72579 v2 Global Economic Volume 4 | January 2012 Prospects Uncertainties AND Vulnerabilities © 2012 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 13 12 11 10 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not neces- sarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, col- ors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Global Economic Prospects Uncertainties and vulnerabilities January 2012 3 Acknowledgments This report is a product of the Prospects Group in the Development Economics Vice Presidency of the World Bank. Its principal authors were Andrew Burns and Theo Janse van Rensburg. The project was managed by Andrew Burns, under the direction of Hans Timmer and the guidance of Justin Yifu Lin. Several people contributed substantively to the report. The modeling and data team was lead by Theo Janse van Rensburg assisted by Irina Kogay, Sabah Zeehan Mirza and Betty Dow. The projections, regional write-ups and subject annexes were produced by Dilek Aykut (Finance, Europe & Central Asia), John Baffes & Shane Streifel (Commodities) Annette De Kleine (South Asia, Exchange Rates and Current Accounts), Allen Dennis (Sub-Saharan Africa, International Trade), Eung Ju Kim (Finance), Theo Janse van Rensburg (High-Income Countries), Elliot (Mick) Riordan (East Asia & the Pacific, Middle-East & North Africa, and Inflation), Cristina Savescu (Latin America & Caribbean, Industrial Production). Regional projections and annexes were produced in coordination with country teams, country directors, and the offices of the regional Chief Economists and PREM directors. The short- term commodity price forecasts were produced by John Baffes, Betty Dow, and Shane Streifel. The remittances forecasts were produced by Sanket Mohapatra. The accompanying online publication, Prospects for the Global Economy, was produced by a team led by Nadia Islam Spivak and Sarah Crow, and comprised of Betty Dow, Kathy Rollins, and Sachin Shahria with technical sup- port from David Horowitz and Roula Yazigi. Indira Chand and Merrell Tuck-Primdahl managed media relations and the dissemination. Hazel Macadangdang managed the publication process. Several reviewers offered extensive advice and comments. These included Abebe Adugna, Zeljko Bogetic, Kevin Carey, Jorg Decressin, Tatiana Didier, Hinh Dinh, Punam Chuhan-Pole, Tito Cordella, Doerte Doemeland, Willem van Eeghen, Manuela Ferro, Caroline Freund, Michael Fuchs, Bernard Funck, David Gould, Santiago Herrera, Bert Hofman, Shahrokh Fardoust, Elena Ianchovichina, Fernando Im, Kalpana Kochhar, Asli Demirguc-Kunt, Barbara Mierau-Klein, Audrey Liounis, Stephen Mink, Thomas Losse-Muller, Cyril Muller, Antonio M. Ollero, Kwang Park, Samuel Pienkagura, Bryce Quillin, Sergio Schmukler, Torsten Sløk, Francesco Strobbe, Hans Timmer, Merrell Tuck-Primdahl, David Theis, Volker Trichiel, Ekaterina Vostroknutova, Makai Witte, and Juan Zalduendo. 4 Global Economic Prospects January 2012: Uncertainties and vulnerabilities Overview & main messages The world economy has entered a very difficult However, even achieving these much weaker phase characterized by significant downside outturns is very uncertain. The downturn in risks and fragility. Europe and weaker growth in developing countries raises the risk that the two The financial turmoil generated by the developments reinforce one another, resulting in intensification of the fiscal crisis in Europe has an even weaker outcome. At the same time, the spread to both developing and high-income slow growth in Europe complicates efforts to countries, and is generating significant restore market confidence in the sustainability of headwinds. Capital flows to developing the region’s finances, and could exacerbate countries have declined by almost half as tensions. Meanwhile the medium-term compared with last year, Europe appears to have challenges represented by high deficits and debts entered recession, and growth in several major in Japan and the United States and slow trend developing countries (Brazil, India, and to a growth in other high-income countries have not lesser extent Russia, South Africa and Turkey) been resolved and could trigger sudden adverse has slowed partly in reaction to domestic policy shocks. Additional risks to the outlook include tightening. As a result, and despite relatively the possibility that political tensions in the strong activity in the United States and Japan, Middle-East and North Africa disrupt oil supply, global growth and world trade have slowed and the possibility of a hard landing in one or sharply. more economically important middle-income countries. Indeed, the world is living a version of the downside risk scenarios described in earlier In Europe, significant measures have been editions of Global Economic Prospects (GEP), implemented to mitigate current tensions and to and as a result forecasts have been significantly move towards long-term solutions. The downgraded. European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) has  The global economy is now expected to been strengthened, and progress made toward expand 2.5 and 3.1 percent in 2012 and 2013 instituting Euro Area fiscal rules and (3.4 and 4.0 percent when calculated using enforcement mechanisms. Meanwhile, the purchasing power parity weights), versus the European Central Bank (ECB) has bolstered 3.6 percent projected in June for both years. liquidity by providing banks with access to low- cost longer-term financing. As a result, yields on  High-income country growth is now expected the sovereign debt of many high-income to come in at 1.4 percent in 2012 (-0.3 percent countries have declined, although yields remain for Euro Area countries, and 2.1 percent for high and markets skittish. the remainder) and 2.0 percent in 2013, versus June forecasts of 2.7 and 2.6 percent for 2012 While contained for the moment, the risk of a and 2013 respectively. much broader freezing up of capital markets and  Developing country growth has been revised a global crisis similar in magnitude to the down to 5.4 and 6.0 percent versus 6.2 and 6.3 Lehman crisis remains. In particular, the percent in the June projections. willingness of markets to finance the deficits and  Reflecting the growth slowdown, world trade, maturing debt of high-income countries cannot which expanded by an estimated 6.6 percent in be assured. Should more countries find 2011, will grow only 4.7 percent in 2012, themselves denied such financing, a much wider before strengthening to 6.8 percent in 2013. financial crisis that could engulf private banks and other financial institutions on both sides of Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Table 1 The Global Outlook in summary (percent change from previous year, except interest rates and oil price) 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Global Conditions World Trade Volume (GNFS) -10.6 12.4 6.6 4.7 6.8 Consumer Prices G-7 Countries 1,2 -0.2 1.2 2.2 1.6 1.7 United States -0.3 1.6 2.9 2.0 2.2 Commodity Prices (USD terms) Non-oil commodities -22.0 22.4 20.7 -9.3 -3.3 Oil Price (US$ per barrel) 3 61.8 79.0 104.0 98.2 97.1 Oil price (percent change) -36.3 28.0 31.6 -5.5 -1.2 4 -6.6 3.3 8.9 -4.5 0.8 Manufactures unit export value Interest Rates $, 6-month (percent) 1.2 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.9 €, 6-month (percent) 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.1 1.3 International capital flows to developing countries (% of GDP) Developing countries Net private and official inflows 4.2 5.8 4.5 Net private inflows (equity + debt) 3.7 5.4 4.3 3.3 3.7 East Asia and Pacific 3.7 6.0 4.7 3.4 3.7 Europe and Central Asia 2.7 5.0 3.6 2.0 2.9 Latin America and Caribbean 3.9 6.0 4.8 4.1 4.3 Middle East and N. Africa 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.2 1.6 South Asia 4.6 5.0 3.9 3.3 3.7 Sub-Saharan Africa 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.5 4.4 5 Real GDP growth World -2.3 4.1 2.7 2.5 3.1 Memo item: World (PPP weights) 6 -0.9 5.0 3.7 3.4 4.0 High income -3.7 3.0 1.6 1.4 2.0 OECD Countries -3.7 2.8 1.4 1.3 1.9 Euro Area -4.2 1.7 1.6 -0.3 1.1 Japan -5.5 4.5 -0.9 1.9 1.6 United States -3.5 3.0 1.7 2.2 2.4 Non-OECD countries -1.5 7.2 4.5 3.2 4.1 Developing countries 2.0 7.3 6.0 5.4 6.0 East Asia and Pacific 7.5 9.7 8.2 7.8 7.8 China 9.2 10.4 9.1 8.4 8.3 Indonesia 4.6 6.1 6.4 6.2 6.5 Thailand -2.3 7.8 2.0 4.2 4.9 Europe and Central Asia -6.5 5.2 5.3 3.2 4.0 Russia -7.8 4.0 4.1 3.5 3.9 Turkey -4.8 9.0 8.2 2.9 4.2 Romania -7.1 -1.3 2.2 1.5 3.0 Latin America and Caribbean -2.0 6.0 4.2 3.6 4.2 Brazil -0.2 7.5 2.9 3.4 4.4 Mexico -6.1 5.5 4.0 3.2 3.7 Argentina 0.9 9.2 7.5 3.7 4.4 Middle East and N. Africa 4.0 3.6 1.7 2.3 3.2 Egypt 7 4.7 5.1 1.8 3.8 0.7 Iran 3.5 3.2 2.5 2.7 3.1 Algeria 2.4 1.8 3.0 2.7 2.9 South Asia 6.1 9.1 6.6 5.8 7.1 India 7, 8 9.1 8.7 6.5 6.5 7.7 Pakistan 7 3.6 4.1 2.4 3.9 4.2 Bangladesh 7 5.7 6.1 6.7 6.0 6.4 Sub-Saharan Africa 2.0 4.8 4.9 5.3 5.6 South Africa -1.8 2.8 3.2 3.1 3.7 Nigeria 7.0 7.9 7.0 7.1 7.4 Angola 2.4 2.3 7.0 8.1 8.5 Memorandum items Developing countries excluding transition countries 3.3 7.8 6.3 5.7 6.2 excluding China and India -1.7 5.5 4.4 3.8 4.5 Source: World Bank. Notes: PPP = purchasing power parity; e = estimate; f = forecast. 1. Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK, and the United States. 2. In local currency, aggregated using 2005 GDP Weights. 3. Simple average of Dubai, Brent and West Texas Intermediate. 4. Unit value index of manufactured exports from major economies, expressed in USD. 5. Aggregate growth rates calculated using constant 2005 dollars GDP weights. 6. Calculated using 2005 PPP weights. 7 In keeping with national practice, data for Egypt, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are reported on a fiscal year basis in Table 1.1. Aggregates that depend on these countries, however, are calculated using data compiled on a calendar year basis. 8 Real GDP at market prices. GDP growth rates calculated using real GDP at factor cost, which are customarily reported in India, can vary significantly from these growth rates and have historically tended to be higher than market price GDP growth rates. Growth rates stated on this basis, starting with FY2009-10 are 8.0, 8.5, 6.8, 6.8 and 8.0 percent – see Table SAR.2 in the regional annex. 2 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text the Atlantic cannot be ruled out. The world financing needs (for maturing short and long- could be thrown into a recession as large or even term debt, and current account deficits) that larger than that of 2008/09. exceed 10 percent of GDP. To the extent possible, such countries should seek to pre- Although such a crisis, should it occur, would be finance these needs now so that a costly and centered in high-income countries, developing abrupt cut in government and private-sector countries would feel its effects deeply. Even if spending can be avoided. aggregate developing country growth were to  Historically high levels of corporate bond remain positive, many countries could expect issuance in recent years could place firms in outright declines in output. Overall, developing Latin America at risk if bonds cannot be rolled country GDP could be about 4.2 percent lower over as they come due (emerging-market than in the baseline by 2013 — with all regions corporate bond spreads have reached 430 basis feeling the blow. points, up 135 basis points since the end of 2007). In the event of a major crisis, activity is unlikely  Fiscal pressures could be particularly intense to bounce back as quickly as it did in 2008/09, in for oil and metals exporting countries. Falling part because high-income countries will not have commodity prices could cut into government the fiscal resources to launch as strong a counter- revenues, causing government balances in oil cyclical policy response as in 2008/09 or to offer exporting countries to deteriorate by more than the same level of support to troubled financial 4 percent of GDP. institutions. Developing countries would also have much less fiscal space than in 2008 with  All countries, should engage in contingency which to react to a global slowdown (38 percent planning. Countries with fiscal space should of developing countries are estimated to have a prepare projects so that they are ready to be government deficit of 4 or more percent of GDP pursued should additional stimulus be in 2011). As a result, if financial conditions required. Others should prioritize social safety deteriorate, many of these countries could be net and infrastructure programs essential to forced to cut spending pro-cyclically, thereby assuring longer-term growth. exacerbating the cycle. A renewed financial crisis could accelerate the Arguably, monetary policy in high-income ongoing financial-sector deleveraging process. countries will also not be able to respond as  Several countries in Europe and Central Asia forcibly as in 2008/09, given the already large that are reliant on high-income European expansion of central bank balance sheets. Banks for day-to-day operations could be Among developing countries, many countries subject to a sharp reduction in wholesale have tightened monetary policy, and would be funding and domestic bank activity — able to relax policy (and in some cases already potentially squeezing spending on investment have) if conditions were to deteriorate sharply. and consumer durables.  If high-income banks are forced to sell-off Developing countries need to prepare for foreign subsidiaries, valuations of foreign and the worst domestically owned banks in countries with large foreign presences could decline abruptly, In this highly uncertain environment, developing potentially reducing banks’ capital adequacy countries should evaluate their vulnerabilities ratios and forcing further deleveraging. and prepare contingencies to deal with both the  More generally, a downturn in growth and immediate and longer-term effects of a continued downward adjustment in asset prices downturn. could rapidly increase the number of non- performing loans throughout the developing If global financial markets freeze up, world also resulting in further deleveraging. governments and firms may not be able to finance growing deficits.  In order to forestall such a deterioration in conditions from provoking domestic banking  Problems are likely to be particularly acute for crises, particularly in countries where credit the 30 developing countries with external 3 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text has increased significantly in recent years, the intensification of the turmoil in August 2011, countries should engage now in stress testing mainly reflecting internal dynamics (notably the of their domestic banking sectors. bounce back in activity in Japan, following Tohoku and the coming online of reconstruction A severe crisis in high-income countries, could efforts). put pressure on the balance of payments and incomes of countries heavily reliant on Growth in several major developing countries commodity exports and remittance inflows. (Brazil, India, and to a lesser extent Russia,  A severe crisis could cause remittances to South Africa and Turkey) is also slowing, but in developing countries to decline by 6.3 percent most cases due to a tightening of domestic policy — a particular burden for the 24 countries introduced in late 2010 or early 2011 to combat where remittances represent 10 or more domestic inflationary pressures. So far, smaller percent of GDP. economies continue to expand, but weak business sector surveys and a sharp reduction in  Oil and metals prices could fall by 24 percent global trade suggest weaker growth ahead. causing current account positions of some commodity exporting nations to deteriorate by For the moment, the magnitude of the effects of 5 or more percent of GDP. these developments on global growth are  In most countries, lower food prices would uncertain, but clearly negative. One major have only small current account effects. They uncertainty concerns the interaction of the policy could, however, have important income effects -driven slowing of growth in middle-income by reducing incomes of producers (partially countries, and the financial turmoil driven offset by lower oil and fertilizer prices), while slowing in Europe. While desirable from a reducing consumers’ costs. domestic policy point of view, this slower  Current account effects from reduced export growth could interact with the slowing in Europe volumes of manufactures would be less acute resulting in a downward overshooting of activity (being partially offset by reduced imports), but and a more serious global slowdown than employment and industrial displacement otherwise would have been the case. effects could be large.  Overall, global trade volumes could decline by A second important uncertainty facing the global more than 7 percent. economy concerns market perceptions of the  GDP effects would be strongest in countries ability of policymakers to restore market (such as those in Europe & Central Asia) that confidence durably. The resolve of European combine large trade sectors and significant policymakers to overcome this crisis, to exposure to the most directly affected consolidate budgets, to rebuild confidence of economies. Figure 1. Short-term yields have eased but long-term yields remain high Global economy facing renewed Bond yields, percent uncertainties 8.0 Italy Spain 5-year yields 7.5 10-year yields The global economy has entered a dangerous 7.0 phase. Concerns over high-income fiscal 6.5 sustainability have led to contagion, which is slowing world growth. Investor nervousness has 6.0 spread to the debt and equity markets of 5.5 developing countries and even to core Euro Area 5.0 economies. 4.5 4.0 So far, the biggest hits to activity have been felt in the European Union itself. Growth in Japan 3.5 May-11 Jun-11 Jul-11 Aug-11 Sep-11 Oct-11 Nov-11 Dec-11 Jan-12 and the United States has actually firmed since Source: Datastream, World Bank. 4 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 1. Recent policy reforms addressing concerns over European Sovereign debt Banking-sector reform: In late October the European Banking Authority (EBA) announced new regulations requir- ing banks to revalue their sovereign bond holdings at the market value of September 2011. The EBA estimates that this mark-to-market exercise will reduce European banks’ capital by €115 billion. In addition, the banks are re- quired to raise their tier1 capital holdings to 9 percent of their risk-weighted loan books. Banks are to meet these new requirements by end of June 2012 and are under strong guidance to do this by raising equity, and selling non- core assets. Banks are being actively discouraged from deleveraging by reducing short-term loan exposures (including trade finance) or loans to small and medium-size enterprises. As a last resort, governments may take equity positions in banks to reach these new capital requirements. Facilitated access of banks to dollar markets and medium-term ECB funding: Several central banks took coordi- nated action on November 30th, lowering the interest rate on existing dollar liquidity swap lines by 50 basis points in a global effort to reduce the cost and increase the availability of dollar financing, and agreed to keep these meas- ures in place through February 1st, 2013. In addition in late November the ECB re-opened long-term (3 year) lend- ing windows for Euro Area banks at an attractive 1% interest rare to compensate for reduced access to bond mar- kets, and has agreed to accept private-bank held sovereign debt as collateral for these loans. Reinforcement of European Financial Stability Facility: On November 29, European Union finance ministers agreed to reinforce the EFSF by expanding its lending capacity to up to €1 trillion; creating certificates that could guarantee up to 30 percent of new issues from troubled euro-area governments; and creating investment vehicles that would boost the EFSF’s ability to intervene in primary and secondary bond markets. Precise modalities of how the reinforced fund will operate are being worked out. Passage of fiscal and structural reform packages in Greece, Italy and Spain: The introduction of technocratic gov- ernments with the support of political parties in Greece and Italy, both of which hold mandates to introduce both structural and fiscal reforms designed to assure fiscal sustainability. In Greece, the new government fulfilled all of the requirements necessary to ensure release of the next tranche of IMF/ EFSF support, while in Italy the govern- ment has passed and is implementing legislation to make the pension system more sustainable, increase value added taxes and increase product-market competition. In addition, a newly elected government in Spain has also committed to considerably step up the structural and fiscal reforms begun by the previous government. Agreement on a pan-European fiscal compact: In early December officials agreed to reinforce fiscal federalism within most of the European Union (the United Kingdom was the sole hold out), including agreement to limit structural deficits to 0.3 percent of GDP, and to allow for extra-national enforcement of engagements (precise mo- dalities are being worked out with a view to early finalization). markets and return to a sustainable growth path Enduring market concerns include: uncertainty is clear. Indeed, recent policy initiatives (box 1) whether private banks will be able to raise have helped restore liquidity in some markets, sufficient capital to offset losses from the with short-term yields on the sovereign debt of marking-to-market of their sovereign debt both Italy and Spain having come down holdings, and satisfy increased capital adequacy significantly since December (figure 1). So far, ratios. Moreover, it is not clear whether there is longer-term yields have been less affected by the an end in sight to the vicious circle whereby se initiatives — although they too show recent budget cuts to restore debt sustainability reduce signs of easing albeit to a lesser extent. growth and revenues to the detriment of debt sustainability. Although still back-burner issues, Despite improvements, markets continue to fiscal sustainability in the United States and demand a significant premium on the sovereign Japan are also of concern. debt of European sovereigns. Indeed, credit default swaps (CDS) rates on the debt of even As in 2008/09, precisely how the tensions that core countries like France exceed the mean CDS characterize the global economy now will rate of most developing economies. resolve themselves is uncertain. Equally uncertain is how that resolution will affect developing countries. The pages that follow do 5 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 2 Persistent concerns over high-income fiscal sustainability have pushed up borrowing costs worldwide CDS spread on 5 year sovereign debt, basis points Change in 5-year sovereign credit-default swap, basis points (as of Jan. 6th, 2012)* 3000 450 5,929 Ireland Spain Developing countries High-income Portugal countries 2500 Italy LMICs < 200 300 2000 1500 150 1000 0 South… Philippines Kazakhstan Lithuania Argentina Romania Indonesia Germany Malaysia Colombia Chile Italy China Bulgaria Croatia Brazil Portugal Ukraine Thailand Spain Turkey Japan Mexico Greece Venezuela Ireland Peru USA Russia France 500 0 Jan-11 Mar-11 May-11 Jul-11 Sep-11 Nov-11 Jan-12 * Change since the beginning of July. Source: DataStream, World Bank. not pretend to foretell the future path of the bond issuer defaults) of most countries upwards global economy, but rather explore paths that beginning in August 2011 (figure 2). might be taken and how such path might interact with the pre-existing vulnerabilities of This episode of heightened market volatility developing countries to affect their prospects. differed qualitatively from earlier ones because this time the spreads on developing country debt Financial-market consequences for also rose (by an average of 130 basis points developing countries of the post August between the end of July and October 4th 2011), 2011 increase in risk aversion as did those of other euro area countries (including France, and Germany) and those of The resurgence of market concerns about fiscal non-euro countries like the United Kingdom. sustainability in Europe and the exposure of banks to stressed sovereign European debt For developing countries, the contagion has been pushed credit default swap (CDS) rates (a form broadly based. By early January, emerging- of insurance that reimburses debt holders if a market bond spreads had widened by an average of 117 bps from their end-of-July levels, and Figure 3 Declining stock markets were associated with capital outflows from developing countries since July MSCI Index, January 2010=100 Gross capital flows (July to December), bn of dollars $ billion Emerging Markets Developed markets 115 110 2010* 100 2011* 110 90 80 105 70 60 Equity Bond Bank 100 50 40 30 95 20 10 90 0 East Asia Europe & Latin Middle South Sub- & the Central America & East & Asia Saharan Pacific Asia the North Africa Caribbean Africa 85 * For July through December Jan-10 Apr-10 Jul-10 Oct-10 Jan-11 Apr-11 Jul-11 Oct-11 Jan-12 Sources: Bloomberg, Dealogic and World Bank. 6 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text developing-country stock markets had lost 8.5 that were less than 200 bp before January 2010) percent of their value. This, combined with the have declined to 162 points and developing 4.2 percent drop in high-income stock-market country sovereign yields have eased from 672 to valuations, has translated into $6.5 trillion, or 9.5 616 basis points. percent of global GDP in wealth losses (figure 3). Capital flows to developing countries weakened sharply. Investors withdrew substantial sums The turmoil in developing country markets from developing-country markets in the second peaked in early October. Since then the median half of the year. Overall, emerging-market equity CDS rates of developing country with relatively funds concluded 2011 with about $48 billion in good credit histories (those whose CDS rates net outflows, compared with a net inflow of $97 Table 2. Net capital flows to developing countries $ Billions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 141.6 244.9 379.8 384.9 354.5 276.7 221.2 190.0 99.0 32.0 as % of GDP 1.8 2.6 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.1 Financial flows: Net private and official inflows 347.3 519.7 686.5 1129.7 830.3 673.8 1126.8 1004.4 Net private inflows (equity+debt) 371.6 584.0 755.5 1128.2 800.8 593.3 1055.5 954.4 807.4 1016.4 Net equity inflows 245.5 382.0 495.2 667.1 570.7 508.7 629.9 606.2 583.7 697.1 ..Net FDI inflows 208.5 314.5 387.5 534.1 624.1 400.0 501.5 554.8 521.6 620.6 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 36.9 67.5 107.7 133.0 -53.4 108.8 128.4 51.4 62.1 76.5 Net debt flows 101.9 137.7 191.2 462.6 259.6 165.1 496.8 398.2 ..Official creditors -24.3 -64.3 -69.0 1.5 29.5 80.5 71.2 50.0 ....World Bank 2.4 2.6 -0.3 5.2 7.2 18.3 22.4 12.0 ....IMF -14.7 -40.2 -26.7 -5.1 10.8 26.8 13.8 8.0 ....Other official -11.9 -26.8 -42.0 1.5 11.5 35.4 35.0 30.0 ..Private creditors 126.1 202.0 260.2 461.1 230.1 84.6 425.6 348.2 223.7 319.3 ....Net M-L term debt flows 73.2 120.4 164.9 292.8 234.4 69.9 157.1 168.2 ......Bonds 33.9 49.4 34.3 91.7 26.7 51.1 111.4 110.1 ......Banks 43.4 76.2 135.0 204.7 212.5 19.8 44.1 68.0 ......Other private -4.2 -5.1 -4.4 -3.5 -4.8 -1.1 1.6 0.1 ....Net short-term debt flows 52.9 81.6 95.3 168.3 -4.4 14.7 268.5 180.0 Balancing item /a -142.5 -401.7 -473.1 -486.4 -786.1 -273.0 -596.0 -611.9 Change in reserves (- = increase) -395.7 -405.1 -636.9 -1085.3 -452.5 -681.9 -752.0 -578.4 Memorandum items 292.8 Net FDI outflows -46.1 -61.7 -130.4 -150.5 -214.5 -148.2 -217.2 -238.1 Migrant remittances /b 155.6 187.0 221.5 278.2 323.8 306.8 325.3 351.2 376.7 406.3 As a percent of GDP 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010p 2011f 2012f 2013f Net private and official inflows 4.3 5.4 6.1 8.1 4.9 4.2 5.8 4.5 Net private inflows (equity+debt) 4.6 6.1 6.7 8.0 4.8 3.7 5.4 4.3 3.3 3.7 Net equity inflows 3.1 4.0 4.4 4.8 3.4 3.1 3.2 2.7 2.4 2.5 ..Net FDI inflows 2.6 3.3 3.4 3.8 3.7 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.1 2.2 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.9 -0.3 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.3 ..Private creditors 1.6 2.1 2.3 3.3 1.4 0.5 2.2 1.6 0.9 1.2 Source: The World Bank Note : e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and capital outflows from developing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers’ remittances, compensation of employees, and migrant transfers 7 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 4. Capital outflows resulted in significant currency issuance plummeted 80 percent to $25 billion depreciations for many developing countries with exceptionally weak flows to China and Percent change in nominal effective exchange rate (Dec. - Jul. 2011) Brazil accounting for much of the decline. Bond Malaysia issuance almost halved to $55 billion, due to a large fall-off to East Asia and Emerging Europe. Indonesia In contrast, syndicated bank loans held up well, Chile averaging about $15 billion per month, slightly Colombia higher than the $14.5 billion in flows received Turkey during the same period of 2010. Brazil India Reflecting the reversal in bond and equity flows South Africa in the second half of the year, developing Mexico country currencies weakened sharply. Most depreciated against the U.S. dollar, with major currencies such as the Mexican peso, South -16 -12 -8 -4 0 African rand, Indian rupee and Brazilian real having lost 11 percent or more in nominal Source: World Bank. effective terms (figure 4). Although not entirely unwelcome (many developing – country currencies had appreciated strongly since 2008), billion in 2010. According to JP Morgan, the sudden reversal in flows and weakening of emerging-market fixed-income inflows did currencies prompted several countries to somewhat better, ending the year with inflows of intervene by selling off foreign currency reserves $44.8 billion — nevertheless well below the $80 in support of their currencies. billion of inflows recorded in 2010. Foreign selling was particularly sharp in Latin America, For 2011 as a whole, private capital inflows are with Brazil posting large outflows in the third estimated to have fallen 9.6 percent (table 2). In quarter, partly due to the imposition of a 6 particular, portfolio equity flows into developing percent tax (IOF) on some international financial countries are estimated to have declined 60 transactions. percent, with the 77 percent fall in South Asia being the largest. In the second half of 2011 gross capital flows to developing countries plunged to $170 billion, The dollar value of FDI is estimated to have only 55 percent of the $309 billion received risen broadly in line with developing country during the like period of 2010. Most of the GDP, increasing by 10.6 percent in 2011. FDI decline was in bond and equity issuance. Equity flows are not expected to regain pre-crisis levels Figure 5 Industrial production appears to have held up outside of Europe and economies undergoing policy tightening Industrial production volumes, 3m/3m saar Industrial output growth, 3m/3m saar 40 15 30 Japan 10 20 China 5 10 Other high-income Other developing (also excluding Thailand) 0 0 -10 -5 Jun-11 Jul-11 Euro Area Brazil & India Aug-11 Sep-11 -20 Oct-11 Nov-11 -10 -30 -15 -40 High-income East-Asia & Europe & Latin America Middle-East South Asia Sub-Saharan 2011M01 2011M03 2011M05 2011M07 2011M09 2011M11 Pacific Central Asia & Caribbean & North Africa Africa Source: World Bank. 8 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text until 2013, when they are projected to reach income countries was also strong at 4.4 percent $620.6 billion (vs. $624.1 billion in 2008). during the three months ending October. Overall, net private capital flows to developing countries are anticipated to reach more than Among large developing countries, industrial $1.02 trillion by 2013, but their share in production has been falling for months in Brazil, developing country GDP will have fallen from India, and weak or falling in Russia and Turkey an estimated 5.4 percent in 2010 to around 3.7 in — reflecting policy tightening undertaken to 2013. bring inflation under control. Output in China has been growing at a steady 11 percent Data since August suggest negative real- annualized rate through November, while side effects have been concentrated in smaller developing countries (excluding above high-income Europe mentioned countries and Thailand where output fell 48 percent in October and November Available industrial production data (data exist following flooding) have also enjoyed positive, through October for most regions — November if weak growth of around 2.4 percent (versus 3.7 for the East Asia & Pacific and Europe & average growth during the 10 years before the Central Asia regions) suggest that global growth August 2008 crisis (see box 2 for more). is about normal, expanding at a 2.9 percent November readings in India and Turkey suggest annualized pace, just below the 3.2 percent that the downturn in those two economies may average pace during the 10 years preceding the have bottomed out. 2008/09 crisis (figure 5). The post August turmoil has impacted trade Importantly, the data suggest that the financial more directly turmoil since August has had a limited impact on growth outside of high-income Europe. In the Trade data suggests a clearer impact from the Euro Area, industrial production declined at a turmoil in financial markets and weakness in 2.2 percent annualized rate during the 3 months Europe. The dollar value of global merchandise ending October 2011 (-4.7 percent saar through imports volumes fell at an 8.0 percent annualized November if construction is excluded), and had pace during the three months ending October been declining since June. In contrast, Japanese 2011. And import volumes of both developing industry was growing at a 6.5 percent annualized and high-income countries declined, with the pace over the same period, boosted by bulk of the global slowdown due to an 18 reconstruction spending and bounce-back effects percent annualized decline in European Union following the Tohoku disaster. Growth in the imports (figure 6). United States through November was a solid 3.8 percent. And growth among the remaining high- Figure 6 Trade momentum has turned negative Contribution to growth of global import volumes, 3m/3m saar Merchandise export volumes, growth, 3m/3m saar 35 40 30 30 25 20 20 15 10 10 5 0 0 -10 -5 China Rest of Developing -10 2010Q4 2011Q1 Japan European Union -20 -15 USA Rest of High-Income 2011Q2 2011Q3 World Most Recent -20 -30 European Japan High-income East-Asia & Europe & Latin America Middle-East & South Asia Sub-Saharan 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 14 Union other Pacific Central Asia & Caribbean North Africa Africa Source: World Bank. 9 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 2. Mixed evidence of a slowing in regional activity Regional data suggest a generalized slowing among developing economies, mainly reflecting domestic rather than external factors.  In the East Asia and Pacific region, industrial production growth eased from a close to 20 percent annualized pace during the first quarter of 2011 (3m/3m, saar), to 5.6 percent in the second quarter. Since then growth recovered, except in Thailand where flooding has caused industrial production to decline sharply. Excluding Thailand, industrial production for the remainder of the region accelerated to a 10.1 percent annualized pace in the three months ending November 2011 (5.7 percent if both Thailand and China are excluded).  In developing Europe and Central Asia industrial production also began the year expanding at a close to 20 percent annualized rate (3m/3m saar), but weakened sharply beginning in the second quarter and declined during much of the third quarter. Since then activity has picked up and expanded at a 5.9 percent annualized rate during the three months ending November 2011.  In Latin American and the Caribbean, activity in the region’s largest economies has been slowing mainly because of policy tightening and earlier exchange rate appreciations. For the region as a whole industrial pro- duction has been declining since May, and was falling at a 2.9 percent annualized rate in the 3 months ending November, while GDP in Brazil was stagnant in the third quarter. Weaker export growth (reflecting a slowing in global trade volumes and weaker commodity imports from China) is also playing a role. Regional export growth has declined from a 14.1 percent annualized rate in the second quarter to 5.2 percent during the three months ending November.  Activity in the Middle East and North Africa has been strongly affected by the political turmoil associated with the ―Arab Spring‖, with recorded industrial activity in Syria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya having fallen by 10, 17, 17 and 92 percent at its lowest point according to official data. Output has recouped most or more than all of those losses in Egypt and Tunisia. Elsewhere in the region output has been steadier, but weakened mid- year and was falling at a 0.8 percent annualized rate during the three months ending July (latest data).  Activity in South Asia, like Latin America, has been dominated by a slowdown in the region’s largest econ- omy (India). Much weaker capital inflows and monetary policy tightening contributed to the 2.9 percent de- cline in India’s industrial output in October (equivalent to a 12.4 percent contraction at seasonally adjusted annualized rates in the three-months ending October). Elsewhere in the region, industrial production in Sri Lanka and Pakistan is expanding rapidly. The global slowdown has also been taking its toll on South Asia, with merchandise export volumes which had been growing very strongly in the first part of the year, declin- ing almost as quickly in the second half -- such that year-over-year exports in October are broadly unchanged from a year ago.  Industrial activity in Sub-Saharan Africa (Angola, Gabon, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa are the coun- tries in the region for which industrial production data are available) was declining in the middle of the year, with all countries reporting data showing falling or slow growth with the exception of Nigeria. Recent months have however shown a pick up. In the three months ending in August, industrial activity expanded at 0.8 per- cent annualized rate, supported by output increases among oil exporters and despite a decline in output in South Africa during that period, the region’s largest economy. Industrial activity in South Africa has since strengthened, growing at a picked up to 14.9 percent annualized rated in the three months ending in October. The mirror of the slowing in global imports has to decline through November, with the sharpest been a similar decline in export volumes. High- drop in South Asia (although this follows very income Europe has seen its exports decline in rapid export growth in the first half of the year). line with falling European imports (data include Exports in East Asia have also been falling at significant intra-European trade). In Japan, double-digit annualized rates, in part because of exports expanded at an 18.5 percent annualized disruptions to supply chains caused the by the pace in the third quarter, while the exports of flooding in Thailand. The exports of developing other high-income countries grew at a relatively Europe and Central Asia were expanding slowly rapid 3.4 percent annualized pace. Developing during the three months ending October 2011, country exports declined at a 1.2 percent while data for Latin America suggest that at 5.2 annualized pace in 2011Q3 and have continued percent through November, export growth is 10 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 7 Business surveys point to a slowing in activity sharp deterioration in expectations coming out of Purchasing managers index (PMI), points China—although at least one December 61 Global indicator for China shows a pickup (figure 7). Other high-income 59 European Union Developing Declining commodity prices and inflation 57 50-line are further indicators of the real-side 55 effects of recent turmoil 53 51 Commodity prices, which increased significantly 49 during the second half of 2010, stabilized in Values above 50 indicate expected growth, below 50 suggest contraction early 2011 and, except for oil whose price picked 47 up most recently, have declined since the 45 beginning of August (figure 8). Prices of metals and minerals, historically the most cyclical of 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 Sources: JPMorgan, World Bank aggregation using country- commodities1, averaged 19 percent lower in December compared with July, while food and energy prices are down 9 and 2 percent, strengthening. Insufficient data are available for respectively. Although concerns over slowing other developing regions to determine post- demand certainly have played a role, increased August trends. risk aversion may also have been a factor in causing some financial investors in commodities Overall, the real-side data available at this point to sell. are consistent with a view that the turmoil that began in August has dampened the post Tohoku Among agricultural prices, maize and soybeans rebound in activity. The dampening effect has prices fell 17 and 15 percent over the past 6 been most pronounced in Europe, but is months on improved supply prospects, especially observable everywhere. This interpretation is from the United States and South America. broadly consistent with forward looking business Partly offsetting these declines, rice prices rose sentiment surveys. All of these point to slower 14 percent in part due to the Thai government’s growth in the months to come, but the sharpest increase in guarantee prices (which induced negative signal (and the only one to deteriorate stock holding and less supply to global markets). markedly post August 2011) is coming from the The flooding in Thailand may have led to some European surveys. Other high-income surveys tightness in the global rice market, but the are more mixed suggesting slower but still impact was marginal as most of the crop had positive growth. PMI’s for developing countries already been harvested. Indeed, rice prices have are also mixed, with two thirds indicating declined most recently by almost 5 percent strengthening growth, but the aggregate during December 2011. Looking forward, declining in November, mainly because of a India’s decision to allow exports of non-Basmati Figure 8 Stable food prices and falling metals and energy prices have contributed to a deceleration in developing-world inflation Commodity price indexes, USD, 2005=100 Total and food inflation (3m/3m saar) 300 25 Developing country, Food CPI 250 20 Developing country, Total CPI Metal and Minerals 200 15 10 150 Food Energy 5 100 0 50 Jan-07 Jul-07 Jan-08 Jul-08 Jan-09 Jul-09 Jan-10 Jul-10 Jan-11 Jul-11 Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09 Jan-10 Jan-11 Jan-12 29 Source: World Bank. 11 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 9 Inflationary pressures are rising in most regions, inflation remains elevated and of Europe & Central Asia and South Asia concern in several countries, including Quarterly inflation rate, annualized Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Kazakhstan, Kenya, 25 Nigeria, Tanzania, Turkey, and Vietnam. Among Long-term average (2000-present) high-income countries, inflation has softened 20 2010Q4 2011Q1 from 4.5 percent annualized rates in February 2011Q2 2011Q2 2011 to 2.2 percent by October. Most Recent (Nov in most cases) 15 An uncertain outlook 10 Overall, global economic conditions are fragile, 5 and there remains great uncertainty as to how markets will evolve over the medium term. 0 While data to-date does not indicate that there High-income East-Asia & Pacific Europe & Latin America Middle-East & South Asia Central Asia & Caribbean North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa was strong real-side contagion from the up-tick in financial turmoil since August, the Source: World Bank. pronounced weakness of growth and the cut- rice along with good crop prospects elsewhere in back capital flows to developing countries will the region, are likely to keep rice prices in check. doubtless way on prospects and could potentially undermine the expected recovery in growth Despite recent declines, commodity prices among middle-income countries that underpins remain significantly higher in 2011 than in 2010 the projections outlined earlier in Tab1e 1. (14.4, 29.9 and 23.9 percent higher for the prices of metals and minerals, energy, and food Additional risks to the outlook include the respectively). possibility that geopolitical and domestic political tensions could disrupt oil supply. In the But alongside this generalized improvement, Middle-East and North Africa, although political severe localized food shortages persist, notably turmoil has eased, there remains the possibility that oil supply from one or more countries could in the Horn of Africa, where crop failure and famine threaten the livelihoods of over 13 be disrupted, while mounting tensions between million people (World Bank, 2011). Iran and high-income countries could yield a sharp uptick in prices, because of disruption to Weaker commodity prices have contributed to supply routes, or because of sanctions imposed lower inflation Figure 10 Market uncertainty has spread to core- Partly reflecting the initial stabilization and then European countries decline in commodity prices, but also the slowing in economic activity, headline inflation 700 5-yr sovereign credit-default swap rates, basis points, Jan 2011-Jan 2012 has eased in most of the developing world (second panel figure 8). The annualized pace of 600 Germany inflation has declined from a peak of 9.0 percent France UK in January 2011, to 6.0 percent during the three 500 Japan lmic <200 months ending November 2011. Domestic food 400 Italy inflation has eased as well from a 15.7 percent annualized rate in February 2011, to about 6.2 300 percent during the three months ending June 200 2011. 100 Inflationary pressures have declined in most regions, but appear to be strengthening once 0 Jan-11 Mar-11 May-11 Jul-11 Sep-11 Nov-11 Jan-12 4 again in Europe & Central Asia and South Asia (figure 9). Although inflation is decelerating in Source: DataStream, World Bank. 12 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 3 Regional outlook The regional annexes to this report contain more detailed accounts of regional economic trends, including country- specific forecasts The East Asia and Pacific region was disrupted by Japan’s Tohoku disaster. Industrial production and exports were hard hit, but are recovering as production chains re-equilibrate. Severe summer floods in Thailand have also caused significant disruption and contributed to regional slowing in the second half of the year. Overall, GDP growth in the region is projected to expand by 8.2 percent in 2011 while inflation is easing across the region. Strong domestic demand and productivity growth should help the region withstand the effects of the projected global slowing in the baseline scenario. As a result, regional growth is projected to slow only modestly to 7.8 per- cent in both 2012 and 2013. However, the very open nature of the regional economy makes it particularly vulner- able to a major decline in global demand. All the more so, as there is less room than in 2008 for fiscal expansion should a major crisis emerge. In developing Europe and Central Asia, growth has been slowing due to a combination of weakening domestic as well as external demand (especially from the Euro area). While resource-rich economies are benefiting from still high commodity prices and good harvests, several countries have been affected by the ongoing euro debt crisis because of their significant financial and trade linkages to problem countries. Despite strong growth in the earlier part of the year, growth for the region is expected to just exceed the 5.2 percent pace of 2010 in 2011. Ongoing household and banking-sector deleveraging and global economic uncertainty are projected to contribute to a de- cline in growth to 3.2 percent in 2012, before the pace of the expansion picks up to 4.0 percent in 2013. Several Central European countries are particularly vulnerable to the deepening crisis in the Euro Area, due to trade link- ages, high-levels of maturing debt, and domestic-bank dependency on high-income Europe parent-bank lending. Commodity exporters in the region could also run into difficulties if a deterioration in the global situation results in a major decline in commodity prices. Growth in Latin America and the Caribbean is expected to decelerate to a below-trend pace of 3.6 in 2012 from an estimated 4.2 percent in 2011. Softer global growth in high-income countries and China is projected to hurt exports, while rising borrowing costs and scarcer international capital will take a toll on investment and private consumption. Growth is expected to strengthen to above 4.0 percent in 2013 boosted by stronger external demand, but weaker domestic demand reflecting recent policy tightening is projected to keep growth in Brazil, for example relatively weak. Growth is projected to decelerate sharply in Argentina due to easing domestic demand. Slow albeit stronger growth in the United States is expected to temper prospects in Mexico and in Central America and the Caribbean due to weak tourism and remittances flows, although reconstruction efforts in Haiti will sustain strong growth there and in the Dominican Republic. Incomes in many countries in the region have benefitted be- cause of high commodity prices, and future prospects will be vulnerable to the kinds of significant declines that might accompany a sharp weakening in global growth. Economic activity in the developing Middle East and North Africa region has been dominated by the political turmoil of the ―Arab Spring‖ and strong oil prices. Despite high exposures to the weakening European export mar- ket, industrial production is improving and exports and remittances have performed better than earlier anticipated. But tourism and FDI revenues are exceptionally weak, and government deficits high. Oil exporters of the region have used substantial revenue windfalls to support large infrastructure and social expenditure programs, while in other countries political tensions have carried large negative effects on households and business, knocking GDP to losses for the year. Looking forward, the region is vulnerable to a global downturn in 2012, through adverse terms of trade effects, and strong linkage with the Euro area. Assuming that the domestic drag on growth from political uncertainty begins to ease, regional GDP is projected to expand by 2.3 percent in 2012, with output strengthening further to a 3.2 percent rate in 2013. In South Asia, GDP growth is expected decelerate to 5.8 percent during the calendar year 2012, down from 6.6 percent rate recorded in 2010, reflecting domestic and external headwinds. Domestic demand is expected to con- tinue to slow, with private consumption being hampered by sustained high inflation that has cut into disposable incomes. Rising borrowing costs have cut into outlays for consumer durables and investment, with heightened uncertainty and delayed regulatory reforms also playing a role. The external environment is expected to remain difficult, with continued market unease and a significant weakening of foreign demand. South Asian governments have limited space with which to introduce counter-cyclical fiscal stimulus measures due to large fiscal deficits, 13 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text while the possibility of monetary easing is constrained by still high inflation. Given the possibility of further weak- ening in the global economy, efforts at greater revenue mobilization (particularly in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangla- desh, and Nepal) and expenditure rationalization (especially in India) could pay dividends by allowing govern- ments to maintain critical social and infrastructure programs. Notwithstanding the recent perturbations in the global economy, as well as the drought in the Horn of Africa, growth prospects in Sub Saharan Africa remain healthy over the forecast horizon. Recent economic develop- ments have, however, reduced the growth momentum in Sub-Saharan Africa and shaved off between 0.1 and 0.5 percent of GDP growth in the region. Thus, GDP is now estimated to have expanded 4.9 percent in 2011 —about 0.2 percentage points slower than had been expected in June, and output is projected to expand 5.3 and 5.6 percent in 2012 and 2013, respectively, assuming no further significant downward spiral in the global economy. However, the uncertain global environment means that downside risks are significant. In the event of a deterioration of con- ditions in Europe, growth in Sub-Saharan Africa could decline by 1.6-4.2 percent compared with the current fore- casts for 2012, with oil and metal prices falling by as much as 18 percent and food prices by 4.5 percent. The fiscal impact of commodity price declines could be as high as 1.7 percent of regional GDP. Figure 11 Indicators of counter-party risk in bank- points if Greece is included in the mix) and stock ing-sector continue to rise markets some 17.6 percent below their July levels. Interbank overnight spreads, basis points 400 That said, steps taken thus far have been 350 successful in reducing or stabilizing spreads on 300 several major high-income countries (Germany 250 and the United Kingdom) and in developing countries (figure 10). Moreover, as noted above 200 Indications of rising concerns about counter-party risk in European yields on several recent bond auctions 150 banking system (especially short-term bonds), including by 100 Spain and Italy, have declined. 50 Despite progress made, markets remain volatile, 0 and funding pressures on banks elevated. Jan-08 Jul-08 Jan-09 Jul-09 Jan-10 Jul-10 Jan-11 Jul-11 Jan-12 Worryingly, the spread between interbank Source: DataStream, World Bank. interest rates and central bank overnight lending rates (a measure of private banks’ concerns over counter-party risk) continue to rise and have by high-income countries that shift demand reached almost 100 basis points in Europe and away from Iran toward other producers.2 Table 3. Baseline represents a significant downgrade from June edition of Global Economic Prospects The situation in Europe also presents an 2011 2012 2013 important source of risk going forward. Most (Difference in aggregate growth rates) World -0.5 -1.1 -0.5 recently, several successful bond sales by high- High-income countries -0.6 -1.3 -0.6 spread countries have caused spreads to decline, Euro Area -0.2 -2.1 -0.9 offering some hope that the worst of the crisis Other high-income -0.8 -0.9 -0.5 Developing -0.2 -0.8 -0.3 may have passed (see earlier figures 2 & 3). Low-income 0.1 0.0 0.0 However, experience suggests they may yet sour Middle-income -0.2 -0.8 -0.3 yet again — even though from an objective point Oil exporting 0.1 -0.5 0.0 of view steps taken go along way to alleviating Oil importing -0.4 -0.9 -0.4 the concerns that initially led to the loss of Regions confidence and freezing up of capital markets East Asia & Pacific -0.3 -0.3 -0.5 Europe & Central Asia 0.6 -1.1 -0.3 (see earlier box 1). Latin America & Caribbean -0.3 -0.6 0.1 Middle-East & North Africa -0.1 -1.2 -0.7 Overall, as of early January CDS spreads for South Asia -0.9 -1.9 -0.8 Sub-Saharan Africa -0.1 -0.4 -0.1 high-spread European countries were about 173 basis points higher than in July (1,153 basis Source: World Bank. 14 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text 50 basis point in the United States (figure 11). Annexes for more details on regional economic And, markets are likely to remain skittish for prospects). some time until they become convinced that the initiatives announced at the national and Global trade in goods and non-factor services is multinational level are being carried through and projected to slow to about 4.7 percent in 2012 are succeeding in restoring economic growth and before picking up to 6.8 percent in 2013. fiscal accounts to a sustainable path. Thinking through downside scenarios The baseline projections of this edition of Global Economic Prospects presented in the earlier The slow unwinding of tensions implicit in the Table 1 assume that efforts to-date and those that baseline projections of this Global Economic follow prevent the sovereign-debt stress of the Prospects remains a likely outcome for the past months from deteriorating further, but fail to global economy. But, how that plays out is completely eradicate market concerns. With high highly uncertain. As a result, even assuming no -income country growth of 1.4 and 2.0 percent in serious deterioration (or rapid improvement) in 2012 and 2013, and developing country growth conditions, growth could be noticeably stronger of 5.4 and 6.0 percent over the same two years, or weaker than in this baseline projection. these projections reflect a substantial downward revision to prospects from those of June 2011 Moreover, the possibility of much worse (table 3). outcomes are real and market tensions are particularly elevated. What form an escalation of In the baseline, the recovery in the United States the crisis might take, should one occur, is very is projected to continue in the fourth quarter of uncertain — partly because it is impossible to 2011, with growth around 3 percent before predict what exactly might trigger a deterioration weakening to an average of 2.2 percent in 2012 in conditions, and partly because once unleashed as fiscal stimulus is withdrawn, and 2.4 percent the powerful forces of a crisis of confidence in 2013. In high-income Europe, uncertainty has could easily take a route very different from the taken its toll, with annualized growth declining one foreseen by standard economic reasoning. from 2.9 percent in the first quarter to 1.1 percent in the third quarter of 2011 due to fiscal It follows that any downside scenario that might tightening, financial stress, banking-sector be envisaged to help developing-country deleveraging, and plunging confidence (the policymakers understand the nature and size of ECB’s latest bank lending survey shows a potential impacts will suffer from false precision tightening of lending standards to households (both in terms of the assumptions that the and corporations that will weigh on activity in scenario makes about the nature and strength of the fourth quarter and beyond). As a result, the precipitating events, and as to the path and Euro Area is expected to enter into recession in magnitude of their impacts). the fourth quarter of 2011 and whole-year GDP is forecast to decline by 0.3 percent in 2012 (the The scenarios outlined in Box 4 are no different broader European Union is expected to grow 0.1 in this respect and are presented, in the spirit of percent). Growth in Japan is projected to recent stress-tests of banking systems, as a tool accelerate to around 1.9 percent in 2012, that could help policymakers in developing reflecting reconstruction efforts and continued countries prepare for the worst by helping them rebound from the Tohoku disaster. better understand the relative magnitude of potential effects, and gain some insights as to the Under these conditions, growth in developing extent and nature of vulnerabilities across countries is now estimated to have eased to 6 countries. These simulations should not be percent in 2011 and projected to decline further viewed as predictive. They are presented with to 5.4 percent in 2012, before firming somewhat full recognition of the limitations of the tools to 6.0 percent in 2013—a 0.2, 0.8 and 0.3 that underpin them. If a downside scenario percentage point reduction in the growth outlook actually materializes, its precise nature, triggers, since the June 2011 edition of Global Economic and impacts will doubtless be very different Prospects (see table 3, box 3, and Regional from these illustrations. 15 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 4 Downside scenarios In the current economic context, the risk that markets lose confidence in the ability of one or more high-income countries to repay their debt is very real. The OECD (2012) estimates that high-income countries will need to bor- row $10.5 trillion in 2012 (almost twice their borrowing levels in 2005). Moreover, almost 44 percent of the debt in the OECD is relatively short-term debt, meaning that borrowers will have to come repeatedly to the market. Ratings agencies have warned of further downgrades, and although reforms to date have been greeted positively, markets are requiring a significant premium on the debt issues of stressed economies. In a first scenario (box table 4.1) it is assumed that one or two small Euro Area economies (equal to about 4 per- cent of Area GDP) face a serious credit squeeze. An inability to access finance that extends to the private sectors of the economies causes GDP in the directly affected Table box 4.1 Impact of a small contained countries to fall by 8 or more percent (broadly consistent with crisis the decline already observed in Greece and in other high- income economies that have faced financial crises — see 2011 2012 2013 (% deviation of GDP from baseline) Abiad and others, 2011). Other (mainly European) economies World 0.0 -1.7 -1.7 are affected through reduced exports (imports from the directly High-income countries 0.0 -1.7 -1.7 affected countries fall by 9 percent). It is assumed in this sce- European Union 0.0 -1.7 -1.5 nario that although borrowing costs in other European econo- Other high-income 0.0 -1.6 -1.7 mies rise and banks tighten lending conditions due to losses in Developing 0.0 -1.7 -1.8 the directly affected economies, adequate steps are taken in Low-income 0.0 -1.4 -1.5 response to the crisis to ensure that banking-sector stress in Middle-income 0.0 -1.7 -1.8 Europe is contained and does not spread to the rest of the high- Oil exporting 0.0 -1.8 -2.0 income world. However, uncertainty and concerns about po- Oil importing 0.0 -1.7 -1.7 tential further credit squeezes does induce increased precau- 3 Regions tionary savings among both firms and households worldwide. East Asia & Pacific 0.0 -1.8 -1.8 Overall, GDP in the Euro Area falls by 1.7 percent relative to Europe & Central Asia 0.0 -1.8 -1.9 baseline, and by a similar margin in the rest of the high-income Latin America & Caribbean 0.0 -1.7 -2.0 world. Developing countries are also hit. Direct trade and Middle-East & North Africa 0.0 -1.3 -1.6 tighter global financial conditions plus increases in domestic South Asia 0.0 -1.7 -1.7 savings by firms and households as a result of the increased Sub-Saharan Africa 0.0 -1.8 -1.6 global uncertainty contribute to a 1.7 percent decline in middle -income GDP relative to baseline in 2012. The decline among Table box 4.2 Impact of a larger crisis also low-income countries (1.4 percent) is slightly less pronounced affecting two large Euro Area economies reflecting weaker financial and trade integration. Weaker 2011 2012 2013 global growth contributes to a 10-12 percent decline in oil (% deviation of GDP from baseline) prices and a 2.5 percent drop in internationally-traded food World 0.0 -3.8 -4.3 commodity prices. High-income countries 0.0 -3.8 -4.3 European Union 0.0 -5.6 -6.0 In a second scenario (box table 4.2) the freezing up of credit is Other high-income 0.0 -3.1 -3.6 assumed to spread to two larger Euro Area economies (equal to Developing 0.0 -3.6 -4.2 around 30 percent of Euro Area GDP), generating similar de- Low-income 0.0 -2.9 -3.4 clines in the GDP and imports of those economies. Repercus- Middle-income 0.0 -3.6 -4.2 sions to the Euro Area, global financial systems and precau- Oil exporting 0.0 -3.5 -4.4 tionary savings are much larger because the shock is 6 times Oil importing 0.0 -3.6 -4.0 larger.4 Euro Area GDP falls by 6.0 percent relative to the Regions baseline in 2013. GDP impacts for other high-income countries East Asia & Pacific 0.0 -3.7 -4.1 (-3.6 percent of GDP) and developing countries (-4.2 percent ) Europe & Central Asia 0.0 -4.4 -5.2 are less severe but still enough to push them into a deep reces- Latin America & Caribbean 0.0 -3.0 -3.8 sion. Overall, global trade falls by 2.6 percent (7.5 percent rela- Middle-East & North Africa 0.0 -3.1 -4.4 tive to baseline) and oil prices by 24 percent (5 percent for South Asia 0.0 -3.5 -3.9 food). Sub-Saharan Africa 0.0 -3.7 -3.7 Source: World Bank. 16 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text With these caveats in mind, these simulations Figure 12 Most developing countries have modest suggest that if there were a major deterioration in debt levels conditions, GDP in developing countries could High-Income Debt to GDP ratio be much (4.2 percent) weaker than in the East Asia & Pacif ic Japan 250 baseline. Moreover, unlike 2008/09, global Europe & Central ASia growth is not expected to bounce back as quickly Latin America & Caribbean Middle-East & North Af rica 200 because economies enter into this crisis in much South Asia weaker positions than in 2008/09. They have Sub-Saharan Af rica much less fiscal and monetary policy space 150 (especially high-income countries) with which to Eritrea Ireland Italy offset the collapse in demand and to bailout USA 100 banks and other financial institutions that may Cape Verde find themselves in trouble. 