THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN LEBANON Assessing Women’s Access to Economic Opportunities, Human Capital Accumulation & Agency S THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN LEBANON ASSESSING WOMEN’S ACCESS TO ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES, HUMAN CAPITAL ACCUMULATION & AGENCY 2 The Status of Women in Lebanon Copyright © 2021 by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank This work is a co-publication of The World Bank and UN Women. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent, or those of UN Women. The World Bank and UN Women do not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and do not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Attribution Please cite the work as follows: World Bank and UN Women. 2021. The Status of Women in Lebanon: Assessing Women’s Access to Economic Opportunities, Human Capital Accumulation & Agency. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Cover design: Sarah Alameddine The Status of Women in Lebanon 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Report was prepared by a joint UN Women – World Bank team led by Samantha Constant (Consultant, UN Women), with Jonna Lundwall (Senior Social Scientist, World Bank), Angela Elzir Assy (Labor Market Specialist, World Bank) and Rachel Dore Weeks (Head of Office, UN Women Lebanon). Primary data analysis was conducted by Ramiro Malaga Ortega (Consultant, World Bank). Other World Bank staff who contributed to the report include Daniel Hemenway (Consultant), Maha Yaktin (Consultant), Rhea Jabbour (Consultant), Sherin Varki (Senior Health Specialist), Farah Asfahani (Health Specialist), and Hana El Ghali (Consultant). The publication benefited from peer- review comments by Ganesh Kumar Seshan (Senior Economist, World Bank) and Miriam Muller (Social Scientist, World Bank). The team further would like to thank Suhair Murad (Program Assistant, World Bank) for invaluable administrative support in the process and copy editor Jeffrey Stern (Consultant, UN Women). The design was developed by Sarah Alameddine (Consultant, World Bank). From the World Bank side, the work was conducted under the general guidance of the Mashreq Country Director, Saroj Kumar Jha, the Poverty and Equity Global Practice Manager Johannes Hoogeveen, and the Lebanon Country representative Mouna Couzi. The team is grateful for the support and feedback received from the National Commission for Lebanese Women: Claudine Aoun Roukoz, President, and Jad Najem, Head of the Committee on Economy, Labor and Sustainable Development. The Report was prepared as part of the Mashreq Gender Facility.1 This Facility provides technical assistance to Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon to strengthen the enabling environment for women’s economic participation and improve women’s access to economic opportunities. The Facility is a World Bank - International Finance Corporation initiative in collaboration with the governments of Canada and Norway. It is mainly supported by the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality with contributions from the governments of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. 1 https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/mashreq-gender-facility 4 The Status of Women in Lebanon ABBREVIATIONS CAS – Central Administration of Statistics CEDAW – Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women EEWAY – Ministry of State for Economic Empowerment of Women and Youth ESCWA – United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia FHH – Female Headed Household(s) FLFP – Female Labor Force Participation GBV – Gender-based Violence GBVIMS – Gender-based Violence Information Management System GDP – Gross Domestic Product GFP – Gender Focal Point HCI – Human Capital Index IASC – Inter-Agency Steering Committee ILO – International Labour Organization IMAGES – International Men and Gender Equality Survey ISF – Internal Security Forces IPV – Intimate Partner Violence LFHLCS – Labor Force and Household Living Conditions Survey MENA – Middle East and North Africa MGF – Mashreq Gender Facility MHH – Male Headed Household(s) NCD – Noncommunicable Disease NCLW – National Commission for Lebanese Women NSSF – National Social Security Fund OCHCR – Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights OMSWA – Office of the Minister of State for Women Affairs RACE – Reaching All Children with Education UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund UNIFIL – United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNOCHA – United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNRWA – United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East UNSCOL – Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for Lebanon VASyR – Vulnerability Assessment of Syrian Refugees in Lebanon VAWG – Violence Against Women and Girls WDR – World Development Report WVS – World Values Survey The Status of Women in Lebanon 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Way Forward.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Framing of the assessment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Legal and Institutional Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Women’s legal status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Institutional framework for gender equality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The role of civil society.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Livelihoods and Women’s Economic Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 The impact of gender on household status and well‑being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Jobs and access to economic opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Occupation segregation and gender wage gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Women’s role in firms and entrepreneurship.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Access to assets and land ownership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Human Capital Accumulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Access to and outcomes in education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Health outcomes and services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Agency and Gender Roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Participation in decision‑making spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Subjective well-being and gender norms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Gender-based violence and violence against women and girls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Annex 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Annex 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 6 The Status of Women in Lebanon LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Adapted from the World Development Report 2012: Understanding the Status of Women in Lebanon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 2: Timeline of Legal Reforms that Aim to Enhance Women’s Status in Lebanon.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Figure 3: Female Labor Force Participation and GDP Per Capita in USD, latest year available.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 4: Labor Force Participation Rate (15-64) by Sex (%), 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 5: Labor Force Participation Rate (15-64) by Governorate and Sex (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 6: Inactivity by Sex and Governorate (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 7: Male and Female labor Force Status in Lebanon by Age Group (%), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Figure 8: Labor Force Participation by Education Level and Gender (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Figure 9: Female Labor Force Participation by Age Cohort and Governorate (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Figure 10: Probability of Female Labor Force Participation by Age Cohort and Marital Status (%), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 11: Daily Hours Spent on Childcare by Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 12: Probability of Female Labor Force Participation by Number of Children in the Household (0 to 6 Years) and Education Level, 25+, 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Figure 13: Unemployment across the World, OECD, Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan and MENA (%), 2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Figure 14: Unemployment by Governorate and Sex (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 15: Job Status by Sex (%), 2018‑2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 16: Joblessness by Governorate and Sex (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 17: Share of Employment in Unregistered Businesses by Gender (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Figure 18: Employment in the Informal Sector by Governorate and Gender (%), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Figure 19: Formality of the Employed by Gender and Nationality (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 20: Employment by Gender and Quintiles of Per Capita Household Labor Income (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 21: Composition of Female Workers by Governorate and Education Attainment (%), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 22: Composition of Male Workers by Governorate and Education Attainment (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 23: Job Categories Rates by Sex and Sector (%), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 24: Employment Rates by Sex, and Sector (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 25: Average Income/Net Earnings in LBP from Main Job Last Month by Employment Status, 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . 42 Figure 26: Most Important Constraints to Firm Operations (%), 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Figure 27: Account Ownership or Mobile Service Provider, by Sex (%) 2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 28: Debit Card Ownership, by Sex (%), 2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 29: Reasons for Not Having an Account at a Financial Institution (%), by Sex, 2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Figure 30: Asset Ownership across Female- and Male-headed Households (%), 2018‑2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 31: Education Attainment, by Sex and Level (in Thousands), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 32: Currently Enrolled Students, by Sex and Level (in Thousands), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 33: Reasons for Non-enrollment among 3 to 24-Year-Olds Residing in Lebanon (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 34: Distribution of Students According to their Education Level for the School Year 2019-2020 (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 35: Share of Population with Some University Education by Gender and Age Groups (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 36: Tertiary Education Graduates in Selected Fields of Study, by Sex (%), 2011.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 37: Percentage of People over 20 Years Old in the Lowest Quintile of Labor Income by Education and Sex (%), 2018‑2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figure 38: Enrollment Rates by Sex and Nationality (%), 2011-2012.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figure 39: Distribution of Non-Lebanese Enrollment by Gender and by Cycle (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 40: Distribution of Lebanese Enrollment by Gender and Cycle (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 The Status of Women in Lebanon 7 Figure 41: Adolescent Fertility Rate (Births Per 1000 Women Ages 15 to 19), 2000-2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Figure 43: Noncommunicable Disease Causes of Deaths for Lebanese Populations, by Sex, 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 42: Maternal Mortality Ratio (Modeled Estimate, Per 100,000 Women Aged 15 to 19), 2000-2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 44: Responses to the Question, “Do you Regularly Have Unmet Medical Needs?” by Sex (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 45: Main Reason to Not Obtain Needed Medical Services, by Sex and Income (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 46: Type of Primary Health Insurance among Women, by Governorate (%), 2018-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 47: Type of Primary Health Insurance among Men, by Governorate (%), 2018‑2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 48: Probability of Women Having Health Insurance by Age Cohort and Marital Status (%), 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Figure 49: Lebanese in Agreement with Statements on Gender Roles (%), by Sex, 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 50: Lebanese in Agreement that “Being a Housewife is as Fulfilling as Working for Pay” (%), by Age Cohort, 2018. . . . 62 Figure 51: Lebanese in Agreement with the Statement “Preschool Children Suffer with a Working Mother” (%), by Age Cohort, 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Figure 52: Lebanese in Agreement with the Statement “Preschool Children Suffer with a Working Mother” (%), by Rural/Urban, 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 53: Lebanese in Agreement with the Statement “Husbands Should Have the Final Say in All Decisions Concerning the Family,” by Gender (%), 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 54: Lebanese in Agreement with the Statement “Husbands Should Have the Final Say in All Decisions Concerning the Family,” by Age Cohort (%), 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 55: Main Reasons for Calls to Sexual and Gender-based Violence Hotlines during the January 2021 Lockdown. . . . 66 Figure 56: Attitudes on Domestic Violence by Sex and Age Cohort, 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Select Gender Inequality Indicators for Lebanon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Table 2: Marginal Effects of a Probit Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Table 3: Average Change in Full-time Employees by Gender for all Firms Surveyed, October 2019 and October 2020. . . . . 