a role in supporting new The money goes toward new hardware and for staff to interventions. Topic Note 3.2: TWO TYPOLOGIES AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR USING MOBILE PHONES IN AGRICULTURAL PROJECTS TRENDS AND ISSUES Typology 1: A Focus on Mobile Livelihood As governments, donors, NGOs, and private firms attempt to Services use this popular technology for development goals, research- Jonathan Donner, a researcher with the Technology for ers are developing frameworks to make sense of these ini- Emerging Markets Group at Microsoft Research India, has tiatives and help design new ones. The section that follows developed a framework that examines the various livelihood reviews two such typologies. The first focuses on the services services available to mobile phone users in the developing that operate through mobile phones to improve aspects of agri- world (Donner 2009) (table 3.1). His survey finds six types cultural livelihoods. The second focuses on the various forms of “mobile livelihood� services (mediated agricultural exten- that mobile applications might take to develop the agricultural sion, market information systems, virtual marketplaces, com- sector. Both of these approaches may be useful when consid- prehensive services, financial services, and direct livelihood ering programs to use mobile phones. This note also reviews support) and five possible effects (improving internal activi- principles for designing a program to use mobile phones in ties, adding market information, adding market participants, agriculture, based on what has been learned to date. bypassing middlemen, and starting businesses). Note that TABLE 3.1: The Impact of Mobile-Based Livelihood Services IMPROVE INTERNAL ADD MARKET ADD MARKET BYPASS START SERVICE ACTIVITIES INFORMATION PARTICIPANTS MIDDLEMAN BUSINESSES Mediated agricultural extension (e.g., Collecting and Exchange X X of Local Agricultural Content—CELAC, http://celac.or.ug/) Market information systems (e.g., Kenyan Agricultural Commodities X Exchange Program—KACE, http://www.kacekenya.co.ke/) Virtual marketplaces (e.g., Google Trader, http://www.google X X Sometimes .co.ug/africa/trader/home) Comprehensive services (e.g., Manobi or Esoko— http://www X X X Sometimes .manobi.net/worldwide/; http://www.esoko.com/) Financial services (e.g., M-PESA, http://www.safaricom.co.ke/index X X .php?id=250) Direct livelihood support (e.g., txteagle, http://txteagle.com/) X X Source: Adapted from Donner 2009. Note: For more information on M-PESA, see “M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service�in Module 2; for txteagle, see “Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused Workforce� in Module 2. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 62 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT although many livelihood services are bound to have more already have information sources and learning opportunities, than one effect—it is perfectly plausible that a service that so it is best to avoid reinventing the wheel if a mobile inter- provides market information will also draw new participants vention will not significantly improve upon the experience. into the market and help farmers bypass intermediaries— table 3.1 emphasizes the main areas of impact. Mobiles are far from unitary, as box 3.3 shows, and an understanding of the platform’s strengths and limitations is essential. For example, while it is ubiquitous, SMS is limited Typology 2: A Focus on Mobile Applications for to 160 characters. Although mobile Internet is still limited in Agriculture scale and often confusing to users, it can be sophisticated Alternatively, Kerry McNamara has suggested four catego- and is spreading; in fact, some research has even shown ries for understanding the forms that mobile applications more impact from the Internet than mobile phones, so their may take to help the agricultural sector (Hellstrom 2010) convergence is an exciting opportunity (Goyal 2010). There (table 3.2). Mobile agricultural applications, in this frame- is always a risk that new technologies serve to blind the work, may (1) educate and raise awareness, (2) distribute development community to more tried and true methods, so price information, (3) collect data, and (4) track pests and considering how mobile phones fit with needs and existing diseases. practices is a key initial step. TABLE 3.2: Various Roles for Mobiles in Agriculture Engage in Participatory, Iterative Project Design GOAL METHOD Understanding local needs is a difficult task that can be Education and awareness Information provided via mobile phones made easier by directly involving communities in the design to farmers and extension agents about and implementation of interventions. In addition to surveys good practices, improved crop varieties, and pest or disease management. of global and regional activities (such as this sourcebook), on-the-ground analysis is needed. Partnerships with local Commodity prices and market Prices in regional markets to inform information decision making throughout the entire organizations, extensive fieldwork, and interactive design agricultural process. sessions offer ways to understand the subtle differences Data collection Applications that collect data from large between agricultural subsectors and regions. Trying to “do geographic regions. everything� has doomed projects, while initiatives that Pest and disease outbreak warning Send and receive data on outbreaks. start small and focused (such as M-PESA, which began and tracking with peer-to-peer money transfers) can evolve into diverse Source: Hellstrom 2010. offerings (purchases, credit, and savings). One example of a small, focused program comes from Chile, where a small cooperative receives critical information for production and PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING A PROGRAM USING marketing. MOBILES IN AGRICULTURE The use of mobile phones in agriculture, though relatively Development practitioners can also learn from software new, has already witnessed failure as well as success. What developers who practice the mantra, “release early and separates the two outcomes may often be unpredictable often,� meaning that “good enough� prototypes should be and locally nuanced factors, but a survey of what has been piloted and improved in a rapid feedback loop. The risk with learned indicates that a number of principles can improve the this practice is that it may confuse communities that may not chances of sustainable impact. understand the process, but if the goal of the project is to reach considerable scale, using small pilot and focus groups to improve earlier versions is a worthy practice. Understand Users and the Technology Time and again, interventions have failed to gain traction Bringing communities into the early stages of the project because users’ needs and practices were incompletely can also foster local ownership, a key component of sustain- understood. In technological interventions, this risk is even ability. This principle is closely aligned with the need to “go more of a concern. Practitioners need to think carefully about beyond the technology� and focus on people. For example, why mobiles are the technology of choice and consider a lack of cultural awareness almost caused Text to Change, a alternatives, from the cutting edge to the mundane. Farmers Dutch NGO working in Uganda, to derail an effort to provide IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 63 HIV/AIDS information via SMS. Only on the morning of the BOX 3.6: Kilimo Salama Demonstrates the program’s launch did the NGO realize that the SMS code Convergence of Mobile Phones and assigned to them was 666—locally known as “the devil’s Sophisticated Mobile Services number�—and had to scramble to receive a new number to avoid upsetting Christian partners and users.7 Kilimo Salama (“safe farming� in Kiswahili) is an inno- vative program operated by Safaricom (Kenya’s largest Mobiles, like other technologies, are not silver bullets, but instead MNO), Syngenta Foundation (the foundation established are tools that will be shaped by social conditions. Practitioners by the Swiss agribusiness), and UAP Insurance. The ini- attempting to integrate mobiles with agricultural communities tiative delivers crop insurance to smallholder farmers in need to design their programs for equitable access. rural Kenya through the use of mobile phones. Farmers insure their crops with Kilimo Salama when they pur- chase seed and fertilizer from registered vendors. The Identify Partners with the Appropriate Knowledge, vendors are equipped with a camera phone loaded with Collaborative Capacity, and Alignment of Goals special software. At the time of sale, the salesperson As the innovative practice summaries in this module indicate, takes a picture of a special barcode on the products, and it is unlikely that any one organization, whether an NGO, minis- an SMS is sent to the farmer’s phone confirming the try, donor, or private firm, will have all of the expertise required insurance policy. For their work, agents receive a com- to succeed in designing and implementing successful mobile mission. Pricing has changed, with the premium origi- phone interventions in agriculture. Partners should be chosen nally subsidized, but in mid-2011, farmers were paying a for their specialized knowledge, willingness to collaborate, and 10 percent insurance premium. alignment of goals. Special care should be taken at the very beginning of project planning to ensure that the key stakehold- The Kilimo Salama system relies on weather stations ers will work together positively. in each agricultural region to measure rainfall and other climate information. When conditions fall below histori- Projects must seek to leverage trusted intermediaries. One cal benchmarks for farming (indicating that crops will be example discussed in this module is Kilimo Salama, which lost and inputs wasted), the service automatically pays relies on the trusted M-PESA money transfer service and insured customers in that region, using the M-PESA agricultural input suppliers to offer weather insurance to mobile money service. farmers (box 3.6). Another is IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited. Kilimo Salama demonstrates the potential for mobile The partners behind this service (which provides market phones and services (such as mobile money) to deliver information and agricultural advisory services) are IFFCO, a sophisticated financial products to smallholders, and it well-known farmer’s cooperative organization that maintains underlines the importance of distribution channels and a presence in 98 percent of India’s villages, and Bharti Airtel, product reliability. Affordability and trust remain obsta- a large mobile network operator (MNO) (for details, see IPS cles, especially if farmers dispute the payouts from the “Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits IFFCO system. Kisan Sanchar Limited� in Topic Note 2.4). Source: Author, based on IFC Advisory Services 2011. By their very nature, most agricultural services using mobile phones partner with at least one MNO. For the network operator, the services are a way to boost rural subscribers operates in rural areas where commercial banks have few or (an important source of growth) and decrease customer no physical branches and benefits from Zain’s vast interna- turnover. This objective does not necessarily mean that the tional One Network (see IPS “Zain Zap Promotes Borderless network operator has any interest in farmers’ livelihoods Mobile Commerce,� in Topic Note 2.3). Partnering with (although it may), and partners should be cognizant of poten- private firms, including MNOs and input suppliers, is often tially conflicting motivations. That said, operator buy-in can required for mobiles-for-agriculture interventions to endure. be a powerful benefit, especially through distribution and marketing. Zain Zap, the mobile international banking service, Ensure That the Technology Is Widely Accessible Mobile phones represent a great opportunity for agricultural 7 See . interventions because they are one of the most accessible E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 64 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT information platforms available, although barriers do remain. continue for an extended term. It is essential to develop a They can take the form of illiteracy or prohibitive cost, or viable business plan from the very conception of a project they can be technical or cultural (image 3.2). Given the tenu- to use mobiles in agriculture. Such a plan requires a clear ous nature of smallholders’ livelihoods and the lack of social understanding of who will pay—the government, end users, safety nets, many smallholders are particularly risk averse. cooperatives, or a combination, for example—and how much They are unlikely to participate in a new initiative without sig- they are willing to pay for a service. Farmers are willing to pay nificant education, advertising, and local support. Even those for timely and contextual information, but different strategies who wish to use a mobile intervention may be frustrated if may be needed to encourage poorer farmers to use a service the program is not widely available. Nokia’s Life Tools appli- (such as payments per query rather than a long-term sub- cation is intentionally designed to be widely available on its scription). The Reuters Market Light service offers a range low-cost handsets and fill a gap in low-income communities of price and service formats to accommodate a wide range with a large latent demand for information. of clients. Innovation in technology is often less important than inno- IMAGE 3.2: Other Challenges, Like Inadequate vation in the business model; prepaid mobile airtime was Transport, Affects Mobile Phone Success arguably more important than low-cost devices in enabling mobile phones to spread. When Google introduced three mobile applications in Uganda for free, they gained sig- nificant traction, but when fees were introduced, usage dropped, indicating failure to accurately gauge the appeal of the service and willingness to pay (Kubzansky, Cooper, and Barbary 2011). Market-based solutions can be more sustainable, but donors and governments often remain important as anchor buyers or subsidizers (see IPS “Mobiles Are the Heart of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace� in Topic Note 3.1). When interven- tions are not undertaken for profit, they can benefit from approaches commonly used in the private sector, such as Source: Mano Strauch, World Bank. advertising to stimulate demand, rigorous benchmarking, market segmentation, and documenting failures as well as Projects that are exclusive to one MNO or a specific type successes for internal and external learning. of phone may face implicit barriers to adoption. Open tech- nological standards and free and open-source software can be used to reach a wider audience and avoid lock-in. They Monitoring and Evaluation can do much to enable unanticipated user innovation. For Although mobile phones have had positive impacts on agri- example, individuals around the world save money through culture, a better understanding of these outcomes would “beeping� or intentionally missed calls that communicate help in designing new interventions. A recent review of predetermined messages without using expensive airtime. ICT-based interventions in agriculture suggests a number of Elsewhere, users send money through unofficial routes questions to address (Aker 2010b): using airtime transfers. Given flexibility and understand-  What is the impact of ICT on farmers’ knowledge, agri- ing, communities will provide innovative solutions to their cultural practices, and welfare? needs.  Are the observed changes due to the ICT or some- thing else? Sustainability Based on a Viable Business Plan  What is the causal mechanism behind the effect? Sustainable agricultural projects are key to long-term growth  How does the impact differ between both farmers and livelihood improvements, but often projects fail to and type of information provided? IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 65  What are the potential spillovers or unintended conse- mobile phones.8 The software, developed by DataDyne quences for participants and nonparticipants? (a nonprofit organization based in the United States),  Is the ICT-based approach cost-effective relative to organizes searchable content from the Internet into news other, more traditional, interventions? feeds (RSS) and then transmits that content to farmers  Do the results transfer to different regions and via SMS messages. The system was designed to work on contexts? the simple mobile phones sell for US$ 15–20 in Chile and operate effectively even over slow networks with intermit- tent connectivity. LESSONS LEARNED MIP solved the challenge of sending information from the Although mobile phones continue to evolve quite rapidly, Internet via SMS messages; the next challenge was to the evidence suggests that they can promote improved ensure that the content was valuable to the user. Because livelihoods through networking and informing previously text messages transmit a maximum of 160 characters, unconnected portions of the population. The evidence there is no guarantee that messages contain useful infor- comes from users’ own rapid grasp of the technology’s mation. Even when a system chooses relevant informa- potential (Kerala’s fishers using phones to seek optimal tion, the first 160 characters may not accurately convey its markets for their catch) and from planned efforts originating meaning. from commercial information providers and development practitioners (as in the market information and insurance programs described in the innovative practice summaries Starting Small: A Pilot with a Small Cooperative that follow). To test the system, a pilot project, DatAgro, was set up in early 2009 between DataDyne and an agricultural coopera- Improving agricultural productivity is one of the most press- tive in the Cachapoal Valley, two hours south of the capital, ing issues for developing regions. Although mobile phones Santiago. The cooperative, Coopeumo, has just under 350 are no silver bullet, their widespread availability and flex- small-scale farmer members, most of whom grow maize ibility position the technology as a necessary component and some other crops. Members’ coop dues covered the of sustainable improvements in agriculture. Coupled with cost of the new SMS system. There was no extra subscrip- corresponding innovation in existing social and institutional tion fee and no charge for the text messages (the current arrangements, mobile phones have the potential to make sig- cost of US$ 0.06 is borne by the coop). Training sessions nificant contributions. As mobile phones converge with other were held at the beginning of the project to teach farm- mobile devices such as netbooks and tablets, the opportuni- ers how to send and receive text messages. Most coop ties will proliferate. members are men, thus about 90 percent of those receiv- ing training were men. For donors, governments, NGOs, and private entities work- ing to promote better agricultural policies, current efforts Coopeumo farmers received weather, news, sports, and offer much to learn. Designing programs and initiatives in other information via SMS. The information came from sev- a careful, flexible manner will enable rural communities to eral sources. Two of the project’s partners, UNESCO and adopt and use new technologies and methods to improve Chile’s Foundation for Agricultural Innovation (FIA),9 created their lives. messages based on work already done but not yet shared with the community. Two national newspapers sent news to the system. Users could customize the feeds they sub- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY scribed to and could rate the messages they found the most Mobile Service Gives Local and Global Edge helpful. to Chilean Farmers In Chile, the Mobile Information Project (MIP) delivers 8 This summary is based on information from Cagley (2010) and personal communication with John Zoltner, DataDyne.org. targeted agricultural information from the web directly 9 UNESCO = the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul- to farmers, using software to create news channels on tural Organization; FIA = Fundación para la Innovación Agraria. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 66 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Impact: Local and Global Advantages the telecoms companies have to be paid to transmit the In less than a year, the DatAgro service proved popular. One messages. Coopeumo member, Hugo Tobar, reported that his entire The experience in Chile suggests that disseminating informa- crop for 2009 was saved by an SMS message that urged tion via simple mobile phones is a good way to reach farmers him to delay planting because of impending bad weather. in areas where Internet facilities are unlikely to be provided Torrential rain during the next week would have washed his in the near future. Refinements to the system should make seedlings away. it easier to provide relevant content to each individual, and a Ricardo Danessi, executive manager of Coopeumo, said, current challenge is to tailor the content automatically; when “Our farmers can now find information about supply information is mediated by a human editor, bottlenecks can prices, product prices, the weather, and what’s going on be introduced. in international markets. That’s important, because today, everything that goes on outside Chile also affects us. When there’s an excess of production in one place, the INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY prices go down here. Or when there is a sudden disaster For Reuters Market Light, the Wider Network or catastrophe somewhere else, the prices improve here. of People Matters When demand goes up in China or India, the prices here While on a fellowship at Stanford University, a Reuters get better. Everything is related in this connected world, employee hit upon the idea of offering highly customizable and small-scale farmers aren’t left out of that reality� market information to farmers through the increasingly (quoted in Cagley 2010). ubiquitous platform of mobile phones. From this initial idea, the international news giant launched Reuters Market Light (RML) in 2007 to provide market prices, weather, and crop Sustaining the Gains and Scaling Up advisory services to farmers in India. This launch was pre- Farmers have stressed the importance of the informa- ceded by 18 months of market research, tests, and pilot tion they receive and the convenience of the MIP plat- programs to refine the idea and tailor it to the local context form. Since the close of the pilot project, Coopeumo has (LIRNEasia 2008). assumed responsibility for creating, sending, and paying for the SMS messages. The only ongoing cost to DataDyne To subscribe, a farmer calls a toll-free number to activate is the incremental cost of maintaining and continuing to the service in the local language and specify the crops and improve MIP. Developing the MIP platform, testing it in markets in which he or she has an interest. Throughout the field, and local implementation cost a little over US$ the subscription, farmers receive four to five SMS alerts 200,000. with relevant information throughout the day. According to RML’s managing director, Amit Mehra, the pilot farmers Looking to the future, DataDyne plans to expand the use greatly preferred automated messages instead of having to of MIP based on use of the successful mobile data col- ask for them. Initial studies show that farmers who receive lection tool, EpiSurveyor (http://www.episurveyor.org). the service are receiving 5–10 percent more income. (See EpiSurveyor, available via the Internet, can be used free of IPS “Impact of Immediate Market Information in Aisa and charge by everyone who wants to collect data, unless they Africa� in Topic Note 9.3 for additional details on farmers’ have very heavy needs or require new functions. After a gains through RML.) little more than a year, more than 2,500 organizations in more than 140 countries are using EpiSurveyor, 99 percent of them for free. The same model will be used for MIP. If Impact new functions are needed, DataDyne can tailor the system Today, the application is one of India’s largest market accordingly and charge a fee for doing so, but it will auto- information services, serving hundreds of thousands of matically make the new functions available for free to other paying customers in tens of thousands of villages. Via users. In the case of heavy data requirements, DataDyne SMS, it delivers highly personalized, professional informa- will charge a US$ 5,000 annual license fee. There will also tion to India’s farming community, covering more than be a charge related to the cost of SMS messages, because 250 crops, 1,000 markets, and 3,000 weather locations IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 67 IMAGE 3.3: The Reuters Market Light Interface Source: Medianama. across 13 Indian states in 8 local languages (Mehra 2010) voice messages so that illiterate farmers are able to use the (image 13.3). The impact is likely even larger than Reuters service. Best of all, the service is free and benefits from the can count due to the widespread sharing of informa- partnership of India’s largest MNO (Bharti Airtel), which views tion that takes place within informal farmer networks. the service as a way to attract new customers in rural areas. Additionally, RML today has hundreds of employees, many of whom are trained as dedicated price collectors in mar- According to Mr. Mehra, reaching economies of scale is kets throughout India. essential for profitability. Media reports suggest that RML had invested US$ 2 million by late 2009 and expected to break even within a few more years. In 2009, RML report- Continuing Competition for Clients edly crossed the US$ 1 million sales mark. Farmers seem Reuters Market Light has sought to reach as many cus- willing to pay for the service—indeed, they are paying for tomers as possible through a number of strategies. RML longer periods of service than they were before. Up to 2008, has attempted to avoid exclusive partnerships with MNOs, most farmers purchased quarterly installments of the ser- though in some cases it has found that telecommunications vice. Today, the half-year and one-year plans are becoming firms provide a strong value proposition (notably through more popular (Preethi 2009). It also partnered with Nokia sales reach and providing a subscriber catalog that could as an information supplier for Nokia’s Life Tools application. lessen customer turnover). To make it easy for unregistered There are plans to bring the service to Afghanistan and Africa users to try the service before committing to a subscription, (Reuters Market Light 2009). RML has set up sales offices through the postal network, local shops, input suppliers, and banks. Customers can Providing Customized Information Requires Wide obtain RML in basic SMS through prepaid scratch cards Network of People that give access to the service for a given amount of time— initially only 1 month, but now 3, 6, and 12 months. After RML and its competitors suffer from the high expense of much experimentation, pricing has settled at Rs 60, 175, collecting market information and maintaining sophisticated 350 and 650, respectively. (For details of the technology and technological infrastructure. RML sources information from business model, see IPS “First Mover Advantage Benefits various content providers and sorts, organizes, and personal- Reuters Market Light�in Topic Note 2.4 in Module 2.) izes it for dissemination. A significant portion of this informa- tion comes through partnerships with agricultural institutes. Although a leading example, RML is hardly a monopoly. It These institutes are typically government funded but lack competes with both traditional information services (radio, the means to disseminate the information. Students and market intermediaries, newspapers) and other services that researchers in these institutes contribute content relevant use mobile phones. IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) to RML, which includes it in their package and delivers it to offers similar market information for rural farmers but uses farmers (Preethi 2009). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 68 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT To process the information, RML employs over 300 office to create a rich ecosystem to deliver the services. Content staff in eight states. The teams are organized according to is divided into: content area and include a news division that scours media  Basic agriculture, at Rs 30 per month, provides tips sources for agricultural news (pest and disease reports, on technique and news. government programs, weather reports, and local news).  Premium agriculture, at Rs 60 per month, addition- The information is finely sorted by geography. Farmers are ally offers market prices and weather updates. informed if a particular market in a village is closed or if  Education, also Rs 30 rupee per month, provides a pest or disease could affect their specific crops (Preethi simple English courses and exam preparation ser- 2009). vices. For an additional Rs 30, the General Knowledge The importance of customized information is highly evident option provides daily world news. in RML’s operations. As much as technical acumen is impor-  Entertainment at Rs 30 per months provides regional tant in mobile phone interventions, RML shows that a wide news, astrological predictions, cricket news, and ring- network of people—in this case, price collectors, agricul- tone downloads. tural institutes, and other information providers—is another The agriculture service, available across 18 states, offers two essential ingredient. plans. The basic plan, at 30 rupees (Rs) per month, provides daily weather updates and agricultural news, advice, and tips. The premium plan, at Rs 60 per month, provides the closest INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY market prices for three crops chosen by the subscriber, as Nokia Life Tools Uses Simple Technologies to Deliver New Functionality well as weather information, news, advice, and tips. Nokia Life Tools supports 11 Indian languages: Hindi, Malayalam, Nokia is famous for making the low-cost handsets that sit Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati, in more pockets than the products of any other manufac- Oriya, and English. turer.10 More recently, the Finnish mobile phone maker has begun developing mobile applications for its phones, Because most subscribers are prepaid users who do not and low-income communities are one of its primary audi- have a contract, the charges are subtracted weekly. To facili- ences. The most notable of these efforts is Nokia Life tate this payment, Nokia has partnered with the MNO IDEA Tools, unveiled in mid-2009 for the Indian market and sub- Cellular. sequently expanded to other countries (China, Indonesia, and Nigeria) (O’Brien 2010). Nokia believes that hyperlocalization is key to the suc- cess of this service. The Indian application was launched Life Tools is aimed at rural, predominantly agricultural com- with nine local languages, and future expansions will munities of the developing world. It is available on a number of Nokia handsets that retail for much less than US$ 50, and IMAGE 3.4: The Agriculture Package in Nokia Life Tools despite the application’s rich graphic elements (image 3.4), it uses SMS to communicate, making it affordable and widely accessible. Additionally, because SMS can be delayed, users need not have perpetual network coverage. The application is a prime example of how simple technologies can be tweaked to bring about new functionality. In India, Nokia has collaborated with multiple partners across the Indian government and private enterprises, including Tata DOCOMO, MSAMB, Syngenta, Pearson, RML, and EnableM 10 The material for this case study was drawn primarily from Koh (2009). Source: Nokia. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 69 reformulate Life Tools for the unique conditions of new Goyal. A. 2010. “Information, Direct Access to Farmers, and Rural countries and regions. Market Performance in Central India.� American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2(3):22–45. The key lesson is that Nokia’s mobile application recognizes Gakuru, M., K. Winters, and F. 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IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 71 Module 4: EXTENDING THE BENEFITS: GENDER- EQUITABLE, ICT-ENABLED AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT CRISTINA MANFRE (Cultural Practice, LLC) IN THIS MODULE Overview. Although information communication technology (ICT) provides powerful tools for spreading valuable agricul- tural information and thus boosting productivity and incomes, it is important for projects that use ICT to carefully consider gender equity during planning and implementation. This module discusses how socioeconomic and cultural factors can affect access to and use of ICTs and offers strategies for the equitable introduction of ICTs. Topic Note 4.1: Entry Points for ICT and Gender in Agriculture. After highlighting key gender differences and inequali- ties, this topic note discusses ways in which ICTs can help even the playing field in the agricultural sector. ICTs can benefit women directly, through greater access to information and services, or indirectly, by improving the efficiency and transparency of systems already in place, such as government regulatory bodies or supply chains.  Community Knowledge Worker Initiative in Uganda OVERVIEW  Asset inequality has been shown to have negative The resurgence of agriculture on the development agenda impacts on growth in the agriculture sector (Birdsall, has come with the recognition of the need to engage the Ross, and Sabot 1995; Deininger and Squire 1998; full range of actors to reduce food insecurity and poverty, Sabates-Wheeler 2004.). This includes differences in from men and women smallholder farmers to multinational men’s and women’s access to land, labor, inputs, and food corporations. There is now broad consensus that bol- human and financial capital. These inequalities reduce stering the participation and position of smallholder farm- the potential total gains in yields and output by an esti- ers in agriculture is key to economic growth in developing mated 20–30 percent and 2.5–4 percent, respectively countries. Smallholder farmers are not an undifferentiated (FAO 2011). group, and the process of their integration must account for  Women are important actors at multiple levels of the differences in their assets, knowledge, and capabilities the agricultural value chain as unpaid family workers, if the most gains are to be made. Specifically, investments wage workers, traders, and entrepreneurs. According in smallholder farmers and other stakeholders must account to recent estimates, women comprise 43 percent of for gender inequalities and the differences between men and the agricultural labor force worldwide. This percentage women that constrain growth and reduce opportunities for however, masks regional variations and differences improving the livelihoods and well-being of rural and urban across and within countries. For example, in Sub- poor populations. Saharan Africa and East Asia they make up 60 percent of the agricultural labor force (FAO 2011). Given this While both men and women contribute to the sector, they do high rate of participation, it is clear that harnessing so in different ways as a result of differences in their access women’s full potential would have a significant impact to productive resources, their beliefs and perceptions about on agricultural growth. appropriate work for them, and other factors that limit their  Abundant evidence shows that increasing women’s full participation. This observation is widely acknowledged access to income has beneficial human capital and supported by empirical evidence that underscores why development effects through investments in the addressing gender issues is important for inclusive agricul- health and education of children (Quisumbing 2003; tural development. Empirical evidence includes: Ranis, Stewart, and Ramires 2000; Smith et al. 2003). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 72 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING TH E BENEFITS : GEND ER -EQUITA BLE, ICT-ENA B LED A GR ICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT Reducing the barriers that limit women’s access to BOX 4.1: Key Constraints Restricting Women’s Access income and supporting gender equality are therefore to ICTs important for improving well-being and reducing the nonmonetary dimensions of poverty.  Lack of financial resources to secure the use of ICTs In recent decades, ICT tools have been heralded for  Higher levels of technological and language illit- their ability to reduce transaction and information costs. eracy among women and girls Development programs are attracted to the potential ICTs  Norms that discourage women and girls from embody for bringing technology solutions to poverty reduc- using technology tion. The objective of this module is to explore the interplay  Lack of control over and ownership of technology between gender issues and ICT applications in agricultural Source: E-Agriculture and GenARDIS 2011. development. It considers the full range of ICT applica- tions—from well-established technologies, such as radio and television, to more recent innovations in mobile technologies and applications. Given the explicit focus of this module on performance in agricultural development depends on whether gender categories, it begins with a short overview of gender they are designed to accommodate men’s and women’s dif- issues in agriculture, which is followed by a discussion of ferent capabilities and opportunities. Differences in educa- how gender inequalities affect the applicability and use of tion and literacy between and among men and women will ICTs. The Topic Note explores how ICTs can address some limit the effectiveness of certain ICTs. Although the global of the key challenges men and women face in agriculture literacy rate for adult and young women has increased over and provides practitioners guidelines and recommendations. the last decade and stands at 79 percent and 87 percent The module concludes with an Innovative Practice Summary respectively, significant disparities persist at the regional that describes how the Community Knowledge Worker pro- level (image 4.1). In Sub-Saharan Africa and South-Central gram in Uganda is attempting to reach both men and women Asia, the gender gap in adult literacy ranges from 7 to farmers. 24 percentage points. Roughly 70 percent of young women and 79 percent of young men are literate in Africa (United Nations 2010, 45–47). With the proliferation of audio- and Gender Dimensions of ICTs video-based technologies, there are more alternatives to The advent of new ICTs and applications creates new oppor- literacy-dependent content and technology. The Sustainable tunities for men and women in agriculture. Nonetheless, Tree Crops Program in Ghana delivers training to cocoa challenges remain. ICTs do not inherently IMAGE 4.1: Levels of Literacy Affects Women’s Participation in reduce inequalities. The “digital divide� Agriculture Learning exists because men and women within and across developed and developing countries have different opportunities to use and access ICTs. Access and use of ICTs is determined by the availability of the physical infrastructure on which ICTs depend as well as socioeconomic factors such as knowledge and skills, which are often mediated by gender, class, and race. Generally, rural women in devel- oping countries are among those who have the least access to ICTs, a result of constraints (see box 4.1) that affect them with greater intensity than other groups are affected. The potential for ICTs to be effective in facilitating women’s entry into and Source: Ray Litlin, World Bank. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 73 farmers using the Farmer Field School methodology and KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS Video Viewing Clubs. Illiterate and semiliterate women Despite the clear advantages that exist for using ICT to farmers are the primary target for the video clubs. The increase and extend agricultural innovation and improve clubs host facilitated discussions that are complemented coordination among different stakeholders, two specific by a 10–15 minute video on a range of integrated crop and challenges reduce the potential for ICT applications to con- pest management topics. Thirty-two out of 56 video clubs tribute to gender-equitable agriculture development. First, were women-only clubs, and the remaining were mixed- smallholder farmers are often considered an undifferentiated sex groups (World Cocoa Foundation 2011; Chan 2010, group of beneficiaries, with the same needs and the same appendix). opportunities. Second, ICTs are assumed to be gender neu- tral, that men and women have the same ability to access, Greater integration of ICTs into information dissemination sys- use, and control ICTs. Combined, these challenges present tems has the potential to reduce information costs significantly a different landscape of the potential opportunities and con- for both public and private entities. Since men and women straints to using ICTs to enhance agricultural gains; one in are responsible for managing different crops and livestock and which gender plays a central role in determining how men undertake different agricultural tasks, the potential for ICTs to and women participate in agricultural activities, access ICTs, address gender issues in value chains can only be achieved if and derive benefits from agricultural growth. Therefore, prac- the content is tailored to provide information and services that titioners must carefully consider how to optimize the ben- are relevant to women and men. As an example of why this is efits of ICT in specific contexts where men and women may critical, extension services have failed to account for women’s have different opportunities and capabilities. The following information needs, focusing heavily on tasks and products strategies and enablers focus on overcoming the challenges dominated by men (FAO, IFAD, and ILO 2010). A better apprecia- associated with using ICT in agriculture, with a specific focus tion of the types of information needed is required. In addition, on the gender implications involved. content for applications should be developed in local languages and use a variety of media, including text, audio, and video. Conduct a gender analysis to identify opportunities on how ICTs can enhance current practices. The analy- ICT use in value chains must account for norms that limit sis should describe where and how men and women par- women’s access to, use of, and control over ICTs. Women ticipate in the specific value chain or agricultural activity. may not have the same control as men over the radio dial, It should capture what information and services men and mobile phones, or the television, which can impede their women farmers need and how they are currently meeting ability to use these technologies for their own purposes. In those needs. It should also assess what ICTs are already in Uganda, rural women form listening groups to gather for spe- use and the type of access men and women have to them cial radio programs produced by and for women (WB, FAO, (direct or mediated). Sex-disaggregated data on education and IFAD 2009). Resources to use ICTs can also be a con- and income, as well as attitudes toward technology use straint for some women. Recent research on mobile phone should also be collected to help identify the most appropri- use, however, suggests that rural women will divert income ate ICT application. away from other uses to pay for phones (GSMA 2010). This indicates that women value the benefits of mobile phones Develop appropriate content to meet the needs of and suggests that using phones as a platform for delivering women and men farmers. Women farmers’ needs and other extension and services could yield greater results. activities are often overlooked in the design of extension service and delivery. Their on-farm activities can differ from ICTs cannot solve all the gender-related disadvantages men’s by crop and livestock. Women and men take part in women and men face in value chain development or in other different production, processing, and marketing activities agricultural activities, but they can alleviate challenges that even when they are working in the same value chain. As are intensified by the constraints on women’s time and a result, women and men farmers do not always share the mobility. Women may not be able to frequent public Internet same information needs. For ICT applications to improve the cafés, but mobile phones can provide an alternative means productivity of women and men farmers, it is necessary to of gathering and exchanging information on market prices. ensure that appropriate content is developed for them. Short message service (SMS) technology allows this infor- mation to be sent directly to women with mobile phones Consider using a range of ICTs. While the inclination without requiring them to travel or interrupt activities. may be to find ways of integrating the most cutting-edge E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 74 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING TH E BENEFITS : GEND ER -EQUITA BLE, ICT-ENA B LED A GR ICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT technology into value chains, practitioners should recog- ensure that payment is distributed to reward the man or nize the infrastructure constraints as well as gender-based woman responsible for the labor. constraints that can limit the effectiveness of these tech- nologies. Programs need to identify what ICTs are most Identify employment opportunities for women with appropriate for overcoming specific constraints and must agricultural-related ICT service providers. The potential avoid the temptation to design programs around ICTs. for women to find employment with agricultural-related ICT Using the radio arguably remains one of the most effective service providers should not be overlooked. Much of the means of reaching farmers in the field because the infra- literature reviewed for this module outlined the benefits of structure already exists. Reports indicate that combined ICT applications for farmers, buyers, or the value chain as ICT programming—using radio and mobile phone, might a whole. Little research exists that examines the potential provide new opportunities for women (see IPS “Farm for creating new ICT-related employment opportunities for Radio International Involves Men and Women Farmers� in men or women in agriculture. However, the research sug- Module 6). Although there can be disputes over control of gests at least two areas of opportunity for women. First, the radio, programming can be designed to interest both women can be employed as call center consultants and men and women farmers. operators, for example, with M-Kilimo, delivering agricul- tural information to farmers. This may be a particularly Use ICTs to complement existing information channels. attractive option for women agricultural extension officers Men and women farmers are already exchanging informa- who find it challenging to travel to remote districts to meet tion. Often through word-of-mouth, farmers share farming with farmers. Second, rural women should be recruited and practices, experiences with different inputs, preparation of trained at the village-level to act as information intermedi- different crops for consumption, and so on. Women espe- aries for other farmers (see IPS “Community Knowledge cially rely on these channels because their time and mobil- Worker Initiative in Uganda�). ity constraints often limit their exposure to new information providers. ICTs can support and enhance these informa- Design two-way ICT programs to collect and dissemi- tion channels by providing access to expertise and more nate information. The transmission of information through up-to-date information. In Uganda, the Women of Uganda ICTs must consider not only “pushing out,� but also “pulling Network (http://www.wougnet.org) relies on the strength in� information. In gathering data on farmers, it is critical to of locally developed information channels to increase the ensure that the data being collected are sex-disaggregated. audience for its services. Women’s groups are given a This includes sex-disaggregated data to fill long-standing mobile phone and a radio cassette player that are used to gaps in information on land holdings, productivity, and listen to local agricultural radio shows, call extension offi- labor force participation. Although increasing the volume of cers, or share information between groups. Information agricultural data is important, a real innovation would be to is disseminated in the local language and the groups are make sure that the data are collected separately for men and encouraged to spread the word to other women farmers women so that the data could be used to improve our under- through word-of-mouth. The program has been successful standing of the gender-based constraints and opportunities in part because it worked within channels that were familiar in agriculture. Establishing mechanisms for men and women to women; in this case, the radio and extension officers to become cocreators of knowledge products will enhance (GSMA 2010). understanding of innovation occurring at the local level or for capturing men’s and women’s climate adaption and mitiga- Develop direct relationships with men and women farm- tion strategies. ers. The most recent ICT innovations will fail to bring women into agricultural programs if leaders and practitioners are not Develop gender-equitable national or regional ICT pol- intentional about engaging women directly. Buyers, exten- icy. The gender dimensions of rural infrastructure and the sion agents, input suppliers, and other service providers enabling environment are also important to consider; ICTs must reward the appropriate individuals for their participation can only impact women’s lives if infrastructure reaches them in the value chain. Because ICTs reduce overall transaction and appropriate policies and programs are in place to address cost for firms, this can allow firms to invest more in devel- poverty and gender issues in accessing and using ICTs. oping relationships directly with their suppliers. Firms can Box 4.2 provides an example of policy recommendations for contract men and women separately and, more importantly, equitable rural infrastructure development. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 75 BOX 4.2: Policy Recommendations for Gender-Aware Universal Access and Rural Development 1. Improve and expand rural infrastructure by focusing on public shared access facilities, with special focus on wireless technologies and electrical power sources. Policy efforts should make sure infrastructure extends into rural and remote areas. 2. Invest in and promote shared access for rural communities. Community-based approaches can overcome barriers to individual ownership and provide the setting for additional training programs. 3. Promote and support the development of local content in local languages. Local language content will improve the accessibility and inclusiveness of ICT applications. It can also serve as an opportunity to capture and record local practices and knowledge. 4. Support adult literacy programs in rural areas. Although many ICTs make use of audio and video to over- come illiteracy, ongoing support for adult literacy remains an important issue to address. 5. Promote and facilitate the establishment of public-private partnerships in the implementation of rural projects. As the overview module revealed, both public and private actors are integrating a range of ICTs in agri- cultural value chains (see Module 1). Collaboration between them can reduce costs and help extend the benefits to a greater number of individuals. Source: Adapted from Association for Progressive Communications 2010. To pic Note 4.1: ENTRY POINTS FOR ICT AND GENDER IN AGRICULTURE TRENDS AND ISSUES land it is often of smaller size and lesser quality. Furthermore, For actors within the agriculture sector to equitably imple- access to land facilitates access to other inputs, producer ment ICT solutions, it is critical that they understand the basic associations, and contract farming opportunities. For example, issues surrounding gender-related inequity within the sector. women’s formal participation in contract farming is mixed and This topic note reviews key gender issues (for a thorough is constrained by lack of access to land and financial resources treatment of these issues, see the Gender in Agriculture (Schneider and Gugerty 2010). As a result, it varies from one Sourcebook, http://worldbank.org/genderinag) and discusses location to another. Research by Masakure and Henson (2005, ways in which ICTs can be used to address these issues. cited in Schneider and Gugerty 2010) found that in Zimbabwe, 61 percent of contract farmers in vegetables were women. According to Dolan (2001), women made up only 10 percent of Gender Differences and Inequalities in Agriculture farmers in the fresh fruit and vegetable sectors in Kenya. As the following sections illustrate, gender disparities in the agriculture sector are prevalent and often quantifiable. These Even when women have access or user rights to land, their disparities tend to arise from a combination of socioeco- access to labor, inputs, information, and training is less than nomic and cultural factors. men’s. Women have fewer resources to hire labor compared to men, who have greater financial resources and are able Gender Inequalities in Access to Productive Resources to mobilize the labor of their spouses and other family mem- Relative to men, women generally have less access to land, bers. Women are often left out of agricultural extension and labor, information, education and training, and inputs. Intra- training programs because men are the socially recognized household dynamics and social and legal institutions affect farmers even when they are not the principal manager of access to and accumulation of these resources by men and a farm. Globally, only an estimated 5 percent of agricultural women. Access to land and secure property rights are critical to extension resources are directed toward women (FAO increasing agricultural productivity. Women’s ownership of land 2011). A 2008 study found that women in Vietnam made up lags behind men’s around the world, and when they do hold 25 percent of an animal husbandry training program and just E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 76 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING TH E BENEFITS : GEND ER -EQUITA BLE, ICT-ENA B LED A GR ICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT 10 percent of crop cultivation training (Kabeer 2008, cited in be spent. While women often have control over the small FAO, IFAD, and ILO 2010). In Senegal, a 1998/1999 census amounts of income they generate through local sale of food revealed that men plot managers received extension ser- and other microenterprises, larger sums of money are often vices three times more than women plot managers (ibid.). controlled or can be appropriated by men. On smallholder farms, married women and daughters work as unpaid family Women’s Mobility and Time Constraints laborers with the expectation that income derived from the Social norms that place the responsibility for productive and sale of crops will return to the household. For example, a 1993 reproductive activities on women create time and mobility study of the Kenyan tea sector found that marital conflicts constraints that limit their ability to participate in other activi- increased when women did not have the access they had ties. The disproportionate distribution of reproductive tasks in expected to the income they earned for the household (Von particular mean that women have less time to invest in train- Bulow and Sorensen 1993 cited in Schneider and Gugerty ing and capacity building opportunities (image 4.2). Women 2010). Also in Kenya, women supplied 72 percent of the labor in India spend 354 minutes a day, compared to 36 minutes by inputs in French beans but received only 38 percent of the men on household activities including cooking and caring for income (Dolan 2001). This means they have few incentives to children (Budlender 2009). In Tanzania, women spend 270 participate in agricultural activities. Not receiving their fair share minutes and men 54 minutes on daily tasks (ibid). In com- of income impedes their ability to invest in upgrading strate- parison to their urban counterparts, rural women spend even gies that would improve their performance in value chains and more time in activities such as collecting water and fetching also reduces their ability to access risk management instru- firewood because they have less access to basic services. ments, through the purchase of insurance or accumulation of These activities translate into less time to invest in network- assets. Furthermore, unequal bargaining power and control ing, communicating with buyers, and developing market over resources in the household limits the positive impact of skills to further their productive activities. This also limits integrating smallholder women farmers into value chains. time available to learn about and become familiar with ICTs. How ICT Can Improve Women’s Access to Agriculture Women’s Lack of Access to Income Services and Agribusiness Women’s participation in agricultural supply chains is not If approached properly, ICT can improve women’s ability to act always commensurate with the benefits they derive from effectively and productively in agriculture. New applications their labor. Gender norms often set expectations about who and cheaper devices have created opportunities for women controls income and the decision making over how it will to engage in agriculture in ways previously unavailable to them. The following section highlights these opportunities. IMAGE 4.2: Women Often Integrate Domestic Roles with Others Facilitating Women’s Access to Agricultural Information, Market Prices, and Services Whether it is a radio program, a video, a text message, or a phone call, one of the most important contributions of ICTs to agricultural development is the ability to disseminate critical informa- tion to farmers through a diversity of channels. Real-time and cost-effective information on weather, market prices, diseases and pests, and services allows farmers, especially women farmers who may not otherwise have access to this type of information, to make more informed decisions about land preparation, planting, harvesting, and marketing. ICTs can help increase Source: John Issac, World Bank. women’s access to information and IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 77 services which can in turn close gender gaps in yields and 2010). Organic farming requires the intensive management of productivity. information about agricultural production to meet certification standards and is therefore well suited for ICT use. The project Kenya’s largest call center and business processing opera- helps women use ICTs for business management and market- tor, KenCall, developed the Kenya Farmer Helpline known as ing. It teaches participants how to create an e-mail address, “M-Kilimo� (http://www.m-kilimo.com/), with support from the how to access information on markets and prices for their Rockefeller Foundation, to improve the transfer of knowledge products, how to enter financial and agricultural data about to farmers. The service provides an interactive alternative to their vegetable production, and how to market their products. agricultural information services delivery via mobile phones. Instead of receiving messages via SMS, farmers can talk to Improving Coordination Between Women Farmers a real person to get agricultural expertise and information and Other Actors in the Value Chain to help them make informed decisions on land preparation, As the previous examples have made clear, ICTs can facilitate planting, pest management, and marketing. Farmers receive greater communication between farmers and other service pro- information in English, Swahili, or other local languages. In viders, like extension agents. They reduce the time and coor- its first 18 months of operation, the program reached 25,000 dination challenges between different actors, allowing farmers farmers. An estimated 43 percent of callers are women farm- to receive better information on product specifications and vol- ers (GSMA 2010). umes, coordinate transport, and deliver goods at times when Collaboration between Bharti Airtel and Indian Farmer’s they can secure the best prices. ICTs can also improve the Fertiliser Co-operative (IFFCO) led to the development of a functioning of producer groups, recording financial accounts, similar program in India. The IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Ltd. Agri registration, and management processes—but women will Helpline aims to provide information, inputs, and services in only benefit from these efficiency gains if they can access the real time through affordable mobile communication. Farmers associations and are also trained to use ICTs (see Module 8 on can purchase a “Green SIM� card that allows them to receive farmers organizations). For women, ICTs that reduce the need five free voicemail messages daily on a range of agricultural to travel to speak with an input supplier, buyer, or transporter topics. In addition, the service provides a helpline farmers helps overcome their time and mobility constraints. can call to ask questions. Although women reportedly make up a number of the listeners of the daily messages, they are Enhancing Transparency in Governance, Business only 13 percent of direct users (Pshenichnaya 2011). The Registration, and Land Administration majority of SIM card holders are men. (See also IPS “Long A number of different modules in this Sourcebook describe Experience in Farm Communities Benefits IFFCO Kisan the advantages of integrating ICTs into governance and Sanchar Limited� in Module 2.) administrative procedures in the agriculture sector. (See, for example, Module 13 and Module 14.) Improving the timeli- Also in India, the Self Employed Women’s Association (http:// ness, accuracy, and transparency of these processes are www.sewaict.org) provides current and future commodity among the key advantages of ICTs. These same benefits prices, which allow members to make more informed deci- can be applied to support gender-equitable objectives. More sions about when and where to sell their produce. Women accurate and transparent record keeping can identify the with mobile phones can receive SMS messages directly, gender gaps in land administration and provide information to while women without mobile phones can visit a computer- advocacy groups supporting women’s land rights For women based village notice board that also posts the prices. To traders and entrepreneurs, increasing the efficiency of busi- overcome illiteracy constraints, the association is piloting an ness registration and customs facilitation can ease time bur- interactive voice response system that would provide the dens and may also reduce opportunities for corruption. same information using speech recognition software. Initial results from the pilot indicate that over 20,000 women are using the system (GSMA 2010). Contributing to the Collection of Sex-Disaggregated Agricultural Data Knowing & Growing, a collaboration between Networked The lack of sex-disaggregated agricultural data is a frequently Intelligence for Development and the Jamaica Organic cited constraint to understanding women’s contributions to Agriculture Movement, offers training for women producers and benefits from the agriculture sector. Agricultural census in the English-speaking Caribbean on how to grow organic data in many countries are not sex-disaggregated, and donor- vegetables and use ICTs to manage their farms (Tandon funded agricultural development programs have been slow E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 78 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING TH E BENEFITS : GEND ER -EQUITA BLE, ICT-ENA B LED A GR ICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT to recognize the importance of assessing gender-differenti- Some of the most impressive innovations are occurring ated results. ICT applications alone will not motivate change in the mobile money and mobile banking fields. These in the behavior of these institutions, but they can ease the applications are helping rural and underserved populations burden of gathering and recording sex-disaggregated data on obtain financial services that allow them to weather emer- farmers, suppliers, buyers, and other stakeholders. Whether gencies and risks associated with jobs and harvest loss obtained through the use of AgriManagr software or by (Plyler, Haas, and Nagarajan 2010). The most well-known registering farmers when they call into M-Kilimo, these data of these services is M-PESA (see IPS “M-PESA Pioneering provide more information about the needs, capabilities, pro- Money Transfer Service� in Module 2), a mobile phone- ductivity, and earnings of farmers, both men and women. based service for sending and storing money offered by Safaricom in Kenya. Other mobile phone service provid- Improving sex-disaggregated data offers additional benefits ers, like Zain and MTN, have replicated these services on to farmers. As described in Module 10 on ICT applications their networks. for building inclusive supply chains, AgriManagr’s records include a history of previous transactions and earnings, The importance of these technologies for women is quickly which serves as a proxy of the farmer’s creditworthiness. becoming clear. The number of women m-Pesa subscrib- This information acts as a type of credit history and collateral ers in Kenya rose from 38 percent of users in 2008 to 44 that can facilitate access to loans and credit. Establishing a percent in 2009 (Jack 2010). Women are found among the recorded history of women’s farming experience and credit- rural receivers of transfers of regular sums of cash that worthiness may go a long way in increasing their access to act as a source of income or lump sums to pay for school credit and other financial services, especially since they often fees or inputs (Morawczynski and Pickens 2009). One of lack other forms of collateral, such as land. the advantages of m-Pesa and other similar services is that they allow women to receive transfers of cash without a Improving Women’s Control Over Income and Access bank account, or needing to travel to the bank or the post to Financial Services office. Among the most valued effects of m-Pesa, women report the ability to accumulate cash and keep it secure, Women’s lack of access to income is a significant constraint presumably from other family members, neighbors, or on their participation and productivity in agriculture. Without others. access to and control over income, women are unable to accumulate lump sums to pay for inputs and services or invest Opportunity International is adding another layer to improv- in upgrading activities. Moreover, when women contribute to ing women’s secure access to income. Using smartcards agricultural activities without seeing the income invested in and biometric fingerprint technology, clients in developing the household, they lack the incentives to improve their posi- countries, globally of whom 84 percent are women, are tion in agricultural value chains (image 4.3). able to open a bank account without formal identification IMAGE 4.3: Women Can Play a Significant Role in (Opportunity International 2011). Clients receive a smartcard Acquiring Family Income that is associated with their fingerprint which allows only them to access the banking services. This technology is complemented by an expansion of kiosks, ATMs, vans, and handheld point-of-sale devices that increase the mobility and availability of banking services in rural areas. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Community Knowledge Worker Initiative in Uganda It is easy to understate the impact mobile technology has had on our world. Mobile phones and the growth of tech- nology applications associated with them have changed Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank. the way we communicate with others, stay informed, IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 79 and network with colleagues, friends, and peers. More This Innovative Practice Summary focuses on the Commun- importantly, their impact has not been limited to users ity Knowledge Worker initiative (http://www.grameen in developed countries. Mobile phones are in the hands foundation.applab.org/ckw/section/index) implemented of the young and old, men and women, urban activists, by Grameen Foundation in Uganda. A pilot phase for the and rural farmers in developing and developed countries. project occurred between December 2008 and August The expectation is that the number of subscribers, espe- 2009, and much of the information in this summary draws cially women subscribers, is set to increase. Emerging on lessons learned from that period.1 The project was research is exploring the links between mobile phones and implemented with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates economic growth, and finding some interesting connec- Foundation (BMGF) and in collaboration with MTN-Uganda, tions (box 4.3) (see also Module 3 for more details on the the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), impacts of mobile phones). and Uganda’s National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO). A number of other organizations supported tech- nology development, farmer organization, and other com- BOX 4.3: Mobile Phones and Economic Growth ponents of the project. After the pilot phase, the project  A 2007 report by Deloitte found a 10% increase received a four-year follow-on grant from BMGF to scale in mobile phone penetration is linked to a 1.2% operations to the rest of the country. increase in GDP in low- and middle-income countries. Program Objective and Description  In India, 3.6 million jobs were created, directly The Community Knowledge Worker initiative aims to build a and indirectly, in the mobile phone industry. The cross-country network of village-level information interme- industry is expected to continue to add a million diaries that deliver agricultural information to smallholder jobs annually. farmers through mobile technology. The program targets  Mobile phones contributed to a 62% and 59% smallholder men and women farmers who live on less than increase in profits in South Africa and Egypt, US$ 2 a day. It develops mobile services and applications respectively. that Community Knowledge Workers (CKWs) use to provide Source: GSMA 2010. smallholder farmers with actionable and real-time agricul- tural information. Farmers can receive agricultural tips and advice, weather forecasts, market prices, an input supplier According to research conducted by GSMA (2010), there are directory, and detailed farming information on crops and 1.25 billion people in low- and middle-income countries that livestock. live in areas with mobile network coverage but who do not The program identifies, recruits, and trains community own mobile phones. Women were found to be less likely to members to act as trusted information intermediaries for own a mobile phone than a man, with the incidence being farmers. In the pilot phase, 38 CKWs were recruited and higher in Africa (23 percent), the Middle East (24 percent), trained. CKWs provided on average 15 services to farmers and South Asia (37 percent). The study found that among per week and responded to more than 8,000 queries on women in low- and middle-income countries, 26 percent organic agricultural techniques for bananas and coffee, mar- could benefit from mobile communications but do not, com- ket prices, location and contact information for input dealers, pared to 17 percent of men. This means that an additional and banana disease control. Multiple mobile applications 750 million women and 500 million men potential mobile were deployed for accessing and disseminating informa- phone subscribers exist. While the market potential for tion to farmers (see IPS “Community Knowledge Workers expanding mobile phones in developing countries is there, in Uganda Link Farmers and Experts to Cope with Risk� in it is important to understand from a development perspec- Module 11 for complete list). tive how closing the mobile phone gap translates into better outcomes for men and women in terms of income genera- tion, poverty reduction, and improved well-being. One such avenue is by using mobile phones to reduce gender gaps in 1 This section was developed using Grameen Foundation 2011a performance in agricultural value chains. and Grameen Foundation 2011b. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 80 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING TH E BENEFITS : GEND ER -EQUITA BLE, ICT-ENA B LED A GR ICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT A second line of action was data collection. CKWs were becoming CKWs and tailor the information for women farm- trained on survey techniques to collect information for the ers’ needs. Uganda Commodity Exchange, the World Food Program, IITA, and NARO. Over 6,000 surveys were conducted on top- Women were found to face higher entry barriers to ics ranging from smallholder bulking and marketing behavior becoming CKWs than men. First, although relying on part- to banana disease incidence. Demographic and baseline data ners to identify and recruit potential CKWs was found to on farmer households was also collected and weekly cus- be fairly successful, the process was not without its com- tomer satisfaction surveys were conducted. plications. The more decentralized the process, the more political it became, especially with local extension offices. These partners found it more challenging to identify poten- Gender Approach tial women CKWs. Women were also less exposed to the The program committed to ensuring that both men and nominating organizations, which suggested the project women are represented among the CKWs and farmer should think about engaging more women’s organizations beneficiaries. A desire for greater participation by women or other partners that have a greater link to women in the pushed the designers to aim for one-third of CKW nomi- community. nees to be women. The criteria for selecting CKWs included experience in community outreach, being a trusted resi- Relative to men, women have lower education and are dent of the area, literacy, and fluency in English. The initial less likely to be fluent in English, which meant that finding recruitment process did not consider differences in men’s women who met the minimum criteria posed a challenge. and women’s ability to meet these criteria, although it Moreover, women’s higher labor demands, both in the field was acknowledged later that relative to men, women have and in the household, meant they had less time to dedicate lower education levels and are less likely to be fluent in to trainings and to meet with farmers. Although CKWs put English. The project is therefore exploring ways of deliver- in an average of 10 hours of work per week, the pilot found ing agricultural information through voice commands and that women CKWs incurred greater costs both in terms of call centers to allow women and men with lower literacy time and money. Women CKWs had to juggle their CKW levels to become CKWs. To facilitate women’s entry into duties with their household and farm responsibilities, adding the network, the project also provided childcare at training extra time to their day, especially when they had to travel to sessions to alleviate certain time constraints and household conduct surveys. They also incurred financial costs because responsibilities. they hired labor to manage the household or farm activities in their absence. Some women also hired men to ride the The follow-on project developed a more thorough gender bike they were given to conduct outreach and survey activi- and social equity plan. This includes conducting a gender ties while they rode on the back. Finally, some women were and social assessment; a capacity-building plan for staff, found to have less control over the mobile devices than CKWs, and farmer beneficiaries; a policy and advocacy their male counterparts. They had to share the airtime they plan; and a monitoring framework. The plan aims to equip received from the project with their husbands, who were the Grameen Foundation with the tools necessary to not CKWs. implement a gender equitable project, identify like-minded partners to further these goals, and monitor the progress Nonetheless, preliminary research reveals that recruiting of its actions on meeting specific gender-related goals and women CKWs will be important for the program to meet objectives. its goal of reaching women farmers. The program is find- ing that women farmers are more likely to seek advice if the CKW is a woman. Sixty-three percent of women farm- Benefits and Impact ers are receiving their information from a woman CKW. Although the pilot project operated for a short period of Furthermore, women farmers were more likely to return time, there are indications that with greater attention to to a woman CKW than a man CKW (Hahn 2010). Finally, gender issues, the follow-on project could bring significant despite the greater constraints facing women CKWs, there benefits to both men and women. To achieve this, the was no notable difference in the performance of men and project would need to address the barriers women face in women CKWs. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRIC U LTU R E: OPPORTUNITIES, A C C ES S , A ND C R OSS -CUTTING TH EM ES 81 Lessons Learned and Wider IMAGE 4.4: ICT Often Requires Additional Inputs to Be Effective Applicability to Value Chains and Agricultural Extension The CKW project was not designed to alleviate the constraints of a specific value chain, nor was it introduced by an agroprocessing firm. Nonetheless, it could easily have been designed, for example, to procure passion fruit from small- holders for a processing company. The CKW project’s focus on improv- ing access to information relieves a common bottleneck in agricultural value chains—and a pervasive con- straint for women farmers. Lessons learned from this experience have wider applicability to using ICTs to Source: Ray Witlin, World Bank. address gender issues in a range of agricultural value chains: The social and gender contexts matter. Ensuring that ICTs phones into the hands of every man and woman farmer support inclusive agricultural value chains is as much about for them to benefit from the services the mobiles provide. identifying appropriate technology uses as it is about under- The CKW project demonstrates how designing a program standing the context in which they are going to be applied. built on mediated access to ICTs can be effective when As the CKW project discovered, the recruitment process was it is embedded in the social context. Identifying appropri- hampered not only by local power structures but by structural ate leaders to become CKWs can be tricky, but when it is gender inequalities that resulted in fewer women meeting done well, it can overcome several different gender issues. the basic education requirements. Mediated access to ICTs using community leaders can overcome the financial constraints that limit women’s abil- ICT applications have limits. Some problems cannot be ity to purchase their own mobile phones and create issues solved with ICTs (image 4.4). The CKW project identified around control of technology when women have to share strategies to overcome the differences in men’s and wom- devices with spouses. en’s literacy by using video and audio, but addressing local It is important to engage women beyond the farm. While power structures must be addressed through other avenues. it is important to ensure that women farmers receive agricul- For this, the CKW project realized it needed to engage wom- tural information that can help close agricultural productivity en’s groups and other organizations that tap into women’s gaps, it is equally important to identify ways of supporting networks. A project can increase women’s information about their participation in other ways. Like many of us who learn fertilizers, for example, but may have to find other solutions on the job, women can use the farm skills they acquire to to ensure they actually receive them. Recognizing that not all move into related activities, such as information service gender inequalities have an ICT solution is important. This is providers or software developers. This project set a goal to ultimately why gender-based constraints in the value chain recruit women CKWs and found that this helped attract more need to be identified prior to assessing where and how ICTs women to request services from the CKWs. Expanding the can address specific constraints. opportunities for women to participate in the project not only Opportunities for mediated or direct access to ICTs as end-receivers of information but also as service providers must be identified. It is not necessary to put mobile led to better outcomes all around. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 82 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING TH E BENEFITS : GEND ER -EQUITA BLE, ICT-ENA B LED A GR ICULTUR A L D EV ELOPM ENT REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING KenCall. http://www.kencall.com/index.php/site/kenya_farmers _helpline/. 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GSMA Development Fund and Cherie Blair Foundation for Women. 2010. “Women and Mobile: A Global Opportunity.� http://www World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International .cherieblairfoundation.org/uploads/pdf/women_and_mobile_a_ Fund for Agricultural Development. 2009. Gender in Agriculture global_opportunity.pdf. Sourcebook. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Available at http:// worldbank.org/genderinag. Hahn, Jason. 2010. “Engendering the Grameen Foundation’s Work in Uganda.� BMGF Market Access and Farmer Productivity World Cocoa Foundation. 2011. “Sustainable Tree Crops Program— Online Community. Posted December 15. Ghana.� http://www.worldcocoafoundation.org/what-we-do/ current-programs/STCPGhana_Summary.asp. Jack, Billy. 2010. “The Adoption and Impact of M-PESA: A First Look at Some New Data.� GSMA Mobile Money for the Unbanked Blog. October 29. http://mmublog.org/blog/the-adoption-and- impact-of-m-pesa-a-first-look-at-some-new-data/. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E SECTION 2 Enhancing Productivity on the Farm S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 85 Module 5: INCREASING CROP, LIVESTOCK, AND FISHERY PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH ICT EIJA PEHU (World Bank), CORY BELDEN (World Bank), and SUVRANIL MAJUMDAR (World Bank), with input from TEEMU JANTUNEN (FM-International Oy FINNMAP) IN THIS MODULE Overview. How can farmers and governments use ICTs to increase agricultural productivity? At the local level, farmers can use ICTs to match cropping practices to climatic trends, use inputs and resources environmentally and sustainably, and cope with productivity threats. At the national level, public officials can adjust policies to reflect the data collected with ICTs, predict food supplies, and target social programs or promote yield technologies. Integrating ICT into national programs, creating a policy environment conducive for ICT investment, and designing digital systems that are compatible and common can help improve access for users, but social and financial challenges remain. Powerful yet inexpensive tools (and the financial support and training to use them) are not always available for small-scale producers in most devel- oping countries, although some are being developed and piloted. Conducting impact studies and sharing pilot project information can focus and speed development of such ICTs. The productivity goals and technologies used to meet them must match the IT capacity in the focus location. Topic Note 5.1: Achieving Good Farming Practices through Improved Soil, Nutrient, and Land Management. New ICTs help to characterize field conditions, sometimes at a very fine level of detail, and help farmers improve soil and land productivity. Correcting past damages and ensuring future yields will require farmers, governments, and development partners to mitigate the effects of climate change and environmental degradation. Significant, national progress with some of these technologies will require appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks, monitoring systems, and liability, access, and property rights laws and regulations, such as regulations on carbon limits.  Seeing-Is-Believing Project Improves Precision Farming  Improving Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico  Monitoring Livestock to Prevent Pasture Damage Topic Note 5.2: Preventing Yield Losses through Proper Planning and Early Warning Systems. ICTs have consider- able potential to help even small-scale producers prevent losses after investments have been made by identifying and controlling pests and diseases, receiving timely weather information, and improving resource use. At the same time, ICTs allow governments and development partners to better monitor farm productivity, make more accurate projections, and plan better for the future. ICTs should be used to form two-way communication networks that gather and use local knowledge. Advances in ICT are best suited to helping farmers improve their management of one or two farm compo- nents at a time. Development partners and governments need to prioritize which yield technologies or agricultural strate- gies to introduce. Incentives for partnering with the private sector in large-scale ICT projects may enable the investment to reach smallholders. Taking stock of the technical capacity in rural areas will clarify infrastructure needs.  Radio Frequency Identification to Prevent and Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana  Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database for the Dominican Republic  Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation Systems in Mali E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 86 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T OVERVIEW countries, has stagnated in developing countries. Several Agriculture is a vital sector for the sustained growth of regions, particularly East Asia, have seen rice yields decline by developing countries, especially agriculture-based countries 10 percent owing to climate change. The factors contributing such as those in sub-Saharan Africa. Equally important, a to low productivity are vast, including the coevolution of pests significant portion of the world’s population—86 percent of and pathogens, poor infrastructure, soil loss and degradation, rural inhabitants—still depends on agriculture for employ- waterlogging and salinity, the impact of climate change, lack ment and sustenance (World Bank 2007). Demand for food of storage facilities, and weak markets. Low investments in is increasing, too (box 5.1). The Food and Agricultural Policy agricultural research have reduced the scope for innovative Research Institute (FAPRI) estimates that an additional 6 thinking and technological development that could address million hectares of maize and 4 million hectares of wheat these contributing factors and improve productivity. plus a 12 percent increase in global maize and wheat yields Despite the dim outlook on meeting global food demand will be needed to meet demand for cereals alone in the in a sustainable manner, successful social, economic, and next decade (Edgerton 2009). Demand for meat is expand- technological developments have resolved productivity and ing as incomes rise, creating competition for land and other population issues in the past and may hold some hope for resources. Increasingly unstable weather and temperatures the future. For example, over the past 40 years, annual global require adaptive agronomic techniques to meet the demand. cereal production has grown from 420 million to 1.176 million tons (FAO 2000). In the 20th century, yields in the United The average maize yield per hectare in wealthy countries like States rose from 1.6 tons per hectare to 9.5 tons per hectare Canada is three times higher than the average maize yield in (Edgerton 2009). Similarly large increases occurred around low-income countries (FAO 2008). Growth in yields of rice, the world from the mid-1980s to early 2000s, when cereal the primary staple for a significant number of developing yields rose by more than 50 percent (World Bank 2007). BOX 5.1: The Food Security Challenge The lack of food. Increasing agricultural productivity and access to food are the primary development goals of the 21st century. Demand for food has reached new heights, and predictions of future demand are discouraging. Although growth in global demand for cereals will slow in the coming 40 years, demand in sub-Saharan Africa will balloon by as much as 2.6 percent per year.a The food-insecure population in sub-Saharan Africa is also expected to increase by up to 32 percent by 2020, whereas food insecurity is projected to decline in Latin America and Asia.b Overall, the world will need 70–100 percent more food by 2050, when the population increases to 9 billion.c The lack of nutrients. The lack of food is not the only problem. Almost one billion people were undernourished in 2010, and the lack of nutritious food has serious, long-term consequences for physical and mental health. More than one in seven of the world’s people do not receive enough protein and carbohydrates in their daily diets. These people constitute 16 percent of the developing country population.d The rising prices. Even with projected reductions in food insecurity, price spikes could keep staple food out of the reach of poor people. The 2008 price spikes led to starvation in many countries, hitting the net food importers—typically the poorest countries—the hardest. Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda experienced maize prices that were twice as high as in the pre- vious year. In Kenya and Mozambique, prices rose by 50–85 percent, according to the United States Department of Agriculture. Sharp and unexpected price spikes can provoke riots and political instability, aggravating an already precarious food situation. FAO recently predicted that the total costs of food imports would reach a near-record level in 2010, roughly US$ 1 trillion.e The changing climate. Climate change has made the challenges of food security and rising prices even more stark. Continued release of greenhouse gases increases the likelihood of unpredictable weather and temperatures. The severe 2010 droughts and fires in Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan raised wheat prices substantially, leading to grain embargos in multiple countries. Russia’s wheat exports fell by 13 million metric tons in one year.e Pakistan’s floods are another warn- ing of the serious climate changes facing developing countries. The loss of soil nutrients that can accompany climatic extremes makes agricultural land less productive and adds to food insecurity. This prospect is ominous, considering the consistent drop in cereal yields over the last decade.f Source: Authors; (a) Rosegrant et al. 2006; (b) Shapouri et al. 2010; (c) World Bank 2007; (d) FAO 2009; (e) FAO 2010a; (f) Raloff 2010. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 87 Agricultural productivity rose around the world because more Nonetheless, land can be used more intensively as well as land was cultivated and more land was cultivated more inten- more sustainably than in previous years, under innovative sively. Most of the gains were made through intensification. farming practices like precision farming, integrated pest man- Agricultural land expanded by only 11 percent between 1961 agement, agroforestry, and aquaculture (Burney, Davis, and and 2007 (FAO 2009), but between 1960 and 2000, genetic Lobella 2010). Sustainable land intensification, in which yields improvement and agronomic practices contributed to 78 per- rise but negative environmental impacts are curbed, provides cent of the increase in production (Lal 2010). a potential answer to food security and poverty reduction chal- lenges. The sobering consideration, however, is that this type Bringing more land into production is infeasible, not only of intensification cannot occur unless 1.5 billion farmers— because of the growing number of competing uses for land 85 percent of whom farm less than two hectares—obtain and but because of the environmental and social costs involved. use these and other new technologies (World Bank 2007). The drive for agricultural land has often resulted in deforesta- tion, reduced biodiversity, and provoked other forms of envi- If the goal is to achieve sustainable increases in the global ronmental degradation (Balmford, Green, and Scharleman food supply and economic growth, it is important to ask who 2005). It has also removed livelihood opportunities for some is responsible for producing food and commodities. Equally communities and elevated greenhouse gas emissions crucial, it is important to ask if they have access to technology, (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). the knowledge to use it, and the purchasing power to acquire it (Pretty et al. 2006). The world as a whole, all regions, and Given these constraints, development partners and govern- all nations depend on farm households to provide food and ments alike continually seek ways to raise crop yields with- by 2050 the world will ask farm households to supply double out using additional land. Raising yield per unit of land was the current amount of food. Today, the farmers that the globe observed during the Green Revolution of the 1960s and depends on are primarily smallholders with little access to 1970s, when the use of new cultivars (shorter, higher-yielding technology, limited knowledge, and few financial resources. varieties of wheat and rice) and improved practices (such as Notably, 43 percent are women (FAO 2011). Box 5.2 expands the use of fertilizer and irrigation) significantly increased crop on why gender is a critical consideration in designing and yields throughout most of Latin America and Asia. A similar implementing ICT for agriculture productivity. Green Revolution never arrived in sub-Saharan Africa but is sorely needed, given that almost all of the arable land is being Given that the future of food depends to such a great extent cultivated (Govereh, Nyoro, and Jayne 1999). on small-scale agriculture, governments and development BOX 5.2: Gender in Agricultural Productivity Exploring how gender disparities affect agricultural productivity is at the forefront of the development agenda. Women play sig- nificant and essential roles in agriculture in most developing countries. Their knowledge of local agrobiodiversity and conserva- tion practices makes them prime assets in the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Women are also responsible for process- ing most crop and animal products and are often more involved than their male counterparts in high-value production. In addition, females play the chief role in care-taking, making them essential to household nutrition and children’s (especially girls’) education. It is widely accepted that women invest more regularly, and to a greater extent than men, in the well-being of future genera- tions. These responsibilities add to a burdensome workload that involves time-consuming activities like fetching water and fuel. Despite women’s key contributions to agriculture and rural development, they face major challenges in accessing inputs like land, improved tools, and financial services. Cultural, social, and political barriers prevent women from using their assets effectively in the field. Women are much less likely than men to purchase fertilizer or machinery. Women also have lower incomes compared to men: They receive smaller salaries in formal positions, earn less from their livestock, and are typically involved in seasonal, part-time work, if any.a As a result, their productivity is minimized and below that of male smallholders. This situation represents a major challenge to increasing yields, because the majority of the world’s smallholders are female (75 percent in sub-Saharan Africa). Increasing agricultural productivity requires greater attention to gender dif- ferences and women in general. FAO asserts that if women had better access to resources, they could increase yields by 20–30 percent.a Development institutions should use ICT to address these issues—and of course make certain that women can access ICTs in the first place. Source: Authors; (a) FAO 2011. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 88 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T partners are focusing on how to increase productivity in use biophysical technologies appropriately (for example, nitro- sustainable ways through new technologies that smallhold- gen sensors can help to determine the correct fertilizer dose). ers can use. Irrigation management, biotechnologies, pest management and eradication, soil assessment, improved Similarly, governments or development partners may know nutrient and land management, improved market access, that farmers are using new yield-enhancing technologies and innovative storage facilities are all strategies for increas- but may not have the capacity to understand their impacts. ing smallholders’ agricultural productivity and improving Data-mining technologies, decision-support systems, and their access to markets, but the challenge lies in ensuring modeling software that can clarify the impacts and outputs of that smallholders can obtain and use them. ICT provides an yield-enhancing technologies are among the most promising incredible opportunity to reach farmers with the technical means of linking productivity and ICTs. information they require to increase yields. This module describes how farmers and governments can use ICTs in their strategies to increase agricultural produc- Linking Technology for Agricultural Productivity with ICTs tivity. The applications are quite broad: ICT can be used to This module discusses two sets of technologies and the links monitor pest thresholds in integrated pest management, pro- between them: vide relevant and timely information and agricultural services,  Yield technologies, like improved seed, crops map agrobiodiversity in multiple-cropping systems, forecast developed through biotechnology, tractors, pesticide, disasters, and predict yields. Crop losses diminish as farmers fertilizer, and irrigation systems. receive relevant and timely information on pests and climate  Information and communication technologies, warnings through SMS technology. like geographical information systems (GIS), wireless sensor networks, data mediation software, and short Just as important, information can (and should) go both message service (SMS). ways: Farmers can alert local governments or other relevant actors about serious crop developments like disease symp- Though they often work symbiotically at the farm level, and toms. This information makes it possible to avoid disasters though both are often required to achieve the kinds of develop- more effectively and improves economic management, both ment goals discussed in this module, the differences between of which are crucial for adapting to climate change. them need to be understood. Figure 5.1 helps to clarify them. ICT can also lead to more optimal use of inputs. Increasing When farmers have access to biophysical and other yield- producers’ knowledge of how to use and manage water, equip- enhancing technologies, frequently they do not know how ment, improved seed, fertilizer, and pesticide has improved the to use them effectively to address their productivity chal- intensification of farm practices around the world. In the long lenges (for example, they may have fertilizer but not know the run, and after collecting and analyzing multisite, multiyear data, optimal amount to apply). ICT can fill this gap in knowledge. ICT can be used to match cultivars to appropriate environments, Global positioning systems (GPSs), radios, mobile phones, increase the understanding of genotype-by-environment inter- digital soil maps, and other ICTs give farmers information to actions, and adapt cropping strategies to the changing climate. FIGURE 5.1: Defining the Relationship Between ICTs and Yield Technologies New technologies (Tractors, seed, pest management, biotechnology) ICTs ICTs (GIS, GPS, radio, wireless, cameras) (Data mining, SMS, decision-support systems) Source: Authors. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 89 Each of these applications increases the profitability of agri-  Global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite-based culture, reduces transaction costs, facilitates climate change positioning and navigation system with three basic adaptation, and improves livelihoods for the rural poor. components: satellites that orbit the earth, control and monitoring stations on the earth, and the GPS receiv- Strategies to increase yields (including strategies to avoid yield ers owned by users. GPS receivers pick up signals losses) include initiatives like soil nutrient assessments, weather from the satellites, including precise orbital informa- forecasting, and crop or animal protection. The ICTs used to tion (latitude, longitude, and ellipsoidal GPS altitude) enhance these strategies are discussed in the topic notes. of a given object or location, as well as the time. GPSs can function in any weather and are free for public use Topic Note 5.1, “Achieving Good Farm Practices through (GPS.gov n.d.; GARMIN n.d.). Improved Soil, Nutrient, and Land Management,� focuses on  Satellite imagery is an image of Earth taken from soil testing technologies and tools that characterize field con- satellites in orbit. There are four types of satel- ditions, sometimes at a very fine level of detail. These tech- lite imagery: spatial (size of surface area); spectral nologies help farmers apply inputs appropriately and encour- (wavelength interval); temporal (amount of time); age the use of sustainable, profitable farming practices. and radiometric (levels of brightness)—which Topic Note 5.2, “Preventing Yield Losses through Proper capture a variety of variables about a given area of Planning and Early Warning Systems,� focuses on how varying size. The resolution (in meters) of these ICTs can be used to identify and control pests and diseases, images depends on the satellite system used and improve access to timely weather information, and improve its distance from Earth; weather can interfere mainly the design and management of irrigation systems. with satellite systems utilizing visible wavelengths of light. The cost of the technology depends on the Various examples and innovative practice summaries are satellite system used, on whether new or archive included; it should be noted that most of these practice imagery is purchased, and on possible georeferenc- summaries come from pilot programs in Africa, where many ing to a coordinate system. studies and projects are currently underway. Discussions of  Aerial photography and orthophoto mosaic. An lessons learned (covering cross-cutting themes, challenges, aerial photo is an image (once a photograph, now a and key enablers) conclude each note. Finally, the broad ICTs digital image) of the ground taken from an airplane, discussed in this module fall into three categories. They are helicopter, or radio-controlled aircraft at a given altitude. briefly defined in the sections that follow.1 Aerial images are presented as an orthophoto mosaic that is an alternative to a map. These images are higher Remote Sensing Technologies: Raw Data Collection in resolution (deci-meter) than satellite images, proving The first type of ICT that improves productivity includes tools useful for those who want more details of the terrain that collect agricultural data: such as crop conditions or land use. In addition, modern  Geographical information systems (GIS) collect digital aerial photography is georeferenced—that is, geographic data through computer hardware and each point has geographical coordinates, whereas sat- software to capture, store, update, and display all ellite imagery requires georeferencing to be geographi- forms of geographically referenced information by cally accurate and compatible with other geographi- matching coordinates and time to other variables. Data cal data (for example, in GIS) (T. Jantunen, personal sets formed by GIS constitute “layers� of informa- communication). tion (for example, on topography, population size, or  Laser scanning, or light detection and ranging agricultural household income) that can be merged (LiDAR), is an active airborne sensor using a set of and analyzed to establish relationships and produce laser beams to measure distance from an aircraft to maps or charts that visualize geographical traits (GIS features on the ground. Airplanes and helicopters .com n.d.). can be used for laser scanning. The data from laser scanning are three-dimensional at very high accuracy, 1 This is not a comprehensive list of all of technologies discussed and they also allow ground elevation under the tree in the module; nor is it a comprehensive list of all ICTs used canopy to be measured. The elevation accuracy of to increase agricultural productivity. The technologies reviewed here are the best known and most applicable to all yield tech- laser scanning data is much better than aerial photog- nologies or agricultural strategies. raphy, which makes laser scanning useful for accurate E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 90 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T topographic mapping where elevation is critical. The  WiFi. Wireless local area network that allows various data can also be used to measure forest attributes devices to connect to the Internet remotely. such as the height and density of trees and thus  Knowledge management system. Electronic the volume (aboveground biomass) of the forest system that provides relevant information as it is (T. Jantunen, personal communication). requested. It should be noted that extension agents and advisory pro- Information Management Technologies: Making Sense grams are essential to disseminate knowledge about the of the Data ICTs discussed in this module, but this issue is not discussed The raw data collected above are fairly useless without ana- in detail here; see Module 6. lytical tools, both human and inanimate:  Spatial modeling (among other models). Closely related to spatial analysis or statistics, models KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS are an attempt to simulate real-world conditions Increasing smallholder productivity is one the greatest and explore systems using their geographic, tasks in this century. Although the dimensions of the chal- geometric, or topological properties. GIS (which lenge are huge (growing populations, growing demand can also perform analysis), among other ICTs, has for food, rising poverty, economic stagnation, worsening increased opportunities to create models that pre- environmental degradation, and climate change), the grow- dict occurrences like yield growth and ecosystem ing number and sophistication of ICTs offers some hope degradation. of raising agricultural productivity, even in smallholders’  Data mining is the extraction of stories or pat- fields. Variable rate technology, GIS, GPS, satellite imag- terns from large amounts of data. Data mining can ery, and other data collection technologies have increased find four major patterns: clustering (discovering the information available about soil health, weather con- groups), classification (forming a structure), regres- ditions, and disease outbreaks, making very site-specific sion (finding a function), and associations (finding farming possible. The key to using these technologies to relationships). These analyses help to make sense of boost productivity is to remember that complementary agricultural data collected by remote sensors (Palace technologies are needed: Data analysis technologies (such 1996). as data mining or mediation software) and information  Data mediation is the process of taking many dif- dissemination technologies (such as mobile phones and ferent data sets to produce a single, coherent set radio) are essential to reaching smallholders effectively. of information. Data mediation software organizes Dissemination also includes the crucial human component: different types of data (such as hourly versus daily) Extension agents and farmers themselves must transmit and synthesizes different approaches to classifica- and share knowledge. tion (for example, the use of different classifica- tion vocabulary), helping to mediate differences As noted, productivity can be increased by expanding the between data sources—particularly those on the land available for agriculture or by making the land already in Internet. use more productive. Given current global circumstances, it seems that the second option is more likely to close the pro- ductivity gap and meet demand. In conjunction with technolo- Dissemination Tools: Getting the Results to the gies developed to raise yields, the use of ICTs such as those Stakeholders discussed in this module may do just that. Mainstreaming After analysis, the results must reach those who need to the use of ICTs in agriculture will also enable them to be used react to the findings, using tools like: more effectively. Integrating ICT into national programs, cre-  SMS. Text options that allow interaction between ating a policy environment conducive for ICT investment, fixed-line and mobile phones. and designing digital systems that are compatible and com-  Radio. transmission of information through electro- mon can help improve access for users. Conducting impact magnetic waves with low frequencies. studies and sharing pilot project information is also critical to IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 91 success with ICTs, as more specific lessons and impacts are and regions need to understand their potential uses to learned (IICD 2006). increase agricultural productivity. These stakeholders must learn how to tailor ICT solutions to macroeconomic needs In closing, it is important to emphasize that the benefits as well as local agricultural bottlenecks, while exploring how of ICT can be realized on multiple levels. As ICT capacities current infrastructure can harness relevant and appropriate expand, local farmers and communities as well as nations technologies. Topic Note 5.1: ACHIEVING GOOD FARMING PRACTICES THROUGH IMPROVED SOIL, NUTRIENT, AND LAND MANAGEMENT TRENDS AND ISSUES ASSESSING SOIL PROPERTIES FOR CLIMATE- RESILIENT AGRICULTURE Residue removal, tillage, overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, lack of crop diversity, overgrazing, overexploitation of natural Accurate soil analyses and improved farming practices are resources, and deforestation have led to unhealthy soils and needed urgently because productivity gains are highest yearly reductions in crop output. Greenhouse gases worsen in healthy soils and where pesticide, fertilizer, tools, and the situation. Changes in atmospheric temperatures (rising in machinery are used properly. Instruments for mapping and most developing countries) reduce crop performance. Above analyzing soil properties have proliferated in the last decade, 30°C, food and fiber crops develop at a faster rate, leaving increasing farmers’ knowledge about the soils on their farms less time for nutrient assimilation, biomass accumulation, and the need for climate-resilient agricultural practices. The and growth (Qaderi and Reid 2009). With lower yields and following section discusses these technologies and their continued soil mismanagement, economic growth slows associated challenges in broad terms. Subsections discuss drastically. This outcome is seen most vividly in countries innovative technologies specifically related to nitrogen and like Rwanda, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Niger, where costs carbon, two essential chemical components for successful associated with depletion of soil nutrients are estimated to soil conservation and climate change mitigation. account for 12–25 percent of the agricultural share of GDP (Drechsel et al. 2001). Digital soil maps are the most promising applications for visu- alizing soil properties and the gravity of soil nutrient deple- tion in a particular area.2 The International Working Group on Good farming practices maximize chances of a good harvest. Digital Soil Mapping (WG-DSM) defines digital soil mapping In the past, conventional farming practices treated entire as “the creation and the population of a geographically refer- farms as homogeneous units even though they are often vari- enced soil database generated at a given resolution by using able in productive potential. This view is changing as technol- field and laboratory observation methods coupled with envi- ogy allows producers to measure soil nutrient status, crop ronmental data through quantitative relationships� (Rossiter potential, pasture health, and water-use efficiency at specific 2004). A variety of technologies, including satellite remote sites within a field. ICTs like digital soil maps provide extensive sensors and cameras, can be used to survey soil and collect soil information that can be stored and accessed online. GPS, data to create digital soil maps. satellite imagery, remote sensors, and aerial images help to assess soil and land variations, and mobile applications and These technologies collect soil information faster than the Internet can disseminate the information quickly. With this methods that require scientists to take soil samples from array of ICTs, precision farming can be employed to optimize crop and livestock management. Until now, however, these techniques have been concentrated in highly mechanized, 2 For a diverse set of soil maps and data, see FAO, http://www.fao large-scale agriculture in industrialized countries. .org/climatechange/54273/en/). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 92 MODU LE 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T the field. In the latter methods, 80 percent of the work on Digital soil maps give practitioners a good picture of soil fertil- soil mapping is dedicated to soil identification and boundary ity, vulnerability, and potential. Statistically testing soil maps mapping, and only 20 percent of the time spent in the field against other data on human or policy variables (like demo- is left to gather data on more complex and equally impor- graphics, land administration, farming practices, and climatic tant topographical features, such as water-holding capacity changes) allows researchers and others to explore causes of (Manchanda, Kudrat, and Tiwari 2002). Innovative data col- soil damage and forms of restoration. lection technologies allow researchers to focus on a variety of soil features (box 5.3). At a national or regional level, models created from digital soil maps can be used to improve the selection of crops Practitioners can take the soil data collected from the technol- and varieties (based on which crops and varieties can ogies described in box 5.3 and use statistical methods, GIS, withstand stressful soil conditions). They can also be and soil inference systems to form “predictive soil maps. � used in early warning systems (predicting crop failure, These maps provide information on a soil’s capacity to provide for example), giving policy makers more time to react to ecosystem services (such as its capacity to infiltrate water, shortfalls in domestic and export markets. In addition, fine- produce crops, or store carbon), geographical representations resolution soil maps collected from a number of regions could of soil constraints (such as aluminum toxicity, carbon deficit, enable climatologists, hydrologists, and crop modelers to or subsoil restrictions), and a baseline for detecting subse- more accurately predict the effects of climate change or new quent changes and assessing their impact (AfSIS 2009). technologies on food production and environmental health. After soil data are collected, analyzed, and reflected in digital BOX 5.3: Using Remote Sensors and Similar Tools soil maps, results need to be shared with policy makers, to Measure Soil Properties scientists, and especially farmers, who would otherwise not have such detailed information on soil fertility in their A number of ICTs can be used to measure soil properties respective farming communities. Recent developments in for creating digital soil maps. Through near infrared and ICT increase the cost-effectiveness of soil maps: The spread short-wave infrared sensors, satellites measure spectral of mobile phones and Internet access can transfer relevant reflectance in soils on the ground. Different materials soil information even to remote locations. Collaborating with reflect and absorb solar radiation at a variety of wave- extension staff, farmers, agrodealers, and others, develop- lengths (see the figure). As a result, remote sensors can ment institutions can generate integrated soil fertility man- measure soil color, texture (sand, silt, and clay), organic agement schemes that improve a wide range of farming matter, moisture, salinity, and absorption processes by practices. Box 5.4 explains how these results can be applied. detecting and observing the solar radiation reflected (orbit sensing). Reflectance changes depending on the soil’s contents; for example, reflectance is low in areas Challenges in Soil Mapping with low silt content.a This technology gives researchers an accurate assessment of soil properties to use in GIS Although technological developments have improved and computer modeling for digital soil maps. access to digital soil maps, major technological and eco- nomic challenges remain to be addressed in soil science and development institutions. Broadly speaking, the impacts Sun Satellites and outcomes of using digital soil maps in smallholders’ fields have not been captured. Soil assessment techniques certainly contribute to the knowledge of production poten- tial, but the transformative effects of this knowledge (such as the adoption of new practices) have not been tested empirically. Another technical challenge is that some digital soil maps cannot be used in quantitative studies or in mod- els of food production or carbon management. Such stud- Soil Water Trees Buildings Crops ies generally require information on the functional proper- ties of soils, such as available water capacity, permeability, Source: Authors, adapted from http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/~research/ tutorial/optical.htm and Hoffer 1978. and nutrient supply, which many mapping procedures do not capture. Finally, individual soil map units are shown as IC T IN AGR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 93 BOX 5.4: Collecting African Soil Data Over Time to small-scale farming in most developing countries, although Understand Soil Degradation Trends they are being developed and piloted. Even where technolo- gies are free to the public (like online satellite images), the The African Soil Information System (AfSIS) Project, led resolution is too low to capture soil characteristics on individ- by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), ual plots. Without accurate, affordable soil analysis technolo- collects data that will help address food insecurity and gies, resource-poor farmers are unlikely to adopt sustainable environmental degradation in sub-Saharan Africa. AfSIS and resource-optimizing farming practices. These practices takes advantage of recent developments in ICT—digital are often more expensive in the short term and are typically soil mapping, remote sensing, statistics, and soil fertility more labor intensive. Finally, disseminating knowledge about management—to analyze alternatives for protecting and soil management and farming practices is challenging. Soil rehabilitating soil. The project also tests a variety of farm- science is complex. Soil restoration activities vary based on a ing techniques in an effort to discover the most effective diverse set of properties and the agroecological system. Even methods to suit a wide range of conditions and situa- digital soil maps that create opportunities for soil assessment tions. The soil map website and mobile networks help to at the local level will require major dissemination and training ensure that the data collected can reach the complete efforts by extension staff and other stakeholders. spectrum of people involved in farming in Africa. One objective of the AfSIS research, therefore, is to These challenges are being overcome as technologies develop a baseline—an overview against which future advance. For example, GlobalSoilMap.net (along with others) results can be compared—using standardized tests and is compiling data on digital soil properties around the world procedures. By applying an agreed process of sampling into a comprehensive global map, providing access to a con- and analysis, scientists will build a comprehensive pic- sistent set of soil functional properties that define soil depth, ture of soil health and degradation in an area of sub- water storage, permeability, fertility, and carbon (information Saharan Africa covering 42 countries and more than needed for more quantitative studies). Placing maps online 18 million square kilometers. helps address some of the challenges related to dissemina- tion and smallholder relevance. GlobalSoilMap.net can be It is well known that farmers in Africa typically use little used in a variety of ways to suit a range of purposes: users fertilizer compared with farmers in the rest of the world. can view and manipulate the data online (for example, they One important initiative in AfSIS investigates methods can compare soil patterns with satellite imagery or land-use farmers can use to improve the fertility of their soils. The maps) or compose and print local maps by combining several trials compare the effectiveness of different fertilizers sources of online data (soil, climate, terrain, and infrastruc- used on a range of soils, the rate of fertilizer application, ture, among others). Development partners, soil scientists, and the integration of leguminous crops in rotations. and governments then have a firm basis for formulating poli- AfSIS information will also be used in a wider interna- cies on land use and can share this information with farmers, tional effort to produce a digital map of the world’s soil so that they can make management decisions such as how resources (the Global Digital Soil Properties Map Initiative). much fertilizer to apply. Scientists from soil information and agricultural develop- ment institutes in Mexico, Canada, and the United States work with the AfSIS team to produce the global map. NITROGEN MANAGEMENT Source: AfSIS 2009; ICT Update, “Farming From the Ground Up: Scien- In addition to digital soil maps, which are useful over larger tists Use the Latest Technology to Produce a Digital Soil Map of Africa,� April 29, 2010 (http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Farming-from- areas, nitrogen-sensor technologies are used to manage the-ground-up, accessed July 2011). nutrients and prevent the overuse or underuse of fertilizer at the level of a single field and crop. Ineffective use of nitrogen fertilizers can limit crop biomass production and diminish car- discrete polygons with definite boundaries. The data used bon content in the soil. Conversely, optimal nutrient manage- in polygon maps are difficult to integrate with other forms ment raises yields, improves soil health (including soil carbon of data, which are grid-based (like satellite images and digi- storage capacity), and maximizes the cost-benefit ratio. An tal elevation models) (Hartemink et al. 2010) especially important consideration for smallholders is that reduced or more accurately timed fertilizer applications Social and financial challenges remain as well. Detailed yet can lower the cost of investing in fertilizer (see “Improving inexpensive soil analysis tools are not widely available for Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico�). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 94 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T A key component of soil management is to maintain appro- developed by the same company, is another example of priate amounts of nitrogen in the soil to optimize crop sensory technology for nitrogen. This portable device, using growth and yields. Under certain weather conditions and no subsidiary equipment, measures the chlorophyll content in farming practices, nitrogen applied as fertilizer, which is the leaves of cereal and potato plants to monitor the need for highly soluble, can be lost from the soil. Successful nitro- nitrogen. N-tester is being piloted with high-value, nitrogen- gen management delivers enough nitrogen to the crop to demanding crops in a range of countries throughout northern optimize yield and profitability while minimizing losses to Europe, southern Africa, and North America. water and air. The timing, rate, and method of fertilizer application largely determine this optimization (Scharf and The tools used for nitrogen-sensor technology have similar Lory 2006). Over the years, agronomists have established challenges to those of digital soil technology. Databases and how much nitrogen various crops require. Using these information support systems have been established to raise measures, along with data collected from digital soil maps awareness and disseminate information to smallholders, and other soil data, farmers can apply the right amount of but widespread access is limited by the extent of network nitrogen at the optimal time to maximize crop performance. infrastructure and costs. Increasing the opportunity for com- munication among various stakeholders involved in farming Farmers in developed countries use technologies that measure (such as input dealers and extension agents) could improve nitrogen levels and determine rates of fertilizer application. the spread of information. Evidence shows that sensors like the Yara N-Sensor (http:// www.yara.co.uk/fertilizer/index.aspx) which measures light SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN AGRICULTURE reflectance from vegetation and adjusts fertilizer application accordingly, can increase yields by up to 10 percent over stan- The amount of organic carbon present in soil depends on water dard farm practices while reducing fertilizer costs and minimiz- availability, soil type, and other features. A primary factor affect- ing environmental losses (image 5.1). N-tester, a technology ing the soil’s carbon content is agriculture. Soil carbon in forests, crop land, or grazing pastures increases or decreases depend- ing on inputs that are applied, rates of deforestation, and farm- ing practices. In recent decades, producers’ poor land manage- IMAGE 5.1: Nitrogen-Sensor Technology ment practices have reduced soil carbon content. When soils are tilled, organic matter previously protected from microbial action decomposes rapidly and accelerates erosion and degra- dation. Improved farming practices like leaving crop residues in the field after harvest and no-till (where seed is planted without plowing) maintain soil carbon at higher levels (Lal et al. 2004),3 but these practices are not widespread. No-till is prac- ticed on only 5 percent of the globe’s cultivated land (Derpsch and Benites 2003). The overwhelming majority of vulnerable regions are those with lower organic carbon pools (figure 5.2). High levels of soil organic carbon are crucial to agricultural productivity and environmental conservation. Studies found that increasing the pool of soil organic carbon by 1 x 109 picograms of carbon per hectare can boost yields 20–70 kilo- grams per hectare in wheat, 10–50 kilograms per hectare in rice crops, and 10–20 kilograms per hectare in bean crops (Lal 2010). Despite rapid depletion of soil organic carbon, projections show that carbon can be restored to about 60–70 percent of natural levels. A calculation relevant to developing countries and poor producers is that they could grow up to 3 These practices incur some costs, especially in the short term. More fertilizer may be needed before soil organic carbon increases. Similarly, crop residues that are used for fuel or feed Source: Yara International ASA 2004. will no longer be available (Lal et al. 2004). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 95 FIGURE 5.2: Organic Carbon, Percent in Subsoils Source: FAO. 40 million tons of additional food grain if they increased soil in agricultural land. The variability of sequestration is huge: carbon by only 1 ton per hectare. This productivity increase observed rates of sequestration range from 0 to 150 kilograms would be complemented by reductions in climate change of carbon per hectare in dry climates and 100 to 1,000 kilograms and GHG emissions (World Bank 2010a). of carbon per hectare in humid areas (Lal 2004). This immense variability implies that monitoring and verification technologies For these reasons, increasing soil carbon in farmers’ fields, are essential to carbon sequestration efforts, especially those especially smallholders’ fields, is integral to agricultural sus- that result in financial exchanges, like carbon markets. ICTs tainability and productivity. Soil carbon sequestration, or the are currently used to measure soil carbon sequestration for process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere large land spans. Digital soil maps are created (either through into the soil through crop residues and other organic solids remote sensors, satellite images, or models) to measure and (like mulch), is one technique to restore carbon levels in soils. monitor changes in carbon content. In-field assessment meth- This transfer helps offset emissions from fossil fuel combus- ods, neutron-scattering techniques, and satellite normalized tion and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing difference vegetation indexes (which use different tools to soil quality, water-holding capacity, and long-term agronomic measure carbon pools from afar), as well as microwave sen- productivity (World Bank 2010a). Carbon sequestration can sors like JERS or ERSSAR, can measure soil carbon and other be accomplished through farming practices and land man- chemical components in the soil. Computer-based models are agement systems that add high amounts of biomass to soil also employed to predict soil carbon content (Lal 2010). Most while enhancing soil fauna activity. of these methods and technologies, along with free satellite Various technologies have been developed in recent years to data (such as that available through Landsat), are not detailed measure, monitor, and verify carbon content and sequestration enough for small-farm monitoring. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 96 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T Despite the growth in sensor and information technologies for their ability to participate in simple soil restoration and conser- carbon sequestration and restoration, significant barriers pre- vation techniques. Recent World Bank projects have shown vent smallholders from being included in efforts to monitor and that robust, clear, and cost-effective accounting methods that increase carbon sequestration. They include the poor develop- outline how carbon is measured and quantified are essential ment of carbon markets to date, especially in agriculture, and if projects designed for smallholders are to function well, as the continuing problem of developing methods that smallhold- is transparency in monitoring to assure farmers’ participation ers can truly access and afford. See the discussion below. (World Bank 2010a). In the future, development institutions can focus attention on reducing costs of ICT for soil car- bon (using coarse-to-medium resolution satellite imagery) Poor Carbon Market Development, Especially in Agriculture (Smukler and Palm 2009), improving land rights and enforce- Carbon markets were designed to provide incentives for ability (which will help regulate carbon trade), and determin- carbon sequestration and good farming practices. Since ing how financial incentives might be created (for example, 2002, developed countries and firms (primarily in Europe) through local carbon markets or payment for ecosystem have traded carbon credits (Lal 2004). Trading carbon cred- services) to ensure that smallholders can participate (box 5.5) its can encourage firms and farmers to increase soil carbon (World Bank 2010a). content and switch to more environmentally conservative systems. Despite major strides in carbon market develop- ment, serious challenges remain. A variety of economic and scientific factors make it difficult to set prices for carbon BOX 5.5: Rewarding Farmers for Carbon Sequestration credits, and assessing the biological and ecological rela- in Kenya tionship between carbon storage and climate change is even more daunting (Lal 2010; World Bank 2010a). Even The Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project is one of the first more important, agriculture and livestock are not included examples of a soil carbon project that not only addresses routinely in global carbon emissions treaties, which reduce issues like food security and climate change but also even large firms’ incentives to participate in carbon seques- provides financial assistance to rural dwellers. Kenya is tration. The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto a prime candidate for carbon sequestration. Agriculture Protocol does not include land management, which prohib- contributes to over 50 percent of gross domestic prod- its carbon in agricultural soils from being traded in the Kyoto uct and one-third of the country’s population lives on compliance market (World Bank 2010a). Current efforts to ecologically fragile arid land. include agriculture in carbon trade institutions and policies Funded by the World Bank and designed by the Swedish will create financial incentives for governments, firms, and Cooperative Center-Vi Agroforestry, the project, located in farmers in developing countries to use soil carbon seques- Western and Nyanza Provinces, addresses most issues tration technologies. faced on arid land. On approximately 45,000 hectares of land, farmers adopt good practices that result in carbon Accessibility and Affordability of the Technology sequestration. These practices are expected to generate for the Poor 60,000 tons of carbon dioxide each year, increase yields, and allow smallholder farmers to access the carbon mar- Beyond poorly functioning carbon markets, other technical ket and achieve supplemental income through payment and social barriers prevent smallholders from adopting prac- of environmental services. Extension agents disseminate tices that increase soil carbon levels. As noted, the ICTs used technical knowledge, monitor and account for carbon to monitor, report, plan, and verify the amount of carbon sequestered, and build capacity in farmers’ organizations. sequestered are not appropriate for small farms. Monitoring sequestration is easiest when the potential is large, or around Once carbon is sequestered, the credits will be sold to 100,000 carbon tons (Bajtes 2001). This limitation is a major the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund. Project developers challenge to carbon sequestration, given that “90 percent of expect that improved practices will result in an additional the potential for carbon capture can be found in the develop- US$ 350,000 in 2011 for the communities involved. The ing world, where land managers are largely poor farmers on project also promotes improved carbon management small plots of land� (Smukler and Palm 2009:1). policies and strategies that improve agriculture produc- tivity and sustainability at the national level. Most available ICT not only inhibits smallholders from partici- Source: World Bank Ghana Office 2010; World Bank 2010d. pating in carbon markets (or their development) but reduces IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 97 PERFECTING THE FARM THROUGH PRECISION raw data to a base station in the network, which transmits the AGRICULTURE data to a central computer that performs analysis and extracts Site-specific information that allows producers to make man- meaningful information. The base station acts as a door to the agement decisions about discrete areas of the field is called Internet (typically a local area network), providing operators precision farming or precision agriculture. Determining soil with remote access to the WSN’s data (Dargie and Zimmerling and crop conditions to improve whole-farm efficiency—while 2007). Because the networks can have multiple sensory minimizing impacts on wildlife and the environment—is the devices, the data can contain information on soil, climate, crux of precision farming. It has been used successfully in chemicals, and other relevant subjects. The wide application many developed countries and has the potential to change of WSNs allows them to be used not only in managing agricul- agriculture dramatically in this century. ture but in testing water quality, managing disasters, detecting volcanic activity, and conducting environmental evaluations. A variety of tools can be used in precision agriculture. GPS, satellites, sensors, and aerial images can help to assess These networks have several key features. First, WSNs have variation in a given field. Farmers can match input applica- both active and passive sensors. Active sensors release a tions and agronomic practices with information received from signal to detect a physical phenomenon like seismic activity these ICTs. Precision agriculture has been applied to many and radar. Passive sensors, which transform a physical phe- types of agricultural produce (hay, pasture, fruit, and cereals, nomenon into electrical energy, can detect a vast array of phe- for example) and to fisheries under many different climatic nomena, including temperature, humidity, light, oxygen, and conditions. Many of these efforts have been limited to large- chemicals (Dargie and Zimmerling 2007). Once sensors (for scale farming because of the significant investment required, example, temperature and soil moisture) are selected, node but applications under smallholders’ conditions are gaining locations are needed. Node density in developing countries visibility. Remote sensors, sonar-based technology, and other should be scarce to better guarantee network connectivity for ICTs can also improve aquaculture and livestock production. each node, reduce maintenance, and improve the network’s reliability (though it will limit field-mapping techniques). In addi- Essentially precision farming provides a framework of infor- tion, because low-income countries often experience poor mation for farmers to make management and production network and telecommunications connectivity, nodes will decisions. It can answer questions pertaining to land prepa- often require a “buffer,� where data can be rerouted or stored ration (including tillage depth and type, residue management in another node if connection to the base station fails. If an and organic matter, and reductions in soil compaction); seed active node fails to transmit data to the base, the network will (planting date and rotation, density and planting depth, culti- “wake up� the closest neighboring buffer node (Kabashi et al. var selection); fertilizer (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, 2009), providing a “multihop transmission� (see figure 5.3 for and other nutrients, as well as pH additives, application a basic illustration of the process). methods, and seasonal conditions); harvest (dates, moisture content, and crop quality); and animals and fisheries (pasture The design and implementation of WSNs requires a number management, animal tracking, and school identification). of important features. The nodes should monitor the field(s) continuously and for a significant period—it is best if main- Precision Farming through Wireless Sensor Networks tenance is not required for at least one cropping season (or Consistent advances in microsensing, smaller devices, and 4–6 months). The nodes should cover a wide area, be small wireless communication (Kabashi et al. 2009) have resulted to prevent animal and human interference (like stealing), and in new comprehensive technologies that offer even more tolerate harsh environmental conditions like monsoons and consistent and reliable systems for smallholders and policy extreme heat. Self-organization is also important: The net- makers alike. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), which com- work should automatically detect removed or newly arrived bine many kinds of sensory data in one location, are some of nodes and adapt the messaging route (Depienne 2007). the most innovative technologies available for farming and WSNs offer extensive benefits to farmers producing plants agricultural planning. With the right components, these net- and animals. Agriculturalists can detect problems at an early works can form knowledge management systems, research stage and use more precise applications of fertilizer, water, and databases, and response systems that can guide local com- pesticide. Pastoralists can use WSN to monitor grazing land munities and governments in agricultural development. productivity. Placing wireless nodes in pastures allows farm- A WSN is a group of small sensing devices, or nodes, that ers to move animals according to environmental indicators like capture data in a given location. These nodes then send the soil moisture (see image 5.2 and IPS “Monitoring Livestock to E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 98 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T FIGURE 5.3: Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), IMAGE 5.2: WSN Can Help Monitor the Quality of Distributed Collection Architecture Pastures DRK GPRS Server/KMS GPRS Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank. produced can be used to improve crop management strat- Bluetooth egies and even develop knowledge management systems where best practices, crop disease identification, and planting techniques can be disseminated to smallholders. It is impor- tant to note, however, that although battery-operated nodes can function in areas with low power connections, changing WSN batteries in remote areas may prove difficult. Sleep settings and well-designed energy-conserving hardware can help pre- vent frequent battery changes (Dargie and Zimmerling 2007). Source: Kabashi et al. 2009. Wireless sensors can also be used in aquaculture. Though Note: DRK = Distributed Resource Kits GPRS = General packet radio service; KMS = Knowledge Management System. concentrated in developed countries, the use of underwa- ter wireless sensors has great major potential for develop- Prevent Pasture Damage� in Topic Note 5.1). WSNs can also be ing countries. Real-time information is crucial to effective used to manage irrigation and even to measure water quality. and profitable aquaculture. Akvasmart (see http://www .akvagroup.com), a Norwegian firm specializing in commer- Governments and development partners also benefit financially cial fish farming, uses a wide variety of ICT tools, including from WSNs. The technology is fairly cheap; some units cost sensors. Sensor systems can monitor oxygen, tidal current, as little as US$ 100 (Dargie and Zimmerling 2007). Developing temperature levels, fish behaviors, and water conditions. countries often experience power deficiencies, but nodes that Interestingly, Doppler pellet sensors with a built-in camera can operate on batteries and alternative energy sources do not need detect uneaten food in fish cages (figure 5.5). With this infor- electricity. Data are collected more easily. Whereas traditional mation, signals from the sensors can stop the feeding, allow- methods of collecting agricultural data for national planning ing for more specific care and feed purchase. The sensors can rely on occasional data logging by human operators, WSNs also adapt to the accurate feeding rate of the fish over time. can collect continuous data with minimal human interaction. Even though some ICTs like mobile phones or transceivers can Wireless sensors in water, just like those on land, can be cou- collect information faster in the field, they often have trouble pled with other cameras for more precise readings. Akvasmart cooperating with other software or Internet servers (Fukatsu offers a video image system called the Vicass Biomass et al. 2004). WSNs integrate the Internet into the software, Estimator that measures the height and length of the fish in making the data more user friendly and accessible. the pond. These figures can be used to estimate the weight of the fish. Other camera systems can be placed at the surface Data organization is vital to the output of WSN as well as or underwater. Monochrome cameras monitor the feeding other remote technologies. If countries want to use WSN process by “looking up� from the bottom. Color cameras can data to construct yield models or predict climate shifts, mak- monitor feeding and inspect the pond or cages and surround- ing sense of the data is pertinent to the design. The data ing environment. Remote access cameras can tilt, zoom, and IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 99 FIGURE 5.5: Akvasmart Doppler Pellet Sensor Network Doppler Pellet Sensor flow chart: Doppler CSU AkvaControl Feed System Source: Akvasmart (http://www.akvasmart.com/index.cfm?id=205626). Note: CSU = Cage Sensor Unit. pan according to the interest of the fish farmer. Each of these Agricultural information is typically captured spatially, making camera and wireless sensor systems can be accessed from a it more convenient to handle on a regional scale. GIS technol- personal computer and in some cases the Internet, where the ogy is promising because it allows for a more specific focus. data are collected. Variable rate technology has helped to identify weed infesta- tions and water stress in areas where crop pest levels are high, which improves targeting of chemical applications and Precision Farming through Satellite Technologies reduces waste associated with conventional blanket spraying Precision farming through satellite technology utilizes three (Munyua 2007). In addition to the potential productivity gains technologies: GPS (which can position a tractor within and cost savings, precision farming through satellite technol- a few feet in the field), GIS (which can capture, manage, ogy enables governments to study how agricultural practices and analyze spatial data relating to crop productivity and affect the ecosystem and develop better regulations. field inputs), and variable rate technology (which provides site-specific, “on-the-fly� estimates of field inputs for Once data are collected through GIS, scientists can interpret the site-specific application). The three ICTs combined provide images and analyze the soil and crop conditions to achieve bet- information that allows producers to apply inputs, such as ter results. Although satellite imagery cannot detect soil quality fertilizer and insecticide, precisely where they are needed directly like sensors can, it can record soil properties like light (figure 5.6). reflections and color. As crops start growing, precise pictures of the crops are captured more efficiently. The condition of the fully grown plants can then provide a clearer picture of the qual- FIGURE 5.6: Precision Farming through Satellite ity of the crops and what they require for successful harvest. Technologies Based on soil and crop conditions, farmers can estimate the precise amounts of seed, pesticide, and fertilizer they need, organize the distribution of inputs, plan which crops to plant Satellites in which areas, and make new investments. Knowing the size and shape of fields can also help rural communities plan for GPS + GIS future developments and investments like mechanization. Small, fragmented, or awkwardly shaped fields are difficult to work with a tractor or even animals. Above a certain minimum field size, it becomes cost-effective to use a tractor. Precision Automated machine farming provided through satellite imagery can determine this threshold before a community invests in new equipment. If an Large farming area area is suitable for mechanization, the benefits can be exten- sive. A GPS system that controlled tractor steering in Sudan Source: Adapted from GIS Development Net. cut planting time on the farm by 60 percent (Munyua 2007). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 100 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T Precision farming must also rely on an information dissemi- future yields, however, will require farmers, governments, nation process. Many rural areas in developing countries are and development partners to mitigate the effects of climate isolated from sources of new agricultural information; not change and environmental degradation on soils. With the surprisingly, farmers in these areas use few modern technol- expanding reach of ICTs, achieving this goal is more likely ogies. ICT is beginning to play an important role in providing in both developed and developing countries, but challenges advisory services in real time to farmers, which helps them remain in using ICTs to improving soil and land health. They plan and manage production, postharvest activities, and are discussed in the following paragraphs, along with some marketing more efficiently (see Module 9). Online informa- means of preventing or overcoming them. tion, consultation, and land suitability maps with web-based systems can play an important role in improving and updating To begin with, these technologies are relatively new even knowledge for producer organizations. in developed countries, and their potential is just being realized in developing countries. National awareness of the Management and information-sharing tools are also neces- importance and benefits of soil fertility takes time to develop. sary for effective precision farming based on satellite tech- As with carbon sequestration, ICTs to improve and maintain nologies. RiceCheck and the online knowledge bank at the the fertility and productivity of land will require new legisla- International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (http://irri.org/ tion and policies outlining their use and providing incentives knowledge/training/knowledge-bank) are two of the most to achieve their benefits. Appropriate legal and regulatory advanced knowledge management tools in rice production frameworks, monitoring and verification systems, and liabil- today. Collecting, analyzing, and sharing information on ity, access, and property rights laws and regulations, such as individual plots has been difficult, but through RiceCheck, regulations on carbon limits in some countries, are necessary farmers can now monitor crops, have an online group meet- to make significant, national progress. Though not all technol- ings (often with agronomists), and compare their yields to ogies require such stringent legal frameworks, government regional benchmarks for high yields (for a description of involvement—specifically at the national policy level—often these benefits in Malaysia, see box 5.6) Through IRRI’s site, raises the visibility and adoption rates for new ICTs. connected farmers can also make a checklist for their daily activities and review plans for the entire growing season. Testing methods for soils vary and are still in development. For this reason, results are not always reliable and may be difficult to harmonize. Continued research—particularly in poor coun- LESSONS LEARNED tries where research is typically limited—will help to address This Topic Note primarily reviews soil and land productivity, these challenges. Developing countries also lack the financial particularly for the planning and preplanting stages of the footing and human capital to use expensive technologies that production cycle. Correcting past damages and ensuring require reliable operation and maintenance, even more so in harsh conditions. Strategic and long-term investments are needed to sustain improvements in soil and land productivity, BOX 5.6: Web-Based GIS for Paddy Precision Farming, especially if they are used in rural areas, where farmers who Malaysia may be required to maintain the ICTs have little time to do so. In Malaysia, an interactive, web-based GIS provides Farmers may not have a contemporary perspective on the information for precision farming and mapping in the environment because they have received little new informa- Sawah Sempadan rice-growing area in Tanjung Karang, tion. They may not have access to the country’s environ- Selangor (Che’Ya et al. 2009). The system allows farmers mental regulations (for example, prohibiting the burning of to access information about rice cultivation in their area. charcoal) or export requirements (such as limits on pesticide Because it uses open-source software, the system is residues). Extension education and campaigns through ICTs cost-effective for users. Farmers can print variable rate like radio will help farmers to make decisions related to envi- fertilizer application maps and historical data about yield ronmental policies and strategies. per paddy lot in previous seasons. This helps farmers analyze and reflect on the best strategy for the coming Despite the benefits of soil technologies, smallholders have growing season. Farmers can share information, espe- limited access to credit to use them. Even if they have access cially on fertilizer recommendations. A web presence to soil maps or nitrogen estimates, their adoption or adjust- also allows policy makers to access rice information. ment rates might be low. The inputs required to change prac- tices are often out of reach in poor rural areas. New credit IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 101 insurance schemes or financial rewards (like carbon markets) stage. When the ICRISAT team acquires a very high resolu- may reduce these monetary concerns. tion image (VHRI), they use computer software to enhance it, adding extra layers of information, and analyze data that Soil ICTs are not only new but complex. Farmers will require would be useful to farmers, such as variations in soil fertil- training and education to learn how to use them. Electronic ity, land size, and shape. Although a single VHRI image education (e-learning) is an option, but infrastructure must costs US$ 1,000–1,500, this method of analysis is often still be considered. In some cases, technologies function well cheaper than visiting every individual farmer’s field to collect with low bandwidth (WSNs are one example), but in others samples. Partnering with local NGOs and extension officers, they do not (the RiceCheck web interface is an example). The the SIBWA team visits the project sites to verify their find- productivity goals and the technologies used to meet them ings with the farmers. ICRISAT further analyzes the images must match the IT capacity in the focus location. using feedback from field research to build a database that they can use to develop an accurate map of each farm. Finally, the lack of institutional capacity poses other challenges for increasing soil and land productivity. Governments that want SIBWA partners translate the soil and image information into to incorporate the use of carbon markets or digital soil maps local languages and take the detailed maps back to individual into agricultural policy will have to make major adjustments farmers, who can use them to plan and manage their crops and investments in human resource capacity. Development for the coming season (image 5.3). The maps show areas of partners like the World Bank can support some of these efforts. low or high fertility inside each field. With an overview of soil and crop conditions, farmers can organize the distribution of fertilizer throughout their fields and estimate which crops will produce the highest yields. The SIBWA team works with the INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Seeing-Is-Believing Project Improves Precision farmers to determine the area of each field, making it easier Farming for farmers to calculate the amounts of seed, pesticide, and fertilizer required for each field. Small-scale farmers in West Africa are experiencing unpre- dictable changes in their agricultural land. Soils are infertile in Another advantage of VHRI is that it shows the direction of fur- many areas, reducing agricultural productivity and spurring fear rows on the field and areas where farmers can plow along the and uncertainty about future livelihoods among farmers. In the contour lines of the land. Using this imagery, farmers monitor past few years, many West African farmers have abandoned whether they were following the contour lines accurately and their land, which had been in their families for generations. efficiently to reduce soil erosion. SIBWA also involved local NGOs specialized in technology and extension services in It is imperative that smallholders obtain the knowledge about each community to help farmers make use of the data. changing soil and crop patterns that can help them manage their farms. The Seeing-is-Believing West Africa (SIBWA) IMAGE 5.3: Farmers Learn to Use Images of Their Project has been assisting farmers with accurate satellite Farms to Improve Productivity and information and imagery of their farm fields to help them Resource Management improve their agricultural practices. In June 2009, SIBWA started working with six farming communities in this region—three in Mali and one each in Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Niger. SIBWA is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation through AGCommons, with supplementary funding from the United States Agency for Internal Development and Germany’s Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (CODE-WA project). Led by scientists at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the SIBWA team pro- vided farmers with very high resolution satellite images (such as those on displayed on Google Earth) of their land. To get a more precise picture of soil fertility, scientists can analyze the images when the crops are at their peak growth Source: Work funded by AgCommons a program executed by the CGIAR. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 102 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T Data from projects like SIBWA can be used to develop growth crops (I. Ortiz-Monasterio, personal communication). Though and yield models by various means. Some rely on computer the cost of the diagnosis is expensive for smallholders, they simulation and include weather-related variables; others are needed significantly less fertilizer to maintain yields. Farmers statistical estimation models based on multiple regression who did not use the sensor applied 219 kilograms of nitro- equations. While no single model has proven satisfactory in gen per hectare for yields of 6.92 tons per hectare; those all conditions, both low- and high-resolution imagery have who used the sensor applied as little as 158 kilograms of benefits extending beyond the decisions of individual farm- nitrogen per hectare for yields of 6.91 tons per hectare. For ers. Low-resolution yield prediction can benefit food import- a 100-hectare farm, these savings add up to approximately ers and exporters as well as international and government US$ 7,500 per harvest (CIMMYT 2007). agencies concerned with global markets and prices. In this The technology not only reduces costs but reduces environ- regard, data collected from imagery in localized projects will mental damage: Nitrogen that washes into the ocean or local be useful in years to come. Although it remains too early to streams can harm ecosystems. CIMMYT is now working on analyze the impacts of SIBWA, the team expects that the a prototype pocket sensor that costs US$ 100–200, which farmers will use the data when planning for the new growing would facilitate more affordable nitrogen testing services for season (Traoré 2010; ICRISAT 2010). farmers in developing countries (I. Ortiz-Monasterio, personal communication). INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Improving Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Monitoring Livestock to Prevent Pasture Damage (CIMMYT) recently piloted a nitrogen sensor on 174 wheat Animal production in Australia traditionally required animals plots in Mexico’s Yaqui Valley, in collaboration with the State of to be restrained to a particular location. The cost of installing Sonora, Oklahoma State University, and Stanford University fences and maintaining them constitutes around 30 percent (image 5.4). A handheld device with an infrared sensor cap- of the cost of rearing one animal. Controlling animal location tures light to measure biomass and red wavelengths to mea- implies that farmers need to know about pasture conditions, sure chlorophyll content. These two measures determine because overgrazing leads to land erosion and nutrient deple- how much nitrogen a plant requires and thus the appropriate tion. With this in mind, researchers implemented a static and amount of fertilizer to apply (CIMMYT 2005). mobile node and camera network to remotely monitor the In Sonora, farmer-advisors purchase the sensors for US$ condition of grass throughout a field.4 Using solar panels, 5,000 and charge 7 pesos per hectare to diagnose farmers’ which generate much higher energy outputs compared to what is needed, the team observed soil moisture, greenness level, grass height, and grass coverage. IMAGE 5.4: Infrared Sensor Technology Increases the Cost-Efficiency of Nitrogen Fertilizer Consisting of an Atmega 128 microcontroller at 8 MHz, a Applications in Yaqui Valley Nordic NRF903 radio transceiver with a bit rate of 76.8 kilobits per second, a temperature sensor, and a soil moisture sensor, the commercially available static node (ECH20 capacitance- based) takes readings every minute with a ±2 percent error rate. Pictures of the pasture, troughs, and gates help to guide herdsmen in cattle movement. Additional mobile nodes con- nect directly to the cattle (around their necks). These nodes measure the livestock’s speed and turning rate, which improves tracking capacity. With these two technologies, scientists can build generic models of herd movement so that herdsmen can better manage resources in smaller pastures. Though the technol- ogy is focused on developed countries, these ICTs hold great potential for developing countries. Source: Iván Ortiz-Monasterio, CIMMYT. 4 This section draws on Wark et al. (2007). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 103 Topic Note 5.2: PREVENTING YIELD LOSSES THROUGH PROPER PLANNING AND EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS TRENDS AND ISSUES more efficiently use the total amount of pesticides employed in ICTs can help to prevent and reduce losses in crops through crop protection. Farmers often are unaware of or cannot accu- well-planned investments and disaster warnings or time- rately assess plant diseases, which may reduce agricultural pro- sensitive alerts. Water management and disease or pest ductivity and raise costs if pesticides are overused. Concerns prevention are crucial to increased productivity. Advances in for animal health are similar. Herdsmen and fishermen spend ICTs such as GPS, GIS, mediation software, mobile phones, resources and time treating sick animals or identifying disease and satellite imagery have improved smallholders’ ability to outbreaks. Using a variety of ICTs, producers can better identify, adjust farm strategies and reduce risk. At the same time, track, and protect their crops, animals, and livelihoods. these advances allow governments and development part- One example involves fishing communities, which face major ners to better monitor farm productivity, make more accurate challenges in both wild and managed fisheries. They can use projections, and plan better for the future. ICTs to prevent fish diseases and protect local fishing grounds Water is a primary topic in this thematic note. Although water from unwanted visitors. Illegal, unregulated, and unreported is scarce and is becoming more so due to climate change, fishing poses serious obstacles to sustaining fish production. many water resources in developing countries are simply not Tools like GPS and mobile phones help fishers and govern- exploited. In fact, the vulnerability facing agriculturalists in ments locate poachers and report abuse (image 5.5). The South most of Africa is not the result of more variable rainfall but of Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, for example, now has a vessel failure to access the water that is available. Only 2–3 percent monitoring system, which observes fishing grounds throughout of Africa’s water is used (Woodhouse 2009). Despite current the area, identifying and fining illegal fishers. The Sustainable efforts to tap water resources and adapt to climate change, Fisheries Livelihoods Program has helped Guinean fishing competition for water for household and industrial use will communities perform similar policing: local fisherman used steer water away from agriculture over the next few years in hand-held GPSs to calculate the position of poachers and then almost 60 percent of the world’s most vulnerable countries radio them to the coastguard. Benefits of these technologies (Ruttan 2002). Weather data, along with improved irrigation improve productivity indirectly by protecting the fish population. management and system engineering, are more important In Guinea, for example, incursions by industrial criminal vessels than ever. went down from 450 to 81 after just two years (FAO 2007). This note also discusses disease and pest control. Pests and Protecting farm animals from disease and other ailments also pathogens continually evolve, making it particularly difficult improves through ICT (see IPS “Radio Frequency Identification for small-scale farmers to increase productivity. Without inputs like pesticides and the knowledge to use them cor- IMAGE 5.5: Mobile Applications Help to Monitor rectly, pests and diseases reduce global harvests by upwards and Protect Fishers of 30 percent for maize, rice, and potatoes (Oerke 2006). ICTs like mobile phones and radio frequency identification technology are making it easier for farmers to know which diseases or pests to watch for and how to handle them if they are found. Pest eradication takes national and collective efforts. With ICTs, governments find it easier to reduce crop losses from flies or rodents and livestock losses from dis- ease like bovine spongiform encephalopathy (less formally known as “mad-cow disease�). PREVENTING DISEASE AND PEST DAMAGE Plant protection is important to save crops from diseases and pests. Increasingly, ICTs are used to help farmers reduce or Source: Edwin Huffman, World Bank. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 104 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T to Prevent and Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana� in Topic Note BOX 5.7: Crowdsourcing Prevents Cassava Losses 5.2). Sensors and other remote technologies can be implanted in Tanzania in an animal, providing herdsman with the exact location, health, and situation for livestock like cows, pigs, or sheep. In Tanzania’s Lake Zone, farmers from 10 districts who In addition to enabling easier identification and tracking, in the participate in the Digital Early Warning Network have future, some instruments may offer animal response systems. been trained to recognize symptoms of cassava mosaic disease and cassava brown streak disease. Armed with ICT is now being used in integrated pest management systems mobile phones, farmers “crowdsource� or send out to improve farm management in a variety of ways. The Low monthly text messages to researchers about disease Frequency Array Project (http://www.lofar.org) piloted in the incidence and receive disease control advice in return. Netherlands uses sensors to monitor and treat potato crops at When more than 10 percent of the members of a group risk for the fungus Phytophthora infestans, which causes late spot a disease that was not present previously or has blight. Because the development of late blight depends heavily increased in prevalence, the project team visits the area on climatic conditions (OECD 2009), capturing climatic condi- to verify the information and advise farmers what to do. tions like humidity and leaf temperature can help farmers pre- Each group of farmers—60 overall—is given a topped- vent onset of the disease by optimizing fungicide applications up phone card to text researchers. They meet monthly when climatic conditions warrant it. The project used three to discuss observations and send the text messages. instruments: sensor nodes, a server, and a decision support The network is part of the Great Lakes Cassava Initiative, system. One hundred and fifty sensor nodes, called TNodes, which aims to improve the livelihoods of more than a send soil information every 10 minutes through a TinyOS oper- million farmers in six countries of the Great Lakes region ating system to the server where data are stored (Baggio 2004). by tackling issues that affect cassava yields. Users can access this information directly, or receive texts or Source: Ogodo 2009. emails from the linking decision support system (LOFAR n.d.). The decision support system gathers information from the server along with other meteorological data from weather sta- tions to produce maps of the temperature distribution within to pest phenology models for 22 insects, 2 diseases, and 2 fields. The system sends alerts to the farmer that identify the crop species (Bajwa and Kogan n.d.). Pest alerts and control patches of land most susceptible to the fungus. techniques are announced and shared through social media like Twitter and email subscriptions. Similar alerts can be car- Information technologies are vital for disseminating crop ried out through SMS in developing countries (box 5.7). protection advice, but “crowdsourcing,� (using ICTs to lever- age widespread collaboration) can prevent diseases from spreading in the first place. If sufficient numbers of farmers WEATHER FORECASTING can text information on potential crop disease symptoms to Since 2000, new ICTs have given farmers and partners bet- researchers and receive appropriate disease control advice, ter opportunities to manage climate risk. WSNs and satellite researchers can also track and potentially forestall epidem- images capture raw data that can be transformed into informa- ics. If farmers or cooperatives have access to the Internet, tion useful for agriculturalists, helping them optimize decisions online bulletin boards or mailing lists can spread informa- related to choosing crops (based on water requirements), plant- tion on disease incidence quickly. Online decision support ing (timing and planting density), buying inputs, and applying fer- systems5 that link data to possible action, such as the one tilizer. Climate information can also improve insurance markets. used in the Low Frequency Array Agro Project, are becom- ing more popular because clients require minimal software, Remote sensors are presently the chief source of climate which reduces management and distribution costs. data. FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture tracks data and trends related Additionally, it is useful to link weather information to pest or dis- to food security, price risks, and natural disasters. FAO ease development over time. The Pacific Northwest Integrated analysts monitor climate conditions and changes around Pest Management website through Oregon State University the world using four satellites—FAO’s ARTEMIS (Africa (http://oregonstate.edu/dept/nurspest/) collects temperature Real Time Environmental Monitoring Information System), and precipitation data from 380 weather stations and links it Europe’s METEOSAT, the United States’ NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), and Japan’s 5 See http://www.dssresources.com. GMS (Geostationary Meteorological Satellite). Every 10 IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 105 IMAGE 5.6: Satellite Image of Vegetation Changes from 1998 to 2004 (Red Indicates Decreasing Vegetation and Green Indicates an Increase) Source: FAO (http://www.fao.org/giews/english/spot4/sea/index.htm). days, ARTEMIS and METEOSTAT provide images that help losses to frost and pests in their orchards. Prior to the proj- to estimate rainfall for Africa. FAO maintains a database of ect, producers could not obtain weather information on time these images from the past two decades, which provides to cope with conditions that might harm their orchards. (See an opportunity to monitor significant changes in weather the IPS, “Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in over time (image 5.6). GMS produces similar information for Turkey,� in Topic Note 3.1.) Southeast Asia as well as information on crop densities at BOX 5.8: Modeling India’s Groundnut Yield through the subnational level (FAO 2010b). Beyond reflecting past Climate Information trends and predicting future ones, these satellites and others can provide up-to-date forecasts for farmers. These satellite In India, rainfed agriculture supports more than 60 per- images and others are free on FAO’s website. cent of the population. In the semiarid Anantapur region, rain typically falls from May to November, yet it varies This proliferation of weather information has made mediation significantly from week to week, resulting in frequent software extremely relevant to the productivity discussion. wet and dry spells. If a dry spell occurs at a critical plant- For example, MetBroker (http://www.agmodel.org/projects/ ing stage, groundnut yields decrease significantly. metbroker.html), software that pulls weather data from vari- ous sources and “hides� the differences between them, is Attempting to identify the most promising planting times, run on a computer permanently connected to the Internet. researchers used the PNUTGRO model to simulate From 5,000 stations from 14 databases in 7 countries, groundnut growth and yield. The model included veg- MetBroker averages forecasting data and makes it consis- etative and reproductive development, carbon balance, tent (Laurenson, Otuka, and Ninomiya 2001). This approach nitrogen balance, and water balance. The team collected has two benefits: Researchers and modelers can access climate data from the Anantapur Agriculture Research data from various harmonized sources for growth prediction Station, which has maintained records since 1962. Using models, and farmers can receive accurate real-time weather maximum and minimum temperatures, radiation, and information to make farming decisions. Clients—whether rainfall data over three decades, they found that the period farmers or modelers—can request a wide array of climate- between July 15 and August 10 is associated with very related information from MetBroker, including rainfall predic- high yields. Even more important, planting in two addi- tion, air temperature, solar radiation, soil temperature, and tional periods was also associated with high productivity, leaf wetness (Laurenson, Otuka, and Ninomiya 2001). Some suggesting that missing the earlier planting time does not mobile technologies permit farmers to access MetBroker mean that yields will be low for the entire season. and request information on weather conditions for a certain Like all models, this one is limited: it cannot be used to region, specific stations, and for a restricted period, even assess the profits or risks associated with management with low bandwidth. MetBroker provides an option for sum- strategies in times of crisis (like the El Niño weather pat- marizing data as well; users can opt to receive daily tempera- tern). Nonetheless, analysis of yields associated with differ- tures instead of hourly ones or receive expert summaries of ent climatic conditions can help to improve farming strate- weather information instead of complete data sets. gies for specific seasons and raise red flags for potential weather disasters after investments have been made. Another weather forecasting service, this one in Turkey, Source: Gadgil, Seshagiri Rao, and Narahari Rao 2002. relies on simple SMS information to help farmers prevent E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 106 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T Mediation software was also essential for modeling ground- service online, he or she can request information and specify nut yields in India (box 5.8). Among other things, the models the method to receive it (via text, email, or recorded voice can help identify the best times to plant to evade drought. message). Eventually, the service will offer climatic informa- tion in Spanish, making it easier for native Spanish speakers Other forms of electronic weather information have potential to make interpretations and decisions (Lester 2010). In the to increase productivity, primarily by reducing risk. Many of future, similar ICTs can be used in rural areas of developing these systems are being tested in OECD countries. eWarn- countries. ing (http://www.landbrugsinfo.dk/Planteavl/Sider/pl_11_543 .aspx) was created through PlanteInfo (www.planteinfo.dk), a Danish initiative supporting decision making in national IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT plant production. eWarning provides farmers with real-time Major water resource constraints and climate change make weather information sourced by the AgriMeteorological it increasingly important for developing countries to develop Information System and Danish Meteorological Institute. In sound water-use policies and well-functioning, well-managed this particular system, weather information, including precipi- irrigation systems. Innovative water management systems tation and temperature, is divided into 10-square-kilometer and ICTs are helping to improve water use and expand inten- plots to provide farmers with specific climatic details on sive irrigation facilities. Though the number of technologies specific plots. for irrigation is vast, this section focuses on remote sensors, satellite imagery, and GPS cameras. Each of these technolo- In eWarning and other systems, farmers request information gies helps to connect the farmers to irrigation infrastructure through SMS in two forms. Push-type messages are regular, and guide governments in designing and implementing irriga- automatic updates obtained through a user subscription. Pull- tion strategies. type messages are sent only when a user requests them. When the user sends a letter (like “P�) in a message, the ICTs help address some of the challenges inherent in creat- eWarning system will respond with information on precipita- ing and sustaining irrigation systems in rural areas. The func- tion for the user’s geographical location. Surveys show that tion of water-user associations and their productivity improve the push-type message is most popular, providing farmers through ICTs like mobile phones and personal device applica- with an hourly forecast up to four times per day (Jensen and tions PDAs), which increase the quality and frequency of pro- Thysen 2003). ducers’ communication and interaction. Sharing information about emergency maintenance problems, entitlement rights, A Yakima software firm, in partnership with Washington State and management schedules is facilitated through ICT, which University, is customizing a weather website for specific allows real-time responses even between users from distant locations to provide weather alerts to farmers in the United communities. States. These alerts include frost warnings, wind speed with recommendations for pesticide spraying, and information Digital orthophoto quads (DOQs), a feature of GIS, are on disease outbreaks. After a farmer has registered for the digital maps that combine the geometric information of a IMAGE 5.7: Two Examples of Digital Orthophoto Quads Source: United States Geological Survey. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 107 regular map with the detail of an aerial photograph (Neale Mali (see IPS “Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation Systems 2003) (image 5.7). DOQs provide spatial illustration of ter- in Mali� in Topic Note 5.2). This irrigation scheme, one of rain, including elevation and property boundaries, which can the largest is West Africa, produces 40 percent of Mali’s rice help delineate irrigation canals and drainage systems. Given crop and is key to national food security. the high and increasing value of rural land, it is worth noting that the resolution and georeferencing possibilities of most An equally intriguing ICT for irrigation management, specifi- satellite remote sensing systems are not yet adequate to cally for monitoring the construction of irrigation systems, is demarcate property accurately. Nonetheless, achieving GPS cameras. The cameras are relatively cheap and user greater accuracy and confidence in property boundaries is friendly; when a project worker photographs infrastructure, essential to limit the land disputes that ensure when new the camera records the date, time, longitude, and latitude irrigation schemes are designed and built. DOQs can help automatically. to achieve this higher level of resolution, but sometimes Afghanistan’s national Emergency Irrigation Rehabilitation at higher costs than other high-resolution imagery. (See Project (funded by the World Bank) was delayed owing to IPS “Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database for the increases in conflict in certain regions, but now GPS cam- Dominican Republic� in Topic Note 5.2.) eras provide “remote supervision.