33391 World Bank Pension Reform Primer Veterans Pensions and other compensation in post-conflict countries T he question of how best to compensate Over time, extensive experience has been gained veterans in the aftermath of war is one that is regarding the design and implementation of relevant to many developing countries. Civil wars disarmament, demobilization and reintegration and independence struggles often affect the (DDR) programs. Less attention has been paid to poorest regions of the world and leave an the development of veterans policies. This is due enormous financial burden including benefits to to several factors, not least because in post-conflict former fighters and their survivors. The most settings, the international community tends to recent examples are Afghanistan and Iraq. focus on an immediate peace dividend through the implementation of a DDR program, which it Defining the problem usually finances. However, DDR requires that One of the many challenges post-conflict countries states formulate veterans policy to accommodate face is how to reduce the size of armies once the those who have been demobilized, and those who fighting stops, and how to sustainably assist have not. Further experience has demonstrated the former fighters, or veterans, once they are no importance of developing sound veterans policies longer part of the army. Fiscal, social, or political in post-conflict settings, and the pitfalls of pressures may all play a role in this process, inequitable, unsustainable, and non-transparent including in peace-time. systems of benefits. Large-scale demobilization is commonly the This note attempts to provide the reader with an process through which countries achieve a overview of the different dimensions of veterans reduction in force and may be accompanied by policy development, with particular reference to short-term reintegration assistance. By contrast, countries emerging from protracted conflict. veterans policies provide for long-term assistance Special attention is given to the common problems from the state to veterans and may include a of definition, inclusion, financial sustainability and variety of benefits designed to provide material implementation, as well as the linkages between assistance as well as social recognition. Veterans DDR and veterans policy. Given the vast policy should credibly and transparently provide differences in approach different countries have for equitable and sustainable assistance and may be used, this note will not attempt a comprehensive developed as part of a demobilization program, or discussion of veterans policies, but rather highlight separately. The term "veteran" is used here to refer common challenges and constraints faced by to anyone who has been a member of a military. policy-makers in developing veterans policy in post-conflict settings. This briefing was prepared by Markus Kostner and Edith H. Bowles, November 2004. It draws from a more comprehensive overview of country experiences. Bendaña, Alejandro. 2002. "War Veterans Policies ­ A Comparative Study." World Bank. It is part of the World Bank's Pension Reform Primer: a comprehensive, up-to- date resource for people designing and implementing pension reforms around the world. For more information, please contact Social Protection, Human Development Network, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20433; telephone +1 202 458 5267; fax +1 202 614 0471; e-mail socialprotection@worldbank.org. All Pension Reform Primer material is available on the internet at www.worldbank.org/pensions Veterans 2 Veterans policy and demobilization demobilized after the conflict at the same time. In In most countries in peace-time, veterans policies Congo-Brazzaville, Guatemala and Sierra Leone, largely revolve around the benefits accruing to only combatants of non-statutory forces were service men and women following retirement from demobilized immediately following the conflict. the military. These benefits are generally described Whatever the context, a reduction in force should by law and laid out in the terms of service, as are be accompanied by a reform of the security sector. the retirement benefits of public servants in For instance, in Timor-Leste, after the withdrawal general. In peace-time, such benefits are routinely of the statutory (Indonesian occupying) forces, all administered as individuals retire from the military members of the non-statutory forces (Falintil) through natural attrition. In some countries, the were discharged and a new national defense force provisions for military retirement are applicable was established into which some of the Falintil also to members of other branches of the security members were recruited. sector, such as the police, border guards, and the gendarmerie. However, following a war, the Identification and registration development of veterans policy can assume great The terms used to refer to those who are economic and political significance. A new retrenched from military service depend largely on government, or, in the case of liberation struggles, the political and historical context of the country an entirely new state needs to develop a policy and the conflict. In South Africa, any person who toward veterans. The economic implications of joined voluntarily or was called up under providing for a large number of veterans may also conscription in any of South Africa's official wars, pose a significant fiscal problem for a new or post- members of the South African Defense Force, and conflict state. members of anti-apartheid military movements are considered "military veterans". However, in some Demobilization