50 Lesotho Developing countries are more 0 vulnerable than in 2008 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 Government deficit % of GDP Whatever the actual outcomes for the world Source: World Bank Debt Reporting System. economy in 2012 and 2013 several factors are clear. First, growth in high-income countries is during the first decade of this millennium may going to be weak as they struggle to repair become much more difficult to attain in the damaged financial sectors and badly stretched second, and vulnerabilities that remained hidden fiscal balance sheets. Developing countries will during the boom period may become visible and have to search increasingly for growth within the require policy action. developing world, a transition that has already begun but is likely to bring with it challenges of The remainder of this report examines some of its own. Should conditions in high-income these potential vulnerabilities and attempts to countries deteriorate and a second global crisis offer some policy advice for developing materializes, developing countries will find countries to help prepare for what is likely to be themselves operating in a much weaker global a weaker global economy going forward, and economy, with much less abundant capital, less what potentially could be a second major global vibrant trade opportunities and weaker financial recession. support for both private and public activity. Under these conditions prospects and growth rates that seemed relatively easy to achieve Figure 13 Developing countries have much less fiscal space than in 2008, partly for cyclical reasons 43% of developing countries have government deficit of 4% of GDP or more in 2011, vs 18% in 2007 Percent of developing countries percent 10.0 40 Output gap 8.0 Real GDP growth 35 2007 Potential GDP growth 2011 30 6.0 25 4.0 20 2.0 15 10 0.0 5 -2.0 0 -15 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 More -4.0 Government balance (% of GDP) 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Source: World Bank 17 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 5 Structural budget balances Fluctuations in the business cycle and external factors such as commodity prices can have a significant impact on a country’s fiscal position. In developing countries, tax revenues vary significantly with the business cycle, rising when economic activity is buoyant or commodity prices are high. In similar, but reverse fashion, expenditures (unemployment and social security related) tend to rise when activity is low. Indeed, during the boom year 2007 developing countries’ fiscal revenues increased by nearly 26 percent in U.S. dollar terms, only to fall by 10 percent in 2009 during the recession. The structural budget balance (or cyclically adjusted budget balance) attempts to provide a sense of what the budget balance would be if GDP were equal to its underlying trend. By definition, estimates of structural budget balances are subject to significant imprecision, partly because they rely on estimates of potential output (itself sub- ject to significant estimation error) and partly because isolating the cyclical component of government revenues and expenditures in a constantly changing policy environment is very difficult. The estimates of structural budget balance presented here are based on World Bank estimates of potential output, which project developing country potential growth of around 5½ – 6 percent during 2011/13 (World Bank, 2010) buoyed by strong productivity growth and fixed investment growth of around 7 – 8½ percent. According to these estimates, cyclical revenue in developing countries peaked at 2.1 percent of GDP in 2007, but fell to about -0.6 in 2009 – a total cyclical fiscal revenue swing of nearly 3 percent of GDP within two years. This was mostly related to developing country output gaps declining from +3.5 percent in 2007 to -1.2 percent in 2009 for the 125 countries with fiscal data. Overall, and reflecting that developing country output gaps are close to zero, the structurally adjusted fiscal bal- ance of developing countries in 2011 is estimated to be roughly equal to the actual budget balance. But there is significant divergence among the regions’ estimated budget balances in calendar 2011 (box figure 5.1). In high - income countries, the estimated cyclical revenue component is relatively large and negative, reflecting the still large output gaps observed in many of these economies. Fiscal deficits among commodity exporters (and countries with large subsidies on commodity consumption) are sensitive to fluctuations in commodity prices. Turner (2006) uses estimates of a real-income gap (or the output gap adjusted for terms of trade effects) that adjusts government revenues and expenditures for abnormally high/low commodity prices as well as the business cycle. Such a measure assumes that much of the run up in commodity prices since 2005 was temporary. As a result, it ascribes a larger share of increased government revenues to cycli- cal forces and results in higher structural deficits than the more traditional measure that is retained here. Box figure 5.1 Cyclical surplus in 2007 has disappeared, although results by region differ widely percent of GDP percent of GDP 2.0 4.0 3.0 0.0 2.0 -2.0 1.0 -4.0 0.0 -6.0 Actual budget balance -1.0 Cyclical component Developing countries: Output gap -8.0 Structural budget balance -2.0 Developing countries: Cyclical revenue -3.0 -10.0 G7 countries High-income Developing East Asia & Europe & Latin America Middle East & South Asia Sub-Saharan 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 countries Pacific Central Asia & Caribbean N. Africa Africa Source: World Bank. 18 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Conditions today are less propitious for Nevertheless, fiscal positions in developing developing countries than in 2008 countries have deteriorated markedly since 2008. In particular, government balances have fallen One of the more positive elements of the by two or more percent of GDP in almost 44 recession of 2008/9 was the speed with which percent of developing countries in 2012 (figure developing countries (other than those in Central 13). As a result, developing countries have much and Eastern Europe) exited the crisis. Indeed, by less fiscal space available to respond to a new 2010, 51 percent of developing countries had crisis. regained levels of activity close to or even above estimates of their potential output). To a large extent the reduced fiscal space reflects the fact that in 2007 many countries were at the This was in stark contrast to many high-income peak of a cyclical boom that had boosted fiscal countries, where, even now, GDP remains well revenues above normal rates. As a result, fiscal below the levels that might have been expected deficits were smaller by about 2 percent of GDP had pre-crisis trends continued. The good than they would have been had activity been in performance partly reflects the healthy fiscal, line with underlying potential. Now most current account and reserves positions with developing countries are much closer to normal which most developing countries entered the levels of output, and this cyclical windfall has crisis, which allowed most to absorb a large disappeared. external shock without serious domestic dislocation (see Didier, Hevia, and Schmukler, Fiscal balances have not deteriorated by the 2011). whole (windfall) amount because policy reforms and high commodity prices have benefitted fiscal Today fiscal conditions are still generally better balances. In most regions structural fiscal in developing countries than in high-income balances (the balance that would be observed if countries (figure 12). Only 27 countries for demand was just equal to potential GDP) have which comprehensive data exist, have fiscal neither increased nor decreased appreciably (box deficits in excess of 5 percent of GDP, and while 5). 14 have gross debt to GDP ratios in excess of 75 percent, only 3 countries (Eritrea, Egypt and Europe and Central Asia and South Asia are Lebanon) combine a deficit in excess of 5 exceptions in this regard. In Europe and Central percent of GDP and a gross debt to GDP ratio in Asia the policy reforms necessitated by the very excess of 75 percent of GDP in 2011. large shock that the region encountered in 2008/9 resulted in a 3.0 percent of GDP reduction in structural deficits, from -3 to 0 Table 4 Impact on fiscal balance of a fall in com- percent of GDP. In contrast, a sharp increase in modity prices like that observed in the 2008/09 crisis fiscal spending in South Asia contributed to a (change in fiscal balance percent of GDP) 3.1 percent deterioration in structural budget 2012 balances to -8.0 percent of GDP in 2011. World -0.1 High commodity prices have also boosted High income countries 0.4 government revenues and served to keep deficits Developing countries -1.0 low. For oil exporting developing countries, the Oil exporting -4.3 increase in commodity prices since 2005 has Oil importing 0.4 improved government balances by an average of East Asia and Pacific 0.7 2.5 percent of GDP, among metal exporters the Europe and Central Asia -2.9 improvement has been of the order of 2.9 Latin America and the Caribbean -2.4 percent of GDP, while for non-oil non-metals Middle East and North Africa -4.8 commodity exporters the improvement has been South Asia 0.3 much less pronounced. Sub-Saharan Africa -4.0 Independent of whether fluctuations in Source: World Bank. commodity revenues (and subsidy expenditures) 19 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Table 5 Countries with large funding requirements may Figure 14 Countries with high levels of short- or matur- be vulnerable to a tightening of credit conditions 5 ing long-term debt are at risk External Financing Needs Projections for 2012 Current Philippines Account Debt Paraguay Nicaragua Deficit Repayment EFN Moldova (share of (share of GDP) (share of GDP) Uruguay Guatemala Lebanon 20.6 14.5 35.1 India Nicaragua 16.3 5.6 21.9 Vietnam Albania 11.7 9.6 21.3 Peru Short-term debt 2012 Belarus (%GDP) Jamaica 9.8 11.3 21.1 Macedonia,… Maturing medium and long Georgia 12.7 8.2 20.9 Georgia term debt (%GDP) El Salvador Turkey 9.8 9.2 19.0 Turkey Lao PDR 14.0 4.7 18.7 Albania Malaysia Guyana 10.6 7.8 18.4 Chile Belarus 10.5 7.7 18.2 Ukraine Jamaica Romania 4.5 13.5 18.0 Kazakhstan Moldova 12.1 5.7 17.8 Romania Latvia 0.4 17.2 17.6 Lithuania Lebanon Armenia 12.7 4.9 17.6 Latvia Bulgaria -2.0 18.6 16.6 Bulgaria Lithuania 2.3 14.1 16.4 0 5 10 15 20 Ukraine 5.4 10.9 16.3 Panama 12.3 3.2 15.6 Source: World Bank, Debt Reporting system. Mauritania 11.2 3.9 15.1 Macedonia, FYR 5.1 7.8 12.9 Jordan 8.5 4.0 12.5 Financial vulnerabilities Tanzania 9.1 3.0 12.2 El Salvador 3.8 8.2 12.0 The contagion of risk aversion from a few well Dominican Republic 8.2 3.4 11.6 defined high-spread, high-income European Vanuatu 6.7 4.9 11.5 countries to developing countries and even to Vietnam 4.9 6.6 11.5 core Euro Area countries since August 2011 has Chile 0.4 10.9 11.3 Kyrgyz Republic 6.9 3.7 10.6 changed the game for developing countries. As Ghana 7.0 3.4 10.4 noted above, capital flows to developing Tunisia 5.8 4.4 10.2 countries have declined sharply and risk premia Peru 2.7 7.3 10.0 on both their private and sovereign debt have increased – raising borrowing costs. Developing country external financing needs are defined as the current account deficit (assumed to equal its 2011 share Tighter financial conditions could make of GDP times projected nominal GDP in 2012), plus sched- uled payments on short-term and longer-term debt to private financing current account and government creditors. deficits much more difficult Source: World Bank Should risk aversion escalate further, international capital flows could decline even are included in the cyclical or structural deficit, more, forming a binding constraint on the if commodity prices were to fall then fiscal balance of payments of some countries, conditions in exporting countries would potentially freezing some governments out of deteriorate rapidly. Simulations suggest that if capital markets and even threatening the fiscal commodity prices were to fall as they did in the sustainability of some heavily indebted 2008/09 crisis, fiscal balances in oil exporting developing countries by raising borrowing countries could deteriorate by more than 4 costs.5 percent of GDP. Impacts in metals exporting countries could also be large, with some regional As a whole, the external financing needs of impacts exceeding 4 percent of GDP (table 4). developing countries have risen slightly since the 2008/9 financial crisis from an ex ante estimate 20 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text of $1.2 trillion (7.6 percent of GDP) in 2009 to Figure 15 Countries exposed to external financing risks $1.3 trillion (7.9 percent of GDP) in 2012.6 This apparent stability masks a situation where all regions, except South Asia, have reduced their 100 Short-term Debt /FX reserves 2011 (%) Montenegro external financing needs as a share of GDP since 90 Belarus Turkey 2008. South Asia’s estimated external financing 80 requirements have increased from 5.8 percent to 70 Chile 8.4 percent, mainly because of a sharp rise in 60 Egypt Romania Jamaica India’s external debt in 2011. As in the 2008/9 50 Lithuania crisis, Eastern Europe and Central Asia remains 40 Latvia Brazil South Africa the most vulnerable developing region, with 30 Peru Georgia Sri Lanka Kenya external financing needs on the order of 17 20 Ukraine Moldova percent of GDP. Several countries in the region 10 Jordan have high current account deficits as well as 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 private debt coming due in 2012. CA Deficit-Net FDI flows ratio (2011 projections ) Source: World Bank. Estimated financing requirements for 2012 exceed 10 percent of GDP in some 30 developing countries (table 5).7 In the baseline become difficult to maintain. Twenty-five scenario, the financing of that debt is unlikely to developing countries have short-term debt and pose a problem for most countries, coming in the long-term debt repayment obligations to private relatively stable form of FDI, or remittances. For sector equal to 5 or more percent of their GDP others, however, a significant proportion will (figure 14). Should financing conditions tighten have to be financed from historically more and these debts cannot be refinanced, countries volatile sources (short-term debt, new bond could be forced to cut sharply either into reserves issuances, equity inflows).8 or domestic demand in order to make ends meet.9 If international financial market conditions Risks are particularly acute for countries like deteriorate significantly, such financing might Turkey that combine large current account Box 6 Domestic bonds — an imperfect hedge against capital flow reversals? Developing countries are increasingly turning to domestic bond markets for funding (see World Bank, 2011B). While this reduces their exposure to currency risk, it does not necessarily make them less exposed to a reversal in capital flows. More than 25 percent of the domestic bonds sold in Peru, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Africa and Mexico (foreign holdings of local government bonds in Mexico have surged because of their inclusion in interna- tional bond indexes, such as the WBGI — normally a relatively stable source of funding) were bought by foreign- ers (Table B6.1). Should foreigners lose confidence in the local issue, or be forced by losses elsewhere in their portfolio to sell these bonds – there could be significant adverse effects for the countries involved – including for domestic bond yields, government financing costs, investment and currency stability. According to JP Morgan fig- ures, EM bond funds received $44.8 billion of inflows in 2011, down from $80 billion in 2010, mostly due to sharp decline in local-currency bonds–partly contrib- Box table B6.1. Foreign bonds holdings as a percentage of out- uting to the depreciation of currencies described standing local government bonds earlier. Foreign selling has been particularly sharp in Latin America, with Brazil posting large outflows in the third quarter of 2011. By the same token, firms that rely on foreign investment in local stock markets may also be exposed to a deterioration in foreign investor sentiment or by an externally generated need to deleverage – particularly in cases where local markets are relatively illiquid. Indeed, emerging market equities have declined by 8.5 percent since recent peaks, much more than the 4.2 per- cent observed in high-income equity markets. 21 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 7 The Banking system and the transmission of deleveraging pressures The transmission of a crisis can occur through several financial channels. Increased risk aversion raises the cost of debt, and decreases its supply. To the extent that high-income banks are forced through losses in their portfolio (or regulatory changes) to rebuild their capital stock they may engage in de-leveraging – either by calling or not re- newing loans (thereby reducing loans to capital ratios), or by selling assets or issuing new equity (thereby raising capital). In the current crisis, high-income banks have already engaged in a significant degree of deleveraging. Although the large and ill-defined nature of the shadow banking sector makes this process difficult to quantify, European banks do appear to be decreasing their loan books (by 2.5% y-o-y in the case of Spain). In the U.S., loan books have started to grow once again after falling 1.7 percent last year. While given the excesses of the boom period, an orderly deleveraging of high-income banks is desirable, a too rapid or fire-sale deleveraging process could have serious implications for developing countries. In general, developing countries with large shares of bank debt, either short-term debt or maturing longer-term debt are most vulnerable to de-leveraging as non-renewal of loans coming due is a relatively easy mechanism for banks to reduce leveraging. The effect of de-leveraging may also be more acute in economies whose domestic banking systems have close ties with banks in troubled high-income countries. Overall, high-income European banks have $2.4 trillion in foreign claims in the assets of developing countries, which could be called upon in the case of crisis. The bulk of these claims lie in Europe & Central Asia ($633bn or 21 percent of GDP) and Latin America & the Caribbean ($861bn or 16 percent of GDP). Other regions carry less large, but still significant exposures to high-income banks in general (claims on East Asia total $440 billion, Sub- Saharan Africa $190 billion and South Asia $176 billion). The nature of these holdings and vulnerabilities to deleveraging differ across regions and countries. European bank claims are very significant for some African countries, representing more than 45 percent of countries GDP, in the Seychelles (200 percent), Cape Verde (82 percent) and Mozambique (45 percent). In Latin America and the Caribbean, European banks claims are 38 and 21 percent of GDP in Chile and Mexico. Despite these claims, banking systems in these countries are operated independently of their mother companies through subsidiaries, with their loan books fully funded domestically (loan to deposit ratios of close to or below 100 percent). Moreover, some countries (e.g. Mexico and Brazil) have regulations limiting the amount of inter- company loans between parent and daughter banks and limiting the ability of parent banks to reduce daughter bank’s capital below prudential levels. As a result, the financial systems in these countries would not be exces- sively exposed to a sharp reduction of inflows of funding from European banks (except through the trade finance channel). As long as this kind of deleveraging occurs gradually, domestic banks and non-European banks should be able to take up the slack – as appears to be taking place in Brazil. Banking in Eastern Europe and Central Asia is more exposed to deleveraging because many daughter banks in the region are heavily dependent on cross-border lending from their parents rather than domestic depositors to support their loan portfolios. In contrast, foreign owned banks in Latin America tend to have strong deposit bases and do not depend on continuing inflows from their parents to maintain lending levels. In Europe & Central Asia loan –to– deposit ratios exceed 100 percent by a large margin in several countries: Latvia (240 percent), Lithuania (129 per- cent) and Russia (121 percent). Should inflows from parent banks be cut off, and local sources not found daughter banks in these countries could be forced to dramatically reduce lending in order to maintain capital adequacy re- quirements. The situation is made more problematic because loan portfolios of banks in the region are not healthy, with non-performing loan ratios in excess of 15 percent in several countries. In a worrying development, Austrian bank supervisors have instructed Austrian banks to limit future lending in their central and eastern European subsidiaries — while several high-income European banks have independently announced their intention to reduce operations in Europe and Central Asia. deficits, high short-term debt ratios and low vulnerable to a freezing-up of global credit. reserves (which have been falling in recent Other countries also have significant months and now represent less than 4 months of vulnerabilities. Jamaica, for example, is at risk import cover). By this measure but to a lesser since it finances its current account deficit with extent, Belarus and Montenegro are also flows other than FDI, which tend to be volatile. 22 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 16 Outstanding claims of banks in high-spread European countries Eu ropean Banks' Foreign Claims S hare of European Banks in (2011 Q2, %GDP ) Total Banking Assets of Selected EMs (%) Senegal Mexico Brazil Spain Dominica Argentina Turkey Italy Chile Malaysia South Africa Poland Hungary Greece Morocco Chile Mexico Mozambique Austria-France- Serbia Albania Germany Bulgaria Lithuania Bulgaria Macedonia, FYR Romania Albania Latvia Romania 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: World Bank, BIS Source: Citibank. If global credit does freeze up, firms in and Bankers' Association for Finance and Trade economies such as Albania, Chile and Egypt surveys indicate that larger banks are tightening with high levels of short-term debt could be lending standards and some of the European forced to cut activity back if existing loans are Banks that have suffered the largest declines in not renewed (figure 15). equity values are particularly active in trade finance. Indications are that trade finance is already being squeezed as European banks deleverage In the event of a significant deterioration in global conditions, trade finance could freeze up. The sensitivity of short-term finance to changes The evidence from 2008 is mixed in this regard, in financing conditions could pose problems for with some authors (Mora & Powers, 2009; trade. A significant portion of short-term debt is Levechenko, Lewis and Tesar, 2010) suggesting thought to reflect trade finance (e.g. as much as that the large observed drop in trade finance in 75 percent of Chinese short-term debt is reported 2008/09 was mainly due to reduced trade to be for trade-finance). Since 2010, there has volumes, rather than a drop in trade finance been a 20 percent increase in short-term debt having caused the decline in global trade. On the taken out by developing countries — with the other hand, there is strong anecdotal evidence of total now equal to $1.1 trillion or 4.8 percent of trade finance having become more scarce developing-country GDP — or 15.7 percent of suggesting that perhaps there was a drying up in total developing country exports. trade finance availability, but that trade volumes fell more quickly so that for most firms reduced Press and market participants report that availability of trade finance was not a binding conditions for trade finance are already constraint. tightening. In what may be a permanent change in behavior, commercial banks appear to be Banking-sector linkages could be another rationalizing their participation in trade finance source of vulnerability, notably for Europe and and concentrating on larger markets. Such a Central Asia trend, to the extent it is occurring, would be to the detriment of smaller markets and particularly Banking sector linkages remain strong between smaller and newer enterprises that lack longer- several high-spread Euro area countries and term relationships with trade partners that might developing countries, and their solvency also lead to inter-company solutions that could represents a risk to other European banks substitute for bank intermediated finance. Others through various interlinkages (see box 6 for a banks are cutting trade finance exposures as part discussion of the relative merits of domestic of a broader move toward reducing loan books versus foreign capital markets and box 7 for the (see deleveraging discussion, box 7). Recent IMF 23 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text vulnerabilities associated with reliance on Figure 17 Direct trade exposures to high-spread Euro- foreign banks). Currently, funding pressures in pean countries are largest in the Middle-East & North the European banking sector remain high due to Africa and in Europe and Central Asia concerns about exposure to stressed sovereigns Percent of merchandise exports destined to Europe (figure 16). Several banks have been squeezed 45 out of the dollar interbank market, and Euribor- 40 Rest of EU High-spread EU Eonia spreads (a measure of banks’ willingness 9.5 35 to take on the debt of other banks) have risen to 30 7.3 16.3 levels last observed in the early days of the 25 financial crisis of 2008 (see earlier figure 11). 6.2 20 4.2 15 4.8 Among developing regions, the most direct exposures to high-income European banks are in 10 Europe and Central Asia and in Latin America 5 — reflecting both inter-regional lending and 0 Latin America & East Asia & South Asia Sub-Saharan Europe & Central Middle East & ownership patterns. As of 2011Q2, total foreign Caribbean Pacific Africa Asia North Africa claims by European banks in developing Sources: U.N. COMTRADE (WITS), World Bank. countries was $2.4 trillion ($1.4 trillion for Euro Area banks), with two-thirds of these claims in and Central Asia would be affected, but not in Latin America and developing Europe. On the Latin America. ownership-side of the ledger, key European banks account for large shares of domestic bank Indeed, Austrian Banks have been advised by assets in several developing economies (e.g. domestic regulators to limit future lending to Spanish banks own over 25 percent of bank their regional subsidiaries. Depending on how assets in Mexico and Chile, while Portuguese binding this directive proves to be it could banks account for almost one-third of banking significantly tighten financial conditions in assets Angola and Mozambique). Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Romania— countries where Austrian banks are very active. These cross-border relationships take many forms, ranging from autonomous subsidiaries (with their own locally-funded capital and asset base) to more traditional branch operations and in most their operations are subject to host- country prudential regulation that includes Figure 18 Second and third-round trade effects likely to safeguards against many forms of capital dominate initial impacts repatriation. While such rules should limit the Impact of a 1 percent decline in household demand in high-income Europe (% of exports) scope for a wholesale repatriation of assets in the 0 event of a crisis in the home country, they are -0.1 unlikely to prevent a significant tightening of -0.2 capital conditions in host countries if parent -0.3 banks run into financial difficulty. -0.4 -0.5 Banking in Europe & Central Asia is likely more -0.6 exposed to European deleveraging because First-round effects -0.7 Second-round effects daughter banks in several countries are -0.8 -0.9 dependent on cross-border flows from parent -1 banks to service their loan portfolios. In contrast Latin America & Sub-Saharan Carribean Africa Middle East & East Asia Pacific North Africa South Asia Europe & Central Asia in Latin America the loan books of daughter banks are almost entirely covered by local deposits. As a result, if deleveraging in high- Note: First round effects – declines in exports directly attrib- income countries causes them to cease funding utable to reduced European imports; Second round effects – difference between total decline in exports and first round new loans in daughter banks, lending in Europe effects. Source: World Bank simulations using GTAP. 24 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 19 Estimated declines in remittances in the event of deterioration in global conditions Percent change in remittances (from baseline) Change in remittances (from baseline), % of GDP Europe and Central Asia Tajikistan Kyrgyz Republic East Asia and Pacific Nicaragua Moldova Latin America and Caribbean Lesotho Sub-Saharan Africa El Salvador Severe crisis Samoa Severe crisis Middle-East and North Africa Gambia, The Moderate crisis Moderate crisis Nepal South Asia Armenia -10.0 -9.0 -8.0 -7.0 -6.0 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 Source: World Bank. Indeed, Austrian Banks have been advised by are taken into account, negative impacts would domestic regulators to limit future lending to be more widely felt. Overall, large trading areas their regional subsidiaries. Depending on how such as East Asia and the Pacific would feel the binding this directive proves to be it could largest hits to overall GDP as the initial decline significantly tighten financial conditions in in high-income European demand for the exports Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Romania— of other countries (including Europe and Central countries where Austrian banks are very active. Asia but also the United States and Japan) would cause the imports of these countries from other Developing countries with close trade regions such as East Asia & Pacific to decline. linkages to crisis prone high-income Ultimately these knock-on effects would be countries may be at risk larger than the initial direct trade effects (figure 18). A significant slowdown in import demand, such as might accompany a market-induced credit In addition to trade effects, a significant cycle in event in high-income Europe, would initially high-income Europe would tend to reduce impact hardest those economies with the closest incomes in host-countries for developing world trade ties and those countries exporting the most migrants, and, as a result, reduce remittances, demand-elastic commodities (see below for a which, in addition to combating poverty, are in discussion of commodity impacts). If the crisis is many countries a critical source of foreign concentrated among high-spread countries, it is currency. Assuming a cycle of the size of the likely to hit exporters in the Middle-East and small crisis scenario outlined above, remittance North African economies (whole economy flows to developing countries would decline by impacts would not be so severe because the non- 3.1 percent in US dollar terms in 2012 relative to oil exports are a relatively small share of overall the baseline. In a severe crisis scenario, GDP) most directly because of strong trade ties remittance flows to developing countries could with high-spread European economies (figure fall by as much as 6.3 percent, with declines of 7 17). Were the wider euro area to become percent or more in Europe and Central Asia embroiled, the impact on the exports of all (figure 19) and several other developing regions. regions would be significantly larger, with Remittance declines as a percent of GDP would developing Europe and Central Asia (Romania, be biggest in countries receiving large levels of Lithuania and Latvia among others) and Sub- remittances, including Tajikistan, Kyrgyz Saharan Africa (Cape Verde, Cameroon, Niger Republic, Nicaragua, Moldova, Lesotho and among others) facing the largest direct Honduras among others. Even with these large exposures. projected declines relative to the baseline, overall remittance flows to the developing world would While initial impacts in these regions would be remain almost flat in US dollar terms even in the large, once second, third and fourth-round effects more serious scenario. This reflects the stability 25 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Box 8 Commodity prices expected to ease in the context of weaker global growth The slowing of growth in the second half of 2011 has already resulted in a significant easing of commodity prices, with metals and minerals prices — the most cyclically sensitive group of commodities — having given up all of their gains since 2010. Oil prices have also eased, although not as much, and are currently at levels observed in December 2010 — about 35 percent higher than in January 2010. Food prices have also eased in recent months (down 14 percent since their February 2011 peak). Looking forward, given the weaker growth projected for the global economy, commodity prices are expected to continue to ease in 2012 — although at a slower pace. Overall, metals and mineral prices are projected to decline 6 percent in 2012 relative to the average price in 2011. The price of crude oil (World Bank average) is expected to average $98 per barrel in 2012, down 6 percent from the 2011 average; while food prices are expected to ease about 11 percent. Prospects are, however, uncertain and will be sensitive to both Box figure B8.1 Prospects for Wheat and supply and demand factors. Continued political unrest in the Maize have been improving throughout the Middle East and North Africa could further disrupt oil sup- year plies resulting in higher prices in the short-term — especially Wheat given low stocks and market shortages of light/sweet crude. million tons 700 220 Metals prices are now at levels where high-cost producers Production Stocks (right axis) may shutter capacity so it is unlikely that they will decline 690 210 sharply from current levels, while supply disruptions or an 680 200 uptick in Chinese demand (China currently consumes more than half of the world’s metal production) could cause prices 670 190 to strengthen. Agricultural and (to a lesser extent) metal prices 660 180 will remain sensitive to developments in energy prices. While 650 170 lower energy prices should translate into lower production MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN and final sales prices for food crops, stock-to-use ratios for some food commodities (particularly maize and rice) remain Maize million tons below their 15 year averages and lower prices will mean that 900 150 Production Stocks (right axis) prices will remain sensitive to adverse events (such as policy 880 135 changes and flooding in Thailand). 860 120 Downside risks entail mostly slower demand growth due to 840 105 the deterioration of the debt crisis, especially if it expands to emerging countries where most of the growth in commodity 820 90 demand is occurring. The downside risks apply mainly to 800 75 metals and energy, which are most sensitive to changes in MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN industrial production, and less so to agriculture; the latter, however, may be affected indirectly through energy. Source: US Department of Agriculture. Although prices of wheat and maize eased recently (they declined about 17 percent each from July to December 2011), rice prices were increasing up until recently due to policy factors and the recent flooding in Thailand. They began weakening in December, on news of good crop prospects elsewhere in the region. Globally, markets for wheat and rice are well supplied, while maize stocks remain well below long-term averages. That said the supply outlook for the 2011/12 crop for all three grains has been improving throughout the year (box figure B8.1). Developing countries remain vulnerable producing countries, but reduce them in to developments in commodity markets commodity importing countries. The past six years have driven home the The large commodity price hikes of 2010 had importance of commodity price developments important terms-of-trade effects in many for prospects in developing countries. Strong economies, with income gains of more than 10 commodity prices boost incomes in commodity percent in several oil exporting developing countries, while losses were concentrated among 26 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Figure 20 Large terms of trade effects in 2011 Consistent with historical experience, these Republic of Congo simulations suggest that were commodity prices Equatorial Guinea Angola to fall sharply in the context of a crisis, then Gabon Oman Kuwait incomes of major exporters would be hit hardest, Saudi Arabia Azerbaijan while the benefits for importers would be more Moldova Cambodia Kenya Oil exporters diluted. Oil exporting countries/ regions would Eritrea Lebanon Oil importers be hardest hit, while large food and fuel Jordan Lesotho Seychelle importing regions would take the largest Sub-Saharan Africa Middle East & North Africa benefit.10 Europe & Central Asia Latin America & Caribbean East Asia & Pacific Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America & Caribbean Major winners in these scenarios include China, Europe & Central Asia East Asia & Pacific South Asia Nepal and Uruguay (because oil prices decline Middle East & North Africa more than the prices of Uruguay’s exports), -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 while losers are concentrated among the commodity exporting nations of the Latin Source: Thomson Datastream & World Bank. America, Sub-Saharan Africa and Middle-East and North Africa regions. Oil exporters in these heavy food and oil importing regions (figure 20). regions should see the biggest swings in their At the regional level, the biggest percentage external accounts, with Venezuela, Russia and gains (10.6 percent of GDP) were among Sub- Angola among the most exposed. Saharan African oil exporters — reflecting the size of the oil sector in their overall economies. Among the larger developing country The biggest losses were among the oil- and food- commodity exporters, Brazil and particularly importing countries of the Middle-East and Argentina, are vulnerable to agricultural price North Africa, whose real incomes were reduced swings. Brazil and South Africa are major by 1.5 percent of GDP. South Asia, which is exporters of iron ore, while Chile and Zambia largely self-sufficient in food, registered a 2.0 are also significantly exposed to metal (copper) percent deterioration – mainly because of high prices. With Chinese demand the key driver of oil prices. global demand outturns in these markets, prices would depend importantly on Chinese growth Looking forward, commodity prices are and the commodity-intensity of any stimulus expected to ease (see box 8). On the basis of plan introduced in that country. In 2008/09 these projections, regional terms of trade effects stimulus targeted infrastructure development can be expected to be modest. However as the which is relatively metals intensive activity, a past 10 years have illustrated, commodity prices more services or safety-net oriented program can be volatile, especially in the face of sharp would likely not affect metals demand to the fluctuations in economic activity. same extent. South Africa would also be particularly vulnerable to changes in platinum In the case of the 2008/09 crisis, energy prices and gold prices, with limited offsets from lower fell by 60 percent, metals prices by 57 percent oil prices due to the relatively low weight of oil and food prices by 31 percent between August in total imports. 2008 and their first-quarter 2009 lows— although all three indexes rejoined earlier levels Negative impacts could be larger in so far as the relatively quickly as the global economy model assumes that declines in current account recovered. balances and government revenues can be financed. If these declines occur in the context of Simulations suggest that a 4 percentage point a global crisis, this assumption may not be met decline in global growth (broadly consistent with and domestic demand in these countries could be the large crisis of scenario 2) could be expected forced to contract even further. to result in a 24 percent decline in energy and a 5 percent decline in food prices, mainly reflecting As discussed earlier, commodity prices also play the impact of lower energy prices on production a major role in determining inflation rates in costs. developing countries because the share of food 27 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text and energy in overall consumption tends to be the global economy or support the financial much higher than in high-income countries. system to the same degree as they did in Indeed, rapidly rising food and energy prices in 2008/09. While developing countries are in the second half of 2010 and persistent strength of better shape than high-income countries, they these prices in 2011 contributed to a sharp too have fewer resources available (especially if acceleration in developing country inflation in international capital is not available to support 2010 and into the first half of 2011. deficit spending). No country and no region will escape the consequences of a serious downturn. Overall, internationally traded food prices are projected to ease further in 2012 as very tight Importantly, because this second crisis will come stock conditions ease (box 8). However, grain on the heels of the earlier crisis, for any given stocks are low, making prices vulnerable to level of slowdown its impact at the firm and supply disruptions. Should international food household level is likely to be heavier. In 2008 prices surge, developing country inflation is developing countries went into the crisis in very likely to pick up once again, putting monetary strong cyclical positions (GDP was on average 3 policy under pressure even as economic growth percent higher than potential), now they are at is slowing. best in a neutral position. Like national governments, firms and households are likely to In addition to these vulnerabilities that stem be less resilient than in 2008, because the earlier from the international environment, many crisis has depleted the cushions and buffers that developing countries remain vulnerable to local allowed them to cope so well last time. food shortages, when domestic crops fail and countries either cannot afford internationally While the main responsibility for preventing a traded food products or do not have connections global financial crisis rests with high-income to international markets. Indeed, although countries, developing countries have an conditions in the Horn of Africa are improving obligation to support that process both through due to recent rains, the situation there remains a the G-20 and other international fora. grave concern, with crop failure and famine threatening the livelihood of over 13 million Now is not the time to pursue narrow national people. agendas on the global stage — too much is at stake. In this regard, developing (and high- Concluding remarks income) countries could help by avoiding entering into trade disputes and by allowing market prices to move freely. On the one hand, The global economy is at a very difficult developing countries could take steps to ensure juncture. The financial system of the largest that lower international commodity prices are economic bloc in the world is threatened by a passed through more quickly to domestic prices; fiscal and financial crisis that has so far eluded while on the other hand, producers should avoid policymakers’ efforts to contain it. Outside of using their market power to resist market Europe, high-income country growth, though pressures for lower prices. strengthening, remains weak in historical perspective. At the same time some of the largest Faced with the enormous economic forces that and most dynamic developing countries have would be unleashed by an acute crisis, there is entered a slowing phase. little that developing countries can do to avoid being hit. There is, however, much that they can These are not auspicious circumstances, and do to mitigate the effects that a deep crisis might despite the significant measures that have been have domestically. taken, the possibility of a further escalation of the crisis in Europe cannot be ruled out. Should In the immediate term, governments should this happen, the ensuing global downturn is engage in contingency planning to identify likely to be deeper and longer-lasting than the spending priorities, seeking to preserve recession of 2008/2009 because countries do not momentum in pro-development infrastructure have the fiscal and monetary space to stimulate programs and shore up safety net programs. 28 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text Contingencies should include the possibility that relative prices for North Sea, Mediterranean external financing is unavailable or that and West African crudes. Meanwhile Japan commodity prices (and therefore associated has said it will also take concrete steps to government revenues) fall abruptly. reduce its dependency on Iranian oil. Policymakers should also take steps to identify 3. Scenario 1 is modeled as an exogenous 7 and address vulnerabilities in domestic banking percent decline in consumer demand and a sectors through stress-testing. Risks here include 25 percent decline in investment in 2 small the possibility that an acute deleveraging in high high-income European countries, over the -income countries spills over into domestic 2012-2013 period (with respect to the markets either as a cutting off of wholesale baseline). The effects on consumer and funding or asset sales. In addition, in the context investment demand are drawn as the of a major global recession the balance sheets of midpoint between the median and mean local banks could come under pressure as firms values derived from an analysis of financial and households capacity to service existing debt crises over the past 20 years. Confidence levels deteriorate. This could be a particular effects in other countries are modeled as a problem in economies that have gone through a 0.75 percentage point increase in household very rapid credit expansion in recent years. savings and a 1.5 percent decrease in investment growth, with impacts doubled in From a longer-term perspective, countries may high-income Europe, and halved in low want to take the time now to identify new drivers income countries (due to weak global of growth so that post-crisis investment and progress is concentrated in the sectors that are financial integration). most likely to succeed over the longer-term. 4. Scenario two builds on scenario 1, by Finally, governments may wish to address long- assuming that two larger European standing and tough policy challenges. Often it is economies are also frozen out of capital only in serious crises that the political will can markets and subjected to a 7 percent cut in be mustered to put through difficult and consumer depending and a 25 percent fall in unpopular (but necessary) reforms. investment. Confidence effects in other countries are now modeled as a 1 percentage Notes point increase in household savings and a 2.5 percent decrease in investment growth, 1. Econometrically, a 1 percent decline from with impacts doubled again in high-income trend growth of industrial production will Europe, and halved in low income countries cause a more—than 9 percent decline in (due to weak global financial integration). metals and minerals prices. The like 5. Abiad and others (2009) in a study of 88 elasticity for food prices is much smaller financial crises in OECD countries over the (0.7 percent). See discussion in the past half century found quasi permanent commodity annex for more information. GDP effects of up to 7 percent of GDP as 2. In reaction to concerns about Iran’s nuclear compared with pre-crisis growth trends up to program, the United States has passed a law 7 years following a financial crisis. that will prohibit foreign financial 6. Developing countries’ external financing institutions that do business with Iran’s needs, are defined as the current-account central bank or other financial institutions deficit (assumed to be a constant at its 2011 from conducting financial operations in the level as a percent of GDP) plus scheduled United States. At the same time the principal payments on private debt (based on European Union (EU) reached a preliminary information from the World Bank’s Debtor agreement on an Iranian crude oil embargo Reporting System). that would force EU refiners to find alternative sources (for 0.5 mb/d of Iranian 7. Countries with the debt repayment to GDP crude), potentially lifting demand and ratios that are less than three percent are 29 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Main Text excluded from this list. These countries are Policy Research Working Paper. 5637, World mostly aid dependent and their Bank, Washington, DC. vulnerabilities are mostly related to official flows. Levchenko, Andrew, Logan T. Lewis and Linda L. Tesar. 2010. The role of financial factors 8. During the 2008 financial crisis and even in in the trade collapse: a skeptic’s view . Paper 2011, equity and short-term debt flows have downloaded from http://www- reacted rapidly to changing market personal.umich.edu/~ltesar/pdf/LLT_WB.pdf conditions. FDI, aid and remittances flows December 15, 2011. are not immune to such changes but tend to react more slowly and are therefore Mora, Jesse and William M. Powers. 2009. considered to be more stable sources of ―Decline and gradual recovery of global trade finance. financing: U.S. and global perspectives‖. 9. Ex-post rollover-rates depend on both Vox.eu.org article. http://www.voxeu.org/ demand for new loans and supply. In the index.php?q=node/4298. accessed Dec. 15, baseline, the stock of short-term loans is 2011. assumed to remain a constant share of GDP between the beginning and end of the year. Turner, David. 2006. ―Should measures of fiscal For reference, the stock of loans increased stance be adjusted for terms of trade by 40 percent in 2010 and declined by effects?‖. OECD Economics Department almost 30 percent in 2011 as conditions Working Paper. 519. tightened after August. World Bank. 2010. Global Economic Prospects: 10. While swings in oil prices tend to be Finance, Crisis and Growth. World Bank. macroeconomically important for both Washington DC. exporters and importers, swings in metals and mineral prices tend to be more important World Bank. 2011. Food Price Watch. for exporters than importers (because their November, World Bank, Washington DC. share in total import demand and GDP is relatively small). For most countries food World Bank. 2011B. Global Economic Prospects: Finance, Maintaining Progress price swings have larger impacts on internal balances (transferring money from producers amid Turmoil. World Bank. Washington DC. to consumers domestically) rather than external balances because the vast majority of food in mostly all countries is produced and consumed in the same country. Nevertheless, large swings in food prices can have large poverty and domestic inflation effects. References Abiad, Abdul and others. 2009. ―What’s the Damage? Medium-term Output Dynamics After Banking Crises‖. IMF Working Paper. WP/09/245 Didier, Tatiana; Constantino Hevia, and Sergio Schmukler. 2011. ―How Resilient Were Emerging Economies to the Global Crisis?‖ 30 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex Industrial Production Annex Recent economic developments disrupted some supply chains, although the magnitude of the impact is expected to be only a Unique exogenous shocks have affected fraction of that induced by the Tohoku disaster. industrial output throughout the year. The All these shocks and the rebound from them recovery in industrial output growth from the have impacted industrial output growth to soft growth patch in the second half of 2010 was different degrees and had a differentiated impact dampened earlier in 2011 by adverse weather across regions and time (figure IP.1). conditions in Europe and the United States. Just as the impacts of adverse weather conditions Reflecting the confluence of diverging forces were starting to ease, the shock to global supply affecting industrial production, global industrial chains from the Tohoku earthquake depressed output has been moving sideways since the start industrial sector activity at the beginning of the of the year, recording monthly growth in excess second quarter, affecting in particular the auto of 2 percent in May and August, followed by and electronics sector. declines of about 1.2-1.3 percent in June and September and 0.1 percent in October (figure Industrial output growth began to strengthen IP.2). again into the mid-year boosted by restoration of global supply chains and reconstruction Two-speed industrial production growth in high- efforts in Japan post-Tohoku, only to face further income countries. Growth in the industrial sector headwinds as a crisis of confidence engulfed in the United States had proved resilient in the high-income countries in the wake of the U.S. second half of 2011, with growth supported by debt ceiling debate and the surfacing of the Euro revived consumer spending and relatively solid area fiscal crisis. The heightened uncertainty external demand. The relatively weaker pace of related to the sovereign debt concerns in high- growth in the wake of the Tohoku disaster income countries started to shake investors and persisted however, even after the restoration of consumers’ confidence, weighing on the supply chains, with 3m/3m seasonally adjusted industrial sector recovery as consumers delayed annualized rate of growth hovering around 3 purchases of durable goods and businesses drew percent in the second half of 2011. Industrial down stocks. The recent floods in Thailand have output advanced 0.7 percent in October month- Figure IP.1 Industrial production moving sideways Figure IP.2 Broad-based industrial output %ch, 3m/3m saar growth in August gives way to weak perform- 40 ance in September-October 30 30 20 25 10 20 0 Frequency 15 August -10 September October -20 10 Developing, excluding China -30 High-income countries 5 -40 China 0 Jan-07 Oct-07 Jul-08 Apr-09 Jan-10 Oct-10 Jul-11 -4 -1 0 1 4 More month-on-month growth Source: World Bank Source: Datastream, World Bank. 31 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex on-month, supported by a 0.5 percent gain in previous quarter. Growth would have been even manufacturing output on the back of strong weaker were it not for the 0.5 percent and 0.4 increase in motor vehicle output and parts percent expansion in Germany and France. production, but growth dipped to 0.14 percent in November. The performance of the industrial sector in the Euro Area started to deteriorate however as the Industrial output in Japan staged a V-shaped sovereign debt crisis intensified and the latest recovery from the earthquake-induce plunge in industrial sector data suggests a very weak industrial output. GDP posted a solid 5.6 percent fourth quarter. Industrial output declined 4.7 quarter-on-quarter (saar) advance in the third percent in the three months to November in the quarter and industrial output expanded at more Euro Area, with output in Germany down 7.4 than 30 percent annualized rate in the three percent after robust growth in the previous months to August, notwithstanding soft external quarters. Industrial output continued to decline demand, the strength of the yen, and the global sharply in Italy, down close to 12 percent during slump in IT sector. Industrial sector growth the same period. Meanwhile output continue to remained strong through October (expanding 6.5 decline in most high-spread economies. It fell percent 3m/3m saar) and the supply disruptions more than 15 percent in Greece, and more than 7 from the floods in Thailand are expected to have percent in Spain. Due to a particularly weak only a short-lived impact on growth, with the fourth quarter, industrial output in the Euro Area auto sector impacted most severely. Growth in rose a mere 4.1 percent in the first eleven months other high-income countries in East Asia and of the year. Industrial output in Greece declined Pacific has also rebounded from the effects of 8.4 percent year-to-date, while output in Spain the Tohoku supply chain disruptions, and it and Portugal was down 1.2 percent during the appears that the effects of weaker growth in the same period. Germany recorded one of the Euro area have been relatively limited so far and strongest performances in the Euro Area, with that confidence effects following the financial industrial output up 8.3 percent. turmoil since August have also been less pronounced to date. Events in high-income countries and domestic policies have impacted industrial production Overall, after growth decelerated throughout the performance in developing countries. Most first half of 2011, industrial sector performance recent data for the developing countries show a in core euro area countries strengthened generalized slowing across regions, with the somewhat in the third quarter – reflecting a exception of Middle East and North Africa combination of strong growth in July and August where output is rebounding from the disruption and much weaker or even falling growth in associated with the Arab Spring. September. Output in Germany was particularly robust, expanding at 7.2 percent annualized rate In East Asia and Pacific, excluding China, in the third quarter, and somewhat more subdued growth reaccelerated in the three months to in France where it expanded at a 2.3 percent November to 6.4 percent annualized rate, annualized rate. Growth in the industrial sector following a sharp deceleration in the wake of the in core euro countries was supported by Tohoku earthquake. The effects of Tohoku and consumer spending and the post-Tohoku bounce policy tightening has contributed to a back effect. Meanwhile industrial production deceleration in China’s industrial production declined 1.9 percent, 3.6 percent, and 2.8 percent growth starting in the second quarter of 2011, in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, where consumer with growth easing to an average 7 percent spending was affected by falling confidence. annualized growth throughout much of the third Despite a mild reacceleration in industrial output quarter, down from 21 percent growth in the first growth in the third quarter, Euro area GDP quarter. Growth has reaccelerated to around 10.5 growth almost came to a standstill in the third percent 3m/3m annualized rate, as output gained quarter, advancing 0.2 percent relative to the 0.8 percent month-on-month in November, 32 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex notwithstanding the drag on domestic demand Saharan Africa may reflect a pull back from the from some cooling in the housing market. In relatively higher demand for oil and metal and Thailand the disruptions caused by flooding have minerals resources in the first quarter of 2011. brought to a halt the recovery in the industrial sector, with output plunging at a 71.6 percent Industrial activity in South Asia has been annualized rate in the three months to deteriorating for several months, as policy November. tightening and uncertainty about the implementation of proposed regulatory changes Europe and Central Asia, whose industrial sector in India weighed heavily on industrial is most reliant on demand from Europe, started production, which was contracting at a 12 the year strongly, with industrial output percent annualized pace in the three months to expanding at a 17 percent annualized pace, but October. Meanwhile growth Sri Lanka growth has weakened significantly since March, continued at a robust pace, while in Pakistan and output contracted during much of the second industrial output recovered strongly in the third and third quarters, in large part due to a sharp quarter, after a dismal performance earlier in the slowdown in Turkey. Since then industrial year. activity has recovered slightly, with output rising at a 6.8 percent annualized rate in the three Industrial output data for the Middle and North months to November, bolstered by a bounce- Africa are published with a considerable lag. In back in industrial activity in Romania and the aftermath of the political turmoil of the Arab Ukraine. Spring industrial activity in Syria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya has fallen by 10, 17, 17 and 92 Output is also declining in the Latin America percent at its lowest point according to official region, with industrial production contracting at data. Activity surged during the second quarter an accelerated rate through October (3 percent of 2011 as the negative effects of the political annualized rate) following the deceleration of turmoil in Tunisia and Egypt faded and activity activity in the largest economies in the region. regained (and exceeded by more than 15 percent) Monetary policy and credit tightening in pre-Arab Spring levels. Nevertheless Egypt’s conjunction with a stronger currency have industrial output growth relapsed in the third caused industrial production in the largest quarter when growth turned sharply negative, economy to contract starting with May. and in Tunisia, where growth was slightly Weakness in domestic demand that caused negative. Brazil’s GPD to stall in the third quarter also explains the decline in industrial output. Weakening prospects for the industrial Meanwhile growth in Mexico’s industrial output sector has also dipped into negative territory in the three months to October. Given recent volatility in industrial output and the associated difficulties in extracting trend Industrial production in Sub-Saharan Africa, information from recent data, we rely on recent where data is available for only a few countries business surveys to gauge near-term (Angola, Gabon, Ghana, Nigeria, and South developments in industrial output. In addition, Africa) has contracted through most of the uncertainties regarding the magnitude of the second quarter remained relatively flat in the impact of supply-chain disruptions caused by the three months to August. Nigeria has been the Thai floods further complicate the assessment of strongest performer in the region with growth industrial sector outlook. There are indications reflecting rising oil production. Output in South however that these new supply disruptions are Africa, the region’s largest economy started to less damaging to global industrial output than recover, reaching a 15 percent annualized pace the ones caused by the Tohoku earthquake, since in the three months to October. The decline in factories elsewhere in Asia are able to make up industrial output in both Latin America and Sub for some of the lost Thai production. 33 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex The recent business surveys suggest industrial inventory correction in the months ahead if activity will remain weak in the months ahead. external demand does not strengthen. The PMI The readings of the global manufacturing has recovered sharply in December, rising 3.1 purchasing managers index (PMI), down a sharp points to 47.1 but continues to point to 7.7 points as of November from its 56-month contraction in output. The deterioration in peak recorded in February 2011 suggest that business sentiment has been less pronounced in global industrial output has likely contracted in South Korea and Singapore, but sentiment the fourth quarter, notwithstanding the modest remains depressed there as well. In South Korea improvement recorded in December (figure both output and new orders PMIs have declined IP.3). The PMI remains at weak levels, sharply, but other business surveys show a mild indicating that global manufacturing growth is improvement in business sentiment (figure IP.3). expected to remain weak, on weak economic activity in the Euro area, a slowdown in growth Industrial output in the Euro Area is likely have in China in part due to weaker external demand, contracted in the fourth quarter. Indicators for and partly due to cooling in the real estate Euro area industrial production are particularly market (figure IP.4). In addition policy weak, with the PMI for the Euro area sliding tightening and tighter credit conditions further below the 50 no-growth mark for the contributed to a slowing in domestic demand in fourth consecutive month in November (46.4 pts Brazil, while in India policy tightening and nearing the level recorded in July 2009) and uncertainties about the implementation of recovering only slightly to 46.9 in December proposed regulatory changes are dampening (figure IP.4.). Business sentiment is lowest in growth. Greece, Spain, and Italy. Business sentiment as measured by the PMI deteriorated in core Small open economies that are highly countries in November, while those for high- synchronized with global business cycles also spread countries remained stable or inched up suggest that global industrial production growth slightly before improving almost across the will slowdown in coming months. Business board in December (figure IP.5). Business sentiment was depressed in Taiwan, China in sentiment indicators suggests that German November, with the diffusion index down to a industrial output will stall in coming months, depressed 43.9 level, with weak external demand with the PMI index below the 50 no-growth from the U.S. and Japan taking a toll on tech mark for a third consecutive month, in December exports in particular. The high ratio of inventory (figure IP.6). to shipments increases the likelihood of an Figure IP.3 China’s PMI fell below the 50 no - Figure IP.4 Euro area PMI points to recession growth mark points Points, 2m/2m moving average points 70 70 20 65 15 60 60 10 55 5 50 50 0 45 -5 China Global PMI E15 PMI 40 South Korea Taiwan, China 40 -10 Singapore Growth mark 6 months 35 difference (RS) -15 30 30 -20 Mar-09 Aug-09 Jan-10 Jun-10 Nov-10 Apr-11 Sep-11 Jan-05 Mar-06 May-07 Jul-08 Sep-09 Nov-10 Source: World Bank Source: World Bank 34 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex A 3.4 percent negative carry over from the third expected to average about 2 percent in 2012, quarter, lingering weak business sentiment, weak about half the growth pace recorded in 2011. consumer demand and continued fiscal austerity will depress industrial output in the Euro Area in Industrial output growth in Japan is expected to the fourth quarter, and through the first half of be more upbeat next year, although quarterly 2012. Despite a modest recovery in the second growth should decelerate somewhat after the half of 2012 industrial output is expected to speedy and impressive rebound in the aftermath contract in 2012. of the Tohoku disaster (figure IP.7). Several factors will exert opposing pressures. On one In the United States and Japan, the picture is hand increased public sector spending stipulated somewhat more positive. After falling in August in the third supplementary budget, the easing of industrial production in the US picked up in electricity shortages that hampered production September and has increased 0.7 percent in during the course of the summer, and the October, the strongest pace since March, boosted replenishment of depleted auto inventories at by more robust retail sales and solid external Japanese overseas affiliates, and resilient demand. The Institute of Supply Management’s personal consumption will support growth in Manufacturing Purchasing Managers’ Index rose coming months. The supply-chain disruptions to 53.9 by December from 50.8 in October from the Thai floods that have weighed on marking the 29th successive month of growth in growth in the fourth quarter will ease early next manufacturing activity. The supply-chain year, but the strong yen and weakening external disruptions from the Thai floods have weighed demand, in particular from the Euro area will on the U.S. industrial output in the fourth limit growth. One source of weakness for next quarter, with auto manufacturers having already year is subdued growth in the auto sector as announced lower output for November because demand in major export markets, namely the of parts shortages. Indeed industrial production U.S. and Euro area is expected to be weak. advanced only 0.1 percent in November from the previous month. Nevertheless with stocks at Among developing regions the outlook is more relatively low levels and US consumer and upbeat than in high-income countries. Led by business spending remaining resilient amidst China, developing country industrial production financial turmoil elsewhere, manufacturing growth will remain stronger than high-income output is likely to continue increasing in the countries although growth will moderate due to months ahead with growth expected to be in weakness in external demand, and in particular excess of 3.5 percent, in the fourth quarter before weakening in the first half of 2012. Growth is Figure IP.6 Manufacturers’ business sentiment is consistent with weak output growth Figure IP.5 Deterioration in business sentiment Purchasing managers index (PMI), points December, 7-month change, points DI,sa 65 Germany USA Japan 60 Australia Russian Federation Turkey Brazil 55 Canada China Singapore China India 50 Denmark The UK Greece 45 South Korea Poland Poland Italy Spain 40 Readings above 50 indicate expansion, Ireland those below 50 signal contraction Switzerland Austria 35 France Czech Republic Euro Area Taiwan, China 30 Italy Netherlands Jan-09 Jun-09 Nov-09 Apr-10 Sep-10 Feb-11 Jul-11 Dec-11 Germany -25 0 25 50 Source: Haver and World Bank Source: World Bank 35 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex Figure IP.7 Japan’s industrial production part of 2011, sentiment has recovered somewhat bounces back with the PMI above the 50 no-growth mark since %ch, 2m/2m saar points September. Similarly in Russia business 90 70 sentiment improved since September, rising 70 above the 50 growth mark in October. 