� As the irrigation project LiDAR (laser scanning) is a new technology for obtaining a unfolds, water users can photograph the construction pro- highly detailed digital terrain model or, if equipped with an cess to make contractors more accountable and prevent aerial camera, for topographic mapping. A digital terrain financial resources form being wasted. Users can report model is basically a digital representation of an area’s ter- infrastructure problems to the government without needing rain on a GIS that provides accurate position and elevation to travel through potentially dangerous regions. coordinates. It is compatible with other digital spatial data, Project workers have photographed over 650 locations is more accurate, and has a higher resolution than satellite where irrigation construction projects are being imple- images. Elevations can be accurate within 5 centimeters, mented. These photos, which are emailed or delivered by but accuracy typically is closer to 10 or 20 centimeters. In hand to ministry offices, serve as the baseline for progress comparison, digital aerial cameras only provide only about a (World Bank 2010b). A crucial point is that the technol- 20-centimeter horizontal resolution. ogy also enhances the participatory process, which may Because of its detailed imagery, a digital terrain model can improve user associations’ productivity once the irrigation be used for meticulous engineering designs such as those system is complete. for roads, drainage, gravity-fed irrigation works, and deten- tion reservoirs. These models can also be used more broadly to manage land and water (for example, in flood control). LESSONS LEARNED When combined through GIS with other data such as soil This note has described the many ways that ICTs enable real- types, these models can help to identify areas with potential time adjustments in agricultural practices to prevent losses slope instability and erosion, which are important for reduc- after investments have been made. These technologies also ing soil degradation and its negative impact on soil fertility. have considerable potential to help small-scale producers At the field level, digital terrain models can monitor and use scarce resources—water, nutrients, and others. Greater improve areas affected by waterlogging or flooding. Overall certainty about the weather, access to water, and disease laser scanning has considerable potential for planning irriga- outbreaks can lead to better decisions and higher productiv- tion schemes, designing infrastructure, managing irrigation ity. These ICTs also face important challenges, however, and operations, and modeling. Laser scanning is most useful for a number of considerations are important in improving their large areas because the aerial operation is expensive. The effectiveness, especially for smallholders. cost of laser scanning also depends on the accuracy of the data required, location of the area of interest, and level of Strategies to improve agricultural practices change dra- the data products (such as GIS layers). matically over time, just as strategies to manage irrigation have evolved from a nationally operated to user-operated Satellite data can also prove useful in managing irrigation model. ICTs aimed at preventing crop or livestock losses schemes, such as the enormous Office du Niger scheme in must adapt in line with these strategies so that users E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 108 MODU LE 5 — INC R EA S ING C R OP, LIV ES TOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIV ITY TH R OUGH IC T receive current information, communicated in the most technologies can help achieve economies of scale to reduce cost-effective way. costs (IICD 2006). Local knowledge is critical to improving smallholders’ pro- Just as they can be overwhelmed with too much new infor- ductivity. ICT not only creates opportunities to disseminate mation, farmers can be overwhelmed with new technology information but offers ways of capturing local expertise. Vast and become reluctant to use it. Advances in ICT are best differences in ecological and agronomic conditions make suited to helping farmers improve their management of one farmers’ knowledge indispensable. ICTs should be used to or two farm components at a time. Development partners form two-way communication networks, ensuring that local and governments need to prioritize which yield technologies knowledge is acquired and utilized. or agricultural strategies they would like to introduce and use ICTs to disseminate them to a broad population. The collective action problem is quite apparent in relation to the technologies described here. Water management and Limited financial resources are also a potential limitation to disease control require hundreds or even thousands of farm- using these technologies. Large agricultural firms and small- ers to perform the same tasks in unison. By strengthening holders alike need to control agricultural water, diseases, or information sharing, ICTs like mobile phones will increase pests. Incentives for the private sector to partner with gov- the potential for collective action. Self-policing may also be ernment in large-scale ICT projects may enable the invest- crucial to the technology’s success. ment to reach smallholders as well. ICTs to disseminate information like weather forecasts must match capacity in the focus area. Some phones handle INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY complex messaging; others do not. Local ICTs may need to Radio Frequency Identification to Prevent and improve before some preventive technologies can work in Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana developing countries. Taking stock of the technical capacity Implemented by Inala Identification Control (IIC) in South in rural areas will clarify infrastructure needs. Africa, the Livestock Identification Trace-Back System in Gender is an important consideration when using ICTs to Botswana is one of the largest and more innovative forms prevent crop loss. Women are often already involved in main- of ICT for animal husbandry, involving over 300 million cat- taining water resources (for domestic and agricultural use) in tle.6 The system, which uses radio-frequency identification their families. Involving them in water management or pest (RFID), serves many purposes, including meeting beef import control projects increases their time to attend to other impor- requirements for the European Union (EU), the destination tant activities like education and generating income. It also for 80–90 percent of Botswana’s beef exports. The system often results in more effective management. also improves veterinary services and livestock health. Timing is a major concern in weather, water, disease, or pest A bolus with a unique ID number and a transponder is ICT. If information is sent too late, farmers may not have time inserted into each animal’s rumen. In the field, 300 fixed to adjust their farming strategy. If information arrives too readers scan cattle ID numbers and relay information to data- early, farmers may make changes that prove unnecessary or bases in 46 district offices. The bolus collects information even damaging. that allows both herdsmen and the government to monitor new registrations, look for possible disease outbreaks, iden- Information must be relevant and clear. Too much text or tify lost or stolen cattle, track weight gain, and plan for animal scientific data can conceal the message and cause confu- treatments. The database also provides the opportunity to sion. Only the most appropriate and contextually-based monitor trends over time. information (like forecasts) and updates should be provided. By continually interacting with farmers and monitoring their Technology like this offers many benefits. The bolus is safe responses to information, project managers can clarify which for animals, protected from criminal tampering, and can information needs to be sent and which does not. be recycled, which keeps costs low. The bolus also saves time: Ear-tags, the traditional form of identification, required Keeping information current is expensive. Collaborating with various agencies and creating common systems and 6 This section draws on Burger (2004). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 109 herdsmen or veterinarians to handpick cows through a INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY lengthy process. This system speeds up the identification Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation process. Herdsmen can optimize feeding schedules, select Systems in Mali certain bulls for breeding programs, and keep updated health The Office du Niger, a vast irrigation scheme dating to the records, which improves productivity directly by reducing 1920s in Mali, delivers water from the Niger River to approxi- susceptibility to disease and planning for yields. mately 80,000 hectares of rice fields The irrigation scheme is divided into five administrative zones, each responsible its own water management. The scheme’s senior staff use data INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY from Landsat (which uses sensors to record reflected and Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database emitted energy from Earth) and other sensory data (including for the Dominican Republic air temperature and humidity) to analyze cropping intensity, Digital orthophoto quads (DOQs) can do much more than asses water productivity, and monitor equity in water distri- provide digital maps. By tracking the photos, it is possible bution.8 The data are also used to compare the productivity to create water databases that are crucial to the success of of fields at the head (beginning) of the water source with the irrigation. The databases can provide real-time information on productivity of the fields at the tail (the most distant point heavily and sparsely irrigated locations, statistics on water from the water source). use (and subsequently water users), drainage problems, and even salinity issues. Landsat has the ability to “see� a variety of colors as well as near-infrared, mid-infrared, and thermal infrared light, which This kind of database featured in a program to improve helps to distinguish differences between land plots or water users’ management of irrigation systems (PROMASIR) in sources. Initial results from Landsat images revealed critical Dominican Republic in partnership with the Inter-American similarities and differences between administrative zones Development Bank and Utah State University.7 By combining that irrigation managers can use to determine and address DOQs with other information (such as information on prop- the causes of yield variation (for example, low yields in fields erty ownership), the database enables water users to search near the tail). To gain even greater clarity on why irrigation for other water users, observe property boundaries, review may succeed or fail in a given location, remote sensing and monthly crop and water statistics, or obtain estimates of irri- GIS images such as those used in Mali can be coupled with gation water demand in certain areas. Users have access to other statistics like administrative boundaries, crop data, and more accurate information to use when updating their infra- poverty levels in GIS maps. structure as well as more insight into potential maintenance problems (such as a system breakdown upstream). Assigning water rights and water fees are also easier with databases. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING In areas with greater demand, prices can be expected to rise. AfSIS (Africa Soil Information Service). 2009. Digital Soil Mapping. Finally, a system like this can also prevents conflicts over http://www.africasoils.net/methods/dsm, accessed November water, because all users have access to the same factual 2010. information, such as price information and plot size. Baggio, A. 2004. “Wireless sensor networks in precision agricul- ture.� Swedish Institute of Computer Science, http://www. 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IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 113 Module 6: ICTS AS ENABLERS OF AGRICULTURAL INNOVATION SYSTEMS STEPHEN RUDGARD (FAO), PETER BALLANTYNE (ILRI), RICCARDO DEL CASTELLO (FAO), PHILIP EDGE (Consultant), MAY HANI (FAO), AJIT MARU (GFAR), ESTIBALITZ MORRAS (FAO), KARIN NICHTERLEIN (FAO), ENRICA PORCARI (CGIAR), SOPHIE TREINEN (FAO), Topic Note 6.3: VENKATRAMAN BALAJI (Commonwealth of Learning) and K. BALASUBRAMANIAN (Commonwealth of Learning) IN THIS MODULE Overview. Research, extension, and advisory services are some of the most knowledge-intensive elements of agricul- tural innovation systems. They are also among the heaviest users of information communication technologies (ICTs). This module introduces ICT developments in the wider innovation and knowledge systems as well as explores drivers of ICT use in research and extension. Topic Note 6.1: ICT in the Agricultural Research Process. This section spans the entire agricultural research process from engaging partners and stakeholders, through data collection and analysis, collaboration and knowledge access, publishing and dissemination, to feedback and interactions with rural and other end-user communities. In each of these areas, ICTs are making agricultural research more effective.  Advances in ICTs Increase the Utility of African Sites for Testing Varieties  KAINet Kenya Knowledge Network Anchored in Partnerships and Collaboration Topic Note 6.2: Using ICT in Extension and Advisory Services. This note looks at ways ICTs are helping transform extension, including the emergence of public and private innovators and startups with business models built around ICT- enabled advisory services. It examines how traditional and new ICTs are being used to reach rural communities, enable the creation and sharing of rural communities’ own knowledge, and support connections of rural communities to mar- kets, institutions, and other sources of information and advice.  Farm Radio International Involves Men and Women Farmers  E-Extension in the USA and Philippines  TECA Uganda Exchange Group Offers Practical Advice for Smallholders  Participatory Video and Internet Complement Extension in India Topic Note 6.3: E-learning as a Component of Agricultural Innovation Systems. Learning through ICTs can provide fresh approaches that are learner-centric, which engages producers and their communities in designing and implement- ing the learning experience. It can also make it easier to maintain quality by supporting feedback mechanisms and ensur- ing appropriate accreditation and certification processes. This note also explores some of the adaptations and strategies required for e-learning to succeed in rural areas of developing countries.  Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu  Innovative E-Learning for Farmers through Collaboration and Multi-Modal Outreach OVERVIEW and farmers plant it. The problems with this approach have The traditional approach to fostering innovation in agriculture been widely acknowledged. It can encourage research is often described as linear: Researchers develop an inno- and extension to act independently of one another and of vation such as a disease-resistant wheat variety, extension farmers, to the extent that each group becomes relatively services advise farmers through demonstrations and other isolated. A linear approach can exclude other stakeholders methods that a more disease-resistant variety is available, in the agricultural sector such as universities, agribusiness, E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 114 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S traders, and nongovernmental and civil society organizations. connects millions of rural people to sources of information. It does not reflect the many well-documented ways that agri- In both cases, ICTs empower individuals and institutions to cultural innovation actually occurs, such as experimentation create, access, and use knowledge and to communicate in by individual farmers, informal networking among farm com- unprecedented ways. In agricultural extension and education, munities, private sector participation, collaboration among from universities to farmers’ fields, ICTs facilitate learning. extension workers interested in a particular idea, collabora- tion between researchers and farmers, and the adaptation by ICT-Enabled Tools all of these actors of knowledge and practices from domains outside agriculture. As ICTs have developed and become more pervasive, they have become more relevant in agricultural innovation sys- A few decades ago, practitioners began to use the concept tems. The most pertinent developments for research, exten- of innovation systems to explain noteworthy economic per- sion, and e-learning are reviewed briefly below. formance driven by a strong orientation to innovation in some developed countries.1 An innovation system can be defined First and foremost, the increased pervasiveness of telecom- as “a network of organizations, enterprises, and individu- munication networks has enabled ICT to reach rural areas. als focused on bringing new products, new processes, and Technologies that have long been applicable to poor agricul- new forms of organization into economic use, together with tural communities have not been effective simply because the institutions and policies that affect their behavior and they are difficult to get into the hands of rural users. Expanded performance� (World Bank 2006). This thinking recognizes telecommunications networks have increased the speed, that interactions of people and ideas catalyze innovation and reliability, and accuracy of information exchange—through that innovation consists of generating, accessing, and put- text, voice, and applications—between farmers and other ting knowledge into use (Hall 2006). It also recognizes the stakeholders. Low-bandwidth networks have also started importance of institutions and policy in fostering innovation. to trickle into rural areas in developing countries, creating opportunities for farmers to connect with extension work- ers, agribusiness, researchers, and each other. For example, ICTs and Agricultural Innovation Systems telecommunications networks have facilitated e-learning by ICTs appear ideally suited to the task of enhanced interaction liberating it from the classroom and from the need for the because they can expand communication, cooperation, and user to invest in anything other than a mobile phone. Power ultimately innovation among the growing array of actors in lines and power sources critical for the regular use of and agriculture. ICTs, especially mobile phones, can and do drive upkeep of ICTs also continue to expand. (See Module 2 for participatory communication, including communication from more information on the growth of this infrastructure.) those on the margins of traditional research-extension pro- cesses, and they are often the key instruments that organiza- Second, cloud computing services have immense potential tions use to deliver services to larger numbers of rural people to improve agricultural innovation systems. The advantage of than they could reach before. ICTs are fundamental to the cloud computing is that it offers pooled and elastic resources business models of the “infomediaries� and “brokers,� pub- on demand over the Internet (Porcari 2009). More specifi- lic and private—extension agents, consultants, companies cally, cloud computing has been described as “a model for contracting farmers, and others—emerging to broker advice, enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared knowledge, collaboration, and interaction among groups and pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, communities throughout the agricultural sector. servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management Numerous electronic tools increase interaction among the effort or service provider interaction� (Mell and Grance actors involved in agriculture. On a macro level, e-Science 2009). Over the past few years, these services have created (e-Research) draws on increasingly connected and extensive opportunities for data sharing initiatives that were once pro- digital infrastructure to facilitate collaboration and knowledge hibitively expensive for most institutions to explore, let alone exchange nationally, regionally, and globally. On a micro students conducting master’s or doctoral research. They level, m-Agriculture, powered by increasingly affordable have also eased the data collection and aggregation process, mobile digital devices such as phones, laptops, and sensors, which is critical for research, extension, and education. For example, a website such as Amazon Web Services can 1 See Freeman (1987) and Lundvall (1992). be used to acquire a Windows or Linux server by specifying IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 115 how much processor, bandwidth, and storage capacity are BOX 6.2: Social Media Support Research Project needed. The required resource is made available immedi- Review and Reporting ately over the Internet, and the cost is based on how long the server is used. Cloud computing’s elasticity and variable The System-wide Livestock Program of the capacity make it possible to process very large datasets, Consultative Group for International Agricultural which can also be shared with anybody with adequate con- Research uses social tools to capture, record, and nectivity (box 6.1). share discussions at its project review and planning meetings. A wiki was used to plan and report on meetings. A pre-meeting survey among participants BOX 6.1: Datasets on Amazon Web Services was conducted using SurveyMonkey. Scientists in remote locations were brought in using the “webex� Public Data Sets are a centralized repository on Amazon Internet conferencing system. During the meeting, all Web Services (AWS) for public data that can be seam- the resources prepared and shared were published lessly integrated into AWS cloud-based applications. online. The results of the intense “internal� small AWS hosts the datasets at no charge for the community. group discussions were recorded on video and shared As for all AWS services, users pay only for the comput- on the project website. A key feature is the use of ing and storage they use for their own applications. social “reporting� to share information that normally remains internal and closed. Previously, large datasets such as those in the Human Genome Project and United States Census required Similarly, the Fodder Adoption Project organized an end- hours or days to locate, download, customize, and of-project meeting for project participants from Ethiopia, analyze. Now anyone can access these data from their Syria, and Vietnam to draw lessons and share results. Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2) and The organizers used web tools to document and share start their computations within minutes. Users can all the notes, contributions, and discussions at the meet- also leverage the entire AWS ecosystem to collabo- ing. By the end of the meeting, the wiki contained the rate easily with other AWS users. For example, users essence of the workshop report (http://fodder-adoption- can produce or use prebuilt server images with tools project.wikispaces.com/Final+Workshop). Video inter- and applications to analyze the data sets. Users can views recorded the group discussions (usually this tacit also discuss best practices and solutions in the dedi- knowledge is lost) and a series of blog posts shared the cated Public Data Sets forum (http://aws.amazon.com/ meeting “live� with wider audiences. publicdatasets/). In these cases, web applications directly contribute to Source: Authors. research meeting organization, reporting, and dissemi- nation. The tools are free or inexpensive. They require Internet connectivity (at a high speed if video is part of Third, the movement toward open access and public the package), some digital skills among meeting organiz- involvement through online or mobile tools also favors ers and participants, a willingness among participants to agricultural innovation, not only in research institutions but embrace an extended digital toolkit and workflows, and more broadly among all participants in an innovation system. an open attitude to sharing “internal� discussions more Governments, organizations, and even the private sector broadly. Source: Author; see also http://vslp.org and http://fodderadoption are sharing data and reports with the public and one another .wordpress.com. through ICT. As ICT has alleviated the difficulties inherent in interactions among people in dispersed locations, knowl- edge sharing and multistakeholder engagement are widely acknowledged to have increased. Research can involve Note 6.3, make it much easier to develop and transmit con- more expert opinion and diversity (box 6.2). Advisory ser- tent for e-learning programs. vices can tap a much wider range of current expertise and provide advice in a much more targeted way to those who Finally, new forms of knowledge brokering have been made need it. With Internet access, e-learning can occur even possible through ICT (image 6.1). Knowledge brokering in the absence of a formal distance education program, has always been an integral part of agricultural innovation and web platforms such as agropedia, discussed in Topic systems (box 6.3). The creation and passing of information E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 116 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S IMAGE 6.1: Specialized Knowledge on Farm Practices Can Result successful than the involvement of in Profitable Enterprise public services with their very broad mandates, but until recently the high costs of such services limited private advisory initiatives. An issue that policy makers need to examine, however, is how public advisory ser- vices and other forms of knowledge brokering will meet the needs of rural people who are not linked into the innovation system through ICT, either because they cannot access it or do not yet know how to use it effectively. KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS Source: Dominic Sonsoni, World Bank. The topic notes and innovative prac- tice summaries in this module dem- between farmers and extension agents, farmers and onstrate the potential for ICTs to enable agricultural innova- researchers, and researchers and extension agencies, among tion systems to develop and function more effectively, but others, is critical to innovation and increased productivity enormous challenges in pursuing this agenda remain. Two through adoption of better farming practices and technolo- key enablers—policy change and collective action (among gies. Knowledge brokering is becoming a specialization— research institutions, extension agents, governments, and sometimes a profitable one. farmers)—are critical to using ICTs such as mobile phones and the Internet in agriculture and enabling the many rela- On a more basic level, as digital literacy and the availability tively small, scattered innovations in the agricultural sector of ICTs increase, farmers, traders, and others in developing to add up to major impacts. Policy change can spur develop- countries are offering information services for a small fee. ment of the underlying infrastructure for ICT-enabled informa- This private activity can widen the availability of informa- tion sharing, and collective action, facilitated by digital tools, tion in rural areas and reduce pressure on public extension can push the agricultural agenda forward. agents, who are charged with getting timely and locally relevant information to farmers. Private sector involve- Just as roads are essential for rural development, digital ment in advisory services has almost always been more connectivity is becoming essential for research, extension, BOX 6.3: Innovation Brokers at the Heart of Networking and Communication in Agricultural Information Systems Innovation brokers are teams of specialists that combine a strong background in agricultural science with knowledge of business, marketing, and/or the creation of innovation networks. Innovation brokers support linkages among actors in the agricultural innovation system and help farmer organizations and private firms manage projects. They teach courses on the management of innovation, assess the actors’ innovation capabilities, propose actions to strengthen them, and may facilitate the implementation of the recommendations. Innovation brokers may also help governments and donors to develop their own innovation capabilities and to explore new instruments to foster innovation. NGOs, specialized ser- vice providers, or public organizations (including research or educational institutions) can play this role. Klerkx, Hall, and Leeuwis have concluded that “innovation brokerage roles are likely to become relevant in emerging economies and that public or donor investment in innovation brokerage may be needed to overcome inherent tensions regarding the neutral- ity and funding of such players in the innovation system.� Source: Adapted from World Bank 2012 and Klerkx, Hall, and Leeuwis 2009. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 117 and e-learning. Connectivity does not depend on national feedback systems and accountability. ICTs can help people policy alone; it is affected even by the policies prevailing to learn the interactive skills (collaborating and negotiating, in an institution. Researchers may want to disseminate for example) that have proven critical in effective innovation results more widely and increase their usefulness, for systems, and they can help them to acquire agricultural and example, but they can be inhibited by institutional informa- technical skills as well. tion technology (IT) and intellectual property policies that limit opportunities to tap into the open access movement.2 Building research networks, data repositories, and expert If national research systems do not digitize their research query systems and engaging in large data collection efforts results and create repositories for them, other organiza- require effective management and collaboration. In addition tions are limited in their ability to access and share find- to committing resources, the right climate and culture must ings in a wider network. Extension programs, other agri- be created, including at senior management level, for collab- cultural services, and producers suffer the consequences. orative planning, knowledge sharing, communication, cross- Appropriate institutional policies and general e-readiness functional teams, and critical review of current information are essential to build innovation cultures where ICTs thrive and communication systems. and are put to good use. ICTs are also fundamental to enabling advisory services to Even if all farmers in poor countries own phones, however, fulfill their primary role in an agricultural innovation system, this connectivity will not ensure that extension agents and which is to serve as a central node for knowledge sharing and researchers will listen to what farmers have to say and adapt innovation brokering (including brokering new partnerships). their programs accordingly. Nor will it guarantee that farmers The nature of farmer engagement, two-way communication, can use any knowledge they may obtain; as Topic Note 6.3 information requirements, and the complexity of extension indicates, farmers learn best when the information is care- networks all make the design of advisory service programs fully targeted to their needs and when multiple stakeholders critical to their ultimate success. In designing advisory pro- provide incentives for learning (for example, in the form of a grams that use ICTs, the basic requirements for developing mobile phone for learning any time and any place, and a bank an ICT service must be considered, including ICT policy, rural loan to put their new knowledge to use). Investments in agri- connectivity, and user fees; the information and communi- cultural innovation systems give particular attention to building cation needs of potential stakeholders; functional linkages; the capacity to innovate (especially the capacity to share and existing communication channels and knowledge sources; use knowledge) and to the enabling environment that fosters lessons related to previous information dissemination and innovation. networking efforts; farm diversity; and demographic, politi- cal, and environmental demands (image 6.2). ICTs to facilitate communication and engage many stakeholders are fundamental to such IMAGE 6.2: ICT Must Be Complemented by Other Inputs Like an approach. Much stronger farmer repre- Improved Seedlings sentation and influence are also needed in the forums where research and program pri- orities are determined. Specific reforms and incentives are needed for service providers to become more accountable to clients, and ICTs can make a difference by strengthening 2 They may also be limited by inadequate poli- cies on intellectual property. The urge to pro- tect research results can be strong, especially if they represent a potential source of income for impoverished national research programs. Many public organizations, lacking expertise in intellectual property management and protec- tion, opt for the most restrictive policy on infor- mation sharing, even though they recognize that it is detrimental to innovation (see World Bank 2012, Modules 6 and 7). Source: Dominic Sansoni, World Bank. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 118 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S Given that agricultural innovation systems are generally quite equipment) as well as staff capabilities (in software development, complex and diverse, it is often challenging to identify who has IT understanding) in line departments, local government offices, been excluded or which targets have been missed. As agri- or research centers are two critical prerequisites to implement- cultural innovation systems become more digitally engaged, ing effective technical services. Public-private partnerships can there are growing opportunities to use ICTs to monitor them, be forged, particularly for commercially oriented extension or track the interventions of numerous stakeholders in multiple e-learning (see IPS “Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu� processes, and evaluate innovation system performance in Topic Note 6.3), to improve telecommunications infrastructure, more effectively. Good monitoring and evaluation design, identify sustainable business models, and aid in capacity building effective use of the data collected, and emerging analysis, and training. Box 6.4 reviews areas that require attention when reporting, and visualization tools yield better insights into using ICT in agricultural innovation systems (AIS). what agricultural innovation systems produce, who uses and benefits from the products of innovation systems, and where the challenges are. ORGANIZATION OF THIS MODULE Finally, not all of the ICTs available for agricultural informa- This module focuses specifically on how ICT can be used tion systems will work in rural areas. Analyzing the technical in three major, interrelated components of agricultural inno- capacity (infrastructure, connectivity, accessibility, affordability, vation systems, especially to build innovation capacity and BOX 6.4: Key Considerations When Using ICT in AIS Policies. Generate or adapt institutional and national strategies and policies to make the introduction of ICT innovations more frequent and more effective. Institutions. Adapt organizational structures at all levels to accommodate changes in ICT systems and information man- agement processes, develop new incentive structures to encourage all innovation actors to contribute novel outputs or to stimulate collaboration, and develop innovative business models, particularly where they relate to mobile devices and telecommunications. Individuals. Develop and diversify the skills and competencies of all stakeholders in applying ICTs for innovation. Invest in the skills of new intermediaries, such as innovation brokers, who specialize in linking actors and resources to foster innovation and often rely on ICTs to do so. Content. Stimulate open access to the increasing volume of outputs of agricultural research so that all can benefit. Develop and comply with coherent standards that continue to improve the interoperability and exchange of data among stakeholders. Processes. Use ICTs to facilitate and open up inclusive multi-actor processes in which knowledge flows and can be put to use by different stakeholders. Facilitation will be needed at various levels to bridge divides and gaps in access to ICTs and in institutional strength. Technologies. Invest in greater connectivity, data and information generation and handling capacity, hardware, software, and improved human-computer interfaces that have been purposefully designed to enable innovation. Ensure that rural ICT infrastructure and connectivity are enhanced. Specific actions are needed to overcome barriers to technology use, such as culture, language, and gender. A recurring challenge is the fast-moving pace of change and development in the technologies. Monitoring and evaluation. Develop new and improved tools and approaches to assess information and knowledge interventions more effectively. Capacities. Invest in the technical and organizational capacities of individuals and institutions so they appreciate and use ICTs as tools to enhance knowledge creation, transformation, and innovation. These capacities are more than just techni- cal; appropriate mindsets and incentives are essential to encourage information and knowledge to flow. Source: Authors. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 119 foster an environment in which innovation occurs more employee traveling among villages to deliver technologies to readily: research and knowledge sharing systems, advisory farmers. This note is organized around broad functions of ICTs services, and e-learning. Each of these components is dis- in supporting this new notion of advisory services: the need to cussed in a topic note. provide localized, customized, and highly accessible informa- tion; the need to archive and provide reference information Topic Note 6.1 focuses on the use of ICTs in research for for a wide array of actors in the sector (from fertilizer applica- agricultural development. Investments in infrastructure and tion rates to quality standards for food processors and export- digital research collaboration, along with rapid developments ers); the need to facilitate networks (local, regional, global) in mobile devices and connectivity in rural areas, are chang- for collaborative, interdisciplinary approaches to problem solv- ing information and knowledge flows. This note focuses on ing and research diversification through shared knowledge general research processes rather than specific applications, bases, online forums, and collaborative spaces; and the need describing how ICTs are altering research collaboration and data to empower and “give voice� to rural communities. collection, analysis, storage, and dissemination. For example, the note describes efforts by individuals and research organi- Topic Note 6.3 focuses on electronic learning, especially its zations to make formal and informal research outputs (peer- potential for building capacity in extension providers and in reviewed journal articles and unpublished literature) freely and producers. E-learning potentially enables any actor in the openly available on the Internet using low-cost technologies. innovation system to reach large numbers of producers, involving them as partners and adult learners in designing Topic Note 6.2 describes how ICTs are benefiting agricultural and implementing the learning experience. The use of ICTs extension and advisory services. Many countries are reas- such as mobile phones makes it possible for learning to occur sessing the organization, mandates, and partnerships of without classrooms or fixed schedules, although face-to-face their agricultural advisory services to reach farmers and other interaction and incentives for using the new knowledge are clients more effectively. “Extension� is no longer a public important for e-learning to succeed. Topic Note 6.1: ICT IN THE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH PROCESS TRENDS AND ISSUES ICTs are becoming integral to the mechanics of the research This note discusses the entry points for ICT to be used in agri- process. They are also associated with the collaborative con- cultural research for development. Agricultural research is a key text in which the research process unfolds, and they are critical part of any innovation system. As with other components of an to the communication and accessibility of the data, informa- innovation system, in agricultural research successful innova- tion, and knowledge that researchers and their partners create. tion depends on a number of variables. Particularly important These technologies offer new potential to developing country variables are the partnerships surrounding the research pro- institutions, national research centers, and networks to par- cess, the level of accountability shared by the partners, and ticipate in a worldwide digital knowledge economy (Kirsop, the purpose, quality, and intensity of the research in which the Arunchalam, and Chan 2007). Open repositories and Web partners are concerned. 2.0 tools create opportunities for the more digitally connected In dramatic and well-documented ways, the effects of stakeholder groups in research agencies and academia to gener- ICT have permeated the agricultural research process ate, capture, store, analyze, and share virtually the entire range and the partnerships that define, sustain, and direct it of research content, such as theses, data, images, researcher toward development goals. For example, ICTs are mak- profiles, and so on. These technologies have also created more ing agricultural research more inclusive and at the same informal ways of communicating research outputs. time more focused on development goals, because they change how, where, and to whom information flows. Information can flow in many directions; it can be highly COLLABORATING IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS dispersed and accessible, and it can be highly targeted, The need for collaboration cuts across the entire research location specific, and location aware (Ballantyne, Maru, process, from the conceptualization of a research program and Porcari 2010). to the application of the results. In agricultural research for E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 120 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S BOX 6.5: ICTs Engage Stakeholders in Formulating an Ambitious Research Program In the summer of 2010, four international agricultural research centers in the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research came together with partners to develop an innovative, inclusive research program on livestock and fish. Before the program could be developed, a very wide range of stakeholders (governments, funders, extension, research, the private sector) participated in extensive consultations, not only in person but online. Their efforts were supported by a wiki to enable documents and other resources to be shared in a transparent, efficient, and cost-effective manner; a blog where assumptions and questions were posed and comments received; and several online surveys developed using the SurveyMonkey tool. The process and documentation were fully open. All documents, presentations, and interviews were publicly available. Fostering broad and deep engagement among numerous stakeholders to develop a very large research program is not a simple or brief task. For this particular program, the e-consultation began in July 2010 and consisted of eight rounds of questions, each focused on a different aspect of the proposed research. The initial proposal emerged after five rounds of consultation, each including a survey (a series of statements with which participants were invited to agree or disagree) and an opportunity to submit open-ended comments. Three more phases of the e-consultation followed in February 2011. During this time, revisions to the initial proposal based on an external review were shared and tested in public through the e-consultation forum. Between July 2010 and March 2011, the various e-consultation tools and resources were viewed more than 25,000 times. The organizers received 465 comments and other feedback on questions and surveys. The consultations raised a number of concerns and suggestions that were instrumental in strengthening the proposed program throughout its development. Source: Program proposal (http://livestockfish.wordpress.com). development, for example, priorities are often based on the small-scale farmers’ fields (see IPS “Advances in ICTs Increase needs of small-scale farmers with very limited resources. the Utility of African Sites to Test Varieties� in this topic note). ICTs are making it easier for research organizations to link In Tanzania, researchers have added to their capacity to track with these stakeholders and document and understand their and monitor the development of cassava mosaic disease and needs, thus enhancing the relevance and effectiveness of cassava brown streak disease because ICTs offer a means their research. ICTs also make it possible to consult a much of cooperating with the distant farming communities whose wider and more dispersed network of stakeholders (such as crops represent the front lines in these pandemics (box 6.6). producer groups, technical experts, private sector, research administrators, and policy makers) prior to developing a Communication in agricultural research is traditionally dominated research program (box 6.5). by a focus on the dissemination of “end-results�—by publish- ing journal articles or otherwise reporting on results. To make An integral part of “who to include in the collaborative research research more relevant, open, and accessible, ICTs are used in process� is “where to do the research.