WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) The Case of North Gaza Wastewater Treatment for Aquifer Recharge and Reuse in a Water-Scarce Context Marked by Fragility, Conflict and Violence LY This case study is part of a series prepared by the PP SU World Bank’s Water Global Practice to highlight US E existing experiences in the water sector. The purpose WATER RECOVERY of the series is to showcase one or more of the RE R • Reuse for irrigation VE ST CO elements that can contribute toward a Water in OR • Aquifer recharge RE E Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) system. This case focuses on the experience of North Gaza. RESTORE ECOSYSTEMS Context treated wastewater was used to for aquifer recharge and reuse in a water-scarce and conflict-prone context. Gaza is among the most water-stressed places in the world. Its main source of water is groundwater from In 1976 the Beit Lahia Wastewater Treatment Plan the Coastal Aquifer, which is replenished by rainfall. (BLWWTP) was constructed in North Gaza to serve a Over the past five years, however, the average annual population of 50,000 people with a primary and sec- rainfall in Gaza has decreased by 20 to 30 percent, while ondary treatment capacity of 5000m3/day. As the pop- the average recharge volume has dropped 10 to 20 ulation in the served municipalities of Beit Lahia, Beit ­percent. In addition, over-pumping of groundwater has Hanoum, Um Al Nasser, and Jabalia grew, inflows at increased saline water intrusion, and the lack of appro- the BLWWTP increased to more than 12,000m3/day in priate wastewater treatment and disposal has led to 2004, greatly exceeding plant capacity. The original aquifer contamination. This case study describes how design did not incorporate disposal of treated effluent, 1 which had been left to seep into the sand dunes sur- treatment-and-reuse solution for the four municipali- rounding the plant. In the past, this posed no major ties of North Gaza. risks because the effluent quality was adequate and Part A: Beit Lahia–Jabalia effluent transfer: An immedi- the sandy soil could manage the volume of effluent ate and temporary solution to the health risks created through natural infiltration. But the increasing volume by the sewage lagoon was to drain it, in this case by of sewage inflows, insufficient treatment capacity, transferring the untreated wastewater to infiltration and prohibitions on wastewater discharges to the sea basins. This temporary solution entailed construction meant that poorly treated effluent from the treatment of: i) a terminal pumping station (TPS) at the site of plant overflowed into the nearby sand dunes, creating the existing BLWWTP (item 1, figure 1); ii) a network a growing lagoon of nearly 1.5 million m3 of wastewa- of about 7 km of ductile iron pipelines to transfer the ter, covering more than 30 hectares (ha). effluent from the lagoon to the infiltration basins; The partially treated wastewater from the lagoon and iii) nine infiltration basins (item 3, figure 1). The seeped into the aquifer exposing the nearby pop- replacement system began operation in 2009. ulation to waterborne diseases and sewage floods. Part B: North Gaza Wastewater Treatment Plant: Once Between 1989 and 2007, on three occasions, the sandy the lagoon was drained, the next step was to increase embankments containing the wastewater lagoon wastewater treatment capacity to treat 100 percent were breached.1 Houses in and around Beit Lahia and of the wastewater from Beit Lahia, Beit Hanoum, Um Al Nasser were flooded with raw sewage. There Um Al Nasser, and Jabalia to recharge and clean the were multiple casualties after people drowned in the aquifer. The North Gaza Wastewater Treatment Plant sludge. Aside from the physical threat of flooding, the (NGWWTP) (item 2, figure 1) has been in operation lagoon provided a natural breeding ground for mos- since 2018. With a treatment capacity of 35,600 m3/day, quitoes and parasites, contaminated groundwater, and able to expand to 65,700 m3/day, the NGWWTP and produced foul-smelling gases. Waterborne dis- can meet the needs of the rapid population growth eases meant a large and growing number of children in Gaza. The wastewater treatment plant adheres to were contracting digestive and respiratory illnesses; an activated-sludge treatment process that includes infants under the age of six months were the most biological nitrogen and partial phosphorus. Sludge vulnerable. is treated anaerobically. The nine infiltration basins (item 3, figure 1) lie on more than 8 ha at the NGWWTP. Solution Part of the former BLWWTP site will be decommis- In 2004, the North Gaza Emergency Sewage Treatment sioned, and some ponds will be rehabilitated to make Project (NGEST) began implementation. Led by the the NGWWTP more efficient and resilient. Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) and supported Part C: The effluent recovery-and-reuse scheme. This by the World Bank and other donors, the project was scheme aims to recover the infiltrated, treated waste- designed to address these health and environmental water to irrigate about 1,500 ha of agricultural land problems by building an integrated wastewater treat- near the NGWWTP. Twenty-eight recovery wells will ment plant (WWTP) for an effluent recovery-and-reuse be built near the infiltration basins (item 5, figure 1), scheme (figure 1). The map showing the full geographi- along with two groundwater reservoirs with 4,000m3 cal scope of the project is shown in figure 2. storage capacity to maintain hydraulic b of ­ ­alance The project was designed to be implemented in three and manage water distribution for crops (item  6, parts to address immediate health and environmental figure 1). There are in addition, 10 booster pumps needs as well as to support a longer-term wastewater with 6,000m3/hr maximum flow capacity, collection 2 Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) FIGURE 1. North Gaza Wastewater Treatment Plant and Effluent Recovery-and-reuse Scheme 1 2 5 6 7 Capture zone NGEST Recovery Reservoir Irrigation network Infiltration basins Permeable soil Recharge 3 Water table 4 Subsurface storage Ambient Unconfined aquifer groundwater pipelines, 10  monitoring wells ensuring adequate capacity, using the biogas produced in the anaerobic physical and chemical characteristics of the infiltrated process at the treatment plant. Around 38 percent of water, and an irrigation water distribution network the plant’s electricity requirements can be covered (of about 106  km) (item 7, figure 1). By 2020, fourteen through biogas co-generation. But the biogas container of the twenty-eight recovery wells had been installed was damaged during the escalation of the conflict around the infiltration basins, along with one reservoir, in 2019, making the co-generation system inoperable. five booster pumps, and five monitoring wells. The 2 It is expected to come back online in 2021. remaining components are being contracted through In 2015 the World Bank commissioned a feasibility the PWA with financing from the Agence Française study on solar energy installations at the NGWWTP de Développement (AFD). The implementation of the site. The goal was to bring reliable electricity supply to first stage of the irrigation scheme (500 ha) is planned the treatment plant while lowering the costs of opera- to start in 2021. tions and maintenance (O&M). By 2020 the AFD, Green The Water-energy Nexus Climate Fund, and the Irish government had approved financing to install up to 8.5 ha of ground-mounted With power supply at about 170 MW, Gaza has an acute photovoltaic panels to be placed at the premises of power shortage—a third of the 500 MW demand. Israel NGWWTP (2 ha), near the recovery scheme (3 ha) and is expected to supply 120 MW, and the Gaza power in the restricted access area3 next to NGWWTP (3.5 ha). plant to provide 45–60 MW from diesel generators. With total installed capacity of 7.5 MWp, the three solar Government of Israel restrictions on fuel entry into parks will produce an average useful 9,411 MWh/year, Gaza, the high cost of fuel, limited capacity, and a frag- in comparison with the 10,659 MWh/year needed for mented grid combine to keep the Gaza power plant the reuse scheme (TPS + WWTP + recovery + irrigation from operating at full capacity. network). The PV panels are expected to be operational Taking this into consideration, the NGWWTP design by August 2022. The O&M arrangements will depend incorporated co-generation facilities with an 800 kW on the location of the solar panels. Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) 3 FIGURE 2. North Gaza Emergency Sewage Treatment Project: Various Projects WEST BANK AND GAZA NORTH GAZA EMERGENCY SEWAGE TREATMENT PROJECT (NGEST) PART A - BEIT LAHIA–JABALIA EFFLUENT TRANSFER\ PART B - NGEST WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT (WWTP) TERMINAL PUMPING STATION (at Beit Lahia WWTP “BLWWTP”) SEWAGE PRESSURE PIPELINE (from BLWWTP to 9 new infiltration basins at planned North Gaza WWTP “NGWWTP”) 9 INFILTRATION BASINS (at NGWWTP) BEIT LAHIA WWTP (“BLWWTP”) FACILITIES (TO BE DECOMMISSIONED): PART C - EFFLUENT RECOVERY SCHEME SEWAGE LAKE AND TEMPORARY EMERGENCY SEWAGE PONDS PUMPING STATION RECOVERY AREA CONNECTION MANHOLE COLLECTOR PIPELINES AND RECOVERY WELLS SEWAGE PRESSURE PIPELINES RESERVOIR AND BOOSTER STATIONS INFILTRATION BASINS MONITORING WELLS RECOVERY WELLS To Ashkelon, To Ashkelon, approx. approx. 20 km. 20 km. SRA I ISR EL AEL Erez Checkpoint Beit Lahia Beit Lahia Sewage Lake Sewage Lake (~3,000,000m3) (~3,000,000m3) Lahia BeitLahia Beit WWTPFacilities WWTP Facilities Terminal Pumping Station Beit Lahia Beit Hanoun G A Z A C I T Y Sewage Pressure Pipeline 9 Infiltration Basins from Is raeli b raeli order I ISS R RAA EELL 200 m from Is 100 m border North Gaza WWTP (NGWWTP) (current capacity 35,600m3/day) (future maximum capacity 69,000m3/day) BUILT-UP AREAS FORMER ISRAELI AREA HANDED OVER TO PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY, SEPTEMBER 2005 MAJOR ROADS OTHER ROADS GOVERNORATE BOUNDARY INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY 0 1 2 km. 0 1 mi. Nahal ‘Oz IBRD 35892R | NOVEMBER 2018 Checkpoint This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World Bank Group. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 4 Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) Policy, Institutional, and Regulatory with national standards, and shall support the distri- Environment bution and productive reuse of treated wastewater, a The PWA was established in 1995 as the principal water practice that is regulated by the 1999 Environmental institution in the West Bank and Gaza (at ministerial Law (Article 29). To enforce these regulations, the level). It has overarching responsibilities for the prepa- Palestinian Environmental Quality Authority (EQA) in ration and implementation of policies, strategies, and 2000 proposed draft standards for the reuse of treated plans; investment planning and implementation; and wastewater; the quality standards for reuse and recy- accountability and performance of the entire water cle of treated wastewater (PS/742/2003) were estab- sector. At the time of the NGEST project approval in lished in 2003. The standards cover sanitary matters 2004, PWA recognized the reuse-and-recovery scheme (pathogens, nematodes, and fecal coliforms), environ- for treated wastewater as an essential element of the mental matters (limits on heavy metals, nitrogen, and NGWWTP. Therefore, the PWA fully supported and phosphorus concentrations), and agro-technical qual- encouraged wastewater reuse as part of its policy. In ity requirements (limits on salts and several anion and addition, Israel’s prohibitions for the discharge of cation concentrations). At the NGWWTP, effluent qual- untreated wastewater into the Mediterranean meant ity measured in terms of biochemical oxygen demand any short-term solution to prevent the collapse of the (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), and total nitrogen embankments at Beit Lahia would require a fallback (TN), is in compliance with the PS/742/2003 standards option: the temporary underground infiltration of for biological parameters of treated wastewater and wastewater, for which the infiltration basins were built is fit for aquifer recharge and unrestricted reuse in and put into operation in 2009. The medium-term agriculture.4 solution involved building the NGWWTP and connect- The status of sector institutions is guided by the ing it to the existing infiltration basins. With this done, principles embedded in the 2014 Water Law, which treated wastewater can be introduced underground to are meant to adjust and reform current settings of mitigate the legacy of groundwater contamination and the sector. The law (i) delineates the responsibil- recharge the aquifer with good-quality water for future ities of each institutional stakeholder, encourag- irrigation. This phased approach reflects implementa- ing private participation; (ii) establishes clear and tion constraints and the challenges posed by fragility, enforceable accountabilities; and (iii) fosters financial conflict, and violence. sufficiency among service pro- independence and self-­ viders. At the national level, two institutions already Since 1996, the World Bank and other donors have exist: (i) the PWA, which is responsible for managing been supporting the development of an institutional water resources, sector planning, and development; and legal framework for the water and wastewater sec- and (ii)  the Water Sector Regulatory Council, which tor. Through the Gaza Water Sector Capacity Building regulates and monitors the operation of water service Project (P117443), the Bank supported the PWA with providers. A third entity was recently created—National the development of the National Water Policy and Water Company (NWC)—which will assume the role of Strategy for Palestine 2013–32 and the 2014 Water Law bulk water provider to service providers. as part of a larger water sector reform agenda. These documents make explicit that treated wastewater rep- The 2014 Water Law also envisages service delivery resents a potential resource and should be optimized at the local level provided through a few utilities. for agricultural, recharge, and aquaculture purposes. Regional Water Utilities are to be formed through The policy states that wastewater shall be treated to a the aggregation of existing small service providers quality suitable for safe and productive reuse, in line (water departments at the local government units) so Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) 5 as to yield economies of scale. The new organizations compromised the PWA’s already weak capacity to con- are to be autonomous and financially self-sustaining, tinue funding the NGWWTP’s operating expenditures. owned by participating local governments. In Gaza, As a result, the contractor was not paid on time and PWA’s goal is to transform the Coastal Municipalities terminated the contract unilaterally in July 2019. The Water Utility (CMWU). First established as a Joint ensuing uncertainty surrounding impaired the orderly Service Council under the Local Authorities Law of transfer of O&M responsibilities to the NGWWTP. 