65 50 60 Overall, global industrial output growth is 30 55 expected to ease to around 2.0 percent in the 10 50 fourth quarter, from 2.9 percent (saar) in the -10 third quarter, and ease further in the first half of 45 -30 2012, before reaccelerating in the second half of 40 -50 IP PMI 2012, when the current headwinds will abate. -70 35 The floods in Thailand, which are disrupting the -90 30 global supply-chain, have created further Jan-05 Mar-06 May-07 Jul-08 Sep-09 Nov-10 headwinds and are likely to disrupt production for at least two quarters. Another headwind for global industrial production is the expected Source: World Bank. correction in the global inventory cycle in the near-term. Indeed, the inventory to shipment subdued demand from high-income countries, ratio in countries that provide timely and reliable especially in the first half of 2012, as well as data (South Korea, Taiwan, China) is still above some policy-induced deceleration in growth. long-term trends. Policy tightening in major emerging economies is also likely to contribute China’s industrial production growth shows to the slowdown in industrial production over signs of policy-induced deceleration in growth, the short-term. with the PMI below the 50 no-growth mark in both November and December. The policy- Risks and vulnerabilities induced correction in the housing market led to moderation in real estate investment and Should the financial turmoil and deterioration in contributed to the slowdown in industrial output financial market confidence lead to a market- in related industries. Furthermore, concerns induced freezing-up in capital markets, and a about funding conditions for small and medium tightening in global credit, the prospects for the enterprises have emerged recently, which industrial sector would deteriorate markedly. In together with softer global demand could the small contained crisis scenario global GDP moderate growth somewhat in coming months. growth could be 1.7 percent lower than the In Thailand production will likely contract baseline in 2012, while in the scenario of a larger through the fourth quarter of 2011 and stage a crisis economic activity could see a 3.8 percent modest recovery starting in the latter part of the decline relative to the baseline in 2012 (See first quarter of 2012. Given Thailand’s Main text). In these two downside scenarios, importance as an auto parts hub, floods will economic activity in developing countries, likely affect output in other countries both within including industrial sector growth, could be 1.7 the East Asia region and outside, although some percent and 3.6 percent lower than the baseline, countries in the region could benefit as they will respectively, in 2012, and 1.8 and 4.3 percent likely produce some of the parts and materials lower than the baseline in 2013, respectively. that used to be produced in Thailand. In the event of an economic downturn similar to In Europe and Central Asia, industrial output the one following the 2008 crisis sharp declines outlook has deteriorated, as the region is likely will likely occur in the demand for machinery, to suffer from the financial turmoil in Euro area. capital goods and durables, with countries that In Turkey after a marked deterioration in the first depend heavily on this type of production being 36 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Industrial Production Annex the most vulnerable to postponement in capital expenditures by investors and government and big ticket purchases by consumers. Countries that rely heavily on manufactures (China, India, Korea, Malaysia, The Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, China, and Turkey) would be affected. Another risk to industrial output growth is the possibility of domestic banking crises, as non- performing loan ratios are likely to increase with the deceleration in GDP growth in developing countries. A sharp slowdown in credit growth or outright contraction will have marked impacts on domestic demand, and industrial output. Economies in Europe and Central Asia and Latin America could be vulnerable to possible deleveraging by European banks. There are already signs that many emerging country banks are tightening terms and standards of lending across all regions, and all types of loans (business, real estate, and consumer). 37 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex Trade Annex A year of shifting fortunes in global trade As sharp as the April trade contraction was, its expansion. The volume of global trade rebound in May was equally strong, as much of (merchandise and services) is estimated to have the production capacity that had been sidelined expanded by 6.4 percent in 2011— over a in Japan was restored or replaced elsewhere, and percentage point above its ten-year average. the back log of unfilled orders boosted the However, performance across the year was not expansion in trade, with trade growing at a 19 uniform. In the first quarter global trade growth percent (3m/3m, saar) pace in April (30% in East was expanding at a historically high pace. Asia). However, the strong performance at the beginning of the year was punctured by multiple Global economic uncertainty rises, dampening shocks to the global economy. what had looked like a robust recovery. Just as the effects of the Tohoku quake were dissipating, The Tohoku quake rattled supply chains, global economic uncertainty rose with the particularly in East Asia. The disruptions to escalation of the Eurozone debt crisis, downward supply chains that occurred in the wake of the revisions to estimates of US growth, and Tohoku quake dealt a severe blow to trade in contentious US debt ceiling discussions that led capital goods and electronic appliances. Though to a downgrade of US sovereign debt by S&P many regions were affected, the impact was (see main text and finance annex for detailed most pronounced in East Asia (and in particular discussion). The associated uncertainty and risk China), as many Japanese firms are vertically aversion had a rapid impact on the real economy, integrated with production networks in the with global trade growth turning negative in region. Indeed, global trade decelerated rapidly August. from a high annualized pace of 22.6 percent (3m/3m, saar) in March to 12.4 percent (3m/3m, The slowdown in global trade volumes was more saar) in April (figure Trade.1). Much of this drop marked in high-income countries. High-income in growth was driven by a 6.5 percent countries’ contribution to global trade fell by contraction in import demand from East Asia. 24.0 percentage points from May to October China’s import demand fell by 11.3 percent and (from 14.7% to minus 9.3%), while developing South Korea’s by 13.7 percent. countries’ contribution to trade growth fell by only 0.9 percentage points (2.9% to 2.0%). The Figure Trade.1 Global trade expansion interrupted slowdown in global trade has been stronger in by multiple shocks Europe, with imports volumes of European Union member states falling at a 17.4 percent (growth in import volumes, % 3m/3m) (3m/3m), and 20.9% (3m/3m) annualized pace in Rest of Developing September and October respectively, amid 25 China slowing industrial production and weakening Germany 20 order books (see Industrial production annex). In USA 15 the US the deceleration has been less marked Rest of High-Income 10 than in Europe, with import demand falling at Global 5 7.8 percent (3m/3m, saar) and 9.5 percent (3m/3m, saar) annualized pace in September and 0 October respectively. And in developing -5 countries, supported by a rebound in China’s -10 imports volumes, imports increased at an -15 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 annualized pace of 0.6 percent and 6.4 percent Source: World Bank. 39 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex (3m/3m, saar) in the three months to September Most of the weakness in global trade volumes and October respectively. reflects the relatively sluggish recovery in high- income countries. As of October 2011, Current recovery lags behind the previous developing country exports were 9.2 percent recession. above their pre-crisis peaks, while high-income exports had fallen to 9.4 percent below their pre- With the recent sharp deceleration in the pace of crisis peak volumes, having previously reached global trade volume growth, world trade is 1.5% of their peak volumes in May 2011 (figure falling once again below its pre-crisis peak Trade.3). volumes a milestone that it reached in December 2010. In contrast, 39 months after the previous Regional exports have slowed sharply, but recession in global trade in 2001, trade was some growth has remained in positive territory 13 percent above pre-crisis peak levels (figure through August Trade.2). Given the greater depth of the 2008 recession, it took twice as long during the South Asia’s exports, driven mostly by soaring current recovery to regain pre-crisis levels of Indian trade with China, eclipsed the trade activity as it did in 2001 recession (32 vs performance of any other developing region in 16 months). the first three quarters of 2011 (South Asian Figure Trade.2 Trade recovery in current crisis Figure Trade.3 Recovery of exports in high- still lags behind previous crisis income countries lags behind that of developing countries Peak export volume = 1 Pre-crisis peak export volumes 1.2 1.20 1.15 1.1 High Income Developing World 1.10 1.05 1.0 1.00 0.95 0.9 0.90 0.85 0.8 From peak April 2008 0.80 From peak of January 2001 0.75 0.7 Months 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 0.70 2008M01 2008M10 2009M07 2010M04 2011M01 2011M10 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. Table Trade.1 Regional export growth slowed sharply in the third quarter (Merchandise export volume growth, seasonally adjusted annualized rates, unless otherwise stated) 2011 (month-on-month growth) 2007 2008 2009 2010 Q1 Q2 Q3 October November Developing 10.7 3.9 -8.8 18.5 -15 16 -1.2 -1.2 East Asia & Pacific 14.5 5.3 -8.4 24.3 -1.4 18.7 -1.6 -0.9 4.0 Europe & Central Asia 10.7 3.2 -11.6 12.1 10.5 15.1 -6.8 3.0 Latin America & Caribbean 4.6 -1.8 -7 12.3 4.3 14.2 1.1 1.4 Middle-East & North Africa 5.9 6.2 -12 13.5 -20.8 0.8 South Asia 8.1 7.1 0.4 19.2 23.8 24.8 -9.7 -10.9 10.3 Sub-Saharan Africa 9.4 5.5 -12.8 10.2 14 9.2 Source: World Bank. 40 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex exports grew at about 24% for the first two Outlook and Risks quarters of 2011. Nevertheless, the region like all other developing regions saw export demand Outlook plummet in the third quarter as global uncertainty picked up and its export volumes The volume of global trade (merchandise and actually declined 9.6 in the 3 months ending services) is estimated to have expanded by 6.6 September 2011. Most developing regions percent in 2011. The sharp slowdown in growth (except the Middle-East & North Africa where in the second half of 2011, will have negative activity was interrupted by the Arab Spring) saw impacts on whole-year growth statistics in 2012 their export growth decline from double digit – even if, as we expect quarterly trade growth rates to negative ground in the third quarter, with rates within year to return positive. This negative Latin America performing best. Third quarter carry-over will reduce annual growth to around performance in Europe and Central Asia (-6.8 5.2 percent in 2012, before it picks up to around percent ) was among the worst (-6.8 percent), 7.2 percent in 2013. reflecting their close trading ties with high- income Europe, the epi-center of current This rate of growth in 2012 is below the average financial market turmoil (table Trade.1). 5.5% growth between 1991 and 2011, though it exceeds it in 2013. However, even with this Oil exporters have enjoyed large terms of trade growth, global trade will remain well short of the gains. As discussed in more detail in the level it would have attained had the 2008/09 Commodity Annex, the rise in oil prices boosted recession not occurred. Indeed, at a growth rate oil exporters’ terms of trade from January to of 7.5% it would require some four years for September (figure Trade.4). Sub-Saharan trade to reach trend volumes (figure Trade.5). African oil exporters gained the most (8.5% of GDP), while oil importers in every region except As has been the case throughout the recovery, Sub-Saharan Africa experienced a decline in trade growth in developing countries (between 8- their terms of trade (many of the oil importers in 10%) is projected to be higher than in high- Sub-Saharan Africa are exporters of metals and income countries (between 5 to 7%) over the minerals, which also have seen increases in forecast horizon. However, with high-income international prices). countries still accounting for some two-thirds of global trade flows, trade developments in Figure Trade.4 The recovery in prices has favored Figure Trade.5 It could take four years for global oil exporters trade to catch-up with pre-boom trend volume. (Terms of trade changes as a share of GDP, percent) (constant dollars, millions) projections South Asia 1,600,000 Europe and Central Asia Oil exporters 1,400,000 East Asia Pacif ic 1,200,000 1,000,000 Sub Saharan Af rica Oil Importers 800,000 Latin America and the Carribean 600,000 Middle East and North Af rica 400,000 Europe and Central Asia Oil Importers 200,000 Actual Sub Saharan Af rica Oil Exporters Pre-boom(2005) trend 0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 1991M01 1997M11 2004M09 2011M07 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 41 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex developing countries over the forecast horizon import demand from the EU, countries in the will not be decoupled from the growth trajectory Middle East and North Africa as well as Europe of high-income countries. and Central Asia could potentially suffer the greatest direct impacts. Risks The vulnerability of developing regions to a An escalation of the debt crisis in the Eurozone slowdown in Europe depends not only on the (beyond what is currently envisaged under the share of its exports going to Europe but also on baseline assumptions) would have strong the commodity composition of its exports to negative effects on global trade. In the scenario Europe. In addition, besides the first round of a contained crisis in some smaller euro-area effects of slowing demand from Europe, there countries described in the main text, global trade will be second round demand slowdown effects growth will slowdown to between 0.9 and 1.8 from other regions, triggered by the initial EU percent in 2012 depending on the extent of slowdown. confidence effects. In the scenario, where several larger European economies also become To disentangle some of these effects we adapt involved global trade would contract between 4 the standard GTAP model to estimate the effects to 6 percent. of a 1% reduction in EU consumption (say on account of increased precautionary savings due Vulnerabilities to slow down in Europe differ to a further escalation in the Eurozone debt by region. situation). Thanks to their proximity, cultural links and Simulation results using the standard GTAP existing preferential trade agreement Europe and (Global Trade and Protection) general Central Asia, and the Middle East and North equilibrium model of world trade suggest that Africa are the developing regions with the although first-round effects for Europe and closest trade linkages with the European Union Central Asia are largest (and in line with export and would be hardest hit (figure Trade.6). In shares), first round effects are also strong for total, some 43% of exports for each of these two South Asia, because South Asian exports to regions are destined for the European Union. Europe (in particular textiles and clothing) are Latin America and the Caribbean are the least more sensitive to a decrease in consumer dependent on Europe - accounting for only 18% demand. Moreover, second round effects are of their exports. Hence, while all developing actually much higher than first round effects for countries will be impacted by a slowdown in all regions. In particular, knock on effects Figure Trade.6 MENA & ECA regions remain the Figure Trade.7 A slowdown in EU will have most exposed to a trade downturn in Europe varying effects on developing country exports... Percent of non-oil merchandise exports destined to Europe (%ch, export volumes) 45% 0.00 40% -0.10 High-Spread EU Rest of EU 35% -0.20 30% -0.30 -0.40 25% -0.50 20% Second round effects -0.60 First round effects 15% -0.70 10% -0.80 5% -0.90 -1.00 0% Latin America sub-Sahara Middle East & East Asia South Asia Europe & Latin America East Asia & South Asia Sub-Saharan Europe & Middle East & & Carribean Af rica North Af rica Pacif ic Central Asia & Caribbean Pacif ic Af rica Central Asia North Af rica Source: WITS, COMTRADE Source: World Bank, GTAP. 42 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex (including reductions in derived demand from industrial commodities, compared to other regions hit hardest in the first round) cut sharply commodities (including food and oil) as into exports of East Asia & Pacific and to a fluctuations in the export volume of these lesser extent the Middle East and North Africa, commodities also were larger. even though for both regions the first round effects are relatively moderate (figure Trade.7). It follows from this analysis that major industrial commodity exporters like Chile, Botswana and Country vulnerabilities to a downturn in the CAF are likely to suffer large price and earnings global economy differ by the composition of swings and therefore be exposed to large swings exports. in current account balances, government deficits and currency swings (figure Trade.8). Further, Another approach to determining which the negative income effects and loss in foreign developing countries would be most vulnerable currency earnings can in some instances provoke to a deterioration in conditions is to look at the a significant deceleration in domestic demand price and volume sensitivity of their exports in and therefore GDP. Indeed, these secondary the context of a global downturn. effects could be long-lasting if reduced export earning caused countries to delay the import of Looking at the fluctuations in trade prices and productivity and growth enhancing capital goods volumes of 97 commodities (commodities (Go and Timmer, 2010). disaggregated at the two-digit level of the Harmonized System) following the 2008 crisis, On the demand side, manufacturing goods saw we can calculate the extent to which the exports the sharpest drop in volumes, with the demand of individual countries might be hit if a similar for machinery, capital goods and durable goods downturn were to be reproduced. dropping most as given uncertain prospects investors and consumers delay capital According to these calculations that exporters of expenditures and big-ticket purchases (figure industrial metals such as copper (Chile and Trade.9). Countries more reliant on Zambia), precious stones (e.g. Botswana and manufactures (such as China, India, Malaysia, Central African Republic) and oil and gas Philippines, Thailand, and Turkey) may not see (Algeria, Yemen, Venezuela, Nigeria, Saudi as large swings in their nominal balances, but are Arabia) suffer the largest declines in export more likely to see bigger hits to GDP as the prices. Prices of non-industrial commodities volume of exports falls relatively sharply. proved to be more resilient. Moreover, the total value of exports declined even more sharply for Figure Trade.8 Commodity exporters are most Figure Trade.9 Manufactured goods and pre- likely to see a sharper fall in their export prices cious mineral exporters likely to see a sharper during a global downturn... fall in demand during downturn Venezuela Mexico Kazakhstan Tanzania Algeria Malaysia Nigeria Turkey Krygzstan Armenia Jordan Ukraine Azerbaijan India Sudan Poland Belarus Burundi Price Vulnerability Index Hungary Cameroon Cote d'Ivoire Slovenia Gabon Thailand Guyana China Bolivia Bosnia Peru South Africa Lebanon Quantity vulnerability index Uruguay Botswana Krgyzstan Zambia Djibouti Chile Central African Republic Niger Burkina Faso Central African Republic Botswana -29 -27 -25 -23 -21 -19 -17 -15 -0.60 -0.55 -0.50 -0.45 -0.40 -0.35 -0.30 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 43 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex In comparing the two effects – price and volume percent between the first half of 2011 and the - Haddad and Harrison (2010) find that overall second half of 2011 (when the Euro Area crisis the impact from the volume effect is stronger, escalated), for developing countries the fall was thus implying that countries vulnerable through 42 percent with the sharpest declines occurring the volume channel are more likely to experience in Latin America and the Caribbean (57.3 greater down turns in their export receipts. percent), and in Africa (47.5 percent). Further evidence of this is observed by the increase in Developing country trade financing remains trade finance demand provided by multilateral vulnerable to Eurozone financial crisis. Even development banks, including the International for developing countries whose banking sectors Finance Corporation. are less integrated with the banking sector in the Eurozone, the ongoing debt crisis in the zone A further slowdown in the global economy risks threatens to impact them indirectly through the a rise in trade protectionist measures. trade finance channel. This is all the more important as European banks are major players In general, during periods of economic in global trade finance. According to data from downturns the application of trade defensive Dealogic, while US and Japanese banks measures rise, as governments, pressured by the accounted for 5 percent and 4 percent prospects of higher unemployment or existing respectively of global trade finance in Q3 2011, m a c r o e c o n o mi c i m b a l a n c e s , p u r s u e large Euro Area banks alone accounted for at mercantalistic policies to protect domestic least 36 percent of the total. Over that period industries (and employment) and or gain market French and Spanish banks accounted for some shares. Indeed, during the recent recession, the 40 percent of trade credit to Latin America and incidence of trade restrictive measures Asia. Recent calls by regulators to European implemented by G-20 economies rose by some banks to shore-up their capital adequacy ratios 175 new measures over the 11-month period albeit necessary could lead to significant between April 2009 to February 2010, according deleveraging. The typical short-term maturity of to the World Trade Organization (WTO). While trade finance lends itself to being cut. And the number of new measures implemented indeed, there is already indication that this is continued to increase during 2010, there are taking place with developing regions being hit worrying signs that since the latter half of 2011, harder. Using data from Dealogic (figure as global economic conditions deteriorated, the Trade.10), we observe that while high-income incidence of trade restrictive measures is picking countries trade financing volumes fell by 7.8 pace. Indeed, according to the latest Global Trade Alerts report, the number of harmful trade Figure Trade.10 Decline in trade finance vol- measures implemented in the third quarter 2011 umes between first and second half of 2011. increased by 12.5% (q/q). 0 However, the unilateral `implementation of trade -10 measures has the potential to trigger tit-for-tat -20 trade policy responses. A multilateral approach -30 offers the best prospect (Hoekman, 2011). By one estimate, the gains to accepting what is -40 already on the table as regards the market access -50 gains from the Doha Development Agenda -60 amounts to a conservative estimate of $160bn per year (Laborde, Martin, and van der -70 Latin Africa Asia Middle East Developed Mensbrugghe). America Source: Dealogic and World Bank staff calcula- tions 44 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Trade Annex References Barclays Capital Research, ―Macroeconomic impact for emerging markets and trade finance‖, November 22, 2011. Go, D. and H. Timmer (2010), ―The Millenium Development Goals after the Crisis‖ in Fardoust, S., Kim, Y., and C., Sepulveda (eds) , Post Crisis Growth and Development, The World Bank, Washington DC. Haddad, M., Harrison, A., and C. Hausman (2010). ―Decomposing the Great Trade Collapse: Products, Prices, and Quantities in the 2008– 2009 Crisis.‖ National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 16253. Hoekmann, B (2011), The WTO and the Doha Round: Walking on Two legs. World Bank Economic Premise, Number 68, October 2011. Laborde, D.W., W. Martin, and D. van der Mensbrugghe (2011) , Implications of the Doha Market Access Proposals for Developing Countries, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 5697, Washington DC. WTO (2011), Report on G-20 Trade Measures (May to Mid-October 2011), The World Trade Organization, Geneva. 45 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex Finance Annex Recent developments in financial markets Ukraine, and Vietnam. In 2011, developing- country equities have fallen 15.6 percent Contagion from the Euro area debt crisis to compared with an 8.4 percent drop for mature developing countries has emerged markets. Emerging markets have been engulfed by a wave Emerging market equity and fixed income funds of market volatility that had started with the experienced a sudden reversal of the positive August downgrade of U.S. sovereign ratings and inflows trend since early 2009. With many sharply heightened with the increased developing countries in a sweet spot both uncertainty related to the resolution of the cyclically and structurally, the flows into these European debt crisis. In contrast with earlier funds had gone up consistently since 2009, episodes of market turmoil centered around high reaching a record volume in 2010. However, the -spread European economies, this time contagion turmoil of the second half of 2011 caused these from high-income countries affected the risk flows to reverse. EM equity funds had registered premia, yields, stock markets, capital flows and an outflow of $48.5 billion in 2011—in sharp currencies of developing countries. contrast to the net inflow of $97 billion for all of 2010. The reversal was less sharp for emerging Developing-country equity markets experienced market fixed-income funds, which posted net significant sell-offs later in 2011… inflows of $17.3 billion in 2011. Foreign selling was particularly sharp in Latin America, with As of early-January 2012, emerging equity Brazil posting large outflows. markets (as measured by MSCI index) dropped 8.5 percent since the end of July (figure FIN.1). …and bond spreads have widened rapidly All developing regions experienced price declines—although these were much more Reflecting this reversal in fortunes, developing- marked (around 20 percent) in Eastern Europe. country composite spreads (EMBIG) widened by Among the worst country declines were for 152 basis points (bps) between July and early Argentina, Brazil, Egypt, India, Serbia, Bulgaria, January (they had been broadly stable at around Figure FIN.1 Emerging market equities fall by Figure FIN.2 Contagion from Europe causes more than developed country equities developing-country spreads to rise EMBIG Soverign Bond Spreads MSCI Equity Index basis points Jan 2011 =100 110 500 105 450 100 95 400 90 350 85 MSCI EM 80 300 MSCI Developed Sep 09-May 11 75 Average 250 70 Jun-11 Aug-11 Oct-11 Dec-11 Jan-11 Apr-11 Jul-11 Oct-11 Jan-12 Source: Bloomberg. Source: JP Morgan 47 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex 310 bps since late 2009) (figure FIN.2). The bulk 2010 (figure FIN.3). Equity issuance and bond of the deterioration in spreads occurred in the flows were especially weak between September second half of September, with the EMBIG and December. The volume of equity issuance spread reaching a peak of 490 bps on October was 80 percent down at $25 billion compared to 4th—206 bps higher than July 2011. Spreads the same period last year that had the record have narrowed after October 4th amid signs that breaking level of equity issuance particularly EU policy action to address banking sector through initial public offerings (see GEP 2010 vulnerabilities would be forthcoming, but Winter). After a mere $2.6 billion in remained volatile reflecting the uncertainties September—the lowest monthly level since about the size, funding and implementation of December 2008, bond flows recovered slightly the Euro-zone rescue plan. By early-January, after October, following issuances by Venezuela spreads were about 54 bps lower than their peak ($6.4 billion), Russia ($2.4 billion), Indonesia on October 4th. and Turkey (both $2 billion). Bond issuance was strong in the first weeks of 2012 as January Although significant, the deterioration of tends to be one of the busiest months for bond financial conditions in 2011 is much less marked issuance. Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Philippines than in the fall of 2008, when developing- issued a total of $6.6 billion combined in the first country sovereign bond spreads widened by 385 week of the month. bps and stock indexes dropped 40 percent between mid-September and mid-December International syndicated bank loans, on the other 2008. hand, held up well even after the increased volatility, a reflection of several large loans to Gross capital flows to developing countries have companies from natural resource related sectors been weak since September in Russia and Mexico, the banking sector in Turkey and infrastructure sectors in Brazil and The increased turmoil and risk aversion that South Africa. The relative resilience of drove the hike in spreads, was reflected in syndicated bank loans can be in part explained sharply weaker capital flows to developing by the time that syndications take to be countries in the second half of 2011. Gross completed. In fact the decline in bank-lending capital flows (international bond issuance, cross- was more gradual following the 2008 crisis border syndicated bank loans and equity compared to bond and equity flows. placement) totaled only $170 billion between July and December 2011, 55 percent less than of As a result, gross capital flows in 2011 totaled $309 billion received during the like period of $450 billion, 9.6 percent below the 2010 level of Figure FIN.3 Capital flows to EMs declined $498 billion reflecting the robust flows during sharply in the third quarter the first half of the year. $ billion Developing countries are vulnerable to 250 mounting funding pressures in the European Bank banking sector and loss of confidence in 200 Bond global financial markets 150 Equity The volatility in high-income financial markets 100 and the possibility that the situation deteriorates further represents a serious risk for developing 50 countries (see discussion and scenarios in the main text). From a finance perspective, the main 0 transmission channels from the ongoing crisis in 2008 Q1 2008 Q4 2009 Q3 2010 Q2 2011 Q1 2011 Q4 high-income countries to developing countries have been through direct linkages with distressed Source: Dealogic and World Bank Staff calculations 48 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex high-income European banks, and more several Eastern European countries (Latvia, generally through tightening up of global Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania and Albania) as financial conditions that constrained developing- well as countries from other regions country access to high-income debt (bank and (Mozambique and Chile), these claims are quite bond) markets. If conditions deteriorate further, significant as they are equal to more-than 25 FDI inflows might also contract spreading the percent of GDP (figure FIN.4). negative effects of the crisis both to middle and low income countries. European banks operate in developing countries also through their local subsidiaries and account Risks stemming from developing-country for considerable shares of some countries‘ exposure to fragile high-income European banking assets (figure FIN.5). In Latin American banks... countries exposures are concentrated among Spanish banks, which own over 25 percent of Given the fragile state of high-income country bank assets in Mexico and Chile. In Europe and banks, their extensive operations in some Central Asia, Austrian and Greek banks have developing countries and regions are an played a significant role in Albania, Bulgaria and important channel of contagion. As high-income Romania, while the country source of holdings European banks are forced through losses in in other countries are more diversified. their portfolio and regulatory changes to rebuild Portuguese banks account for almost one-third of their capital stock, they are now engaged in de- banking assets in Angola and Mozambique. leveraging—either by calling or not renewing loans (thereby reducing loans to capital ratios); ...with the nature of the exposure determining its or by tightened credit conditions or selling assets impact on domestic credit... or issuing new equity (thereby raising capital).1 Despite their significant presence and high levels Starting in the early 2000s, European banks of foreign claims in Latin America, Spanish rapidly grew their exposure to developing banks are mostly decentralized in their cross- countries, and now have $2.4 trillion in border operation with independently managed outstanding foreign claims on actors within these affiliates in the region. Their claims are mostly countries.2 The bulk of these claims lie in Latin in local currency/locally funded. Indeed, average America & the Caribbean ($861 billion or 16 loan to deposit ratios in the region are at or percent of GDP) and Europe & Central Asia below 100%, with few exceptions including ($633 billion or 21 percent of GDP) regions. In Chile (107%). Moreover, some countries (e.g. Figure FIN.4 Developing countries with strong Figure FIN.5 Ownership position of European dependence on European Banks Banks in selected developing countries European Banks' Foreign Claims Share of European Banks in (2011 Q2, %GDP ) Total Banking Assets of Selected EMs (%) Senegal Mexico Brazil Spain Dominica Argentina Turkey Italy Malaysia Chile South Africa Poland Greece Morocco Hungary Chile Mexico Mozambique Austria-France- Albania Serbia Germany Lithuania Bulgaria Bulgaria Macedonia, FYR Romania Albania Latvia Romania 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: BIS Source: Citibank. 49 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex Brazil and Mexico) have regulations limiting the ...but the risk of rapid sales of bank assets is amount of inter-company loans between parent more widespread. and daughter banks and limiting the ability of parent banks to reduce daughter bank‘s capital European banks have been trying to reduce below prudential levels. exposure and/or raise capital also by selling stakes in developing country banks or fully- As a result, the financial systems in these owned subsidiaries. The need to find a buyer countries would not be excessively exposed to a forces Euro-area banks to disinvest from some of sharp reduction of inflows of funding from the better markets where they can have profitable European banks (except through the trade exits. For example, Greek banks have started to finance channel). As long as this kind of sell Turkish bank assets.3 Any of such sales deleveraging occurs gradually, domestic banks represent FDI outflows when the buyer is not and non-European banks should be able to take foreign but local, which was the case in one of up the slack – as appears to be taking place in the sales in Turkey. Brazil. Developing countries with relatively high private In contrast, European banks operating in most of debt levels would be most vulnerable to a the Eastern European countries have relied generalized tightening of financial conditions heavily upon cross-border lending from their parents to support their loan portfolios, with loan The recent market turbulence has already led to –to–deposit ratios well over 100 percent in declines in capital flows to developing countries several countries: Latvia (240%), Lithuania and substantial losses to developing-country (129%), Romania (127%) and Russia (121%). In equity markets. Should financial conditions addition, large portions of cross-border lending deteriorate sharply, countries with high external was short-term (see the next section) that can be financing needs (current account projections and easily reduced by simply not being rolled-over amortization of external debt) would be most or renewed. As a result, these countries are vulnerable to sudden reversals in capital flows, a extremely vulnerable to a cut off of lending by drying up of credits or substantial increases in European banks. So far, deleveraging in the borrowing costs. region has been orderly. In a worrying development, however, Austrian bank Many developing countries remain vulnerable to supervisors have instructed Austrian banks to deterioration in credit conditions. Overall, the limit future lending in their central and eastern external financing needs of developing countries European subsidiaries — while several high- have risen slightly since the 2008/9 financial income European banks have independently crisis (box FIN.1) from an ex ante estimate of announced their intention to reduce operations in $1.2 trillion (7.6 percent of GDP) in 2009 to $1.3 Europe and Central Asia. trillion (7.9 percent of GDP) in 2012.4 All regions except South Asia have reduced their Arguably, markets are already factoring in the external financing needs as a share of GDP since risks from these connections. During the recent 2008. South Asia‘s estimated external financing episode of elevated turmoil, developing-country requirements have increased from 5.8 percent to CDS spreads rose most among those countries 8.4 percent mainly because of a sharp rise in with close banking ties with troubled high- India‘s external debt in 2011. income European banks, for example, the spreads in Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria rose Nevertheless, ex ante external financing needs by 422 bps, 231 bps and 203 bps, respectively are very high for some countries and in some versus an overall average for developing regions (figure FIN.6). As in the 2008/9 crisis, countries of 114 basis points. the Eastern Europe and Central Asia region remains the most vulnerable developing region with external financing need in the order of 17 percent of GDP. Several countries in the region 50 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex have high current account deficits as well as Table FIN.1 External Financing Needs Projections private debt coming due in 2012. for 2012 Current Account Debt Among countries with access to international Deficit Repayment EFN capital markets, estimated ex ante financing (share of (share of GDP) (share of GDP) requirements in 2012 exceed 10 percent of GDP Lebanon 20.6 14.5 35.1 in 30 developing countries (table FIN.1).5 For Nicaragua 16.3 5.6 21.9 many, the financing is unlikely to pose a Albania 11.7 9.6 21.3 problem, coming in the relatively stable form of Jamaica 9.8 11.3 21.1 FDI or remittances. For others, however, a Georgia 12.7 8.2 20.9 significant proportion will have to be financed Turkey 9.8 9.2 19.0 Lao PDR 14.0 4.7 18.7 from historically more volatile sources (short- Guyana 10.6 7.8 18.4 term debt, new bond issuance, equity inflows). Belarus 10.5 7.7 18.2 Romania 4.5 13.5 18.0 If international financial market conditions Moldova 12.1 5.7 17.8 deteriorate significantly, such financing might Latvia 0.4 17.2 17.6 become difficult to maintain. Some 25 Armenia 12.7 4.9 17.6 developing countries have short-term debt and Bulgaria -2.0 18.6 16.6 long-term debt repayment obligations equal to 5 Lithuania 2.3 14.1 16.4 or more percent of their GDP in 2012. Should Ukraine 5.4 10.9 16.3 financing conditions tighten and these debts Panama 12.3 3.2 15.6 cannot be refinanced, these countries could be Mauritania 11.2 3.9 15.1 forced to cut sharply into reserves or domestic Macedonia, FYR 5.1 7.8 12.9 demand in order to make ends meet. Indeed, Jordan 8.5 4.0 12.5 following the sharp contraction in capital flows Tanzania 9.1 3.0 12.2 in 2008 and 2009, many developing countries El Salvador 3.8 8.2 12.0 were forced to close external financing gaps Dominican Republic 8.2 3.4 11.6 through current account adjustments, increased Vanuatu 6.7 4.9 11.5 Vietnam 4.9 6.6 11.5 aid or depletion of foreign exchange reserves Chile 0.4 10.9 11.3 (box FIN.1). Kyrgyz Republic 6.9 3.7 10.6 Ghana 7.0 3.4 10.4 Risks are particularly acute for countries like Tunisia 5.8 4.4 10.2 Turkey that combine large current account Peru 2.7 7.3 10.0 Figure FIN.6 External financing needs of devel- Developing countries‘ external financing needs, are oping countries4 defined as the current-account deficit (assumed to be a constant at its 2011 level as a percent of GDP) plus External Financing Needs scheduled principal payments on private debt (based %GDP DEBT/GDP on information from the World Bank‘s Debtor Report- 20.0 ing System and Bank of International Settlements). CA Deficit/GDP Source: World Bank. 15.0 10.0 deficits, high short-term debt ratios and low 5.0 reserves. Indeed, Turkey‘s current account deficit in 2011 is estimated to be six times larger 0.0 than its net FDI flows in 2011, and its short-term debt represents 80 percent of its reserves (which -5.0 have been falling in recent months and already EAP ECA LAC MNA SAS SSA represent less than 4 months of import cover). In Source: World Bank, Debt reporting system a similar fashion but to a lesser extent, Belarus 51 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex and Montenegro are also vulnerable to a freezing The sensitivity of short-term finance to changes -up of global credit. Other countries have also in financing conditions could pose problems for significant vulnerabilities. Jamaica, for example, trade (box Fin.2). In China for example, as much is at risk since it finances its current account as 75 percent of short-term debt is reported to be deficit with flows other than FDI, which tend to for trade-finance. Since 2010, there has been a be volatile. High levels of short-term debt to 20 percent increase in short-term debt taken out reserves ratios may put countries such as Chile, by developing countries — with the total now Albania and Egypt also at risk of roll-over equal to $1.1 billion or 4.8 percent of developing despite their healthy current account balances -country GDP—or 15.7 percent of total (figure FIN.7). developing-country exports. Should a financial crisis cause trade finance to freeze up as banks Box FIN.1 How did developing countries close the (ex-ante) external financing gap in 2009?* When the global financial crisis hit in September 2008, developing countries‘ external financing needs (current account projections and amortization of external debt) for 2009 were projected to be around $1.2 trillion. With a projected sharp retrenchment in capital flows for 2009, the ex-ante external financing gap was estimated in the order of $352 billion (Global Development Finance 2009, page 82). Financing gaps are ex-ante notions and ex- post, can be closed through the combination of reduced spending, official flows, and running down the reserves. As expected, high external financing needs in a time of sharp retrenchment in capital flows (40 percent actual de- cline in 2009) led to significant current account adjustments and slower growth in several developing countries in 2009. Current account adjustments reduced the ex-post gap by $140 billion. Current account balances in deficit countries were almost halved from -$283 billion to -$128 billion in 2009. In particular, in several ECA countries, deficits narrowed by more than 50 percent. Net private capital flows (inflows-outflows-debt repayments/ redemptions of debt) were $152 billion higher than initial projections, while more-than doubled official flows and reserves depletion accounted for the reminder. An important factor that helped developing countries with their 2009 external financing needs was official lending (including assistance from the IMF), which jumped to $28 billion immediately after the crisis in 2008, and more than doubled in 2009, reaching $70 billion. The World Bank Group tripled its lending to $21 billion. Between September 2008 and February 2010, more than 20 countries entered agreements with the IMF, with four of the stand-by agreements (Romania, Pakistan, Hungary and Ukraine) larger than $10 billion. The IMF also introduced a new flexible credit line that provided precautionary arrangements, but there have been no draws so far. Lending from other multilaterals as well as bilateral loans also increased in response to the crisis. *Note: Some countries Croatia, Hungary, and Poland that were classified as developing countries for the earlier calculation are now classified as developed countries by the World Bank. The calculations referred here are based on 2008 classifications; hence the data might differ from the current capital flows tables. 52 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex Box FIN. 2: Sharp increase in short-term debt Short-term debt in the developing world is highly concentrated: 15 middle-income countries account for 86 per- cent.1 Most of the borrowing is done by banks and corporations to finance their growing trade as firms contracted short-term loans to finance imports and prepay for exports. For example, trade finance accounted for almost 75 percent of short-term debt in 2011 in China and almost all of India‘s short -term debt. Short-term debt flows have exhibited higher volatility than medium- and long-term flows, particularly during cri- ses. During the Asian and 2008 financial crises, for example, short-term debt fell more sharply in developing countries than did other flows. One of the reasons is that banks can reduce their exposure quickly through short- term debt, which can be simply not renewed. The other reason may be that in times of crisis lenders tend to shift their portfolios to more creditworthy borrowers, which are in a better position to serve longer-maturity loans. Some part of the decline in short-term debt following a crisis might be also due to demand factors, especially for trade credit portion of it. Several studies suggest that the sharp decline in trade volumes observed in 2008/9 caused trade finance to decline and not the reverse.2 But others have argued that a more comprehensive analysis of the financial sector‘s role in international trade including the concept of a ‗financial accelerator‘, shows how export flows are actually significantly affected by financial shocks. 3 1 China, India, Brazil, Turkey, Russia, Indonesia, Mexico, Malaysia, Chile, Romania, Thailand, South Africa, Peru, Philippines, and Argentina. 2 Levechenko A., L. Lewis and L. Tesar. 2010. ―The collapse of International Trade during the 2008 -2009 Crisis‖ NBER Working Paper 16006. 3 Amiti M and D. Weinstein. 2009. ―Exports and Financial Shocks.‖ CEPR Working Paper 7590. seek to deleverage (as it is reported to have FIN.8). For example, in the first half of October, happened for a short while in 2008) it could have Turkey‘s central bank intervened directly, selling serious consequences for global trade. an estimated $0.5 billion of reserves, bringing the average monthly decline in reserves since Foreign currency reserve accumulation has end-July to $2.7 billion. Turkey‘s reserves already declined sharply, even reversed in currently are at $84.8 billion, equivalent less several developing countries than 4 months merchandise import-cover. Given recent reserve sell-offs, South Africa faces Large capital outflows in the second half of 2011 similar exposures, but Brazil, Russia and India‘s and ensuing currency fluctuations prompted several central banks to sell-off reserves (figure Figure FIN.7 Countries at risk should capital Figure FIN.8 Depletion of FX reserves accelerated flows reverse in recent months in selected economies FX Reserves 100 6 monthly percent change Short-term Debt /FX reserves 2011 (%) Montenegro 90 Belarus Turkey 4 80 70 2 Chile 60 Egypt Romania 0 50 Lithuania Jamaica 40 Latvia Turkey Brazil South Africa -2 South Africa 30 Sri Lanka Kenya Peru Georgia Brazil 20 Ukraine -4 India Moldova 10 Jordan Russia 0 -6 0 2 4 6 8 10 Jan-11 Mar-11 May-11 Jul-11 Sep-11 Nov-11 CA Deficit-Net FDI flows ratio (2011 projections ) Source: World Bank, IMF IFS Source: IMF, Central Banks, World Bank 53 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex larger reserve-buffers offer more scope for Some countries have undertaken steps to slow extended currency support. down the credit growth with limited success. China, for example, has raised interest rates and Following the strong domestic credit growth increased the required reserve ratios (RRR) five since the crisis, domestic banking sectors may times in 2011. As a result, the credit growth in also be vulnerable to a sharp increase in non- China has eased significantly but remains high performing loans in the event of a slowdown compared to previous credit booms and busts. in growth. Similarly, credit growth in Brazil and Turkey has remained buoyant in 2011 despite the RRR Although non-performing loans (NPLs) remain hikes. Unlike China, however, Turkey lowered low in most developing regions so far, they its key policy rate to deter volatile international could shoot up in the event of a sharp slowdown portfolio flows and stimulate economic growth. in growth (figure FIN.9). Given rapid credit expansion in recent years (loans to GDP ratios More recently concerns about the deteriorating increased by more than 10 percentage points global outlook and its potential adverse impact between 2005 and 2011 in several countries), on output growth have caused a shift in policies. commercial banks could see a marked China, for example, cut its RRR by 0.5 deterioration in loan performance in the face of percentage point in December, the first such cut slowing growth, heightened risk aversion and since December 2008. restricted access to finance. In some countries, NPLs and provisioning are already an issue. The International capital flows to developing share of NPLs in outstanding bank lending in the countries are expected to decline slightly in Europe and Central Asia region lofted to 12 2011 after a strong rebound in 2010 percent in 2010 from 3.8 percent in 2007. Available data indicates that NPL ratios have Net private capital flows (earlier data referred to continued to deteriorate in 2011 in Kazakhstan gross flows) to developing countries are (32.8%) and Romania (14.2%). estimated to have declined to $0.95 trillion (4.3 percent of GDP) in 2011 from $1.1 trillion (5.4 With the possibility of further economic percent of GDP) in 2010 (figure FIN.10).6 The slowdown, the need for macro-prudential increased global market volatility of the second reforms and stress tests have risen to ensure that half of 2011, and associated equity-market sell- banks are best placed to deal with deterioration offs caused portfolio equity flows to decline by in credit quality and much tighter liquidity 60 percent, from $128.4 billion in 2010 to an conditions. estimated $51.4 billion in 2011. Overall, short- Figure FIN.9 Possible resurgence in NPLs with Figure FIN.10 International capital flows fell in slower growth…a danger to banking 2011 The share of NPLs in total loans outstanding ST Debt Bank Lending percent Bond Flows Portfolio Equity $ trillion FDI Inflows 14 Euro Zone (excl. GER, NLD, CYP) Other HICs 1.2 12 ECA 1.0 Asia 10 0.8 Other LMICs 8 0.6 6 0.4 4 0.2 2 0.0 0 -0.2 2005 2007 2009 2011Q2 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e Source: IMF Financial Soundness Indicators Source: World Bank. 54 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex term flows for the year as a whole also declined in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia region despite their strong performance in the first half was mainly driven by the economic problems in of the year – partly because of slower trade Europe, which weighed both on the capacity of growth (and therefore less trade finance) in the high-income European firms to invest and on the second quarter due to disruptions emanating attractiveness of developing countries in the from Tohoku. In addition, prudential measures region as destinations for FDI due to reduced taken by developing countries (such as China) to growth prospects. Inflows to the Middle East and limit the risk associated with short-term flows North Africa region suffered because of political also played a role. This year‘s fall in short-term turmoil associated with the Arab Spring, while debt flows is in sharp contrast with last year‘s the decline in Sub Saharan Africa is mainly due surge, when these flows led the recovery in net to net dis-investment from Angola. Despite the capital inflows (box FIN.2). nominal increase, however, FDI inflows as a percent of GDP were flat or declined (figure FDI inflows to developing countries continued to FIN.11). increase modestly in 2011 Prospects: Uncertain in the short-term but Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows to strong in the medium-term developing countries rose by an estimated 10.6 percent in nominal terms, reaching $555 billion The outlook for 2012 has become more (2.5 percent of GDP) in 2011 (figure FIN.11). challenging as the world economy has entered a Most of the gains in FDI came in the first half of very difficult period. The likelihood that the the year, with flows slowing in the third quarter. sovereign debt crisis in Europe deteriorates The largest increase was in the Latin America further resulting in a freezing up of capital and Caribbean region, which attracted markets and a global crisis similar in magnitude investment due to relatively robust growth, rich to the Lehman‘s crisis remains very real. The natural resources and a large consumer base. The increased risk-aversion among global investors East Asia Pacific and South Asia regions remain has reduced global financial flows including attractive destinations for multinationals, with those to developing countries since mid 2011. investors drawn to the fast growing regional The actual impact of the current turmoil on economies of China, India, Indonesia and developing countries, in terms of international Malaysia. FDI inflows declined in other regions financial flows and the real economy, are not yet but for different reasons. The fall in FDI inflows fully apparent but suggest a generalized slowing in global growth (see the main text) and reduced Figure FIN.11 Despite the nominal increase, FDI capital flows. flows as a percent of GDP to most developing regions were flat or declined in 2011 Increased risk aversion and banking-sector deleveraging are expected to continue cutting FDI inflows as a share of GDP (%) into capital inflows to developing countries in 4.0 2009 2010 2011e early 2012. As a result, net private debt and 3.5 equity flows, which comprise net debt flows 3.0 (incoming disbursements less principal 2.5 repayments) and net equity flows (FDI and 2.0 portfolio inflows net of disinvestments) are 1.5 projected to decline further by 18 percent to $0.8 1.0 trillion (3.3 percent of GDP) in 2012, with sharp 0.5 contraction in cross-border debt flows. Even FDI 0.0 inflows to developing countries are expected to EAP ECA LAC MENA SA SSA level out by 6 percent next year because of the uncertainly in global financial markets. The Source: World Bank projected decline in FDI inflows is relatively 55 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex Figure FIN.12 Overall capital flows to remain a Figure FIN.13 Improving credit quality for stable share of GDP emerging market sovereigns ST Debt Bank Lending Net rating (number of upgrades-downgrades) Bond Flows Portfolio Equity 50 FDI Inflows 40 Developing countries $ trillion 30 20 High-income countries 1.2 9 8 10 1.0 0 7 0.8 6 -10 0.6 5 -20 4 -30 0.4 3 -40 0.2 -50 2 0.0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011* 1 -0.2 0 * Includes rating actions by Moody's, S&P, and Fitch 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012f Source: World Bank Source: Bloomberg and DECPG staff calculation At the same time, credit quality for developing small compared to the 40 percent contraction of countries has been improving, and the gap 2009. The impact on capital flows is expected to between mature and emerging markets be disproportionately higher for the developing sovereigns is narrowing (figure FIN.13). The Europe and Central Asia region, whose wave of sovereign rating downgrades across economies are more closely tied to those in high- Europe, the United States, and Japan stands in income Europe. sharp contrast with the improved creditworthiness in emerging markets as Under the assumption that the ongoing measured by sovereign credit ratings. The ratio turbulence in Europe will be resolved to of emerging market rating upgrades to market‘s satisfaction towards the end of 2012, downgrades is six to one this year. Since the net capital flows to developing countries are 2008 financial crisis, 47 developing countries expected to have a sharp rebound in 2013 with have received 117 upgrades by major rating the growth in global economy, reaching $1.02 agencies, while the last rating upgrade for a trillion in 2013 (3.7 percent of GDP) (figure developed country occurred in 2007, when FIN.12). By 2013, all flows are expected to Japan‘s sovereign debt was upgraded. Many increase. Bond issuance is expected to level developing countries currently have a positive down slightly as bank lending picks up the pace outlook assigned to their sovereign debt, supported by South-South flows. signaling that additional upgrades are possible. The rebound should be supported by the fact that conditions that underpin the capital flows to developing countries remain strong. Emerging markets entered 2012 with an improved risk profile, higher growth prospects and higher interest rates than in high-income countries. Despite the recent downward revision, developing-country growth (between 5 and 6 percent) is expected to continue to be much higher than in developed countries (around 2 percent) in the medium-term. 56 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex Table FIN.2 Net capital flows to developing countries ($ billions) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 379.8 384.9 354.5 276.7 221 190 99 32 as % of GDP 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.1 Financial flows: Net private and official inflows 686.5 1129.7 830.3 673.8 1126.8 1004.4 Net private inflows (equity+debt) 755.5 1128.2 800.8 593.3 1055.5 954.4 807.4 1016.4 Net equity inflows 495.2 667.1 570.7 508.7 629.9 606.2 583.7 697.1 ..Net FDI inflows 387.5 534.1 624.1 400.0 501.5 554.8 521.6 620.6 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 107.7 133.0 -53.4 108.8 128.4 51.4 62.1 76.5 Net debt flows 191.2 462.6 259.6 165.1 496.8 398.2 ..Official creditors -69.0 1.5 29.5 80.5 71.2 50.0 ....World Bank -0.3 5.2 7.2 18.3 22.4 12.0 ....IMF -26.7 -5.1 10.8 26.8 13.8 8.0 ....Other official -42.0 1.5 11.5 35.4 35.0 30.0 ..Private creditors 260.2 461.1 230.1 84.6 425.6 348.2 223.7 319.3 ....Net M-L term debt flows 164.9 292.8 234.4 69.9 157.1 168.2 ......Bonds 34.3 91.7 26.7 51.1 111.4 110.1 ......Banks 135.0 204.7 212.5 19.8 44.1 68.0 ......Other private -4.4 -3.5 -4.8 -1.1 1.6 0.1 ....Net short-term debt flows 95.3 168.3 -4.4 14.7 268.5 180.0 Balancing item /a -473.1 -486.4 -786.1 -273.0 -596.0 -611.9 Change in reserves (- = increase) -636.9 -1085.3 -452.5 -681.9 -752.0 -578.4 Memorandum items 292.8 Net FDI outflows -130.4 -150.5 -214.5 -148.2 -217.2 -238.1 Migrant remittances /b 221.5 278.2 323.8 306.8 325.3 351.2 376.7 406.3 As a percent of GDP 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010p 2011f 2012f 2013f Net private and official inflows 6.1 8.1 4.9 4.2 5.8 4.5 Net private inflows (equity+debt) 6.7 8.0 4.8 3.7 5.4 4.3 3.3 3.7 Net equity inflows 4.4 4.8 3.4 3.1 3.2 2.7 2.4 2.5 ..Net FDI inflows 3.4 3.8 3.7 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.1 2.2 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 1.0 0.9 -0.3 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.3 ..Private creditors 2.3 3.3 1.4 0.5 2.2 1.6 0.9 1.2 Source: The World Bank Note : e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and cap ital outflows from develop ing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers‘ remittances, comp ensation of emp loy ees, and migrant transfers Notes 2. Foreign claims by BIS reporting banks comprise cross-border claim, local claims of 1. The European banking sector remains under foreign affiliates in foreign currency, and a significant funding pressure (see main text) local claims of foreign affiliates in local as concerns about exposure to stressed currency. sovereign debt have affected their liquidity. They were squeezed out of the USD 3. According to Bloomberg news on December interbank market as US money market funds 9th 2011, EU lenders including Deutsche reduced their exposure to banks in Euro area Bank AG and France‘s Societe Generale SA in late 2011. Also, European interbank have announced plans to shed more than $1 lending has also been deteriorating, as trillion (€750bn) of assets over the next two Euribor-Eonia spreads have been rising to years to bolster capital. On top of selling their beginning of 2008 crisis (September loans, the banks put at least 50 businesses up 15th 2008) levels. for sale in markets spanning the globe. (See http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-12- 07/bargain-bank-values-in-europe-fail-to- 57 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Finance Annex lure-buyers-as-debt-crisis-deepens.html ) 4. Developing countries‘ external financing needs, are defined as the current-account deficit (assumed to be a constant at its 2011 level as a percent of GDP) plus scheduled principal payments on private debt (based on information from the World Bank‘s Debtor Reporting System). 5. Countries with the debt repayment to GDP ratios that are less than three percent are excluded from this list. These countries are mostly aid dependent and their vulnerabilities are mostly related with official flows. 6. The capital inflows numbers are revised up for 2010. Our June estimate for total inflows was $930 billion, compared to $1129 billion (almost the same levels of 2007). Major revision in ST debt for 2010: from $120 billion to $268 billion, mostly because of the upward revisions for China and India. 58 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Global Commodity Market Outlook Following more than two years of strong growth, Commodity prices are generally expected to commodity prices peaked in early 2011 and then decline from their high levels in 2012 due to a declined on concerns about the global slowdown in demand and improved supply macroeconomic and financial outlook and prospects—in part because high prices have led slowing demand in emerging markets, notably to greater investment. Crude oil prices are China (figure Comm.1). The biggest decreases expected to average $98/bbl in 2012, assuming were for metals but some of the largest the political unrest in the Middle East is individual declines were among agriculture raw contained and Libyan crude exports return to the materials (cotton and rubber), edible oils market. Metals prices are expected to decline by (coconut and palmkernel oil), and cocoa. Most 6 percent in 2012 on moderating demand and indices ended the year much lower compared to commissioning of new supply projects—partly their early-2011 peaks—agriculture down 19 the result of a lengthy period of high prices. percent, energy down 10 percent, and metals Food prices in 2012 are expected to average 11 down 25 percent. percent lower than 2011, assuming a normal crop year and a moderation in energy prices (see The recovery in prices in 2009-10 was due to table Comm.1). strong economic growth, re-stocking in China, and a number of supply constraints. In early There are both upside and downside risks to the 2011, several disruptions, including drought and forecast. Continuation of political unrest in the heavy rains that affected most agriculture Middle East and North Africa could lead to markets as well as coal and mineral output in further disruption of supplies and higher oil various locales, pushed prices to annual highs. prices in the shorter term—especially given low Political unrest in North Africa and the Middle stocks and a market short of light/sweet crude. East resulted in a loss of significant oil supplies, Strong demand by China, including for re- most importantly in Libya. As markets absorbed stocking, could keep metal prices higher than these disruptions and supply conditions projected, and a continuation of supply improved, prices began to come under additional constraints that has plagued the industry the past downward pressure from slowing demand and decade could further aggravate markets. uncertainty about the near-term economic and financial outlook. Given low stock levels in some agricultural markets (especially grains), prices are still Figure Comm.1 Commodity price indices sensitive to adverse weather conditions, energy prices, and policy reactions. Moreover, the $US nominal, 2005=100 diversion of food commodities to production of 250 biofuels (it reached almost 2 million barrels per Energy Metals day crude oil equivalent in 2011), makes markets 200 Agriculture tighter and more sensitive to weather and policy responses. 