38 Table 4: Logarithm of Labor Earnings Per Month, Per Hour and Hours Worked across Women and Men, 2018-2019. . . . . . 42 Table 5: Hours Worked Per Week and Income/Net Earnings from Main Job by Economic Sectors, LBP Thousand, 2017. . . . . 46 Table 6: Education Indicators of Human Capital in Select Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Table 7: School Enrollment by Level, Nationality and Governorate for School Year 2018-2019.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Table 8: Gender Differences in Happiness, Life Satisfaction and Freedom of Choice, 2018.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 LIST OF BOXES Box 1: Labor Market Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Box 2: Women in Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Box 3: The Status of Migrant Workers in Lebanon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Box 4: The Different Forms of Gender-based Violence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Box 5: Sexual Harassment Law 205. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 8 The Status of Women in Lebanon EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Status of Women in Lebanon 9 The objective of this Gender Assessment is to provide desk review and conducted new analysis that drew an up-to-date, holistic reference on the state of women on a variety of databases. The assessment team in Lebanon against the broader perspective of general examined a variety of existing literature, including development outcomes while taking into consideration Women’s Economic Participation in Iraq, Jordan and the multiple crises Lebanon is facing. The Assessment Lebanon (World Bank 2020e) and Women on the Verge is guided by an analytical framework that focuses on of an Economic Breakdown: Addressing the Differential the interlinkages of three key dimensions of gender Impacts of the Economic Crisis on Women in Lebanon equality: economic opportunities (including livelihoods), (UN Women 2020). The Assessment draws heavily on human capital accumulation and agency; a discussion Lebanon’s Central Administration of Statistics and of contextual factors related to institutions and the the International Labor Organization’s Labor Force market underpins all three of these key dimensions. and Household Living Conditions Survey in Lebanon This Assessment resulted from a collaboration of 2018-2019, the 2011 Household Budget Survey, the UN Women and the World Bank, supported by the World Values Survey (wave 7 – 2018), the UN Women- National Commission for Lebanese Women (NCLW), Promundo IMAGES survey Lebanon dataset (2017), which brought together complementary institutional and the Arab Barometer (2018- 2019). Data from mandates for shared objectives. The report presents international sources, such as the World Development information on legal and institutional gender equality Indicators (WDI), the Global Financial Inclusion database frameworks and includes sex-disaggregated data on and different UN agencies, provided regional and global women’s socioeconomic standing in the key sectors of comparative perspectives. The report also covers education, health and labor and in the thematic areas of some of the specific challenges that refugee women violence, income and poverty. and girls face within certain subsections (education, health and employment) and, where data is available To provide a comprehensive reference on the status and relevant, the report discusses the impacts of the of women in Lebanon, the assessment team used a COVID-19 pandemic. Background Lebanon is in the midst of a convergence of political, challenges, the multiple crises took place against a economic and social crises, all exacerbated by the backdrop of refugee spillovers from the conflict in Syria2 global macro-financial turmoil and the ongoing and growing social unrest by citizens demanding greater COVID-19 pandemic. Even prior to the 4 August 2020 government accountability and transparency. Port of Beirut explosions (which left more than 200 people dead, thousands injured and many homeless), Lebanon has made progress in reducing the the Lebanese economy was reeling from a multifaceted differences between women and men in human economic and financial crisis. The crisis, initially triggered capital endowments, particularly in health and by a deterioration in capital inflows, was exacerbated education. The World Bank’s Human Capital Index by global and local supply and demand shocks due to measures the amount of human capital girls and boys the pandemic (World Bank et al. 2020). In addition, can expect to accumulate by the age of 18, given their COVID-19 pandemic-related restrictions and lockdowns country’s measures of survival, health and education. increased health risks and exposed long-term structural Lebanon’s overall Human Capital Index score is the vulnerabilities, including poor infrastructure, water same for girls and boys, with girls having similar or only supply shortages, a dysfunctional electricity sector slightly lower survival rates, test scores and expected and deteriorating social indicators. Compounding these years of schooling (World Bank 2020e).3 Women’s 2 Lebanon is home to one of the largest refugee populations per capita in the world. The refugee population in Lebanon is 52 percent female and 48 percent male, with 62 percent of refugees married. 89 percent of families include one or more children. The education levels among the Syrian refugee population in Lebanon is very low, with 62 percent having only one to six years, and 31 percent having no education at all (World Bank 2020b). 3 Lebanon is the only country in the MENA region where boys have more quality-adjusted expected years of school, on average. 10 The Status of Women in Lebanon maternal health outcomes in Lebanon are better than the and social assistance (Lebanese Constitution of 1926 Middle East and North Africa (MENA) regional average; with all amendments, 2004); (UNDP, ESCWA, UNFPA Lebanon has a maternal mortality ratio of 29 deaths and UN Women 2018). per 100,000 compared to the region’s average of 57, and almost all births are attended by a medical practitioner. While legal strides have been made to protect women In education, girls and boys achieve relatively similar and girls, gaps remain in laws protecting women from harmonized test scores and rank higher than regional different forms of violence. Furthermore, enforcement and global averages in the World Economic Forum of existing laws remains a challenge. Although there is Global Gender Gap’s education attainment dimension no nationally representative prevalence data on gender- (World Economic Forum 2019).4 Additionally, prior to based violence in Lebanon, several studies confirm the COVID-19 pandemic, the country made progress that physical, sexual and psychological violence by an in absorbing the refugee population into its education intimate partner is prevalent in Lebanon. According to system, with over 200,000 refugee children enrolled in UNFPA data, about 50 percent of persons reported 2018/2019. that they know of someone subjected to domestic violence, with 65 percent of the cases committed by The civil society sector is playing an increasingly family members and 71 percent of incidents taking important role in encouraging women’s political place inside the perpetrator’s home (UNFPA 2017). leadership. The 2018 parliamentary election saw 113 According to UN Women data, about 30 percent of women registered as candidates, up from only 12 who ever-married women reported incidences of domestic registered in 2009. Many women who ran for office violence (UN Women 2017). Despite these concerning came from the civil society sector, ran on an independent figures, Sexual Harassment Law #205, which penalizes platform or were focused on issues of gender equality; sexual harassment in public, private and workplaces, is 89 percent of the female candidates’ priorities focused a major step to protecting women from gender-based on women’s rights, showing the importance of women’s violence.6 However, enforcement of the law could prove a leadership to bringing women’s issues into the formal challenge based on the implementation of other gender- agenda (El Kaakour 2020). related laws. Despite progress made to date, gender inequality is Furthermore, female headed households are reportedly endemic to all aspects of life in Lebanon, starting more vulnerable than men to poverty, depending with its legal foundation. Lebanon is an active member on education level, economic status and location of of the global community, promoting gender equality residence. When measuring poverty levels by head with some exceptions. However, there is ambiguity of household, there is a strong relationship between surrounding the gender-based discrimination provisions gender and self-reported assessment of poverty, which of the country’s national supreme law. With a score of is significant given that women head nearly one in five 52.5 out of 100 in the Women Business and the Law households in Lebanon.7 Living alone, having children Index, Lebanon scores slightly higher than the regional or insufficient education, being unemployed or having average but notably lower compared to the average limited assets negatively impacts female-headed of upper-middle-income countries.5 Lebanon’s low households more so than those headed by men. Other ranking is reflected in its legal framework. For example, studies have also shown that female-headed households Article 7 of the Constitution 1926 does not include any also tend to be more food insecure (Lebanon and provisions related to sex discrimination and gender UN 2019). equality. Furthermore, laws that negatively affect women’s basic rights, status and participation in the Past improvements in health outcomes mask regional political, economic and social spheres continue to differences and obstacles (such as accessibility and prevail, including those related to nationality, the civil affordability), particularly among vulnerable Lebanese registry, the penal code, personal status laws, labor and refugee populations. With a score of 0.599, Lebanon 4 The Global Gender Gap Index is a composite measure that assesses gender gaps in four dimensions, among them education attainment. 5 The Women Business and the Law Index measures gender differences in laws that impact access to economic opportunities in 190 economies, focusing on eight indicators and scoring based on responses to a select group of binary questions. Detailed methodology is available at https:// wbl.worldbank.org/en/methodology. 6 In December 2020, Lebanon issued Law #205, penalizing sexual harassment in private and public places and at the workplace. This new law imposes penalties of one month to four years of imprisonment and/or fines ranging from three to 50 times the minimum wage. 7 Part of this could be explained by the age-sex pyramid. Life expectancy is higher among women than men in Lebanon, and there are many more elderly women 65+ living alone (the majority of whom are widows, separated or divorced) (LFHLCS 2018-2019). The Status of Women in Lebanon 11 ranks 14th in regional and 145th out of 153 countries Despite national efforts, challenges with education in the Global Gender Gap Index in 2020.8 Although and human capital accumulation persist. According women’s health outcomes in Lebanon are generally to the World Bank’s Human Capital Index, a child (male better than regional averages, progress in the sector or female) born in Lebanon will grow up to achieve 52 masks challenges such as adequate affordability of percent of the potential productivity they could have care and health coverage among vulnerable populations achieved if they had full education and health. Overall, and refugee needs. For example, more women than men in Lebanon, there are more school-aged boys than girls report being unable to afford health care, and access out of school. While there are more women with tertiary to health insurance is even more of a challenge in the education, significant gender differences remain in terms very north and southern regions, compared to central of university field of study; few women are represented Lebanon. While access to health care services improved in science, technology, engineering or math. among refugees in 2019, transportation costs and drug fees remain major impediments, particularly for women. Female labor force participation (FLFP) in Lebanon Furthermore, among the Syrian refugee population, was still very low (25 percent at the end of 2019, around 41 percent of young women in Lebanon were representing a third of the male labor force married by the age of 18 raising concerns about increase participation rate). Lebanon’s FLFP is still significantly in health risks among adolescent mothers(Save the lower than in upper-middle-income countries (61 percent) Children 2019). and the world average (53 percent) but is slightly higher than the MENA regional average (22 percent). It is even lower among refugee women, with only 10 percent in the labor force (World Bank 2020b). Furthermore, the share of women in the labor market is considerably lower in northern and southern governorates. Such regional trends are also similar among youth who are more likely to enter the labor force than women in older cohorts. For example, a young woman age 20-24 in Beirut and Mount Lebanon is three and a half times more likely to enter the labor force than a young woman in the same cohort in Akkar. The majority of women in Lebanon are jobless. In addition to 75 percent inactivity among women, among the 25 percent who are active and in the labor force, 10 percent are unemployed (compared to 5 percent of men).9 Similar to regional participation rate trends, there are notable differences in female unemployment across governorates. While FLFP in North Lebanon is higher than the country average, they face the highest level of unemployment, followed by Baalbek and Bekaa, where unemployment among men is also prominent compared to the rest of the country. Given the lack of an unemployment insurance scheme in Lebanon, staying unemployed is not an option, and many resort to accepting informal, mostly low-productivity jobs. Moreover, there are few female entrepreneurs in Lebanon, meaning that women are much more dependent on the availability of wage employment, especially those amenable to them. 8 The Global Gender Gap Index is a composite measure that assesses gender gaps in the following four dimensions: economic participation and opportunity; education attainment; health and survival; political empowerment. World Economic Forum (2020), Global Gender Gap Report 2020, p. 9, available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf 9 Data in this section are from the World Bank DataBank. 