1997, the CMWU will become the Gaza Regional Water Although outside its institutional mandate, the PWA Utility and assume operation and maintenance of the has been operating the system with its own staff and NGWWTP and associated facilities. resources since July 2019. Financial and Contractual Arrangements In June 2020, to cover O&M costs the PWA was unable to bear, the World Bank approved a USD 13.7 million The project was financed by pooling grant resources grant for the Wastewater Management Sustainability from several donors, including the World Bank, project. This intervention played out under emergency the Belgium Directorate General for International conditions to finance the O&M for the NGWWTP and Cooperation, the European Commission, the Swedish facilities for four years and lay the basis for sustainable International Development Cooperation Agency wastewater treatment services in Gaza. The project (SIDA), the AFD, and the European Investment Bank. is financing activities to enhance the sustainability The total cost of the project from 2004 to 2018, of the O&M of wastewater treatment services in Gaza excluding Part C (which is still being implemented), over the medium and long terms. It includes upgrad- amounted to USD 82 million. The Green Climate ing the NGWWTP for operational gains in efficiency, Fund, the AFD, and Irish Aid will finance Part C of the resilience, and flexibility to respond to manmade haz- ­ including the ­ project—­ irrigation and solar PV scheme— ards, climate change, and conflict. For this, one of the for approximately EUR 45 million. ponds at the former BLWWTP site will be rehabilitated The NGWWTP was built by an international joint ven- into a lined and aerated equalization basin to improve ture contractor. With respect to O&M for the plant operations. The basin will allow to maintain a consis- and associated facilities, the agreement with the joint tent flow, 24 hours a day, by storing excess wastewater venture included a two-year O&M contract through at peak flows and returning it to the terminal pumping February 2020. To ensure the sustainability of oper- station during low flows. Another section of the pond ations once the JV contractor moved on, the contract is to be rehabilitated as an emergency reservoir. In the also specified that the CMWU staff would be provided event conflict damages the treatment plant or there with technical training and assistance. This two-year is some malfunction, the emergency reservoir is able O&M contract was to be financed by the PWA until to retain about six days of wastewater inflows. These the CMWU entered into an institutional agreement inflows would then gradually be pumped back into the with the four North Gazan municipalities to establish equalizer pond and ultimately into the terminal pump- cost-recovery. ing stations. This two-year O&M contract was never finalized, The new Wastewater Management Sustainability however. Water and sewerage tariffs in the four project is also providing technical assistance to municipalities do not cover the costs of water pro- build capacity. Sustainable institutional and finan- duction and distribution, let alone wastewater treat- cial arrangements for O&M are the goals, in conjunc- ment, estimated at USD 277,000 per month. The tion with the PWA, the four municipalities in North financial collapse of the Palestinian economy in 2018 Gaza, and the CMWU. The CMWU will operate the 6 Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) NGWWTTP and associated facilities once a num- operated by the NWC. The CMWU will operate the PV ber of agreements are in place: 1) an agreement panels located on the NGWWTP premises once it takes between the PWA and CMWU outlining the condi- over O&M of the entire wastewater treatment system. tions and obligations of both parties to instrumen- Until then, the PWA will operate the solar scheme talize arrangements to transfer to CMWU the O&M during a transitional period. Once the solar PV system responsibilities and the assets of the NGWWTP, 2) is operational, the electricity costs of the NGWWTP and service agreements with each of the four benefiting the irrigation and recovery schemes should plummet. municipalities, outlining their contribution to the A net metering agreement between the Gaza Electricity O&M costs of the NGWWTP. Distribution Company (GEDCO) and the PWA (and later the CMWU and the NWC) should show an annual bal- The O&M arrangements for the irrigation scheme ance of what the system has produced and consumed. have yet to be settled. The idea is that the PWA Any over-production will be discounted from the elec- would own and, for the first few years, operate the tricity bills of other wastewater facilities in Gaza. recovery-and-reuse systems with the ultimate goal ­ of transferring the operation and management of the irrigation scheme to a Water Users Association (WUA)5 Benefits in line with the 2014 Water Law. The creation of the Improved sanitation services. The NGWWTP and associ- new WUA is underway, supported by the Palestinian ated facilities are providing wastewater treatment ser- Ministry of Agriculture and the Food and Agriculture vices to some 370,000 people in the four municipalities Organization (FAO), which will provide technical