150 Downside risks entail mostly slower demand growth due to the deterioration of the debt crisis, 100 especially if it expands to emerging countries where most of the growth in commodity demand 50 is occurring. The downside risks apply directly Jan-04 Jan-06 Jan-08 Jan-10 Jan-12 to metals and energy, which are most sensitive to Source: World Bank. 59 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Table Comm.1 Key nominal annual price indices—actual and forecasts (2005=100) ACTUAL FORECAST 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Energy 118 130 183 115 145 188 179 177 Non-Energy 125 151 182 142 174 210 190 184 Agriculture 112 135 171 149 170 209 185 175 Food 111 139 186 156 170 210 188 177 Beverages 107 124 152 157 182 208 183 165 Raw Materials 118 129 143 129 166 207 183 177 Metals & Minerals 154 186 180 120 180 205 193 196 Fertilizers 104 149 399 204 187 267 252 234 MUV 102 109 117 109 113 123 117 118 Source: World Bank changes in industrial production, and indirectly Subsequently, IEA member governments to agriculture. released 60 million barrels of emergency stocks over the summer, half of which were from the Crude Oil U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve. During the fourth quarter, the World Bank average oil price Crude oil prices (World Bank average) peaked averaged a little over $100/bbl due to weakening near $120/bbl in April following the loss of 1.4 oil demand, recovery in Libyan oil production, mb/d of Libyan oil exports. This significantly and surplus conditions in the U.S. mid-continent tightened light/sweet crude markets, particularly that saw WTI prices diverge substantially from in Europe where much of Libya‘s crude was internationally traded crudes (box Comm.1). sold. Disruptions of light crude production However, heightened geopolitical concerns elsewhere—including other MENA countries, surrounding Iran‘s nuclear program, help lift West Africa and the North Sea—led to a draw on prices toward year-end—it averaged $104/bbl in inventories of both crude and products outside of December. North America (figure Comm.2). At OPEC‘s June meeting, oil ministers were reluctant to High oil prices and weakening economic growth adjust production levels or even discuss how to impacted oil demand in 2011, with world make up for the shortfall in Libya‘s output. consumption growth of just 0.7 mb/d or 0.8 Figure Comm.2 Oil prices and OECD oil stocks Figure Comm.3 World oil demand growth (y-y) $US per bbl million bbl mb/d 4 140 2800 Other Other Asia OECD oil inventories (right axis) 120 China OECD 2700 2 100 80 2600 0 60 2500 40 -2 oil price 2400 20 0 2300 -4 Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04 Jan-06 Jan-08 Jan-10 Jan-12 1Q03 1Q05 1Q07 1Q09 1Q11 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 60 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex percent—a little more than one-quarter of the rise by 1.3 mb/d or 3.6 percent, with all of the large jump in 2010 (figure Comm.3). OECD oil growth in emerging markets. demand declined for the fifth time in the past six years, and is on track to fall again in 2012. Non- In the near term, light/sweet crude markets could OECD oil demand growth, of 1.2 mb/d or 3 ease with recovery of oil production in Libya. percent, was down from a 2.2 mb/d climb in Following the fall of Tripoli in early September, 2010. For 2012, world oil demand is projected to Libya‘s national oil company and joint venture Box Comm.1 WTI-Brent price dislocation In early 2011 the price of WTI (which historically traded at a small premium to Brent for quality and location rea- sons) fell by more than $25/bbl below Brent due to a large build-up of crude in the U.S. mid-continent near Cush- ing Oklahoma—the delivery point for the NYMEX WTI futures contract (box figures Comm.1.1 and Comm.1.2). Crude flows into the region have increased from the new Keystone Pipeline which brings greater volumes from Canada and from rapidly growing production of liquids-rich shale projects in North Dakota. The mid-continent also sources crude from elsewhere in the U.S. as well imports through the Gulf of Mexico. While there are plenty of options to bring crude into the region, there are few to move it out, especially to Gulf coast refineries. Stocks at Cushing rose in 1Q2011 but then declined, in part due to higher refining runs prodded by large margins from low crude input prices. Maintenance at local refineries was also deferred to take advantage of the high mar- gins. Producers began moving crude to the Gulf coast by rail, barge and truck, as the large WTI-Brent price spread rendered such move profitable. Other pipeline flows into Cushing also eased substantially, as producers sought higher value alternatives for their crude. In November, the price spread narrowed significantly, following announcement of a planned reversal of the Sea- way pipeline that currently ships crude from the Gulf coast to Cushing. The pipeline‘s prospective new owners said that they will ship 0.15 mb/d to the Gulf in 2Q2012, and raise capacity to 0.4 mb/d by early 2013. Meanwhile the U.S. government deferred a decision until 2013 on the proposed 0.6 mb/d Keystone Pipeline extension, that would transport Canadian crude to the U.S. Gulf, so owners could re-route the pipeline away from environmen- tally sensitive areas in Nebraska. Therefore, WTI is expected to be trading at a sizeable discount to Brent until adequate pipeline capacity is con- structed to the Gulf of Mexico, or from Alberta to the Pacific coast (expected to be operational in 2017). In addi- tion, more storage capacity is coming online, and lower net volumes flowing into the region are likely to reduce the spread. Meanwhile Brent crude prices have remained firm due to the tightness in light/sweet markets in the eastern hemi- sphere, strong demand in Asia, and low stocks. Brent became the main international marker crude in 2011, and prices averaged $111/bbl in the second half of the year. WTI, largely dislocated from international markets, aver- aged just $92/bbl. Box figure Comm 1.1 Crude oil prices Box figure Comm 1.2 WTI-Brent price differential $/bbl $/bbl 130 5 Brent 0 115 Dubai -5 WTI -10 100 -15 -20 85 -25 70 -30 Jan-10 May-10 Sep-10 Jan-11 May-11 Sep-11 Jan-12 Jan-10 May-10 Sep-10 Jan-11 May-11 Sep-11 Jan-12 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 61 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex partners moved quickly to restore output in In the medium term, world oil demand is fields that were unaffected by the fighting. expected to grow only moderately, about 1.5 Production is reported to have reached 0.9 mb/d percent p.a., owing to slower global GDP growth in December – more than half of pre-crisis levels coupled with efficiency improvements in of 1.6 mb/d. The IEA expects that production transport and ongoing efforts by governments will fully recover by 2014. and industry to reduce carbon emissions, particularly in high-income countries. As in the Non-OPEC supply developments (figure past, all of the consumption growth is expected Comm.4) continue to perform above to be in emerging markets (figure Comm.5), expectations due to double digit investment with modest declines in OECD countries— growth and less-tight conditions for rigs, largely due to expected efficiency equipment and services. These are bearing improvements. results, not only with new project developments but also by slowing the decline rates in mature On the supply side, non-OPEC countries are OECD areas, such as the U.S. and North Sea. expected to continue to rise moderately their oil Last year saw a number of unplanned outages supply, in part due to high prices, but also and heavier-than-expected maintenance in the continued technological advances that have North Sea that kept non-OPEC production brought forth new supplies from shale deposits growth fairly modest. However non-OPEC and deepwater offshore. Production increases are output (which accounts for 60 percent total expected from a number of areas, such as Brazil, world oil supplies) is expected to increase by 1 Canada, the Caspian and West Africa. These will mb/d in 2012, according to the IEA, and satisfy be offset by declines in from older fields, much of the growth in global oil demand. The especially in the North Sea and Mexico. return of Libya‘s oil production may necessitate Globally there are no resource constraints into accommodation by other OPEC members to the distant future. Impediments are mainly keep prices from falling significantly. This policy issues, such as access to resources and would in turn raise OPEC‘s spare capacity, at a suitable fiscal terms and conditions for time when most OPEC countries are also investment. investing in new capacity. Iraq‘s production has risen above 2.7 mb/d, due to increased output Oil prices (World Bank average) are expected to from new joint venture projects, and oil exports decline from $104/bbl in 2011 to an estimated have also reached new highs. Iraq‘s oil output is $98/bbl in 2012 and fall over the forecast period expected to reach nearly 3.2 mb/d in 2012. due to slowing global demand, growing supply, efficiency improvements, and substitution away Figure Comm.4 World oil production Figure Comm.5 World oil consumption mb/d mb/d 55 55 50 50 OECD Non-OPEC 45 45 40 40 35 35 Non-OECD 30 OPEC 30 25 25 Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04 Jan-06 Jan-08 Jan-10 Jan-12 1Q00 1Q02 1Q04 1Q06 1Q08 1Q10 1Q12 Source: IEA Source: IEA 62 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex from oil. The long-term oil prices that underpin have declined less than one-quarter and have these projections are based on the upper end cost fallen into the upper end of the cost curve. of developing additional oil capacity, notably Metals prices are expected to rebound from their from oil sands in Canada, assessed at $80/bbl in lows in the near term on re-stocking in China, constant 2011 dollars. It is expected that OPEC but are not expected to reach earlier highs will endeavor to limit production to keep prices because of moderating demand growth and relatively high, given the large expenditure needs expected supply increases for all metals (see box in most countries. However, the organization Comm.2 for the role of China in metal demand). will also be wary of letting prices rise too high, having witnessed the impact this has had on Prices are projected to decline into the medium demand in recent years, especially in OECD term for all metals with the exception of countries. aluminum, which is expected to rise, supported by higher costs for power and other inputs. Metals Although there are no resource constraints into the distant future for any of the metals, over the Metals prices fell from their highs in early 2011 longer term a number of factors could result in due to concerns about global growth emanating upward pressure on prices such as declining ore from the debt crises and policy slowing in China. grades, environmental and land rehabilitation, as Prices were strengthening up to the first quarter well as rising water, energy and labor costs. of 2011 on strong demand in China (including earlier re-stocking), lower stocks, production Copper prices fell from over $10,000/ton in cutbacks and various supply disruptions. February to $7,500/ton during 4Q2011 on high However, China moved into de-stocking mode stocks and slowing demand. Copper and stocks outside China began to rise. China‘s consumption growth in the first ten months of metal imports in the first half of 2011 fell 2011 fell slightly from an 11 percent gain in sharply, but started to pick up in the second half, 2010. China‘s apparent demand (excluding stock especially for copper. World metals changes) slowed sharply from 2010, but given consumption, which grew at 11 percent in 2010, likely de-stocking, actual consumption was slowed to 4 percent in the first 10 months of probably higher (China‘s copper imports picked 2011, with growth slowing sharply in all main up in the second half of the year suggesting an regions (world metals consumption grew 3.8 end to inventory withdrawal). In the OECD, percent during 2000-10.) For China, however, strong demand growth at the start of the year the data only show apparent demand and do not turned sharply negative, and growth elsewhere include stock changes, indicating that underlying also turned slightly negative. High prices in consumption may have been higher. Prices were Figure Comm.6 Refined metal prices ($/ton) also supported by numerous supply constraints, notably for copper. The aluminum market, which $/ton $/ton is in surplus, had a substantial portion of stocks 10,000 60,000 Copper tied up in warehouse financing deals and Aluminum 50,000 unavailable to the market. 8,000 Nickel (right axis) 40,000 All metals prices are well off their highs in early 6,000 2011 (figure Comm.6). Nickel prices have 30,000 declined more than one-third because of slowing 4,000 demand by the stainless steel sector and 20,000 expectations of large new nickel production 2,000 10,000 capacity additions in 2012 and beyond. Copper prices dropped one-quarter third, but still remain 0 - above the costs of production due to supply Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04 Jan-06 Jan-08 Jan-10 Jan-12 tightness at the mine level. Aluminum prices Source: World Bank. 63 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex recent years have taken their toll on slower than expected ramp-up at new mines, consumption, as users substituted copper with technical problems at existing operations, other materials, such as aluminum and plastics, declining ore grades, strikes, accidents and and lowered the copper content in applications. adverse weather. Many of these incidents have Copper prices have remained well above the occurred in Chile, which supplies 35 percent of costs of production because of continued the world‘s mined copper. However, growth in problems at the mine supply level, including new capacity globally is underway with Box Comm.2 Metals consumption in China and India India, with its large population, is often cited as the ―next China‖ in terms of consumption of commodities. Since 1990, China‘s refined metal consumption (aluminum, copper, lead, nickel, tin and zinc) jumped 17 -fold, and its share of world refined metal consumption grew from 5 percent to 41 percent (box figure Comm.2.1). Its average rate of growth since 2000 was 15 percent p.a., while demand in the rest of the world was essentially unchanged. Unquestionably, China has been the major driver of metals demand and higher prices, as the country consumed large quantities of metals (and other primary resources) for construction, infrastructure, and manufacturing to sig- nificantly raise its level of income. Consider, for example, that China‘s metal intensity (metal use per $1,000 of real GDP) was almost three times higher than the rest of the world back in 1990 and it reached almost 9 times in 2008 (box figure Comm 2.2). It is expected that metals demand will slow over the next decade as economic growth slows and the country transi- tions from an export-led and investment-driven economy to a domestic consumption and services economy, and seeks to improve the environment and air quality. Still metals demand will remain robust due to urbanization (more high-rise construction), infrastructure needs, and moving up the value chain in manufacturing —all are re- source intensive. India‘s share of world metals consumption has risen from 2 percent in 1990 to only 3 percent currently due to the very different structure of the economy, levels and direction of investment, sector growth trends, trade and poli- cies. Moreover, its pace of metal demand growth has been only half that of China, and much closer to the pace of economic growth. Should India‘s refined metal consumption grow at 15 percent p.a., it would take nearly two dec- ades to overtake China‘s current level consumption. Should that occur, it would present substantial challenges to the metals industry to supply these resources, similar or greater to the challenges the industry has faced the past decade. One possible impact is for even higher prices and pressures on the downstream sectors to innovate and substitute away from high-priced materials. India has ambitious plans for growth and has unveiled a significant power generation program. Thus, a key question is what other policy and structural changes would need to take place to have India‘s metal consumption growth double for the next twenty years. Box figure Comm 2.1 Refined metal consumption Box figure Comm 2.2 Metal consumption intensity '000 tons kg per $1000 GDP 60,000 10 50,000 Rest of World 8 China 40,000 6 30,000 China 4 20,000 2 World (excluding China) 10,000 India 0 0 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 Source: World Bank. 64 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex numerous medium-sized projects expected from their 2009 lows due to large growth in online beginning in 2012, as well as the massive world stainless steel production in 2010 of Oyu Tolgoi project in Mongolia which will add nearly 25 percent, driven by China but there was significant growth in 2013-14. Copper prices are also strong growth in Europe and Japan. Growth expected to rebound from the recent drop as slowed to around 5 percent in 2011 on slowing economic growth recovers and China re-stocks. output in China and in industrial countries. Over the medium term, however, copper prices (About 70 percent of global nickel supply is used are expected to decline as demand moderates and in the production of stainless steel.) Nickel new capacity pushes the market into modest prices came under pressure in 2011, despite surplus. falling inventories and positive demand gains, because of the expected surge in new nickel Aluminum prices, which traded close to copper projects — the largest being in Brazil, back in 2000, languished the past decade despite Madagascar, New Caledonia, Papua New demand growth twice as high copper. The main Guinea, but increases also expected in Australia, reason was China which expanded production Canada and elsewhere. The new capacity from capacity substantially and exported surplus these and other projects will include traditional aluminum to the global market—unlike for nickel sulphides, ferro-nickel and laterite high copper and other resources in which it is a pressure acid leach (HPAL) projects, and significant importer. Robust aluminum demand Chinese nickel pig iron (NPI) producers. HPAL is expected to continue, in part because of its projects have had considerable technical lower relative price which helps it penetrate problems and delays in recent years but are now other markets such as copper, but mainly scheduled to begin operation. The Chinese NPI because of its light-weight, durable industry developed as a result of the nickel price characteristics and multiple uses (in transport, boom in the mid-2000s, with the import of construction, packaging and electrical). There nickel laterite ores from Indonesia and the are no resource constraints given the abundance Philippines. However, Indonesia has proposed of bauxite ore in the earth‘s crust. However, the developing its own NPI industry and is recent price decline has fallen into the smelting considering banning nickel ore exports from industry‘s cost curve, where around 30 percent 2014, which could reduce China‘s output. NPI of the world‘s producers lose money on a cash- production is relatively expensive and may serve cost basis, much of it China at plants that use a longer-term cost-floor to prices. Nickel prices outdated technologies. A strengthening renminbi are expected to decline over the forecast period will accelerate closure of this capacity which due to the substantial supply additions in the will be replaced with lower-cost and more coming years, and are likely to reflect production efficient facilities. The construction of new costs in the medium term. capacity will generally be directed to locations with lower power cost advantages, such as the Agriculture Middle East (power accounts for about 40 percent of aluminum‘s production cost). Most of After reaching a peak in early 2011, prices for the world‘s new state of the art capacity will be most agricultural commodities moderated with added in China, but large plants are also planned the index ending the year 19 percent below its in India and Russia. Aluminum prices are February high (figure Comm.7); food prices expected to increase over the forecast period declined 14 percent. Yet, average agricultural driven by higher production costs for power, prices (including food) were up 23 percent in carbon, and alumina. 2011, and in real terms averaged the highest level since the aftermath of the 1970s oil crisis Nickel prices are down substantially from their (figure Comm.8). Most of the drivers of the post- 2007 highs, but remain volatile due to large 2005 price increases are still in place (table stainless steel production cycles and stocking/ Comm.2). Energy and fertilizer prices (key destocking in China. Nickel prices recovered inputs to agricultural commodities) are still high, 65 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex production of biofuels (currently accounting for Figure Comm.8 Real price indices (MUV-deflated) the equivalent of 2.2 percent of global crude oil 2005=100 demand) is still growing, the US$ remains weak 250 by historical standards, while most grain markets Agriculture are experiencing low level of stocks. On the 200 Metals other hand, investment fund activity is set to Energy reach another record level—an estimated US$ 150 450 billion as of Q4:2011 have been invested in commodities (figure Comm.9). Though not 100 expected to affect long term trends, such activity may induce higher price variability. 50 Following a brief period of relative stability 0 during 2009, grain prices (especially maize and 1948 1954 1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990 1996 2002 2008 wheat), began rising in the summer of 2010 Source: World Bank. following weather-induced production shortfalls in Eastern Europe and Central Asia (figure Figure Comm.9 Funds invested in commodities Comm.10). From June to December 2010, wheat prices increased by almost 120 percent, billion US dollars, year-end exceeding $300/ton and having since remained 500 above that mark. Maize prices followed a similar Energy Agriculture pattern, increasing from $152/ton in June 2010 400 Base metals Precious metals to $320/ton in April 2011, fluctuating around $300/ton since then. 300 While maize and wheat markets are tight by 200 historical standards, the rice market appears to be well-supplied. For most of 2010, rice prices 100 fluctuated within a narrow band of $450 to $500 per ton, far below the early-2008 peak of $900 0 per ton, but twice as much as its historical 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e average. However, they gained momentum and Source: Bloomberg, Barclays Capital. Figure Comm.7 Nominal agriculture price indices Figure Comm.10 Grains prices 2005=100 $/mt 250 500 1000 Food Wheat Beverages 400 Maize 800 200 Rice (right axis) Raw Materials 300 600 150 200 400 100 100 200 50 0 0 Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04 Jan-06 Jan-08 Jan-10 Jan-12 Jan-00 Jan-02 Jan-04 Jan-06 Jan-08 Jan-10 Jan-12 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 66 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Table Comm.2 Most of the price-boom conditions are still in place 2001-05 2006-10 Change Agricultural prices (nominal index, 2005 = 100) 89 147 +66% Grain/oilseed price volatility (stdev of log differences, monthly) 2.3 3.5 +52% Crude oil price (US$/barrel, nominal) 34 75 +120% Fertilizer prices (nominal index 2005 = 100) 72 208 +172% Exchange rates (US$ against a broad index of currencies) 119 104 -13% Interest rates (10-year US Treasury bill) 4.7 4.1 -14% Funds invested in commodities ($ billions) 30 230 +667% GDP growth (low and middle income countries, % p.a.) 5.0 5.8 +16% Industrial production (low and middle income countries, % p.a.) 6.3 7.1 +13% Stocks (total of maize, wheat, and rice, months of consumption) 3.2 2.5 -21% Biofuel production (millions of barrels per day equivalent) 0.4 1.3 +203% Yields (average of wheat, maize, and rice, tons/hectare) 3.8 4.0 +7% Growth in yields (% change per annum, average) 1.4 1.0 -32% Natural disasters (droughts, floods, and extreme temperatures) 374 441 +18% Source: World Bank. increased almost 30 percent between May and along with good crop prospects elsewhere in the November 2011, mainly in response to two region, are likely to keep rice prices in check. problems. First, the decision by the Thai Indeed, rice prices declined 5 percent in government to sharply increase the intervention December 2011. price to 15,000 baht/ton under the Paddy Rice Program. At the time of the announcement, this Edible oil prices were relatively stable and new intervention price was 65% higher than slightly declining during 2011; the World Bank market price. Under the program, growers and edible oils index averaged 246 (2005 = 100) in millers become eligible for a government loan January 2011 and ended the year below 200. A (based on the intervention price) if they place weather-induced shortfall of soybean oil earlier their rice as collateral, stored at a government– in the year was balanced by better palm oil certified facility. If, after the expiration of the production—these two oils account for almost loan, the market price is higher than the two thirds of global edible oil production. The intervention price, the millers sell the rice and diversion of oils for biodiesel production in repay the loan. Otherwise, the millers can chose Europe appears to be the largest demand-driven to default and the rice becomes property of the factor and is likely to support high prices in the government. After the higher intervention price near and medium term. Unlike grains, where was announced, growers and millers began demand tends to be relatively stable above a holding supplies of current off-season-crop certain income threshold, per capita demand for paddy in order to participate in the program. Yet, edible oils continues to rise even in high income the program is expected to have only limited countries, as a rising share of food consumed is long term impact as the stored rice will prepared in professional establishments and in eventually find its way into the market. Second, packaged form, both oil consuming processes on the weather front, some flooding in South (the income elasticity of edible oils is twice as East Asia appears to have damaged part of high as that of grains). Thailand‘s rice crop. Because Thailand accounts for 25 to 30 percent of word rice exports, the Beverage prices averaged the year 14 percent policy and weather developments may affect the higher than 2010, supported primarily by coffee world market. On the positive side, India‘s (arabica) prices. During 2011 arabica prices decision to allow the export of non-Basmati rice averaged close to $6.00/kg, their highest nominal 67 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex level. The rally reflected tight supply conditions, Outlook especially from Brazil, the world‘s dominant arabica supplier. Cocoa price increases earlier in As supply conditions improve, agricultural the year reflected political instability in Côte prices are expected to decline 11 percent in d‘Ivoire but supplies have recovered more 2012. Specifically, for 2012, wheat and maize recently, which combined with weak demand in prices are expected to average 9 and 12 percent Europe due to the crisis induced price declines lower than their 2011 levels while rice prices are towards year‘s end—Côte d‘Ivoire accounts for anticipated to decline 6 percent. Soybean and almost 40 percent of global supplies. The palm oil prices are expected to be 16 and 20 strength in tea prices reflects mainly East Africa percent lower, respectively. Beverage prices will supply shortages and strong demand, especially experience declines as well (cocoa, coffee, and of high quality teas by Middle Eastern oil tea 11, 17, and 4 percent down, respectively). exporting countries. Cotton and rubber prices are expected to decline 30 percent, each. The cotton market experienced tight supplies earlier in the year as well, further exacerbated by A number of assumptions underpin the outlook. an export ban imposed by India to protect its First, is that energy and fertilizer prices are domestic textile industry. The shortfall, coupled projected to experience moderate declines. with strong demand and low stocks, boosted Second, it is assumed that the supply outlook prices above $5.00/kg in March 2011, effectively during the 2011/12 crop year will improve. doubling within six months. That price level, Third, no policy responses similar to the ones however, turned out to be unsustainable and by during 2008 will take place; if they do, they August 2011 cotton prices were down to $2.50/ could always upset markets—the changes in rice kg on strong supplies and weakening demand. policy in Thailand introduced in September 2012 Natural rubber prices reached historic highs is a case in point. On the other hand, the earlier due to weather-related supply disruptions diversion of food commodities to the production in South-East Asia rubber producing countries of biofuels continues reached the equivalent of (accounting for 90 percent of global production). almost 2 million barrels per day of crude oil in However, following weakness in crude oil prices 2011 (figure Comm.11). Nevertheless, there are (a key input to competing synthetic rubber) and signs of a slowdown in global biofuel weaker tire demand due to the economic production: preliminary estimates for 2011 downturn, rubber prices moderated and ended indicate that it grew only marginally compared the year 46 percent below their February 2011 to the double digit growth rates during the past peak. Timber prices surged, especially 10 years. The policy environment for biofuels Malaysian logs and to a lesser degree begins to change as well. The US government let Cameroonian logs and Malaysian sawnwood. Strong demand following the Tohoku disaster in Figure Comm.11 Biofuels production March 2011 contributed to the strength of timber prices. mb/d equivalent 2.0 Fertilizer prices averaged 43 percent higher in 1.6 2011 than 2010 on strong demand for agricultural (especially grain and oilseed) 1.2 production. Fertilizers are a key input to most 0.8 agricultural commodities (especially grains) in value terms and, due to their tight relationship to 0.4 natural gas prices, they tend to co-move with 0.0 energy prices very closely—energy prices gained 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 25 percent in 2011. Source: BP Statistical Review 68 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex its ethanol tax credit expire as of January 1st Figure Comm.12 Monthly updates on global pro- 2012 and eliminated ethanol tariffs. Yet, these duction and stock estimates for 2011/12 policy changes are expected to have only a Maize minimal impact on ethanol production in the US million tons (and biofuel related corn production), since 900 150 Production Stocks (right axis) mandates requiring minimum amounts of 880 135 gasoline to be supplied through biofuels are still in place. Moreover, with crude oil prices over 860 120 $100 per barrel most biofuel production is likely 840 105 to be profitable without any government intervention. Thus, the role of energy prices in 820 90 determining agricultural prices (both as a cost component and diversion to biofuels) is expected 800 75 to remain important. MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN The USDA during its first assessment for the Wheat million tons 2011/12 crop year (published in early May) 700 220 projected that global food supply conditions will Production Stocks (right axis) improve with production of maize expected to 690 210 rise 6.4 percent over the previous crop year, wheat output higher by 3.3 percent, and rice by 680 200 1.4 percent. Maize stocks were expected to 670 190 increase by 13 percent, while stocks for wheat were set to decline by 3 percent (no change was 660 180 expected in rice stocks). During USDA‘s subsequent monthly assessments from June 2011 650 170 to January 2012, the outlook has been improving MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN gradually, except for the large downward revision of maize stocks in June (figure Rice Comm.12). million tons 465 105 Production Stocks (right axis) While low stocks and poor crops have been the key factors underpinning the early 2011 price 102 hikes, most of the post-2005 increase in 460 agricultural prices can be explained by energy 99 price increases. Energy is a particularly 96 important determinant of agricultural prices and 455 hence an important risk to agricultural prices. 93 Energy feeds into food prices through three main channels. First, as a cost of production (mainly 450 90 fuel to run agricultural machinery and MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN transporting commodities to markets), second, indirectly through fertilizer and other chemical Source: USDA costs (e.g., nitrogen-based fertilizers are made directly from natural gas), and third, via by stocks and exchange rate movements. Other competition from land to produce biofuels. drivers matter much less. Indeed, econometric evidence (presented below) ranks energy as the most important driver affecting prices of food commodities, followed 69 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Fundamentals and long term food price The interpretation and signs of most parameters movements are straightforward. The stock-to-use ratio is expected to be negative, since a low S/U ratio To examine the role of fundamentals in (associated with scarcity) leads to high prices determining food prices, a reduced-form while a high S/U ratio (associated with econometric model was utilized and concluded surpluses) leads to low prices (Wright 2011). To that oil prices contributed about two third to the circumvent endogeneity, the S/U ratio entered price increase of key food commodities between the regression in lagged form. The price of crude 2000-05 and 2006-10. Exchange rate movements oil will have a positive impact on the prices of accounted for 23 percent while stocks were food commodities, since it is a key factor of responsible for 8 percent. production (Baffes 2007). The depreciation of the US dollar—the currency of choice for most Specifically, the following price determination international commodity transactions — model was utilized: strengthens demand (limits supply) from non- US$ commodity consumers (producers) thus log(Pti) = µ + β1 log(S/Ut-1) + β2 log(PtOIL) + β3 log(XRt) + increasing prices (Radetzki 1985). An increase of the interest rate reduces commodity prices by β4 log(Rt) + β5 log(GDPt) + β6 log(MUVt) + β7 t + εt. (i) increasing the required rate of return on storage, (ii) changing expectations about Pti denotes the annual average nominal price of aggregate economic activity, and (iii) stimulating commodity i (i = maize, wheat, rice, soybeans, demand; but, it can raise prices by reducing and palm oil). S/Ut-1 denotes the lagged stock-to- capital investment thereby reducing supplies use ratio, PtOIL is the price of oil, XRt is the (Pindyck and Rotemberg 1990). Thus, the effect exchange rate, Rt denotes the interest rate, MUVt of interest rate changes on commodity price is is a measure of inflation, GDPt denotes global ambiguous. Because of the long time period GDP, and t is time trend. The βis are parameters under consideration, the Manufacture Unit Value to be estimated while εt is the error term. (MUV) is used as an inflation proxy. Table Comm.3 Parameter estimates: 1960-2010 Maize Wheat Rice Soybeans Palm oil 1.29 3.17*** 6.41*** 4.46*** 4.25*** Constant (µ) (1.57) (5.13) (3.33) (7.91) (3.01) -0.45*** -0.53*** -0.08 -0.17** -0.38** Stock-to-Use ratio (S/Ut-1) (4.67) (3.78) (0.38) (2.31) (2.04) 0.19*** 0.24*** 0.25** 0.31*** 0.45*** Oil price (PtOIL) (4.05) (5.18) (2.55) (6.41) (5.26) 0.02 -0.81** -2.83*** -1.31*** -1.09* Exchange rate (XRt) (0.04) (2.21) (4.50) (3.65) (1.74) -0.05 0.05 0.34*** -0.06 -0.04 Interest rate (Rt) (0.60) (0.63) (2.75) (0.64) (0.27) -0.01 -0.01 -0.05** 0.01 0.01 Global GDP (GDPt) (0.32) (0.28) (2.56) (0.66) (0.31) 0.64*** 0.08 -0.62 -0.01 0.04 Inflation (MUVt) (2.70) (0.42) (1.32) (0.05) (0.10) -1.76*** -0.65 -0.76 -1.14* -2.17** Trend x 100 (t) (3.07) (1.31) (0.99) (1.78) (2.02) Adjusted-R2 0.87 0.91 0.76 0.84 0.62 DW 1.03 1.10 1.03 1.27 1.24 ADF -3.90*** -5.52*** -3.96*** -4.68*** -4.43*** Note: The numbers in parentheses denote absolute t-ratios. DW is the Durbin-Watson statistic of serial correlation and ADF denotes the Augmented Dickey-Fuller statistic for unit roots (Dickey and Fuller 1979). Asterisks indicate parameter estimates different from zero at the 1% (***), 5% (**) and 10% (*) levels of significance, respectively. Source: Baffes (2011). 70 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Furthermore, instead of deflating each price (albeit negative). This result indicates that, series, we used the deflator as an explanatory despite what has been reported in the literature, variable in order to relax the homogeneity increases of global GDP are not associated with restriction and obtain a direct estimate the effect food prices increases (similar results have been of inflation (Houthakker 1975). Lastly, the time reported elsewhere, e.g. Ai, Chatrath and Song trend is expected to capture the effects of 2006). Indeed, per capita grain consumption in technological change, which for most India and China has declined or flattened (these agricultural commodity prices is expected to be two countries are often mentioned as having negative. contributed to food price increases because of their changing diets and high incomes). Price of Table Comm.3 reports parameter estimates for manufactures (proxy for inflation) turned out not the 1960-2010 period for five food commodities. to be significant (with the exception in maize). More than half of the parameter estimates are Lastly, the parameter estimate of the time trend significantly different from zero, with an average is negative as expected, but significantly adjusted-R2 of 0.80 and a stationary error term different from zero in maize, wheat, and palm oil (implying cointegration), confirming that the (not rice and soybeans). Estimates place the model performed well. A number of interesting effect of technical change on prices to about 1 results emerge from the analysis. First, the S/U percent per annum, very close to the average 1.3 ratio estimates are negative and all but one case percent estimated here. significantly different from zero. Second, the parameter estimate of the oil price confirms that What portion of the post-2005 food price energy plays a key role in food price movements is explained by the fundamentals? movements. In fact, the parameter estimate of The model was re-estimated by excluding the the oil price is highly significant in all five cases. boom period (i.e., reduced the sample to 1960- Third, with the exception of maize, exchange 2005). Then, based on these estimates, price rate has a strong impact on food prices with the levels of all five commodities were simulated for respective elasticity exceeding unity in three the post-2005 period. During the boom years of cases—the estimate of the exchange for maize 2008-10, in all 5 commodities actual prices were (effectively zero) and rice (the highest among the much higher than the forecast prices—ranging 5 prices) most likely reflects that fact that the US from 35 percent (wheat in 2009) and 130 percent is a dominant player in the global maize market (rice in 2009). During 2008-10, prices were 70 but not a player in the rice market. Interest rate percent higher than what the model forecasts. It movements do not matter, except for rice. is worth noting that since 1965, the highest Income has no impact in all prices but rice model-generated gaps were in 1974 (+37 Figure Comm.13 Gap between actual and model- Figure Comm.14 Gap between actual and model- generated prices: wheat, 1965-2005 generated prices: wheat, 1965-2010 Percent Percent 100 100 80 80 Out of sampe forecast In sampe forecast 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 -20 -20 -40 -40 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 Source: Baffes (2011). Source: Baffes (2011). 71 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Table Comm.4 Decomposing the contribution of each variable to food price changes from 2000-20 to 2006- 10 (percent) Maize Wheat Rice Soybeans Palm oil Stock-to-Use ratio (S/Ut-1) 12.0 14.4 0.9 -2.4 1.3 Oil price (PtOIL) 32.6 41.4 27.2 57.0 58.2 Exchange rate (XRt) -0.1 11.5 25.4 19.9 11.9 Interest rate (Rt) 0.5 -0.5 -2.0 0.6 0.3 Global GDP (GDPt) 0.4 0.4 1.2 -0.4 -0.3 Inflation (MUVt) 13.6 1.7 -8.4 -0.2 0.7 Time trend -0.3 -0.1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 SUM 58.7 68.8 44.2 74.3 71.8 Residual 41.3 31.2 55.8 25.7 28.2 All 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Note: The contribution was based on the 1960-2010 model parameter estimates Source: Baffes (2011). percent) and 1990 (-20 percent). Figure Prices.‖ American Journal of Agricultural Comm.13 depicts the out-of-sample forecast for Economics, vol. 88, pp. 574–588. the price of wheat. Based on the parameter estimates of the full sample model, fitted prices Baffes, John (2011). "Commodity Markets: were calculated. The gap during 2008-10 was A New Structure or Deviations from Long eliminated, implying that the addition of just 5 Term Trends?" In Commodity Market observations (the boom years) eliminates the Development in Europe: Proceedings of model-generated error (figure Comm.14). the October 2011 Workshop, pp. 80-82, ed. T. Fellmann and S. Helaine. Institute Finally, using the parameter estimates of the for Perspective Technological Studies, model, the relative contribution of each European Commission, Seville. 2000-05 to 2006-10 was calculated (table Comm.4). The unexplained portion of the price Baffes, John (2007). ―Oil Spills on Other changes during this period was 36 percent. Of Commodities.‖ Resources Policy, vol. 32, pp. the remaining 64 percent, oil‘s contribution was 126-134. more than two thirds, followed by exchange rate Dickey, David, and Wayne A. Fuller (1979). movements (23 percent) and stocks (8 percent). ―Distribution of the Estimators for Time Series The contribution of the remaining variables was Regressions with Unit Roots,‖ Journal of the negligible. Two key conclusions are reached. American Statistical Association, vol. 74, pp. First, econometric evidence confirms that 427-431. fundamentals explain most of the food price variation, including the 2005-10 boom years. Houthakker, Hendrik S. (1975). ―Comments and Second, oil prices matter the most while from Discussion on ‗The 1972-75 Commodity the macro perspective exchange rates Boom‘ by Richard N. Cooper and Robert Z. movements matter as well; interest rates and Lawrence.‖ Brookings Papers on Economic income growth do not seem to have a long term Activity, vol. 3, pp. 718-720. impact on food prices. Pindyck, Robert S. and Julio J. Rotemberg (1990). ―The Excess Co-movement of References Commodity Prices.‖ Economic Journal, vol. 100, pp. 1173–1189. Ai, Chunrong, Arjun Chatrath, and Frank Song Radetzki, Marian (1985). ―Effects of a Dollar (2006). ―On the Co-movement of Commodity Appreciation on Dollar Prices in International 72 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Commodity Annex Commodity Markets.‖ Resources Policy, vol. 11, pp. 158-159. Wright, Brian D. (2011). ―The Economics of Grain Price Volatility.‖ Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, vol. 33, pp. 32-58. 73 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Inflation Annex Inflation Annex Inflation has fallen in the past year, on average, activity since the Tohoku disaster of March in both high-income OECD and developing 2011. countries. Inflation has declined rapidly in most of the high-income countries, while outcomes The decline in inflation has been driven by real- have been more varied in developing countries and financial aftereffects of the first financial that nevertheless show an overall, declining crisis, and importantly by related developments trend. in commodity markets. Producers and exporters of electronics and machinery have offered OECD: rapid demand-altering effects (fuels); substantial price discounts linked to the massive lack of pass-through. Inflation is falling in the buildup of inventories during the global growth developed world. From April to November downturn of 2009. This latter effect echoes the 2011, headline inflation in the G-5 countries increasing importance of global factors, dipped by nearly 2 percentage points (figure particularly the expansion of manufacturing INF.1), while the earlier, rapid pass through of production in East Asia, in determining inflation headline inflation to so-called “core in the rich countries.2 prices��? (which exclude food and fuels) appears to be abating (figure INF.2).1 Among the G-5 Moreover, commodity price shocks have had a countries, the United States and Germany major, sustained impact on inflation during this achieved the largest decline (2 pts) in headline period among the industrialized economies. In inflation since the first quarter of 2011; and other particular, international oil prices surged to near- Euro Area countries have seen a substantial record highs following the cut-off of Libyan falloff of about 1.5 points, accentuated by the crude oil in 2011, driving both increases in fuels onset of sluggish growth there and a still fairly- prices and in food prices, the latter due to higher strong euro to that time. Japan‟s initial low transport costs, increased prices for fertilizers, levels of inflation mean its delta in consumer and reduced supply--as biofuel mandates shifted prices is small. Still, the shift to deflation in land usage towards the production of ethanol.3 Japan is reflective of the slow-build-up in The direct effects of the hike in oil prices are seen quickly at the petrol pump. Demand for Figure INF.1 G-5 headline CPI drops nearly 2 fuels soften with some lag, but also with points November vs April 2011 Figure INF.2 Core picked up in recent recovery- but gap has widened recently 6 10 Apr: 4.2%, saar 4 8 Headline 6 2 4 0 2 Core -2 0 Nov: 2.3% saar Headline CPI -4 -2 G-5 countries, GDP-weighted percentage change (3m/3m, saar) -4 Headline and Core CPI -6 G-5 countries, GDP-weighted percentage change (3m/3m, saar) -6 -8 -8 Source: Thomson-Reuters Datastream; World Bank. Source: Reuters-Thomson Datastream; World Bank. 75 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Inflation Annex substantial weight, with a shift toward e.g. public group: while inflation in China in the first transport, improved efficiency automobiles, or quarter was well below the average 10 percent “self-propelled��? modes to getting places. But in rate in other developing countries, since then contrast with conditions in developing countries, inflation in many countries has fallen sharply, the co-rise in foods prices has smaller overall but in China these have fallen more rapidly effects, given its diminished share in the OECD still—a reversal of recent price trends for the consumption basket. Typically, subdued developing world. Easing price pressures in most inflation during a period of high unemployment developing countries should serve to boost should allow authorities some room for domestic demand (over time), as well as provide expansionary policies. However, as OECD additional headroom for staving off more severe inflation moves quickly in a broader direction effects of potential global economic difficulties toward zero (indeed the momentum of producer ahead (for example with real interest rates now prices is now negative for the G-3 countries) and rising, monetary authorities could opt to cut governments are beset by high debt burdens, nominal rates further). authorities‟ ability to undertake expansionary policies has become more limited. Further  In East Asia and the Pacific, easing inflation reductions in demand as consumers begin to is now the watchword in the wake of a expect lower prices in the future (as may be period when higher Chinese inflation was happening in Japan) could possibly undercut “holding up��? the index at higher levels. For hopes for a revival of economic activity. China, the ASEAN countries and others in the region, underlying momentum in Developing countries: hysteresis and headline CPI is now diminishing: China to vulnerabilities. As is widely recognized, rising 2.8 percent over the three months to food prices contribute more to inflation in November (saar); for countries excluding developing than in advanced economies, because China to 4 percent. The increase in the East food‟s share of the consumption basket in the Asian CPI reached a recent peak of 8 percent former tends to be much larger than in the latter. in January 2011 under increasing food and For example, food accounts for 15 percent of the fuel price pressures, as well as still strong U.S. (CPI) basket but 50 percent of the domestic demand, and is now running at rate consumption basket of the Philippines. below 3 percent thanks to developments in Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that there China. With economic activity now is a more significant pass-through of food prices anticipated to continue fairly strong, to non-food prices in developing countries accompanied by lower commodity prices, compared with OECD economies--where there is almost none. An example of this possible Figure INF.3 DEV inflation eased by 3 points transmission mechanism is higher food prices since Jan 2011 to 6% by November triggering protests for higher wages across Northern Africa, elsewhere in Africa, and the Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) Middle East during 2007-08.4 11 Roundup of inflation trends across developing 9 regions For developing countries as a group, headline inflation rates have eased at a somewhat slower 7 pace than for the advanced economies, falling by 3 percentage points since the start of 2011 and 5 1.3 percentage points from April through 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 November (figure INF.3). The decline is DEV DEV x China moderately less if China is excluded from the Source: : World Bank. 76 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Inflation Annex we may expect a continuing deflationary the Central Bank recently has cut rates). A trend through 2012 at a minimum (figure moderate uptrend has set in during the fall INF.4). months, carrying inflation above 6.8 percent by November, which is nonetheless expected  In Europe and Central Asia, Turkey is the to be short-lived, given anticipated step- outlier in this group of diverse economies, down in economic growth. In similar experiencing higher inflation (at 13.8% in fashion, Mexico’s recent upturn is more November, saar) on the back of robust likely than not to be temporary. Average growth and recent reductions in interest inflation for the region now lies at 7.5 rates. At the same time, inflation in Russia percent (owing to continued double-digit has eased rapidly from a 10 percent advances for both Argentina and Venezuela), annualized pace in the first quarter of 2011 albeit down from 9 percent in the first to 3.9 percent by October, but picked up in quarter of the year (figure INF.6). November, possibly reflecting ruble depreciation. Here, slowing growth and  In the Middle East and North Africa, higher weaker oil prices have driven the sharp food and oil prices, disruptions to economic earlier fall in inflation. In the remainder of the region (Central Asian oil- and Figure INF.5 Softer oil prices, slower growth commodity exporters) inflation has trended start to weigh on Europe & Central Asia CPI-- Turkey an outlier down well into single digits essentially linked to similar developments in their larger Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) 16 neighbor, Russia. Regional inflation eased from 10.7 percent (saar) at end-2010 to a 14 Russia Turkey low of 7 percent in April, before returning to 12 9.6 percent by November 2011 (figure 10 INF.5). 8 6  In Latin America and the Caribbean, 4 Brazilian inflation, which had been running 2 at an overly-rapid 8 to 10 percent pace for Europe and Central Asia most of 2011, eased to below 6 percent by 0 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 August, owing to somewhat slower growth and determined monetary tightening (though Source: World Bank. Figure INF.4 China shows sharp slowing of CPI momentum carrying East Asia & the Pacific to Figure INF.6 Brazil and Mexico still experience below 3% modest uptrend-- short lived? Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) 10.0 10 8 China 7.5 Brazil 6 EAP x China 5.0 4 Mexico 2.5 2 East Asia and Pacific Latin America and the Caribbean 0 0.0 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 77 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Inflation Annex activity occasioned by the “Arab Spring��?, as had earlier softened in the “post-conflict��? well as continuing violence in countries such environment in Sri Lanka (figure INF.8). as Yemen and Syria, have boosted regional inflation (as defined by limited data  And in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Africa available for all countries of the region) to a and Nigeria, representing the bulk of the 20 percent range as of June (3m/3m saar). region‟s GDP, have shown opposing As such data is less meaningful now that movements of late, with South African more recent indicators for Egypt, Morocco headline inflation moving to a range of 6 and Tunisia have become available we focus percent from 2 percent at the start of the here and find that headline inflation in these year; in contrast, inflation is plummeting in economies show a clear tendency toward Nigeria owing to lower oil prices, revenues easing. However, consumer prices measured and disposable incomes. For the region at the market are exceptionally biased by outside of South Africa, inflation remains large-scale government subsidies for food elevated, but falling, currently ranging near and in some cases fuel that move such 10 percent, in large measure due to indicators lower. Underlying pressures are developments in Kenya (figure INF.9). indeed much higher, but the cost is being borne by local governments. Still the region Figure INF.8 India showing deceleration, but remains highly exposed to further food price South Asia region still at high rates near 9% hikes, weighing down budgets, leading to Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) worsening trade deficits at a time of concern 20 about MENA‟s largest trading partners in Europe (figure INF.7). 15 Pakistan  In South Asia, headline inflation for India 10 and several other countries remains high, for the former within a 5-6 point range (saar), 5 India and for Pakistan between 10-and 11 points. But when measured on a seasonally adjusted 0 annualized rate, inflation in India has fallen South Asia Sri Lanka by 2.5 percentage points since the start of -5 2011, to 5.2 percent in November. Inflation 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 remains more problematic in Pakistan; but Source: World Bank. Figure INF.7 MENA inflation easing as food Figure INF.9 African inflation making some subsidies distort "markets" strides, but still high at near 7% Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) Headline CPI, ch% (3m/3m, saar) 16 25 14 20 12 10 15 8 6 10 4 5 2 Sub-Saharan Africa 0 0 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 Tunisia Jordan Egypt SSA South Africa Nigeria SSA x South Africa Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 78 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Inflation Annex Notes 1. Headline‟ inflation refers to price changes for all goods in an economy. „Core‟ inflation excludes fuels and foods from that basket. G -5 headline CPI growth (inflation) is a GDP- weighted measure of price changes, computed as a 3m/3m “rolling quarter��? and annualized “seasonally adjusted annualized rate��?, or SAAR. This method helps to remove what could be biased “base effects��? from year-over-year calculations, as well as to present a clearer picture of turning points in the data. 2. “Globalization and Inflation in OECD Countries��?. Pehnel, Gernot; ECIPE Working Paper No 04/2007. 3. “A Note on Rising Food Prices��?. Donald Mitchell. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper. No. 4682. July 2008. The World Bank. Washington DC. 4. Guimaraes, Roberto. Osorio Buitron. Carolina; Porter, Nathan; Filiz, Unsal D. and Walsh, James. “Consolidating the Recovery and Building Sustainable Growth��?. Chapter 2, Washington DC: International Monetary Fund, October 2010, pp. 41-55. 79 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex East Asia and the Pacific Region Overview and less reserves to stem financial disturbances. Economies in the East Asia and Pacific region The anticipated modest slowing of overall are being affected in varying ways by the growth in the base-case projections is due to an current, difficult economic times.1 After easing in China, offset in part by what may be expanding 9.7 percent in 2010 on the back of sufficient vigor in ASEAN-4 domestic demand. strong performance in China, GDP in developing The larger driver for the slowdown is found in East Asia is estimated to have slowed to an 8.2 faltering OECD demand, affecting exports both percent pace in 2011, and is projected to ease from China and from those middle income further to 7.8 percent in 2012 and 2013 (table countries joined in tight manufacturing EAP.1). The middle income countries of the production chains with the former economy and region are generally well positioned to withstand with others. A more serious downturn in the high the global slowdown underway (see main text), -income countries could certainly exact a larger with substantial fiscal space available, a degree toll on growth— and would likely be amplified of downside flexibility in policy interest rates, by changes in commodity prices, potential significant reserve levels, and a still-strong narrowing of international sources of finance underpinning for domestic demand. and, importantly for East Asia, a ―second round‖ of adverse trade effects, given a ―first round‖ Still, a more serious deterioration of conditions slowing of worldwide demand. in high-income economies and an attendant sharp decline in global trade could have serious Declines in commodity prices alongside a global implications for these countries, which as a downturn could exact a toll on East Asia’s large group are exceptionally open to world trade. exporters of agricultural products, fats and oils, Vietnam, and the region’s low-income to lower- and hydrocarbons, reducing fiscal revenues and middle income economies (Cambodia and Lao pressuring deficits. At the same time, the diverse PDR), as well as the small island economies are nature of the region means that falling less well positioned than the major countries of commodity prices will help numerous countries, the region, with limited space for policy change foremost including China, with lower oil prices also benefitting countries such as Indonesia, Figure EAP.1 Industrial production showing rebound where budgets are still burdened by fuel post-Tohoku; Thailand suffers from flooding subsidies. Remittance receipts are potent drivers industrial production, ch% 3m/3m, saar for growth in countries from the Philippines to 35 the small island economies—and these flows, as 30 well as tourist arrivals (important for the region 25 20 broadly) could slow because of sluggish labor 15 market and growth developments in the OECD, 10 5 although migrant remittances held up quite well 0 during the 2008-2009 crisis. -5 -10 -15 GDP growth in China, the region’s largest -20 -25 economy (about 80 percent of regional GDP), -30 eased from 10.4 percent in 2010 to and estimated -35 2010M01 2010M05 2010M09 2011M01 2011M05 2011M09 9.1 percent in 2011, and is expected to dip further to a (still robust) 8.4 percent in 2012 as China Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand authorities continue to dampen quite rapid Source: World Bank. growth in a number of sectors of the economy. 81 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex Table EAP.1 East Asia and the Pacific forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 7.9 8.5 7.5 9.7 8.2 7.8 7.8 GDP per capita (units in US$) 7.0 7.6 6.6 8.8 7.4 7.0 6.9 PPP GDP c 7.8 8.4 7.5 9.6 8.2 7.8 7.8 Private consumption 5.9 7.4 7.3 7.7 7.6 7.8 7.7 Public consumption 7.9 8.6 7.3 6.6 7.6 7.0 6.4 Fixed investment 9.2 9.1 19.0 6.6 11.0 8.9 8.8 Exports, GNFS d 13.7 7.1 -9.2 22.6 10.3 8.5 11.2 Imports, GNFS d 12.1 4.7 -1.9 20.8 13.0 10.2 11.2 Net exports, contribution to growth 1.4 1.6 -3.6 1.9 -0.2 -0.1 0.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.1 7.5 5.8 4.7 3.1 2.6 2.3 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 5.0 7.8 4.4 3.6 5.0 5.2 4.6 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) -2.1 -0.5 -2.9 -1.9 -1.9 -2.3 -2.1 Memo items: GDP East Asia excluding China 4.5 4.8 1.5 6.9 5.2 5.5 5.6 China 9.1 9.6 9.2 10.4 9.1 8.4 8.3 Indonesia 4.1 6.0 4.6 6.1 6.4 6.2 6.5 Thailand 4.5 2.5 -2.3 7.8 2.0 4.2 4.9 a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services (GNFS). e. Estimate. f. Forecast. Source: World Bank. Output is projected to ease in 2013 to 8.3 March 2011 caused industrial production growth percent, in-line with the country’s longer-term in the region to slip from 18 percent before the potential growth rate. GDP growth in the rest of crisis to 6 percent in the three months ending in the region slowed sharply in 2011 from 6.9 June (saar). Output then picked up, reaching 7.7 percent to a 4.8 percent pace, but is expected to percent growth by November 2011. Indeed, strengthen gradually over 2012 and 2013, China’s production growth fell from a peak of 22 coming in at 5.8 percent in the final year. percent in the first quarter (saar) to 11 percent by November (figure EAP.1, earlier). In contrast, Recent developments first quarter production in Malaysia increased by 6.5 percent; and in the Philippines by 8.8 GDP data for developing East Asia available for percent, giving way to double digit declines as the first three quarters of 2011 (table EAP.2) of August, before undergoing moderate together with high-frequency indicators, point to rebounds. More recently the severe flooding in slowing from the region’s strong growth of Thailand has dampened industrial output 2010. Natural disasters and more recently the severely in the short run (72% contraction in financial market turmoil in Europe have started output in the three months to November 2011) to exact a moderate toll on regional economic until repairs to infrastructure and utilities activity in the middle income countries. The intensify through the course of 2012—a factor disruption to international supply chains from likely to boost growth for the country (box the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan of EAP.1). Table EAP.2 Quarterly GDP over the first 3 quarters of 2011*, estimates for the year East Asia China Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand 2010 9.7 10.4 6.1 7.2 7.6 7.8 Q4 9.8 10.0 6.1 9.2 1.9 5.3 2011 Q1 7.5 8.2 6.5 7.3 7.8 7.5 Q2 7.3 10.0 6.2 2.5 -1.9 0.2 Q3 7.0 9.5 6.2 4.4 5.0 2.1 2011 (est) 8.2 9.1 6.3 4.4 3.7 2.0 Source: Haver Analytics, Thomson/Reuters Datastream, China National Bureau of Statistics, World Bank. Note: * Data at seasonally adjusted annualized rates. 