can be used to downsize an overly countries the term "veteran" has specific political large professional force, but can also refer to connotations. In Zimbabwe, a "war veteran" is any efforts to take out of active duty mobilized but person who underwent military training and non-professional combatants, including reservists, participated, consistently and persistently, in the militias, or other paramilitaries. One of the liberation struggle. In Mozambique, a "veteran of common post-war options is to integrate non- the national liberation struggle" includes any statutory forces into a country's armed forces with citizen who actively participated in the liberation or without any immediate reduction in force. This struggle, be it as combatant in the non-statutory might be the preferred option to help reconcile the forces, in the clandestine movement, in the erstwhile warring factions. With the stabilization of support work for Frelimo militants, or in the the socio-political situation, the demands of such diplomatic, information and propaganda struggle. an enlarged armed forces on a government's budget will usually lead to a reduction in force In Chad, the term "retraité " refers to soldiers through a DDR program in the medium- to long- retired from service according to one of the term. This has been the case in Cambodia, criteria established by law (such as age limit or Rwanda, South Africa, and Uganda, for instance. disability) as opposed to "deflaté" who is a soldier Such peacetime DDR programs allow for more discharged as part of a DDR program. In Central thorough preparation and frequently require less America, there is a rather indiscriminate use of external oversight or involvement, but are terms such as "demobilized", "reincorporated", otherwise similar in nature to post-conflict and "ex-combatant", which are usually applied to operations. A reduction in force can also be members of non-statutory forces as compared to achieved through a combination of retirement and "retired" which applies to former members of demobilization, as for instance in the case of Chad. statutory forces. In other countries, such as El Salvador, One of the most common problems associated Mozambique and Nicaragua, combatants of both with veterans policy development is that while statutory and non-statutory forces were regular, armed combatants from non-statutory 3 Veterans forces may be prescribed beneficiaries, often leading political movement but also members of members of irregular forces are not. In many other pro-independence movements, as well as conflicts, there are numerous armed or non-armed Bissau-Guineans who had fought with the groups mobilized, including militias, paramilitaries, Portuguese army. In Timor-Leste, ex-combatants reservists, or underground political operatives, and veterans of the liberation struggle were who are not professional soldiers in the statutory registered through a carefully crafted process forces or even regulars in non-statutory forces. For which included community verification and example, in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and consultation. It should be noted that the success of Guatemala, the core military was demobilized but any registration process is a function of the this was followed by substantial agitation by transparency of the system which carries out this former paramilitaries for recognition and benefits. exercise. By contrast, South Africa has addressed underground members through the 1996 Special Assistance to veterans Pensions Act which stipulated that pensions were There is great variation in veterans' benefits across to be paid for "persons who made sacrifices or countries and categories of veterans. These served the public interest in establishing a non- benefits by and large follow certain patterns that racial, democratic constitutional order...". depend mainly on the type of reduction in force, the type of retirement, and the type of force of In the development and implementation of which an individual was a member. Benefits may veterans' benefits, corruption, political include entitlements which are written into law, manipulation, and exclusion, leading to future such as pensions, or other forms of monetary or grievances, are prominent risks, particularly in in-kind assistance. Countries also usually attempt post-conflict contexts where participatory political to provide benefits to the disabled, particularly institutions and practice remain under-developed. those who cannot work, as a result of military The thorough, transparent, and timely service. identification and registration of military personnel are critically important for laying the groundwork National pension schemes exist in most countries. for policies and programs which are inclusive and These commonly include provisions for members non-partisan. The importance of timely and of statutory forces. Thus, whether for individual accurate registration is evidenced in the cases of retirement or as part of a demobilization, a soldier Guinea-Bissau and Zimbabwe, where the number retiring from statutory forces is eligible to receive a of registered liberation fighters and veterans pension. Although there is a variety of systems, decades after independence was significantly there is generally a contribution from the state as higher than at independence. employer and the future beneficiary, the soldier, to some form of pensions fund. A common problem Non-statutory forces commonly do not invest is that pension schemes often do not function. For much effort into registering their members, a example in the cases of Burundi and Guinea- noteworthy exception being