assis- of North Gaza. Of these, 52,000 from the communities tance to increase the WUA’s capacity to operate and surrounding the old BLWWTP benefit directly from the maintain the irrigation scheme, as well as technical drained effluent lagoon, which no longer poses health assistance to farmers to improve their on-farm facil- and environmental safety threats. ities. The WUA will contract with individual farmers, who will pay for the water distribution services based Improved health outcomes. An assessment6 was con- on their metered consumption. The recovery scheme ducted in 2018 with project beneficiaries and data (wells, pumping stations, and main pipelines) will be from local clinics. The assessment showed positive managed by the NWC once it is fully established, as trends in the incidence of water-borne diseases (diar- the entity responsible for bulk water supply. The WUA rhea, skin diseases, and typhoid), especially among will also have an agreement with the NWC to buy the children. Thus, on average, 64 percent of the respon- bulk water produced from the recovery scheme. Costs dents noted improvement in the incidence of these for the O&M of the recovery-and-reuse schemes will diseases (Beit Lahia, 70 percent; Jabalia, 70 percent; initially be subsidized by the Palestinian Authority Jabalia Camp, 70 percent; Beit Hanoun, 60 percent; through coverage of electricity costs until farmers are and Um Al Nasser, 50 percent). Insect populations able to cover the costs of the system (in approximately have decreased, along with the number of households three years), estimated to be ILS 0.63/m3 (USD 0.19/m3). affected by wastewater accumulation and flooding, as The tariff should be lower once the solar scheme is reported by respondents. operational—ILS 0.40/m (USD 0.12/m ). 3 3 Cleanup of historical aquifer pollution and aquifer The O&M arrangement for the PV scheme depends on recharge. Adequately treated wastewater can replen- the location of the panels. Those located around the ish the aquifer and clean up polluted underground recovery scheme (3 ha) and in the restricted access water plumes. In turn, the cleanup prevents down- area adjacent to NGWWTP (3.5 ha) will eventually be stream contamination of municipal wells. These are Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) 7 important environmental and public health co-ben- a fragile situation can be projected, conflict and wars million m per year of good-quality water efits, as 13  ­ 3 bring unforeseen delays and complications. The proj- has been filtering into the aquifer since 2018. The proj- ect started as an emergency intervention to ensure the ect translates into benefits for 200,000 people, who health and safety of the communities surrounding the will not only reduce their climate-risk exposure but effluent lake. It was well known that the project was also increase their access to usable domestic water. A prepared in a challenging context, but developments cost-benefit analysis quantified the financial, social, such as Israel’s disengagement from Gaza in 2005 and and environmental costs if the NGWWMF were to be the wars in 2008–09, 2012, and again in 2014, were shut down for 48 months—also taking into consider- hard to foresee. ation the flood risk posed by a possible breach of the Despite fragility, projects can be implemented, and resulting sewage lake at Beit Lahia. The median pollu- results achieved, when readiness is high among the World tion scenario generated a net present value of US$9.8 Bank and client teams. The project was able to achieve million and an economic rate of return of 21 percent.7 significant results, despite the context of fragility and Production of nonconventional water resources. The conflict, through the strong commitment and proactiv- construction of the new NGWWTP allowed the pro- ity of both the client and World Bank teams. Fragile, duction of 35,600m /day of treated effluent suitable for 3 conflict-prone and violent environments produce aquifer recharge and unrestricted reuse in irrigation. ever-changing conditions, so the adaptability and flex- This result offers opportunities for treated effluent to ibility of teams are vital be reused for irrigation purposes to improve agricul- To help boost the sustainability of investments in set- tural production and increase economic opportunities tings marked by fragility, conflict, and violence, it is in Northern Gaza. The later reuse of replenished water helpful to apply a life-cycle costing approach during from the aquifer (rather than direct use of treated project design. In Gaza, where uncertainty exists about wastewater) is, in addition, a more acceptable way the financial resources available for the operation and to reuse wastewater—especially in Muslim-majority maintenance of water and wastewater infrastructure, countries where fresh, pure water plays a central role a life-cycle costing approach should be used to ensure in Islamic spirituality. The irrigation scheme will pro- that capital, O&M, and replacement costs over the vide water to 1,500 ha of agricultural land, benefiting entire life of an infrastructure facility are considered