82 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex Box EAP.1 Floods in Thailand—what consequences for growth? Thailand is no stranger to natural disasters. However, the floods which inundated 66 of the country’s 77 provinces from July through November 2011 were the worst in 50 years. Losses have mounted in part as the structural makeup of the Thai economy has shifted in the last decades to one of manufacturing intensity, and damages are well beyond what would have occurred in an earlier era. In 2011, accumulated water from months of storms and high precipitation resulted in a severe flooding of the cen- tral regions, with water drifting southward toward Bangkok, affecting some 5 million people in this region alone. At the time of this writing, more than 680 lives have been lost, and the accumulated affected population is esti- mated at 13.6 million (a large 21% of total population). Social safety nets were rapidly put in place or upgraded, and new loans for firms and agricultural cooperatives have been proposed to invest in recovery operations. Total damages and losses have been estimated at $46.5 billion, with the manufacturing sector carrying some 70 percent of the damages and losses; overall the private sector has borne up to 90 percent of damages and losses. Official Thai sources have estimated that reconstruction will be realized over three years, from 2011 through 2013, and that the cost to Thai GDP of the flooding will be a fairly moderate loss of growth in 2011 of 1.1 percentage points, and additions to growth of 0.2 and 0.9 percent respectively over 2012 and 2013 as reconstruction moves toward completion. Source: World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific region. Quarterly GDP data for the region confirm a Chinese and middle-income regional exports slowing in annualized growth from 9.8 percent rebounded sharply (figure EAP.3). But export for the final quarter of 2010 to an average of volumes slowed dramatically beginning in about 7.2 percent for the first three quarters of August and fell at a 10.5 percent annualized pace 2011 (saar). Third quarter numbers for major during the 3 months ending November, likely economies, excluding China and Indonesia, reflecting knock-on effects from the financial show some pickup from the second quarter, but turmoil in Europe. Most of the decline was due with the exception of the Philippines the rebound initially to weaker Chinese exports, while was generally modest. Growth was driven across shipments from the rest of the region continued most countries by a surge in government outlays to expand sluggishly until falling 16 percent in offset by inventory draw-downs (given the the 3 months to November. Though press reports stalling out of industrial production) (figure of the time suggested significant disruption to EAP.2). supply chains in specific sectors from flooding in Thailand, such impacts are just becoming From a trough following Tohoku in April 2011, apparent at the aggregate level. Over the course Figure EAP.2 Recent weakness in ASEAN sets moderate Figure EAP.3 Export volumes hit by Tohoku and downtrend for GDP growth sluggish OECD demand growth of real GDP, ch% q/q, saar export volumes, ch% 3m/3m saar 75 12 10 50 8 6 25 4 0 2 0 -25 -2 -4 -50 East Asia China Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand 2009M01 2009M05 2009M09 2010M01 2010M05 2010M09 2011M01 2011M05 2011M09 2010Q4 2011Q1 2011Q2 2011Q3 East Asia China East Asia excl China Source: Haver Analytics, China NBS, World Bank. Source: World Bank. 83 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex of 2012 these connections will likely be reset as particularly trade and other short term credits infrastructure repairs are completed in Thailand. (one-year or less). Gross equity flows in the form of initial public offerings were robust Despite the erstwhile continued growth of during the year (table EAP.3). Although capital regional exports (excluding China), exporters in inflows were relatively stable year on year in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and 2011, this masks a pattern of unusually strong Thailand and Vietnam are vulnerable to slowing inflows during the first half– and sharply weaker import demand growth in OECD economies. For inflows in the second half of the year. In example, 48 percent of the Philippines’ exports particular, regional equity and bond markets are destined to three markets: Europe (20%), the soured markedly after August, reflecting United States (18%) and China (10%), the latter increases in global risk aversion following the in part representing demand from production downgrading of U.S. sovereign debt and chains serving Europe and the United States renewed concerns about European fiscal (figure EAP.4). Already, external demand for sustainability. Chinese equity markets―after manufactures has weakened significantly (the modest gains from the start of the year through dollar value of imports of the United States, the May ― plummeted 25 percent from July to Euro Area and China declined 10 percent in the December, before recouping 5 percent into the third quarter, saar) (figure EAP.5). A ―China New Year on somewhat more muted pessimism effect‖ in trade is also of concern for its regional on European developments (figure EAP.6). partners: a slowdown China’s import demand could be grounded in a quicker-than-expected Fortunately, most countries in the region do not slowdown in China’s domestic demand or a have significant external financing needs for falloff in orders from China’s production chains 2012 (mainly due to current account surpluses or due to slower high-income country demand. relatively small deficits). The sum of short- and These developments could constitute a ―double long-term debt coming due plus expected current hit‖ on shipments from a number of East Asia account deficits represent a relatively modest 3.4 region manufacturing export -intensive percent of regional GDP in 2012, with a high of economies. 4.2 percent for Malaysia (where reserves would be more-than sufficient to cover financing Volatile capital flows and exchange rate requirements). Reserve levels are exceptionally movements. During 2010, private and public high across East Asian middle income countries, capital inflows into developing East Asia jumped ranging from 8.2 months of imports in Indonesia from their depressed $235 billion level of 2009 to 23 months in China. As a result, the region to $448 billion, with virtually all flows rising, Figure EAP.5 East Asia & Pacific export markets Figure EAP.4 Exposures in manufactures exports are show declining trends, auguring poorly for rapid trade high recovery Share (%) of mfgr exports to indicated markets from exporters imports of manufactured goods, nominal (ch$, 3m/3m saar) listed below. (data is average 2008-2009) 100 50 75 40 50 30 25 20 10 0 0 -25 China Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand 1/1/2010 5/1/2010 9/1/2010 1/1/2011 5/1/2011 9/1/2011 Mf gr shr in U.S. Mf gr shr in EU25 US imports Mf grs EA imports Mf grs China imports Mf grs Mf gr shr in China Total "exposure" Source: National Agencies through Thomson/Reuters Source: World Bank WITS- Comtrade Database. Datastream. 84 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex would not be particularly vulnerable should the currencies of a number of developing external finance begin to dry-up in 2012 or 2013. countries to depreciate vis-à-vis the dollar. In Again, lower-income and island economies may general, East Asian declines were modest be in a different position, as external financing compared with those of other large middle- needs remain high and reserves to finance income countries such as South Africa (the rand deficits are more limited. fell 22 percent against the dollar) and Brazil (the real dropped 18 percent). For East Asia, only the In September 2011 a spurt of capital flight Indonesia rupiah and the Malaysian ringgit came toward ―safe haven‖ assets in the United States under moderate pressure, falling 5.8 and 5.4 tied to the unfolding events in Europe, caused percent respectively during the second half of the Figure EAP.6 Equity markets turned down in 2011, year (figure EAP.7). with evidence of some recovery in January Easing inflation is now the watchword in East Equity indexes, January 2009 = 100). Asia. Inflation problems in the region have 350 moderated substantially reflecting stable and 325 300 even falling food and fuel prices, the modest 275 slowing of the regional economy and policy 250 225 measures taken to rein in CPI gains. For China, 200 the ASEAN countries and others in the region, 175 150 underlying momentum in headline CPI is now 125 diminishing: China to 2.8 percent over the three 100 75 Shenzen B share Dow Jones AP months to November (saar); for countries 50 excluding China to 4 percent. The increase in the 1/1/2009 5/1/2009 9/1/2009 1/1/2010 5/1/2010 9/1/2010 1/1/2011 5/1/2011 9/1/2011 1/1/2012 East Asian CPI reached a recent peak of 8 percent in January 2011 under increasing food Source: Thomson/Reuters Datastream. and fuel price pressures, as well as still strong Table EAP.3 Net capital flows to East Asia and the Pacific Net capital flows to EAP $ billions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 83.5 143.2 271.0 399.9 438.5 361.8 352.6 268.8 261.6 262.7 as % of GDP 3.2 4.7 7.4 8.7 7.5 5.8 4.8 3.1 2.6 2.3 Financial flows: Ne t private and official inflows 127.0 209.0 238.6 301.3 209.4 235.3 448.2 411.6 132.2 Ne t private inflows (e quity+private de bt) 212.3 247.9 304.7 210.4 231.7 444.8 408.1 350.4 426.2 ..Net private inflows (% GDP) 5.0 7.0 6.8 6.6 3.6 3.7 6.0 4.7 3.4 3.7 Net equity inflows 89.7 168.1 207.9 234.0 206.8 166.3 268.2 264.2 258.4 285.2 ..Net FDI inflows 70.4 142.4 151.7 198.9 214.1 137.5 227.7 243.7 234.8 258.7 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 19.3 25.7 56.2 35.1 -7.3 28.9 40.5 20.5 23.6 26.5 Net debt flows 37.3 40.9 30.7 67.3 2.6 69.0 180.0 147.4 ..Official creditors -5.2 -3.3 -9.3 -3.4 -1.0 3.7 3.4 3.5 ....World Bank -1.9 -0.6 -0.4 -0.3 1.2 2.2 2.7 1.2 ....IMF -1.6 -1.6 -8.5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 ....Other official -1.7 -1.1 -0.4 -3.1 -2.1 1.3 0.8 2.3 ..Private creditors 42.5 44.2 40.0 70.7 3.6 65.3 176.6 143.9 92.0 141.0 ....Net M-L term debt flows 9.1 9.3 14.9 18.7 15.0 1.9 35.1 43.9 ......Bonds 9.6 10.1 4.0 1.2 1.2 8.4 20.8 33.8 ......Banks 1.7 1.6 12.2 17.8 16.1 -6.6 13.1 10.0 ......Other private -2.1 -2.3 -1.3 -0.3 -2.3 0.0 1.1 0.1 ....Net short-term debt flows 33.4 34.8 25.1 52.1 -11.4 63.5 141.5 100.0 Balancing item /a 26.6 -134.5 -214.1 -160.0 -215.7 -62.2 -249.8 -270.2 Change in reserves (- = increase) -237.1 -217.7 -295.4 -541.2 -432.2 -535.0 -551.0 -410.2 Memorandum items Migrant remittances /b 38.5 48.8 55.9 71.5 84.9 85.3 94.0 101.1 108.5 117.2 Source: The World Bank Note : e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and cap ital outflows from developing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers’ remittances, comp ensation of emp loyees, and migrant transfers Source: World Bank. 85 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex Figure EAP.7 Capital outflows are affecting several cyclical and policy reasons. The Institute of Brics fex-rates and reserves-- EAP largely spared International Finance estimates that fiscal percentage change in currency units against the dollar: measures in China could have amounted to as 2010, first-half 2011 and mid-2011 to end-December much as 12.5 percent of that country’s GDP over Euro/dollar two years, though its recorded deficit increased ZAF R by only 3 percentage points from a surplus of 0.9 BRA rei percent of GDP in 2007 to deficit of 2.1 percent CHN R in 2009.3 Since then a combination of stronger MYS R growth and normalization of fiscal policy has seen China’s deficit decline to an estimated 1.7 PHL P percent of GDP in 2011, with most of that Thai B improvement (1.5 percentage points according to Indo R World Bank estimates) the result of better -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 cyclical conditions. ch% Mid-year 2011 to December 7 ch% 1st Half 2011 2010 note: in this presentatin, stronger LCU is a positive percentage change For the remainder of the region the decline and subsequent rebound in public deficits was less Source: World Bank. pronounced, with the government balance deteriorating 2.6 percentage points of GDP domestic demand, and is now running at a rate between 2007 and 2009 and recovering 0.8 below 3 percent thanks to developments in percentage points since, to come to a deficit of China. With economic activity now anticipated 2.6 percent in 2011. Fiscal shortfalls differ to continue fairly strong, accompanied by lower substantially across countries across the year, commodity prices, we may expect a continuing from 5.5 percent of GDP in Malaysia to 1.6 softening trend in inflation through 2012 at a percent in Indonesia. Most middle income minimum. countries carry some fiscal space for a relaxation of policy (assuming financing is forthcoming— Partly reflecting diminished inflationary or sufficient international reserves are available pressures, but also slowing growth–notably in for backup), though on average they have 1.5 China―monetary policy in the region has begun percentage points less available compared with to ease. Since August 2011, policy rates have 2007. been cut 75 basis points in Indonesia; they had been raised 25 basis points in Thailand prior to Medium-term outlook the flooding, then reduced once more2, while Malaysia and the Philippines have kept policy Despite the increasingly cloudy global rates stable since a second-quarter increase. In environment, growth in the East Asia and Pacific China, the PBOC reduced the reserve region is projected to slow by only 0.4 requirement ratio by 50 basis points on percentage points to 7.8 percent in 2012 (under November 30, the first time the central bank has base case assumptions) and stabilizes at 7.8 moved to ease credit supply since 2009. But percent for 2013 as well, as the effects of a overall policy remains fairly tight, mainly modest easing in China’s growth is because inflation rates have declined by more counterbalanced by a pickup in GDP gains in the than policy interest rates – implying rising real remainder of the region, to yield 7.8 percent interest rates— and the potential for additional growth for 2013 (figure EAP.8). The slowdown rate reductions if desired. of 2012 reflects an expected continuation of strong domestic demand (already in some Fiscal policy in the region loosened significantly evidence in third-quarter 2011 GDP data and with the global recession of 2008/9. The region’s high-frequency indicators), as export growth is overall government deficit widened by 3.6 anticipated to slow by almost 2 percentage percent of GDP between 2007 and 2009 for both points due to turmoil in Europe and sluggish 86 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex Figure EAP.8 Baseline view for moderate decline fillip to GDP gains in 2012. Growth in Malaysia is likely to sustain rates near 5 percent over the growth of real GDP, percent coming two years, as recent upward revisions to 12 GDP complement a view for strong domestic 10 demand grounded in government consumption and a substantial pickup in public investment. 8 Indonesia is expected to see growth ease from 6.4 percent in 2011- to a still very strong 6.2 6 percent in 2012- before picking up to 6.5 percent by 2013, with domestic demand the prime mover 4 for GDP. 2 Both Thailand and the Philippines may be able 0 to avert a slowing of GDP in 2012. In the DEV East Asia China ASEAN-4 Vietnam & LICs Islands former, reconstruction spending to repair the extensive damage from flooding may provide a 2010 2011 2012 2013 boost to output growth in 2012; while in the Source: World Bank. latter economy the continued strength of remittance inflows and renewed public spending OECD demand, contributing nil to overall is projected to boost growth to 4.2 percent from regional growth (see table EAP.1, earlier).4 3.7 percent in 2011. That the tenor of domestic demand in most countries will remain resilient In China, the lagged effects of monetary policy may be attributable to policy decisions regarding tightening (both in terms of interest rates and monetary accommodation (now coming on regulatory adjustment) are expected to combine stream) and fiscal support (potentially with weak external demand to slow GDP growth forthcoming). On balance, GDP gains of 4.6 from 9.1 percent in 2011 to 8.3 percent by 2013. percent registered in 2011 for the ASEAN-4 are The bulk of activity is expected to come from anticipated to be followed by advances of 5.2 domestic demand―with private consumption and 5.7 percent through 2013. and fixed investment contributing 3-and-4 percentage points to GDP in 2012―while net Growth in low-income Cambodia together with exports afford only a modest 0.2 point addition lower-middle income Vietnam and Laos PDR, to growth. Inflation is anticipated to decline; and slowed from 6.8 percent in 2010 to 5.9 percent monetary policy relaxation could be in the cards in 2011. Looking forward, growth in Vietnam during 2012. Key domestic risks for China are and Cambodia is projected to strengthen the property sector, local government borrowing, somewhat further during 2012 and 2013 due to and bank balance sheets; but the baseline the ability to utilize hydrocarbon windfalls to scenario envisages that policy will focus closely sustain spending in the former, and improved on these aspects, with efforts sufficient to stem macroeconomic stability in the latter, while a systemic effects on the economy. lack of strong financial linkages should mute that transmission channel from the disturbance Prospects for the ASEAN-4 countries are among high-income countries for both. mixed, but in a ―baseline view‖ are likely to Vietnam’s fiscal stance remains accommodative, achieve a pick-up in growth despite the 2012 though tightening of monetary policy to stem global slowdown. Following a sharp deceleration high inflation is helping to reduce the country’s from 6.9 percent to 4.6 percent gains for the macroeconomic instability gradually. Vietnam’s group in 2011, softening export volumes and exports have expanded at double digit rates for mixed terms-of-trade movements are anticipated some time, though this is likely to give way for to be offset by the strong momentum of domestic all economies in the group over 2012-13. GDP demand for a number of countries, to produce a for the group is anticipated to achieve a robust 87 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex 6.8 percent pace in 2012 (in part due to new networks, such that a larger number of middle large-scale mining and hydropower operations income countries are affected. And under an coming on stream in Lao PDR), before easing to assumption of an acute European crisis, ―second- 6.5 percent in 2013. Current account deficits round‖ trade effects could take an additional toll remain at high levels, however, given the heavy on trade growth as more countries globally import content of manufactures exports, while experience depressed growth and dampened fiscal deficits are a continuing concern. imports. Risks and vulnerabilities Terms of trade developments can have a powerful influence on trade positions, on the For the majority of middle income countries in purchasing power of export revenues (income East Asia, the health of the global economy and gains/losses for the population) and on fiscal high-income Europe in particular, represents the balances. East Asia represents a highly mixed set key risk at this time. An acute financial crisis in of countries in terms of oil and natural gas Europe could reduce East Asian GDP gains in exporters (Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam), oil 2012 substantially compared to 7.8 percent importers, and countries whose export baskets growth in the baseline depending on the severity reflect a complex mix of commodities and of the crisis – reflecting trade effects, potential manufactures (electronic components, auto parts terms of trade changes, a drying up of and finished goods of all kinds) which include international capital and increases in regional China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Indonesia and precautionary saving by firms and households Thailand. Other countries are more dependent on (see main text for description of a potential low a single commodity (e.g. Papua New Guinea, case scenario). copper). Trade. Despite global recession in 2009, exports For the developing region as a whole, the food of developing East Asia to the world amounted and energy price spikes of 2010-2011 carried to $1.8 trillion, representing 30 percent of negative terms of trade effects on balance, with regional GDP. Of that total, trade within the the index dropping 1.9-and-0.6 percent geographic region has advanced to $840 billion respectively. Under baseline conditions, terms of on growth of almost 50 percent over the last trade should be moving positively for the region decade. Just as international and intra-region over 2012-2013 (plus 2.2 and 0.5 percent trade has proved a powerful engine of growth for respectively), notably for China, the low income a good number of East Asian countries, so can countries, as well as several middle income the intricate trade links among economies in the ASEAN-4 economies (figure EAP.9). region, and generalized exposures to conditions in final destination markets serve as fairly East Asia is well prepared for yet another powerful means of transmission of adverse trade potential bought of strong capital inflows, effects to- and within East Asia (see figures should international investors in search of yield EAP.4 and EAP.5, earlier, and table EAP.4). (returns in the high single digits in local currency vis-à-vis low single digits in the high-income Model simulations5 for the base case scenario financial markets) turn once more to emerging suggest that a fall of GDP growth in the euro- markets. Reserve levels are high, interest rates zone from 0.5 percent postulated for 2012 to are starting to be reduced; growth is likely to zero would be sufficient to reduce East Asia’s slow moderately and fiscal space is abundant in export volume growth by 2-tenths of a the middle income countries of the region. percentage point in the year—and broadly Exchange rates have—on average—weakened (dependent on export shares in GDP), cut slightly against the greenback, but strengthened economic growth by 1-to-2 tenths of a appreciably versus the euro, which may create a percentage point. Slower OECD demand echoes ―win-win‖ situation for equity and bond flows quickly through East Asian production and trade toward East Asia, with expectations of returns 88 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex Figure EAP.9 Terms of trade move with East Asia effects passing to the remainder of the region. in 2012 before relapse Expansionary policies that supported strong terms of trade (merchandise), ch% growth during the ―great recession‖ also fed a 10 real estate boom in China. And rapid credit 8 growth may have weakened the portfolio quality 6 of the banking system. Attempts to cool parts of 4 the economy were successful; monetary policy 2 and regulations were notched up earlier, and growth in formal bank lending was tightened. 0 However, because real estate is often used as -2 collateral or as an investment, it is a growing risk -4 for the banking system and for informal -6 creditors. Should conditions worsen, the -8 government has ample policy space, especially 01/01/08 01/01/09 01/01/10 01/01/11 01/01/12 01/01/13 now that inflation appears to be on the wane. China ASEAN-4 Low income While further adjustments in property markets present a downside risk, the prospects for a soft Source: World Bank. landing for China remain high. plus capital gains on the exchange rate Policy. Although government deficits in the transaction to boost overall income receipts. region have deteriorated relative to their pre- crisis levels of 2007, there remains scope for a The potential for a ramp-up in capital flows pro-active policy response in a number of middle under emerging global conditions has increased, income countries –assuming financing is exposing those East Asian countries, notably, forthcoming, an important element in defining China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand to the the range of operations feasible. Monetary policy possibility of market disruption and exchange may have some leeway as well to become more rate volatility. Reserves will serve to provide accommodative as inflation eases and real some underpinning to economies, but under interest rates rise, opening the potential for lower worse-case scenarios, those countries which policy interest rates—already in train in several experience large amounts of capital inflow will countries. be more vulnerable to these ―stop-go‖ effects. These could occur under the base case, as To the extent that external finance becomes very financial workouts in Europe and the United tight, countries would have to rely on domestic States get underway; but could be much sources – which are less likely to be available in amplified under a low case scenario. the low-income and island nation groups where domestic capital markets remain underdeveloped Consumer and business confidence appears to be and reserve levels may be inadequate to cover holding up well, suggesting that a spate of additional financing requirements. precautionary savings behavior on the part of households and firms may not characterize For the longer term, however, under the premise conditions in East Asia in the current world that growth in the OECD economies slips from conjuncture. Only under a serious crisis scenario average rates of 2.7 percent of the last decade to might these effects take a meaningful toll on 2-2.25 percent (particularly given the need to economic activity. improve fiscal sustainability), there may be a set of policies worthwhile for authorities in East Finally, the region itself is exposed to the sort of Asia to consider. These might include means to economic landing that will characterize China’s keep domestic demand advancing at a future in its efforts to quell growth in select sustainable, non-inflationary pace, to replace segments of its economy- and to follow-on some of the impetus to growth lost to weaker 89 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex OECD demand. And here lies longer-term fully during times of economic downturn. efforts at improving education and human Though such policies have been in progress for capital, and the productivity of investment. many years, in several some cases, the current Moreover, a strengthening of social welfare nets episode of slower growth may provide an and reforms of their distributional characteristics auspicious time to implement these with more could help to support domestic demand more vigor. Table EAP.4 East Asia and the Pacific country forecasts (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07 a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Cambodia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 8.8 6.7 0.1 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.2 -10.2 -9.8 -10.4 -12.7 -11.5 -10.4 China b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 9.1 9.6 9.2 10.4 9.1 8.4 8.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.1 9.1 6.0 5.2 3.5 3.0 2.6 Indonesia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.1 6.0 4.6 6.1 6.4 6.2 6.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.1 0.0 2.0 1.1 0.4 -0.2 -0.5 Lao PDR b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.4 7.6 7.5 8.6 7.9 7.5 7.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -10.6 -18.7 -12.2 -9.1 -14.0 -16.2 -18.6 Malaysia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.1 4.7 -1.6 7.2 4.8 4.9 5.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 12.5 17.5 16.7 10.1 9.7 9.0 8.5 Mongolia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.4 8.9 -1.3 6.4 14.9 15.1 15.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.9 -12.9 -9.0 -5.8 -15.1 -13.6 -14.0 Papua New Guinea b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 1.7 6.7 5.5 7.6 9.0 7.0 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.3 8.8 -8.8 -0.4 -24.0 -18.0 -18.8 Philippines b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.2 4.2 1.1 7.6 3.7 4.2 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.6 2.1 5.6 4.2 2.0 2.3 2.0 Thailand b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.5 2.5 -2.3 7.8 2.0 4.2 4.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.7 0.8 8.3 4.6 0.7 -0.7 1.3 Vanuatu b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.5 6.3 3.5 3.0 3.9 4.0 4.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -9.3 -9.0 -8.6 -7.6 -6.7 -6.9 -7.4 Vietnam b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.6 6.3 5.3 6.8 5.8 6.8 6.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.6 -18.4 -6.6 -3.9 -4.9 -3.5 -3.5 World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing (global) circumstances. Consequently, projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries’ prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Samoa; Tuvalu; Kiribati; Korea, Democratic People's Republic; Marshall Islands; Micronesia, Federate States; Mongolia: Myanmar; N. Mariana Islands; Palau; Solomon Islands; Timor-Leste; and Tonga are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. Estimate. d. Forecast. Source: World Bank. 90 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 East Asia & the Pacific Annex Notes: 1. The developing East Asia region presented in the projections (countries with sufficient economic data for compilation of a small econometric model) include: China (mainland); the larger ASEAN members: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand; Cambodia (low-income country), and lower middle income economies Vietnam and Lao PDR; and a subset of smaller island economies: Fiji and Papua New Guinea are also part of the model system. Several high-income countries are projected as part of the ―geographic region‖, (not the headline ―developing East Asia‖ region) including Hong Kong SAR, China; the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, China. 2. Thailand’s policy rate was raised by 25 basis points on August 24—but in the wake of the serious flooding throughout most of the country, the rate hike was rescinded on October 24 in a move to stimulate the economy and lower costs for construction financing. 3. ―Global Economic Monitor‖. November 22, 2011. The Institute of International Finance Inc. Washington DC. 4. For the developing region, the contribution of net exports continues to be a drag on growth from 2011 through 2012, before reviving to a 0.6 point fillip to GDP. 5. World Bank, Development Economics, Prospects Group, iSIM modeling system, December 2011. 91 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex Europe and Central Asia Region GDP growth in developing Europe and Central of foreign subsidiaries, and affect valuations of Asia remained stable at 5.3 percent in 2011 foreign and domestically owned banks in despite the disruptive effects of the turmoil in countries with large foreign presence. And global financial markets since August 2011 and slower growth and deteriorating asset prices weakening external demand, especially from the could rapidly increase non-performing loans Euro area (box ECA.1). The disruptions and (NPLs) throughout the region. global slowdown caused by the Tohoku disaster in Japan caused second quarter GDP to slow. In Should conditions in global financial market the third quarter, however, robust domestic deteriorate and crisis in the Euro Area deepen, as demand led to strong growth in several middle- highlighted in the risk section of this annex, income countries—Russia, Romania and Turkey. several Central European countries will be particularly affected through financial and trade Nevertheless, a projected recession in high- linkages. Commodity exporters in the region income Europe, still troublesome inflationary could also run into difficulties if deterioration in pressures in the region and reduced capital the global situation results in a major decline in inflows due to the deepening Euro Area debt commodity prices. crisis are projected to slow regional GDP to 3.2 percent in 2012, before a modest recovery begins Based on simulations highlighted in the main in 2013 with growth of 4 percent (table ECA.1). text (see box 4 in the main text for details), the These aggregate figures hide significant real-side consequences of a much deeper crisis variations across countries within the region. might be significant for the region. A scenario While resource-rich economies benefit from still which assumes that one or two small Euro zone high commodity prices, other countries have economies face a serious credit squeeze may been more adversely affected by the turmoil in reduce the growth in the developing Europe and high-income Europe (figure ECA.1). Central Asia by 1.9 percent in 2012 and 2.2 percent in 2013. The impact might reach as high There are considerable downside risks to the as 5.4 percent for 2012 and 6.6 percent for 2013 region’s economic outlook. The baseline forecast if the freezing up of credit spreads to two larger presented here assumes that efforts to-date and Euro Zone economies. those that may follow prevent the sovereign-debt stress of the past months in Europe from deteriorating further, but fail to completely Figure ECA.1 Significant variation across countries eradicate market concerns. Several countries in within the region the region are particularly reliant on high-income Annual GDP Growth European banks and are vulnerable to a sharp Volume, y/y percent ECA Oil Exporters reduction in wholesale funding and domestic 12.0 ECA Oil Importers bank activity. Deleveraging of banks in high- 10.0 income countries could result in a forced sell-off 8.0 6.0 Box ECA.1 Country coverage 4.0 2.0 For the purpose of this note, the Europe and Central Asia 0.0 region includes 21 developing countries with less than -2.0 $12,276 GNI per capita in 2010. These countries are listed -4.0 in the Table ECA.5 at the end of this note. This classification -6.0 excludes Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, -8.0 Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The list of countries for the 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012f region may differ from those contained in other World Bank documents. Source: World Bank. 93 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex Recent developments Industrial production (IP) in developing Europe and Central Asia expanded at close to a 20 Third quarter growth was strong in large middle percent annualized rate (3m/3m saar) early in the income countries… year, but weakened sharply beginning in the second quarter and declined during much of the Economic growth in several countries in the third quarter. The contraction was reversed since Europe and Central Asia region remained robust September, and the region’s IP growth reached in the third quarter of 2011, as favorable Figure ECA.2 Mixed economic performance in the third domestic factors offset the weakening external quarter environment. Domestic consumption was strong GDP Growth in the third quarter in Lithuania, Ukraine, Russia, y-o-y, percent and to a lesser degree in Latvia and Romania 2011 Q1 14 (figure ECA.2). Robust domestic demand also 2011 Q2 12 supported growth in Turkey that remained high 2011 Q3 10 even after declining from its first quarter level. A 8 bumper harvest contributed to strong economic performance in Romania, Ukraine, and Russia in 6 the third quarter. Bulgaria and Serbia, on the 4 other hand, continued to suffer from weak 2 consumption and investment. 0 Romania Ukraine Russia Latvia Lithuania Turkey Bulgaria Serbia Stronger Flat Slower Industrial production has rebounded since September... Source: World Bank. Table ECA.1 Europe and Central Asia forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 5.4 7.5 3.9 -6.5 5.2 5.3 3.2 4.0 GDP per capita (units in US$) 5.4 7.4 3.9 -6.6 5.2 5.2 3.1 3.9 PPP GDP c 5.6 7.8 4.3 -6.6 5.0 5.0 3.3 4.0 Private consumption 6.3 10.8 6.6 -6.3 7.1 7.7 5.0 5.3 Public consumption 2.5 4.2 3.3 2.3 0.6 2.3 2.4 2.0 Fixed investment 8.8 15.4 6.0 -18.0 3.5 7.9 3.5 4.3 Exports, GNFS d 7.2 7.5 3.1 -7.1 5.9 6.7 4.4 6.2 Imports, GNFS d 10.1 19.6 8.3 -23.9 12.7 9.9 6.7 7.6 Net exports, contribution to growth -0.3 -3.7 -1.9 6.5 -1.9 -0.9 -0.8 -0.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.4 -0.7 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.6 -0.4 -0.7 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 10.0 12.5 13.2 2.2 9.5 6.7 6.2 5.0 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) -2.1 2.9 1.1 -5.9 -4.0 -1.4 -2.2 -2.1 Memo items: GDP Transition countries e 6.2 8.6 5.2 -7.2 3.7 4.1 3.5 4.3 Central and Eastern Europe f 4.7 7.1 5.3 -8.1 -0.4 2.7 1.8 3.2 Commonwealth of Independent States g 6.5 8.9 5.2 -7.0 4.5 4.3 3.5 4.1 Russia 6.3 8.5 5.2 -7.8 4.0 4.1 3.5 3.9 Turkey 3.7 4.7 0.7 -4.8 9.0 8.2 2.9 4.2 Romania 4.3 6.3 7.3 -7.1 -1.3 2.2 1.5 3.0 Source: World Bank. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services (GNFS). e. Transition countries: f + g below. f. Central and Eastern Europe: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kosovo, Lithuania, Macedonia, FYR, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia. g. Commonwealth of Independent States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldovia, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. h. Estimate. i. Forecast. Source: World Bank. 94 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex to a 5.9 percent annualized rate during the three In 2008-10 these countries accounted for more months ending November 2011. Industrial than 50 percent of the region’s exports. activity at the country level has been mixed. Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, FYR Macedonia, After the sharp contraction in earlier months and Bulgaria are particularly dependent on reflecting both a global slowing and a sharp demand from high-income Europe, while more slowdown in domestic spending, industrial distant countries are less so. The October production growth rebounded strongly in rebound in exports was likely supported by the Romania, Ukraine, and Turkey in October. In robust import demand from developing countries contrast, industrial production in Russia (50 that grew at 7 percent annualized during the percent of regional GDP) slowed down despite three months ending October 2011. persistently high oil prices, and it has contracted Figure ECA.4 The regions’ export growth fell in tandem in Bulgaria since May (figure ECA.3). with the slow-down in world trade Figure ECA.3 IP growth has rebounded in October Import and Export Volume IP Volume Growth 3m/3m saar 3m/3m saar, percent 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 10 20 0 10 -10 0 -20 -10 Europe Central Asia Exports -30 Developing Country Exports -20 Europe Central Asia -40 High-income Imports Turkey -30 Russia -50 Developing Country Imports -40 Romania -60 Bulgaria 2009M01 2009M09 2010M05 2011M01 2011M09 -50 2009M01 2009M07 2010M01 2010M07 2011M01 2011M07 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. Signs of contagion from the European debt crisis …after being depressed by the sharp fall in have appeared… export growth since the first quarter. A sharp decline in risk appetite triggered by the After strong growth in the first half of the year, Euro Area debt crisis has led to an abrupt decline export growth slowed during the second quarter in capital inflows (particularly in portfolio and then contracted at a 6.7 percent annualized investment flows), a jump in risk premia and a pace during the third quarter. The decline in collapse in stock prices in developing countries export growth was reversed in October to 1.1 since August (See the Main Text and Finance percent annualized rate supported by strong Annex for further discussion). The widening in export growth in Turkey and Romania. Other risk premia for Europe and Central Asia— countries continue to suffer from a loss of proxied by median CDS spreads—was the momentum, with the sharpest slowdowns highest among developing countries (figure experienced by Russia and Ukraine. ECA.5). The largest jumps in the spreads since July were in Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria and Activity in the region is being affected by the Kazakhstan, which are particularly vulnerable to anemic growth in high-income Europe—where a possible downturn (see the risk section of this economies grew almost zero percent in 2011 annex). Political uncertainty ahead of (figure ECA.4). High-income European import parliamentary or presidential elections also seem demand declined at a 13 percent annualized rate to have played a role in some countries. during the three months ending November 2011. 95 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex Increased risk aversion also led to significant sell Exchange rates have weakened sharply in -offs from developing country equity markets. several countries. Emerging market MSCI stock index lost 12 percent since July (figure ECA.6). Stock market Several countries’ dollar exchange rates declines were steepest in Eastern Europe, down weakened sharply in 2011 (figure ECA.7). around 20 percent since July, with Ukraine, Depreciation was gradual until July, and then Serbia, Bulgaria and Lithuania experiencing the accelerated sharply during September and sharpest falloffs. Portfolio investment flows to October as portfolio equity inflows reversed. Turkey registered net outflows of $4.7 billion in The currencies gained some of their lost values August and September. Russia also experienced in October but have continued their depreciation large capital outflows despite high oil prices. since November. The value of the Turkish lira declined more than 15 percent against dollar between June and early January 2012, prompting the authorities to use foreign exchange reserves to the tune of $10 billion to defend the currency. Figure ECA.5 Largest increase in risk premia was in Eastern Europe and Central Asia Despite high oil prices and a current account Price of credit default swap (CDS) surplus, the Russian ruble has dropped by more median basis points than 10 percent against its $0.55/€0.45 basket 380 since July. The depreciation came on the heels of 330 ASIAN Developing large outflows from equity markets, large LAC Developing (exc. Argentina and Venezuela) repayments of foreign debt that Russian 280 ECA Developing borrowers were unable to refinance, and a sharp acceleration in resident lending abroad. Overall, 230 capital outflows are estimated to have reached 180 $80 billion in 2011, partly reflecting political uncertainty ahead of the March presidential 130 elections and growing worries about the adverse and deteriorating business environment. The 80 Jan-10 May-10 Sep-10 Jan-11 May-11 Sep-11 Jan-12 central bank has allowed the ruble to adjust faster than in past episodes of ruble weakness, Source: Datastream. limiting exchange market interventions only to smoothing excessive volatility. Under similar Figure ECA.6 Sharp reversal in emerging countries Figure ECA.7 Exchange rates begin to depreciate equity markets Real Effective Exchange Rates MSCI equity index Index, Jan 2010=100 Index (Jan 2011=100) 115 120 110 110 105 100 100 90 95 80 MSCI LAC index ROM RUS 90 MSCI EM Eastern Europe TUR 70 MSCI EM Asia Index 85 60 80 January-11 May-11 September-11 January-12 2010M01 2010M07 2011M01 2011M07 Source: Bloomberg. Source: Datastream. 96 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex pressures, Ukraine had to sell $3.5 billion of FX reflecting a fall in oil prices from record high reserves during September and October to keep levels, year-over-year inflation picked up again the hryvnia to its target peg (UAH 8.0) to the in November (figure ECA.8). At 7.6 percent dollar. median for the region in November, inflation remains a major concern for more than half of Strong fiscal adjustment and prudent monetary the countries in the region, particularly as sharp policy in Romania have limited the fallout from currency devaluations and high oil prices may the shift in market sentiment. The leu has yield further increases. weakened only around 2 percent against the euro since July, partly reflecting the absence of large Although budget balances continued to improve inflows earlier in the year. in 2011 (with the exception of Azerbaijan—due to increase in non-oil sector deficit, and Fiscal and monetary policy: worries shift from Kyrgyzstan), there is limited fiscal space to inflation to growth support growth, particularly if commodity prices fall in response to a global slowdown. While the Concerns about the deteriorating global outlook region’s cyclically adjusted budget balance and its potential adverse impact on output improved from –3.5 percent of GDP in 2007 to growth caused a shift in monetary policies. 0.1 percent in 2011, this was mostly due to Earlier this year, reflecting concerns about improvements in commodity exporters. The inflation, a monetary tightening trend was increase in commodity prices since 2005 has gaining strength in the region, via both increases improved government balances for oil exporting in interest rates (Belarus and Russia—twice in developing countries by an average of 2.5 the case of the latter) and in reserve requirements percent of GDP, among metal exporters the (Turkey). Starting in August, however, several improvement has been of the order of 2.9 percent countries surprised the markets by lowering of GDP. Going forward however if commodity rates, including Turkey (by 50 bps on August prices were to fall, then fiscal conditions in 4th), Serbia (by 50 bps on October 6th), and exporting countries would deteriorate rapidly. Romania (by 25 bps on November 2nd). Russia Simulations suggest that if commodity prices has stopped tightening since May 2011. The were to fall as they did in the 2008/09 crisis, central bank of Turkey has also cut reserve fiscal balances in oil exporting countries could requirements on FX liabilities and raised its deteriorate by more than 5 percent of GDP. overnight borrowing rate to attract short-term Impacts in metals exporting countries could also capital inflows.1 be large, with some regional impacts exceeding 7 percent of GDP. After losing momentum in the third quarter Figure ECA.8 Inflationary pressures appears to be Figure ECA.9 International capital flows fell in 2011 easing ST Debt Rate of Inflation Banks percent $ billion Bonds 10 12 350 Portfolio Equity 9 300 10 FDI inflows 8 250 Net private inflows (% GDP)--RHS 7 8 200 6 150 6 5 100 4 4 50 3 CPI (3m/3m saar) 2 0 2 CPI (y-o-y) -50 1 0 -100 0 2009M01 2010M01 2011M01 2008 2009 2010 2011e Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 97 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex Table ECA.2 Net capital flows to Europe and Central Asia Net capital flows to ECA $ billions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 36.7 44.9 30.7 -31.2 -5.3 13.4 26.6 23.5 -14.2 -26.6 as % of GDP 2.8 2.9 1.8 -0.5 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.6 -0.4 -0.6 Financial flows: Net private and official inflows 104.1 135.3 248.9 424.1 313.0 104.0 172.8 135.0 Net private inflows (equity+private debt) 111.6 163.8 279.3 426.4 301.0 68.4 150.2 122.1 76.3 129.1 ..Net private inflows (% GDP) 8.4 9.7 13.5 15.9 9.1 2.7 5.0 3.6 2.0 2.9 Net equity inflows 44.4 58.6 106.6 163.2 146.9 92.3 85.4 77.1 71.3 112.1 ..Net FDI inflows 42.6 52.0 94.3 136.2 162.2 85.9 86.3 76.1 70.5 108.1 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 1.8 6.7 12.3 27.0 -15.3 6.4 -0.8 1.0 0.9 4.0 Net debt flows 59.7 76.6 142.2 260.9 166.0 11.7 87.4 57.9 5.0 17.0 ..Official creditors -7.6 -28.5 -30.4 -2.3 12.0 35.7 22.6 12.9 ....World Bank 1.0 -0.7 0.2 0.2 0.7 3.0 3.5 2.1 ....IMF -5.9 -9.8 -5.8 -5.0 7.0 20.5 9.4 3.8 ....Other official -2.7 -18.0 -24.8 2.6 4.3 12.2 9.8 7.0 ..Private creditors 67.2 105.1 172.6 263.3 154.1 -23.9 64.7 45.0 5.0 17.0 ....Net M-L term debt flows 53.5 84.4 128.4 190.7 160.9 14.6 19.2 11.0 ......Bonds 14.6 16.8 34.0 60.0 16.4 -1.8 27.1 16.0 ......Banks 40.2 68.9 95.2 131.8 145.1 16.8 -7.7 5.0 ......Other private -1.3 -1.3 -0.8 -1.0 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 ....Net short-term debt flows 13.7 20.8 44.3 72.5 -6.9 -38.5 45.5 34.0 Balancing item /a -71.4 -92.8 -105.6 -165.4 -365.5 -90.8 -133.2 -115.7 Change in reserves (- = increase) -69.3 -87.3 -174.0 -227.5 57.9 -26.6 -66.2 -42.8 Memorandum items Migrant remittances /b 12.7 19.7 24.9 38.7 45.0 36.1 36.0 40.0 43.5 47.9 Source: The World Bank Note: e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and capital outflows from developing countries. /b Migrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers’ remittances, compensation of employees, and migrant transfers Source: World Bank. Despite strong performance in the first half, net countries. FDI inflows fell sharply in Bulgaria private capital flows declined in 2011 following large repayments on intra-company loans in the first quarter of the year, and After a strong recovery in 2010, net private considerably in Ukraine. In contrast, flows to capital flows2 to the region declined to an Latvia almost tripled and increased significantly estimated $122 billion (3.6 percent of GDP) in in Kazakhstan and Turkey. 2011 from $150.2 billion (5.0 percent of GDP) in 2010 (table ECA.2, figure ECA.9). Almost all The outlook for 2012 has become more types of capital flows have contracted, but the challenging as the world economy has entered a largest decline was in international bond, and very difficult period. The likelihood that the short-term debt flows. sovereign debt crisis in Europe deteriorates further resulting in a freezing up of capital Overall, short-term flows for the year as a whole markets and a global crisis similar in magnitude declined despite their strong performance in the to the Lehman crisis remains very real. As first half of the year. This year’s fall in short- discussed in the risk section, the Europe and term debt flows is in sharp contrast with last Central Asia region has very close financial and year’s surge, when these flows led the recovery trade ties with the high-spread Euro Area in net capital inflows. countries generating uncertainty for the region’s economic outlook. Europe is the main source of FDI inflows declined by an estimated 10 percent cross-border bank-lending and other flows such in 2011 despite high inflows in the first half of as FDI. Increased risk aversion and banking- the year, with significant differences across sector deleveraging have been cutting into 98 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex capital inflows to the region, which are projected remittance outflows from Russia —which to decline further by 40 percent to $76 billion contributes almost one-third of remittances to the (2.0 percent of GDP) in 2012, with sharp region (figure ECA.10). Outflows from Russia, contraction in cross-border debt flows. mainly to Central Asian countries, have increased with the recovery of oil prices but Under the assumption that the ongoing appear to have become more volatile in the post- turbulence in Europe will be resolved to crisis period (figure ECA.11). market’s satisfaction by the end of 2012, net capital flows to the region are expected to Even though remittances to developing countries rebound in 2013 in tandem with the growth in grew in 2011, they are vulnerable to uncertain the global economy. Net private capital flows are global economic prospects. Remittance flows to projected to reach $129 billion in 2013 around the region are expected to grow at a slower pace 2.9 percent of region’s GDP. By 2013, all flows of 8.8 percent in 2012 to reach $44 billion. are expected to increase. Bond issuance is However, with global growth expected to expected to level down slightly as bank lending resume in 2013, remittances are projected to picks up the pace supported by South-South grow at higher rates of 10.1 percent to reach $48 flows. billion by 2013 (see Migration and Development Brief 17). Migrant Remittances Figure ECA.10 Sources of remittances for ECA in Migrant remittances are a very importance 2010 source of both foreign currency and domestic Share in total (%) incomes for several countries in the developing 50 Europe and Central Asia region. Overall, they 40 represent about 1.3 percent of regional GDP, but rise to 10 or more percent of GDP for countries 30 like Albania, Armenia and Bosnia and 20 Herzegovina, and between 20 and 35 percent of 10 GDP for the Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova and Tajikistan. 0 Western Europe Developing Other High Income US Countries After falling by almost a quarter between 2008 and 2009, and stagnating in 2010, remittances to Source: World Bank Migration and Development Brief the Europe and Central Asia region grew by an #17. estimated 11 percent to $40 billion in 2011 in Figure ECA.11 Oil prices remain a key driver of re- tandem with the global trend (table ECA.3). The mittances to Central Asia recovery was supported by the increase in $ billions $/barrel Table ECA.3 Workers’ remittances, compensation 140 8 of employees, and migrant transfers, credit 120 (US$ billion) Outward remittances 100 6 from Russia 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f 2014f 80 4 60 All developing countries 324 307 321 351 377 406 441 40 Europe and Central Asia 45 36 36 40 44 48 53 2 Crude oil price 20 (right scale) Growth rate (%) 0 0 All developing countries 16.4% -5.3% 4.6% 9.3% 7.4% 7.7% 8.6% Europe and Central Asia 16.3% -19.8% 0.0% 11.1% 10.0% 9.1% 10.4% Source: World Bank Migration and Development Brief #17. Source: World Bank Migration and Development Brief #17. 99 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex These rates of growth are considerably lower percent in 2010. Growth is expected to be held than those seen during the 2002-2007 period. back by the deleveraging and the euro crisis next This is partly because the ongoing debt crisis in year. It is forecasted to slow down to 1.5 percent Europe and other high-income OECD countries in 2012 but later rebound to 3 percent in 2013. has been adversely affecting the economic and Similarly, growth in Serbia is expected to ease to employment prospects of migrants. Persistently 1.5 percent in 2012 from 2 percent in 2011, high unemployment rates have also created recover to 4 percent in 2013. In contrast, the political pressures to reduce the current levels of Commonwealth of Independent States is immigration, which could depress remittance projected to post somewhat stronger real GDP flows to developing regions. While buoyant oil growth of 3.5 percent and 4.1 percent in 2012 revenues and increased spending on and 2013, respectively. Most of the commodity infrastructure development could make Russia exporters—with the exception of Azerbaijan due and other destinations even more important for to the temporary interruption in oil production— migrants from developing countries, volatile had robust growth in 2011. All of these countries exchange rates and uncertain oil prices present are expected to have robust growth for the further risks to the outlook. forecast period. Medium-term Outlook The region’s current account balance is projected to shift to a deficit of 0.7 percent of GDP in 2013 GDP growth in Europe and Central Asia is from a surplus of 0.6 percent of GDP in 2011, as projected to slow to 3.2 percent in 2012 from 5.3 domestic demand is expected to strengthen faster percent in 2011, before firming to 4.0 percent in than exports. The current account surplus of 2013. Growth rates remain well below the boom- commodity-rich exporters is expected to fall period average of 7.5 percent recorded during from 5.9 percent of GDP in 2011 to 2.8 percent 2003-07. While these growth rates are close to in 2013 despite high commodity prices, as estimates of the region’s potential growth rate, additional revenues are projected to leak into they will have limited impact in reducing spare spending and imports relatively quickly. Current capacity generated by the crisis. As a result account deficits among oil importers are regional unemployment, albeit falling, is estimated to reach over 7.7 percent of GDP in expected to remain a challenge throughout the 2011 and only gradually improve to around 5.7 projection period. The deceleration in 2012 percent of GDP in 2013. mainly reflects weaker exports due to slower growth in export markets (notably high-income High commodity prices should boost Europe), and domestic demand being held back government revenues in resource-rich countries, by high unemployment and banking sector turning the government deficit of 2.3 percent of deleveraging. GDP in 2010 to a slight surplus of 1.2 percent by 2013. At the same time, slowly improving Projected growth paths vary significantly across activity levels and ongoing fiscal consolidation countries (table ECA.5). For example, after two measures are projected to reduce government years of strong growth in 2010 and 2011, GDP deficits in oil importers from 4.5 percent of GDP growth in Turkey is projected to slow down to in 2010 to about 2.8 percent of GDP in 2013. 2.9 percent in 2012 due to the weak global economy and the implications of recent market Risks and vulnerabilities turmoil for consumer and investor confidence. Assuming that global conditions do not As emphasized in the main text, the primary risk deteriorate further, we forecast that economic facing the global economy is a deterioration of growth will pick up to an average of 4.2 percent the situation in high-income Europe, which in 2013. With its strong performance in the third could result in a significantly weaker external quarter, growth rate in Romania is estimated to environment for Europe and Central Asia’s main have reached 2.2 percent in 2011 from –1.3 trading partner but also a significant 100 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex exacerbation of negative confidence effects. economies, generating considerable vulnerability Such deterioration would magnify a number of to any repatriation of funds (figure ECA.13). pre-existing vulnerabilities in the region, including those arising from direct trade and The nature of European banks’ holdings in the banking-sector exposures, as well as more region underscores its vulnerability to indirect effects running through both financial deleveraging. Banks in the region have relied and real channels, including possibly sharp heavily upon cross-border lending from their reductions in global external financing parents to support their loan portfolios, with loan conditions, weaker remittances and lower –to–deposit ratios well over 100 percent in commodity prices. several countries: Latvia (240%), Lithuania (129%), Romania (127%), and Russia (121%). Very strong financial linkages… As a result, banks are extremely vulnerable to a cut-off of lending, let alone to an active effort by The region has unusually strong banking-sector parent banks to recover funds either by selling linkages with high-income Europe, both in terms assets or calling loans where possible. Indeed, in of ownership links and day-to-day financing. As a worrying sign that such risk is actually being European banks are required to raise their capital realized, Austrian bank supervisors have positions, they have been forced to deleverage instructed Austrian banks to limit future lending and tighten credit conditions. So far in their central and eastern European deleveraging has been relatively orderly, and subsidiaries. although accompanied by a sharp slowing of credit growth in Eastern Europe, cross-border Funding pressures will add to the stress in the capital flows have not dried up. But in case of a domestic banking sectors that are already at risk further acceleration of the process, transmission to a sharp increase of NPLs in the event of a to the financial markets in developing Europe slowdown in growth (figure ECA.14). In some and Central Asia would likely be swift and countries, NPLs and provisioning are already an potentially very damaging. issue. The share of NPLs in outstanding bank lending in the Europe and Central Asia region As of the second quarter of 2011, total foreign jumped t 12 percent in 2011 from 3.8 percent in claims by European banks reporting to BIS were 2007. Available data indicates that NPL ratios $0.6 trillion in the region (figure ECA.12). Key have continued to deteriorate in 2011 in European banks also account for large shares of Kazakhstan (32.8%) and Romania (14.2%). domestic bank assets in several of the region’s Figure ECA.12 Strong banking sector linkages Figure ECA.13 Significant reliance on foreign banks European Banks' Foreign Claims (2011 Q2, %GDP ) Share of European Banks in Total Banking Assets of Selected EMs (%) Azerbaijan Belarus 100 Austria-France-Germany Ukraine Italy-Greece 80 Georgia Kazakhstan 60 Jordan Armenia 40 Moldova Turkey 20 Albania Lithuania 0 Bulgaria Romania Latvia 0 20 40 60 80 Source World Bank staff calculation based on data from Source: BIS. Central Banks and Bankscope 101 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex Figure ECA.14 Possible resurgence in NPLs term debt makes Albania, Belarus, Montenegro, Share of NPL in total loans outstanding Romania, and Serbia vulnerable to a tightening (percent) of international bank-lending conditions – even if these were not associated with a wider crisis. 14 Euro Zone (excl. GER, NLD, CYP) Other HICs 12 ECA The region would be particularly affected by Asia weaker activity in the European Union, which 10 Other LMICs buys more than half the region’s exports. The 8 countries most likely to suffer from a sharp 6 downturn in EU demand include Romania, 4 Lithuania and Latvia because of their large exposure to Europe in general, and Albania, 2 Macedonia FYR, and Bulgaria because they rely 0 particularly on the high-spread European 2005 2007 2009 2011Q2 economies that are likely to be hardest hit (table ECA.4). In addition, the region is also quite Source: IMF Financial Soundness Indicators vulnerable to second, third and fourth-round trade effects (Main Text figure 15). …and other worrisome vulnerabilities A sharp downturn in high-income Europe would In addition to financial linkages to high-income also reduce remittances to the region (40 percent European countries, several countries in the region are also vulnerable to generalized risk Table ECA.4 ECA’s trade linkages with the EU aversion, when both foreign and domestic Merchandise Exports to the EU, Share of total, investors will retreat from risky assets. Should 2008-2010 averages (percent) conditions deteriorate substantially, international EU27 High-spread capital flows could weaken much further and Country (Total) EA economies borrowing costs rise sharply. To a limited Europe & Central Asia 52 10 degree, increased risk aversion has already Romania 71 19 reduced portfolio equity flows since July. Lithuania 70 5 Countries with high levels of short-term debt or Latvia 70 4 maturing long-term debt and those with large Macedonia, FYR 69 24 current account deficits are particularly Bulgaria 65 21 vulnerable to such a tightening in financial Azerbaijan 61 32 conditions. Overall, Europe and Central Asia is Bosnia and Herzegovina 61 16 seriously exposed to such risks, with ex ante Russian Federation 53 8 external financing needs totaling some $279 Moldova 50 13 billion (16.9 percent of GDP) for 2012. Kazakhstan 47 12 Turkey 47 14 Should external financing conditions worsen, Armenia 45 4 short-term debt and bond financing could dry up Albania 44 37 relatively quickly3—potentially forcing countries Belarus 39 2 to cut sharply into reserves (or reduce imports) Georgia 38 6 in order to make ends meet. Ukraine 28 7 On this basis, Turkey is the among the most Turkmenistan 25 5 vulnerable of developing countries, with its Tajikistan 17 9 projected current account deficit in 2011 set to Kyrgyz Republic 15 0 be six times larger than its FDI inflow. The Uzbekistan 10 4 country also carries short-term debt equal to 80 Source: COMTRADE and World Bank. percent of its reserves. Heavy reliance on short- 102 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex of the region’s remittances come from high- immigration in many high-income countries. In income Europe). In the aftermath of 2008 crisis, addition, as discussed earlier, remittances migrant remittances declined by 20 percent. outflows from Russia, which also accounts for a High unemployment levels have already large share of remittances in the region, would generated political pressures to reduce decline considerably with a fall in oil prices. Table ECA.5 Europe and Central Asia country forecasts (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Albania b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.5 5.9 7.7 3.3 3.5 3.0 2.0 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -6.3 -10.8 -15.6 -15.3 -12.4 -11.7 -9.7 -9.9 Armenia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 9.6 13.7 6.9 -14.1 2.1 4.6 4.3 4.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.6 -6.4 -11.9 -15.5 -14.5 -12.7 -11.1 -9.6 Azerbaijan b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 14.2 25.0 10.8 9.3 5.0 0.2 3.1 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.2 27.3 35.6 23.7 28.3 26.6 19.1 17.1 Belarus b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.9 9.8 11.3 0.2 7.6 5.0 0.5 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -3.9 -6.7 -8.6 -13.0 -15.5 -10.9 -6.0 -4.1 Bulgaria b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.8 6.4 6.2 -5.5 0.2 1.9 1.2 3.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.7 -27.3 -22.9 -8.7 -1.0 2.0 -1.0 -2.2 Georgia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.6 12.3 2.3 -3.8 6.4 6.5 5.0 5.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -9.8 -20.9 -22.8 -11.2 -11.5 -12.7 -11.1 -9.3 Kazakhstan b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 8.3 8.9 3.3 1.2 7.3 6.6 5.5 5.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.7 -7.9 4.7 -3.7 3.1 6.3 3.9 3.6 Kosovo b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.3 6.9 2.9 3.9 5.3 5.0 4.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) -17.4 -22.8 -25.0 -16.3 -24.0 -20.9 -18.9 Kyrgyz Republic b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.2 8.5 7.6 2.9 -1.4 7.0 5.5 5.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.4 -0.2 -8.1 0.7 -7.2 -6.9 -6.6 -7.2 Lativa b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 7.8 10.0 -4.2 -18.0 -0.3 4.5 2.0 3.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) -11.6 -22.3 -13.1 8.6 3.6 -0.4 -1.1 -2.0 Lithuania b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.7 9.8 2.9 -14.8 1.4 5.8 3.2 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.5 -14.4 -12.9 4.4 1.5 -2.3 -3.1 -3.6 Moldova b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.1 3.1 7.8 -6.0 6.9 6.0 4.0 4.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.4 -16.5 -17.3 -9.9 -8.3 -12.1 -11.3 -11.4 Macedonia, FYR b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.6 6.1 5.0 -0.9 1.8 3.0 2.5 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.2 -7.4 -12.5 -6.4 -2.2 -5.1 -5.3 -4.9 Montenegro b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 10.7 6.9 -5.7 2.5 2.5 1.8 2.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -40.2 -51.3 -30.1 -25.0 -20.9 -20.3 -19.7 Romania b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.3 6.3 7.3 -7.1 -1.3 2.2 1.5 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.0 -13.7 -11.4 -4.2 -4.2 -4.5 -4.7 -5.3 Russian Federation b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.3 8.5 5.2 -7.8 4.0 4.1 3.5 3.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 9.5 6.0 6.2 4.0 4.7 5.1 2.7 2.2 Serbia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.1 5.4 3.8 -3.5 1.0 2.0 1.5 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.4 -17.6 -21.4 -7.1 -7.2 -7.5 -8.4 -7.7 Tajikistan b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 7.9 7.8 7.9 3.9 6.5 6.0 6.0 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.2 -8.6 -7.7 -5.9 2.1 -4.1 -6.5 -7.0 Turkey b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.7 4.7 0.7 -4.8 9.0 8.2 2.9 4.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.4 -5.9 -5.7 -2.3 -6.4 -9.8 -7.5 -6.3 Ukraine b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.9 7.9 2.1 -14.8 4.2 4.5 2.5 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.2 -3.7 -7.1 -1.6 -2.1 -5.4 -4.9 -4.3 Uzbekistan GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 5.6 9.5 9.0 8.1 8.5 8.3 8.0 6.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.9 7.3 8.7 2.2 6.7 8.1 7.0 6.0 World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing (global) circumstances. Consequently, projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries’ prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkmenistan,are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. Estimate. d. Forecast. Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. 103 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Europe & Central Asia Annex As highlighted by the simulations outlined in the main text, a small, sustained crisis scenario could lead to declines in remittances flows in the Europe and Central Asia region in the order of 3 to 4 percent in 2012 and 2013 with the largest effects in Tajikistan, Kyrgyz Republic, and Moldova. The contraction might reach as high as 9.1 percent in 2012 and 7.4 percent in 2013 in an event of a severe crisis when two larger Euro Zone economies are squeezed from the credit markets. Finally, a substantial faltering of global growth may disproportionately impact commodity exporters through a possible reduction in commodity prices. Following the 2008 crisis, energy prices fell by 60 percent and metals prices by 57 percent by 31 percent between August 2008 and their first-quarter 2009 lows. Simulations suggest that a sharp slowdown in global growth could result in more than 20 percent decline in energy prices. Based on current export volumes, in an event of a sharp fall in oil prices the hardest hit economies in the region are likely to include Russia and Azerbaijan. Notes: 1 In addition, the central bank recently raised its emergency lending rates sharply and dropped its easing bias, paving the way for future hikes in its key policy rate, the one- week repo rate. 2 Net private capital flows comprise net debt flows (incoming disbursements less principal repayments) and net equity inflows (FDI and portfolio inflows net of disinvestments). 