the Rwandan Patriotic Bissau, the state is unable to meet its payment Army in the early 1990s. Even statutory forces, obligations. however, often lack personnel management systems, especially after a unification of forces in There may be other benefits per terms and the post-conflict period. In Cambodia and Uganda, conditions of service, such as a disability pension, the authorities carried out a full registration of the medical assistance for the disabled and benefits for entire armed forces to determine the baseline from survivors either of those killed in action or those which planning for the reduction in force would subsequently dying while receiving veterans' commence. In Guinea-Bissau, a complex process benefits. The Korean Veterans' Pension Act, for was launched in 2001 to register all those who had example, specifies 17 different benefits for fought during the war of independence. Contrary veterans or their family members. Similar to Decree 5/75 of 1975, this registration purposefully included not just members of the Veterans 4 provisions exist, for example, in Angola, Bosnia pensions and other service-related benefits should and Herzegovina, Cambodia and Guinea-Bissau. be taken into account when calculating demobilization-related assistance as the former Members of non-statutory forces generally do not reduce the vulnerability of the demobilized, which contribute to a pension fund and are, thus, is the key rationale of the latter. normally not eligible by law to receive a pension or related benefits. However, a post-war government Veterans of national liberation struggles are may decide on the eligibility for these military generally seen as a special category of veterans and personnel, as in the case of South Africa. many countries have accorded them a particular Furthermore, provisions for benefits for members socio-political status. In many cases the victorious of non-statutory forces can be written into peace post-war governments have felt obliged to provide agreements, such as in Angola, Burundi and special compensation for the services and Guatemala. sacrifices they rendered to the nation. These are often distinct from the normal pension systems or There is a general agreement that those benefits put in place for military personnel demobilized may not be prepared to face the following the establishment of a post-liberation challenges of civilian life and that, therefore, national army. The type and amount of targeted assistance is required. Such assistance compensation provided to such veterans tend to commonly consists of two parts. First, reinsertion bear little relation either to long-term financial (severance) payments are designed to compensate sustainability or proportionality vis-à-vis other for the loss of formal or informal income received population groups. Assistance sometimes includes while in military service. Such a transitional safety family members who are considered to have net is usually calculated to cover the basic needs of shared the sacrifice. the demobilized and his/her family for a limited period of time, generally between 6-12 months. In Guinea-Bissau, liberation fighters (who were Second, for those returning to the labor force, not limited to those actually bearing arms) who reintegration assistance is provided to help the were members of the ruling party were eligible to demobilized establish a new livelihood through, receive the highest pension irrespective of years of for instance, access to land, the provision of skills service. Senior officers were entitled to a furnished training, employment referral, or the house and a car. Upon death, certain benefits were implementation of micro-projects. transferable to the spouse, children under 18 years of age, and parents. In the case of Bosnia and As with pensions, demobilization benefits may Herzegovina, benefits included privatization differ by rank, years of service, and/or disability. vouchers, housing preferences, free and However, if demobilization takes place from a discounted transportation, and exemptions from unified army, benefits are usually not differentiated customs and taxes for veterans and survivor by former affiliation with statutory or non- families for car imports, equipment for self- statutory forces. This has been the case in employment, and other taxes (for instance, land Cambodia, Chad and Uganda, for instance. tax). Survivor families were defined as spouses and children, parents and grandparents, and in some The provision of demobilization-related benefits cases, siblings. In Angola, spouses of national to retrenched members of statutory forces does heroes and their children under age 18 are eligible not preclude the administration of service-related to receive a car every five years, an annual subsidy, payments as per their terms and conditions of a monthly pension, and free travel abroad for service. This is being envisaged in Burundi, for medical reasons. instance. In Uganda, reinsertion payments under the DDR program were unitary but the South Africa constitutes a case where an attempt demobilized later received an additional gratuity, has been made to provide financially sustainable the amount of which was dependent on rank. benefits. The Special Pensions Act of 1996 states From a financial perspective, entitlements to that a person who made sacrifices or served the 5 Veterans public interest in establishing a non-racial, has set up a Veterans Assistance Board and South democratic constitutional order and who is a Africa an Advisory Board for Military Veterans' citizen, or entitled to be a citizen, of the Republic Affairs. In some countries veterans' affairs