12 The Status of Women in Lebanon Ownership and control of assets are among key full-time workforce in those firms. As noted earlier, crises determinants of women’s access to economic can impact women’s access to economic opportunities opportunities. In Lebanon, overall access to financial in different ways; for example, school closures due to the accounts is similar to the MENA average, but lower COVID-19 pandemic have made it difficult for women to than middle- and upper-middle-income countries. In juggle work and care responsibilities, resulting in women general, women have a much lower likelihood of having exiting from the economy. financial accounts, debit or credit cards than men, even after controlling for education and welfare status (Global Furthermore, the lockdowns and closures due to Findex 2017). Additionally, women are more likely to COVID-19, coupled with the broader economic crisis, depend on another family member for access to financial have exacerbated and increased the risks of violence services. These figures are likely affected by the 2019 against women. During the first five months of the banking crisis, given that people are unable to take out lockdown, notable increases in reporting of gender- money from their accounts or open new ones.10 based violence were captured and recorded by different sources. For example, the GBVIMS recorded a 3 percent Rural women face additional challenges, such as increase of intimate partner violence by current or restricted access to rural land ownership. Based on the former partners, a 5 percent increase of physical assault 2010 Agriculture Census, only 9 percent of farms were incidents and a 9 percent increase of incidents occurring owned by women, and only 5 percent was cultivated by in a survivor’s home (UN Women 2020d). Both KAFA them (FAO 2021). Women in rural areas have little access (Enough) Violence & Exploitation and ABAAD reported to land due to legal, economic and cultural constraints, sharp increases in calls to their hotlines during the and most of the land cultivated by women is fragmented early months of the pandemic, a rise that has persisted and smaller than land cultivated by men (FAO 2012). Rural into 2021, with spikes during lockdown periods (UN women face additional challenges related to mobility, Women 2020d). which stem from gender norms and biases. Limited public transportation in rural areas coupled with safety While Lebanese women gained considerable traction concerns in transport may make it challenging for rural in the political arena, their representation remains women to access services outside of their community very low and has been further impacted by the crises. unless they have a private car (World Bank 2020d). Yet despite these gains, women made up less than 5 percent of representatives in the national parliament The multiple crises have exacerbated women’s ability to (6 women out of 128 parliamentarians), compared to generate income and improve their livelihoods. Survey an average of 17 percent in the MENA region (IPU; UN data shows that following the multiple crises affecting women 2019).11 Women only represent 5 percent of the the country, the share of job losses among women country’s municipal councillors and less than 2 percent of were notably higher than those among men (Follow up mukhtars (UNDP 2016). Additionally, since the analysis to 2019 Enterprise Survey, 2020). This is in a context of election results, a number of female parliamentarians where women comprise less than one third of the total left their parliamentary positions in 2020. 10 The 2019 banking collapse resulted from long-standing financial and economic crises that caused systemic macro-financial failures, such as risk of bank deposits (or cash outflow), an exchange rate breakdown, a default on sovereign debt, triple digit inflation and severe economic contraction (World Bank, European Union, United Nations. 2020). As widely reported by local and international media outlets, banks responded to the economic financial crisis by tightening controls on cash withdrawals, leaving many of customers without access to their savings (Azhari, 2020; Dahan, 2021; Geldi 2021). 11 Inter-Parliamentary Union data is available at: https://data.ipu.org/content/lebanon?chamber_id=13446 The Status of Women in Lebanon 13 Way Forward This Assessment identifies priorities to support women’s empowerment and to address identified gender gaps in Lebanon. These priorities can be grouped under three pillars: ‘areas for action’, ‘collaboration’ and ‘knowledge’. There are inter-linkages across these pillars and a need for them to build on one another. The three pillars include activities that focus on i) supporting policies and programs that boost women’s employment and entrepreneurship towards a more equal ‘future of work’ economy, ii) engaging with a diverse set of actors to capitalize on momentum for change towards gender equality, and iii) unpacking data to strengthen the impacts of reforms and service delivery benefits to women. Based on the assessment findings, the following are recommendations for future analysis and action under the three main pillars: 1) Policies and Programs: Support policies and programmatic action that boost women’s employment and entrepreneurship for a more equal ‘future of work’ economy. • Support women’s employment and entrepreneurship, especially in non-traditional sectors. The analysis shows that women are generally well educated and well represented in STEM fields in tertiary education. However, this is not necessarily translating into jobs in these fields. Going forward, it would be useful to identify how to bridge this disconnect by, for example, improving women entrepreneurs’ access to technical and financial services and strengthening women’s role in the digital economy. Given the multiple crises in Lebanon, creative solutions to improve women’s access to finance and international markets would improve their resilience. • Investing in childcare will contribute to improved early childhood development, human capital accumulation and women’s economic activity. Studies have shown the multiple benefits of childcare, yet in Lebanon, access to quality, affordable childcare is limited. A forthcoming assessment of the childcare industry in Lebanon will provide a comprehensive understanding of childcare supply and demand. New evidence in this area should be leveraged to promote a multisectoral dialogue involving various stakeholders to address childcare as a national priority. 2) Collaboration: Engage with a diverse set of actors to capitalize on momentum for change towards gender equality. • Leverage the momentum of reforms on sexual harassment. This can open doors to introducing a stronger regulatory framework and strengthening implementation mechanisms and responsibilities for survivors of gender-based violence (e.g. referral systems, support systems and service delivery). • Capitalize on women’s civil society engagement to better anchor development initiatives for broader ownership and sustainability of outcomes. Women’s strengthened roles in the protests (or ‘social revolution’) and their demonstrable convening/consensus-building ability to address gender equality issues after the Beirut port explosion could be leveraged for more development impact across thematic areas. • Promote women in leadership. Women’s limited representation in decision-making spaces calls for a greater need to support and groom young female leaders in the economy and politics. These efforts should be made in collaboration with academic institutions and professional networks. 14 The Status of Women in Lebanon 3) Knowledge: Unpack data in order to strengthen the impacts of reforms and service delivery benefits to women. • A better understanding of intersectionality to determine gender equality outcomes. Women are not a homogeneous group; they have different characteristics, such as the urban/rural divide, citizenship, different educational backgrounds and employment status and their relation to gender- differentiated development outcomes. Going forward, analysis on how these characteristics overlap and intersect could provide a more nuanced understanding to inform policies and programs targeted at different population groups. More analysis is needed to understand the role of gender at the macro level, such as how gender relates to reforms surrounding procurement, taxation and subsidies in the context of financial and economic recovery. • A specific focus on vulnerable women’s access to livelihoods. Analysis of characteristics that may result in overlapping disadvantages is important to identifying interventions that enhance the well-being of women in refugee and host community populations, low-skilled populations in marginalized geographic regions and other vulnerable groups. Programs targeting these groups may need to provide a more comprehensive package of services to improve poor and vulnerable women’s access to income-generating activities. Data collection on individual welfare is essential to better address the determinants of poverty. • Unpack the role of social norms to better understand certain attitudes and behaviors across different groups. Understanding social norms will shed light on the drivers behind conservative trends regarding gender equality observed among younger women and men in Lebanon. This can point to opportunities for focused interventions that contribute to more equitable attitudes and behaviors. PRIORITY AREAS FOR ACTION POLICIES AND PROGRAMS COLLABORATION KNOWLEDGE Supporting policies & Engaging with a diverse Unpacking data programs that boost women’s set of actors to capitalize to strengthen employment, entrepreneurship on momentum for impact of reforms toward a more equal ‘future change toward and service delivery of work’ economy. gender equality. benefits to women. Support women’s employment Leverage the momentum of Deepen understanding of factors and entrepreneurship, especially in reforms on sexual harassment to and drivers affecting different non-traditional sectors. determine next steps, additional groups with a specific focus on reforms. rural/urban, vulnerable groups. Invest in childcare for improved early childhood development, Capitalize on women’s civil society Investigate role of social norms in human capital accumulation and engagement to better anchor determining certain attitudes and women’s economic activity. development initiatives for broader behaviors across different groups. ownership and sustainability of Promoting upskilling, digital and outcomes. Shed light on gender equality links financial inclusion. to macro-policies, migration. Promote women in leadership, Capacity-building for reforms and jointly with universities, networks. Increased sex-disaggregated data implementation. at individual/household levels. 15 INTRODUCTION 16 The Status of Women in Lebanon Lebanon is in the midst of a convergence of political, a confessional division of powers across legislative, economic and social crises, which are exacerbated by executive and judicial branches.16 The system entrenches a global pandemic and macro-financial turmoil. Prior gender inequalities and poses a challenge for effective to the 4 August 2020 Port of Beirut explosions (which and expedited policymaking, including on gender left more than 200 people dead, thousands injured and equality and the implementation of the Convention on many homeless), the Lebanese economy was reeling from the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against a multifaceted economic and financial crisis. The crisis, Women (CEDAW). Power sharing according to sectarian initially triggered by a deterioration in capital inflows, or religious affiliation also creates a significant obstacle was exacerbated by global and local supply and demand to advancing policy reforms and the country’s economic shocks due to the pandemic (World Bank et al. 2020). development (World Bank 2019b). In addition, COVID-19 pandemic-related restrictions and lockdowns increased health risks and exposed long-term Crisis and fragile situations affect women and structural vulnerabilities, including poor infrastructure, men in different ways. Though men tend to be over- water supply shortages, a dysfunctional electricity represented among casualties during crisis, women sector and deteriorating social indicators. Compounding tend to be disproportionately impacted, even if in non- these challenges, the multiple crises took place against a violent circumstances. These greater impacts can be backdrop of refugee spillovers from the conflict in Syria12 caused by factors such as increased household and and growing social unrest by citizens demanding greater societal violence due to augmented tensions and by government accountability and transparency. additional unpaid care burdens and marginalization from the paid economy.17 For example, during the port These crises developed in a context of deep structural explosions, initial reports of the 191 persons who were gender inequalities. Gender inequality is endemic to all killed by the explosion described 120 fatalities as men, aspects of life in Lebanon (see Table 1 for select gender 53 as women and the remaining as unspecified.18 This inequality indicators). With a score of 0.599, Lebanon may be due to men’s dominance in certain sectors and ranks 14th in the region and 145th out of 153 countries industries, and therefore greater numbers of men in the in the 2020 Global Gender Gap Index.13 14 Lebanon’s port.19 When it comes to COVID-19, men also face higher scores are particularly low in the Economic Participation infection rates (69 percent of total cases) and fatality and Opportunity (139) and Political Empowerment rates (57 percent of total cases) than women in Lebanon. rankings (149) (WEF 2020).15 Only one out of four Though the reasons for these rates have not been fully women are active in the labor market. While women’s studied, they could be related to gender differences representation on the cabinet is high (30 percent), in immunological responses and in access to public women’s participation in public positions (parliament space or to behavioral risk factors (Galasso et al. 2020, and municipal offices) remains disproportionately low. World Bank 2020a). In comparison, women have faced Lebanon’s complex governance structure is based on increased risks of gender-based violence as a result of 12 Lebanon is home to one of the largest refugee populations per capita in the world. The refugee population in Lebanon is 52 percent female and 48 percent male, with 62 percent of refugees married. 