3 Historically, these capital flows are more volatile than Foreign Direct Investment – although in 2008/9 there was a global 40 percent decline in FDI, it was more gradual than the still larger cuts to other flows. 104 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex Latin America & the Caribbean Region Recent developments …with momentum for both imports and exports slowing markedly... Growth in the Latin America and the Caribbean region is slowing after robust growth in the first The strong performance in export revenues in the half of 2011 first part of the year, when a combination of strong external demand and high commodity The economies of Latin America expanded at a prices boosted growth to more than 25 percent pace near or above potential through the first year-on-year, gave way to a marked slowdown half of 2011. Growth was particularly strong in in the third quarter on account of softer external South America, lifted by strong domestic demand from major trade partners, and declines demand, accommodative external financing in commodity prices. Oil and metals exporters, conditions in the case of countries integrated including Mexico, Ecuador, and Chile, saw some with the global financial system, and high of the sharpest declines in export revenues commodity prices in the case of commodity growth on a quarter-on-quarter seasonally exporters. In many of these economies the output adjusted annualized rate or momentum basis gaps were positive. Growth in Central America (saar).1 The marked slowdown in Brazil’s GDP was more subdued, but accelerating supported growth has also affected export revenues in by recovery in domestic demand, while stronger countries that trade heavily with Brazil. agricultural performance gave an additional Meanwhile Colombia benefitted from the partial impetus to growth in Mexico. In the Caribbean recovery in external demand from Venezuela, economies growth remained weak with the and an improvement in bilateral relations. output gap still negative. Against the backdrop of increased global Monetary, credit and fiscal policy tightening in uncertainty, the apparent soft-landing in China, countries where signs of overheating were weak performance in the Euro area, and apparent caused domestic demand growth to relatively subdued demand in the United States moderate. The slowing in domestic demand has external demand for the region’s exports has coincided in some of the economies in the region indeed weakened, with export volumes with the softening in external demand causing momentum decelerating to 1.4 percent in the sharper than expected deceleration in growth. third quarter (saar) from the 14 percent in the Although through the first half of the year there second quarter, before reaccelerating slightly have been little spillovers from the sovereign into the year end. debt tensions in the peripheral Euro Area, the increased likelihood that the further deterioration The contribution of net exports to growth has in Euro Area’s sovereign debt crisis could freeze been less negative than the sharp deceleration in up capital markets has started to affect the export volumes would suggest, due to a 4.6 financially integrated economies of Latin percent quarter-on-quarter (saar) contraction in America, as reflected by developments in the imports in the third quarter, following rapid equity and currency markets. Heightened growth in the first two quarter of the year (18.7 uncertainty about the short-term economic and 15.6 percent respectively), which attests to outlook and increased financial market volatility the marked moderation in domestic demand, in have started to take their toll on consumer and particular in investment. In the fourth quarter the business sentiment, dampening further domestic contribution of net exports was positive as demand. Retail sales and import data show that imports continued to decline at an accelerated the moderation in domestic demand is broadly- pace (10.5 percent decline (saar) in the three- based across the region. month to November) while export performance 105 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex improved modestly. Notwithstanding declining suggest that domestic demand is slowing, due to commodity prices and weak external demand the lagged effects of policy tightening in the first trade balances in the region have improved in half of 2011. recent months, as import growth decelerated more sharply than export revenue growth. In Chile economic performance is also showing signs of moderating, with both domestic and Reflecting moderating domestic demand, and to external demand contributing to this moderation. a some extent also weaker external demand, Quarterly GDP growth slowed to 0.6 percent (sa) industrial production declined 2 percent and 1.8 in the third quarter, from 1.4 percent in the first percent (saar) in the second and the third quarter quarter. In contrast Peru’s economic after a robust 9.2 percent expansion in the first performance remained robust through the third quarter. In Brazil, the policy-induced moderation quarter, suggesting that there have been limited in domestic demand in conjunction with a spillover from increased global uncertainty and stronger currency and weaker external demand softer external demand, in particular from China. have caused industrial production to decline Growth eased down marginally, to 1 percent sa more than 8 percent from the peak reached in in the third quarter, down from a very strong 1.7 February 2011. In Mexico, the region’s second percent in the second quarter, fueled by robust largest economy, growth in industrial sector growth in domestic-demand related sectors such eased in the third quarter to 2 percent quarter-on- as retail and housing, and despite weak quarter (saar) from robust 7.8 percent expansion performance in the industrial sector which pace in the first quarter, as growth in suffered from weaker demand for Peru’s textiles manufacturing has moderated. Industrial output, from Europe and the United States. Domestic which is highly synchronized with developments demand is starting to show signs of moderate in the U.S. industrial output, has dipped into deceleration, however, reflected in weakening negative territory in the three months to October, import momentum. Similarly growth in and output was 1.2 percent lower than the peak Colombia has seen little impact from a more recorded in May. In other economies in the adverse external environment so far, with growth region domestic demand continues to expand at moderating only marginally in the third quarter a robust pace as indicated by strong retail sales to 1.7 percent quarter-on-quarter from a very supporting industrial output growth. In the case strong 1.8 percent expansion in the second of Colombia industrial production accelerated to quarter. Growth has been supported by very 5.6 percent in the three months to October (saar), robust domestic demand and very rapid credit up from 1.8 percent in the second quarter. growth. Unlike in other countries in the region, both industrial production and export volumes Third quarter GDP data for some of the have held up in the third quarter expanding at a financially integrated economies in the region Figure LAC.1 Growth in Latin America and Carib- reveals the effects of policy-induced moderation bean is decelerating in domestic demand as well as of weaker GDP, q/q percent change, sa external demand (figure LAC.1). Brazil’s 4 economic growth came to a halt in the third 3 Q1 2011 quarter, after growth decelerated to 0.7 percent Q2 2011 Q3 2011 quarter-on-quarter (sa) in the second quarter -- 2 down from 0.8 percent in the first quarter. The 1 mild decline in GDP in the third quarter reflects 0 the combined effects of fiscal and monetary policy tightening in the first part of 2011, the -1 impact of a still strong real, and the impacts of -2 the international financial turmoil since August -3 2011. Weaker retail sales and a drop in business Paraguay Brazil Mexico Chile Costa Rica Peru Colombia Argentina and consumer confidence in recent months Source: World Bank. 106 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex 3.8 and 9.4 percent annualized rate despite the on the upside in the third quarter, expanding 2.2 disruptions to global demand and investment quarter-on-quarter (sa), up from 0.8 percent the caused by the turmoil beginning in August. previous quarter, while investment growth Rising housing prices, lower unemployment and decelerated to 1.9 percent from 3.3 percent. In acceleration in inflation indicate that the Central America the recovery strengthened in the economy is at risk of overheating. first half of the year, bolstered by solid domestic demand. Growth in Panama was strong, fueled Growth in commodity exporters that are less by construction work related to the expansion of integrated financially with the global financial the Panama Canal. Growth in El Salvador was system was very strong in the first half of the dampened by weak external demand and the year, boosted by high commodity prices and worst flooding in recent history that occurred in expansionary policies, but they too show signs of October. Subdued expansion in all sectors, moderating growth. Favorable terms of trade, except utilities, have kept growth below 2 significant monetary and fiscal stimulus, and percent in the first half of the year. Meanwhile strong external demand supported above-trend the Caribbean region struggles to recover from a growth in Argentina in the first part of the year. protracted recession, with growth weighed down GDP growth started to decelerate in the second by high debt levels, fiscal consolidation, high oil quarter recording a still very robust 2.4 percent prices and weak performance in the tourism growth (seasonally adjusted), down from 3.2 sector, and a series of natural disasters. For percent quarter-on-quarter (sa) growth in the first example, in the case of St Vincent and the quarter, before easing more markedly in the Grenadines torrential rains in April 2011 caused third quarter to 1.1 percent. Venezuela’s major flooding and landslides that severely economy is finally staging a recovery from a damaged the country’s infrastructure. This came protracted recession, with GDP up close to 4.0 on the heels of hurricane Tomas, which only six percent in 2011, supported in part by strong month earlier had destroyed roads, bridges, government spending. Meanwhile Ecuador’s houses, and battered the agriculture sector. The economy grew strongly in the second quarter of combined effect of these two natural disasters is 2011, on strong public spending financed from estimated at 3.6 percent of GDP. the oil windfall and Chinese loans, as well as stronger private consumption before moderating Despite moderation in domestic demand slightly to 1.7 percent in the third quarter. inflation remains high Economic performance deteriorated markedly in Paraguay in the second and third quarter of Despite the recent moderation in domestic 2011, with GDP contracting 1.8 and 2.3 percent demand inflation remained elevated in the quarter-on-quarter (seasonally adjusted), economies that are continuing to grow at or respectively, after growing 3.4 percent in the above potential and have positive output gaps. first quarter. Marked currency depreciations have also started to fuel inflation via the import cost channel. At In Mexico growth surprised on the upside in the regional level, inflation momentum (3m/3m third quarter, and the economy expanded at a saar) stayed above 8 percent for most of the year. relatively robust pace of 4.0 percent in the first In Brazil inflation momentum continued to three quarters of 2011, notwithstanding tepid accelerate through October, and annual inflation growth in the United States. Growth accelerated barely met the upper inflation target limit of 6.5 to 1.3 percent (sa), bolstered by strong as still robust domestic demand and a relatively performance in the agriculture sector, and robust tight labor market put upward pressure on growth in the service sector. In part the strong service prices. In Argentina consumer price performance also reflects a bounce back from the inflation remains stubbornly high, with impacts of the Tohoku which have negatively momentum in excess of 8 percent for most of the affected growth in industrial output in the second year, and little signs of easing. Meanwhile in quarter. Private consumption growth surprised Peru and Colombia, strong economic expansion 107 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex contributed to higher inflationary pressures. In percent in the first eight months of the year, contrast inflation is less of a concern in other following a 10 percent expansion in 2010.2 economies in the region such as Mexico, Chile, Growth in tourist arrivals to South America has and some of the slow-growing Central American benefited in part from strong income growth in economies. Brazil, where expenditure on travel abroad surged 44 percent, following on the heels of a Strong commodity prices lifted trade balances in more than 50 percent expansion in 2010. By commodity exporters while tourism-dependent contrast spending by the United States on travel economies still hurt abroad, grew at a much weaker 5 percent pace. Strong commodity prices in the earlier part of Migrant remittances have performed slightly 2011, and in particular strong oil and metals and better, expanding an estimated 7 percent in the mineral prices have benefited commodity region this year, with growth in countries most exporters in the region. Notwithstanding recent dependent on migrant remittances (El Salvador, correction in prices triggered by concerns about Jamaica, Honduras, Guyana, Nicaragua, Haiti, the strength of global expansion, cumulative Guatemala) growing at a 7.6 percent pace, terms of trade gains remain sizeable so far this following growth of 6.3 percent in 2010. More year. Gains are among largest in oil and natural than two thirds of the migrants from these gas exporters such as Ecuador, Venezuela, and countries are in the United States (67 percent, Bolivia, but higher prices for commodities such simple average). as maize, wheat, soybeans, and beef have helped countries such as Argentina and Paraguay. In Overall current account positions for commodity contrast oil importers recorded the largest terms exporters have benefitted from strong of trade losses as a share of GDP, exceeding 2 commodity prices and solid external demand in percent of GDP in some cases (figure LAC.2). the first part of the year but they are likely to deteriorate following corrections in commodity Meanwhile soft growth in high-income countries prices that occurred in recent months, and has constrained growth in tourism revenues in notwithstanding deceleration in import growth. the Caribbean and Central America. In the first Meanwhile oil importers which have been hit by eight months of the year tourist arrivals were up higher energy prices have seen some relief in 4 percent in Central America and the Caribbean, recent months. following growth of 4 and 3 percent in 2010. Performance in these two regions has been Most policy makers are on hold for now but weaker than the rest of the world and than in easing is expected going forward. Many central South America were tourist arrivals grew 13 banks in the region tightened monetary policy in Figure LAC.2 Terms of trade gains for commodity the first half of the year due to concerns about exporters in 2011 inflation and overheating, but have now adopted Share of GDP a wait-and-see attitude in the face of heightened Paraguay global uncertainties (figure LAC.3). Facing a Ecuador Venezuela marked slowdown in growth and inflation of Bolivia Argentina Peru more than 3 percentage points above the upper Chile Colombia Guyana level of the target range, Brazil is the only major Belize Mexico Brazil central bank in the region to have cut the policy Panama Uruguay Guatemala rate (by 50 basis points in each of the last three St. Lucia Costa Rica meetings, for a total reduction from 12.5 percent Nicaragua Antigua and Barbuda Dominican Republic to 11 percent), due to concerns that a Jamaica Dominica El Salvador deteriorating external environment will Honduras Haiti St. Vincet & Grenadines contribute to a sharper deceleration in growth. -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 By contrast, open economies like Chile and Peru, which are more vulnerable to the external Source: World Bank. 108 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex Figure LAC.3 Most central banks in Latin America the year. However, the US credit rating on hold downgrade in August and the subsequent short-term policy interest rates, percent deterioration of market confidence in Europe has 16 resulted in a generalized increase in risk aversion 14 and contagion to the risk premia of countries in 12 the region. Regional equity markets suffered Brazil 10 Colombia substantial capital outflows in September, 8 forcing the depreciation vis-à-vis the US dollar of several currencies and causing Central Banks 6 Mexico to rapidly switch from being concerned about the 4 volatility and competitiveness effects caused by 2 Peru Chile unwarranted appreciations to the risks that might 0 30-Aug 30-Apr 31-Dec 31-Aug 30-Apr be associated with an uncontrolled depreciation. The Mexican peso, Chilean peso, and the Brazilian real lost more than 10 percent of their Source: National Agencies through Datastream. value, and the Colombian peso nearly 8 percent, environment should the crisis worsen, have yet between September 1st and December 13th. The to cut rates. In Chile the central bank kept rates largest depreciations of the nominal effective unchanged as rising external uncertainties were exchange rate in September were in Brazil (close offset by tight labor markets and strong credit to 7.4 percent, month on month) and Mexico (9 growth. Given weaker global growth prospects percent), and Chile (5 percent). Several countries that have well anchored inflation countries (including Brazil and Peru) dipped into expectations and that are more exposed to the their foreign currency reserves in order to limit deceleration in global demand are likely to stat depreciations. easing monetary conditions early next year. Colombia is the first central bank to raise interest Regional equity markets fell close to 18 percent rates (25 basis points to 4.75 percent) on between the end of July and the end of October, concerns about rising inflationary pressures, as compared with 19.6 percent for the broader rapid housing prices increases, on the backdrop emerging market index, and although they have of robust domestic demand. retraced some of those losses remain nearly 15 percent below their July level. Paper losses for Other policies to support growth. Brazil’s the region are estimated at more than $530 central bank has started to reverse some of the billion between July and the end of September.3 macroprudential tightening policies implemented Brazilian and Mexican equity markets were during the course of 2010, in a bid to bolster among the worst affected. Foreign selling of demand for durable goods. Brazil also imposed fixed-income assets was particularly acute in an IPI tax (Imposto Sobre Produtos Latin America, with Brazil posting record level Industrializados, sales tax on industrial goods) of outflows through September (see the Finance for cars that are using less than 65 percent of Annex). In the case of Brazil the decline in the locally-produced parts, in a bid to bolster output. first part of the year was linked to the increase of Colombia and Panama signed free-trade the IOF tax to 6 percent in April, although the agreements with the United States, which should crisis in the Euro Area was behind the declines boost exports going forward. In the case of in recent months. Reflecting these developments, Panama the FTA will benefit mostly the services EMBIG sovereign bond spreads also widened sector, as Panama already had preferential access markedly between July and September, with the to the United States market for various exports. sharpest deterioration occurring in the second half of September. Spreads narrowed somewhat Signs of contagion. The sovereign debt crisis in in October only to approach September highs the Euro periphery had only a limited impact on again in November. The benchmark five-year the region’s financial markets in the first half of sovereign CDS spreads also rose, with the 109 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex largest increases occurring in countries with associated equity-market sell-offs. Overall, short close trade and financial linkages with the euro -term debt flows for the year as a whole also area (figure LAC.4). declined 46.4 percent – partly because of slower trade growth (and therefore less trade finance). Overall net capital inflows decline an estimated Meanwhile FDI flows grew a robust 29.2 percent 12.6 percent in 2011, to reach 5 percent of GDP, exceeding the levels recorded in the pre-2009- with net private inflows down 10.1 percent to 4.8 crisis. The Latin America and Caribbean region percent of GDP. Of note is the large decline in recorded the strongest FDI growth among portfolio inflows (down 60 percent) which is developing regions due to relatively robust partly the result of the increased global market growth, rich natural resources and a large volatility of the second half of 2011, and consumer base. (table LAC.1) Figure LAC.4 CDS spreads continue to widen Basis points Medium-term outlook 400 1600 Brazil Chile Colombia LAC 350 1400 Weaker global growth, in particular in the Mexico Peru Argentina Venezuela advanced economies, and increased uncertainty 300 1200 regarding the impact of the euro area debt crisis 250 1000 are weighing on growth prospects in the Latin 200 800 America and Caribbean region. The weakening 150 600 in external demand coincides with a deceleration 100 400 in domestic demand in some of the economies in the region as the business cycle matures, while 50 200 in others it is complemented by policy-induced 0 Jul-11 Aug-11 Sep-11 Oct-11 Nov-11 Dec-11 0 moderation in growth. On the positive side, commodity exporters will continue to benefit Source: Datastream, World Bank. from robust demand from emerging Asia, although incomes will be affected by lower Table LAC.1 Net capital flows to Latin America & the Caribbean 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 20.2 32.3 44.2 10.0 -36.8 -22.8 -58.0 -71.7 -110.3 -139.6 as % of GDP 0.9 1.2 1.4 0.3 -0.9 -0.6 -1.2 -1.3 -1.9 -2.2 Financial flows: Ne t private and official inflows 57.9 93.8 68.7 207.9 181.5 173.2 319.8 279.5 Ne t private inflows (e quity+private de bt)68.0 125.2 88.6 208.9 174.9 155.3 298.4 268.3 240.9 278.7 ..Net private inflows (% GDP) 3.1 4.8 2.9 5.7 4.1 3.9 6.0 4.8 4.1 4.3 Net equity inflows 66.3 85.8 83.0 139.3 120.4 119.9 153.9 162.0 153.9 173.7 ..Net FDI inflows 66.8 73.5 72.0 110.4 130.0 78.3 112.6 145.5 134.4 151.7 ..Net portfolio equity inflows -0.6 12.2 11.0 28.8 -9.7 41.6 41.3 16.5 19.5 22.0 Net debt flows -8.1 0.8 -16.8 79.2 59.0 51.5 70.5 ..Official creditors -10.1 -31.3 -19.9 -1.1 6.5 17.9 21.4 11.2 ....World Bank -1.0 -0.7 -3.4 -0.1 2.4 6.6 8.3 2.0 ....IMF -6.3 -27.6 -12.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.3 2.7 ....Other official -2.9 -3.0 -4.4 -1.0 4.1 10.9 11.8 6.5 ..Private creditors 1.7 39.4 5.6 69.7 54.6 35.4 144.5 106.3 87.0 105.0 ....Net M-L term debt flows 1.1 19.0 5.1 46.7 48.9 39.9 77.3 70.3 ......Bonds 2.5 21.6 -11.2 12.6 9.0 40.7 48.8 46.3 ......Banks -1.2 -2.3 16.9 34.6 40.4 -0.3 27.4 24.0 ......Other private -0.1 -0.3 -0.6 -0.4 -0.5 -0.5 1.1 0.0 ....Net short-term debt flows 0.6 20.4 0.5 23.0 5.7 -4.5 67.2 36.0 Balancing item /a -52.7 -91.8 -57.4 -80.0 -94.5 -96.3 -171.6 -118.2 Change in reserves (- = increase) -25.4 -34.4 -55.5 -137.8 -50.1 -54.1 -90.2 -89.6 Memorandum items Migrant remittances /b 43.4 49.8 58.9 63.0 64.4 56.6 57.3 61.3 66.0 71.2 Note : e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and cap ital outflows from develop ing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers’ remittances, comp ensation of emp loy ees, and migrant transfers Source: World Bank. 110 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex commodity prices. fiscal and monetary policies which are expected to bolster domestic demand, although persistent Following several years of above average growth global uncertainties will continue to weigh on that have successfully closed output gaps opened investment. Despite recent signs of moderation, up by the global financial crisis and even household demand is expected to remain strong generating signs of overheating in several over the forecasting horizon supported by an economies, growth in Latin America and the emerging middle class, an expanding labor force, Caribbean is expected to decelerate to 3.6 rising real wages , and solid credit expansion – percent in 2012 from 4.2 percent in 2011, before growing faster than overall GDP -- suggesting picking up once again to 4.2 percent in 2013 limited relief from inflationary pressures and a (table LAC.2). Softer global growth, and in further deterioration in the current account which particular weaker demand from high-income is projected to reach a deficit of 3.4 percent of countries but also slower growth in China, will GDP in 2013. The 13.6 percent increase in the hurt exports, and increased risk aversion, tighter minimum wage at the beginning of 2012 should external financing conditions, and negative boost income and support private consumption. confidence effects are projected to slow Investment growth is expected to decelerate investment and private consumption demand. slightly in 2012, in part due to confidence effects stemming from the Euro area financial crisis, GDP in Brazil is projected to accelerate slightly before picking up again in 2013, boosted by in 2012 to 3.4 percent from 2.9 percent in 2011, fiscal spending ahead of the 2014 presidential roughly in line with estimates of its underlying elections, investments in infrastructure, potential growth rate, before picking up in 2013 including in preparation for the World Cup, and to a 4.4 percent pace (table LAC.3). The slight by investments to develop the pre-salt oil acceleration in growth reflects the reversal in reserves and in refineries. In Mexico, GDP is Table LAC.2 Latin America and the Caribbean forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 2.9 4.1 -2.0 6.0 4.2 3.6 4.2 GDP per capita (units in US$) 1.6 2.8 -3.2 4.7 2.9 2.3 2.9 PPP GDP c 2.9 4.3 -1.6 6.1 4.3 3.6 4.2 Private consumption 3.2 5.1 -0.4 5.5 4.4 3.7 4.1 Public consumption 2.2 3.0 3.9 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.3 Fixed investment 3.4 8.7 -9.7 10.5 6.3 6.1 8.1 Exports, GNFS d 5.2 1.4 -10.1 13.6 6.7 5.6 6.4 Imports, GNFS d 5.5 7.7 -15.0 19.0 8.1 7.5 8.3 Net exports, contribution to growth -0.1 -1.7 1.6 -1.4 -0.5 -0.7 -0.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.9 -0.9 -0.6 -1.2 -1.3 -1.9 -2.2 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 5.8 8.7 4.2 5.2 5.8 6.3 5.8 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) -2.9 -0.9 -4.0 -2.6 -2.6 -2.7 -2.4 Memo items: GDP LAC excluding Argentina 3.1 3.9 -2.2 5.7 3.9 3.6 4.1 Central America e 3.5 1.8 -5.5 5.3 4.0 3.3 3.8 Caribbean f 4.4 3.6 0.6 3.7 4.0 3.9 4.0 Brazil 2.6 5.2 -0.2 7.5 2.9 3.4 4.4 Mexico 3.4 1.5 -6.1 5.5 4.0 3.2 3.7 Argentina 3.0 6.8 0.9 9.2 7.5 3.7 4.4 a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services (GNFS). e. Central America: Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador. f. Caribbean: Belize, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines. g. Estimate. h. Forecast. Source: World Bank. 111 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex also projected to slow by around 0.8 percentage remittances to the sub-region are projected to points reflecting weaker exports and investment increase about 7.6 percent and tourism revenues as global demand for Mexico’s imports slows by can expect to remain relatively weak. In Central about 1.4 percentage point. Notwithstanding America (excluding Mexico) strong growth in some trade diversification lately, Mexico’s Panama, and the reconstruction-led expansion in economic fortunes are closely tied to Haiti will support growth of around 3.7 percent developments in domestic demand in the United in 2012, as relatively subdued performance in States. Given the United States super- the United States and a high debt burden will committee’s failure to agree a deficit reduction affect private consumption and investment. plan, substantial short-term fiscal tightening is Growth in El Salvador is expected to accelerate likely, with negative consequences for domestic only marginally to 2 percent in 2012, on the back demand that will feed through to affect Mexican of reconstruction spending in the wake of the exports. Weak consumer confidence, moderate massive flooding in October while growth in the job growth, and limited real-wage increases will agriculture sector will be very weak as a result of limit the gains in private consumption to about the heavy losses suffered during the recent 3.5 percent. Lower transport cost and rising flooding. Growth is expected to accelerate to 3.1 wages in China should make Mexico a more in 2013, on the back of stronger domestic and attractive investment destination over the external demand, and an improved external forecasting horizon, with evidence that some environment, however El Salvador will continue Chinese firms are setting up factories in Mexico. to have among the weakest economic Furthermore the ongoing re-industrialization in performance in Central America. Confidence the U.S. is likely to benefit Mexico’s effects and soft growth in the United States will manufacturing industry. Restructuring of the also weigh on growth in Costa Rica, where GDP U.S. automotive industry expected to take place growth is expected to inch down to 3.5 percent over the forecasting horizon is also expected to in 2012. Domestic demand will be one of the benefit Mexico’s manufacturing sector. main engine of growth in 2012 before stronger external demand and a pick-up in investment In Argentina growth will decelerate markedly in associated with the DR-CAFTA free trade 2012 on weaker external demand along with an agreement, particularly in the high-tech sector expected deterioration in the terms of trade, the and business services, will boost growth to 4.5 withdrawal of policy stimulus in the wake of the percent in 2013. Growth in the Caribbean will presidential and congressional elections, and hover around 4 percent over the forecasting weaker private consumption growth due to horizon supported by sustained growth in the continued decline in consumers’ purchasing Dominican Republic. Growth in the power. Furthermore large capital outflows and Organization of Eastern Caribbean States will monetary tightening will constrain growth in remain weak over the forecasting horizon, with private consumption and investment. The high public debt burdens crowding out private AR$4.7 billion cut in subsidies of gas, water and investment and constraining growth. Slightly electricity indicates that fiscal tightening will be higher remittances should provide some relief to pursued in 2012. Growth is projected to private consumption, while continued high decelerate to 3.7 percent in 2012, from 7.5 unemployment in the United States will limit the percent in 2011, and to rise only moderately in recovery in the tourism sector. Increased risk 2013, as high inflation is taking a toll on aversion internationally and the confidence competitiveness and high interest rates stifle effects associated with the Euro area financial investment. crisis will weigh on foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, which account for a particularly Relatively subdued demand in the United States large share of the national income in the OECS. on account of high unemployment and weak In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines the consumer confidence will weigh on growth in construction of the Argyle International Airport the Caribbean and Central America. Migrant and terminal building is expected to bolster 112 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex growth somewhat over the forecasting horizon. close to 20 percent, after having plunged 60 percent in 2011. Net private inflows are expected Softer growth and lower commodity prices to recover in 2013, rising 15.7 percent to 4.3 should help bring down inflation, percent of GDP, still below the levels recorded notwithstanding the depreciation of many in 2010. before recovering in 2013. Net FDI and currencies in the region. Inflation will remain private debt flows are expected to recover in however close to the upper limit of the target 2013, rising 12.8 percent and 20.7 percent range in some of the larger economies, although respectively. with growth moderating overheating is less of a concern, reflected also in the more dovish stance Transmission channels, vulnerabilities & of most central banks in the region. In Brazil risks labor markets will remain relatively tight despite the marked moderation in growth, but continued The region enters the current global downturn moderation in credit, lower commodity prices, with still relatively strong fundamentals. and a lower pass-through of the currency However, should conditions in Europe depreciation to local prices will help bring deteriorate sharply countries in the region would consumer price inflation towards the upper be adversely affected –potentially exposing bound of the target range of the central bank. vulnerabilities that have so far remained latent. Furthermore a downward trend in manufacturing As is the case in other regions, countries have operating rates should help ease inflation less fiscal space available now than they had at pressures in goods prices. Inflation in Argentina the onset of the 2008/9 crisis, while the kind of will continue to run high, as expected currency sharp deterioration in commodity prices that devaluation over the forecasting horizon will might accompany the kind of small or large raise prices of imported goods. Inflation should crisis outlined in the main text would further begin to slow in the second half of 2012 reduce fiscal space in commodity exporting however, as economic growth eases. countries (notably Venezuela, Ecuador, and Argentina) – while at the same time placing their Weak external demand and declines in the terms current account and external financing needs of trade will result in deterioration in the balance under stress. Bolivia’s fiscal revenues would of payments, which in some cases will reverse also be affected by lower commodity prices,4 BOP surpluses into BOP deficits. Current however the country has fiscal savings in excess account should deteriorate to an estimated 1.9 of 20 percent of GDP following 6 years of fiscal percent of GDP in 2012 in Latin America and surpluses. the Caribbean on account to negative terms of trade, and weaker external demand, deteriorating As compared with other regions, monetary further to 2.2 percent of GDP in 2013. authorities in Latin America & the Caribbean do have some room to ease, having tightened Fiscal positions are also likely to deteriorate monetary policy in the first half of the year. slightly to 2.7 percent of GDP in 2012 as weaker Furthermore inflation expectations in most growth will work through the automatic inflation-targeting economies are well anchored stabilizers, improving slightly in 2013 as and monetary policy rates are close to neutral in economic growth accelerates. most of these economies. However, inflation remains a problem in selected economies in the Net private inflows are expected to decline a region, suggesting that even if global growth further 10.2 percent to 4.1 percent of GDP, as weakens – monetary policy may have to remain net FDI inflows are expected to decline 7.6 relatively tight to bring inflation back down to percent respectively, while debt flows from private creditors are projected to decline close to acceptable levels. 20 percent in 2012. In contrast portfolio inflows The region is also exposed to deterioration in the are expected to partially recover this year, rising global climate through trade linkages. Although 113 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex most at risk economies in Europe account for remittances (Central America). In an adverse only a small 4.2 share of regional exports, the scenario of a contained Euro area crisis larger Euro Area – which could become remittance growth to the region would decline embroiled in a crisis if conditions worsen -- by 3.5 percent relative to the baseline. Countries accounts for 14.8 percent of total Latin where remittances represent a large share of American and Caribbean exports. Exports to the GDP like El Salvador, Jamaica, Honduras, euro area amount to nearly 20 percent of the total Guyana, Nicaragua, Haiti and Guatemala would in Brazil and Chile, and almost 15 percent in be at risk (the impact of the decline in migrant Argentina and Peru, and these countries could remittances could be as large as 0.6 percentage see sharper deceleration in growth on account of points relative to the baseline on average in these weaker export performance in a scenario in economies), with the risk more pronounced in which demand from Euro area contracts as a countries that rely on remittances from the Euro result of the deterioration in the financial crisis. are countries. The second and third round effects would be markedly larger for the region in the case of a Another possible transmission mechanism is that sharp slowdown in import demand, which is of consumer and business confidence effects on very likely in a scenario of market-induced credit private consumption and investment. These -event in high-income Europe. Nevertheless the confidence effects could be quite large as region will still have one of the smallest overall indicated by previous financial crisis episodes, impacts relative to other developing regions. with countries at the epicenter of the financial crisis experiencing median declines in private The region is perhaps more vulnerable to consumption of 7 percentage points and declines deterioration in terms of trade, which would be in investment of 25 percentage points. High particularly pronounced in a scenario involving a volatility in financial markets would increase the major credit event in high-income Europe. In cost for firms, directly, through higher such a scenario incomes of countries heavily borrowing costs, and indirectly through budget reliant on commodity exports would be hit uncertainty. Increased financial market volatility hardest, while gains for commodity importing will also translate into increase volatility in countries would be of lesser magnitude. Given exchange rates, with additional negative that oil demand is relatively demand inelastic consequences for trade. The presence of incomes would be hit harder than GDP in oil significant foreign exchange structured or producing countries. Oil exporting countries derivative products could lead to overshooting of like Venezuela, Ecuador, and gas exporting currencies, as was the case with the Brazilian countries like Bolivia5 could see the largest hits, real and the Mexican peso in 2008, although while exporters of agricultural commodities that more restrictive regulatory policies have have a high correlation with oil prices markedly reduce their volumes in these two (Argentina, Brazil) could also be negatively countries since then. affected. Metal exporters (Brazil, Chile) would suffer losses from sharply lower metal prices. Should financial conditions deteriorate markedly Government balances in commodity exporting with any deepening of financial stress in the euro countries are also likely to be negatively affected area countries with relatively high external by large swings in commodity prices. Among the financing needs are more vulnerable to sudden countries where government balances are hit the reversal in capital flows, a drying up in credit or most are Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, and substantially higher interest rates. Countries like Venezuela. Guyana, Jamaica, Nicaragua and Panama have estimated external financing needs in excess of Migrant remittances, although expected to 15 percent of GDP in 2012. In the event of sharp remain more stable relative to other flows, are contraction in capital flows these countries may also likely to suffer, putting pressure on current be forced to sharply reduce their external account position in countries that rely heavily on financing gap by adjustments in the current 114 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex account, and/or close the external financing gap are complex. Spanish banks have one of the through depletion of foreign exchange reserves most significant presence and highest levels of and increased reliance on foreign aid. Argentina foreign claims in Latin America. However the is perhaps also vulnerable. The cost of four-year Spanish banks are mostly decentralized in their credit default swaps has almost tripled since cross-border operation with independently 2007 (reaching 1,025 basis points), and managed affiliates in the region. Their claims insurance against a default within the next five are mostly in local currency/locally funded with years has risen 423 basis points to 1033 some exceptions.6 Indeed, average loan to (suggesting a 51percent chance of non-payment). deposit ratios in the region are at or below 100 The expected large financing gap in 2012 will be percent, with few exceptions including Chile difficult to meet, since the country’s access to (107 percent). As a result, the financial systems international markets is limited and the available in these countries would not be excessively options for garnering more resources exposed to a sharp reduction of inflows of domestically have mostly been utilized: the funding from European banks (except through government has already relied on nationalizing the trade finance channel). As long as this kind the pension funds to raise financing and on the of deleveraging occurs gradually, domestic central bank reserves to pay debt, and has banks and non-European banks should be able to recently increased requirements on oil, gas, and take up the slack – as appears to be taking place mining exporters to repatriate export revenues in Brazil (see the Finance Annex). If parents are from as little as 30 percent to 100 percent of forced however to liquidate their assets to export receipts in order to increase foreign recapitalize parent banks or offset losses exchange liquidity. Most other countries should elsewhere in their portfolio, they could be forced not have great difficulties in meeting external to sell off assets in Latin America with financing requirements through FDI, remittances potentially significant impacts on equity and official aid flows, which tend to be more valuations – which in turn could affect capital stable. adequacy of regional banks – generating a credit crunch even among otherwise health local banks Financial vulnerabilities are not negligible. Over that have strong local deposit bases (figure the past decade the region has become more LAC.6). financially open (figure LAC.5). Capital controls have been relaxed, foreign ownership expanded Countries with highly dollarized financial – including in the banking, insurance and systems could also be exposed through currency pensions sectors, while foreign investors are risks. These risks are somewhat mitigated in increasingly active in local debt and equity countries that have large stocks of international markets. Here, potential transmission channels reserves, which would allow central banks to Figure LAC.5 Financial openness in Latin Figure LAC.6 Foreign claims of Euro area banks America and the Caribbean on the rest of the world Chinn-Ito financial openness index share of GDP 3 100 Greece, Ireland, and Portugal 90 2 80 Italy Spain 70 1 60 Other Euro Area 50 0 40 30 -1 20 Argentina Brazil 10 -2 Chile Colombia 0 Europe Asia EM Latin Turkey Poland Hungary Brazil Mexico -3 Peru Middle America 1990-94 1995-99 2000-04 2005-09 East and Africa EM Source: Chinn-Ito 2009. Source: World Bank. 115 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex inject liquidity into the banking system in the double digits in Brazil, Colombia, and El event of a credit crunch and to stabilize the Salvador. Credit growth has eased in Peru and currency in the event of excessive exchange rate Chile due to the recent tightening of lending volatility. standards and other prudential measures, but the level of real domestic credit remains above the Foreign bank ownership in the Caribbean is also pre-crisis level. In the case of Brazil, medium high and banks there could be vulnerable – and small banks have increased lending especially given the specialization of some banks aggressively, without matching this by higher in high-risk and relatively weakly regulated deposit base, increasing their vulnerability to a hedging and derivatives activities. Financial situation of tighter liquidity. Regional banks sector indicators in the Eastern Caribbean increasingly rely on wholesale funding (rather Currency Union are deteriorating, having been than deposits) to finance their lending hit hard by the 2008-2009 crisis and the slow operations, which could spell trouble if financing economic recovery, with some banks already conditions tighten suddenly. On the bright side, facing solvency issues that could require further nonperforming loans remain at low levels, intervention. although they have risen modestly of late, and banks have maintained conservative provisions. Although the region is now relying less on However, in the event of a sharp slowdown in external debt, increased foreign participation in growth the nonperforming loan ratio could rise local currency debt markets represents a sharply. potential source of vulnerability. Increased risk- aversion from the part of international investors In light of these risks countries in the region could lead to increased borrowing costs in the should evaluate their vulnerabilities and prepare domestic debt markets, should large withdrawals contingencies to deal with both the immediate from foreign investors occur. Countries with and longer-term effects of an economic deeper and more liquid markets are better able to downturn. address these vulnerabilities. Most countries in the region have less fiscal The rapid growth in domestic credit from the space available for counter-cyclical policies to beginning of the global recovery through the cope with a sharp deterioration in global first half of 2011 is an additional source of conditions as compared with 2008/09. In such financial vulnerability. Real domestic credit eventuality, where fiscal space exists, growth remains high in most countries (figure governments could use countercyclical policy to LAC.7). It expanded more than 20 percent saar support growth, by increasing spending on social in Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Panama in safety nets that would limit poverty impacts, and the three month to September, and remains in the on infrastructure projects that would benefit Figure LAC.7 Real domestic credit growth growth. Countries with limited fiscal space could remained robust in Latin America increase the effectiveness of countercyclical 3m/3m %, real credit growth fiscal policy, improving the targeting of social 60 safety nets and prioritizing infrastructure 50 programs necessary for longer-term growth. In 40 such situation, monetary policy could also 30 become more accommodative provided that 20 inflation expectations remain anchored. 10 0 Financial oversight should continue to be -10 improved, building on the progress made so far -20 Argentina Peru Bolivia Brazil Colombia in many countries in the region. The countries -30 Jun-08 Jan-09 Aug-09 Mar-10 Oct-10 May-11 could also benefit from further financial deepening, increased maturities of fixed-income Source: World Bank and IMF. debt, and increased local currency debt issuance. 116 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex Countries where credit has increased rapidly in spending. recent years should engage in stress testing of their domestic banking sectors. A much weaker With growth in high-income countries likely to external environment could result in sharply remain subdued for an extended period, lower domestic growth and falling asset prices countries in the region may need to identify new that could result in a rapid increase in the drivers of growth and to address structural number of non-performing loans and domestic problems that negatively affect competitiveness. banking stress. Countries with large external financing needs should pre-finance these needs to avoid abrupt and sharp cuts in government and private sector Table LAC.3 Latin America and the Caribbean country forecasts (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Argentina b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.2 6.8 0.9 9.2 7.5 3.7 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.3 2.1 2.7 0.8 0.2 -0.4 -0.5 Belize b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.4 3.8 0.0 2.7 2.1 2.3 2.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) -13.1 -10.7 -6.1 -3.2 -3.3 -3.3 -4.1 Bolivia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.8 6.1 3.4 4.2 4.8 4.1 3.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.8 12.0 4.7 4.4 5.8 5.0 3.8 Brazil b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.8 5.2 -0.2 7.5 2.9 3.4 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.2 -1.7 -1.5 -2.3 -2.5 -3.2 -3.4 Chile b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.4 3.7 -1.7 5.2 6.2 4.1 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.3 -1.9 1.6 1.9 -0.4 -0.9 -1.4 Colombia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.1 3.5 1.5 4.3 5.6 4.4 4.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.4 -2.8 -2.2 -3.1 -3.1 -3.2 -3.3 Costa Rica b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.7 2.6 -1.5 4.2 3.8 3.5 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.6 -9.4 -2.0 -4.0 -5.2 -5.1 -5.4 Dominica b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 1.6 7.8 -0.7 0.3 0.9 1.6 2.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -19.0 -25.6 -21.3 -21.7 -21.9 -20.5 -18.9 Dominican Republic b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.9 5.3 3.5 7.8 4.9 4.4 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.4 -9.9 -4.6 -8.7 -8.2 -7.5 -7.4 Ecuador b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.1 7.2 0.4 3.6 6.1 3.3 3.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.1 2.0 -0.5 -3.4 -2.5 -3.5 -4.4 El Salvador b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.5 1.3 -3.1 1.4 1.5 2.0 3.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) -3.2 -7.1 -1.5 -2.3 -3.8 -3.6 -2.7 Guatemala b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.4 3.3 0.5 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.4 -4.5 -0.1 -2.1 -2.2 -3.5 -4.2 Guyana b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 0.6 2.0 3.3 4.4 4.6 5.1 5.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) -8.7 -10.0 -7.7 -9.1 -10.6 -15.8 -19.2 Honduras b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.0 4.0 -1.9 2.6 3.4 3.3 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -6.7 -15.3 -3.6 -6.2 -6.4 -5.9 -5.1 Haiti b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 0.6 0.8 2.9 -5.1 6.7 8.0 8.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) -22.4 -11.9 -9.7 -12.0 -13.4 -10.6 -11.0 Jamaica b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 1.6 1.7 -2.5 -1.0 1.3 1.8 2.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.8 -19.8 -8.9 -7.4 -9.8 -9.1 -8.6 117 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Latin America & the Caribbean Annex (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Mexico GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 2.8 1.5 -6.1 5.5 4.0 3.2 3.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.9 -1.5 -0.7 -0.5 -0.8 -1.4 -1.6 Nicaragua GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 3.5 2.8 -1.5 4.5 4.1 3.3 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -21.3 -24.6 -13.4 -14.8 -16.3 -18.3 -18.4 Panama GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.8 10.1 3.2 7.5 8.1 6.1 6.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.5 -11.8 -0.2 -11.0 -12.3 -10.5 -9.3 Peru GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.1 9.8 0.9 8.8 6.3 5.1 5.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.1 -4.2 0.2 -1.5 -2.7 -3.1 -3.1 Paraguay GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 1.9 5.8 -3.8 15.3 4.8 3.9 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.1 -1.8 0.3 -3.3 -3.1 -2.5 -2.0 St. Lucia GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 2.0 5.8 -1.3 4.4 2.7 2.7 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -18.5 -28.4 -12.7 -12.5 -21.4 -21.9 -20.4 St. Vincent and the Grenadines GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.2 -0.6 -2.3 -1.8 -0.2 1.9 3.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) -20.5 -32.9 -29.4 -31.1 -29.1 -26.5 -25.5 Uruguay GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 0.8 7.2 2.9 8.5 5.5 4.0 5.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.0 -5.7 -0.4 -1.2 -2.0 -2.2 -3.4 Venezuela, RB GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 2.8 4.8 -3.3 -1.9 3.8 3.1 3.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 8.5 12.0 2.6 4.9 9.7 6.6 5.1 World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing (global) circumstances. Consequently, projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries’ prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Barbados, Cuba, Grenada, and Suriname are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. Estimate. d. Forecast. Notes: 5 In the case of Bolivia the lagged moving average formula used to price gas export 1 Ecuador has entered into forward oil sales prices to Brazil and Argentina may cushion contracts with China. Therefore, some of to some extent revenues. the oil shipped to China in the third quarter were actually recorded as exports in the 6 Brazil depends on substantial cross-border previous quarters. lending from European banks, and some European affiliates fund a substantial 2 Unit ed Nat ion Wor ld T ouri sm portion of loans from foreign, rather than Organization, World Tourism Performance domestic, deposits (IMF 2011). 2011 and Outlook 2010, November 2011 Volume9, Issue 2. References: 3 Calculations based on World Federation of International Monetary Fund, 2011, Regional Exchanges data. Economic Outlook:Western Hemisphere, September 2011. 4 Banks controlled by Europeans (largely through equity investment in domestic United Nation World Tourism Organization, banks, but also through affiliates) account World Tourism Performance 2011 and Outlook for 18.5 percent of the banking system’s 2010, November 2011 Volume9, Issue 2. net worth, 25.7 percent of total lending, and 14.1 percent of total assets. 118 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex Middle East and North Africa Region Overview social tensions in several countries. Developing oil exporters (if not in internal conflict) are better The dramatic political changes in the Middle situated to withstand the brunt of the crisis, on East and North Africa of the last year have the assumption that oil prices do not fall disrupted economic activity substantially, but substantially in the face of declining demand. selectively across the region. The area is now facing two sets of tensions and Domestic challenges are difficult and uncertainties―the more important of which is widespread. Ten months after the Arab Spring, continuing domestic disturbance and local political unrest and political economy issues challenges affecting countries already taking continue to determine in good part economic steps toward political and economic reform (and policies and prospects for growth. Though for countries in internal conflict). At the same elections held in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco time a deteriorating external environment went smoothly, a degree of underlying (largely in Europe) is amplifying adverse effects dissension remains. A failure to achieve political on goods trade, commodity prices, tourism and and macroeconomic stability would extend other critical export receipts. Though several uncertainties, keeping investment and economic countries in the region—including Tunisia, activity at low levels for several countries, Morocco, and Jordan—appeared to be on the potentially for an extended period of time. cusp of positive or improved growth in late Underlying demographic pressures remain 2011, the onset of financial crisis in the high- unabated as well, and with prospects of slower income countries may come to delay that event. gains in employment ahead, this becomes another area of uncertainty and vulnerability. For the developing net-oil importing countries as a group, initial conditions going into the current The Middle East and North Africa is period of turmoil are weak: including a lack of prospectively entering a ―third‖ crisis episode in meaningful fiscal space, dampened economic succession, following on the ―great recession‖, activity, depletion of reserves and continuing and importantly for the region, the ―food price‖ crisis of 2007-08, under which substantial hikes Figure MNA.1 "Snap-back" dynamics affect industrial in grains prices took a toll on terms of trade for production in Egypt and Tunisia all countries in the region. To a degree, today‘s industrial production, ch% 3m/3m saar weak fiscal positions in a number of oil 50 200 importing countries, which will play a role in 40 developments over the next two years, have their 30 160 source in that period. 20 120 The region will feel the bulk of effects of slower 10 80 European—and global—growth largely through 0 the trade channel, notably oil but also -10 40 manufactured goods, rather than the financial -20 channel, given relatively weak links in this area. -30 0 On balance, with the already difficult conditions being experienced by many countries in the -40 -40 2009M01 2009M06 2009M11 2010M04 2010M09 2011M02 2011M07 region because of recent output disruptions, a Tunisia [L] Jordan [L] Egypt [R] global downturn will be felt more severely now than in 2008-09, when economic growth in the Source: National Agencies through Thomson-Reuters Data- region was relatively robust. stream 119 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex GDP for the developing countries of the Middle Recent developments East and North Africa region1 is estimated to have increased 1.7 percent in 2011, down from One source of strength in the broader Middle the 3.6 percent gain of 2010 (table MNA.1). East and North Africa economy is the large oil Growth is likely to remain subdued in 2012 (2.3 and natural gas windfalls being generated by the percent), as external conditions join uncertain or region‘s exporters. This has provided substantial adverse developments on the domestic side to funding for exporters to support subsidies and make recovery more difficult—in particular job creation programs as well as infrastructure- constraining a needed pick-up in investment related projects which have served to quell a outlays. Growth is expected to rise to 3.2 percent good portion of social uncertainty in these by 2013, as FDI and investment finally revive, countries as a group. The developing oil traditional revenue streams (tourism and exporters and the high-income GCC economies remittances) begin to normalize, and civil unrest benefitted substantially from the rise in oil prices in several countries is assumed to be resolved. of 2010 and the first half of 2011, and several Growth in 2012 is projected to be subdued in (e.g. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait) have increased both oil exporters (partly reflecting weaker oil production on the margin to cover for the earlier prices) and oil importers – many of which loss of Libyan crude oil on the market. (Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt) have very close economic ties to high-income Europe, and others Overall Middle East and North Africa (Jordan and Lebanon) with closer links to the hydrocarbon revenues totaled $785 billion in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) GCC 2011 with the developing oil economies economies. (Algeria, Iran, Syria and Yemen) absorbing $50 Table MNA.1 Middle East and North Africa forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.2 4.1 4.0 3.6 1.7 2.3 3.2 GDP per capita (units in US$) 2.7 2.4 2.3 1.9 0.1 0.7 1.6 PPP GDP c 4.3 4.1 4.0 3.7 1.6 2.2 3.2 Private consumption 4.4 5.2 5.0 3.8 1.7 2.8 3.6 Public consumption 3.2 8.6 7.0 4.0 9.7 7.8 6.2 Fixed investment 6.0 7.6 2.9 1.8 -0.4 3.0 5.0 Exports, GNFS d 5.2 4.6 -6.3 3.0 -1.4 1.3 3.0 Imports, GNFS d 7.1 11.4 -1.8 2.7 1.1 4.2 5.8 Net exports, contribution to growth -0.2 -2.2 -1.7 0.1 -0.9 -1.0 -1.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 7.5 7.4 -0.7 2.8 3.7 2.4 1.1 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 4.7 14.6 2.0 9.6 7.5 8.5 6.0 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) -1.0 -0.3 -3.4 -2.9 -2.6 -2.3 -2.1 Memo items: GDP e MENA Geographic Region 3.8 4.7 1.9 3.3 2.4 3.2 3.8 Resource poor- Labor abundant 4.1 6.6 5.9 4.5 1.8 3.4 4.6 Resource rich- Labor abundant 4.2 2.6 2.3 2.1 0.1 2.2 3.0 f Selected GCC Countries 3.4 5.3 -0.5 3.3 4.6 3.7 4.5 Egypt g 4.3 7.5 4.9 5.1 1.8 3.8 0.7 Iran 4.9 2.3 3.5 3.2 2.5 2.7 3.1 Algeria 3.5 2.4 2.4 1.8 3.0 2.7 2.9 a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services (GNFS). e. Geographic region includes high-income countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia. f. Selected GCC Countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia. g. Egypt growth presented on Fiscal Year basis. h. Forecast. Source: World Bank. 120 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex billion of the $200 billion increase in the year GDP, coincident indicators dropped 12 percent (figure MNA.2). While fiscal positions in these between late 2010 and August 2011. countries remain sustainable (0.6 percent of GDP for developing oil exporters and 12 percent Data on industrial production suggest that for the GCC economies), should oil prices Tunisia and Egypt have taken a very hard hit decline sharply, governments could be forced to from residual domestic unrest, uncertainties over cut into spending in a pro-cyclical manner. political outcomes and the onset of financial turmoil in Europe. In Jordan, after an initial post Several of the net oil-importing developing -crisis spurt, production dropped from a 44 countries―Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan and Morocco percent annual gain in the three-months ending ―saw declines in industrial output or GDP June to decline of 5 percent in the third quarter. during the first quarter of 2011, which impaired In Egypt production snapped back sharply to 180 business and household sentiment after a period percent annualized during the second quarter, of greater ebullience. These led to a near- only to fall to a 40 percent decline in the collapse in investment and sharp falloff in following quarter. And in Tunisia, developments consumer and government spending. GDP have been similar, though much less volatile, contracted by more than 6 percent in the first with production standing some 6 percent higher quarter of 2011 (q/q) (25.8 percent annualized during the third quarter vis-à-vis the second pace in Egypt and 24.2 percent in Tunisia) due in (figure MNA.1 earlier). large measure to dislocations and disturbances of the initial weeks of protests. As the situation on Unemployment in Egypt jumped from 8.9 the ground began to stabilize, GDP snapped percent in December 2010 to 11.8 percent by back, placing Egypt‘s decline for the first three June 2011. Economic turbulence has taken a toll quarters of 2011 at a much more moderate 1.2 on confidence within and outside of the region, percent (saar), with similar outturns for Tunisia. in particular increasing the already high risk aversion of international investors. Indeed, GDP declines were less dramatic for countries spreads on regional sovereign debt stand higher not experiencing large protest movements. In than those of any other developing region at the Jordan for example, GDP dropped by 1.3 percent moment. (q/q) in the first quarter and 0.7 percent in the second (or 5.2 and 2.7 at an annual rate). Merchandise export volume growth was weak all Morocco‘s GDP advanced at a strong 4.2 percent year (particularly for the oil-importing countries clip during the second quarter (saar). And of the region), reflecting the influence of the through Lebanon does not publish quarterly broader disruptions linked to the Arab Spring, Figure MNA.2 Oil exporters enjoy windfall $785 billion the less direct influence of the Tohoku in 2011 revenues earthquake in Japan; and most recently the financial turmoil in Europe and associated weak 800 Developing exporters import demand. Still, recent export performance 700 shows improvement, on the grounds of stronger 600 oil exports, up 14 percent as of August (saar) as well as a fillip for net oil importers, pushing 500 goods exports to a 17 percent annual pace in the 400 same month, led by strong gains in phosphates 300 from Morocco and Jordan (figure MNA.3). GCC 200 The net oil importers are particularly vulnerable 100 to changes in European import demand. Tunisia 0 ships fully 80 percent of its manufactured goods 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 exports to the EU-25, Morocco more than 65 percent and Egypt almost 40 percent. In contrast Source: U.N COMTRADE, IEA, OPEC. 121 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex Jordan has a sizeable share of trade destined for markets (notably Libya), but also because the United States (under a FTA signed in the violence disrupted day to day economic 1990s) (figure MNA.4).2 But average data on business. Not only has there been substantial loss export volumes masks varying conditions across of life and property in these encounters, but also countries, where stronger performance in dollar- uncertainty concerning the region has been based trades for Morocco and Jordan has been amplified on account of these situations. In grounded in phosphates and fertilizers (facing Libya, private sector analysts suggest that GDP robust global demand), while Egypt and Tunisia may have fallen by a cumulative 30-50 percent have been subject to more substantial volatility during the course of the conflict, with non-oil and decline in demand from Europe and the output declining 20 percent. Reconstruction, un- United States. freezing of the regime‘s assets and resumption of oil production will be the priorities of the Economic growth of economies in internal transition government—likely over-shadowing conflict deteriorated in 2011, both as armed the formation of economic policy in the near confrontations denied firms access to export term. Resolution to the conflict and improvements in overall security conditions, Figure MNA.3 Oil importing economies' exports hit could generate a rebound in activity. In hard in 2011, but signs of rebound accruing particular, the possible return of migrant workers export volumes, ch% 3m/3m saar 120 could help restore production and demand within 100 the country, while also reestablish remittance 80 flows to varying countries of origin. In Syria, the 60 United Nations estimates that 2,200 people have 40 died since violence broke out, but public dissent 20 seems unabated, prompting segments of the 0 international community to call for regime -20 change. New sanctions may begin to bite shortly, -40 with the Arab League having joined bilateral -60 parties in demands for various measures of -80 change in late November 2011. 