about 4,200 farmers. as part of the technology selection process. In this Reduction in O&M costs. The installation of the pho- case, the technology selection was driven by the need tovoltaic cells at the NGWWTP will cover all the elec- to respond quickly to the public health emergency in tricity costs of the treatment and recovery-and-reuse Beit Lahia, the restrictions on discharges of untreated schemes. The electricity costs at the NGWWTP amount wastewater into the Mediterranean, and the PWA to about half the total costs of O&M. The scheme will policy that encourages wastewater treatment recov- therefore slash these costs and help the CMWU achieve ery and reuse. The chosen technology has high O&M full recovery of O&M costs, making the system more costs. Despite attempts to ensure O&M cost recovery— sustainable. difficult in the presence of conflict—this issue is still unresolved. Despite the undisputable environmen- Lessons Learned tal and societal benefits of the project, careful and In conflict situations, active engagement and flexibility practical consideration of O&M costs (and who will to adapt to unforeseen circumstances are the key fac- bear them) must be part of subsequent discussions of tors for achieving results. While precautions relating to ­circular economy. 8 Water in Circular Economy and Resilience (WICER) Where energy can be an unreliable resource, less 4. Parameters are further specified in the technical specification TS 34/2012. ­ energy-intensive solutions should be carefully consid- ered. In Gaza, where energy is a particular challenge, 5. The WUA is a group of water users, like farmers or irrigators, orga- nized to formally manage a shared irrigation system. A WUA elects particularly in view of the high O&M cost burden, it leaders, handles disputes internally, collects fees, and maintains the is necessary to consider alternative energy sources or system. According to the 2014 Law, WUAs have a legal personality, are financially independent, and have the right to own, use, and dis- less energy-intensive treatment technologies. In North pose of assets, movable and immovable, with the aim of achieving Gaza, this led to considering solar panels to cover the their objectives. The WUA for this irrigation scheme is being created. electricity needs of the project and so to reduce the 6. The assessment included group discussions with about 400 benefi- plant’s O&M costs. ciaries representing 60 households from targeted villages and towns living in areas around the project, focusing on families with children. Long-term engagement on the institutional aspects of The assessment was complemented by observations and other sec- the water and wastewater sector can lead to legal and ondary data previously collected by Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) stakeholders and other monitoring groups. regulatory advancements more conducive to good water management. The long-term partnership between the 7. Project Appraisal Document for the Wastewater Management Sustainability Project (P172578). Palestinian Authority and international financing insti- tutions has led to a sound legal framework and capac- ity building that encourages the circular economy in Background Documents water and wastewater investments. This is particularly AFD (Agence Française de Développement). 2019. “Funding proposal for the water banking and adaptation of agriculture to climate change in relevant in water-scarce countries. Northern Gaza.” Note: This case study was prepared before the 11-day PWA (Palestinian Water Authority). 2013. “National Water and Wastewater armed conflict in May 2021. Some of the estimated dates Strategy for Palestine.” and operational arrangements might change as a result. World Bank. 2018. “Implementation completion and results report for the North Gaza emergency sewage treatment project” December 20. World Bank, Washington, DC. Notes World Bank. 2018. Delivering Life-Saving Sanitation Services in Gaza. 1. See, for example, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/video/2018​/08​ Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XLds-hl_q4E. /06​/delivering-life-saving​-sanitation-services-in-gaza. World Bank. 2019. “Wastewater Management Project Mitigates Health 2. These are being operated for maintenance purposes every ten days to and Environmental Threats in the West Bank and Gaza.” https://www​ allow water to circulate through the system. The tank is emptied .­worldbank.org/en/results/2019/10/09/wastewater-management​-project​ every four weeks, and the water used by nearby farmers. -mitigates-health-and-environmental-threats-in-the-west-bank-and​ -gaza. 3. Also known as the “buffer zone,” the restricted access area (RAA) is a military no-go area that extends along the entire northern and ­eastern World Bank. 2020. “Project appraisal document for the wastewater perimeter of the Gaza Strip, about 100m from the border with Israel. management sustainability project.” June. World Bank, Washington, DC. ­ © 2021 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. Some rights reserved. 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