89 percent of families include one or more children. The education levels among the Syrian refugee population in Lebanon is very low, with 62 percent having only one to six years, and 31 percent having no education at all (World Bank 2020b). 13 The Global Gender Gap Index is a composite measure that assesses gender gaps in the following four dimensions: economic participation and opportunity; education attainment; health and survival; political empowerment. Each dimension has its own rank and all four dimensions result in average ranking for the country. Each dimension has a breakdown to other indicators that are being measured and provide a basis for the average ranking of every dimension. World Economic Forum (2020), Global Gender Gap Report 2020, p.8, available at: http://www3.weforum. org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf 14 Comparison with 2017 rankings is challenging because in 2017 only 144 countries were assessed whereas in 2020, 153 countries were assessed. 15 Economic empowerment measurement factors include labor force participation rate (as a percentage), wage equality for similar work, estimated earned income, senior officials and managers, professional and technical workers. Political empowerment measurement factors include women in parliament, women in ministers, years with female head of state (last 50), share of tenure years. 16 While many scholars will attest that some form of confessionalism in Lebanon existed centuries ago and in some form during the Ottoman period, the current power sharing arrangement was codified by the post-civil war agreement. Calfat (2018) explains that the “[…] Lebanese confessional system is characterized by the proportional distribution of political power among the different religious communities according to their demographic weight and geographic distribution.” 17 See for example World Bank 2012, Crespo Sancho 2017, World Bank Global Findex database, UN Women 2015, UN Security Council 2017. 18 These figures may not include all casualties in the vicinity areas. (UN Women, 2020a). 19 ILO (2019) data show that employment (thousands/annual) among men in mining and quarrying is 11.5 compared to women at 0.6, and in transport. In storage and communications it is 207.3 versus 12.8, respectively. The Status of Women in Lebanon 17 TABLE 1: SELECT GENDER INEQUALITY INDICATORS FOR LEBANON Index Score MENA avg. Global avg. Ranking Gender Inequality Index (UNDP 2019) 0.411 0.372 0.436 92/175 Gender and Development Index (UNDP 2019) 0.892 0.875 0.943 131/167 Global Gender Gap (WEF 2020) 0.599 0.604 0.686 145/153 Economic Participation and Opportunity (WEF 2020) 0.442 0.413 0.582 139/153 Educational Attainment (WEF 2020) 0.964 0.949 0.954 111/153 Health and Survival (WEF 2020) 0.967 0.968 0.958 124/153 Political Empowerment (WEF 2020) 0.024 0.091 0.239 149/152 Social Institutions and Gender Index (OECD 2014) 0.290 0.322 0.191 84/109 Women, Business, and the Law Index (World Bank 2020) 52.5 47.5 75.2 167/190 Note: Red shading indicates worse performance than both the global and MENA averages, orange shading indicates performance between the two, and green shading indicates better performance than both. COVID-19 lockdowns and increases in unpaid work (UN et al. 2019). According to a 2019 Arab Barometer Women, NCLW, UNFPA, and WHO 2020a, UN Women report, 90 percent of Lebanese believed that corruption 2019). Data suggest women are leaving the labor market has been widespread, with less than a third believing in rates disproportionately higher than men (Enterprise anything was being done about it (Arab Barometer Survey 2019). 2019). Correspondingly, trust in government declined from 39 percent in 2007 to roughly 20 percent in 2018, Despite the many challenges that women in Lebanon exposing growing distrust and frustration among the face, there has been notable progress in access to general public. In October 2019, amid the deteriorating human endowments and opportunities for civic economic crisis, widespread protests erupted, bringing engagement. Women in Lebanon are better educated attention to the need to combat corruption, promote than men,20 and, prior to the crises, more women had justice and advance social accountability in government been economically active with a more equitable female institutions. Women emerged in great numbers, not only to male ratio compared to the regional average.21 Women to protest the systemic failures in Lebanon’s political and have also emerged as active agents of change, with economic systems, but also to demand gender equality many at the helm of what is referred to as Lebanon’s and social equity (Nassar 2019). ‘social revolution’ that started in October 2019 (Wilson 20 Education data in this section are from the World Bank DataBank. 21 According to World Development Indicators, the ratio of female to male labor force participation rate in Lebanon was 32 percent in 2019 compared to the MENA regional average of 30 percent that same year (accessed April 14, 2021). 18 The Status of Women in Lebanon Framing of the assessment OBJECTIVE ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK The objective of this Gender Assessment is to provide The status of women in Lebanon is examined through an up-to-date, holistic reference on the state of an analysis of their experiences and constraints in women in Lebanon against a broader perspective three main focus areas (economic, human capital and on general development outcomes while taking agency) presented against a backdrop of Lebanon’s into consideration the multiple crises the country is legal and regulatory environment. This Assessment is facing. This Assessment resulted from a collaboration guided by the analytical framework suggested by the of UN Women and the World Bank, supported by the World Bank 2012 World Development Report on Gender National Commission for Lebanese Women (NCLW), Equality and Development, adapted to the Lebanon which brought together complementary institutional context (see Figure 1). Underpinned by a discussion of mandates for shared objectives. The report presents the institutional context, this report focuses on the information on legal and institutional gender equality interlinkages of three key dimensions of gender equality: frameworks and includes sex-disaggregated data on economic opportunities (including livelihoods), human women’s socioeconomic standing in the key sectors capital accumulation and agency. of education, health, labor and in the areas of violence, income and poverty. Constraints to gender equality arise from the interplay of formal institutions (comprising all that pertain to the functioning of the state) and markets (labor, credit, goods and services) that are rooted in patriarchal METHODOLOGY systems characterized by discriminatory laws, restrictive norms and inequitable social networks (all This Assessment was developed through a desk review of which can be referred to as informal institutions). and new analysis that drew on a variety of databases.22 The complex interplay of these institutions, in the context The assessment team examined a variety of existing of the different crises, shape household decision-making literature, including Women’s Economic Participation and investments, which in turn determine different in Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon (World Bank 2020e) and outcomes for women and men. Women on the Verge of an Economic Breakdown: Addressing the Differential Impacts of the Economic Crisis on Women in Lebanon (UN Women 2020). The Assessment draws heavily on the Labor Force and Household Living Conditions Survey in Lebanon 2018- 2019, the 2011 Household Budget Survey, the World Values Survey (wave 7 – 2018), UN Women-Promundo IMAGES survey Lebanon dataset (2017), and the Arab Barometer (2018-2019). To provide regional and global comparative perspectives, the Assessment used data from international sources such as World Development Indicators (WDI), the Global Financial Inclusion database and different UN agencies. The report also covers some of the specific challenges that refugee women and girls face within certain subsections (education, health and employment) and, where data is available and it is relevant, the report discusses the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. 22 The report further draws on two unpublished documents, one of which was drafted by the World Bank in 2016 and the second was developed by UN Women in 2020. The Status of Women in Lebanon 19 FIGURE 1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ADAPTED FROM THE WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012: UNDERSTANDING THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN LEBANON R EQUALIT END E Y po G lici es MAL INFOR IONS U T INSTIT ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES TS HOUSEHOLDS RKE MA AGENCY ENDOWMENTS F INS ORMA TIT L UTI ONS GR OW TH FRAGILITY & CRISIS Political Shocks | Economic Vulnerability | Financial Turmoil | Social Unrest Source: Adapted from the World Development Report 2012 20 The Status of Women in Lebanon LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT The Status of Women in Lebanon 21 Prior to recent crises, Lebanon saw progress for women Lebanon is governed by a confessional system that is in education and economic activity, particularly characterized by political and religious power sharing. among the youth. Lebanon has achieved gender parity This system of power sharing was codified in the 1989 in terms of access to education, with no significant post-civil war agreement, the Taif Agreement (also difference in harmonized test scores (Human Capital referred to as the National Reconciliation Accord). Unique Index 2020). Similar to regional trends, women are also to Lebanon’s constitution and system of governance is more educated, with a higher share than men attending the role that religious communities play in public offices, university. While women’s labor force participation is low enforcement of laws and in various decisions made by relative to the country’s level of economic development, the state. Among other things, religious communities women aged 15 to 44 years are twice as likely to apply their own family codes, which vary significantly participate than those aged 45 to 64 years, suggesting across communities. This makes it challenging to a generational shift similar to what was observed in harmonize laws and practices pertaining to issues such economies that have subsequently experienced rapid as gender equality (UNDP 2018). increases in women’s economic participation (World Bank 2020e). Women’s legal status Lebanon is an active member of the global community Beijing Declaration (2016). This is in addition to the UN promoting gender equality, with some exceptions. 2030 Development Agenda for Lebanon, which includes In 1997, Lebanon acceded to the Convention on the gender equality as the fifth sustainable development Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against goal. Ratifications are still pending for the Convention Women (CEDAW),23 which was originally adopted in 1979 on Workers with Family Responsibilities (1981) and the by the UN General Assembly. Lebanon adopted CEDAW Convention on Maternity Protection (2000) (See Annex 1 with reservations to article 9(2) (equal rights between on ratification status for Lebanon). women and men with respect to the nationality of their children), article 16(1)(c)(d)(f) (equal rights in marriage There is ambiguity surrounding gender-based and family relations including inheritance) and article 29 discrimination provisions in the country’s national (settlement of disputes: implementation of CEDAW to supreme law. According to the Constitution of 1926 arbitration, and if the dispute is not settled, it can be (with all amendments), Lebanon has a parliamentary referred to the International Court of Justice). governance system built on democratic principles “based on the respect for public liberties, especially freedom of Lebanon has yet to ratify the Optional Protocol opinion and belief, equality of rights and duties among to CEDAW or the International Convention on the all citizens without distinction or preference” (Lebanese Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers Constitution of 1926 with all amendments, 2004). and Members of their Families. Other international However, there lies some ambiguity. For example, Article instruments for advancing women’s rights include the 7 states that “all Lebanese are equal before the law and Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1955), enjoy equal civil and political rights.” The article does not UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education include any provisions related to sex or gender equality (1964), International Covenant on Economic, Social and and does not ban or present legislative measures against Cultural Rights (1966), Night Work Women’s Convention discrimination on the basis of sex. There are several areas (1977) and Employment Policy Convention (1977), and the of the law that affect women’s basic rights, status and 23 According to UN Women, CEDAW defines discrimination against women as “[…] any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.” Ratification of CEDAW means that countries will adopt a series of measures to end discrimination against women. 