2009M01 2009M06 2009M11 2010M04 2010M09 2011M02 2011M07 Dev Middle East & North Africa Oil exporters Net oil importers In Yemen, negative growth in 2011 is likely, despite a recent step up in hydrocarbons output. Source: National Agencies through Thomson-Reuters Data- stream The outlook for countries in conflict is dependent on the speed and efficiency with Figure MNA.4 Oil importers carry elevated exposures to which protests, disruptions to civil life and larger European demand scale conflict can be resolved and new plans and reforms put in place. This is clearly a shares of manufactures exports to EU-25 and USA (percent) 100 challenging and lingering uncertainty for the region. 80 Mfgr exports to EU+US Developing oil exporters (considering here just 60 Mfgr exports to EU-25 Algeria and Iran, as Syria and Yemen are occupied with their respective internal conflicts) 40 and the GCC benefitted from a sharp rise in crude oil prices (World Bank average) toward 20 the end of 2010 and into 2011. Prices peaked near $120/bbl in April, when the loss of 1.4mb/d 0 Tunisia Morocco Egypt Jordan Lebanon of Libyan oil exports significantly tightened light/sweet crude markets, particularly for Europe where much of Libya‘s crude was sold. Source: U.N COMTRADE. 122 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex Subsequently prices eased, mainly because of the developing oil exporters (Iran excluded) have slowing global growth (global oil consumption strong export links with the European Union, increased only 1/mbd in 2011), but also notably Syria, with 80 percent of fuels shipments reflecting a drawdown on International Energy destined for the EU-25, and Algeria, where Association strategic reserves and rising substantial movements of natural gas and oil production outside of OPEC. through pipeline and ships comprise 48 percent of hydrocarbons shipments; the United States GDP in Algeria is estimated to have increased by absorbs another 30 percent of the country‘s 3 percent in 2011, on high oil prices and strong output (figure MNA.5). advances in the non-oil sector. Oil and gas revenues jumped 25 percent, reaching $44 Figure MNA.6 highlights the sources of the 2010 billion (or 26 percent of GDP), part of which the and 2011 increase in revenues for oil exporters government used to raise public-sector wages, in the larger geographic region (including the support employment and housing, and to GCC countries): in 2010 production increased mitigate the pressure on living standards from moderately and the global oil price rose by $18/ escalating food and fuel prices. The increased bbl; and in 2011, regional production increased expenditures amounted to some 0.6 percent of by about 28kbl/d, together with a $24/bbl rise in GDP in 2011, and with a fiscal deficit of 1.1 price. Still, fiscal vulnerability has increased as a percent of GDP are unlikely to be sustainable consequence of the substantial buildup in unless the price of oil remains at today‘s high spending packages implemented in the last three levels. years. In particular, the fiscal break-even oil price—price levels that ensure that fiscal In Iran, despite the introduction of international accounts are in balance at a given level of sanctions, rising oil prices and a good crop spending—have been trending up for most helped to support growth of about 2.5 percent in countries, and are gradually approaching the spot calendar year 2011. A revision to the system of market price. subsidies and cash transfers to better balance reimbursements and fiscal accounts has been Tourism, migrant remittances and capital flows looked upon favorably by outside analysts. But are important sources of income and foreign severe difficulties in the non-oil sector currency in the region, particularly for the net oil (manufacturing and services) persist. importers. In Egypt for example, during 2010 (before the ―Arab Spring‖), tourism revenues As is the case with the oil-importing economies, amounted to about $12.2 billion or 5.6 percent of Figure MNA.5 Dev oil exporters reliant on Europe and Figure MNA.6 Oil output gains and higher prices lead USA to 2011 windfall shares of fuels exports to EU-25 and USA (percent) output mbbl/d oil price, $/bbl 24 110 100 20 100 80 16 90 60 12 80 Fuels exports to EU+US 40 8 70 Fuels exports to EU-25 4 60 20 0 50 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Syria Algeria Iran Production DEV-X [L] Production GCC [L] Oil price [R] Source: U.N COMTRADE. Source: International Emergy Agency, World Bank. 123 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex GDP; for Tunisia and Jordan the figures were In contrast, migrant remittances held up $2.6 billion (5.7 percent of GDP) and $4 billion relatively well in 2011, increasing by some 2.6 (14.8 percent), respectively. percent. While weaker conditions in European labor markets would have been expected to The decline in tourism arrivals to the region has reduce income transfers to home countries been unprecedented, according to estimates from notably in the Maghreb) data suggest that the the United Nation‘s World Tourism dollar value of these flows increased by $500 Organization (UNWTO). Syria was hardest hit million for Morocco, a like amount in Egypt, and (figure MNA.7), with the number of visitors $100 million in Lebanon. Jordan and Tunisia dropping by 80 percent in 2011, followed by suffered only moderate declines. The increase in Jordan (57 percent), Tunisia (55 percent) and flows likely reflects a conscious effort by Egypt (30 percent).3 UNWTO estimates that expatriates to increase support during the arrivals to Morocco increased as visitors chose it political difficulties faced by these countries. At over some of its less stable neighbors. Once the same time oil revenues have powered the more, the underlying cause of the falloff in GCC economies to robust GDP gains in 2011, tourism is deep uncertainty about the set of helping to underpin activity, employment and domestic conditions across the region. remittance outflows (figure MNA.8). Figure MNA.7 The falloff in tourism--key factor in Figure MNA.8 Remittances have held up better than lower growth expected Tourist arrivals, index 2007=100 Worker remittances, USD, millions 180 25,000 160 140 20,000 120 15,000 100 80 10,000 60 40 5,000 20 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 0 Morocco Tunisia Egypt 2007 2008 2009 2010 e 2011 f Jordan Syria 2007=100 Egypt Morocco Jordan Lebanon Tunisia Source: U.N. World Tourism Organization; World Bank estimates. Source: World Bank. Table MNA.2 Foreign Direct Investment flows, 2007 through 2011(e) 2007 2008 2009 2010e 2011f FDI Inflows $bn Egypt 11.57 9.50 6.71 6.38 2.22 Lebanon 3.37 4.33 4.80 4.98 3.96 Tunisia 1.62 2.78 1.69 1.51 1.12 Morocco 2.80 2.48 1.95 1.30 1.09 Jordan 2.62 2.83 2.43 1.70 1.16 Total 22.00 21.90 17.59 15.86 9.56 ch% -2.1 -0.4 -19.7 -9.8 -39.7 FDI outflows $bn Saudi Arabia -0.1 3.49 2.18 3.91 4.10 Kuwait 9.78 9.09 8.64 2.07 1.00 UAE 14.58 15.82 2.72 2.01 1.81 Qatar 5.16 6.03 11.58 1.86 1.49 Bahrain 1.69 1.62 -1.79 0.33 -0.1 Total 31.12 36.54 23.40 10.51 8.64 ch% 52.3 17.4 -36.0 -55.1 -17.8 Source: UNCTAD, International Investment database (update November 2011). 124 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex Box MNA.1 FDI links and aid flows: developing MENA and the GCC This year‘s fall off in FDI extends a medium-term trend that began in 2009. Flows to developing Middle East and North African (MENA) economies dropped by 40 percent in 2011, on the heels of a cumulative 25 percent decline over 2009 and 2010—notably for Egypt (65 percent in 2011) and Jordan (30 percent). On the ―investor side‖, from GCC members UAE, Qatar and Kuwait investment abroad has fallen sharply, by 18 percent during 2011, on the heels of a 70 percent retrenchment over 2009-10. Part of this earlier decline is related to the restructuring of bal- ance sheets in the wake of the financial crisis in Dubai (table MNA.2). A downward trend is in force for both inflows and outflows –increasing amounts of which had been directed at the developing MENA region from the GCC. This development will take some time to turn around, as though GCC economies are enjoying strong oil windfalls and boosting non-oil growth through government outlays, recovery in FDI will require a rebuilding of confidence in FDI destination countries, so that for the near-term, investment out- lays in the region may be difficult to restart. A counterpoint to this trend is recent GCC actions in Morocco. Despite the uncertain domestic and external envi- ronments facing countries in the region, Morocco (the economy is experiencing solid growth of late), has been the beneficiary of several GCC investment proposals related to development projects (Qatar and Kuwait), and notably in new tourism facilities (UAE and others at $2.5 billion). Following several years of reduced aid flows during the early 2000s, 2011 saw a surge in donor flows from Arab nations. Saudi Arabia and other GCC members stepped up aid to the developing countries of MENA in an effort to ensure that transitioning and other economies in the region are able to respond to demands for change. Overall, aid from Saudi Arabia and the GCC for developing MENA is expected to reach $15 billion for 2012- 2015, with the bulk to be furnished by Saudi Arabia. The aid should enable Egypt, Jordan, and to a lesser degree, Morocco, to shore up balance sheets and increase subsidies to ameliorate food price and other pressures on the population. Jordan is likely to benefit the most, having already been recipient of a $400 million cash grant from Saudi Arabia; and another $1 billion came through on July 28, 2011. The GCC has also established a new Development Program to support Bahrain and Oman, the two GCC countries which experienced protests and popular calls for reform. The program should provide $10 billion in investment funding over ten years, focused on housing and infrastructure, and akin in function to earlier EU Cohesion Funds. External capital flows to developing countries in 2011, net portfolio equity investment dropped the region declined sharply during the course of effectively to nil in 2010 and $500 million the year, with FDI (mainly from the GCC) down during 2011 (table MNA.3). However, net nearly 40 percent, while equity and bond flows private debt flows rose from $2.3 billion in 2010 are estimated to have dropped in the third and to $4.8 billion in 2011 due to increased bank fourth quarters to levels only half as high as in borrowing. 2010. However, official aid from the GCC and others is restoring a good portion of (and in Moreover, bond spreads for Tunisia, Lebanon some cases more than 100 percent of) lost and Egypt have widened, and banking sector liquidity to several economies in the region – balance sheets in some countries are expected to and helping some of the transitioning economies deteriorate. It is likely that under baseline to meet fiscal shortfalls (box MNA.1). conditions, the transitioning economies will require extensive external financing in 2012, Capital flows, aside from foreign direct which the International Monetary Fund places at investment, have traditionally been small in the some $50 billion.4 developing Middle East and North Africa region, though equity inflows into Egypt, Lebanon and Inflation eases on international developments Morocco, and bond issuance by Tunisia and and government intervention A stabilization, and Lebanon had built some momentum before the subsequent modest decline in world food prices global financial crisis of 2009. Accompanying contributed to ease inflationary pressures in the the notable decline in FDI during 2010 and region over the course of 2011. Regional food 125 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex prices were rising at a 20 percent annualized and food and fuel subsidies have attenuated pace in the first quarter – pushed by rising inflationary pressures, although at large international food prices. However, as global budgetary cost in most cases (figure MNA.9). prices stabilized and even declined, the pace of Inflation has fallen in Egypt from a peak of 20 regional food inflation eased to an 8 percent percent in October 2010 to 4.6 percent as of annualized pace as of July (latest data available). October 2011, and in Jordan from 11.3 percent Inflation is a particular worry for developing oil during the final quarter of 2010 to 2 percent by exporting countries, where for Algeria and Iran it October. Iran has made important efforts to exceeds 10 percent (at seasonally adjusted reform its income support system away from annualized rates, or ―saar‖).5 In net oil importing subsidies and toward better targeted social safety countries a combination of very weak growth nets, and this has brought down the pace of price Figure MNA.9 Subsidies work to reduce inflation for oil importers Figure MNA.10 Iran's reform program dominates oil- exporter CPI landscape Headline CPI, ch%, 3m/3m saar 20 Headline CPI, ch%, 3m/3m saar 35 15 30 25 10 20 5 15 10 0 5 0 -5 -5 Jan-09 May-09 Sep-09 Jan-10 May-10 Sep-10 Jan-11 May-11 Sep-11 Jan-09 May-09 Sep-09 Jan-10 May-10 Sep-10 Jan-11 May-11 Sep-11 Egypt Jordan Tunisia GCC Algeria Iran Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank. Table MNA.3 Net capital flows to Middle East and North Africa Net capital flows to MENA $ billions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 0.1 19.9 30.6 24.3 19.2 -20.8 -9.6 39.8 27.8 13.6 as % of GDP 0.0 3.6 4.8 3.2 2.1 -2.3 -0.9 3.4 2.2 1.0 Financial flows: Ne t private and official inflows 12.9 19.4 14.5 28.5 19.7 28.3 25.4 24.6 Ne t private inflows (e quity+private de bt) 16.4 22.5 25.7 27.4 21.5 25.9 24.2 23.3 15.1 22.2 ..Net private inflows (% GDP) 3.4 4.1 4.0 3.6 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.2 1.6 Net equity inflows 10.4 19.2 28.2 25.5 29.6 27.3 22.7 19.0 13.9 19.9 ..Net FDI inflows 9.7 16.8 27.2 27.6 29.2 26.1 22.7 19.0 13.9 19.9 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 0.7 2.4 1.0 -2.1 0.4 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.6 1.0 Net debt flows -8.1 0.8 -16.8 79.2 59.0 51.5 70.5 ..Official creditors -3.4 -3.2 -11.3 1.1 -1.8 2.4 1.2 1.3 ....World Bank -0.6 0.0 -0.8 1.0 -0.3 0.9 0.8 0.5 ....IMF -0.5 -0.7 -0.2 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.0 0.0 ....Other official -2.3 -2.4 -10.3 0.2 -1.4 1.6 0.4 0.8 ..Private creditors 6.0 3.4 -2.5 1.9 -8.2 -1.4 1.5 4.3 1.2 2.3 ....Net M-L term debt flows 2.7 3.1 -1.7 -1.6 -4.0 -3.0 0.4 2.3 ......Bonds 2.8 2.5 0.8 0.7 -0.8 0.1 3.2 1.8 ......Banks 0.0 1.3 -1.3 -1.3 -1.8 -2.1 -1.9 0.5 ......Other private 0.0 -0.8 -1.2 -1.1 -1.3 -0.9 -0.8 0.0 ....Net short-term debt flows 3.2 0.3 -0.8 3.5 -4.2 1.6 1.1 2.0 Balancing item /a 1.7 -0.3 -7.2 -4.8 4.5 16.7 8.3 -65.8 Change in reserves (- = increase) -14.7 -38.9 -37.8 -48.0 -43.4 -24.2 -24.1 1.4 Memorandum items Migrant remittances /b 23.2 25.1 26.5 32.1 36.0 33.6 34.7 35.6 37.4 39.4 Source: The World Bank Note : e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and cap ital outflows from develop ing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers‘ remittances, comp ensation of emp loy ees, and migrant transfers Source: World Bank. 126 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex changes into a range of 15-20 percent. Further There is a clear medium term shift in monetary pursuance of these reforms will need to be made policy toward loosening, as evidenced by to bring Iran‘s inflation solidly into single digits reductions in policy rates across all groups for (figure MNA.10). which data exist. The more impressive compression of interest rates has occurred Policy developments among the oil importers (150 basis points (bps) between 2007 and 2011), with larger countries Fiscal policy has been strongly expansionary in averaging closer to 200 bps. GCC rates are much of the region; for example, fiscal deficits exceptionally low, but have also registered a of the net oil importers rose to 7.3 percent of reduction of some 165 bps. Lower inflation GDP in 2011 from 6.2 percent in 2010 and 4.4 (regardless how measured), weaker growth and a percent in 2007, before the financial crisis (figure MNA.11 and table MNA.4). In several Figure MNA.11 Fiscal costs are substantial countries with declining fiscal space, including fiscal balance as a share of GDP, % Jordan and Morocco, expansion of social 2 programs in response to popular demand has 1 occurred at the expense of public investment 0 programs. A sharp decline in revenues among -1 the oil importing countries is mainly cyclical in -2 nature, but the increase in social spending and -3 transfers has a large permanent (structural) -4 component and will be difficult to maintain. And -5 the fiscal deficit of countries in conflict -6 -7 ballooned in 2011 to 6.5 percent of GDP, -8 exacerbated by the need to procure supplies, Net oil importers Conflict countries Other DEV Oil excl weapons and etc., for armed forces involved in conflict countries the conflicts. 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Source: World Bank. Table MNA.4 Economic outturns and policy developments 2011 Reserves in Policy interest Headline CPI, Fiscal balance months of rate (basis ch% 3m/3m CAB %GDP %GDP imports points) saar 2007 2011 2007 2011 /* 2007 2011 /* 2007 2011 /* 2007 2011 Net oil importers -4.4 -7.3 8.3 8.4 7.50 6.00 12.5 2.5 -5.2 -5.6 Egypt -7.8 -9.5 10.0 5.5 10.28 8.25 18.3 4.8 0.5 1.8 Tunisia -0.7 -5.1 4.6 4.7 5.25 3.50 4.9 5.1 -3.8 -5.8 Jordan -4.1 -5.7 5.3 7.0 6.70 4.50 13.9 4.1 -9.3 -8.5 Morocco 0.2 -5.5 8.8 6.0 3.32 3.25 3.8 -3.0 -0.1 -6.7 Lebanon -9.6 -5.5 12.7 18.6 12.00 10.00 3.4 -1.8 -9.1 -20.6 Conflict -0.3 -6.5 10.6 5.2 …. …. …. …. -2.0 1.5 Syria 2.7 -7.1 9.6 7.3 ….. ….. ….. ….. 0.1 -2.2 Yemen -3.2 -8.0 11.5 3.1 ….. ….. ….. ….. -4.1 9.6 DEVOil-X 4.5 0.9 23.1 25.2 …. …. 15.9 15.8 14.3 8.5 Algeria 9.1 -1.1 35.0 37.9 ….. ….. 4.4 14.5 20.2 10.8 Iran 0.0 2.8 11.2 12.5 ….. ….. 25.6 17.0 8.5 8.9 GCC 19.3 8.5 12.0 10.0 3.00 1.35 10.0 6.8 26.2 24.4 Saudi Arabia 35.4 11.7 31.9 27.3 5.07 2.00 9.9 7.6 27.8 20.6 Kuwait 19.9 17.2 5.3 7.0 1.00 0.75 10.6 4.2 40.5 33.5 Bahrain 4.9 -2.4 4.1 3.5 2.19 0.50 3.5 6.0 10.2 5.9 Oman 17.2 7.6 6.4 5.7 3.70 2.00 12.5 6.2 8.3 11.0 Source: World Bank. 127 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex foreseen need to loosen financial conditions with impact of this year‘s disruptions on economic tougher economic times on the horizon has activity begins to wane by 2013. Reduced yielded an acceleration in policy interest rate political instability could be accompanied by an cuts within the region. A notable exception, once improved business climate, higher investment more, is Egypt, which on November 30, 2011 and stronger FDI flows– all contributing to raised its benchmark policy rate by a full 100 improved economic conditions. basis points to 9.25 percent, the first tightening move for the country since 2008, to ease However, that recovery will be less marked and pressure on the pound amid tense political buoyant than otherwise because European conditions. economic turmoil will reduce demand for the region‘s exports, diminish the availability of In aggregate, developing countries of the region commercial finance and lower commodity saw an increase in current account surplus prices. Thus while domestic conditions would positions from $27 billion in 2010 to $41 billion point to a relatively strong rebound in activity by in 2011, due in the main to higher revenues for 2013, actual outturns and the baseline forecast is oil exporters. This enabled a modest build up of for more muted improvement, with growth in oil reserves of some $2.4 billion (Iran not included importing countries accelerating from 1.8 in this tally). In contrast, the oil importers saw percent in 2011 to 2.5 and 3.6 percent in 2012 their reserves fall by 17 percent ($13 billion) to and 2013 (figure MNA.12 and table MNA.1 $67 billion, though at 6.4 months of imports and earlier). Recovery is anticipated to be slower 200 percent of short-term capital and maturing among countries still in conflict, but nevertheless debt, they remain ample at present. The notable a rebound should be more vigorous by 2013 exception is Egypt, where capital outflow and given the extent of output losses anticipated over pressure on the exchange rate compelled 2011 and 2012. authorities to draw some $11 billion of the $13 total in reserves for the oil-importing group to The region will feel the bulk of effects of slower support the pound. This represents 4.5 percent of European—and global—growth through the Egypt‘s GDP leaving reserves representing just trade channel, especially oil, but also in 4.8 months of imports. manufactured goods rather than the financial channel, given relatively weak links in this area. On balance, with the already difficult conditions Oil exporters will face reduced demand and being experienced by many countries in the lower prices. Oil importers with EU links will region because of recent uprisings, a global feel the weakness mainly through goods trade, downturn will be felt more severely now than in and in some case through remittances. And oil 2008-09, when economic growth in the region was relatively robust. Figure MNA.12 By 2013 reforms should be bearing fruit Medium-term outlook 5.0 Even if the external environment for growth 2.5 were not as sobering as it is, the ongoing political tensions in the region would likely have 0.0 constrained outturns over the next few years. Though the negative economic effects of the -2.5 acute phase of transition may have begun to pass for Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya, they may continue -5.0 to weigh on growth in Syria and Yemen. In the Dev Middle East & Net oil importers Conflict Other Dev Oil excl projections outlined below, intra-country North Africa conflict countries conflicts are assumed to stabilize in one form or 2010 2011 2012 2013 another during the course of 2012, so that the Source: World Bank 128 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex importers with GCC links (Jordan, Lebanon) infrastructure projects with lifespan extending 3 will be more shielded, but will still feel indirect to 5 years. effects from lower activity in the GCC. Risks and vulnerabilities Prospects for a return to the growth rates that Egypt and Tunisia experienced in the previous Extreme uncertainties face the region, in having decade are slim over the period through 2013, to address both the continuing threats of protest with weak European demand and necessary and slower movement on political economy fiscal consolidation (given weak external reforms, at the same time as facing a real crisis financing conditions) expected to weigh on in the Euro Area. Within the Middle East and growth. Nonetheless, GDP gains for these North Africa, an important risk is that armed countries are expected to improve from 0.3 violence in countries– notably Syria and Yemen percent in 2011 to 3.1 percent by 2013—still – is not resolved in 2012. A differentiating factor well below potential and trend growth rates, between Yemen and Syria at this juncture is the implying an output gap of close to 5 percent of existence of a ‗road map‘ for the former in the GDP in 2013. Morocco and Jordan have been form of the GCC-inspired Transition Agreement less affected by protest. Implementation of select of November 23, with which a large part of reforms in both countries, and the holding of society appears to be willing to work with. But, parliamentary elections (Morocco) have been should unsettled conditions extend for a longer important elements in tying social fabric tighter. period despite bilateral and multilateral Growth in Morocco is projected to slow to 4 diplomatic efforts to bring conflicts to closure, percent in 2012 from a 4.3 percent gain in 2011, uncertainty will continue to cloud the region, reflecting weaker European demand; but gains likely restraining an anticipated rebound in are expected to strengthen to 4.2 percent by 2013 activity in 2013. as global recovery emerges. Jordan is anticipated to follow a similar growth path, but at a slower The Middle East and North Africa is highly pace, with GDP expanding 1.7 percent in 2012, exposed to an exacerbation of the European and accelerating to 3 percent by 2013, restrained crisis, with strong and broad links through trade, to a degree by still lackluster exports to the tourism arrivals, migrant remittances, and to a United States, offset by stronger conditions lesser degree, finance.6 With the advent of the among the GCC economies at that time (table ―Arab Spring‖, policy decision making had MNA.5). become exceptionally more difficult. And policies may now have to shift once more to For developing countries in conflict, here Syria fend off the adverse effects stemming from the and Yemen, ongoing social and military situation in Europe and potential alternate disruptions are expected to continue to weigh on courses toward eventual closure of the crisis activity during 2012, but as conditions stabilize, there—though room for maneuver is slim for oil- growth should pick up to a 2.9 percent pace by importers (and some oil exporters) in the region. 2013. And for the remaining developing oil exporters, Algeria and Iran, growth is projected As a major trading partner for Europe, exports to pick-up modestly from 2.7 percent in 2011 to would be directly affected, while a serious crisis 3 percent by 2013. Slow growth reflects in part in Europe would likely also be accompanied by a moribund export market growth, weakening significant tightening of global financial revenues as oil prices ease and continued high conditions and importantly a drop in commodity leakage in the form of imports as populations prices – potentially placing strains on countries continue to spend oil revenues in the form of with large fiscal and current account deficits government transfers or subsidies. Offsetting (though the distinct mix of oil exporters and oil external drag, stronger developments in non-oil and food importers in the region would yield sectors should help to underpin GDP gains―on mixed results for terms of trade and fiscal outlays of planned large-scale social and effects — positive for the transitioning 129 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex economies, not favorable for the developing oil deteriorate most sharply could be forced to cut exporters). more deeply into spending (additional fiscal shortfalls could exceed 3 percent of GDP in On the fiscal side, oil-importers within the Egypt, Jordan and Tunisia). region might see fiscal shortfalls increase substantially in the case of a significant And countries with high-levels of indebtedness slowdown; while oil exporters would be affected would be particularly vulnerable to a tightening by both weaker demand but also lower revenues of international credit conditions. Lebanon could due to lower prices. Assuming that financial be exposed to this channel because of relatively shortfalls can be met through international high external financing needs (reflecting short- capital markets GDP impacts could range and medium-term debt repayments and and/or between -0.8 and -1.2 for oil importers and -0.2 large current account deficits). and -0.6 percent for oil exporters. If financing is not forthcoming, countries where current On balance, risks are to the downside for the accounts and government deficits are expected to region, given the extensive exposures of so many Table MNA.5 Middle East and North Africa forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Algeria b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.5 2.4 2.4 1.8 3.0 2.7 2.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) 28.9 20.0 0.1 8.1 10.8 8.9 6.3 Egypt, Arab Rep. c GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.3 7.5 4.9 5.1 1.8 3.8 0.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.9 -0.9 -2.0 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.6 Iran, Islamic Rep. b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.9 2.3 3.5 3.2 2.5 2.7 3.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.3 15.2 4.6 6.5 8.9 6.6 4.2 Iraq b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 9.5 4.2 0.8 9.6 12.6 10.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) 19.2 -13.8 -3.2 -1.5 -4.5 6.0 Jordan b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.6 7.6 5.5 2.3 2.5 1.7 3.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.3 -9.0 -4.4 -4.8 -8.5 -6.9 -5.2 Lebanon b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.8 9.3 8.5 7.0 3.0 3.8 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -17.5 -13.6 -19.7 -20.9 -20.6 -17.2 -14.6 Morocco b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.7 5.6 4.8 3.7 4.3 4.0 4.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.4 -5.2 -5.4 -4.3 -6.7 -7.3 -6.7 Syrian Arab Republic b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.3 4.5 6.0 3.2 -3.0 -1.5 2.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 3.0 0.1 -2.3 5.1 -2.2 -5.0 -7.0 Tunisia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.5 4.6 3.1 3.0 -0.5 2.5 3.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.8 -4.2 -2.7 -4.6 -5.8 -5.8 -6.0 Yemen, Rep. b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.5 3.6 3.8 8.0 -6.0 -2.6 3.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) 2.5 -4.6 -8.3 7.6 9.6 5.5 2.4 World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing (global) circumstances. Consequently, projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries’ prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Djibouti, Libya, West Bank and Gaza are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. Egypt growth presented on Fiscal Year basis. d. Forecast. Source: World Bank. 130 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Middle East & North Africa Annex countries to Europe and a dependence on Europe. commodity prices. Countries will need to take decisive action to formulate a broad reform 3 ―UNWTO Tourism Barometer‖. United agenda—aimed at fostering inclusive growth— Nations World Tourism Organization. while maintaining economic stability, to build November, 2011. Madrid. confidence, anchor expectations and reap the longer- term benefits of the historical 4 Regional Economic Outlook. ―Middle East transformation. and Central Asia‖. World Economic and Financial Surveys. October, 2011. Washington DC. The International Monetary Fund. Notes: 5 Inflation rates are here expressed at 1 The low and middle income countries of the seasonally adjusted annualized rates or region included in this report are Algeria, the ―saar‖. That is, a ratio of rolling three-month Arab Republic of Egypt, the Islamic moving averages of consumer price indexes Republic of Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, is raised to the fourth power (so at ―quarterly the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and rates‖). This provides a clearer view of Yemen. Data is unfortunately insufficient for current developments and potential turning the inclusion of Djibouti, Iraq, Libya and the points for the data series contrasted with West Bank and Gaza. The high-income ―year over year‘ growth rates—especially economies included here are Bahrain, avoiding biases of exceptionally high or low Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia. Data is base period values. A warning that readers insufficient for the inclusion of Qatar and the may find the CPI figures as ―out of line‖ United Arab Emirates. The group of with the more-broadly used y/y measure. developing oil exporters includes Algeria, the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Syrian Arab 6 In 2008 roughly half of oil importer‘s Republic and Yemen. The diversified merchandise exports were sent to EU economies of the region (net oil importers— markets, contrasted with 65 percent in 1998. with Egypt included in this group due to the And migrant remittances from expatriate smaller share of hydrocarbons in its export workers in Europe are much larger for mix), can be usefully segmented into two Morocco and Tunisia than for other MENA groups: those with strong links to the GCC countries—data for 2000 suggests that about (Jordan and Lebanon), and those with tight 75 percent of Morocco and Tunisia‘s ties to the European Union (the Arab immigrants settle in the EU, contrasted with Republic of Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia). 10 percent for Egypt. Further groups of interest are the Resource- poor-labor abundant countries: Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia; and Resource-rich labor abundant economies: Algeria, Iran, the Syrian Arab Republic, and the Republic of Yemen. 2 It should be noted, that in contrast with, for example, the East Asia and Pacific region, the share of exports in GDP for the oil importing economies of the MENA region is quite small, which would have the effect of mitigating adverse impacts on growth attendant with slower goods shipments to 131 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex South Asia Region Recent developments some local factors (e.g., policy uncertainty, stalled reforms, and deteriorating political and Following a vibrant 9.1 percent growth rate in security conditions) contributed to a fall-off in 2010 (calendar year), South Asia‟s real GDP investment growth. While there‟s been some growth decelerated to an estimated 6.6 percent in slippage on fiscal consolidation efforts, the 2011 (table SAR.1). A slowdown in activity impulse from the fiscal-side has been generally became strongly apparent late in the year with a less expansionary than in 2010. pronounced fall-off in industrial production, well below most other developing regions. (figure Aside from domestic factors contributing to a SAR 1). The slowdown reflects numerous slowdown in South Asia‟s real GDP growth in headwinds, both internal and external. 2011, the external environment had become Nevertheless, growth is estimated to have increasingly challenging and uncertain. While exceeded the long-term average of 6 percent direct financial linkages, such as exposures to (1998-2007), led by above trend activity in Euro Area banks, are limited compared with Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka. On the other regions, contagion from Euro Area debt domestic front, more restrictive macroeconomic woes has contributed to the fall-off in South policy stances—aimed at reducing stubbornly Asian investment growth. (figure SAR 2). In high inflation and unsustainably large fiscal particular, equity finance has been hit, with deficits—have contributed to weaker domestic regional stock markets retreating in concert with demand growth. Consumer spending for the rest of the world during the second half of durables has been constrained by higher interest the year. Deteriorating international bank rates, and real disposable incomes have been funding conditions have also led to a fall-off in eroded by sustained high food and fuel prices foreign bank lending, beginning mid-2011. that, along with administered price increases, Reflecting these developments, local currencies have contributed to slower private consumption depreciated sharply against the dollar in the growth. Higher borrowing costs, elevated second half of 2011, as investors retreated into inflation, moderating economic activity and safe-haven assets, prompting some monetary authorities in the region to defend their Figure SAR.1 Activity in South Asia decelerated sharply Figure SAR.2 South Asia's exposure to a sudden in late-2011 withdrawal of European bank assets is relatively small, and limited to 'core' countries Industrial production, y/y growth, seasonally adjusted European Bank foreign claims on selected regions and countries % 25 South Asia East Asia & Pacific Europe Middle East and Af rica EM Europe & Central Asia Latin America & Caribbean 20 Middle East & N. Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America South Asia 15 Hungary 10 Poland 5 Sri Lanka 0 India Rest of High-income European banks Pakistan Spain -5 Italy Bangladesh Greece, Ireland, and Portugal -10 Nepal -15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 2010M01 2010M04 2010M07 2010M10 2011M01 2011M04 2011M07 2011M10 %-Share of GDP Sources: Thomson Datastream and World Bank Sources: BIS, JP Morgan and World Bank 133 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex currencies and draw down international foreign growth in India, which accounts for about 80 exchange reserves. In particular, India, which percent of South Asia‟s GDP. Overall, GDP had benefitted from strong inflows, saw growth at market prices for the fiscal year pronounced depreciation as foreign investors (ending March 2012) is expected to have slowed reduced exposures in countries with twin deficits 2.2 percentage points from 8.7 percent in (as witnessed in Turkey, among other more FY2010/11. On a calendar year basis, India‟s financially integrated developing countries). GDP growth slowed to an estimated 7.0 percent Slack growth in Europe and the United States in 2011 from 10 percent in 2010.1 The contributed to a fall-off in export growth that weakening in activity reflects a significant became strongly evident in October. This moderation in domestic demand, led by a followed relatively strong export growth in the deceleration in investment activity that has faced first half of the year, which partly reflected a headwinds of rising borrowing costs, high input continued reorientation of export markets toward prices, slowing global growth and heightened dynamic developing East Asia (underway at uncertainty. Delays and uncertainty surrounding least since early-2000). Worker remittances the implementation of policy reforms have also inflows to South Asia proved relatively resilient hindered investment. Household spending has in 2011, buoyed in part by a revival in job been curbed by persistently rising prices cutting growth in the high-income Arabian Gulf into real incomes and higher borrowing costs. A economies (important host countries for South tightening of monetary policy and some Asian migrants), supported by high energy reduction in the fiscal deficit contributed to the prices and related fiscal spillovers. Nevertheless, slowdown. On the supply-side, an improved the pace of remittances growth moderated viz-a- 2011 monsoon supported stronger agricultural viz 2010, especially in the second half of 2011. output in the second-half of 2011 (coming in the Despite tighter macroeconomic policy and aftermath of a weak base tied to low rainfall in strong exports, the regional current account 2010). Industrial output, however, significantly deficit is expected to widen in 2011 to an decelerated from mid-2011, in part reflecting a estimated 3.0 percent of GDP in 2011 from 2.6 sharp fall-off in capital goods output and percent in 2010, due to higher import prices moderating domestic demand. (figure SAR 3). (notably sustained high fuel prices), continued Producer sentiment was down markedly in the strong import demand and currency depreciation. second half of the year, albeit a pick-up was evident in December. (figure SAR 4). Indian The deceleration in regional economic growth in merchandise export volume growth was vibrant 2011 to a large extent stems from slowing through most of 2011—recording gains as much Figure SAR.3 Deceleration in South Asia's industrial Figure SAR.4 Purchasing manufacturers index for production has been led by India, while Pakistan recov- manufacturing output ered after flooding seasonally adjusted 3m/3m growth, seasonally adjusted, annualized rates Expansion>50 % 65 60 India India Global 50 60 Sri Lanka 40 Pakistan 55 30 Developing countries (excl. South Asai) 50 20 45 10 0 40 -10 35 -20 30 -30 Apr-05 Jan-06 Oct-06 Jul-07 Apr-08 Jan-09 Oct-09 Jul-10 Apr-11 Jul-10 Sep-10 Nov-10 Jan-11 Mar-11 May-11 Jul-11 Sep-11 Nov-11 Sources: Thomson Datastream and World Bank Sources: Haver Analytics and World Bank 134 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex as 54 percent above year-earlier levels in July second largest economy (representing about 15 (seasonally adjusted)—supported by resilient percent of regional GDP), continues to markedly external demand from developing countries and lag outcomes elsewhere in the region. emerging East Asia, in particular. However, Nevertheless, it firmed in the second half of export volume growth slowed sharply to 0.5 2011. Industrial production surged to grow at a percent (y/y) in October—despite real trade- robust 32.1 percent annualized pace during the weighted depreciation of the rupee of 6.5 percent three months ending in October (3m/3m, at in October (real effective exchange rate, y/y). seasonally adjusted annualized rates), after Robust merchandise import growth (from a falling at 9.1 and 10.1 percent rates during the higher base level than exports) and a first and second quarters, respectively. Part of deterioration in the terms of trade contributed to the strengthening in growth reflects base effects an expansion of the current account deficit, due to the widespread flooding that had which is projected to have reached 3.4 percent of hampered activity in the second half of 2010. GDP in 2011, up from 3.2 percent in 2010. Indeed, because the floods occurred in July and August 2010, GDP growth on a fiscal year basis Economic activity in Pakistan, South Asia‟s (ending June-2011) slowed to 2.4 percent from Table SAR.1 South Asia country forecasts (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 b Calendar year basis Bangladesh c GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.0 6.3 6.0 5.9 6.5 6.1 6.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.2 1.4 3.5 2.6 0.7 0.5 -0.2 India c GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.4 6.2 6.8 10.0 7.0 6.0 7.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.3 -2.7 -2.0 -3.2 -3.4 -2.4 -2.3 Nepal c GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.4 4.8 5.3 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.7 3.2 -1.8 -2.9 -2.9 -2.7 -2.3 Pakistan c GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.0 3.7 1.7 3.8 3.1 4.0 4.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.8 -9.6 -2.5 -0.9 0.5 -0.2 -0.7 Sri Lanka c GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.4 6.0 3.5 8.0 7.7 6.8 7.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) -3.2 -9.8 -0.7 -3.0 -3.8 -3.9 -4.2 Fiscal year basis b Bangladesh Real GDP at market prices 5.0 6.2 5.7 6.1 6.7 6.0 6.4 India Real GDP at market prices 6.2 4.9 9.1 8.7 6.5 6.5 7.7 Memo: Real GDP at factor cost - 6.8 8.0 8.5 6.8 6.8 8.0 Nepal Real GDP at market prices 3.1 6.1 4.4 4.6 3.5 3.6 4.0 Pakistan Real GDP at market prices 4.7 1.6 3.6 4.1 2.4 3.9 4.2 World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing (global) circumstances. Consequently, projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries’ prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Afghanistan, Bhutan, Maldives are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. National income and product account data refer to fiscal years (FY) for the South Asian countries with the exception of Sri Lanka, which reports in calendar year (CY). The fiscal year runs from July 1 through June 30 in Bangladesh and Pakistan, from July 16 through July 15 in Nepal, and April 1 through March 31 in India. Due to reporting practices, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan report FY2009/10 data in CY2010, while India reports FY2009/10 in CY2009. GDP figures are presented in calendar years (CY) based on quarterly history for India. For Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, CY data is calculated taking the average growth over the two fiscal year periods to provide an approximation of CY activity. c. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. d. Estimate. Source: World Bank 135 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex 4.1 percent in FY2009/10. Bangladeshi migrant workers are based, led to a slowdown in the pace of growth. At the sectoral Pakistan‟s weak growth outturns are also tied to level, rising agricultural output reflected good worsening security conditions, accompanied by harvests, which also supported household greater political uncertainty and a breakdown in spending. Strengthened industrial production has policy implementation. Infrastructure been buoyed by booming garment exports, bottlenecks, including disruptions in power which represent over two-thirds of Bangladesh‟s delivery, remain widespread. A notable bright merchandise exports. spot has been a strengthening of exports, evident particularly in the first half of 2011, led by Despite a waning of the post-conflict rebound textiles that surged 39 percent in the first half of effects, GDP in Sri Lanka is estimated to have the year (y/y). However, like India, Pakistan‟s grown 7.7 percent in the 2011 calendar year, export volume growth saw a sharp fall-off in slightly below the 2010 pace of 8 percent. October. Indeed, Pakistan‟s export volumes fell Domestic demand growth has been vibrant, to a minus 46 percent rate in the three-months supported by strong credit expansion. Strong ending October (3m/3m, at seasonally adjusted export growth, led by a surge in textile exports, annualized rates). Along with an upswing in was more than offset by the rise in imports, and worker remittances inflows, robust exports have the trade deficit rose. Remittances, tourism and supported Pakistan‟s external positions and port services grew strongly, which helped to contributed to an improvement in the current contain the deterioration of the current account account from a deficit of 0.9 percent of GDP in balance. While growth was strong at the start of 2010 to a surplus of close to 0.5 percent of GDP 2011, a deceleration became apparent in the in the 2011 calendar year. second half of the year, on heightened uncertainty and weakening external demand, as GDP growth in Bangladesh strengthened to a reflected in a modest slowdown in industrial projected 6.7 percent in FY2010/11 (ending June production growth. 2011), firming from the 6.1 percent outturn in FY2009/10. Growth has been supported by an Afghanistan‟s real GDP growth (on a fiscal year expansion in private consumption, buoyed by an basis) slowed markedly from an unsustainable upswing in government subsidies and transfer 20 percent in FY2009/10 to 8.4 percent in payments. While export activity surged, strong FY2010/11 (ending March 2011).2 Economic import growth (from a higher base), contributed activity in Afghanistan remains highly to a deterioration in the trade deficit and the dependent on donor aid inflows and current account surplus narrowed markedly. reconstruction efforts, as the ongoing fighting Elevated oil prices led to a widening of the trade continues to impede private sector economic deficit as well, and weighed on fiscal balances activity. The still strong FY2010/11 outturn through increased fuel subsidies to the private reflected the continued expansion of foreign power plants. CPI inflation remained close to 10 assistance and spending on security. On the percent during much of the year, tied to rapid supply side, both services and mining showed credit expansion, administered price increases strong growth. Activity has remained relatively and depreciation of the Bangladeshi taka. The strong in the early months of FY2011/12, on combination of high import demand, elevated sustained reconstruction (transport services and international oil prices and taka depreciation construction activity remain buoyant). (against the dollar) over recent months has led to Inflationary pressures rose sharply, reaching a significant drawdown in international reserve 13.3 percent for the fiscal year, reflecting an holdings to below the equivalent of three months upswing in international oil and food prices. import cover (a threshold of comfort for liquidity). While worker remittances inflows Nepal has also experienced a slowdown in continued to expand in 2011, disruptions in the activity, given ongoing political uncertainty as Middle East and North Africa, where many the post-conflict transition to a new government 136 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex has extended well into its fourth year since the Activity has been buoyed by strong growth in comprehensive peace agreement was reached in tourism arrivals, led by vibrant growth of November 2006. Law and order problems, and arrivals from Asia—as China surpassed the U.K. persistent and extensive infrastructure in 2010 as the largest country of origin for bottlenecks (electrical shortages are reflected in tourists in the Maldives. Reflecting high widespread load-shedding and unreliable international commodity prices and strong GDP delivery), reduced real GDP growth to 3.5 growth, inflationary pressures have become percent in FY2010/2011 (ending June-2011) more elevated in both Bhutan and the Maldives. from 4.6 percent in FY2009/10. Despite some moderation in domestic demand, inflation Inflation remains a serious regional challenge. remains elevated (averaging 8.7 percent in the Although inflation eased in South Asia during first four months of the fiscal year—July through 2011, it has fallen less than in other developing October). The upswing in prices reflects high regions and remains very high (figure SAR 5). international food and fuel prices, and imported Headline inflation rates were close to or inflation from India (as Nepal‟s local currency is exceeded double-digit levels throughout much of pegged to the Indian rupee). Tourism arrivals the region in 2011. Rather than being a one-off remained strong, which, along with strengthened event, current high inflation reflects years of growth of remittances inflows, largely offset a rising inflation that has contributed to a gradual rise in the trade deficit tied to deterioration in the entrenchment of high inflation expectations that terms of trade. The current account deficit is complicating efforts to bring inflation under remained steady as a share of GDP of close to control. 2.9 percent. As elsewhere, high international fuel and food Among the smaller South Asian economies, prices contributed significantly to price pressures GDP growth decelerated slightly in Bhutan to a in late 2010 and early 2011, but their influence still buoyant 8.1 percent in FY2010/11 (ending was fading by the second quarter of 2011 when June-2011), down from 8.7 percent in international prices were stabilizing or even FY2009/10, supported by ongoing construction falling. Food prices are of particular importance, of additional hydropower projects, and to a as food represents about 40 percent of the lesser extent by largely sustained strong tourism regional household consumption basket. activity. The Maldives posted a strong recovery International prices are particularly relevant for in GDP growth to 9.9 percent in 2011, following Afghanistan and the Maldives—where 30 a contraction of 6.5 percent in the previous year. percent to 50 percent of domestic consumption Figure SAR.5 While easing in South Asia, inflationary of grains (including rice, wheat, pulses) is pressures remain sharply elevated compared with other projected to be imported for the 2011/2012 crop developing countries year. median CPI, y/y %-change, seasonally adjusted 12 % For India, Pakistan, Bhutan and Bangladesh, 11 however, domestic crop conditions and price 10 controls are more important determinants of 9 South Asia Developing Countries domestic food price inflation. These factors have 8 contributed to inflationary pressures in the 7 region in 2011, including floods in Sri Lanka 6 early in the year and increases in the minimum 5 domestic support prices in India for rice, wheat, 4 pulses and oil-seed to bring them more in line 3 with costs and international prices (to reduce 2 fiscal outlays and market distortions). 3 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011p Administered fuel price increases in Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal and Pakistan have Source: World Bank 137 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex Figure SAR.6 Actual and expected short-run inflation in Figure SAR.7 Exchange rates depreciated across much South Asia of South Asia since end-2010 Consensus surveys for current year CPI (month published) and quarterly actuals, annual percent change, medians and trendlines nominal LCU/$, Depreciation > 100 < appreciation 15 Index Dec-2010 = 100 125 Consensus Survey 120 Actual 115 Linear (Consensus Survey) 10 Linear (Actual) 110 105 100 95 5 90 Bangladesh Sri Lanka 85 Maldives India 80 Pakistan 75 0 Jun-08 Dec-08 Jun-09 Dec-09 Jun-10 Dec-10 Jun-11 Dec-11 Dec-01 Dec-02 Dec-03 Dec-04 Dec-05 Dec-06 Dec-07 Dec-08 Dec-09 Dec-10 Dec-11 Sources: Consensus and World Bank Sources: IMF and World Bank also contributed to price pressures, although pass since March 2010 to 8.5 percent as of end- through of international price increases has been October 2011. As a result, implicit real lending incremental and partial, such that some targeted interest rates in India shifted into positive local food and fuel prices remain subsidized to territory from early-2011, although at about 1.5 varying degrees (and below international levels). percentage points they are not particularly high For Bhutan and Nepal, with local currencies (compared with about 4 percentage points in pegged to the Indian Rupee, sustained high Brazil). Monetary tightening in Pakistan brought inflationary pressures in India have been an about positive real lending rates in early 2011 as important driver of local inflation. Sustained well, the first time since late 2009 (figure SAR elevated inflationary pressures have also led to a 8). rise in inflation expectations (figure SAR 6). South Asia’s general government fiscal deficit— Regional monetary policy authorities face projected at 8.3 percent of GDP in 2011 and several challenges in reducing inflation. More significantly higher than in most other regions— recently, currency devaluation has contributed to is down only slightly from 8.8 percent in 2010. inflation as well (figure SAR 7). In Bangladesh Figure SAR.8 Real lending rates became positive again and Pakistan, monetary authorities have also in India and Pakistan, reflecting monetary policy been monetizing the deficit, complicating the tightening efficacy of other monetary policy efforts to lending interest rate minus CPI annual, percent reduce inflation. A key factor working against 20 monetary policy efforts is the overall stance of Bangladesh fiscal policy, which despite some consolidation, 15 India Pakistan remains very loose. Sri Lanka 10 Monetary authorities in Bangladesh, India, 5 Pakistan, and Sri Lanka have responded to persistent price pressures by raising policy 0 interest rates and/or introducing higher reserve -5 requirements. The Reserve Bank of India was among the first developing countries to begin -10 tightening after the global crisis, and has hiked it Jun-09 Sep-09 Dec-09 Mar-10 Jun-10 Sep-10 Dec-10 Mar-11 Jun-11 Sep-11 key policy rate by a cumulative 375 basis points Sources: Thomson Datastream, EIU and World Bank 138 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex Targeted reductions in budget deficits were toward higher-growth developing countries missed in a number of countries in the region for (China) and away from traditional export a variety of reasons in 2011. In India, markets in slower-growing Europe and the privatization proceeds have been markedly United States. While export activity was below target (reflecting equity market volatility especially robust in the first half of 2011, as and poor returns) and subsidy outlays have demand from abroad faltered it lost significant exceeded targets (particularly due to an upsurge momentum later in the year. (figure SAR 9). in oil subsidies tied to the sharp devaluation of Regional merchandise import volume growth the rupee since mid-2011 and sustained high oil remained robust as well, reflecting strong prices). With the slowdown in activity, tax domestic demand, which combined with receipts have failed to meet expected levels. The deterioration in the terms of trade increased the shortfall prompted the government to announce regional current account deficit. Terms of trade an increase in borrowing for the second half of losses are estimated at about 1.9 percent of GDP the fiscal year (ending March 2012), which in for the region in aggregate, led by a 4.3 percent turn led to a rise in government bond yields, of GDP decline for Nepal, while Bangladesh and raising the burden of interest payments. Slower Sri Lanka saw a smaller negative impact of close revenue growth has contributed to larger fiscal to 1.5 percent of GDP, and India and Pakistan deficits in Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan. On the saw negative impacts of close to 1.8 percent of expenditure side, fertilizer, food and fuel GDP (estimated January through September subsidies (on and off-budget) remain a 2011 terms of trade impacts relative to 2010). significant burden on regional fiscal coffers. In Bhutan, a rise in capital expenditures was a key Worker remittances remain a critical source of factor behind the expansion of the fiscal deficit. foreign exchange in South Asia.4 Remittances Other structural factors are at play across the inflows rose in US-dollar terms by 10.1 percent region, including rising debt-servicing charges in in 2011 to an estimated $90 billion, which a number of countries, while the region‟s low tax helped to offset large trade deficits. This is a base makes consolidation especially challenging. slight acceleration from the 9.5 percent expansion of remittances inflows in 2010, Trade faltered late in 2011 following an upsurge. reflecting strengthened activity in host countries, Regional export volumes grew by roughly one- particularly in the high-income oil exporting fourth in 2011, buoyed by healthy textile exports countries of the Arabian Gulf, where high and tourism receipts in particular. External petroleum prices have supported strengthened demand firmed, supported especially by a shift GDP outturns (through fiscal expenditures and in export market composition in recent years increased social spending). While India and Nepal are estimated to have recorded a slowing Figure SAR.9 The pace of export volume growth fell-off in the pace of growth in remittances inflows, sharply in late-2011 remittance inflows to Pakistan rose by an 3m/3m saar-% 200 estimated 25 percent in 2011, partly in response India to the widespread flooding in the second half of 150 Sri Lanka Pakistan 2010. When measured in local currency terms, Developing excl. South Asia given the appreciation of the dollar, remittances 100 inflows to the region grew by a more vibrant 13 percent in 2011 (median rate). Adjusting for 50 inflation, worker remittances inflows to the region grew by a less robust 5.8 percent (median 0 rate) in local currency terms. -50 Jan-10 Apr-10 Jul-10 Oct-10 Jan-11 Apr-11 Jul-11 Oct-11 Sources: Thomson Datastream, IMF and World Bank 139 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex Table SAR.2 Net capital flows to South Asia $ billions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance -1.0 -14.8 -16.5 -17.1 -49.3 -26.9 -52.7 -64.7 -54.8 -65.2 as % of GDP -0.1 -1.5 -1.4 -1.2 -3.3 -1.7 -2.6 -3.0 -2.3 -2.5 Financial flows: Net private and official inflows 21.2 28.6 77.1 116.4 64.8 86.2 111.5 90.4 Net private inflows (equity+private debt) 21.5 25.7 73.5 111.9 55.9 75.2 101.9 83.9 78.2 99.2 ..Net private inflows (% GDP) 2.4 2.5 6.4 7.6 3.7 4.6 5.0 3.9 3.3 3.7 Net equity inflows 16.8 23.6 36.5 66.7 35.2 59.9 67.4 43.9 45.2 53.2 ..Net FDI inflows 7.8 11.2 26.1 32.7 51.1 39.4 28.0 34.9 32.2 35.2 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 9.0 12.4 10.4 34.0 -15.8 20.5 39.4 9.0 13.0 18.0 Net debt flows 4.4 4.9 40.2 49.3 28.5 18.8 21.1 ..Official creditors -0.3 2.9 3.5 4.4 8.8 11.0 9.6 6.5 ....World Bank 2.3 2.3 2.0 2.0 1.4 2.4 3.3 2.0 ....IMF -0.3 0.0 -0.1 -0.1 3.2 3.6 2.0 0.5 ....Other official -2.3 0.6 1.7 2.5 4.2 5.0 4.4 4.0 ..Private creditors 4.7 2.1 37.1 45.2 20.7 15.2 34.5 40.0 33.0 46.0 ....Net M-L term debt flows 4.0 -0.2 20.2 32.3 12.8 12.6 22.8 30.0 ......Bonds 3.9 -2.8 6.4 10.7 1.7 1.9 10.1 5.0 ......Banks 0.5 2.8 13.6 21.5 11.2 10.8 12.8 25.0 ......Other private -0.3 -0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.1 0.0 ....Net short-term debt flows 0.7 2.3 16.8 12.9 7.9 2.6 11.7 10.0 Balancing item /a 7.5 -7.0 -18.9 4.5 -41.8 -20.0 -36.5 -5.2 Change in reserves (- = increase) -27.6 -6.8 -41.7 -103.8 26.3 -39.3 -22.3 -20.5 Memorandum items Migrant remittances /b 28.7 33.9 42.5 54.0 71.6 75.1 82.2 90.5 97.2 105.0 Note : Only for Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, M aldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and capital outflows from developing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers‟ remittances, compensation of employees, and migrant transfers Source: World Bank. Capital flows International reserve positions in South Asia have generally improved since mid-2008. Latest As witnessed in most developing regions in readings of foreign currency holdings were 2011, net private capital inflows (excluding equivalent to at least three-months of official inflows) to South Asia declined in 2011 merchandise imports in India, Pakistan and Sri to $83.9 billion, largely driven by declines in net Lanka, and rose in all cases with the exceptions portfolio equity inflows to $9 billion and in net of Bangladesh (where they have fallen in recent international private bond issuance to $5 billion months to bellow three months import-cover) (table SAR.2). The retreat in portfolio flows and India (where they remain comfortably high from the high level of 2010 reflects a general at close to eight months). (figure SAR 10). heightened degree of risk aversion by External liquidity positions, however, are international investors in the second half of the relatively more exposed than other developing year. countries when measured against short-term debt. In India, short-term external debt has risen In contrast, FDI inflows to South Asia significantly since late-2010, likely reflecting a strengthened markedly in 2011, to a projected rise in trade finance with the rapid trade growth $34.9 billion from $28 billion in 2010. The rise witnessed in the first half of 2011. However, the in net FDI inflows was largely due to a recovery build-up in short-term debt has coincided with of inflows to India, which accounts for the lion‟s monetary policy interest rate hikes, and Indian share of FDI in the region and had recorded a corporations have also apparently sought sharp fall-off in 2010. Despite the rebound in external financing to avoid higher domestic India, FDI inflows to the region in aggregate borrowing costs. Measured as a share of foreign remain down by nearly one third from the 2008 exchange reserves, many countries in South Asia peak of $51.1 billion. report significantly higher ratios of short-term 140 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex debt than other developing countries (which Medium-term outlook averaged 17 percent in the second quarter of 2011). Short-term debt in India represented 41 South Asian GDP growth is projected to ease to percent of foreign exchange reserves in the 5.8 percent in 2012 from an estimated 6.6 second quarter of 2011, followed by 37 percent percent in 2011, before strengthening to 7.1 in the Maldives and 36 percent in Bangladesh percent in 2013 (in calendar year terms). The (figure SAR 11). To the extent that short-term slowdown in growth in 2012 reflects continued debt obligations are not tied to trade finance, deceleration in investment growth tied to a countries with elevated levels could face variety of factors, including domestic policy challenges in rolling over debt, should global paralysis and uncertainty about regulatory financial conditions suddenly deteriorate. reforms, deterioration in international investor sentiment, heightened uncertainty and weaker Figure SAR.10 Reserves in months import cover have external demand from high-income Europe and generally improved since mid-2008, but latest readings developing countries. dipped below 3-months in Bangladesh and Maldives months The projected deceleration in economic activity 12 also reflects the anticipated deepening traction of the more restrictive monetary policy conditions 10 introduced over the course of 2011 and 8 Jun-08 continued progress (albeit gradual) toward MRV-2011 programmed fiscal consolidation. Higher interest 6 rates and increases in regulated prices are 3-months equivalent projected to induce a slowing in consumer 4 demand, while high interest rates and a more 2 somber business outlook are expected to slow investment growth—contributing to significantly 0 India Bangladesh Maldives Sri Lanka Pakistan weaker imports during 2012. Meanwhile demand for the region‟s exports is projected to slow in Sources: IMF, Thomson Datastream and World Bank 2012 and lead to a near halving of export growth to 11.6 percent in 2012 from 21 percent in 2011, due to stagnant GDP in the European Union and Figure SAR.11 South Asia's short-term debt relative to the projected global slowdown—including the reserves is elevated compared with other developing influence of tighter monetary policy in China countries and fiscal consolidation in Europe (which will Short-term debt as a %-share of f oreign currency reserves Q2-2011, LMICs=Low and Middle Income Countries, SA=South Asia particularly hit South Asia‟s tourism receipts). % 45 Regional inflationary pressures are projected to 40 come down over the forecast horizon, assuming 35 continued expansion of crop production (India, 30 Pakistan, Sri Lanka) and a decline in 25 international fuel prices (reflecting weaker 20 global activity in 2012). A good crop year 15 (2011/2012) in much of the region and sustained 10 high regional stocks are providing a buffer for 5 grain prices and import demand in 2012.5 (table 0 SAR.3) Lower inflation should provide a India Maldives Bangladesh Sri Lanka Pakistan LMICs excl. SA relatively limited impetus to household spending Sources: Bank for International Settlement and World Bank because the deceleration in price pressures is expected to be halting and incremental. A projected slow moderation in inflation reflects 141 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex Table SAR.3 South Asia's grain supply and demand balances 1,000 metric tons, unless otherwise noted 2004/2005 2005/2006 2006/2007 2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012p Production 280,608 286,947 296,253 315,659 323,189 325,141 345,942 357,831 y-o-y % growth -2.4 2.3 3.2 6.6 2.4 0.6 6.4 3.4 Ending stocks 18,710 20,729 23,117 26,134 40,767 45,391 48,608 49,233 y-o-y % growth -20.6 10.8 11.5 13.1 56.0 11.3 7.1 1.3 % share of use 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.5 15.0 16.8 16.9 16.6 Domestic consumption * 251,320 255,843 262,345 274,532 272,303 270,787 287,354 295,888 y-o-y % growth -0.2 1.8 2.5 4.6 -0.8 -0.6 6.1 3.0 Countries = Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. *Excluding feed consumption. Sources: United States Department of Agriculture (1 November 2011) and World Bank. the still incomplete pass-through of higher Figure SAR.12 India's household inflation expectations international commodity prices and entrenched increased mid-2011, despite fall in the actual inflation inflationary expectations. With respect to the rate latter, inflation expectations in India have mean inf lation rates for given survey quarter remained at double digit rates since the fourth 17 quarter of 2009—with „one-year ahead‟ expected 15 Current perceived rates at 12.9 percent in the third quarter of 2011.6 1-Year Ahead This 3.8 percentage point wedge above the 13 Actual CPI Linear (Current perceived) actual 9.1 percent rate reported for the quarter 11 Linear (1-Year Ahead) underscores the degree to which higher price Linear (Actual CPI) pressures have become entrenched. (figure SAR 9 12). 