� The local nature of some organizations to enhance knowledge sharing much earlier agriculture, from the environment’s effect on crops and biodi- in the research process, during program formulation, design, and versity or the social and cultural norms that influence the agri- as part of ongoing planning and review (box 6.7). Increasingly, cultural sector (for example, in one location women are quite researchers are using digital social media tools, which are easy active as small-scale farmers and traders; in another, they never to access and use, to extend and open up communication and work alone in the field and are forbidden from selling produce to knowledge sharing throughout the research process. strangers), suggests that it is usually necessary to pick locations appropriate to the locale in which the results are to be applied. To disseminate information on such approaches and tools, the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Here again, ICTs have proven quite useful making these links. Research (CGIAR) has assembled a Knowledge Sharing For example, in developing new varieties with specific traits Toolkit (http://www.kstoolkit.org) in conjunction with FAO, needed by small-scale farmers (such as drought tolerance or the KM4Dev Community, and UNICEF. The toolkit consists resistance to a particular disease), plant breeders have relied of knowledge sharing tools and methods to promote col- for years on ICTs to collect, analyze, and validate data to iden- laboration through each stage of the research project cycle. tify field testing sites that are representative of conditions in Online tools include collaboration platforms, wikis, blogs, IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 121 BOX 6.6: Rural Tanzanians Update Researchers on Spreading Cassava Diseases Pandemics of cassava mosaic disease and cassava brown streak disease are reaching East and Central Africa. The costs of sending researchers to monitor disease development are high. Yearly visits have barely kept pace with these spread- ing diseases, yet early warnings of new outbreaks and greater community involvement in their control would consider- ably slow their progress through Africa. The Digital Early Warning Network (DEWN) provided training and mobile phones to farmers in northwestern Tanzania so that they could recognize symptoms of the two diseases and text their findings to researchers. Information obtained from farmers was used to generate maps. One of the most significant findings was that brown streak disease reported by farmers was confirmed by researchers’ visits to two districts where it had not previously been reported. This finding allowed project teams to concentrate disease mitigation efforts on these areas. DEWN has provided an innovative, informative, and relatively cheap means of involving communities in monitoring and maintaining the health of their crops. Research has been enriched and cost-effectively extended through greater connec- tivity with the voices and knowledge of farming communities. DEWN was primarily piloted by the Lake Zone Agricultural Research Institute in Tanzania with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Source: Adapted from http://r4dreview.org/2011/04/dewn-a-novel-surveillance-system/. photo sharing, podcasting, Google documents, discussion ure 6.1 illustrates how the CGIAR ICT-KM Program (http:// forums, intranets, content management systems and instant ictkm.cgiar.org) perceives the relationship between the messaging. Each tool is described, with links to relevant research cycle and different knowledge sharing and collabo- resources and suggestions for use, on the website. Fig- ration tools highlighted above. FIGURE 6.1: Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration Tools in the Research Cycle How can ICTs support this? –Providing many more channels for information to How can ICTs support this? flow to target groups that –Providing ways for more are appropriate for them people to provide information/priorities/needs Disseminating from the ground and Identifying influence this research research priorities results/products How can ICTs support this? –Providing ways to include more voices in M&E M&E and to make it a How can ICTs support wider learning process Developing this? Planning research results –Providing ways for research into outputs more people to be involved in and contribute to this How can ICTs support this? process –Providing ways for co- creation, collaboration Carrying out and feedback on research development of products despite different geographical locations How can ICTs support this? –Providing ways for people to be involved and share information Source: Manning-Thomas 2009. Note: M&E = monitoring and evaluation. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 122 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S BOX 6.7: Web-Based Tools Facilitate Research COLLECTING AND ANALYZING RESEARCH DATA Collaboration ICT is widely used to collect data, with the choice of technol- ogy depending on the kind of data needed. Surveys can be The last few years have seen the emergence of many administered electronically. Information from online research web-based collaboration tools and approaches, fre- collaboration can be recorded and analyzed using a variety quently described as “Web 2.0� or “social media.� The of ICT tools. Mobile devices of all kinds record research key features of such tools are that they are web-based, data—smartphones, mobile phones using short messag- free or very low cost, and very easy to use; they encour- ing service (SMS) text messages, personal data assistants age interactions between people; and they offer ways (PDAs), Global Positioning System (GPS) units, and specially to integrate different types of information from different designed equipment to measure indicators of soil nutrient perspectives. levels, among others. Electromagnetic and photographic These tools are used by the Nile Basin Development data are recorded by sensors in satellites and aircraft and on Challenge (http://www.nilebdc.org) in Ethiopia. This ini- the ground. Small transmitters are used to collect, store, and tiative is funded by the CGIAR Challenge Program on send data, including data from radio-frequency identification Water and Food to work with numerous national part- (RFID) tags (Munyua 2007). ners and a group of international centers to improve the resilience of rural livelihoods in the Ethiopian highlands. Mobile technology has also created opportunities for Web-based applications are used in the project to sup- crowdsourcing farmers. Rather than perform data collec- port interaction and sharing among the project team tion by hand or through paper surveys, researchers can members and to communicate messages to wider audi- collect data through SMS. Data on pest outbreaks, for ences and stakeholders: example, can be recorded by asking farmers to text infor- mation to a premium number. Scientists and governments  The project has a shared wiki space where project are able to monitor farming activities and local problems members document activities and plans. This remotely and to predict regional and national challenges space has been used, for example, to share meet- with greater certainty. SMS and other mobile devices have ing agendas and reports, discuss issues, and share also eased data entry. Paper surveys, which require enor- files. mous amounts of labor after the initial data are collected,  The project has a private conversation space on are being replaced with devices connected to software Yammer (https://www.yammer.com/), a social packages that automatically transfer the data to databases networking site for corporate purposes, where and statistical programs. iFormBuilder is an innovative project members share updates, questions, and application that collects rural survey data (http://www announcements. .iformbuilder.com).  The project has a DSpace (http://www.dspace.org/) document repository where all public reports and In addition to collecting primary data, researchers often resources from the projects are indexed and made rely on secondary data to complete their analyses. For accessible. example, several organizations offer archival geographic  A blog is used as a website with regular stories information system (GIS) data, including remote sensing and updates from the project. data, at increasingly better resolutions and sometimes  Updates and news are spread across social net- free of charge.3 Other organizations (public and private) working sites like Facebook and Twitter. offer data sequences of crop genomes. In the future, as biotechnology and agriculture increasingly overlap, results  The project uses social media tools like Flickr to of nanotechnology applications in agricultural production share photos, slideshare to publish presentations and food processing and packaging4 will increasingly be and posters online, and Blip.tv to publish video and film. 3 See Stanford University’s Library and Academic Informa- Such a web-based approach also requires complemen- tion Resources (“Websites for Digital GIS Data,� http://library tary face-to-face, print, and offline tools and approaches .stanford.edu/depts/gis/web.html) and the CGIAR Consortium to really engage with the rural communities “on the for Spatial Information (“What is CGIAR-CSI?� http://csi.cgiar .org/WhtIsCGIAR_CSI.asp). ground.� 4 For examples related to nanotechnology, see the National Source: Author; see also http://www.nilebdc.org/. Institute of Food and Agriculture (http://www.nifa.usda.gov/ nanotechnology.cfm). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 123 collected and shared through the ICT (Interagency Working MAKING DATA AND INFORMATION ACCESSIBLE Group on Manufacturing R&D, Committee on Technology, A primary output of the research process is knowledge, typi- National Science and Technology Council 2008). cally encapsulated in reports, manuals, articles, maps, data files, and interactive video and audio media. The transition The use of ICT to analyze research data appears virtually from print to digital information formats is one of the most universal, although some research systems are limited by striking transformations in agricultural research. New storage the infrastructure and applications available to them. Options technology, particularly the availability of storage in the cloud, range from custom software developed for a particular is making the storage and sharing of data and other informa- research project or organization to more generic packages tion far less expensive. such as GenStat Discovery Edition (http://www.vsni.co.uk/ software/genstat-discovery/), a version of the widely used Organizing and providing access to its information and data GenStat software for statistical analysis that is available free resources are among the most useful investments that an of charge to noncommercial users in developing countries. agricultural research institution can make. Complete, easy to access, open repositories or archives of research outputs are One chief impediment to the wider use of analytical software in becoming a standard to which research institutes aspire. The research for development is the lack of funding. The 13th edition concept is based on the use of free software such as DSpace of GenStat costs about US$ 330, for instance, but other soft- (http://www.dspace.org/) or ePrints (http://www.eprints.org/) ware, especially for sophisticated genomic and proteomic analy- that allows an organization to set up a repository of its docu- ses, may be even more costly, especially for public research ments and outputs. These repositories allow content to be programs in developing countries. Reducing the costs of ICTs uploaded and made accessible in full; they also allow the for data analysis is critical in enabling poorer institutions to par- metadata to be harvested and shared using open standards. ticipate more fully and meaningfully in the innovation system. As the collections grow, they become permanently acces- Some of the most innovative current uses of ICT in data sible indices of an institution’s research and nodes in a glob- analysis are in modeling, simulation, visualization, and cloud ally searchable knowledge base for agriculture. computing (do Prado, Barreto Luiz, and Chaib Filho 2010; Li Alongside these repositories, many related specialized and Zhao 2010; Hori, Kawashima, and Yamazaki 2010).5 For systems focus on, for example, theses or academic learn- instance, ICTs are vital for developing models of crop perfor- ing materials, specific subject areas (aquaculture, forestry, mance in environments where yields are reduced by climate and so on), or national aggregations of data from different stress and increasing climatic variability. Such models offer sources. Parallel systems facilitate the curation, sharing, and an important means of evaluating the potential for new cul- sometimes analysis of data in various forms (box 6.8). All of tivars to adapt to climate stress and climate change and to these systems build on basic connectivity and ICT infrastruc- assess food import needs and export potential. ture, both within institutions and outside them through the Another example involves researchers at the Medical adoption of applications that enable global sharing and aggre- College of Wisconsin Biotechnology and Bioengineering gation, harvesting, and distributed management of data. Center in Milwaukee, who recently developed free tools for analyzing virtual proteomics data (“Cloud Computing Lowers BOX 6.8: Dataverse: An Open Application for Storing Cost of Protein Research,� 2009). The tools are used in and Analyzing Data combination with other free software and Amazon’s cloud computing service, giving researchers access to consider- Dataverse is an open application to publish, share, refer- ably more computing power than they may have at their own ence, extract, and analyze research data. It makes data institutions. Proteomics—the study of proteins expressed by available to others and allows them to replicate work an organism—has numerous applications in plant breeding by other researchers. Developed by the Institute for research, such as improving the understanding of how plants Quantitative Social Science at Harvard University, the respond to disease—but until recently few research institu- software can be freely downloaded for local use, or data tions in developing countries have been able to afford the ICT can be hosted by the project. Dataverse is used by the infrastructure to analyze proteomics data. International Food Policy Research Institute to archive and make its data accessible, for example. 5 For examples related to geospatial, precision, and sensor technolo- Source: Authors; see also http://thedata.org/home and http://dvn gies, see the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (http://www .iq.harvard.edu/dvn/dv/IFPRI. .nifa.usda.gov/ProgViewRelated.cfm?prnum=16198&lkid=4). E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 124 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S A number of examples of data storage and sharing follow, research centers of the CGIAR and their partners, is an exten- and many more could be cited. They are similar in several sive collection of information about the genetic resources ways. First, they use open standards and common taxono- conserved by SINGER members. These collections hold mies that allow metadata to be shared across organizations more than half a million samples of the world’s major food and systems. Second, they are often based on free or low- crops, forage crops, and forest species and are an essential cost specialized applications provided by third parties. Third, resource for plant breeding and biodiversity conservation they depend on the distributed actions of organizations and worldwide. initiatives that are working toward common objectives and are committed to making information and data widely acces- National Approaches, Pioneered and Partnered sible through the Internet. Fourth, they have chosen to use with Ministries systems that not only store content but curate and index The Government of India in partnership with the World Bank content in ways that add value to this public good. Finally, began funding the National Agricultural Innovation Project they all rely on increasing (remote) storage and connectivity (NAIP) in India in 2006 (http://www.naip.icar.org.in/index capacities. .html). Led by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, this six-year project aims to quicken the pace of agricultural Research institutes and other agricultural entities participat- development by exploring and applying agricultural innova- ing in research projects or dissemination projects usually tion in collaboration with a variety of public and private select a single approach to organize their research electroni- stakeholders. NAIP has established over 50 research alli- cally. These forms of organization include subject, national, ances between public organizations, commercial enterprise, regional, institutional, and crowdsourcing approaches or and farmers, focusing applied research initiatives on tech- a variety therein. Selecting a manner in which to orga- nological innovation in poor rural areas. The project and its nize repositories is critical to its user and management partnerships have led to a wide expansion in stakeholder friendliness. engagement, more frequent monitoring and evaluation of technological outcomes, and improved knowledge brokering. Subject Approaches Avano (http://www.ifremer.fr/avano/) harvests electronic The project component most relevant to this module focuses resources related to the marine and aquatic sciences. It pro- on the management of change and information in the vides access to almost 300,000 resources from almost 300 national agricultural research service. This component seeks repositories and other archives worldwide. It is operated by a to strengthen the use of ICT for research and technological group of information professionals who agreed to use open innovation, increase public awareness of ICT, experiment repositories and standards and to allow their IMAGE 6.3: Open Access to Genetic Information Can Improve Yields resources to be harvested. Worldwide The Global Forest Information System (GFIS, http://www.gfis.net) is a collaborative initia- tive that allows forest-related information to be shared easily through a single gateway. GFIS is an open system to which information providers, using agreed information exchange standards, may contribute content. Similar to Avano, GFIS is organized by the global forest community. It depends on the adoption of open tools and content by its many collabora- tors. It uses RSS (really simple syndication) as the primary device to aggregate and re-pres- ent content acquired from different sources. The System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources (SINGER, http://singer .cgiar.org), developed by the agricultural Source: Edwin Huffman, World Bank. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 125 with e-learning models, and open opportunities for stake- Asia-Pacific region.7 ENRAP worked in the area of knowledge holder collaboration and exchange using electronic tools and networking and Internet applications at the local, national, web platforms. The project has connected over 300 institu- and international levels. tions on the web, working toward building an enormous ICT network for agricultural research and dissemination. The The project, which ended in 2010, was designed to bring the project is also developing a central portal for the network, benefits of global information resources to IFAD-supported which will serve as the platform for knowledge building and rural development projects in Asia and the Pacific. It aimed to sharing. This central portal will maintain 42 open-sourced increase effective use of the Internet and electronic commu- and subscription-based agricultural libraries. Formal links nication by project staff and, ultimately, by project communi- between libraries in the national research system and other ties. The project focused especially on methods and practical agricultural libraries will be forged. This project component solutions to foster participation at the grassroots level. Local also includes virtual classroom development (source: http:// electronic newsletters, agricultural market information dis- www.naip.icar.org.in/index.html). semination, and shared electronic libraries are examples of ENRAP-supported activities. Brazil’s national agricultural research system, EMBRAPA (the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation), recently The first phase of ENRAP began with an emphasis on ICTs, contributed 470,000 bibliographic records to WorldCat, “the but subsequent phases focused more on the knowledge/ world’s largest library catalog� (http://www.worldcat.org/), content that needed to be shared. Attention was given to reflecting the scale and publishing power of this research building capacities in knowledge production, especially the system. EMBRAPA also maintains substantial repositories use of digital video as a supplement and alternative to writ- of its research outputs in full text: The ALICE repository ten documentation of project experiences. (http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/) provides full access to formal research outputs in the form of book chapters, Institutional Approaches articles in indexed journals, articles in proceedings, theses In Chile, the digital library of the Fundación para la Innovación and dissertations, technical notes, and so on. This resource Agraria (Foundation for Agricultural Innovation) (http:// is complemented by the Infoteca-e (http://www.infoteca bibliotecadigital.innovacionagraria.cl/) incorporates new ICTs .cnptia.embrapa.br/), which collects and provides access to manage and diffuse public information. It assembles infor- to more practical information on technologies produced by mation on all the reports and publications, photos, videos, EMBRAPA. This information is intended for farmers, exten- and presentations produced by the foundation. sionists, agricultural technicians, students and teachers from rural schools, cooperatives, and others concerned relatively In 2009, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) directly with agricultural production. set up an open repository of its research outputs (http:// mahider.ilri.org). ILRI used free DSpace software to develop In Jordan, the National Center of Agricultural Research and the repository, and in the first 18 months, some 4,500 outputs Extension, the Ministry of Agriculture, and FAO have joined were included in the service. Since the system uses open forces to set up a National Agricultural Information System standards, the contents are harvested across the Internet portal (http://nais-jordan.gov.jo/Pages/Index.aspx?CMSId=8) and can be reused in other services—Google Scholar, the that provides updates and news as well as access to full-text CGIAR Virtual Library, FAO’s AGRIS (http://agris.fao.org), and reports and publications. so on. The same platform is being used to develop a shared service across several CGIAR centers and initiatives. Regional Approaches In Uganda, Makerere University has established a “scholarly Similar in concept in that it seeks to link local project actors, digital library� (http://dspace.mak.ac.ug/) with the full text the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) of reports and theses, including those of its agriculture and in Asia joined with the International Development Research veterinary sciences faculties. Centre to use ICTs to support learning and networking across a number of IFAD-supported development projects. ENRAP A final example comes from the International Crops Research (http://www.enrap.org)6 was formed to promote knowledge Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). ICRISAT conducts sharing and networking between IFAD projects located in the 7 Similar projects exist in Africa, Latin America, and the Middle 6 Originally Electronic Networking for Rural Asia Pacific. East. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 126 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S genomics research to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness Such open collaboration is possible only because of the of crop improvement. In the course of this work, it learned Internet and the way it allows distributed systems for the that the rate-limiting step in genomics was no longer data gen- aggregation, review, and dissemination of knowledge and, eration but the speed at which data were captured, validated, most important, the active support of a large community analyzed, and turned into useful knowledge. ICRISAT initiated (Hoffmann 2008). Tools like this one are a form of “expert its Global Theme on Biotechnology, a program that focuses on crowdsourcing� online. building and sharing the ICT tools to accelerate these stages of research. The program develops information systems for data Crowdsourcing through ICT can also be effective in research capture, storage, retrieval, and dissemination. projects that involve rural inhabitants. Asking farmers to send information via mobile phone can be an effective way of The program also develops software based on open-source gathering data with reduced costs and labor. In areas where technologies; this software is all in the public domain (http:// mobile phones are ubiquitous, it also allows for increased www.icrisat.org/bt-software-downloads.htm). Applications participation from a variety of farmers or farmer groups. have been downloaded several hundred times by users from other institutions. For example, a Library Information BOX 6.9: Mendeley: ICT to Expand the Literature Base Management System (LIMS) facilitates molecular genotyp- ing through modules that make it possible to track samples, Mendeley is a free online reference manager and aca- schedule jobs, generate reports, and perform other tasks. demic social network through which researchers orga- LIMS has been adopted by other research facilities and cus- nize their research, collaborate with others, and discover tomized by a private sector partner. Information is shared the latest research in their areas. With Internet connec- through ICRISAT’s Integrated Crop Resources Information tivity, scientists can manage their personal research System (ICRIS). Available on the Internet with password- profiles and presence and co-create a literature base protected access, the database provides genotype, marker, on a subject or around an event. For example, research- and phenotype information. An integrated decision support ers at the International Food Policy Research Institute system, iMAS, has also been developed to facilitate marker- have started to use this service to collate, share, and assisted plant breeding by integrating freely available quality track research information around specific projects and software needed for designing experiments, mapping quan- events, such as the 2011 conference on agriculture, titative trait loci,8 and providing decision guidelines to help nutrition, and health (http://2020conference.ifpri.info/ users interpret results. knowledge-fair/literature-hub). Source: Authors; see also http://www.mendeley.com/. Crowdsourcing Approaches Researchers and others are not just sitting back and wait- ing for others to provide tools to share data and information. Preferential Access Schemes for Research in Developing Researchers with access to the Internet are making their Countries own specialized literature bases available online (box 6.9). Despite increases in Internet access and connectivity, They are also assembling them into quite sophisticated developing-country researchers continue to face barriers in resources that become new research products in their own gaining access to scientific publications and literature. This right. An example is WikiGenes (http://www.wikigenes.org). is particularly significant for journal articles and other publi- This collaborative knowledge resource for the life sciences cations published through commercial channels where sub- is based on the general wiki idea but employs specifically scriptions are required. developed technology to serve as a rigorous scientific tool. The project provides a platform for the scientific community In recent years, commercial publishers have begun to provide to collect, communicate, and evaluate knowledge about free or inexpensive access to some developing countries through genes, chemicals, diseases, and other biomedical concepts initiatives like AGORA (Access to Global Online Research in in a bottom-up process. Agriculture, http://www.aginternetwork.org/), which provides free or very low-cost access to 2,400 journals on food, agricul- 8 A preliminary step in identifying and sequencing the genes ture, and related sciences to institutions in 107 countries (image related to variations in physical characteristics of an organism 6.4); PERI (the Programme for the Enhancement of Research arising from the interactions of multiple genes and/or interac- tions between genes and the environment in which they are Information, http://www.inasp.info/peri/), which supports the expressed. efforts of developing-country institutions to get together in IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 127 IMAGE 6.4: AGORA Provides Access to Agricultural Research Literature investments in information literacy are needed to maximize the use of these tools. Scientists may rely on their traditional information- seeking strategies and remain unaware of new electronic resources. Their parent organizations need to encourage the use of e-resources and provide appropriate bandwidth and training. Gaining Access to Private Sector Innovation and Research Initiatives like CIARD (box 6.10) are important to make publicly funded research results accessible (see image 6.5). It is quite another challenge to gain access to the results of research financed by private companies, which in total spend more on research than the public sector. Because companies operate for profit and need to recover their R&D invest- ment, they seek intellectual property rights for their innovations, which typically prevent pub- Source: A screenshot of the AGORA homepage. lic access and, at times, collaboration. consortia to pay for heavily discounted subscriptions; and TEEAL Some systems permit research results from private firms to (The Essential Electronic Agricultural Library, http://www.teeal. be shared. Innovations covered by patent rights allow the org/), which provides a package of content that institutions can patent holder 20 years to exploit the commercial potential of run on their own networks. the patented innovation, in exchange for publicly disclosing the innovation in a patent database. This practice is meant to Although Internet connectivity gives scientists access to enable other researchers to build on the initial innovation. The the resources provided, evidence shows that significant largest searchable patent databases include PATENTSCOPE BOX 6.10: Driving Developing County Access: The CIARD Initiative Public knowledge and research results have limited impact on agricultural and rural development when they are not easily or widely accessible. The Coherence in Information for Agricultural Research for Development (CIARD, http://www.ciard .net/) initiative, pioneered by FAO, the Global Forum on Agricultural Research, the CGIAR, and other partner organizations, aims to change this by increasing the awareness of how new ICTs and associated institutional changes expand options to manage and present information differently and economically. CIARD’s vision, “to make public domain agricultural research information and knowledge truly accessible to all,� reflects the transformational effects of ICT in agricultural development. CIARD partners coordinate their efforts, promote common formats for information sharing and exchange, and adopt open information systems approaches. CIARD projects, like KAINet in Kenya, focus on three priority areas:  Making content accessible through open content, open systems, and common international standards.  Empowering individuals with awareness and skills and encouraging institutions to be self-sufficient through owner- ship of their information.  Advocating better investments through policies that improve access to information, coordinated approaches, and evidence of benefits. The explanation and the routes for implementation of the CIARD agenda as a whole are available at the CIARD website and in print. Source: http://www.ciard.net/. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 128 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S IMAGE 6.5: Accessing Private Sector Research Could Have Wide essential to the delivery of today’s research. Impacts on Poor Agriculture Lessons learned in using these technologies for agricultural research are summarized here; the discussion also highlights the key enablers for designing and implementing ICT-enriched research initiatives. First, ensure that each researcher has basic levels of e-literacy and ICT access. It is critical to convince managers and funders that ICTs are “basic� to research, not just desirable add-ons. Beyond the level of the individual scientist or researcher, many opportunities for using ICT in research require significant insti- tutional investments to have a real impact on research itself or the targets of research. The lack of systematic investment in ICTs by research institutions and their funders often Source: Jonathon Ernst, World Bank. holds researchers back from adopting and using ICTs (FARA 2009; Balaji 2009; GCARD from the World Intellectual Property Organization, with close 2009; RUFORUM 2009; Karanja 2006; Kashorda and Waema to 2 million international patent applications (http://www 2009; and UNCTAD 2010). Like funding for agricultural .wipo.int/pctdb/en/). The United States Patent Office data- research more generally, investments in ICT for agricultural base (http://patft.uspto.gov/) and esp@cenet, the European research are vital to increase and should be at the forefront of Patent Office database, offer 60 million patent documents the agricultural research discussion. Thinking carefully about from over 80 countries. For a recent review of patent data- how ICT might contribute to research projects is critical to bases, see http://patentlibrarian.blogspot.com/2010/02/ tapping the wide range of opportunities available throughout patent-database-review.html; for a more general discussion the research process. of IP and related issues in agricultural research, see the work of the CGIAR Systemwide Program on Collective Action and Unfortunately, beyond the use of ICTs for everyday commu- Property Rights (CAPRI, http://www.capri.cgiar.org/). nication and Internet access, research institutions may offer few incentives to undertake ICT-enabled research that devi- Initiatives like the African Agriculture Technology Foundation ates from traditional paths and uses newer ICTs, especially if (http://www.aatf-africa.org/), the International Service for that research involves gaining access to proprietary informa- the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (http://www tion and ICT tools (or even paying fees for ICT services). This .isaaa.org/), and Public Intellectual Property Resources for lack of incentives represents a major challenge to using ICT Agriculture enable developing countries to maximize access for agricultural research, especially in rural areas where dif- to promising technologies and innovations developed by the ficulties like the lack of electricity and weak telecommunica- private sector. Such efforts are built on smart access to rel- tions connections abound. evant developments in the private sector, insights into local research interests, and brokering between the various parties. As for open access to research products, low investment in technical infrastructure, in sustaining research capacity, and in research itself have left many countries on the margins of global digital society and innovation, most notably in sub- LESSONS LEARNED Saharan Africa (RUFORUM 2009; Karanja 2006; Kashorda and Increasingly, ICTs such as computers, mobile phones, other Waema 2009). Their marginalization renders them less aware devices, and e-mail are standard tools of the trade for individ- of and able to adopt the international standards and meth- ual researchers, scientists, and the people they work with. odologies required to participate in open digital information As part of a personal research toolkit or dashboard, ICTs are sharing. In this context, the efforts made by organizations to IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 129 overcome institutional inertia, join together, and develop col- Africa Trial Sites (http://africats.org/) is a portal that enables lective and accessible research information repositories and national and international research organizations to elec- services are immensely important. Although each institution tronically pool their extensive information on trial sites and will have its own priorities and constraints, all can subscribe provides numerous tools (based on ICT advances in bioin- to common approaches. formatics, GIS, and data management) that help farmers, plant breeders, and agronomists to evaluate new varieties An additional major challenge in research is for organiza- more efficiently in the field and gain more useful data from tions and individuals to truly grasp the emerging possibilities field trials. For some time much of the data from field trials— and be willing to use them. One aspect of this challenge is representing an enormous investment of research resources awareness: Which of all the possible tools and investments over several decades—resided on the shelves of research will work best, and where? Who has the skills to make them institutions and was difficult to assemble, analyze on a large work? What “fallout,� positive and negative, will the organi- scale, and put to use. zation experience if they are used? What is the best portfolio of ICT-related investments for my particular set of individual, Users can search the website for trial sites and data by coun- project, or institutional goals and challenges? The use of new try, design trials to evaluate cultivars, obtain tools to manage ICTs is also a risky and change-making business. Just adopt- trials (from developing a budget to estimating water stress ing a new tool can trigger major changes in workflows, pro- during the growing season), analyze trial data, view results of cedures, processes, culture, and hierarchy that force a wider spatial analyses, examine data on an interactive Google map, assessment of business processes. Legacy IT systems as and report results online. They can also rank varieties and well as institutional processes and power relations are often add comments about their performance at a given site. The threatened. website allows the analysis of climate data for any point in Africa as well as climate similarity comparisons between trial Finally, moving beyond “ICT-assisted and connected� sites and other areas of Africa. Finally, the site includes links research to “ICT-enabled and transformed innovation� is to resources such as websites of the participating centers, a challenge for even the smartest, best-funded scientific from which anyone can request seed from breeders and institute. A research organization that has been transformed genebank curators. through ICT needs people and leadership with skills to develop a vision for e-research and align ICT investments to The combination of African trial site data and interactive data research and innovation processes, ensure that staff acquire analysis tools has made valuable information much more the necessary skills, redesign institutional processes, adopt widely available and useful for the agricultural research, open standards and access to knowledge, change staff mind- development, and extension community. Results for culti- sets, give staff access to ICT toolsets, invest in technological vars tested in Africa are rarely available online. Participants’ infrastructure and networks, and innovate and experiment— data will significantly expand knowledge of which cultivars among other needs. Devising and developing the optimal are suited to which environments (especially environments ICT investment portfolio for a national research institute or subject to stress from diseases, pests, or environmental network is a major challenge. factors). International agricultural research centers are begin- ning to use the trial sites in a climate adaptation research program, drawing in national partners, and they are using INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Africats.org to standardize their trial site information. Advances in ICTs Increase the Utility of African Sites for Testing Varieties Widespread use of higher-yielding and stress-resistant variet- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY ies throughout Africa has been frustrated by the variability KAINet Kenya Knowledge Network Anchored in of African growing conditions, the difficulty of selecting Partnerships and Collaboration appropriate sites to test new cultivars, and the challenges The Kenya Agricultural Information Network (KAINet, http:// of matching new cultivars to suitable growing environments www.kainet.or.ke) project, supported by FAO, encourages across the continent. Innovations may be tested, but they and assists Kenyan agricultural organizations to capture and are not tested in ways that make it more likely that they will share information in a series of repositories. The network, be useful to farmers, so they are not adopted. launched in 2009 and supported by the Ministry of Agriculture, E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 130 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S provides training and support. The network’s website allows Experiences with KAINet have been carefully documented. researchers to query the resources of all member institu- Among the lessons and enabling factors that emerged, tions at once. The repositories include around 4,000 full-text piloting the network with a limited number of national digital documents generated by the institutions, with around institutions allowed the partners to learn and devise work- 40,000 metadata records that conform to international coher- able solutions before expanding the network. The man- ence standards to facilitate access and sharing. The network agement and steering committees played important roles is guided by a national stakeholder forum, a board of trust- in promoting the network, involving the management of ees, and a network management committee. partner institutions in its development, and guiding project activities. Linking the project to the priorities and plans of Like the thematic services Avano and GFIS mentioned partner institutions added credibility to KAINet, ensuring earlier, KAINet relies on distributed action by different orga- that it would enhance existing work and not remain an iso- nizations, their compliance with standards, and sufficient lated initiative. The initial planning and partnership-building connectivity for the harvesting and virtual querying of the phase was critical for success, because it provided an databases. The collaboration between national institutions understanding of the institutions’ information and commu- and international partners ensured the effective use of nication management needs and helped partners develop national resources and leveraged knowledge of interna- a basis for collaboration. tional best practices. The development of adequate capacities in information and An important aspect of KAINet is that it is integrated into communication management (including physical infrastruc- national and institutional policies and strategies. Its outputs ture) was essential to develop open repositories, and these and resources, such as the institutional and national reposi- capacities should preferably be built early in a networking tories of agricultural information, complement national and project. Because networking contacts were the basis of global initiatives aimed at sharing information. Its training collaboration and project operations, telephone and e-mail programs support the development of human capacity in groups were essential for constant communication among information and communication management. partners. Topic Note 6.2: USING ICT IN EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES TRENDS AND ISSUES a traditional, top-down, technology-driven extension system Rural people must be able to respond productively to the into one that is more pluralistic, decentralized, farmer led, opportunities and challenges of economic and technological and market driven (and thus more effective within the inno- change, including those that can improve agricultural pro- vation system). Part of the role of ICTs is to contribute to ductivity and food security. Innovation is more successful the many reforms that are urgently needed to empower and when producers can communicate with and be heard by support small-scale farmers as developing countries seek to their peers, local authorities, and institutions. Producers also respond successfully to food security, market development, require relevant knowledge and information, including tech- and climate change challenges (Christoplos 2010). nical, scientific, economic, social, and cultural information. To be useful, that information must be available to users in In the context of rural advisory services that support inno- appropriate languages and formats. At the same time, it must vation, ICTs have four broad functions. First, they need to be current and communicated through appropriate channels. deliver or provide access to information. They should address the need for localized and customized information—adapted This topic note outlines key issues involved in using ICTs to rural users in a comprehensible format and appropriate to convey demands for rural advisory services and deliver language—to give small-scale producers as well as providers those services effectively. Although there is convincing of advisory services adequate, timely access to technical and evidence that ICTs can revitalize research-extension interac- marketing information, as well as information or support on tions in ways that respond to farmers’ demands, the use of new technologies and good farming practices (image 6.6). It ICTs is merely one element in the wider transformation of is not just a matter of getting information out. A key aim is to IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 131 IMAGE 6.6: Matching ICT to the Diverse Needs ICTs to improve access to technologies and knowledge in of Farmers Is Critical their rural advisory services, by means of rural telecenters, community knowledge workers, online networks, and vari- ous types of forums. They also need to focus on ways to empower rural communities to connect with one another, not just to the outside world. Facilitating linkages between mar- ket actors, extension, and smallholders along value chains is also essential. Fourth, ICTs need to empower rural communities. ICTs should help farming communities “gain a voice� so that they can convey their needs and demands, negotiate better deals with other actors in value chains, and generally get practical benefits from the services intended for them (and otherwise avoid being exploited). A key element is to use ICTs to give rural people the skills and tools to tell their own stories, in their own words and languages, in ways that reach and influ- ence others (see Module 8 on farmer organizations for addi- tional information on ICT and collective action). Throughout the developing world, ICTs are being integrated into classic rural advisory services, through radio, SMS, televi- sion, video, Internet, libraries, the media, and mobile services. Source: Neil Palmer, CIAT. Advice and information provided via ICTs is becoming more varied, covering specific technologies and practices; climate change mitigation and adaptation; disaster management; early give rural people the facilities and skills to find the informa- warning of drought, floods, and diseases; price information; tion and answers they need. political empowerment; natural resource management; pro- duction efficiency; and market access. It is not a one-way flow: Second, they need to organize the knowledge base. ICTs ICTs open up new channels for farmers to document and share should help document and store information for future use. experiences with each other and with experts (IICD 2006). In many cases, information and knowledge on technologies and good practices is available only in hard copy or in peo- Some of the likely trends in the use of ICTs for rural advisory ple’s heads, and data are incomplete, scarce, or inaccurate. services over the coming years include (Ballantyne 2009) Local and indigenous knowledge is often transmitted orally,  Many advisory services will be privatized as the agricul- records are often unavailable, and information is dispersed tural sector becomes more commercial, as other actors only to nearby family and friends. As with research, all this step into this arena, and as clients are willing to pay.9 knowledge needs to be documented and organized for reuse. The challenge is evident from the scattered nature of the information, its multiple “formats,� and the general lack 9 As discussed in Module 3 of the Agricultural Innovation Systems Investment Sourcebook (World Bank 2012): “The private sector of attention to documentation and learning in this area. While increasingly finances extension services for specific objectives researchers are rewarded for publishing, extension workers, and/or value chains. Contracting public extension workers for specific tasks is a common practice among NGOs as well as advisors, and farmers are motivated to deliver “practical� specific commodity development programs, such as the pro- results; documentation is only a potential by-product. gram for cashew production in Mozambique. Some export com- modity chains finance extension services through a government- Third, ICTs need to connect people and networks. ICTs can instituted export levy, as in Mozambique and Tanzania. The pri- vate sector also finances extension services directly, as is the facilitate networking—locally, regionally, and globally—thus case with large tobacco companies in Malawi and Mozambique. leading to collaborative and interdisciplinary approaches Many of these arrangements are in transition to become sys- to problem solving and research based on shared knowl- tems of cost-sharing with farmers, first by assuring effective demand for relatively costly services and eventually by having edge and collaboration (Nyirenda-Jere 2010). Many NGOs, farmers fully finance extension services, as a complement to research organizations, and national ministries have used services they already provide one another (F2F extension).