22 The Status of Women in Lebanon FIGURE 2: TIMELINE OF LEGAL REFORMS THAT AIM TO ENHANCE WOMEN’S STATUS IN LEBANON Women were granted political rights, namely the right to vote and the right to 1953 stand for a seat in Parliament. Non-Muslim women were granted 1959 equal inheritance rights. Women were allowed to 1963 be elected into local councils. Foreign women were allowed to become 1969 Lebanese citizens if they were to marry a Lebanese man. Women were allowed to travel 1974 without their husbands’ permission. Prohibitions to use anti‑contraceptive 1983 methods were lifted. However, abortion is Women were granted equal eligibility to still illegal. collect end-of-service indemnities from the NSSF. However, a number of articles 1987 in the Social Security law still discriminate against women. Women were allowed to testify in matters 1990 relating to land registry. Women were allowed to practice trade 1991 without their husbands’ permission. Female diplomats were granted the right 1994 to pursue their careers despite their marital Article 26 of the Labor Code was amended status or being married to foreigners. to include equality between men and women in benefits, services and 2000 education grants for themselves and their family  members. Health benefits and family allowances 2001 were equalized between men and women. Article 562 of the Criminal Code 2011 abolished honor crimes. Law #164 punished the crime of trafficking 2011 in persons, which often targets women. The age of maternal custody was raised 2011 to 12 years old for Sunni mothers. Maternity leave was increased 2014 from 7 to 10 weeks for female employees in the private sector. Domestic violence was criminalized. 2014 Article 522 of the penal code is repealed 2017 no longer allowing the rapist to marry his victim. Bankruptcy law was amended to protect 2019 the assets of the wives of bankrupt men. The parliament passed a law criminalizing 2020 sexual harassment in all spaces, including the workplace. The Status of Women in Lebanon 23 participation in the political and socioeconomic spheres. constitution; Articles 9 and 10 under the constitution The most prominent of these are: give religious sects the authority to govern legislation pertaining to the private sphere of the family (UNDP • Nationality law: women still do not have the right to 2018).25 A person’s ability to exercise agency is pass on their Lebanese citizenship to their children especially limited by customary practices and social or spouse (Decree No. 15 on Lebanese Nationality norms when there are no civil or penal codes that can January 19, 1925). override such traditions. • Civil registry: wives and children are registered under This hierarchy has significant implications on their family census records. In the case of divorce, women’s positions and rights related to the family. daughters depend on their father’s registry. The consequence is that most women and men do not enjoy equal rights in marriage, divorce, guardianship • Criminal law: while Article 522 in the Penal Code was and custody of children or inheritance. For example, repealed in 2017 (the Article prevented a man from there is no unified legal minimum age requirement prosecution for rape if he married the victim), criminal for marriage in Lebanon (minimum marital age is law does not provide legal protection for women in the defined under each sect’s religious law); girls can be case of marital rape,24 and adultery and does not allow forced into marriage without legal protection (Iqbal abortion, including for rape survivors. Furthermore, 2015).26 Moreover, in the absence of a civil state with the Penal Code bans human trafficking but does not authority over personal status, women not only find specify prevention or protective measures. themselves inferior to men under the law but are also unevenly treated across different religious groups There have been efforts to reform such scenarios. (Dabbous 2017). Legislation was passed in 2014 to protect women and family members from all forms of domestic violence • Labor and social security laws: The labor code prohibits (sexual, physical, emotional and economic), outlining women from working in certain occupations, such as clear penalties for harm committed regardless of in mining or factories or in the agriculture, energy and gender. This includes the existence of court procedures, transportation sectors (World Bank 2020d).27 The protective orders for removing the perpetrator from Social Security Law provides welfare benefits in a way the home and prohibiting contact. Yet the law still that does not apply equally to men and women: men failed to protect survivors of domestic violence or receive automatic monetary benefits for their children, explicitly prohibit spousal rape, exempting perpetrators while women are entitled to such benefits only if their who are married to the victim (Iqbal 2015). In 2020, husband is deceased or handicapped (ESCWA 2009). the Lebanese parliament endorsed amendments to Another area of asymmetric treatment is Article 14, the 2014 law, broadening its scope to include violence which guarantees insurance coverage for a non- related to — but not necessarily committed during employed wife of a contributing husband, but only — marriage. Going forward, women who leave their allows a contributing wife insurance coverage for her husbands due to domestic violence can retain custody husband if he is over 60 or disabled (Kukrety 2016, UN of their children until the age of 13 at least. Women 2020c). Agricultural workers are excluded from the labor code. In addition, foreign domestic workers • Personal status laws (e.g. marriage, divorce, maternal are excluded from the labor code and are subject to a custody, inheritance and property rights): Lebanon system of sponsorship (the Kafala System) that limits does not have a unified personal status code. The their access to social protection and increases their country’s political and social confessional system has risk of exploitation.28 institutionalized personal status law based on the 24 The definition of rape in Articles 503 and 504 of the Penal Code excludes forced sex in marriage. 25 The personal status law is based on 15 different personal status laws linked to various religious sects in Lebanon, dictating the most sensitive legislation pertaining to women’s private sphere. 26 The socially acceptable age of marriage is contingent on religious affiliation. CEDAW 2006 lists all acceptable age requirements for the 18 recognized religious groups (UNICEF 2011). 27 A draft law amending sector restrictions (to limit the restrictions to pregnant women only) has been presented to Parliament, but no amendment has been adopted. 28 Kafala is a sponsorship system that regulates the relationship between employers and migrant workers. “Under the kafala system, a migrant worker’s immigration status is legally bound to an individual employer or sponsor (kafeel) for their contract period. The migrant worker cannot enter the country, transfer employment nor leave the country for any reason without first obtaining explicit written permission from the employer.” (ILO 2017) 24 The Status of Women in Lebanon The Ministry of Labor had proposed a new unified labor still find themselves vulnerable to losing their position contract for domestic workers that protects their to a lesser one and may not be allowed to take nursing labor rights. Unfortunately, the courts struck this down breaks (Iqbal 2015, WABA 2019).30 The labor code (HRW 2020). Worker protections have been enacted in imposes a one-hour break after five hours of work for Lebanon,29 but women returning from maternity leave women, but after six hours of work for men. Institutional framework for gender equality National mechanisms to promote gender equality An important recent achievement is the adoption in Lebanon were established relatively recently and of the ‘National Action Plan on UN Security Council have been in flux. The major institution responsible for Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security addressing women’s issues and advocating for gender (2019-2022)’. NCLW led the development of this plan equality in Lebanon is the National Commission for with support from ESCWA, OCHCR, UNDP, UNIFIL, and Lebanese Women (NCLW), established in 1997. An Office UN Women (NCLW 2018). The Action Plan aims to i) of the Minister of State of Women Affairs had been support women’s participation in political dialogue and established in 2016, partly to focus on legislative reforms peacebuilding efforts; ii) increase women’s representation and women’s political participation in parliamentary in security forces; iii) promote women’s engagement and elections. It was closed in 2019 with the opening of the participation in local and national governance structures; Ministry of State for the Economic Empowerment of and iv) support women’s participation in the economic Women and Youth, which was established as part of the sector. These objectives will be attained through policy cabinet formed in December 2016. It closed in 2020 with reforms and a favourable environment and decent work the reduction of ministries. and protections for women in the formal and informal sectors (Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator Established by executive order and under the for Lebanon; UNSCOL). Moreover, NCLW has been patronage of the First Lady, NCLW became the official active in revising and lobbying for the adoption of laws, national mechanism to advance the status of women including the law against domestic violence (adopted in and promote gender equality in Lebanon, following the 2014 and amended in 2020) and the law criminalizing 1997 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. NCLW sexual harassment (adopted in 2020). was established according to Law 720/1998 under the Presidency of the Council of Ministers as an independent NCLW has promoted gender mainstreaming across agency to advise the government on women’s issues and different government agencies and sectors through the to help coordinate across ministries, public institutions establishment of a network of gender focal points. To and civil society (NCLW 2018). It was the first official further support its objective of gender mainstreaming in instrument to promote women’s empowerment by policymaking, NCLW has requested that all ministries and mainstreaming gender into government policies, public institutions appoint a gender focal point to act as a setting up information and reporting frameworks, and liaison on gender mainstreaming and to provide a gender fostering collaboration between public institutions and perspective on sector strategies. However, the role has organizations working on women’s rights and gender not been institutionalized, and in the absence of a genuine issues. It is also mandated to generate gender statistics national commitment to gender equality, gender focal to inform Lebanon’s participation in international fora points have had limited effectiveness as they continue to and for monitoring CEDAW agreements. operate without a clear framework within their respective institutions (Avis 2017, USAID 2012). 29 Labor Code, Art. 52 prohibits the dismissal of pregnant workers. 30 There are no provisions on nursing breaks or accommodations for breastfeeding mothers in the Labor Code. However, in practice, some employers give such breaks and/or provide private rooms for nursing mothers. The Status of Women in Lebanon 25 The role of civil society Lebanon is home to a dynamic civil society and Nonetheless, the civil society sector has been renowned academic institutions. In 2012, there were recognized as playing an important role in encouraging 6,000 organizations registered at the Ministry of Social women’s political leadership. The 2018 parliamentary Affairs.31 Most organizations focused on health and election saw 113 women registered as candidates, up education, the environment, youth-related issues or the from only 12 who were registered in 2009. Of those who arts (Chaaban and Seyfert, 2012). On issues related to registered in 2018, 86 made it on the candidates’ list; six gender, a mapping of actors shows that there are over were elected into office out of a total of 128 seats (Atallah 800 local civil society organizations and campaigns/ and Zoughaib 2018, El Kaakour 2020). A study of female cooperatives that operate in Lebanon across different parliamentary candidates running in 2018 shows that gender focus areas.32 Additionally, the landscape the majority of them were younger and better educated includes more than 100 academic and research than men. Many candidates came from the civil society initiatives that are generating knowledge and evidence sector and were reportedly motivated by their experience related to gender and women’s rights. Most women’s working to transform their aspirations into legal reforms rights-related legislation that has been passed by (or on the ground (El Kaakour 2020). Eighty-nine percent is currently in) the Parliament originated in some form of the female candidates’ priorities focused on women’s from a civil society organization. Yet while civil society rights, showing the importance of women’s leadership to in Lebanon is considered among the most vibrant in the bring women’s issues into the formal agenda. region, many of the civil society organizations are linked to political actors or party affiliation. 31 This number has likely increased over years. 32 Survey carried out in August and September 2020. Gender Actors Map | Civil Society Knowledge Centre (civil society- centre.org). Areas of focus include arts and culture; child marriage; education; emergency response; feminist thought and experiences; gender-based violence; LGBTQI+; labor; legal; media; medical care; mental health; political participation; reproductive health and family planning; sexual and bodily health and rights; and women rights. 