7 5 Despite slowing exports (see above), lower import demand and lower import prices should 3 Q3-2006 Q2-2007 Q1-2008 Q4-2008 Q2-2009 Q1-2010 Q4-2010 Q3-2011 reduce the region‟s current account deficit to an estimated 2.3 percent of GDP in 2012 from 3.0 Sources: Reserve Bank of India and World Bank percent in 2011. Nevertheless, while oil prices are projected to moderate over the forecast South Asia from the GCC, where most of the horizon, they are expected to remain relatively region‟s estimated 9 million migrants are based high—falling incrementally only to $100.8/bbl (3.3 million in Saudi Arabia and 2.9 million in in 20137—and thus the regional oil import bill is the U.A.E.), are projected to remain fairly expected to remain a significant burden on resilient however, tied to Arab Spring related external balances. stimulus measures (social spending).8 For example, Saudi Arabia‟s increased non- Remittances inflows to South Asia are projected hydrocarbon spending (on public employment, to rise 7.4 percent in 2012 in US dollar terms unemployment benefits, etc.) is estimated to and continue to represent significant support to equal about 11 percent of GDP in FY2011/12. regional current account positions. This This is likely to be reflected in higher remittance deceleration in the pace of growth from an outflows, particularly to Pakistan, India and estimated 10.1 percent rise in remittances Bangladesh. Saudi Arabia is host to 21.5 percent, inflows in 2011 reflects a projected slowing in 12.8 percent, and 8.3 percent of the total host country activity, particularly in high-income emigrant population, respectively, from Europe and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.9 The countries countries (Saudi Arabia, the U.A.E, Kuwait, facing ongoing political upheaval in the Middle Qatar, Bahrain and Oman). Worker transfers to East (Egypt, Libya, Syria, Tunisia, and Yemen) 142 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex do not represent large migrant host countries for 2013, rising by a projected 26.8 percent South Asia.10 following a projected contraction of 6.8 percent in 2012 (reflecting continued relatively high GDP growth in South Asia is projected investor uncertainty in 2012 tied to ongoing strengthen in 2013 to 7.1 percent from a deleveraging in high-income countries). projected 5.8 percent in 2012 (in calendar year terms), led by firming private sector activity, as Risks and vulnerabilities inflationary pressures recede sufficiently to allow monetary authorities to pursue less As discussed in the main text, the risk of a restrictive stances (table SAR.4). In particular, serious downturn in the global economy is high. acceleration of investment growth is forecast to Downside scenarios suggest the possibility of be supported by lower inflation and some much lower growth outturns globally and for the improvement in fiscal balances, which will region. Should external demand falter support cheaper access to credit. Additionally, appreciably, South Asia‟s capacity to respond programmed large investment and reconstruction with countercyclical measures has been greatly projects in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, reduced, with government deficits in 2011 at 8.3 India and Sri Lanka should contribute to stronger percent of regional GDP versus 4.1 percent in growth outturns in 2013, boosting productivity 2007 before the onset of the crisis in 2008 and potential output. External demand is (figure SAR 13). Given high inflation, the scope expected to revive in 2013, which along with for monetary policy easing is also limited, improved international investor sentiment is although this could be tempered by easing expected to support stronger regional growth. inflationary pressures should the external situation deteriorate sharply, as the downside Net foreign private capital inflows to South Asia scenarios described in the main text would also are forecast to support investment activity in result in a significant decline in oil prices. Table SAR.4 South Asia forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 b,f GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.0 6.0 6.1 9.1 6.6 5.8 7.1 GDP per capita (units in US$) 4.4 4.5 4.7 7.7 5.3 4.5 5.8 PPP GDP d 6.0 6.0 6.1 9.1 6.6 5.8 7.1 Private consumption 4.9 7.2 6.5 8.2 5.3 4.9 5.7 Public consumption 3.8 16.9 12.3 3.6 7.1 7.1 5.2 Fixed investment 8.9 5.7 3.5 12.1 6.0 5.6 11.1 Exports, GNFS e 14.0 14.9 -7.1 12.8 21.0 11.6 17.6 Imports, GNFS e 9.2 25.8 -6.5 10.4 13.4 8.5 16.3 Net exports, contribution to growth -0.1 -3.3 0.3 -0.2 0.8 0.3 -0.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.4 -3.3 -1.7 -2.6 -3.0 -2.3 -2.5 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 5.7 7.8 6.9 11.3 9.9 8.9 7.7 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) -7.0 -9.9 -9.4 -8.8 -8.3 -7.9 -7.2 f Memo items: GDP at market prices South Asia excluding India 4.5 4.8 3.9 5.1 5.1 4.8 4.8 India 6.2 4.9 9.1 8.7 6.5 6.5 7.7 at factor cost - 6.8 8.0 8.5 6.8 6.8 8.0 Pakistan 5.0 1.6 3.6 4.1 2.4 3.9 4.2 Bangladesh 5.0 6.2 5.7 6.1 6.7 6.0 6.4 a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. GDP figures are presented in calendar years (CY) based on quarterly history for India. For Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, CY data is calculated taking the average growth over the two fiscal year periods to provide an approximation of CY activity. d. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. e. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services (GNFS). f. National income and product account data refer to fiscal years (FY) for the South Asian countries, while aggregates are presented in calendar year (CY) terms. The fiscal year runs from July 1 through June 30 in Bangladesh and Pakistan, from July 16 through July 15 in Nepal, and April 1 through March 31 in India. Due to reporting practices, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan report FY2009/10 data in CY2010, while India reports FY2009/10 in CY2009. Source: World Bank 143 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex (figure SAR 14). A sharp fall in fuel prices important component of the region’s trade credit, would also help reduce pressure on fiscal is particularly vulnerable to drying up, as was balances, given remaining administered price the experience during the 2008 financial crisis. controls and fuel subsidies. At the country level, Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka are particularly exposed to a A deepening of the Euro Area crisis would lead downturn in European demand for merchandise. to weaker exports, worker remittances and (figure SAR 16). With respect to services, capital inflows to South Asia. The EU-27 tourism sectors could be especially hard hit in countries account for a significant share of South Sri Lanka and the Maldives, although greater Asia merchandise export markets, although not diversification (with booming arrivals from as much as for some developing regions. (figure Asia) should provide a buffer. However, there SAR 15). The Euro Area represents about one- could be some countercyclical benefits for goods fourth of South Asia’s merchandise export exporters ("Walmart effect") for some sectors market, of which Germany and France account (e.g., for Bangladesh's garment industry). for 40 percent and 20 percent, respectively. Additionally, a slowdown in global activity Moreover, export financing from Europe, an would likely translate into lower oil prices that Figure SAR.13 Fiscal space has diminished across Figure SAR.15 The EU-27 countries represent most of South Asia compared with 2007 over one-fourth of South Asia's export market Merchandise exports to EU, share of total, 2008-2010 averages General government balance as percent share of GDP 60% 0 EU-27 Total 50% -2 High-spread EU (Greece, Italy, Ireland, Portugal, Spain) -4 40% -6 30% -8 20% -10 2007 -12 2011e 10% -14 0% -16 Latin America East Asia & Sub-Saharan South Asia Middle East & Europe & & Caribbean Pacif ic Af rica North Af rica Central Asia Maldives India Sri Lanka Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Afghanistan Sources: IMF and World Bank Sources: World Bank and UN COMTRADE (WITS) Figure SAR.14 Real interest rates indicate some Figure SAR.16 Maldives and Bangladesh have scope for easing, and much improved positions in highest exposure to EU-27 Pakistan and Sri Lanka since 2008 Merch exports to EU, share of total, 2008-2010 averages Lending interest rate minus annual CPI growth rate (%-pt difference) 60% 8 EU-27 Total 6 50% High-spread EU (Greece, Italy, Ireland, Portugal, Spain) 4 40% 2 0 30% -2 Real interest rate 1H-2008 20% -4 Real interest rate 1H-2011 10% -6 -8 0% Bangladesh India Pakistan Sri Lanka Bhutan Afghanistan Nepal India Pakistan Sri Lanka Maldives Bangladesh Sources: EIU, Thomson Datastream and World Bank Sources: World Bank and UN COMTRADE (WITS) 144 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex would ease pressures on current account and The delay in adjusting prices has resulted in fiscal balances for the oil import-dependent some slippage in fiscal consolidation and will region. require monetary policy to maintain a restrictive posture for a longer period than otherwise might Worker remittances inflows—which were have been required (had pass-through been more equivalent to 5 percent or more of GDP in 2010 immediate). Sustained higher policy interest in Nepal (20 percent as of 2010) Bangladesh (9.6 rates could hinder investment activity, attract percent), Sri Lanka (7 percent) and Pakistan (5 large capital inflows and complicate monetary percent)—could slow markedly through second policy—further emphasizing the need for fiscal round effects of weakened domestic demand in consolidation — although in the current migrant host-countries, largely located in the environment (favoring low-risk assets and a Arabian Gulf. flight-to-safety) this is less of a risk. The rise in South Asia‟s financing needs (current While there has been some progress toward account financing and debt repayment)— fiscal consolidation, large regional fiscal deficits projected at 8.4 percent of GDP in 2012, up from continue to pose important downside risks to 5 percent in 2007 (the only region to post an growth, by crowding out private investment increase over the period)—increases the region‟s (particularly given shallow domestic financial vulnerability to a rise in global risk aversion. markets) and contributing to excess demand that India is particularly vulnerable within South has translated into sustained high import growth Asia, as it is the most integrated with global and expanded regional current account deficits. financial markets. India‟s short-term external In other words inadequate progress in fiscal debt (with remaining maturity of less than one- consolidation focused on recurrent expenditures year, according to the Bank of International reduces the capital stock over time, undermining Settlements) rose to $128 billion (6.8 percent of growth prospects. Reductions in fiscal deficits GDP) in the second quarter of 2011, and total have been less than programmed. Additional external financing needs are projected to reach fiscal slippage could trigger higher than 9.8 percent of GDP in 2012. The Maldives and projected inflationary pressures and constrain Sri Lanka, with external financing needs policy options further in the event of future projected at 18 percent and 7.0 percent of GDP crises. At one extreme, the Maldives‟ general in 2012, respectively, are also highly exposed. government fiscal deficit is unsustainably high Countries heavily reliant on foreign assistance, (projected at 15.5 percent of GDP in 2011), such as Afghanistan, Nepal and Pakistan, could which has led to an upsurge in public debt and be hit hard if fiscal consolidation in high-income requires vigilant fiscal consolidation. While countries were to result in cuts to overseas much less severe, India‟s fiscal deficit, and the development assistance. concomitant rise in short-term external debt, appears to be placing continued pressure on Other risks are also prominent in South Asia. domestic financial intermediation and increasing Continued large inflation differentials with other the country‟s vulnerability to a sudden tightening countries would put upward pressure on real of international credit markets. effective exchange rates, undermining competitiveness, discouraging foreign Policy options investment and slowing productivity growth. International commodity prices—albeit easing While South Asia is relatively insulated from from early-2011 highs—also remain elevated international financial market turbulence and continue to represent an important negative compared to other more integrated regions, the risk factor for South Asia. Given political weak global economic trajectory will resistance to reducing subsidies, governments nonetheless likely have an adverse impact on the have postponed the pass-through of higher region. Given the lack of fiscal space in South international prices over the past couple of years. Asia, inflationary pressures and consequent 145 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 South Asia Annex limited room for monetary policy easing, fiscal 4 Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, were consolidation through greater revenue among the top 15 recipients of remittances in mobilization (particularly in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, 2010—with inflows representing the Bangladesh, and Nepal) and expenditure equivalent of 20 percent of GDP in Nepal, rationalization (especially in India) could play a 9.6 percent in Bangladesh, 6.9 percent in Sri key role in helping to protect critical social Lanka, 5.0 percent in Pakistan and 3 percent programs. Governments should also look at in India. further improving the targeting of its safety nets and capacity to respond to a crisis to improve 5 U.S. Department of Agriculture, PSD efficiency of social safety net programs. (Production, Supply, Demand) database. Expanding the drivers of growth also holds 6 The public's expectations for inflation, based potential. With markets in the United States and on surveys conducted by the Reserve Bank Europe expected to experience prolonged of India. weakness, South Asian countries have the opportunity to re-think and pursue new sources 7 World Bank crude oil price, which is a of growth for their countries. Unlike East Asia, simple average of the prices for Brent, Dubai which has depended greatly on developed and West Texas Intermediate. country markets for its export-led growth, South Asia faces less adjustment costs from 8 Institute of International Finance, Global rebalancing demand sources, and can more Economic Monitor, November 2011. readily look for new growth drivers in both domestic and external markets. This may include 9 World Bank, Development Economics, focusing on export growth toward faster growing Migration and Remittances, Prospects Group emerging markets, as well as internal market (see http://go.worldbank.org/JITC7NYTT0). enhancements through structural and governance reforms. Such actions would help boost export 10 The net impact of the Arab Spring on demand, help raise investment, provide better external demand for labor appears positive, jobs and generate an environment for more with the main migrant host countries in the inclusive growth. GCC benefitting from production stoppages that have contributed to elevated oil prices. Notes: The related increase in social spending has also buoyed local activity. 1 See Global Economic Prospects, June 2010 “Box SAR 1 GDP reporting practices— market price versus factor cost and calendar year versus fiscal year��?, p. 116: http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGEP/ Resources/335315-1307471336123/7983902 -1307479336019/SA-Annex.pdf. 2 The exceptionally strong FY2009/10 outturn reflected a record harvest and rebound from a severe and extended period of drought. Additionally, aid inflows rose sharply in the year. 3 In the event that domestic market prices fall below the government‟s minimum price, the government provides payments to producers. 146 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Sub-Saharan Africa Region Recent developments As has been the case in recent years, domestic demand was the main source of growth, with Despite multiple shocks - heightened uncertainty external demand - supported by higher and slowdown in the global economy, volatile commodity prices - also providing a strong and high fuel and food prices, disruptions to impetus, notwithstanding the perturbations to the supply chains from the Tohoku earthquake, and global economy. bad weather conditions for some countries in the region - growth in Sub-Saharan Africa continued The rebound in merchandise exports was briskly in 2011. supported by higher commodity prices. Export values in the region were up some 38 percent for Continuing on its post-crisis recovery trajectory, the first seven months of 2011 compared with GDP in Sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to have the same period in 2010. In recent years, trade expanded 4.9 percent in 2011, slightly faster growth has been supported by the increasing than the 4.8 percent recorded in 2010, and just diversification of trading partners (box SSA.1) shy of its pre-crisis average of 5 percent (2000- and commodity prices. In 2011, much of the 2008, (figure SSA.1). Excluding South Africa, increase was due to higher commodity prices. which accounts for over a third of the regions With commodities dominating their exports, GDP, growth in the rest of Sub Saharan Africa most Sub-Saharan Africa countries, benefitted was stronger at 5.9% in 2011. Indeed, growth in from the surge in commodity prices in the earlier 2011 was more than a percentage point higher half of 2011, particularly oil exporters (figure than the developing country average excluding SSA.3). Metal and mineral exporters in the China (4.8%), making it one of the fastest region also benefitted from the recovery in growing developing regions in 2011. Overall, industrial production at the global level and over a third of countries in the region attained cotton exporters were also net gainers. However, growth rates of at least 6%, with another forty not all Sub-Saharan Africa economies benefitted percent of countries in the region growing from a positive terms of trade. Indeed, several between 4-6% (figure SSA.2 and table SSA.3). predominantly agricultural exporters and oil importers saw a deterioration in their terms of Figure SSA.1 Growth in Sub Saharan Africa closes Figure SSA.2 Fastest Growing Sub Saharan Af- in on pre-crisis average… rica economies in 2011 Percent growth in GDP 8.0 Ghana 7.0 Rwanda 6.0 Eritrea 5.0 Ethiopia 4.0 Mozambique Sub Saharan Africa 3.0 Nigeria Sub Saharan Africa ex. South Africa 2011 2010 Angola 2.0 Sub Saharan Africa pre-crisis average Democratic Republic Of Congo 1.0 Developing countries average ex. China Zambia 0.0 Botswana -1.0 Tanzania -2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Source: World Bank. Source: World Bank 147 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Box SSA.1 Changing dynamics of trading partners Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa exports has been supported by strong demand from other developing countries, in particular China, given its relatively high resource intensity in production and its fast growth rate. Though high- income countries are the destination for some 57 percent of the exports originating from Sub-Saharan Africa, weak growth means that their contribution to the total growth of the sub-continent‘s exports is much smaller. As a result, the share of high-income countries in total Sub-Saharan exports is falling. For instance in 2002, the EU accounted for some 40 percent of all exports from Sub-Saharan Africa, but by 2010 that share had fallen to about 25 percent – while China‘s share has increased from about 5 percent to 19 percent over the same period. For the first seven months of 2011, growth in exports destined for China from Sub-Saharan Africa was 10 percentage points higher than those destined for high-income countries. Further, even though intra-regional trade in Sub-Saharan Africa remains well below potential due to weak infra- structure, lack of harmonization of trade policies and cumbersome border procedures, recent efforts to address these deficiencies are beginning to bear fruit. In East Africa where trade integration is more advanced, intra- regional trade has been expanding relatively rapidly. According to data from the Central Bank of Kenya, exports to other East African Community members (Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda), during the first seven months of 2011, exceeded its combined exports to traditional trading partners such as the U.K, Netherlands, Germany, France, as well as the US. trade. For a number of countries, these shocks mine, and Liberia and Sierra Leone commenced c o mpr o mi se d t h e r e l at i vel y st a bl e iron-ore exports. macroeconomic environment they had hitherto enjoyed (e.g. Ethiopia and Kenya). Services exports, mainly tourism, also picked up. According to the World Tourism Organization, Though commodity prices were the main driver international tourist arrivals were up 7 percent in of the increase in export values, thanks to Sub-Saharan Africa for the first eight months of increased exploratory activities, new mineral 2011, compared with the same period in 2010. exports continue to come on stream in several The slower growth in Europe does not appear to countries, augmenting volumes and boosting have limited tourism arrivals, in part because growth. Ghana, the region‘s fastest growing tourist arrivals to competing destinations in economy in 2011, benefitted from the North Africa were hurt by the Arab Spring commencement of oil exports. Mozambique also uprisings. In addition, a number of tourist began exporting coal from its large Moatize destinations in the region were successful in attracting new tourists from Asian countries. For Figure SSA.3 Oil Exporters benefit the most from example, in Mauritius, where European tourists Terms of Trade changes account for some 64 percent of tourist arrivals, Terms of Trade changes as share of GDP (%) , January -September 2011. arrivals from Europe grew at 3.8 percent, whereas arrivals from Asia increased by 21.7 Equatorial Guinea Congo, Rep. percent (53.6 percent increase from China) Gabon during the first half of 2011. Angola Nigeria Zambia Increased export earnings provided the needed Benin Mali foreign exchange to boost capital goods imports. Malawi Sierra Leone The value of capital goods imports increased by Mauritius 32.2 percent during the first seven months of Senegal Eritrea 2011, compared with the same period in 2010. Kenya With infrastructure a binding constraint and Lesotho Cape Verde obsolete machinery impairing productivity, the Seychelles ability to obtain capital goods is critical for -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 growth over the long term. Indeed, several studies on the determinants of long-run growth Source: World Bank 148 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex in Sub-Saharan Africa countries find of the economy, and with the capital intensive infrastructure investment to be a robust nature of investments, this likely means limited determinant.1 job creation. Foreign direct investment flows to Sub-Saharan However, foreign investment (mainly private Africa picked up in 2011. According to World equity—see box SSA.2) in the non-extractive Bank estimates (table SSA.1), FDI flows to Sub- sector has also picked up in recent years – Saharan Africa increased by 25 percent in 2011 reflecting opportunities opened up by strong following two years of decline (declines were growth in the region, improved regulation, a concentrated among the region‘s three largest growing middle class with higher discretionary economies - Angola, Nigeria, and South Africa - income ($275 billion by one estimate), the fast with the rest of the region experiencing gains). pace of urbanization which makes it easier to Supported by high commodity prices and reach consumers, and one of the highest rates of regulatory improvements, the extractive sector return globally (UNCTAD, World Investment has attracted much of the increase in the value of Report, 2008). FDI flows to Sub-Saharan Africa. For many countries in the region, FDI in the oil, base Government public investment projects, metals, and minerals sectors underpins much of sometimes in partnership with others, continued the strong GDP growth in recent years (e.g. to support Sub-Saharan Africa growth in 2011. Angola, Congo Republic, and Niger). With weak infrastructure identified as one of the main binding constraints and with an estimated Unfortunately, the enclave nature of extractive infrastructural funding gap of some $32 billion activities, means that such FDI flows to the p.a (World Bank 2009), recent public sector have generated fewer linkages to the rest investments have focused on power, Table SSA.1 Net capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa $ billions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011e 2012f 2013f Current account balance 2.2 19.4 19.8 -0.9 -11.9 -28.1 -37.7 -5.8 -11.1 -13.0 as % of GDP 0.4 3.1 2.7 -0.1 -1.2 -3.0 -3.5 -0.5 -0.9 -0.9 Financial flows: Ne t private and official inflows 24.2 33.6 38.4 52.6 42.6 47.2 53.5 62.8 Ne t private inflows (e quity+private de bt) 21.9 34.5 40.4 49.8 37.6 37.4 40.5 48.2 45.8 60.0 ..Net private inflows (% GDP) 4.0 5.4 5.4 5.8 3.8 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.5 4.4 Net equity inflows 17.8 26.6 33.0 38.4 31.8 43.0 36.5 39.5 40.3 52.0 ..Net FDI inflows 11.2 18.6 16.2 28.3 37.5 32.8 28.5 35.6 35.8 47.0 ..Net portfolio equity inflows 6.7 8.1 16.8 10.1 -5.7 10.2 8.0 3.9 4.5 5.0 Net debt flows 6.4 6.9 5.4 14.6 10.0 5.1 16.3 ..Official creditors 2.3 -0.9 -1.9 2.8 4.9 9.8 13.0 14.6 ....World Bank 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.4 1.9 3.1 4.0 4.2 ....IMF -0.1 -0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.7 2.2 1.2 1.0 ....Other official 0.0 -2.9 -3.8 0.3 2.3 4.5 7.9 9.4 ..Private creditors 4.0 7.9 7.4 11.3 5.9 -5.6 3.9 8.7 5.5 8.0 ....Net M-L term debt flows 2.7 4.9 -2.0 7.1 1.4 4.3 2.5 10.7 ......Bonds 0.6 1.3 0.3 6.5 -0.7 1.9 1.4 7.2 ......Banks 2.4 3.8 -1.7 1.3 2.2 1.6 0.7 3.5 ......Other private -0.3 -0.3 -0.7 -0.8 -0.1 0.8 0.4 0.0 ....Net short-term debt flows 1.4 3.0 9.4 4.3 4.5 -9.9 1.5 -2.0 Balancing item /a -4.7 -33.1 -25.8 -24.8 -19.8 -16.4 -17.6 -40.2 Change in reserves (- = increase) -21.6 -20.0 -32.4 -26.9 -10.9 -2.7 1.8 -16.7 Memorandum items Migrant remittances /b 8.3 9.6 12.8 18.8 21.7 20.2 21.1 22.7 24.1 25.7 Source: The World Bank Note : e = estimate, f = forecast /a Combination of errors and omissions and transfers to and capital outflows from developing countries. /b M igrant remittances are defined as the sum of workers‘ remittances, compensation of employees, and migrant transfers Source: World Bank. 149 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Box SSA.2 Recent private equity activity in Sub-Saharan Africa In 2010, ECP Africa Fund raised the then record amount of $613m for an Africa focused fund, however in 2011, the London-based Helios Investment Partners announced that it had succeeded in raising $900 million (the fund was oversubscribed by a $1 billion) for its Africa dedicated fund. Several other Africa dedicated funds continue to be launched, including from the Carlyle Group – the second largest private equity fund globally - which plans on raising a reported $750 million fund. Further evidence of increased private equity investment in the region is the 21.9 percent increase in cross-border mergers and acquisitions during the first nine months of 2011, according to estimates from UNCTAD. Signifi- cant transactions in 2011 included the $2.4 billion purchase of the South African retail giant Massmart (which has operations in over a dozen countries in the region) by Walmart – the world‘s largest retailer. Firms from Sub-Saharan Africa are also participating in cross-border equity investments. In the retail sector South African mega retailers (Massmart, Shoprite etc) have been very active in carrying out acquisitions or greenfield investment in several countries in the region; Nigerian bankers have set up branches across West Af- rica and are increasing their foot prints elsewhere; and in East Africa firms can now cross-list across the different bourses in the region. transportation, and port infrastructure facilities. agreement with the Government of Ghana (gas Though a past legacy of low returns on public pipeline, mineral processing, agro-industrial investment raises questions on its efficacy, a ventures); and a $1 billion agreement with the recent study (Gupta and others, 2011) suggests Tanzanian Government (gas pipeline). The that the productivity of public capital in low and Forum on China-Africa Cooperation estimates middle income countries is significantly that since 2000, some 2000 Chinese companies improved once adjustments are made for have built 60,000km of road in Africa and 3.5 shortcomings in the investment process (e.g. million KW in power generation. bidding processes). Thus, given recent improvements in governance that have occurred Changes in fiscal balances depended on the in recent years, the productivity and ultimately composition of exports. The direction of shifts in the social benefits of public capital spending in fiscal balances in 2011 depended on the Sub-Saharan Africa may have improved. composition of exports (figure SSA.4). Prudent macroeconomic management over the past Increasingly, in addition to development finance decade has underpinned the robust growth institutions and donor-supported programs, Sub- performance in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, Saharan Africa governments are issuing long- Figure SSA.4 Fiscal balances deteriorate for non- term debt instruments (mainly local and foreign resource rich and improve for oil exporters sovereign bonds). For example, Namibia made its first entry into the offshore bond market in (% share of GDP) October 2011, issuing $500 million in 10-year 14.0 bonds. And in Ghana, which has already issued 12.0 Euro bonds, the government is extending the 10.0 yield curve of its local bonds by planning on 8.0 issuing 10-year fixed rate bonds to finance 6.0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 infrastructure projects contained in its 2012 4.0 budget. Further, governments in many resource 2.0 rich Sub-Saharan Africa countries are leveraging 0.0 their resources in support of infrastructural -2.0 projects. Some prominent reported loan -4.0 agreements at various stages of ratification -6.0 involving China in 2011 include: a $5.8 billion -8.0 agreement with the Governments of Guinea Non-resource rich Non-oil resource rich Oil Exporters (alumina refinery, power plants, port); $3 billion Source: IMF WEO database and World Bank 150 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex the implementation of countercyclical fiscal SSA.5). It fell with the 2008/9 crisis and has policy by some countries in the region in averaged 4.2 percent during 2009-2011 and is response to the financial crisis, and the rise in projected to pick-up over the forecast horizon. fuel and food prices in 2011 (which was mitigated in some Sub-Saharan Africa countries Survey data on retail spending are unavailable by increased subsidies) has reduced their fiscal for many countries in the region, making it buffers in the event of a significant downturn in difficult to gauge recent developments in private the global economy. The situation however consumption. Data on car imports (excluding differs by country. On the one hand, oil trucks and buses) suggest strong growth, at least exporters had a fiscal surplus of 5.4 percent of among wealthier consumers. Imports of cars rose GDP in 2011, up from 1.3 percent in 2010, by 31.2 percent in the first seven months of 2011 thanks to the higher oil prices. However, non-oil compared with the same period of 2010. The exporter‘s fiscal balances deteriorated further in strength of consumer spending in 2011 was 2011 to a deficit of 5.3 percent from 4.3 percent supported by a variety of factors, including in 2010. Even among the non-oil exporters there rising incomes, improved access to credit, real were differences in performance; with resource wage increases and historically low interest rates rich non-oil exporters, mostly metal and mineral (e.g. South Africa). exporters keeping their deficits steady, while for other non-oil and non-mineral exporters the Inflation picked up in a number of Sub-Saharan deficits widened by 1.7 percentage points to 5.7 Africa countries. Median headline inflation in percent in 2011, thus giving them limited fiscal the region rose from 4.3 percent by the end of space to maneuver in the event of another 2010 to 7.0% within the first five months of significant global downturn. 2011, and after a few months of slow down in inflationary pressures picked up again in Private consumption expenditures, which September to 7.2 percent (figure SSA.6). accounts for some 60 percent of Sub-Saharan However, the situation across countries in the Africa GDP, has picked up in recent years. This region reflects significant differences. rise in consumption has been supported by recent robust GDP growth rates (box SSA.3). Median inflation in Sub-Saharan Africa oil Using three-year moving averages to smooth the exporters remained unchanged during the first volatility in data, private consumption growth six months of 2011. However, due to the has picked up from a low of 0.1 percent in 1994 escalation in oil and food prices during this to a pre-crisis peak of 6.3 percent in 2007 (figure period, inflation picked up among non-oil exporters in the region, with land-locked non-oil Figure SSA.5 Growth of Private Consumption in Figure SSA.6 Inflationary pressures pick-up in Sub Saharan Africa Sub Saharan Africa… 3-year moving average of real private consumption (%,ch) 8.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 Private consumption (3 yr moving 1.0 average) 3.0 Trend line 0.0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2.0 2010M01 2010M05 2010M09 2011M01 2011M05 2011M09 Source: World Bank Source: World Bank 151 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Box SSA.3 Consumer demand in Sub-Saharan Africa rises Improved economic governance, a more stable political environment, and increased investments in infrastructure and human capital has supported growth, and rising employment opportunities in Sub-Sahara Africa over the past decade. The robust growth and job creation is thereby supporting consumer spending. A recent study by the Afri- can Development Bank (2011) finds that between 1990 and 2008, the number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa with incomes between $2-$20 per day almost doubled (rising from 109 million to 206 million). Typically, middle income consumers demand better governance and are more active in civil society. They also have the means to demand better services including financial services (e.g mortgages), telecommunication (mobile phone subscriptions), education and healthcare, and discretionary incomes to purchase durable consumer products (Banerjee, A and Duflo, 2008). Notwithstanding recent gains, the African Development Bank study shows that for Sub-Saharan Africa, some 33 percent of the middle class ($2-$20) remain vulnerable to slipping back in to poverty in the event of exogenous shocks, because the bulk of these households have per capita incomes just above the $2 poverty line (between $2 and $4). Further, World Bank projections show that by 2015 between 38.0 percent and 43.8 percent of Sub- Saharan Africa‘s population will still be living below the $1.25 poverty line – a shortfall of 9 to 14 percent above Millennium Development Goals, but an improvement from the 2005 level of 50.9 percent. exporters experiencing the highest increase in time and much worse outcomes could arise if headline inflation (from 8.7 percent in 2010 to conditions in high-income Europe deteriorate. 13.8 percent). East African economies were particularly hard hit, not only because of the rise Assuming a muddling through in the high- in food and fuel prices but also due to the very income world, GDP in Sub-Saharan Africa poor rains and harvest earlier in the year. In should expand by around 5.3 percent in 2012 Ethiopia, inflation peaked at 40.1 percent (in and by 5.6 percent in 2013 (table SSA.2). September) from 14.5 percent at the beginning However, excluding South Africa, the largest of the year; in Kenya, it reached 19.7 percent in economy in the region, GDP growth would be November; and in Uganda, it hit 30.5 percent in much higher in 2012 (6.6 percent) and 6.4 October. High levels of inflation, particularly percent in 2013. This anticipated acceleration in above the 10% threshold are noted in a number 2012 reflects new oil and mineral capacity of studies to be inimical to the growth process coming on stream in 2012 and increased (IMF, 2005). Hence, the recent episodes of high investments in these sectors in several countries inflation in these economies, if not reined in, including: Congo, Guinea, Lesotho, Liberia, threatens to curtail the robust growth that has Madagascar, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, occurred in these countries. In this regard, the and Sierra Leone; as well as the projected robust moderate decline in inflation in Kenya (18.9 bounce back in Cote d‘Ivoire, which contracted percent) and Uganda (27.0 percent) in by 6 percent in 2011. Under our baseline December 2011 is a step in the right direction. scenario, in 2012, a third of countries in the region will grow by at least 6 percent (similar to Medium-term outlook 2011), another third will grow between 4.7 percent and below 6 percent, and the remaining The underlying factors supporting growth third will grow by less than 4.7 percent (table dynamics in Sub-Saharan Africa are expected to SSA.3). continue over next several years. However, considerable headwinds from slower growth in Growth prospects in the largest economies. the global economy, lower commodity prices, heightened uncertainty in global financial Supported by historically low interest rates, and markets, and monetary policy tightening in above-inflation wage increases, the South some countries, could dampen prospects. African consumer will continue to remain the Moreover, as emphasized in the main text, the dominant driving force for GDP growth. global outlook is particularly precarious at this However, the contribution of consumer spending 152 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex to GDP growth is projected to wane over the has been the case in recent years, growth will be forecast horizon as household debt remains high largely driven by the non-oil sector. The and the recent pick-up in inflation reduces consumer services sector (financial, purchasing power. The boost to growth from telecommunication, wholesale and retail) one of increased government spending will remain the main targets of private equity investors in strong in 2012, but is likely to wane as stimulus Sub-Saharan Africa‘s most populous economy, gives way to consolidation. Private investment will continue to provide a strong impetus to growth, which picked up in 2011, is projected to growth and job creation. Favorable weather ease due to the uncertain global recovery, low conditions and targeted interventions in the business confidence, low capacity utilization in agricultural sector should also support growth manufacturing, labor disputes, and the strong there. However, uncertainty in the global rand. Reflecting many of these same factors, net economy and domestic production challenges in exports will continue to drag on GDP growth. As its oil sector, which accounts for some 15% of a result, GDP in South Africa is projected to GDP, will continue to limit the sector‘s expand a modest 3.1 percent in 2012 before contribution to GDP growth. strengthening somewhat in 2013 at a relatively subdued level of 3.7 percent, as the global Angola’s growth prospects continue to hinge on economy picks up. its fortunes in the oil sector. Though Angola benefitted from higher oil prices in 2011, Growth prospects in Nigeria, the region‘s second technical glitches prevented any significant largest economy, remain robust (7.1 percent and expansion in output. These problems should be 7.4 percent for 2012 and 2013 respectively). As resolved by 2012, paving the way for an increase Table SSA.2 Sub-Saharan Africa forecast summary (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.2 5.1 2.0 4.8 4.9 5.3 5.6 GDP per capita (units in US$) 1.9 3.1 0.0 2.8 2.9 3.3 3.6 PPP GDP c 4.4 5.6 2.5 5.1 5.2 5.6 5.9 Private consumption 2.2 3.7 1.6 5.3 5.0 4.3 4.7 Public consumption 5.4 7.5 5.8 6.6 5.6 4.2 4.9 Fixed investment 8.0 11.6 4.3 12.0 7.7 6.2 10.0 Exports, GNFS d 4.0 4.2 -6.4 6.3 10.3 9.7 9.5 Imports, GNFS d 6.5 6.6 -3.8 7.9 10.4 5.8 8.8 Net exports, contribution to growth -0.7 -1.1 -0.7 -0.9 -0.6 0.9 -0.2 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.8 -1.5 -3.7 -3.3 -0.3 -0.7 -0.8 GDP deflator (median, LCU) 6.1 11.0 4.6 6.9 5.5 6.2 6.2 Fiscal balance/GDP (%) -0.6 1.0 -5.5 -4.4 -3.4 -2.9 -2.3 Memo items: GDP SSA excluding South Africa 4.5 6.0 4.2 5.9 5.9 6.6 6.4 Oil exporters e 4.9 6.7 4.7 5.7 5.8 6.7 6.9 CFA countries f 3.5 4.1 2.7 4.0 2.8 4.8 4.9 South Africa 3.7 3.7 -1.8 2.8 3.2 3.1 3.7 Nigeria 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.8 7.0 7.1 7.4 Angola 9.7 13.8 2.4 2.3 7.0 8.1 8.5 Source : World Bank. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. GDP measured at PPP exchange rates. d. Exports and imports of goods and non-factor services (GNFS). e. Oil Exporters: Angola, Cote d Ivoire, Cameroon, Congo, Rep., Gabon, Nigeria, Sudan, Chad, Congo, Dem. Rep. f. CFA Countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Cote d Ivoire, Cameroon, Congo, Rep., Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Chad, Togo. g. Estimate. h. Forecast. Source: World Bank. 153 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex in output from 1.65 million bpd to 2.1 million though Lesotho and Cape-Verde, both middle- bpd over the forecast horizon – reflecting both income economies, also remain vulnerable to new wells and increased production from the sharper than anticipated aid cuts (figure SSA.7). Pazflor deepwater field. Gas output is also likely to rise as the $9 billion liquefied natural gas With fiscal space much more restricted, and in a project gets underway. However, developments context where external financing may well not in the hydrocarbons sector have limited linkages be available, governments may be forced to cut with the rest of the economy. Government deeply into spending – thereby exacerbating the efforts to support the non-oil sector, will downturn. However, reduced fiscal space during continue to be hindered by high transactions cost a downturn need not translate into higher and a difficult business environment. GDP poverty levels if mechanisms are already in place growth is projected to reach 8.1 percent and 8.5 to help protect targeted spending on the most percent in 2012 and 2013 respectively. vulnerable groups. One such successful program in Sub-Saharan Africa is Ethiopia‘s Productive Risks and vulnerabilities Safety Net Program, which delivers social transfers through public work activities (food for Slowdown in global economy. In the current cash, cash for work etc), as well as direct support global context, the risk of a serious downturn in to households that are labor constrained. Besides the global economy is very real and would carry fiscal policy, in economies that have inflationary with it serious implications for Sub-Saharan expectations under control and that have Africa, reducing global demand for the region‘s monetary policy space, loosening policy rates to exports, yielding potentially sharp declines in stimulate domestic demand could support commodity prices and ,therefore, government aggregate demand in the face of declining revenues, and potentially large declines in external demand. However, given structural remittance and tourism flows. rigidities and limited links between interest rates and credit in low-income Sub-Saharan African In the small contained European crisis outlined economies, monetary policy tends to be less in the main text, growth in Sub-Saharan Africa effective than fiscal policies in these economies. could decline by 1.3 percentage points compared to the current forecasts for 2012, with oil and Fall in trade. The trade impacts of a sharp metal prices falling by as much as 18 percent and slowdown in Europe could significantly impact food prices by 4.5 percent. Indeed, the fiscal Figure SSA.7 SSA economies with the highest impact of commodity price declines could be as budgetary support (grants) as a share of GDP. high as 1.7 percent of regional GDP (see main text). In 2008, several Sub-Saharan Africa Grants as share of GDP (average, 2009-2011) Uganda countries had the fiscal buffers to make up these Seychelles shortfalls. Governments in the region had much Mali Eritrea healthier fiscal balances in 2007 and thus could Ethiopia undertake expansionary fiscal policies (e.g. in Gambia, The Tanzania Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) to compensate for Central Af rican Rep. the fall in external demand. In 2011, however, Niger Cape Verde the aggregate fiscal deficit in Sub-Saharan Burkina Faso Africa is estimated at 3.4 percent of GDP, and Lesotho Sierra Leone not many countries in the region are well placed Malawi Mozambique to carry out countercyclical fiscal policies, if the Congo, Dem. Rep. of global downturn worsens significantly. The Comoros Guinea-Bissau situation could become even more difficult if Rwanda (%) donors cut aid flows to low-income countries 0 5 10 15 receiving high levels of budget support (e.g. Burundi, São Tomé and Príncipe, Rwanda), Source: IMF WEO database and World Bank Staff calculations 154 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Sub Saharan African economies given that other countries in the region) should, over the European Union member states account for 37 longer term, help Sub-Saharan Africa economies percent of the regions non-oil exports. And for become less vulnerable to shocks originating tourism dependent economies in the region (e.g. from specific regions (see Trade Annex). Cape Verde, Gambia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritius, Seychelles, etc), arrivals from Fall in commodity prices. A fall in commodity Eurozone member states constitute the bulk of prices is likely to reduce incomes and slow total tourist arrivals. Impacts will differ, though, investment flows to the resource sector—an depending on individual countries‘ exposure to important growth sector for many economies. the hardest hit European economies as well as The slowdown in export revenues is likely to be the composition of exports. While merchandise stronger in the lesser diversified economies in exports to the high-spread Euro Area economies the region, and in particular in those whose account for only 9 percent of total Sub-Saharan exports are dominated by oil, minerals and African non-oil merchandise exports, in Cape metals, since, during a slow down in the global Verde some 92 percent of merchandise exports economy these commodities are more likely to are destined for these economies (figure SSA.8). be negatively impacted than agricultural exports. However, for Cape Verde‘s service-oriented Indeed, some 70 percent of Sub-Saharan Africa economy outturns from tourism flows will be of export revenues come from agricultural more importance than merchandise exports. products, oil, metals and minerals. In Angola and Other economies with high exposure export the Republic of Congo, where the oil sector demand from high-spread Euro Area economies accounts for over 60 percent of GDP, a 10 include Guinea and Mauritania where some 25 percent decline in oil prices could translate into a percent and 19 percent respectively of their non- 2.7 percent and 4.4 percent decline in GDP, oil exports are destined. respectively. In Nigeria, where the oil sector accounts for 15.9 percent of GDP, a similar Indeed, if the current concerns were to escalate decline in oil prices could reduce its GDP by 1.8 and encompass some of Sub-Saharan Africa‘s percent. major trading partners in the Euro Area, this would significantly dampen Sub-Saharan Africa Further, for many economies in the region that exports. Further diversification of export operate a flexible exchange rate regime, adverse composition and trading partners (including with terms of trade shocks translate to depreciation in their currencies, with potential for increased Figure SSA.8 SSA economies with the highest macroeconomic instability. For instance, during share of exports destined to Portugal Greece, Ire- the downturn in 2009, a third of local currencies land, Italy and Spain in the region depreciated by over 10% (figure SSA.9). However, on the upside, a more Malawi Uganda pronounced decline in oil prices would provide Ethiopia a welcome relief for the region‘s oil importers Madagascar that were hard hit by the spike in oil prices Seychelles earlier in 2011 (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Cote d'Ivoire Senegal Mauritius, Swaziland, Sudan, and Uganda). Nigeria Gabon Fall in capital flows. With financial markets Mauritius underdeveloped in many Sub-Saharan Africa Namibia Cameroon countries, the region is the least integrated with Mauritania global financial markets. As a result, the direct Guinea impact on the region‘s banking sector, in the Cape Verde event of a worsening of the Euro Area debt crisis 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 would be rather limited in terms of the deterioration in asset quality, non-performing Source: UN Comtrade database and World Bank staff 155 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Figure SSA.9 A fall in commodity prices, as oc- fell by a cumulative 24% over the 2008-2010 curred in 2009, could contribute to significant period. depreciation of local currencies in the region. Heightened financial market uncertainty could Congo, Dem. Rep. affect participation in bond issuance– both local Zambia Ghana and foreign. For instance, plans by a number of Nigeria Sub-Saharan African countries (Kenya, Ethiopia Tanzania, Zambia) to issue international bonds Gambia, The Madagascar may be further postponed if the premiums Mauritius required remain high due to elevated investor Uganda risk averseness related to the Euro debt situation. Kenya Sierra Leone This could therefore delay the prospect of Mozambique addressing some of the binding infrastructural Tanzania, United Rep. Depreciation in nominal exchange rate to US constraints to growth in these countries. Mauritania dollar (2009) Sudan Angola Fall in remittances. Another channel of CFA economies transmission that a slowdown in the global 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 economy could engender is a fall in remittance Source: World Bank. inflows. With remittance flows supporting household spending and local currencies, a sharp loans etc. Nonetheless, there are other sub- decline in remittances could dampen growth channels through which countries in the region prospects. World Bank estimates that could be affected in a non-trivial way. remittances to Sub-Sahara Africa will rise to $24 billion and $26 billion in 2012 and 2013 Heightened uncertainty in global financial respectively. Given that remittance flows were markets will adversely impact short-term resilient during the 2008/09 crisis (falling by portfolio equity and investment in bonds. only 4.6% in 2009), they are likely to hold Indeed, between April and October 2011, while steady in the medium term. However, in the the MSCI World Index fell by 23%, indices in event of a sharper slowdown than anticipated in the three most liquid stock exchanges in the the baseline, remittances could deviate from region fell sharply: South Africa by 24%, current projections by declining between 2.8% to Nigeria by 21%, and Kenya by 43%. Hence for 6.2%, depending on the severity of the economies in the region with more liquid downturn. The effects among Sub-Saharan financial markets (stock and bond markets), the Africa countries would however differ. As a downturn could lead to destabilizing capital share of GDP, Cape Verde, Senegal and Guinea- flows with negative consequences on exchange Bissau are the most dependent on remittance rate volatility. Indeed, in the aftermath of the flows from the high-spread Euro Area countries turmoil in financial markets in August 2011, the (figure SSA.10), thus likely to be the most South African rand was one of the currencies to vulnerable through this channel. have depreciated the most globally. Internal risks. While external risks are most However, for most countries in the region, prominent – a number of domestic challenges private capital flows are in the form of foreign could also cause outturns to sour. Indeed, direct investment, which is less volatile than disruptions to productive activity in the other types of capital flows and hence are aftermath of elections are important potential somewhat shielded from sudden capital flights. downside risks, as investment, merchandise Nonetheless, an intensification of the Euro Area trade and tourism receipts, all important growth debt crisis could well result in a fall in foreign drivers, are likely to suffer. The 6 percent direct investment as occurred during the 2008/09 contraction in output in Cote d‘Ivoire in 2011 financial crisis when foreign direct investment was due to the civil unrest following the 156 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Figure SSA.10 Sub Saharan Africa countries with References: high remittances from high-spread Euro Area countries African Development Bank (2011), The Middle Cape Verde of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Senegal Africa, Market Brief April 2011. Guinea-Bissau Nigeria Togo Banerjee, A and E., Dufflo (2008), ―What is Mozambique Middle Class about, the Middle Classes Around Gambia, The Mauritius the World?‖, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Benin Vol. 22, No. 2. Kenya Lesotho Niger Calderon, C., and L. Serven, (2008). Rwanda Sierra Leone "Infrastructure and Economic Development in Remittances as a share of GDP (%) Seychelles Sub-Saharan Africa," Policy Research Working Côte d'Ivoire Paper Series 4712, The World Bank. 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Source: World Bank Estache, A., B. Speciale, and D. Veredas, (2006). How Much Does Infrastructure Matter to elections in 2010. In 2012 about a sixth of Sub- Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa? The World Saharan Africa countries have scheduled Bank, Washington, D.C. presidential elections. Estache, A. and Q. Wodon, (2010). Another downside risk stems from adverse Infrastructure and Poverty in Sub-Saharan weather conditions. With the agricultural sector Africa, Forthcoming. accounting for about 20 percent to 40 percent of GDP in most Sub-Sahara African countries, and Gupta, S., A. Kangur, C. Papageorgiou, and A. with much of it dependent on good rains, the Wane (2011). ―Efficiency-Adjusted Public impact of poor rains on GDP growth in the Capital and Growth,‖ IMF Working Paper region can be significant, not just to the (forthcoming). agricultural sector but also for services and industries as they depend on the generation of International Monetary Fund (2005), ‗Monetary power from hydroelectric sources. In 2011, and Fiscal Policy Design Issues in Low-Income lower food production in parts of Kenya, due to Countries‘, IMF Policy Paper , August 2005. poor rains led, to an escalation of food prices and a contraction in the electricity and water supply UNCTAD (2008), World Investment Report sector (by 12.1%, y/y, in the third quarter); and 2008: Transnational Corporations and the in Tanzania extensive power rationing due to Infrastructure Challenge, New York and Geneva: lower water levels cut into manufacturing United Nations. output. UNCTAD (2011), Global Investment Trends Notes: Monitor No. 7, October, New York and Geneva: United Nations. 1. Estache et. al (2006) demonstrate that infrastructure investments accelerated World Bank (2010), Global Monitoring Report growth convergence in Africa by over 13 2010: the MDGs after the Crisis, The World percent. And Calderon (2008) estimates that Bank, Washington DC. infrastructure contributed 0.99 percentage points to per capita economic growth during the 1990-2005 period. 157 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex Table SSA.3 Sub-Saharan country forecasts (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Angola GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 9.7 13.8 2.4 2.3 7.0 8.1 8.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -0.9 8.5 -10.0 -1.8 7.0 8.0 9.2 Benin GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 3.8 5.1 2.7 2.6 3.4 4.3 4.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.7 -9.3 -9.2 -10.2 -14.2 -11.8 -6.9 Botswana GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.7 2.9 -4.9 7.2 6.8 6.2 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 9.2 3.5 -4.5 -6.0 -2.9 2.5 11.4 Burkina Faso GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.8 5.0 3.5 7.9 5.8 5.2 5.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -14.0 -24.8 -19.4 -10.6 -6.1 -6.8 -5.5 Burundi GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 1.8 4.5 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.7 4.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) -20.5 -30.2 -12.3 -10.8 -13.4 -13.0 -12.9 Cape Verde GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 5.9 6.2 3.6 5.4 5.8 6.4 6.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) -10.8 -13.3 -15.1 -18.1 -16.7 -15.6 -14.4 Cameroon GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 3.4 2.9 2.0 2.6 3.8 4.1 4.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.4 -1.9 -5.0 -3.8 -2.9 -3.3 -3.2 Central African Republic GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 0.8 2.0 1.7 3.3 4.0 3.0 3.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.6 -9.7 -8.0 -8.8 -7.8 -7.8 -6.9 Chad GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 8.0 -0.4 -1.6 5.1 6.0 5.5 4.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -36.5 -19.8 -28.9 -24.3 -14.4 -13.0 -5.5 Comoros GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 1.9 1.0 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.0 -10.5 -5.9 -8.2 -8.7 -9.6 -9.9 Congo, Dem. Rep. GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 1.9 6.2 2.8 7.3 6.5 6.0 8.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -3.6 -17.5 -10.5 -6.8 -2.8 -0.7 0.6 Congo, Rep. GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 2.9 5.6 7.5 8.8 5.1 5.5 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) 1.2 -18.3 -10.6 3.9 10.2 7.1 6.5 Cote d Ivoire GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 0.0 2.3 3.8 2.4 -5.8 4.9 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 0.7 1.9 7.2 6.9 2.3 0.6 -0.8 Equatorial Guinea GDP at market prices (2000 USD) 2 20.7 10.7 5.3 0.9 2.8 4.1 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) 6.7 10.2 -18.0 -5.9 -9.4 -7.5 -6.0 Eritrea GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b -0.1 -9.8 3.9 2.2 8.2 6.3 7.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -18.9 -6.2 -6.5 -2.7 -3.0 -3.4 -3.6 Ethiopia GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 6.5 10.8 8.8 10.1 7.7 7.2 7.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.3 -6.8 -6.8 -9.6 -10.6 -11.6 -12.4 158 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Gabon b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 0.4 2.3 -1.4 5.7 6.0 5.1 4.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 10.9 22.2 13.5 11.4 15.0 12.1 11.3 Gambia, The b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.4 5.4 6.2 5.6 5.3 5.4 5.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -9.4 0.4 4.0 2.1 1.9 1.3 0.8 Ghana b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.6 8.4 4.7 6.6 13.6 9.0 8.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -6.4 -12.4 -3.6 -7.2 -7.0 -5.9 -4.4 Guinea b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.8 4.9 -0.3 1.9 4.3 4.5 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -6.1 -11.6 -10.1 -13.1 -14.2 -12.2 -13.6 Guinea-Bissau b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 1.8 3.2 3.0 3.5 4.8 4.7 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.3 -11.0 -8.5 -11.1 -11.4 -10.6 -10.3 Kenya b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.4 1.6 2.6 5.6 4.3 5.0 5.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.9 -6.6 -5.7 -7.7 -10.0 -6.6 -5.9 Lesotho b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.9 4.7 3.1 3.3 3.1 5.1 4.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) -3.5 9.0 -0.1 -19.7 -24.5 -17.8 -13.5 Madagascar b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.2 7.1 -4.6 1.6 2.6 3.0 4.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -9.5 -17.5 -15.4 -8.1 -8.5 -8.3 -8.3 Malawi b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.8 8.6 7.6 6.7 5.6 5.0 5.6 Current account bal/GDP (%) -4.7 -7.1 -9.6 -2.7 -4.7 -5.1 -5.5 Mali b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.1 5.0 4.5 4.5 5.4 5.1 5.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.9 -12.2 -7.3 -7.6 -8.0 -8.1 -7.8 Mauritania b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.1 3.5 -1.2 5.2 5.1 5.7 6.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.8 -12.6 -13.2 -10.1 -11.2 -11.7 -12.2 Mauritius b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 3.6 5.5 3.0 4.0 4.1 3.3 4.3 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.2 -10.1 -7.4 -8.2 -11.1 -11.2 -10.2 Mozambique b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 6.8 6.8 6.4 7.2 7.4 7.6 8.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -14.6 -11.9 -11.8 -15.4 -13.6 -12.4 -11.1 Namibia b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 4.4 4.3 -0.8 6.6 3.9 4.2 5.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) 4.0 0.5 -1.2 -0.7 -0.5 -1.5 -2.4 Niger b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 2.7 8.7 -1.2 8.8 6.0 8.5 6.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.4 -12.1 -19.3 -18.8 -19.2 -16.7 -14.4 Nigeria b GDP at market prices (2005 US$) 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.8 7.0 7.1 7.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) 11.0 13.6 7.8 1.5 14.3 13.3 11.4 159 Global Economic Prospects January 2012 Sub-Saharan Africa Annex (annual percent change unless indicated otherwise) Est. Forecast 98-07a 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Rwanda GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 6.8 11.2 4.1 7.5 8.8 7.6 7.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -6.0 -5.3 -7.2 -6.0 -6.1 -4.3 -2.1 Senegal GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.0 3.3 2.2 4.2 4.2 4.4 4.4 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.0 -14.3 -12.9 -13.2 -13.4 -14.1 -14.6 Seychelles GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 2.1 -1.3 0.7 6.2 4.0 4.7 5.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -16.4 -44.2 -32.1 -51.6 -25.4 -17.6 -15.4 Sierra Leone GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 7.5 5.5 3.2 4.9 5.6 44.0 13.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -12.2 -15.3 -15.7 -13.1 -12.6 -12.2 -11.9 South Africa GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 3.7 3.7 -1.8 2.8 3.2 3.1 3.7 Current account bal/GDP (%) -2.1 -7.1 -4.1 -2.8 -3.0 -3.7 -4.1 Sudan GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 5.9 6.8 4.0 4.5 5.3 5.8 5.8 Current account bal/GDP (%) -7.1 -2.3 -7.7 -1.9 -7.2 -7.3 -7.4 Swaziland GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 3.1 2.4 0.4 2.0 -2.1 0.6 1.5 Current account bal/GDP (%) -1.3 -8.1 -14.4 -15.2 -15.8 -13.1 -12.1 Tanzania GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 5.9 7.4 6.0 7.0 6.4 6.7 6.9 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.8 -12.9 -9.0 -8.6 -9.1 -10.4 -11.8 Togo GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 1.9 2.4 3.2 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.1 Current account bal/GDP (%) -9.5 -6.9 -5.6 -5.9 -4.6 -4.9 -4.9 Uganda GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 6.4 8.7 7.2 6.4 6.3 6.2 7.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -5.4 -9.1 -6.7 -10.1 -12.1 -15.3 -11.2 Zambia GDP at market prices (2005 US$) b 4.2 5.7 6.4 7.6 6.8 6.7 6.0 Current account bal/GDP (%) -13.7 -9.3 1.9 2.5 3.5 2.4 2.1 Source : World Bank. World Bank forecasts are frequently updated based on new information and changing (global) circumstances. Consequently, projections presented here may differ from those contained in other Bank documents, even if basic assessments of countries’ prospects do not significantly differ at any given moment in time. Liberia, Somalia, Sao Tome and Principe are not forecast owing to data limitations. a. Growth rates over intervals are compound average; growth contributions, ratios and the GDP deflator are averages. b. GDP measured in constant 2005 U.S. dollars. c. Estimate. 160 www.worldbank.org/globaloutlook