offices of South Africa, is entitled to receive a means- administer pension payments directly. In the tested monthly pension, after age 55 for women Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the and 60 for men. Years of service are taken into Republika Srpska, benefits for veterans and account. A person has the right to a survivor's survivors are the responsibility of the Ministry of lump sum benefit if that person is a surviving Veterans and Disabled Soldiers' Affairs and the spouse, or if there is no surviving spouse, the Ministry of Veterans, War Casualties and Labor, surviving dependant. Veterans may also be eligible respectively. for a range of other benefits, including, for example, government grants, insurance benefits, Countries implementing DDR programs have burial benefits, and accommodation assistance. usually established special offices, such as the Further South Africa's most recent veterans' "Instituto de Reintegração Sócio-Profissional dos ex- legislation, the Military Veterans' Affairs Act of Militares" (IRSEM) in Angola, the "Oficina Nacional 1999, lays as a fundamental principle that de Reincorporación" in Colombia, the "Comisión assistance to veterans of the struggle constitutes Nacional de Reincorporación" in Guatemala, and the reparation, not welfare. Rwanda Demobilization and Reintegration Commission. Set up for a specific, short-term task, Whether veterans stem from wars of liberation or i.e., the administration of DDR-related benefits, other wars, financial compensation, uncertain as it these offices are usually slated for closure upon commonly is, does not necessarily of itself do completion of the task. Offices dealing with justice to the sacrifices made. For example, the veterans' affairs do not have such a sunset clause. South African Defense Review suggests that the Highlighting this distinction between longer-term role played by military veterans in democratizing benefits and a short-term DDR program, a special South Africa should be recognized through Council for the Demobilization of Armed Forces national commemorations. Military heritage with an Executive Secretariat was created in matters should be viewed as a national issue and Cambodia for the administration of the be dealt with inclusively, lest military heritage be demobilization and reintegration program. By used to bolster the political legitimacy and contrast, the Ministry of Women and Veteran privileges of a particular party or group. As noted Affairs assumes the responsibility of paying in the South Africa Defense Review, war graves, retirement and disability benefits, though the first cemeteries, memorials, museums and rolls of payment after retirement is made by the Ministry honor should be dealt with in an integrated way to of National Defense. promote the country's military heritage. Veterans associations Administration of benefits In many countries, associations of veterans, Benefits are usually administered by a dedicated liberation fighters or ex-combatants have been government body. In some cases, benefits, in established at the national level. In Colombia, particular pensions, are paid through the social there is an association of retired military personnel security system. In Angola, for instance, pensions and an association of reservists, each legally and disability pensions are paid through the "Caixa constituted, including articles of association, de Segurança das Forças Armadas Angolanas" and the structure, purpose and participation mechanisms. "Instituto Nacional de Segurança Social". In other In Guatemala, members of the former non- countries, the Ministry of Defense or the armed statutory forces established the "Fundación Toriello". forces themselves may be responsible for paying In Mozambique, the "Associação Moçambicana dos pensions, but a dedicated veterans' affairs office Desmobilizados de Guerra" (AMODEG) and the may coordinate other forms of benefits and act as "Associação dos Deficentes Militares de Moçambique" advocate for veterans' interests generally. Uganda (ADEMINO) are open for members of both Veterans 6 statutory and non-statutory forces. The Zimbabwe DDR programs require a different legal basis. In National Liberation War Veterans Association the case of the Rwanda Demobilization and developed as a platform and pressure group for Reintegration Program, for instance, the disaffected demobilized combatants. Further, in government issued a decree establishing the many countries, such as Rwanda, Timor-Leste, and institutional structure in charge of the program, a Uganda, former military personnel have formed ministerial order for the demobilization criteria, self-help groups to address the immediate needs of and a ministerial order determining eligibility their members. criteria for the demobilization of members of ex- armed groups. Equally, a ministerial order defined Such organizations or associations are commonly the amounts and payment modalities of reinsertion recognized by the authorities as lawful payments in Chad. Peace accords often provide a representatives of the interests of their members. framework for legal regulations dealing with large- While generally pursuing their legitimate scale reductions in force, for instance in Burundi, objectives, they are also susceptible to El Salvador, Guatemala, and Sierra Leone. manipulation by political groupings to further interests unrelated to veterans' interests and can Challenges become a source of political instability. This has Setting policies and creating laws dealing with been the case in Zimbabwe, where veterans groups veterans are the prerogative of the state. However, have been