26 The Status of Women in Lebanon LIVELIHOODS AND WOMEN’S ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES The Status of Women in Lebanon 27 The impact of gender on household status and well‑being Demographic shifts point to important gender households, are more likely to be headed by widows, considerations to better understand household status hold lower levels of education attainment and are likely and the well-being of residents in Lebanon. Women to earn less per month compared to male-headed have a higher life expectancy than men and outnumber households (LFHLCS 2018-2019).34 Limited access men among the elderly (65+) by five percentage points to recent consumption data makes it challenging to (WDI 2019). Results from the Labor Force and Household analyze poverty. However, analyzing gender through Living Conditions Survey 2018-2019 (LFHLCS 2018- self-reported assessment of poverty/wealth by head 2019) suggest that women in Lebanon are less likely to be of households reveals important differences worth ever married than men (53 compared to 57 percent), with exploring further. For example marriage has a negative a notable difference in widowhood; 11 percent of women and significant effect under all specified variables. are widows compared to 2 percent of men (ILO, CAS, EU Marriage reduces the probability of being poor in 18 2020). Among the elderly (65+), a significant difference per cent of households headed by women compared emerges with around half of the women widowed, to only 4 per cent of households headed by men (see divorced or separated compared to only 12 percent of Table 2).35 It also shows that having children, education men (ILO, CAS, EU 2020). This gender difference is also attainment, employment and assets have a stronger reflected in household size and composition, with many effect on female-headed households compared to those more women 65+ living alone than men in that same headed by men. age group (38 and 12 percent, respectively). This figure seems to be twice as high as earlier studies reporting In contrast, nationality status has a reverse gender about the share of the elderly living alone. It is possible gap effect; a higher share of non-Lebanese male- that the increase could be attributed to out-migration, headed households self-assessed as poor (32 percent) decreasing fertility rates (including average household than non-Lebanese female-headed households (26 size) or longer life expectancy (ILO, CAS, EU 2020; percent). Furthermore, for both women and men (but Abdulrahim et al. 2014; WDI). Additionally, LFHLCS 2018- much more so for women), living outside of Beirut raises 2019 shows that 20 percent of residents in Lebanon are the likelihood of self-reported poverty. The locations non-Lebanese, with a prominent skew for women ages with the most significant effect are Baalbeck and Akkar, 20-29, compared to only 7 percent in 2004-2005 (ILO, where 28 and 21 percent of female-headed households CAS, EU 2020). The notable share of young women may self-report as poor compared to 10 and 9 percent of be explained by the large number of migrant female men in those same locations. Recent qualitative work workers in the country (ILO, CAS, EU 2020). conducted in 2015 finds that female-headed households are among the most vulnerable in society, “survive In the context of household headship, there is a on extremely low incomes and often depend on the strong relationship between gender and self-reported generosity of others or informal support networks for assessment of wealth/poverty in Lebanon. According survival” (Kukrety 2016). There is also a female skew to LFHLCS 2018-2019,33 Lebanese female-headed in some correlates of poverty, such as food insecurity. households comprise 20 percent of total Lebanese Notably, female-headed households have a lower food 33 Analyzing gender through household headship provides opportunities and shortfalls. In terms of opportunities, it helps to monitor changes in family/household dynamics and to signal potential vulnerabilities related to increases in female-headed households that may be a result of crisis. It also dilutes the experiences of individual female respondents who represent a larger share than female-headed households and who may have very different characteristics (among other differences) (Buvinic and van de Walle, 2019). Given the lack of recent consumption data and limitation in the LFHLCS methodology, authors of this gender assessment use headship to explain the effects of gender on self-reporting of poverty at the household level while also bearing in mind the need for further investigation on individual-level data on welfare in Lebanon. According to the authors’ estimation of the LFHLCS, 99 percent of female-headed households have no spouse and 86 percent of male-headed households have a spouse. 34 ILO, CAS and EU (2020) report points to an overall female headship of 18.5 (Lebanese and non-Lebanese), up from 14.2 percent in 2014. 35 Marriage has a negative and significant effect under all specifications / introduction of variables. Note that while only 1 percent of female household heads have a spouse in the household, 10 percent are married, so the effect is relevant. 28 The Status of Women in Lebanon TABLE 2: MARGINAL EFFECTS OF A PROBIT ESTIMATION (dy/dx: change in the probability of self-assessed poverty status) For Female-headed Households   Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Household head married -18% *** -11% *** -11% *** -6% *** -6% *** Household head non-Lebanese 26% *** 20% *** 16%   0%   1%   Household has children 9% *** 12% *** 10% *** 13% *** 11% *** Household head education:     10% *** 11% *** 4% *** 4% *** less than elementary Household head education: -13% *** -13% *** -7% *** -6% *** Intermediate or above Household head education:     -16% *** -16% *** -10% *** -9% *** University or above Household head unemployed         28% *** 17% *** 17% *** Household head out of labor force         2%   0%   1%   Household head in an informal job         18%   9% *** 8% *** Household ownership of dwelling             -6% *** -8% *** Household has a car             -13% *** -13% *** Number of rooms in dwelling             -7% *** -7% *** Household has Internet             -7% *** -5% *** Household has electricity subscription/             -12% *** -15% *** generator Governorate indicator (Beirut as base category) Mount Lebanon                 11% *** North Lebanon                 14% *** Akkar                 21% *** Bekaa                 5% ** Baalbek-Hermel                 28% *** South Lebanon                 9% *** Nabatieh                 11% *** Number of observations 7253   7252   7252   7252   7252   Number of ones in dependent variable 2229   2229   2229   2229   2229   Pseudo R2 0.0233   0.0896   0.1028   0.2088   0.2261                         The Status of Women in Lebanon 29 For Male-headed Households   Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Household head married -4% *** -6% *** -5% *** 1% * 1%   Household head non-Lebanese 32% *** 28% *** 23% *** 1%   2% ** Household has children 7% *** 9% *** 9% *** 7% *** 6% *** Household head education: less than     7% *** 7% *** 2% *** 3% *** elementary Household head education:     -13% *** -12% *** -7% *** -7% *** Intermediate or above Household head education:     -15% *** -14% *** -8% *** -8% *** University or above Household head unemployed         33% *** 26% *** 26% *** Household head out of labor force         8% *** 6%   6%   Household head in an informal job         12% *** 8% *** 8% *** Household ownership of dwelling             -5% *** -6% *** Household has a car             -14% *** -14% *** Number of rooms in dwelling             -6% *** -6% *** Household has Internet             -7% *** -6% *** Household has electricity subscription/             -9% *** -10% *** generator Governorate indicator (Beirut as base category)  Mount Lebanon                 3% *** North Lebanon                 6% *** Akkar                 9% *** Bekaa                 1%   Baalbek-Hermel                 10% *** South Lebanon                 2% * Nabatieh                 1%   number of observations 31858   31858   31858   31856   31858   number of ones in dependent variable 8686   2229   2229   2229   2229   Pseudo R2 0.0659   0.1292   0.1477   0.2307   0.2261   Note: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10% Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from LFHLCS 2018-2019. 30 The Status of Women in Lebanon consumption score (77 percent) compared to male- inequalities at home. Approximately three quarters of headed households (91 percent), which could be explained vulnerable women reported that their household duties by less monthly earnings (Lebanon and UN 2019).36 have increased, compared to 64 percent of men; this is in a context where only 50 percent of men reported The economic crisis, combined with the impacts of the to have ever participated in domestic work, compared COVID-19 pandemic and the Port of Beirut explosions, to 90 percent of women (UN Women, NCLW, UNFPA, have led to increased poverty rates in Lebanon. Poverty and WHO 2020a). Women are likely to experience more was on the rise among Lebanese households even before indirect and lasting impacts of poverty due to their the crisis, having risen from 26 percent in 2012 to 46 disadvantaged starting position. percent in 2019; extreme poverty increased from 10 percent in 2012 to an estimated 16 percent in 2019 Refugee women in Lebanon are among the most (Word Bank 2021b).37 By the end of 2020, these figures vulnerable, are disproportionately affected by a lack were expected to rise to 45 and 22 percent, respectively of access to services and have high levels of food (Word Bank 2021b). insecurity. Among the Syrian refugee population, 18 percent are female-headed, with differences by region. Furthermore, recent analysis shows that real gross In Bekaa, which is one of the poorest governorates, the domestic product (GDP) will have lost a quarter of its share of female-headed households in 2019 reaches up value since 2017. During times of economic and health to 29 percent, followed by Baalbek-El-Hermel and Akkar crises, women are more likely to be the first ones to lose at 25 percent compared to el Nabateih at 9 percent their jobs and have to balance domestic and childcare and Beirut-Mount Lebanon at 12 percent (Inter-Agency responsibilities. Preliminary data from a survey of Coordination Lebanon 2019). Households headed by 327 registered firms points to job losses as high as 27 women are also more food insecure. In 2019, 35 percent percent among women since the start of the economic of female-headed households were more food insecure crisis in October 2019, substantially higher than among than male-headed households (male-headed households men (at 22 percent) (World Bank Follow up survey to were also consuming a more diverse diet). This imbalance 2019 Enterprise Survey, 2020). Other studies show that persisted even though more female-headed households reduction in GDP is estimated to have raised female received cash-for-food assistance than male-headed unemployment from 14 to 26 percent in September households did (41 percent and 27 percent, respectively). 2020, an estimated 51,300 more unemployed women Reliance on cash assistance for food is not surprising, in June 2020 as compared to 2018/2019 (Salti and given the fact that female-headed households have Mezher 2020). less income than male-headed households (averaging a monthly income of US$47 versus $69, respectively). The preliminary data on vulnerable populations in Male-headed households spend seven hours more Lebanon during the early days of the health crisis than women in working, and as a result, have more revealed that more women than men reported losing opportunities to generate income (women are also their jobs (48 percent compared to 40 percent of men), more likely to spend on food for the family). In fact, 37 and 7 percent of women claimed income reductions percent of female-headed households relied on e-cards compared to 3 percent of men (UN Women, NCLW, as their primary source of income compared to 21 UNFPA, and WHO 2020a). These statistics come on percent of men (VASyR 2019). It is also reported that the heels of the economic crisis, where women lost an among refugee populations, for example, fewer female- estimated 106,000 jobs; they will most likely exit the headed households have a working household member labor force altogether (Salti and Mezher 2020). Women (46 percent) compared to male-headed households (61 also face increased care responsibilities, with lockdowns percent) in 2019.38 and school closures potentially adding to pre-existing 36 The UN World Food Programme calculates the food consumption score according to the “frequency of consumption of different food groups consumed by a household during 7 days before the survey.” (UN WFP 2015). 37 Household Budget Survey (HBS) 2011/12 and World Bank staff calculations using macroeconomic inputs from March 15, 2020. Note: Only Lebanese households are included for this simulation using HBS 2011/12. e. means poverty estimates are obtained from nowcasted consumption. 38 VASyR 2019. These figures dropped by 10 percentage points in 2020. According to VASyR (2021), only 35 percent of female-headed households and 56 percent of male-headed households reported having a member working in the past seven days. The Status of Women in Lebanon 31 Jobs and access to economic opportunities In Lebanon, increasing GDP per capita has been of economic outcomes for women and men (World Bank accompanied by increasing female labor force 2020e). Against this backdrop, women in the MENA participation, although the direction of causality is region in general and in Lebanon in particular fare much not clear. While economic development and women’s worse in the labor market. It is projected that narrowing empowerment are generally correlated, it is not clear the gender gap in Lebanon’s labor force participation how they interact (ILO 2018b, Dulfo 2011, World Bank rates would boost the country’s GDP by 9 percent (ILO 2012). Economic growth is not sufficient to promote 2018b, Purfield et al. 2018). Figure 3 shows that female gender equality; different growth drivers have different labor force participation (FLFP) has gradually improved, impacts on women and men and are not necessarily with increasing GDP per capita between 1990 and 2017. inclusive of women or conducive to inclusive growth. However, the World Bank estimates that real GDP Furthermore, in Lebanon, as in many parts of the MENA dropped 1.9 percent in 2018, followed by a reduction of region, weak labor demand and the slow rate that jobs 6.7 percent in 2019 and a steep decline of 20.3 percent are being created are likely among the top determinants in 2020 (World Bank 2021a). FIGURE 3: FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION AND GDP PER CAPITA IN USD, LATEST YEAR AVAILABLE 70 65 Female LFP, 15-64 (Modeled ILO estimate) 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 thousands USD) Mexico Upper Mid. Income Middle Income Lebanon Libya Turkey Algeria Jordan West Bank and Gaza Egypt Morocco Tunisia Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from LFHLCS 2018-2019 for Lebanon and latest year available (all other countries). 