� E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 132 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S Some services—for small-scale producers and natural practical strategies for integrating farmers’ demands into resource management, for example, which excite less advisory services and give an idea of their relative strengths interest from commercial providers—will continue as and weaknesses. The examples and practice summaries also public services. illustrate some of the social and economic outcomes that can  ICTs, including devices and software, will become arise when ICTs support the wider webs of communication more available, much cheaper, and more affordable or that characterize effective innovation systems. even cost-free (open-source software is one example), even in rural areas. ICTS FOR EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES  Connectivity will become more pervasive and more ICT has great potential to transform the way public extension is mobile. More devices will be “smart� and capable of organized and delivered—including interactions with farmers. It performing multiple operations. is also an entry point for nontraditional actors who see advisory  Farmers and rural communities will be regarded as services as an area of intervention and for giving greater empha- much less “passive� consumers of advice and infor- sis to subjects traditionally deficient in extension services. ICT mation; through ICTs as well as other developments, can also increase women’s access to advisory services. they are becoming active participants in formal rural knowledge and innovation systems. Some developing countries have moved quickly to enable  Traditional public advisory services will be challenged farmers to interact in real time (or close to it) with advisory ser- and bypassed by the emergence of new actors with vices through ICT. Until ICTs offered farmers a channel for com- alternative ICT-based business models. Increasingly, municating directly with distant technicians and experts, many these new actors rely on ICTs to provide their com- farmers could wait months or years for an extension worker to parative advantage. To be relevant and competitive provide technical advice, and often that advice did not address in such situations, public extension services need to their immediate concerns (image 6.7). The following examples reinvent or transform themselves, with strategic use highlight some of the ICT applications that advisory services of ICTs as part of the change process. have used to improve their interactions and technical knowl-  There will be much experimentation and innovation by edge sharing with farmers in developing countries. These governments, NGOs, the private sector, and new info- applications include web services like “ask the expert,� mobile mediaries to develop and test ICT-based services and messaging for advice, radio programs to disseminate techni- business models to better reach or engage with rural cal information, and video. Many of these endeavors are fairly communities. The challenge will be to scale these out new, limiting practitioners’ ability to analyze their effectiveness. to reach specific target groups or broad groups of marginal communities. IMAGE 6.7: Timely Advisory Services Improve the Effectiveness of Other Technologies The more complex and dynamic interactions characteristic of innovation systems, includ- ing the interactions fostered through ICT, will require new skills, both technical and entre- preneurial, to be acquired by farmers as well as advisory service providers (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010). In some instances, ICTs them- selves can enable farmers and service provid- ers to attain these skills; in others, special capacity-building efforts will be needed. This discussion is beyond the scope of this topic note, but helpful information is available (see World Bank 2012, especially Module 4). In the remainder of this note, the discussion of ICTs in advisory services contains examples and innovative practice summaries that illustrate Source: Thomas Sennett, World Bank. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 133 Informing the Extension Agent disseminate information to improve the livelihoods of small- Two recent projects improve extension agents’ ability to holder farmers. The idea was to extend the reach of central- respond to farmers’ needs by improving the quality and rel- ized expertise and transmit farmers’ concerns more clearly. evance of information available to both groups. The first was Via mobile phones, CKWs provide information on three-day launched in Egypt and the second in Uganda. weather forecasts, seasonal forecasts, good farming and husbandry practices, input supplies, and markets. The Egypt launched a Virtual Extension and Research Com- subject matter for each of these topics comes from expert munication Network (VERCON) in 2000 to develop and partner institutions like the Uganda National Agro-Inputs strengthen links among the research and extension compo- Dealers’ Association and Uganda’s National Agricultural nents of the national agricultural knowledge and information Research Organisation. system. By improving research-extension linkages, the initia- tive aimed to improve advisory services for Egyptian farmers, Early findings indicate that women and poorer farmers are especially resource-poor farmers (see http://www.fao.org/ frequent users of the service and that farmers generally act sd/2001/KN1007_en.htm). on the information they receive. Even so, CKWs require intensive training in mobile technologies, agricultural infor- VERCON-Egypt introduced and tested several innovative mation, survey techniques, and business skills to be effec- communication tools. One of the most useful tools is the tive.10 (For more detailed information on this initiative, see Farmers’ Problems Database, created explicitly to address IPS “Community Knowledge Worker Initiative in Uganda� in farmer’s problems. The web interface enables extension Module 4 and “Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda agents to pose questions on behalf of farmers seeking Link Farmers and Experts to Cope with Risk� in Module 11.) solutions to agricultural problems; they can also examine answers to questions already posed to researchers. Content Using Radio and Video to Reach Rural Farmers is classified into four main categories of problems: produc- tion, administration, environment, and marketing. Among the various communications media available, even the most novel and technically sophisticated alternatives, The online database and tracking system enable farmers’ radio remains the most pervasive, inexpensive, popular, and questions to flow from provincial extension centers to the socioculturally appropriate means of communication in many national extension directorate and research system. Farmers parts of the developing world. Radio is still the only medium approach extension centers with problems, and if they cannot for disseminating information rapidly to large and remote audi- be solved using online resources such as extension bulletins ences, including critical information about markets, weather, or agricultural expert systems, the extension agent develops crops, livestock production, and natural resource protection. a full description of the problem and his/her proposed solu- Video has also made substantial impact in convincing farm- tion, which is forwarded to a specialized researcher who pro- ers to try new technologies; its images and demonstrations vides advice to address it (Beltagy et al. 2009). The problems make information easier to understand and apply. and solutions are added to the online database to assist other users of the network who face similar problems. Rural radio is distinctive from urban radio and most national radio networks in that it is directed specifically to a rural audi- Aside from addressing farmers’ problems, the system ence and its distinctive information needs, often including provides valuable information to track farmers’ problems, authentic stories and experiences from communities and suc- including their incidence and significance. The system makes cessful farmers. Rural radio can motivate farmers, promote the farmers’ problems more visible and quantifiable for research exchange of views, and draw their attention to new agricultural planners, and chronic problems can be addressed in research production ideas and techniques. Communities actively plan projects. Since 2006, over 10,000 problems and their solu- the production of broadcasts, making them an expression of tions accumulated in the interactive database, and over community life and concerns rather than treating communi- 26,000 farmers benefited from the system (FAO 2008). ties as passive listeners. (For examples, see box 6.11 and IPS “Farm Radio International� in this topic note.) In Uganda, the Grameen Foundation’s Community Knowledge Worker Initiative established a distributed 10 See http://www.grameenfoundation.applab.org/applab-blog/2010/ network of intermediaries, called Community Knowledge 05/20/community-knowledge-worker-pilot-report-and-program- Workers (CKWs), who used mobile devices to collect and launch/. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 134 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S BOX 6.11: Rural Radio Lets Listeners Speak should be a participatory needs assessment to evaluate not only the material needs of communities that will benefit from A villager’s story, recorded in a rural radio program about the project but the perceptions, expectations, and commit- bushfires: ments that community members can bring to the initiative. My uncle once told me how a bushfire burnt his Radio overcomes some of the most challenging issues field: “That bushfire was angry—it charged like a related to using ICT in advisory services: herd of elephants, destroying everything! Even  Accessibility. Radios are relatively cheap to produce came near to our home!� and distribute and do not need electricity or special I said, “Don’t be scared. With the right words, a skills to operate. They can also be shared by groups of good hunter can stop a herd of charging elephants. listeners. It should be mentioned, however, that a key We too can stop bushfires with the right words.� challenge to reaching female farmers through radio is ownership. Often men own the radio and choose “What words?� the programs to listen to, which may not be relevant for women farmers. Radio programs should target “Let’s unite.� women (although ensuring women’s access to radios “Let’s unite?� in the household may not be so easy).  Literacy and language barriers. Radio requires no “If the entire village gets organized to fight bushfires, reading and speaks the language of the community it you’ll never be afraid of bushfires again!� intends to reach. Rural radio programs serve a variety of purposes,  Geographic coverage. Radio can easily and simulta- such as promoting an anti-bushfire campaign in Chad. neously reach large numbers of isolated communities Whether produced at the local, regional, or national level, over vast geographic areas. such radio programs are most effective when made  Local focus. Radio can focus on local issues in with audience participation, in local languages, and tak- local languages. The United Nations Development ing into account cultural traditions. Rural radio program- Programme notes that in Latin America, for example, ming, besides spreading agricultural information, can most radio programs are locally or nationally produced, fulfill other important functions: It can stimulate a regu- whereas only 30 percent of television programming lar discussion and debate among the people involved in comes from the region. agricultural development, provide a forum where rural communities can express their views, and can even be New ICT has benefited radio by offering better and cheaper a powerful means of investigation for decision-makers, means of recording, mixing, editing, and transmitting (for exam- helping them to approach local agricultural development ple, the digital audio recorder, audio editing on computers, and in appropriate ways. the electronic transmittal of sound programs as attachments) (image 6.8). Development practitioners increasingly recognize Source: FAO n.d. the potential for combining radio with new Internet-based ICTs, given that the new ICTs are still limited in some areas by the lack of telecommunications infrastructure and reach only a Rural radio producers must know the rudiments of agricul- small number of people in developing countries. ture, be familiar with farmers’ agricultural problems, and have a good general understanding of rural life to ensure that their Like radio, video has the advantage of attracting people’s programming is relevant to their audience. Production teams curiosity, and it appears to be an especially convincing are taught to work with farmers and, to the extent possible, medium when it captures familiar people or situations (as organize broadcasts directly from the field in open-air gather- does local participation in radio broadcasts). Advances in ICT ings in which entire villages or communities participate. have made video much easier and less costly to produce and disseminate. Like radio, video does not demand literacy, and Program content is generated through participatory discus- it suits the narrative culture that prevails in most develop- sions with community representatives and presented in ing countries. Images can make it easier for viewers with languages and formats to which the audience relates socially little education to understand complex topics. An additional and culturally. For every rural radio project, the starting point benefit is that video can foster social cohesion in agricultural IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 135 IMAGE 6.8: New Technologies Have Allowed for More Innovative of the video format and began to use more Radio Programs visual aids in its work with women. The fact that the videos showcased women’s exper- tise and innovation convinced some male researchers that they should work more with women farmers. Giving a voice to women and other marginalized groups in this manner and involving them in the development and dissemination of agricultural technology may be an effective means of promoting greater social inclusion. To see the rice videos, visit Africa Rice Center (http://www.warda.org/ warda/guide-video.asp). Making Information Accessible through Mobile Phones and Internet Colombia’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, in collaboration with partners, facilitates AGRONET, the National Agricultural Source: Farm Radio International. Information and Communication Network of Colombia (www.agronet.gov.co). AGRONET communities by featuring the actions and voices of marginal- is a network of agricultural information providers that have ized groups (Lie and Mandler 2009). adopted a common platform to standardize and integrate resources to offer value-added information and communica- Through videos developed in collaboration with farmers, the tion services for the agricultural sector using modern and Africa Rice Center (http://www.africarice.org/) has widely dis- traditional ICTs. seminated information about rice productivity and marketing opportunities (van Mele, Wanvoeke, and Zossou 2010). The To send relevant information to producers, AGRONET Africa Rice videos stimulate learning and experimentation in develops user profiles based on a needs assessment and rice production from field to market. A series of 11 videos in users’ particular productive activities. AGRONET introduces more than 30 African languages on producing, processing, new methods and improved workflows to provide content and marketing rice were produced and widely shared with systemically and takes advantage of mobile technologies to local radio stations and farmer organizations across Africa. reach a growing number of rural users. Through SMS, pro- These videos have reached more than 500 organizations and ducers receive updates on AGRONET’s platform, including probably hundreds of thousands of farmers; it is likely that changes in its databases and other news and events perti- they continue to be copied and distributed more widely, but nent to agriculture. The ministry plans to expand the service this spontaneous diffusion and any resulting innovation are to reach 160,000 producers in 2011 with context-specific difficult to monitor and evaluate. information on agricultural markets, inputs and supplies, weather alerts, and other subjects. Over the medium term, The videos appear to have had a tangible impact on the AGRONET plans to provide a greater wealth of content and livelihoods of rural women. Because the videos featured information services to producers by adding capacity in digi- women, they reached more women, who were more likely tal television. to apply what they learned (Africa Rice Center 2009). For example, women who saw the video on parboiling rice The government’s efforts to reduce the digital divide improved their parboiling techniques and marketed their through public-private partnerships and growing broadband rice through new outlets. Others developed a better rela- penetration in rural municipalities catalyzed the develop- tionship with the NGO that showed the video, formed ment of AGRONET’s innovative, value-added information producer groups, and gained assistance from the NGO in services. An assessment by Colombia’s e-Government obtaining credit to purchase inputs for improving rice pro- Program ranked the ministry first in online information duction. The NGO, in turn, recognized the effectiveness provision. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 136 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S In Uganda, ARENET (Agricultural Research Extension Using ICT to Share and Elicit Local Knowledge Network) is a web portal (http://www.arenet.or.ug/index Many organizations and governments see ICTs as tools that .php) created to strengthen the links between the National bring information and modernity to rural areas. They help Agricultural Research System and the National Agricultural get messages “out.� Undoubtedly they extend the reach of Advisory Services program and its related extension service extension and advisory services, but they can become one- providers. The portal provides access to practical and tech- way pipelines, pushing information to uninterested commu- nical agricultural information from national and international nities. A more inclusive approach uses ICTs to empower rural sources. Users can post questions and problems through the people to document their own knowledge so it can be shared system to experts at research institutes and in local govern- with other communities and with extension. This empow- ment, and ARENET makes it possible for farming communi- ering approach is more challenging as it depends on the ties, researchers, extension agents, and the private sector to capacities of the communities and their willingness to share communicate among themselves and to share their knowl- their knowledge. For their part, proponents of the approach edge and experience. The site uses English but may include must be willing to use ICTs to enable changes that cannot other local languages in the future. be defined before the work is underway. The approach will involve some loss of control and very probably unexpected The question-and-answer module of the website is divided impacts. into categories such as livestock, agricultural engineering, and forestry, and it lists the most viewed and recently People will use a system for sharing information, including posted questions. There is also a page from which various agricultural information, if the content is adapted to local technical publications can be downloaded. Questioners are needs, sourced appropriately, and presented suitably. In advised that their query should receive an answer within Costa Rica, a national team conducted a participatory rural three days. The discussion forum section is not yet opera- communication appraisal in selected regions to engage tional. Like many Internet information sites at present, this farmer organizations in sharing their knowledge. In the site will be more valuable for large-scale farmers than for Brunca region, for example, livestock production dominates smallholders. agriculture, and farmers identified livestock diseases as an important concern. One participant, a woman farmer, was Plans are well advanced for an ambitious ICT platform famous for her knowledge of how to cure sick cows. The to improve Uganda’s research capabilities and the way organization decided that the best way to document her it delivers extension services. The National Agricultural knowledge was to film her. The videos could be shown at Advisory Services and the National Agricultural Research the local livestock auction and remain available digitally on Organisation will be supported by this program, which, the national PLATICAR (“talk�) web platform.11 among other things, will allow feedback from farmer orga- nizations and other users of the services. One important In other regions where the participatory method was used, aim is to change the culture of the research organizations it elicited information and knowledge on other themes. to one of accountability, transparency, and competence. Farmer organizations producing tuber crops decided to pre- This transformation should have obvious benefits to the pare radio programs that were broadcast and then archived clients. in PLATICAR. For rice producers, information sheets were developed on each of many rice varieties in Costa Rica. ICTS THAT PRESERVE FARMERS’ KNOWLEDGE The participatory approach that led to the choice of the most ICTs—some of which, like radio, have been available for knowledgeable person was the innovation that enabled farm- some time, and others, such as digital video, which are rela- ers to recognize that their own local and traditional knowledge tively new to rural areas—bring farmers’ views and voices was most appropriate for their needs. The innovative decision into agricultural advisory and research services. ICTs are was to select the best medium for sharing this knowledge, invaluable for eliciting and preserving local knowledge, such as well as the place and time where it would be shared most as knowledge of the medicinal traits of plants or traditional effectively. The fact that the information is digitally preserved erosion control practices. The following sections illustrate how rural people in a range of settings have benefited from 11 Plataforma de Tecnología, Información y Comunicación Agropec- and enriched advisory services through greater participation uaria y Rural (Platform for Agricultural and Rural Information and and knowledge sharing mediated by ICTs. Communication). IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 137 means that it can be archived and available IMAGE 6.9: Farmer-Led Documentation Processes Can Use Digital through PLATICAR. The team that led the Tools in Place of Paper participatory process was the key enabler, because it built trust among stakeholders and brokered the sharing of personal knowledge that could benefit the whole group. Documenting and Mobilizing Indigenous Knowledge A related information-sharing effort docu- ments indigenous knowledge (image 6.9). As experienced farmers migrate to urban areas, as the local farming population ages, or as climate change and social upheavals uproot agricultural communities, much knowledge can be lost. This knowledge is worth preserv- ing simply for its cultural value, but it is also instrumental in aiding researchers and exten- Source: Charlotte Kesl, World Bank. sion workers to develop and adapt technology and practices for local conditions (and could help communi- and Knowledge Sharing.12 Farmer-led documentation is ties recover from natural disasters and conflicts). defined as an empowering process in which local communi- ties take the lead role in the documentation process. The In Bolivia, the CARENAS project started in 2003 in the results are used by community members for learning within Department of Santa Cruz to strengthen rural communica- the community (internal learning) and exchange between tion for sustainable natural resource management and rural communities (horizontal sharing) and communities, develop- development. Representatives of municipalities, farmer asso- ment agents, and policymakers (vertical sharing).13 This pro- ciations, and NGOs participated in intensive training for one cess of engaging with farmers to document their knowledge month in communication methods and techniques, the use and experiences showed that a “people-led development of ICTs, and the production and use of multimedia materials process does not only help increase yields or conserve the in the field. The 21 people who passed the course became local biodiversity; it can also help farmers to get access to local audiovisual specialists, who engaged in a participatory the resources they need and can contribute to strengthening process with advisory service workers and farm communities local organizations, networks, and alliances. Most important to elicit farmers’ traditional knowledge and integrate it with of all, it leads to empowerment.� technical knowledge. Based on this interaction, the audiovi- sual specialists produced draft videos, which were validated through focus group discussions, interviews, and farmer- extension meetings. The videos were then shown to the ICTS TO MONITOR AND EVALUATE AGRICULTURAL INTERVENTIONS communities and, after participatory evaluation, final versions were produced. They were distributed to 25 communities in Monitoring and evaluating outcomes of research results (such 11 municipalities (see http://www.fao.org/tc/tcdm/italy/op_ as new varieties and management practices), the construc- bol034_en.asp?lang=en). The videos, which demonstrated tion of agricultural infrastructure (often involving contractors), such techniques as repairing drainage ditches using nets and or the impacts from extension programs or new technolo- vegetative cover, recycling organic waste, and building com- gies in a decentralized rural setting can greatly benefit from post latrines, eventually formed part of a training package con- sisting of printed guides for trainers and booklets for farmers. 12 See http://www.misereor.org/fileadmin/redaktion/MISEREOR_ Strengthening_people-led_development.pdf. In South Asia, in an effort to increase their impact, organi- 13 The farmer-led documentation approach was promoted by Par- ticipatory Ecological Land Use Management (PELUM), Promot- zations working with rural communities in Bangladesh and ing Local Innovations (PROLINNOVA), and OXFAM Novib. See India embarked on a process of Farmer Led Documentation www.prolinnova.net/fld.php. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 138 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S ICT. ICT can transform monitoring and evaluation, which are place in Niger and in India. In both locations, rural organiza- often afterthoughts in agricultural interventions because of tions established community-based information centers with the difficulties associated with analyzing impact. Monitoring international support. The focus was on helping rural com- and evaluation are expensive (entailing the costs of traveling, munities anticipate drought and to help them develop and producing materials, hiring experts, analyzing data), especially arrive at decisions that can mitigate the impact of drought for poorly resourced public agencies. It is often a challenge to when it occurs. measure impact accurately because so many variables can- not be controlled (including unanticipated changes in weather, In the VASAT initiative, a blend of remote sensing and agro- conflict, natural disasters, or community or farmer health). meteorology techniques was used to develop highly localized, ICT can address some of these challenges by reducing the village-by-village forecasts of drought vulnerability. These paper trail, increasing farmers’ responses (and the diversity of forecasts were presented as simple color-coded maps of the respondents), improving remote observation, and expanding locality (a cluster of adjoining villages). Red/amber indicated data accuracy. (See also Module 13 on governance.) severe vulnerability to drought (including drinking water scar- city), whereas green indicated that business as usual could continue. Yellow indicated that the village needed to give Monitoring and Evaluating Agricultural Interventions attention to altering their cropping pattern and pay attention and Research to fodder supplies. Developed for the coming season from India has pioneered the use of ICT in many agricultural global and regional rainfall forecasts, these maps and a set interventions and is often at the forefront of technological of recommended actions are shared with rural communities innovation for smallholder farming. To track research being through the information centers. Every village has at least one conducted in India, the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research individual who is trained in reading the vulnerability maps. Institute developed the Project Information and Management System for the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. The Analyses of the effects of this intervention reveal that after data management system was created to prevent duplication two seasons, a large number of individuals started to use the between research projects, monitor research initiatives and color-coded maps as reliable information resources. In 2009 their progress more effectively, evaluate research outcomes, in India, a particularly serious drought was forecast at the and contribute to smoother management processes. By micro level although not at the aggregate level. Rural fami- generating online software, the Indian Council of Agricultural lies prepared for the anticipated drought by storing fodder Research has the ability to monitor and evaluate research and not sowing water-intensive crops such as rice. Through projects at national and state levels simultaneously. Users these actions, they mitigated the effects of the ensuing involved in research projects can upload information on new drought, which was serious, lasting more than halfway into projects and update information as the project moves for- the season. Using ICT to monitor weather patterns as well as ward. Users can also browse through projects, which helps farmers’ responses helps VASAT determine the correlation to spur innovation and creative thinking while preventing between the two. In this intervention, it was significant that overlap. Research directors and managers can then manage women were key actors in absorbing and relaying informa- and monitor agricultural interventions and research remotely tion about vulnerability to drought. They were also meticulous and with fewer costs. In addition, the management system data providers for experts to refine or correct the vulnerability can hold research data and final reports. For more informa- forecasts. tion on how the system works, visit the tutorial at http:// pimsicar.iasri.res.in/. Pajat (http://www.pajatman.com/), a company founded in 2009 and financed by the Finnish Funding Agency for In another project, which monitored drought vulnerability, Technology and Innovation among others, has also pioneered local participants played key roles in validating and evaluat- ICT for monitoring and evaluation. The POIMapper, using GPS- ing the effectiveness of the information provided. The Virtual enabled mobile phones, can collect data and photos with digi- Academy for the Semi Arid Tropics (VASAT) (http://www tized links to location. Numeric or text data can be uploaded .icrisat.org/vasat) uses components such as PC-equipped to a central database through cellular or bandwidth networks. rural information centers, community radio, and mobile tele- Data collected for a particular intervention can be mapped on phony in conjunction with human-centered efforts to antici- a computer; multiple datasets can be layered to create more pate and monitor the effect of drought at the micro level. informative maps. This tool can be used to monitor a variety of Since 2005–06, activities under this initiative have taken projects, including projects to develop infrastructure such as IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 139 wells or to manage forests (see the forestry module). It may services. These lessons and their potential solutions are dis- also be used to monitor the effects of agricultural interven- cussed below. tions by mapping data on increases or declines in crop yields or frequencies of livestock disease. (See IPS “PoiMapper in Because advisory services are one of the most direct lines to Kenya� for more information in Module 15.) poor farmers, it is critical to determine the main objective of services and the most appropriate ways to use ICT to meet In Africa, organizations have used mobile phones to collect them. If the primary aim is to get information to farmers, information from farmers about how they can improve their then multiple channels and media should be used to reach programs, as illustrated in box 6.12. many groups. The quality and relevance of the content/advice to be provided is also important, as is the level of community “connectivity� to the providers’ messages. Conversely, if the BOX 6.12: Mobile Phones as Tools for Farmer Surveys aim is to maximize farmer-to-farmer documentation and shar- and Feedback ing, then the emphasis is likely to be much more on capacity building and issues of culture, language, and various forms Voice of the Farmer (VoF) is a pilot project testing a of literacy. structured approach to obtain broad-based, low-cost, and frequent feedback from farmers in Kenya, Tanzania, The technological component of an ICT for advisory services and Uganda, using mobile phone technology. The pilot should be developed locally, in collaboration with users, and was conducted between January 2010 and March 2011 drawing on local, national, and international content as appro- by Synovate Panafrica, with funding from the Bill and priate. Attention should be focused on what the technology Melinda Gates Foundation. needs to deliver, not its capabilities. The approach was designed to help organizations collect a steady supply of empirical, actionable data more rap- During implementation, the roles and responsibilities of the idly and cost-effectively. Feedback from target constitu- various actors need to be defined. Accountability improves encies enables organizations to assess whether they when participants are aware of what is expected from them need to change their activities and approach to better in terms of their roles and their commitments of human meet their constituents’ needs. In the shortest possible and financial resources and time. This clarity is especially time, findings can be available to participating organiza- important for national advisory services, where stakeholders tions through an online portal. are diverse and systems are decentralized. Regular face-to- face meetings are also crucial to capitalize on information How has VoF been used? Some organizations used exchange and stimulate new ways of working together and VoF data to monitor progress in implementing projects. sharing lessons learned. Others used the surveys to help guide the content of products they planned to develop. One organization Any technology used for advisory services must be user- used VoF to get a better idea of how to focus its monitor- friendly, accessible, and serve farmers’ needs quickly and ing and evaluation surveys. Another used VoF primarily sufficiently. Trust, useful information and knowledge, and for quick marketing surveys to receive timely feedback appropriate support are critical to user sustainability. Part of on new products and services. Experience with the pilot ensuring sustainability is engaging in proper prior analysis project indicates that VoF has potential as an efficient, and involvement of end users. These steps will help provid- low-cost solution meeting a number of needs in private, ers determine whether the users can pay for the service and, public, and civil society organizations. if so, how much; understand the culture surrounding the use Source: Authors; see also http://www.synovate.com/contact/africa/. of technology in a given location; identify social and political challenges that may arise during implementation; and deter- mine what kinds of applications will serve users best based on their agrarian activities. LESSONS LEARNED Despite the benefits of using ICT in agricultural advisory and Special efforts have to be made to guarantee that both men extension services, many challenges remain. Lessons from and women participate in and benefit from information and the examples herein and Innovative Practice Summaries are communications for advisory services. The opportunities relevant to many projects that use ICT to improve advisory offered by information technologies can significantly enhance E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 140 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S information provision to rural women in developing countries. IMAGE 6.10: Women Can More Easily Participate in Without equal access to information, women are at a disad- Rural Radio Interviews vantage in making informed choices about what to produce and when to sell their products. While ICT certainly improves these circumstances, availability of an ICT device does not necessarily imply equitable access. More often than not, ICT devices (radios, phones) remain under the control of men, preventing women from tapping knowledge and information relevant to their needs. Gender-disaggregated data, moni- toring, evaluation, and better targeting will improve these outcomes. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Farm Radio International Involves Men and Women Farmers Radio is used to spread knowledge of improved farming and land Source: Farm Radio International. management practices, but farmers do not necessarily adopt them. Farm Radio International, a Canadian NGO funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, has created a new model of included in the broadcasts and participatory aspects of the radio broadcasting that seeks to overcome some of these chal- programs, improving their visibility and importance in the lenges to adoption. local agricultural supply chain. Farm Radio International partners with 360 radio stations Empirical evidence of impact, which is currently lacking for in 39 African countries and reaches more than 200 million many applications of ICTs in agriculture, is available for the smallholders in more than 100 African languages. It offers Participatory Radio Campaigns. In 90 communities across a number of services but primarily develops Participatory five countries, about 4,500 farm households (1,988 women Radio Campaigns, theme-based radio programs that con- and 2,452 men in total) were randomly selected and sur- tinue for four to six months. Themes range from livestock veyed through questionnaires. Key informant interviews husbandry to farmer innovation, soil conservation, and and site observations were also used to assess overall issues specific to rural women (such as maternal health, impact. The communities were split into three categories: farm implements designed for women, and women’s land (1) communities that participated actively in broadcasts and rights).14 program design, (2) communities that listened to broadcasts without active participation, and (3) control communities (or The most innovative aspect of the Participatory Radio those that did not have network radio signals to listen to the Campaigns is the broad base of farmer participation. First, programs). men and women farmers help to develop the scripts, and a number of communities are invited to participate dur- Thirty-six percent of active listening communities adopted ing implementation and evaluation (image 6.10). Second, improved farming practices, and 21 percent of passive lis- programs are broadcast on a consistent schedule to keep tening communities adopted. Women from active listening farmers engaged. Third, Participatory Radio Campaigns communities were much more likely to adopt the practices feature voice response systems and call-in options that covered in the radio programs (almost as likely as male have proven remarkably successful in retaining listeners. listeners) than women in passive listening communities. The information elicited in this way helps extension staff These adoption rates are higher than those from many and local NGOs identify the challenges, understand the per- other radio programs, demonstrating that participatory spectives, and gain the knowledge associated with a given radio is more effective than programs that do not engage community or area. Finally, women farmers are regularly farmers directly. More men than women listen to and have access to radio programs (table 6.1), although when women have no radio in the household, they access radio 14 See http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/gender.asp. elsewhere. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 141 TABLE 6.1: Radio Access and Frequency of Listening Extension System and complements and reinforces other in the Household (%) extension activities. MEN WOMEN Through the Internet, eXtension provides 24/7 access to Radios in the household 84 68 objective, science-based information from land-grant uni- Access to radio (both inside and outside of the home) 96 89 versities and partners. One of eXtension’s most notable Frequency of listening (at least once/week) 95 86 features is “Ask an Expert,� which puts people in touch Source: Farm Radio International Participatory Radio Campaign Evaluation with experts in universities across the country. In addition Report 2011 (unpublished). to those resources, eXtension’s communities of practice connect extension professionals throughout the country to Participatory Radio Campaigns take approximately 12–18 collaborate in developing new content and web services. months to design, distribute, and evaluate. For themed pack- eXtension has transformed extension’s traditional teaching ages, costs range from US$ 25,000–50,000. For the whole role by offering a wide range of virtual learning and skill- process, including training and assessment, costs can range development activities and events on its website. Through from US$ 80,000 to US$ 200,000, depending on the country social networks and media (including blogs), the communi- and other factors. To put these figures into perspective, it ties of practice expand the reach of extension and engage is useful to know that if a campaign reaches 1 million farm with new users. families, the cost lies somewhere between US$ 0.08 and The eXtension websites are a useful resource for those seek- US$ 0.20 per listening family. Given the adoption rates cited ing to develop similar programs in other countries. They offer earlier, costs per adopter range from US$ 0.20 to US$ 1.00. a wealth of information on the approach and the tools used These costs are relatively small in light of the relatively high (http://www.extension.org and http://about.extension.org). adoption rates and resulting productivity increases. Philippines: ICTs Power Advisory Service for INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Agriculture, Fisheries, and Natural Resources E-Extension in the USA and Philippines The Philippines launched its e-Extension Program in This summary looks at how electronic advisory services are December 2007. The lead organization—the Agricultural being implemented in the United States and the Philippines. Training Institute—relies on collaboration with various organi- Both programs use ICTs to increase the expertise available zational units within the Department of Agriculture. The goal in the national advisory service and transmit that expertise to of e-Extension is to integrate and harmonize ICT-based deliv- a much larger audience—while learning from that audience ery of advisory services for agriculture, fisheries, and natural in the process. resources and to use its network of institutions to provide a more efficient alternative to a traditional extension system. e-Extension can be thought of as an electronic, interactive United States: ICTs to Co-Create and Deliver Extension bridge where farmers, fishers, and other stakeholders meet and Educational Knowledge and interact to enhance the productivity, profitability, and In 2001, the United States government decided to trans- global competitiveness of the agricultural sector. The benefits form the way its Cooperative Extension System fulfilled of the approach are expected to include empowered stake- its mission through technology. The program that became holders, who have alternative means of acquiring new knowl- known as “eXtension� was approved as a national initiative edge and skills related to farming and fishing technologies; in 2004 and fully launched in 2007. By definition, eXtension reduced costs of education and training; more optimal use of is the product of new and emerging technologies. The pro- resources; enhanced delivery of programs and services; and gram aims to become a national, Internet-based informa- an organized repository of information, harmonized across tion and education network; provide accurate, up-to-date related initiatives. information for use anytime, anywhere; use technology and new organizational processes such as communities The main program components are e-Learning and e-Farming; of practice; enhance the accessibility, quality, breadth, an e-Trading component is available as well. e-Learning courses and depth of information provided to the public; foster col- are available online and can also be delivered to small groups. laboration within the Cooperative Extension System; and Blended courses offer computer-based instruction backstopped reduce duplication. It is an integral part of the Cooperative with field activities and face-to-face interaction between E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 142 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S learners and experts. Learners also have the opportunity research, the private sector, farmer groups, government, and to interact through online discussion forums. Online they universities (including some student members). also have access to a wide array of free digital resources to increase the knowledge gained through coursework and Since its establishment, the group has had very positive feed- obtain additional information to make decisions about their back. Members have shared their experiences and created agricultural enterprises. Media for school radio programs are their own informal networks. An active group facilitator, fully available as well. The e-Learning courses are designed to be dedicated to the group, has been central to its success. The highly interactive. Photos, video, games, and puzzles also facilitator must increase awareness of the platform among help to sustain interest. potential users, bring individuals together and identify their common interests, initiate discussions, motivate members e-Farming uses ICTs to deliver farm and business advisory to contribute, identify experts, and provide technical assis- services. It provides technical assistance to farmers to tance. The facilitator needs support from IT as well as con- increase the profitability of their enterprises and facilitates tacts who can gain visibility for the platform. Although TECA the exchange of information among traders and investors in is designed as an online forum, personal gatherings proved agriculture and fisheries. Its Farmers’ Contact Center caters essential to establish a vibrant online community (the kind to farmers’ concerns through voice, text, e-mail, and other of interaction will require funding for meetings, phone calls, online communication formats such as instant messaging transport, and other items that facilitate personal interaction). and online forums. Another major lesson is that students are a very important and active group of participants; introducing them to the idea e-Trading is a service for online trading and for information of knowledge management, is a key asset for their future on market trends, investments, market prices, inventories of work in agriculture. producers and suppliers, and other information, initially avail- able through the PhilAgribiz Centers of the Department of Agriculture. For more information, see http://e-extension.gov .ph/ and http://www.ati.da.gov.ph/. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Participatory Video and Internet Complement Extension in India INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Digital Green (http://www.digitalgreen.org/) started with the TECA Uganda Exchange Group Offers Practical support of Microsoft Research in India. It disseminates tar- Advice for Smallholders geted agricultural information to small-scale and marginal farmers in India through digital video. The system includes a The TECA web platform (http://www.fao.org/teca/) includes database of digital videos produced by farmers and experts. online resources, discussion forums, and query/response The topics vary, and they are sequenced in ways that enable services that offer practical information on technologies and farmers progressively to become better farmers. Unlike practices that will help small-scale producers. The platform, some systems that expect ICT alone to deliver useful knowl- which is a medium for FAO technical units, partners, and edge to marginal farmers, Digital Green works with existing, projects to document and share successful technologies and people-based extension systems to amplify their effective- good practices, is also a tool that supports further develop- ness. The videos provide a point of focus, but it is people ment, testing, adaptation, sharing, and adoption of technolo- and social dynamics that ultimately make Digital Green work. gies for small-scale farmers. Local social networks are tapped to connect farmers with The central TECA platform on the FAO server permits infor- experts; the thrill of appearing “on TV� motivates farmers. mation sharing at the global level in English, French, and Although Digital Green requires the support of a grassroots- Spanish. A local version on the partner organization’s server level extension system and other partners, it is effective contains modules provided by FAO for information sharing because its content is relevant and it maintains a local pres- and exchange within a national agricultural innovation sys- ence. This local presence makes it possible to connect with tem; the modules can be adapted to local languages and farmers on a sustained basis. Key aspects of the model specific information needs. For example, the TECA Uganda include the following: Exchange Group, piloted in 2010, currently has more than 300  Digital video. Digital Green relies on recent advances in members from public and private advisory services, NGOs, digital videography, including low-cost camcorders and IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 143 PC solutions for editing digital video, which have greatly limited infrastructure and financial resources. High- reduced the costs of developing local video content. bandwidth Internet connections are not necessary,  Mediation. Videotaped demonstrations are not a com- since one option for receiving the video content is plete extension solution. They lack the interactivity DVD. that is the hallmark of good extension. Digital Green  Feedback. By enabling anyone to be a content pro- relies on a local facilitator, whose role is to pause or ducer and consumer, Digital Green gives even isolated repeat video to engage the audience in discussion and communities a voice. Other types of audio- and video- capture farmers’ feedback. based mechanisms are used to support reporting and  Partnerships. Digital Green emphasizes the develop- to build trust among virtual communities of participants. ment and delivery of digital content to improve the cost-effectiveness of organizations involved in agricul- The Digital Green approach is underpinned by various tech- tural research and/or extension. As noted, the goal is nological innovations (http://www.digitalgreen.org/tech). For to strengthen existing institutions and groups, not to example, its COCO (Connect Online, Connect Offline) soft- create new ones. ware supports data tracking for organizations with sizable  Community-based content. Content must be field operations, even where Internet service is intermittent relevant to local conditions (crops, climates, soils, and/or poor. COCO, a standalone application in the Internet farming practices, and so on). The use of video browser, requires no additional desktop software installation provides opportunities to customize materials. When or maintenance. It has an open-source, customizable frame- videos feature farmers’ fellow villagers, farmers often work and can be used without support from professional IT instantly connect with the message. Digital Green has or engineering staff. Digital Green’s Analytics System pro- an open model to disseminate content, so it is freely vides day-to-day business intelligence on field operations, available to everyone to use. performance targets, and basic measures of returns on  Beyond connectivity. To be successful and sustain- investment relevant to an organization (see http://analytics able, Digital Green operates in environments with .digitalgreen.org). Topic Note 6. 3: E-LEARNING AS A COMPONENT OF AGRICULTURAL INNOVATION SYSTEMS TRENDS AND ISSUES With the advent of radio, ICTs opened new channels for learn- Learning—formal and informal—is central to all innovation ing that proliferated rapidly as the range of ICTs expanded systems, including those for agriculture, and in sustaining the to include computers, the Internet and their applications capacity to innovate over the long term. Formal learning con- (CD-ROMs, e-mail, websites, multimedia, and so forth). sists of specific courses of study of varied length and complex- Learning delivered through the newer ICTs was termed ity in the educational system. This system develops the skilled “e-learning,� and its potential to facilitate “distance learning� experts who contribute to agricultural innovation (the varied and “distance education� (instruction and learning outside research disciplines and areas of technical expertise, innovation the traditional classroom setting) was recognized immedi- brokers, as well as developers of food processing systems and ately (image 6.11). standards, financial and risk management instruments, rural The World Bank defines e-learning as “the use of electronic infrastructure, IT systems—the list is as extensive as the agri- technologies to deliver, facilitate, and enhance both formal cultural innovation system is comprehensive). Outside of this and informal learning and knowledge sharing at any time, context, informal learning occurs through the varied interactions any place, and at any pace.�15 E-learning can widen the in an agricultural innovation system and is particularly important inclusiveness of the agricultural innovation system by bring- in agricultural extension (FAO 2003). The role of agricultural edu- ing elements of traditional learning and mentoring to a wider cation and training in an innovation system is discussed in detail in Module 2 of World Bank (2012). This topic note focuses on the role of e-learning, particularly in extension interactions. 15 See http://go.worldbank.org/3IVXTNIW20. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 144 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S IMAGE 6.11: E-learning Creates Opportunities for Rural Participation needed. E-learning originated in a postindus- trial setting among a relatively well-educated population with reasonably good infrastructure for accessing digital services. Investments in digital content for e-learning were an agreed priority that resulted in the development of a host of advanced platforms and applications for learners and facilitators/teachers. The innovative practice summaries in this topic note indicate some of the adaptations and strat- egies required for e-learning to succeed in rural areas of developing countries, especially com- munities with limited literacy (digital and oth- erwise) and access to digital resources. Both examples come from India. The first summary describes an e-learning initiative in which farm- ers use mobile phones to gain specific skills that enable them to benefit more substantially Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank. from services such as commercial banking and extension advice. The second describes the audience and further empowering people through learning development of a web-based platform called agropedia for communities. storing and sharing agricultural information in a range of for- mats and languages. The platform, which incorporates Web In theory, e-learning enables governments, agricultural advisory 2.0 elements such as wikis, blogs, and commentary spaces, services, NGOs, farmer organizations, private companies—in provides much-needed content for e-learning for farmers fact, any actor in the innovation system—to reach large num- and extension workers. Through these features and multiple bers of producers. Content can be updated quickly and accom- access points (including mobile phones and landlines), the plat- modate rapidly changing needs. E-learning can also provide form connects researchers, extension personnel, and farmers fresh approaches that are learner-centric, engaging producers in various information-sharing and e-learning activities. and their communities as partners and adult learners in design- ing and implementing the learning experience. In addition, e-learning can make it easier to maintain quality by supporting LESSONS LEARNED feedback mechanisms and ensuring appropriate accreditation The experiences summarized here offer important social and certification processes. and technical perspectives on e-learning for rural people These qualities make e-learning especially attractive to and extension workers in developing countries. ICTs can extension, especially for expanding extension workers’ and facilitate a learner-centric process if they are adapted care- farmers’ knowledge and skills. Efforts in extension education fully to the particular social, economic, and political con- have long been challenged by the use of a formal didactic text (including constraints on learners’ time and travel). framework that expects students to fit with the established A multistakeholder partnership is essential for promoting courses (Kroma 2003). Public sector extension has suffered learning among the farming community through ICTs, and from declining investments, the high proportion of farmers in agricultural institutions need to produce more extension- relation to trained extension workers, and the need to incor- oriented digital content. Content for e-learning must be highly porate adult learning strategies and indigenous knowledge granular for rapid uptake and must be linked to specific learn- into their activities (World Bank 2012). ing outcomes. E-learning does not require the complex online workflows associated with standard learning management ICTs (and e-learning) may make it possible to surmount some systems, but a priority in promoting e-learning in agricultural of these barriers to effective extension training and outreach innovation systems is to build ICT capacity in personnel at all in developing countries, but significant adaptations will be levels of agricultural education, training, and extension. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 145 Finally, ICTs and virtual interactions are not sufficient to ICT companies. In addition to using ICTs to build capacity, form cohesive learning communities. Peer-to-peer contact financial institutions can use them to reduce the transaction significantly improves learning, and mobile phones can costs of lending. Integrating these functions can improve provide useful support. In the lifelong learning for farmers the likelihood that the L3F process will be replicable and initiative, for example, mobilization, social capital, and social sustainable. networking played a major role. The use of ICTs for learn- ing influenced development outcomes because the learning Integrating Mobile Phone-Based Learning and Credit experience was tailored to women’s cognitive social capital for Women Livestock Producers and reinforced by links with commercial banks. VIDIYAL, an Indian NGO, uses L3F to promote community banking among 5,000 women organized into self-help groups (SHGs). During 2008, nearly 300 women from the SHGs became partners and decided to build their capacity through INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY open and distance learning related to various aspects of Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu sheep and goat production. As poor laborers, most of the Lifelong Learning for Farmers (L3F) (http://www.col.org/ women felt that attending classes or watching multimedia progServ/programmes/livelihoods/L3farmers/Pages/default materials restricted their ability to work and attend to house- .aspx) is an application of Open and Distance Learning hold chores. They asked VIDIYAL and COL to explore the use for Development by Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in of mobile phone as a learning tool, because they would not Commonwealth countries (Balasubramanian and Daniel 2010). need to be confined to any particular place or time during the Banks, universities, and marketing agencies are the partners learning process. in the L3F initiative. Using open and distance learning and ICT, the initiative aims to strengthen the self-directed learning pro- Through face-to-face and computer-based learning, COL cess among men and women in the farming community and and VIDIYAL encouraged the women to develop a business create linkages between various stakeholders. The objective proposal for rearing sheep and goats. They developed a busi- is to facilitate the enhancement of skills and knowledge of ness proposal in which each member would obtain credit for farmers in partnership with financial institutions and research buying nine female goats, one buck, and one mobile phone. institutions. L3F is based on the following premises: The local bank agreed to the proposal and sanctioned a loan  Unexploitative, mutually reinforcing contractual of US$ 270,000. The credit and the legal ownership of the relationships between rural producers and the assets are in the names of the participating women. formal public and private sector will promote rural The 300 women bought simple mobile phones, and VIDIYAL entrepreneurship. entered an agreement with IKSL, one of India’s major  Learning and extension can be a self-sustaining mobile network operators, to send audio messages to the process in which secondary stakeholders support women’s phones free of charge and enable free calls among L3F within a win-win framework. For instance, by group members. The company felt that this strategy would blending rural credit with appropriate capacity build- enhance its mobile service in the long run. ing, rural credit will perform much better in terms of productivity, returns, and nonperforming asset VIDIYAL and some of the participating women were trained levels. Such gains will lead financial institutions to in developing audio content for mobile phone-based learn- support L3F. ing (image 6.12). Learning materials are prepared within the  Capacity building will also enlarge the market for broad principles of open and distance learning to meet learn- bank credit among small-scale and marginal farm- ers’ time and geographical constraints. VIDIYAL developed ers and among other marginalized groups of the the materials in consultation with the Tamil Nadu Veterinary rural poor, particularly women. Modern ICTs can and Animal Sciences University and contextualized them to play a major role in supporting capacity building, the local culture and dialects. which in turn would enhance the market for such technologies. The learning materials convey information in granular fashion— in short, concise messages. Three to five audio messages are The rural poor stand to gain in this process, along with the sent to participating women every day. Each message runs for participating financial institutions, research institutions, and 60 seconds. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 146 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S IMAGE 6.12: Women Use Mobile Phones to Learn between all of these groups. A consortium of agricultural and Better Goat Production Techniques veterinary universities supports the farmers’ and women’s groups in developing business plans and providing learning materials on seed, animals, and other subjects. The women’s association assesses the problems in a particular area, aggre- gates the queries, and sends them through video e-mails to the universities. Designated professors in the universi- ties provide answers through video e-mails that are stored in a digital library for farmers and others to access easily. Similarly, the FAQ system used in mobile phone-based learn- ing is linked to the universities, research institutions, and extension organizations. In this learning process, information flows both ways as farm- ers contribute their informal learning and tacit knowledge to the other partners. Through mobile phones and computers, the students and researchers interact with SHG mem- bers (farmers and women) to understand their indigenous knowledge. SHG members participate in university research by managing research plots, providing data, and in analyz- ing results. Undergraduate and graduate students undergo field training under the supervision of the women farmers. Universities use the distance learning materials developed by women’s groups and farmer groups as reference materi- als for diploma courses in agriculture and horticulture. Source: Commonwealth of Learning. The social capital and capacity building accumulated through Women preferred to receive the messages in the mornings L3F and the interaction it induces have led to some inter- while going to work or performing their household tasks—for esting results. Around 5,000 women and men are involved example, while grazing the livestock. The women reported in structured learning courses through mobile phone. that they learned and practiced the messages and recorded During 2009–11, commercial banks extended approximately them in their diaries. Illiterate women sought the help of US$ 1 million in credit to 2,000 L3F participants. Over the literate family members to record the messages. Most of same period, the total turnover of the supported enterprises the respondents’ families supported their learning objective, was US$ 3.14 million. The higher rate of credit repayment which benefited the entire family by expanding their knowl- among L3F participants encourages support from the banks edge base in relation to small livestock production. (COL 2010). Studies by COL indicate that the quality of the sheep and goat enterprises operated by L3F participants is Other multimedia learning materials were shown during significantly better than those of nonparticipants in the same SHG meetings and telecast through local satellite channels region (Balasubramanian and Daniel 2010). run by the SHGs. Once a week, SHG members met and shared experiences. The horizontal and vertical transfer of Learning through Interactive Voice Educational System knowledge has encouraged self-directed learning among the Recognizing the potential of mobile phone-based learning, members (Balasubramanian, Umar, and Kanwar 2010). COL asked the University of British Columbia to develop an audio-based Learning Management System and Learning Preliminary Impacts Content Management System. The university created An important contribution of L3F is that is establishes links a prototype called Learning through Interactive Voice between research and education institutions, extension orga- Educational System, which not only enables audio-based nizations, and the primary stakeholders. The participatory learning materials to be automated but helps process preparation of learning materials fosters intensive interaction the tests, feedback, and responses through appropriate IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 147 databases (Vuong et al. 2010). This system should improve overcoming a serious challenge in using ICTs for develop- quality assessment and certification in an informal learning ment. Agropedia is already linked to the principal website environment. of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (http://www .icar.org.in). INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Agricultural extension workers can use the agropedia plat- Innovative E-Learning for Farmers through form to create their own groups of contact farmers or peers, Collaboration and Multi-Modal Outreach facilitating e-learning. These groups can be sent timed SMS/ The apparent limited availability of digital content relating to text messages and voice messages, enabling specific inter- agricultural extension reduces the opportunity to build sus- est groups to receive specific messages and not broadcasts. tainable, digitally mediated services that bring new benefits A farmer or a practitioner in the field can raise a query via to farmers and increase the reach of extension personnel voice or text. A virtual call center built into agropedia receives (for example, see Balaji 2009). This gap could be overcome the query and passes it to appropriate extension workers and by developing a content aggregation system that receives experts. In this way, trust and/or interest-based messaging and provides information in multiple modes, especially networks can be formed and sustained. through the Internet and voice/text messaging on mobile Agropedia is an example of how a highly integrated plat- phones. form can use multiple approaches to connect a spectrum Such information could be generated using standard valida- of stakeholders, including research experts validating tion procedures in research and education or captured from information, extension personnel in farm research stations transactions (such as query response services involving and in the field, and farmers. Field-based producers do farmers and experts). The same arrangement could pro- not need computers to connect to experts and extension vide additional training support to field-based stakeholders personnel. Farmers with advanced practical knowledge in agriculture, especially farmers. The core principle here is and skills are in a position to share their tips and mes- multi-modality in access to information and training/learning sages with a much wider community and can participate support services. in discussions related to validation of particular pieces of information. The Consortium for Agricultural Knowledge Agropedia has the equivalent of about 10,000 pages of mate- Management: Resources for E-Learning rial on 10 important crops in four languages and has close A key initiative under the World Bank-funded National to 2,000 registered expert users. During two cultivation Agricultural Innovation Project in India is the Consortium seasons in 2009–10, the consortium organized mobile phone for Agricultural Knowledge Management, which has been contacts with about 27,000 farmers in four language regions active since 2008. The initiative is built around an advanced and conducted 2.2 million SMS/voice transactions through online content aggregation system called agropedia 687 specific messages. Analysis revealed that farmers in (http://agropedia.net), which delivers and exchanges infor- general prefer voice as the transaction medium and that the mation through a web portal and mobile phone networks preferred length of voice messages is about 36 seconds accessible to phones with limited or no data capability. maximum. Agropedia also provides a subsidiary platform to support online learning for agricultural extension (http://www The consortium is continuing into its second phase. An .agrilore.org). analysis of costs and efforts in the first phase (January 2009 to September 2010) revealed that university-based Agropedia was designed to overcome the paucity of use- extension personnel could participate in the second phase ful agricultural extension information in the web space. without requiring additional staff. Since mobile phone and Online discussions can be set up to support queries or vali- platform-hosting costs are low in India compared to the rest dation. The platform incorporates Web 2.0 elements such of the world, the analysis concluded that the effort can be as wikis, blogs, and commentary spaces and receives mainstreamed as a regular activity in a typical agricultural uni- material in digital formats including text, still images, versity. The serious challenge is to strengthen ICT capacity audio, and video. A highly targeted search engine allows among specialists and personnel at all levels, ranging from users to search for content in multiple Indian languages, researchers to field-level extension workers. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 148 MOD ULE 6 — ICTS A S ENA B LER S OF A GR ICULTUR A L INNOVATION S Y S TEM S Adapting the E-Learning Approach for Farmers crop variety, and so forth). With the same number of exten- An important activity for the consortium is to use e-learning sion personnel, more problems could be resolved in the methods to help farmers adapt their crop management prac- field owing to the improved skills that women interlocutors tices to cope with drought. This activity was pursued by the mastered through e-learning. Key granules with photos were Adarsha Mahila Samaikhya (AMS), a community-based, all- translated by the activists into the local language (Telugu) and women federation of microcredit groups (south central India) issued as pamphlets for distribution among the interested and ICRISAT, which led the agropedia consortium in 2008–10. farmers. Over a period of two years, 15 of 30 trained activists The AMS has a membership of about 7,400 women (June received higher-level recognition in the form of certificates 2011); almost 70 percent come from households that are from the Indian National Virtual Academy for Rural Prosperity. below the official poverty line. Taking this experience into account, agropedia designers ICRISAT helped the AMS set up the basic infrastructure con- developed a repository of agricultural learning objects for necting the AMS rural operations hub to the Internet, using use in extension (http://www.agrilore.org). Three open and a low-cost landline. A number of AMS activists were trained distance learning institutions—Indira Gandhi National Open in IT. ICRISAT research scholars functioned as trainers and University, Maharashtra State Open University, and the Open remotely supported extension-related queries from farmers. and Distance Learning Directorate of Tamil Nadu Agricultural The scholars escalated queries to senior scientists of ICRISAT University are populating this repository with about 500 if needed. Several AMS women activists were trained in the granules relating to horticulture. They use this information to basics of reporting problems related to crop cultivation, using deliver certificate-oriented learning services to 5,000 farmers a blend of online/e-learning and direct contact. in three linguistic regions. 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UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). 2010. “Technology and Innovation Report 2010: Enhancing Food IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 151 Module 7: BROADENING SMALLHOLDERS’ ACCESS TO FINANCIAL SERVICES THROUGH ICT HENRY BAGAZONZYA (World Bank), ZAID SAFDAR (World Bank), and SOHAM SEN (World Bank) Overview. Four kinds of financial services help farmers to achieve their economic goals: credit savings, transfer and payment facilities, and insurance. The major prerequisites for using information communication technologies (ICTs) to deliver these services in rural areas are robust national financial systems (for example, with national payment systems, credit bureaus, ATM switches, central platforms for microfinance) and the infrastructure that allows electronic financial transactions between institutions and individuals. Factors that are critical for ICTs to expand financial services in rural areas are a supportive economic policy and regulatory framework; appropriate financial and nonfinancial products; and mechanisms, processes, and technology applications that can deliver products and services, improve transparency and accountability, reduce costs, and become self-sustaining. Topic Note 7.1: The Use of ICT-enabled Financial Services in the Rural Sector. New channels for deliver- ing financial services (facilitated by ICTs), new players, and greater competition enable service providers to offer a larger suite of financial products and services and acquire better financial information, some of which is useful to government regulation and policy development. A number of nonbank institutions have developed innovative approaches to financ- ing agriculture, enabled by or integrated with ICTs, including mobile financial services, branchless banking, ATMs, and smartcards.  Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and Rural Finance in Brazil  RFID Facilitates Insurance and Credit for India’s Livestock Producers Topic Note 7.2: Policy Strategies and Regulatory Issues for ICT-enabled Rural Financial Services. Often governments lag in introducing the policies and regulations needed to extend cost-effective financial services throughout the economy, including underserved rural areas. To design supportive policies, provide the necessary infra- structure, and provide appropriate, affordable financial products meeting local needs, governments must explore partner- ships with the private sector and rural communities. In turn, governments can devise and implement policies that give rural communities and private enterprises incentives to participate in the rural financial sector.  Kenya’s DrumNet Links Farmers, Markets, and Financial Service Providers  A Common Platform Delivers Financial Services to Rural India OVERVIEW FIGURE 7.1: Smallholder Farmers Are the Largest Smallholder farmers are the world’s largest group of Group of Working-Age Poor working-age poor (figure 7.1). Much of the world’s food 6.8b supply will continue to depend on their efforts, yet a lack 610m Smallholder of financial services often stymies their attempts to make farmers productivity-enhancing investments and to smooth their People consumption between periods of plenty and scarcity. living on 370m Casual laborers <$2/day: Capital-constrained farmers minimize risk instead of maxi- mizing returns (for example, by investing in high-quality Young & 1.0b 300m Low-wage elderly salaried seed and fertilizer or growing what is most profitable) 180m Micro-entrepreneurs Working (Trivelli and Venero 2007). Box 7.1 summarizes the four 1.6b age 100m Unemployed 80m Fishermen/pastoral kinds of financial services that farmers need to achieve Source: Mas 2010b. their economic goals. E C O N O M IC AND S E CT OR WORK 152 MODUL E 7 — B R O A D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ A C C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERV IC ES TH R OUGH IC T BOX 7.1: Farmers Require Four Kinds of Financial pose challenges of inventory assessment and management, Services and collateral substitutes based on warehouse receipts or returns from future crops are unavailable in many countries.  Credit, in the form of loans, personal loans, salary Farmers also have a special need for financial products with a loans, overdraft facilities, or credit lines, is often time horizon extending over multiple crop cycles. used as working capital at the beginning of the growing season to purchase inputs and prepare This module explores how innovative mechanisms and land. They also need capital to invest in equipment technologies are used in specific situations in different such as tractors or drip irrigation and to harvest, countries to help rural dwellers—mainly farmers, whose process, market, and transport their produce. It is businesses do not readily receive financial support—obtain important to distinguish between short-term loans, the financial services listed above from commercial banks which microfinance institutions usually provide, and other providers. Some of these technologies are and the long-term financial services required for already used in microfinance institutions in urban and peri- agricultural and livestock enterprises. urban areas. Important to note, the ICTs discussed in this  Savings may be in the form of current accounts, module are gender neutral; they are enablers and should savings accounts, or fixed or time deposits. be used in contexts where both men and women can Famers have a significant need for savings, participate. because their income is seasonally tied to the har- Major prerequisites for using ICTs in financial services for vest, and for much of the year they rely on savings agriculture are robust national financial systems and the to smooth consumption. infrastructure that allows electronic financial transactions  Transfer and payment facilities allow for local between institutions and individuals. Two types of infra- and international money transfers, remittances, structure and related services facilitate electronic transac- government transfers, and check clearing. tions and are vital for extending financial services to rural  Insurance may cover crops and livestock as well areas. as human life and health. Source: Author, based on CGAP and IFAD 2006:6 and Nair and Fissha The first is ICT infrastructure, such as high-speed Internet 2010. and mobile phones, available at affordable prices. This infrastructure is the backbone of electronic financial transac- tions. The second is financial infrastructure, which includes ICTs have now created the potential to deliver a greater diver- national payment systems, credit bureaus, ATM switches, sity of financial products to greater numbers of rural clients or central platforms for microfinance institutions. Financial than conventional financial service providers have been able infrastructure enables financial service and technology ser- to reach. ICTs can also enhance the government’s capacity vice providers, as well as other providers vital for the integrity to monitor and evaluate financial services provided to rural and stability of the financial system, to connect and perform clients and design effective financial policies and regulations transactions in real time. for the rural sector. For example, financial infrastructure makes it possible for A number of agents in rural areas—such as government customers of one bank to use the ATM of a different bank departments, commercial banks, microfinance institutions, or conduct a transaction (such as writing checks or wiring traders, telecommunications companies, community-based money) with customers of a different bank. It also channels organizations, families, and friends—provide financial ser- financial information (such as the creditworthiness of a new vices, which can include credit, savings, insurance, trans- customer) to financial institutions. fers, and payments. Even so, tailoring and providing financial services for small-scale farmers remains challenging. Rural These services and infrastructure do not benefit merely one clients differ from the typical clients of financial service operator or financial service provider; they cater to the entire providers. They are located in remote and often sparsely rural and financial sector. For this reason, their provision is populated areas, and they rarely possess the sorts of physi- often initially regarded as a task for government, although cal or financial assets that financial institutions customarily in reality they can be (and often should be) provided by the accept as collateral. Typical rural assets, such as livestock, private sector alone or in partnership with government. IC T IN A GR IC ULTUR E S E C T I O N 2 — E NHANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y O N TH E FA RM 153 CURRENT ACCESS TO FINANCIAL SERVICES banks constitute more than 75 percent of all rural branches of IN RURAL AREAS financial institutions worldwide; in comparison, microfinance Across developing countries, in urban and rural areas, access institutions account for less than 3 percent. Microfinance to and use of formal finance remains very low in general. The institutions and cooperatives may situate a larger share of financial access data in figures 7.2 and 7.3 are not specific their branches in rural areas—41 percent and 43 percent, to farmers, but they serve as a good proxy, showing that respectively (figure 7.4)—but their absolute total country rural reach is a smaller proportion of total reach. Agriculture reach is limited (figure 7.2). in particular has been underserved; for example, commer- The supply of financial products and services in rural areas will cial lending to agriculture is 1 percent of all lending in Africa remain a challenge until financial institutions can reduce the (Campaigne and Rausch 2010). Often, as a result of poor high operating costs associated with catering to rural clients; access to formal sources of finance, farmers are left to bor- however, as this module indicates, ICT applications have row at very expensive rates from informal money lenders. demonstrated considerable promise in doing so. The next Commercial banks remain the dominant formal institutions section briefly describes the factors that have proven critical providing finance to farmers (figures 7.5 and 7.6). Commercial to using ICTs successfully to expand the range of financial services in rural areas. The topic notes that follow provide FIGURE 7.2: Low Access to Financial Institutions Access to Financial Services FIGURE 7.4: Access Is Worse for Farmers (median per 100,000 adults) % of Branches in Rural and Urban Areas 100 Branches Cooperatives 80 ATMs Microfinance 60 institutions State institutions 40 Commercial banks 20 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0 Urban Rural A A P A C C EN SA EC EA SS LA Source: CGAP and World Bank 2010. HI M Source: CGAP and World Bank 2010. FIGURE 7.3: Low Utilization of Financial Services FIGURE 7.5: Commercial Banks Are Main Players Access to Commercial Banks % of Rural Branches by Institution (median per 1,000 adults) 1% 2500 15% 3% Deposit Accounts 2000 5% Loan Accounts 1500 1000 78% 500 Commercial banks State institutions