involved in political violence. Timor- the history of such policies and regulations Leste also witnessed attempts at manipulation of demonstrates that without proper planning, veterans organizations for political ends, albeit administration and financing, and political without violence. A related risk is that veterans willingness to apply the laws transparently, they groups may become private paramilitary or can create more problems than they resolve. At the security groups. In some cases, veterans heart of most problems is the gap between what is associations exercise considerable political enacted in law and what can be financed. influence, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where Considerations of security and stability may lead these organizations even receive funds directly authorities to establish benefits which are both from the national budgets for their activities. broad and generous, for instance, in the belief that such benefits to former combatants will "buy" Legal basis for benefits peace. But if such benefits are unsustainable, Without fail, governments have put in place a legal pressure on public finances will eventually force basis, sometimes elaborate, for veterans' benefits. reforms that may pose a new political challenge. It is worth highlighting, that veterans' policies are sometimes defined or amended only a long time Pensions for soldiers retired from statutory forces after the end of conflict. By that time, it may be may follow the parameters of the pension system difficult to ascertain who was a combatant. In for civil servants. However, the sustainability of Guinea-Bissau, a decree identifying who is military pensions depends on the viability of the considered a liberation fighter was issued shortly national pension system. In many low-income after independence in 1975 but benefits were countries, such systems are often not viable and defined only 11 years later. The Mozambican while retired military are eligible for pensions, they decree on pensions and other benefits was also may not receive any, or not the amount they are approved 11 years after independence. In entitled to. The case of Zaïre is illustrative. Since Zimbabwe, the War Veterans' Act was enacted in the mid-1980s, even soldiers past age limits were 1992, twelve years after independence. By contrast, not retired, because government could not pay the government of Eritrea issued a special their pensions. This led to riots by soldiers in the proclamation in 1993, two years after assuming 1980s and 1990s. power, establishing benefits for former liberation fighters as compensation for services rendered The short-term benefits associated with military during the independence struggle. demobilization programs are usually more predictable, particularly when a comprehensive 7 Veterans DDR program has been developed by the or on the basis of an understanding that unaided, government and is supported by the international veterans may start rent seeking at the barrel of a community. Examples include the current gun. However, the more generous the benefits and programs in Angola, Ethiopia, and Rwanda. the longer they continue, the more individuals not However it is important not to mix DDR benefits eligible by law or not directly involved in armed with pension benefits. A DDR program by design struggle (for example, members of the extended only addresses short-term needs of demobilized family) benefit from these payments through soldiers. Pensions are a long-term entitlement of corruption or over-generosity, and the less the retired military. If in a given situation, pensions efficient the administration of these benefits, the are not well-managed but a DDR program is being more reluctant the population will be to support implement with sufficient resources, the lack of this benefits system in the long-term. Furthermore, pension payments may contribute to political and other than in the case of special DDR programs in economic instability. In such cases, the pension war-to-peace transition processes, donors are system should be reformed independently of the unlikely to finance unreformed pensions systems legal and technical basis of the DDR program. or benefits to veterans and liberation fighters Generous legal benefits that lack any relation to Further reading financial sustainability may degenerate into slush Bendaña, Alejandro, 2002. "War Veterans Policies funds for those in power rather than be provided ­ A Comparative Study", World Bank, to the intended beneficiaries. The case of Guinea- unpublished report. Bissau is illustrative because the authorities effectively neglected the plight of the rank and file Colletta, Nat J., Markus Kostner and Ingo of the liberation struggle. Unpaid pensions and Wiederhofer. 1996. The Transition from War to resentment of liberation fighters vis-à-vis the Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa. Directions in officials who received generous support were Development. World Bank. among the driving forces of the coup d'état of June 1998. In Zimbabwe, the discontent on the part of O'Keefe, Philip and Kendra Gregson. 2003. thousands of veterans vis-à-vis the administration of "Bosnia and Herzegovina: Veterans Benefits and the benefits system was turned into a political tool Programs", World Bank, unpublished report. by the authorities to extract greater rents from Meldrum, Andrew. 1997. "Zimbabwe's Cabinet other population groups, without leading to a Loots Pensions." April 25. more equitable distribution of the revenues thus generated. Rationalizing such systems once they Multi-Country Demobilization and Reintegration are in place is politically most challenging. Bosnia Program. 