32 The Status of Women in Lebanon BOX 1: LABOR MARKET TERMINOLOGY This Assessment uses the following definitions of key an enterprise but not at work: persons with an indicators and labor terms: enterprise (which may be a business enterprise, a farm or a service undertaking) who were temporarily Working-age population: The working-age population not at work during the reference period for any is considered persons aged 15 to 64 as a fraction of specific reason. the total population in percent. Unemployment rate: Share of the labor force that Labor force participation (or economically active): is unemployed because they were (a) “without work,” Share of the working-age population that is in i.e. not in paid employment or self-employment; the labor force. The labor force includes employed (b) “currently available for work,” i.e. were available workers and unemployed workers (those who are for paid employment or self-employment but not actively seeking work). working; and (c) “seeking work,” i.e. had taken specific steps in a specified recent period to seek paid Economically inactive: The inactivity rate is the employment or self-employment. proportion of the working-age population that is not in the labor force. Individuals are considered outside Joblessness rate: Share of workers who are the labor force if they are neither employed nor unemployed or of working age but not seeking work unemployed, that is, not actively seeking work. (i.e. inactive). Employment rate: Share of the working-age population Vulnerable employment: Vulnerable employment that is employed during a specified period of either includes contributing family workers and own- one week or one day in: account workers (self-employed) as a percentage of • Paid employment: (a) at work: persons who, during total employment. the reference period, performed some work for wage or salary, in cash or in-kind; (b) with a job but Contributing family workers: Contributing family not at work: persons who, having already worked workers are workers who hold self-employment jobs in their present job, were temporarily not at work as own-account workers in a market establishment during the reference period and had a formal operated by a related person living in the same attachment to their job. household. • Self-employment: (a) at work: persons who, during the reference period, performed some work for Informal employment: Share of workers not profit or family gain, in cash or in-kind (b) with contributing to social security. Source: World Bank, ILO definitions Despite its upward trend, overall FLFP in Lebanon was is slightly higher than the MENA regional average still very low. FLFP was 25 percent at the end of 2019 (22  percent) (see Figure 4). Among refugee women, (including refugees and non-nationals), representing it is even lower, with only 10 percent in the labor force one third of the male labor force participation rate. compared to 68 percent of refugee men in the labor Progress in FLFP has been slow in general in the MENA force (World Bank 2020c). The economic crisis, coupled region, and in Lebanon it has increased by only two with the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and the percentage points since 2000. Today’s rate is still well Port of Beirut explosions, will exacerbate the labor force below rates observed in upper-middle-income countries gender gap by reducing both actual jobs and economic (61 percent) and the world average (53 percent), but participation (Salti and Mezher 2020).39 39 Using LFHLCS 2018/2019 data, Salti and Mezner (2020) expected that female labor force participation rates would contract by one percentage point from 29 to 28 percent by September 2020 while employed female workers would decrease twelve percentage points from 86 to 74 percent by September 2020. The Status of Women in Lebanon 33 Economic activity among women is higher in the Beirut and Mount Lebanon regions, with notable differences FIGURE 4: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE (15-64) BY SEX (%), 2019 between governorates. Beirut and Mount Lebanon are known to be major economic, social and cultural hubs, 90 so it is not surprising that their labor force participation 80 rates are higher than the country average (at 37 and 77 80 81 70 76 35 percent, respectively). FLFP is considerably lower 60 in northern and southern governorates, with rates as 61 50 52 low as 15 percent in Akkar, 21 percent in Nabatieh, and 40 23 percent in Bekaa (see Figures 5 and 6). In addition 30 to constraints all women in Lebanon face during 20 25 critical turning points in their lives (World Bank 2020e), 22 10 women in North Lebanon are faced with structural and 0 socioeconomic challenges unique to the regional context. Lebanon MENA World UMIs Characterized by fragility due to the proximity to Syria Female Male and subsequent limited investment, there are few good jobs in the market. Economic activity is restricted to low Source: World Development Indicators Database productivity sectors such as agricultural and wholesale/ retail industries (such as furniture), where few jobs may be considered suitable for women due to local norms FIGURE 5: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION (World Bank 2017). RATE (15-64) BY GOVERNORATE AND SEX (%), 2018-2019 Compared to their older cohorts, young women in Lebanon are more likely to participate in the labor Nabatieh market. For women, participation rates are at their South Lebanon peak in their mid-twenties and thirties, but then steadily Baalbek-Hermel decline until their fifties, where their share is reduced by half (see Figure 7). In Lebanon, where female youth Bekaa participation in the labor market is high relative to Akkar other Mashreq countries such as Iraq and Jordan, the North Lebanon generational shift will lead to an overall increase in Mount Lebanon participation rates as older groups leave the labor force Beirut (World Bank 2020e). 0 20 40 60 80 Female Male Youth labor force participation is increasing in all governorates but differs largely across governorates Source: Authors’ calculation using LFHLCS 2018-2019 and remains low in areas with less economic activity. A young woman aged 20 to 24 in Beirut and Mount Lebanon is three and a half times more likely to enter FIGURE 6: INACTIVITY BY SEX AND the labor force than a young woman in the same age GOVERNORATE (%), 2018-2019 cohort in Akkar (see Figure 9). In Beirut, 70 percent of women aged 25 to 29 are in the labor force compared to 62 percent in Mt. Lebanon and less than 50 percent Nabatieh in most other governorates – this before a noticeable South Lebanon decline in labor participation takes place across the Baalbek-Hermel board. In Akkar, only one in four women is working by Bekaa the time they are 29, lower than any other part of the Akkar country (see Figure 9). By age 55, FLFP patterns largely North Lebanon converge across governorates. This underscores that Mount Lebanon while a generational shift may be happening, it might not translate equitably across governorates. Beirut 0 20 40 60 80 100 The more educated a woman is in Lebanon, the more Female Male likely she is to participate in the labor force. Findings Source: Authors’ calculation using LFHLCS 2018-2019 34 The Status of Women in Lebanon FIGURE 7: MALE AND FEMALE LABOR FORCE FIGURE 8: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION STATUS IN LEBANON BY AGE GROUP (%), BY EDUCATION LEVEL AND GENDER (%), 2018‑2019 2018‑2019 100 100 88 83 80 80 72 63 60 60 54 40 40 40 33 29 25 23 22 20 20 20 7 3 0 0 Undefined Below Some Some Some Some 15-19 20-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+ 15+ /refusal primary primary intermediate secondary university Female Male Female Male Source: World Bank calculations based on data from the Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the LFHLCS 2018-2019. LFHLCS 2018-2019. FIGURE 9: FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION BY AGE COHORT AND GOVERNORATE (%), 2018-2019 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85+ Beirut Mount Lebanon Bekaa Baalbek-Hermel North Lebanon Akkar South Lebanon Nabatieh Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the LFHLCS 2018-2019. across the world show the importance of educational 52 percent, respectively), pointing to low participation endowments among the factors that contribute to rates as a feature of less-educated women rather than women’s increased access to the labor market (World a common characteristic shared by all women in the Bank 2012, Morton et al. 2014). In Lebanon, there is country (World Bank 2020e). a stronger association between education levels and labor force participation for women as compared to Labor force participation is affected by a combination men. Male labor force participation does not change of legal, social, normative and market-driven much between education levels (from primary to constraints that come into play at critical points in university), but for women, participation rates increase a woman’s life. For a woman, the decision to withdraw substantially with having a university education (see or never enter the labor market takes place at four Figure 8). Therefore, data shows that having secondary critical turning points, referred to as ‘getting ready,’ and university education is associated with higher ‘entering and remaining,’ ‘getting married’ and ‘having FLFP. However, there are fewer women aged 15 to 64 a child’ (World Bank 2020e). Decisions made during years old in Lebanon with tertiary education than there these stages are affected by three overarching barriers: are women with less than secondary (31 compared to (i) laws and regulations that disadvantage women, The Status of Women in Lebanon 35 (ii) market forces that may limit the supply of jobs or fail to provide adequate infrastructure, and (iii) norms or FIGURE 10: PROBABILITY OF FEMALE LABOR informal institutions, such individual beliefs or societal FORCE PARTICIPATION BY AGE COHORT AND MARITAL STATUS (%), 2018-2019 expectations about women’s role in society, gaps in intra-household bargaining or gender-based violence. 70 Education attainment plays a major role during the first critical turning point. To successfully transition 60 from school to work, one must acquire the right skills and have the agency to make decisions on one’s own, 50 which may be a challenge for less-educated women. 40 This, however, may change as women become educated, and a generational shift manifests in actual upticks of 30 FLFP rates. 20 Marriage is a major turning point for women; it 10 introduces considerable barriers to their labor participation. The prospect of getting married, and 0 then marriage itself, comes with a set of legal and social 15-19 20-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+ constraints linked to fulfilling the traditional role of wife NonMarried Married (World Bank 2020e). Figure 10 shows that being married reduces the women’s likelihood of joining the labor force, Source: World Bank calculations based on data from the particularly after the age of 25 to 34 years. Traditional LFHLCS 2018-2019 gender roles persist, with 95 percent of married women taking on roles such as washing clothes, preparing food and cleaning the home, compared to 31 percent of FIGURE 11: DAILY HOURS SPENT ON married men (El Feki et al. 2017). CHILDCARE BY SEX When women do work, they face a double burden at Qatar home. In the MENA region, married, working women Oman spend an average of 28 hours per week on unpaid care. West Bank and Gaza This is comparable to the time that married, non-working Yemen women spend on unpaid care. It is also more than seven Lebanon times the total amount of time that married, working men spend on unpaid care (Assaad et al. 2017). Such Egypt traditional roles are generally favoured by men — and Kuwait often by women who consider it to be the norm. When United Arabi Emirates asked about challenges to entering or staying in the Bahrain workforce, many women in Lebanon bring up family and Saudi Arabia spousal disapproval, which is in line with other reports that Morocco point to the roles that men have in influencing women’s Jordan (specifically spouses) career choices, particularly given Tunisia concerns about interference with household ‘duties’ (Elzir Iraq Assy 2018).40 About 23 percent of women and around 30 percent of men believe that it is more important for Algeria a woman to marry than to have a career (World Bank Djibouti 2020e, El Feki et al. 2017). Restrictive laws specific to 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 married women, such as those that prevent women from Female Male remarrying in the same way as men, ultimately limit a woman’s bargaining power and the choices she can Source: Adapted from ILO 2018a (p. 48) based on data from make (World Bank 2020e). latest year available. 40 Elzir Assy conducted a qualitative study between November and December 2017. To capture a representative picture, the study consisted of 32 focus groups segmented by region, gender, age and labor market status. It was carried out in the three main regions of Lebanon: North Lebanon, Beirut/Mount Lebanon and South Lebanon/Nabetieh. It also included in-depth interviews with employers, conducted in January 2018. 