2003. "Linkages between Disarmament, and Herzegovina's two Entities have recently Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex- changed their previously unsustainably generous Combatants and Security Sector Reform", World veterans' benefits system, however the reform has Bank. been very difficult, in part due to the large political influence of the veterans associations. Multi-Country Demobilization and Reintegration Program. 2003. "Targeting MDRP Assistance: Ex- Unless a contributory pension system is fully Combatants and Other War-Affected functioning, payments of pensions and other Populations", World Bank. benefits are funded through the budget, for instance, through a combination of increasing Palacios, Robert and Yvonne Sin. 2002. "Pension contributions of taxpayers, government revenue Policy Options in Eritrea", World Bank, from natural resources, expenditure reductions in unpublished report. other sectors, domestic and international lending, and/or donor grants. In the short-term, the Legislation general population may accept these expenses as Angola. Decree No. 23/96, Regulamento Sobre its sign of gratitude to those who fought in a war, Licenciamento Militar, August 1996. Veterans 8 ­­. Resolution No. 9/96, August 1996. Cambodia. Sub-Decree (No. 46) On Assistance Conclusions and recommendations Packages for Deceased, Dead, Self-caused Dead, Unless it is established early on who is Missing, and Disabled Soldiers, November 1996. military personnel and who is not, there will Chad. Arrêté No. 28/MF/MPC-MA/CDR/96 Fixant be substantial targeting errors leading to les taux et les modalities de paiement des primes de higher costs for reform of the pension démobilisation aux militaires de l'Armé e Nationale system, assistance to veterans, or a DDR Tchadienne, Ministry of Finance, February 1997. program. ­­. Decree 655/PR/MA/96 Fixant les Crite res de Whilst those retrenched from military service Démobilisation des Militaires de l'Armée Nationale merit targeted assistance, the amount, type, Tchadienne, December 1996. and duration of such benefits need to be ­­. "Plan de Recensement des Forces", Comité carefully calibrated against the resources National de Réinsertion. available in the long run and the Eritrea. Proclamation No. 46, 1993. opportunities available in the labor market. Guinea-Bissau. Decree 5/75 of May 5, 1975. Wherever international assistance is sought ­­. Decree-law No, 1/86, March 1986. to finance a DDR program or pension Republic of Korea. Act on the Honorable Treatment of reform, the international community needs to Persons of Distinguished Services to Independence. be closely involved in the planning and ­­. Veterans Pension Act. implementation process. Mozambique. Decree No. 3/86, Regulamento de Large-scale military demobilization and Previdencia Social e Reforma nas Forças Armadas de individual retirement from military service Moçambique, July 1986. should not employ the same types of Rwanda. Ministerial Order No. 001/2002, Determining benefits. In the former case, reinsertion and the Demobilisation Criteria for Rwanda Defence reintegration assistance may be warranted. Forces and Ex-Forces Armes Rwadaises Soldiers, In the latter case, pensions and similar Ministry of Defence, September 2002. benefits should apply. However, in countries ­­. Ministerial Order No. 066, Determining Eligibility under long-term fiscal duress, pension Criteria for Demobilisation of Members of Ex-Armed obligations could be paid out, as a lump sum Groups, Ministry of Finance, September 2002. or in tranches, to retiring soldiers with a South Africa. Military Veterans' Affairs Act, 1999. discounted value ­ possibly linked to a DDR ­­. Special Pensions Act, Republic of 1996. program. Uganda. Uganda Veterans Assistance Board Statute, The administration of the benefits should be November, 1992. simple. Regarding pensions, the system for Zimbabwe. War Veterans' Act, 1992. retired military personnel and retired civil servants should be the same to the extent possible. By contrast, structures set up to administer a short-term DDR program should be dismantled upon program completion. mentor t Veterans policy and legislation is only as cpaymen good as the respect for the rule of law generally. The best legislation comes to pe´nsion n.mad 1. pee riodiretire fiedage on speci naught when the authorities hinder or PENSPRIM ORM above IORNEF etc r-for´m circumvent the transparent execution of the law. Recognition of the sacrifices of liberation fighters and veterans through a cultivation of equippmersonwithinformation pr a peace-oriented military heritage may be an er n. 1. elementary book to ER ofimp.e)rfections,faultsorerrors betterbyremovalorabandonment v.t. & i. 1. make (institution, procedure important sign of gratitude and one that is more sustainable than financial benefits. Financial assistance beyond any applicable pensions is warranted to the most needy, including the disabled. The determination and application of criteria of vulnerability needs to be simple and transparent. 9 Veterans Legal service-related benefits for statutory forces (in particular, pensions) should be taken into consideration when planning a DDR program both in terms of determining the level of benefits and identifying the most vulnerable. Recognizing the contribution of former combatants and clarifying their role and status in a new socio-political dispensation may be critical to stability and reconciliation in post-conflict societies. This issue merits attention from donors and multilateral agencies as part of larger conflict resolution and peace-building efforts.