36 The Status of Women in Lebanon Having children leads women to withdraw from the expectations greatly influence women’s perspectives labor market as demands on their time increase while about employment, and while factors such as salaries societal expectations related to childcare remain and benefits are important, what mattered most for restrictive. In addition to time spent on domestic women in the study were the working hours, proximity chores, women in Lebanon spend an average of more to home and work environment. Women are more likely than five hours a day on childcare, while men spend an to be absent from work to care for children or family average of less than two (see Figure 11). Balancing work members than are men. Women consider factors such and care takes a considerable toll on women’s ability as job flexibility, having no small children at home, to engage in paid activities, particularly in the absence availability of a nursery and encouragement from the of state-supported or subsidized quality childcare. spouse’s family far more than men do when deciding A qualitative study of women and men in the North whether to work (Akeel 2009, Elzir Assy 2018). This is Lebanon, Beirut/Mount Lebanon and South/Nebatieh also true among refugee women in Lebanon, who have regions revealed that childcare is a contributing factor cited cultural reasons and having to care for children for women regardless of where she is in her decision- as the top reasons for their economic inactivity (World making process about work (Elzir Assy 2018). Societal Bank 2020c). Working women had fewer children with a smaller share having children below the age of six, signifying that it is not a common practice to have children under two or three years old in nurseries. Figure FIGURE 12: PROBABILITY OF FEMALE LABOR 12 demonstrates that having children aged 0 to 6 years FORCE PARTICIPATION BY NUMBER OF CHILDREN IN THE HOUSEHOLD (0 TO 6 YEARS) is a determinant of labor force participation across all AND EDUCATION LEVEL, 25+, 2018-2019 education levels. Moreover, the more children a woman has, the lower the probability of participation. 0.7 Legal and structural barriers are also key factors 0.6 that directly impact women’s access to economic 0.5 opportunities outside the household. Since 2000, there 0.4 have been legal provisions in the Labor Code extending 0.3 maternity leave for women from 49 to 70 days, with 0.2 100 percent of their employment wages covered during 0.1 leave (World Bank 2020d, ILO 2014). However, this is 0 still below ILO’s international benchmark of a minimum Illiterate or NA Primary Secondary University of 14 weeks. There is still no legislation on paternal or 3+ 2 1 No children parental leave. The insufficiency of legally mandated leave prevents working women from being able to take Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the the necessary time off to care for their young children, LFHLCS 2018-2019. leaving few incentives for them to join the labor force. FIGURE 13: UNEMPLOYMENT ACROSS THE Women who join the labor force face disproportionate WORLD, OECD, TURKEY, LEBANON, JORDAN levels of unemployment. At the world level and in OECD AND MENA (%), 2019 countries, the difference between female and male unemployment is insignificant. In the MENA region, the 25 female unemployment rate is more than twice the male rate (see Figure 13). Lebanon follows the general MENA 20 trend, with 10 percent of women in the labor force being unemployed as compared to 5 percent of men. This is 15 not the case among the Syrian refugee population, which has unemployment rates higher among men at 10 around 12.7 percent compared to women at 2.7 percent (World Bank 2020b).41 The trend is similar for youth 5 unemployment, although the gap in Lebanon is less 0 World OED Turkey Lebanon Jordan MENA Female Male 41 The majority of refugee women employed in Lebanon are in the agriculture sector, facing little competition with Lebanese nationals Source: World Development Indicators Database. ssgiven their low rates of participation in the sector. The Status of Women in Lebanon 37 FIGURE 14: UNEMPLOYMENT BY FIGURE 15: JOB STATUS BY SEX (%), GOVERNORATE AND SEX (%), 2018-2019 2018‑2019 Nabatieh Trainee, 0.3 apprentice 0.1 South Lebanon Weekly/daily 5.4 paid employee 14.4 Baalbek-Hermel Monthly paid 78.1 Bekaa employee 48.7 Akkar Unpaid family 1.8 helper 0.5 North Lebanon Own account 11 worker 25.4 Mount Lebanon Employer/ 3.4 Beirut Partner 10.8 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 20 40 60 80 Female Male Female Male World Bank calculations based on data from the LFHLCS Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the 2018-2019. LFHLCS 2018-2019. prominent than the regional MENA average. The ratio of female to male youth unemployment rate (percent; ages FIGURE 16: JOBLESSNESS BY GOVERNORATE 15 to 24) is 1.33 in Lebanon, compared with the MENA AND SEX (%), 2018-2019 average ratio of 1.84 (2019).42 Nabatieh Similar to regional trends in participation rates, there are notable differences in female unemployment rates across governorates. Although female labor South Lebanon force participation in North Lebanon is higher than the country average, women there face the highest Baalbek level of unemployment, followed by women in Baalbek -Hermel and Bekaa, where unemployment among men is also prominent compared to the rest of the country. High Bekaa levels of unemployment among women in North Lebanon (see Figure 14) may be explained by the fragile context Akkar and high levels of informality in the region, which leaves few options for women who are skilled and seeking formal wage work (Elzir Assy 2018). The share of women North Lebanon in wage employment in North Lebanon is on par with the country average, with over 80 percent of women in Mount wage jobs compared to a little over 60 percent of men Lebanon (see Figure 15).43 The figure also shows that there is only a small share of female entrepreneurs, meaning that Beirut women are much more dependent on the availability of jobs, especially jobs that will be amenable to them. 0 20 40 60 80 100 Adding to this, educated women will be more likely to Female Male wait for a job that can meet their expectations, which might be difficult in fragile environments. For women Source: Authors’ calculation using LFHLCS 2018-2019 42 Data in this section are from the World Bank DataBank database, http://databank.worldbank.org/. 43 Eighty percent of women are wage employees compared to 40 percent among men. 38 The Status of Women in Lebanon TABLE 3: AVERAGE CHANGE IN FULL-TIME EMPLOYEES BY GENDER FOR ALL FIRMS SURVEYED, OCTOBER 2019 AND OCTOBER 2020 Size Number Average Average percentage of Average percentage change (in full-time of firms size female to total full‑time in full-time employees* employees) employees Male Female 0 to 4 38 3.0 23% -14% -19% 5 to 19 156 9.3 28% -26% -37% 20 to 99 133 40.0 30% -37% -30% 100 or more 36 161.3 29% 8% -17% Total 363 26.9 30% -22% -27% Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the 2020 Follow up to Enterprise Survey *Negative percentage signifies a decline in employees. in Akkar, the gender gap in unemployment is lower, but this could be explained by high levels of inactivity among FIGURE 17: SHARE OF EMPLOYMENT IN women. Figure 16 shows that joblessness is highest in UNREGISTERED BUSINESSES BY GENDER (%), Akkar at 87 percent among women compared to 44 2018-2019 percent among men. 63.2 Formal Multiple crises have further exacerbated the already sector 62.8 disproportionate levels of unemployment. Data from a survey of 379 registered firms (carried out between 36.8 Informal October 2019 and October 2020) shows that the average 37.2 share of job losses was higher among women than it was 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 among men (see Table 3).44 This is in a context where women comprise less than a third of the total full-time Female Male workforce in those firms. As noted earlier, crises can Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 impact women’s access to economic opportunities in different ways, with school closures due to the pandemic making it difficult for women to juggle work and care FIGURE 18: EMPLOYMENT IN THE INFORMAL responsibilities. SECTOR BY GOVERNORATE AND GENDER (%), 2018-2019 Unemployment is not the only issue; job quality is also important. Given the lack of an unemployment Nabatieh insurance scheme in Lebanon, staying unemployed South Lebanon is not an option. Many resort to accepting informal, Baalbek-Hermel mostly low-productivity jobs. Informal employment is Bekaa high among both women and men. LFHLCS 2018-2019 Akkar data suggests that over one third of those employed are North Lebanon working in unregistered businesses, with no statistical Mount Lebanon difference between women and men (see Figure 17). Beirut Employment in unregistered businesses exposes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 workers to poor working conditions without access Female Male to social security or maternity benefits in the case of working women. Overall, informal employment is high Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 44 The one-year period covers the start of the banking crisis, the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Port of Beirut explosions. While it is not possible to link job losses to any one of the crises, it is clear that such as confluence of crises has had a tremendous impact on the job market, with women disproportionately impacted. The Status of Women in Lebanon 39 BOX 2: WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE Approximately 11 percent of the population in Lebanon and as such, they are not eligible for social security or is rural, with agriculture representing 11 percent of basic social protections (NIRAS 2020). total employment. The share of women working in agriculture is limited, with female employment at According to the 2019 VASyR, agriculture is the 9 percent of total female employment (compared leading sector of work for Syrian refugee women to male employment at 12 percent) (WDI 2019). ages 60-65 and young women (VASyR 2019). In Rural women working in agriculture are on average fact, more female-headed households (28 percent) 55 years old (higher than the overall average of 52 are engaged in agriculture compared to 15 percent years old) and are involved mainly in the production of male-headed households. Women from rural areas of dairy products, food preserves and subsistence in Syria have long worked in unpaid agriculture as farming (Maasri 2020, FAO 2012). However, a study contributing family workers. In Lebanon, women and commissioned by the FAO confirms that the majority girls are paid less than half of what men are paid per of agricultural producers in Lebanon consists of day for their work in the sector. According to an ILO small farmers and that the agricultural sector relies study, the average monthly income for women in mainly on temporary workers, the majority of whom agriculture in Akkar was $130-$200 per month, while are female (Darwish 2012). Another study indicates for men, wages were $660-$990 per month; wages that 75 percent of women working in the agriculture are less for Syrian and Palestinian refugee workers sector are recruited as seasonal/temporary workers, (ILO 2018b). across Lebanon, but more so outside the urban and FIGURE 19: FORMALITY OF THE EMPLOYED BY cultural hubs of Beirut and Mount Lebanon (see Figure GENDER AND NATIONALITY (%), 2018-2019 18). In Akkar and Baalbeck-Hermel, one sees significant differences by gender to the disadvantage of women. 100 This is also the case in Mount Lebanon, where informality 81.6 80 is lower with higher rates among women. When the data 65.5 60 is disaggregated by nationality, prominent differences 51.1 emerge with higher informality among non-Lebanese 40 women compared to Lebanese women and the overall 20 11.1 rate (see Figure 19). For women, this can be explained by the high levels of Syrian refugees working in agriculture, 0 Female Male which is 88 percent informal (ILO 2020) (See Box 2). Non-Lebanese Lebanese More than half of Syrian refugee women in Lebanon work in agriculture (55 percent), followed by services Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 (24 percent), with a small share (8 percent) employed in professional services (World Bank 2020b). FIGURE 20: EMPLOYMENT BY GENDER AND Women from poor quintile households are less likely QUINTILES OF PER CAPITA HOUSEHOLD to be employed than women from upper quintiles (see LABOR INCOME (%), 2018-2019 Figure 20). Only 13 percent of women from the bottom poorest quintile in terms of per capita household labor 100 88.0 90.4 90.7 94.1 96.6 96.1 83.7 83.8 income are employed, compared to 28 percent from the 80 74.3 63.3 top richest quintile. The direction of causality is unclear, 60 but the limited employment opportunities among the 40 poor and vulnerable, especially women, is a result of a 20 combination of factors that impede escaping the cycle 0 of poverty. These factors include the lack of relevant bottom 2 3 4 top education and training, family responsibilities and Female Male the inability to afford childcare, lack of knowledge of existing opportunities, and the lack of available socially Source: World Bank calculations based on data from the acceptable work. LFHLCS 2018-2019. 40 The Status of Women in Lebanon Employed women in Lebanon, regardless of geographic location, tend to correlate with educated, skilled workers compared to the male workforce. Across Lebanon, close to half of the female labor force (48 percent) comprises workers with tertiary education, WIT HOU compared to only 26 percent of male workers (LFHLCS S PRO OCIAL T TECT 2018-2019). The largest gap can be seen in Akkar, where ION 55 percent of the female workers have university degrees compared to only 12 percent of male workers, followed by North Lebanon with a 29 percentage point gender gap difference (see Figures 21 and 22). This is consistent with the education trends in North Lebanon, with many more women with tertiary education attainment than their male counterparts. FIGURE 21: COMPOSITION OF FEMALE BOX 3: THE STATUS OF MIGRANT WORKERS BY GOVERNORATE AND EDUCATION ATTAINMENT (%), 2018-2019 WORKERS IN LEBANON Women constitute the bulk of the migrant Nabatieh workforce in Lebanon, with many facing increased South Lebanon vulnerabilities and lack of protection. According Baalbek-Hermel to Amnesty International, there are 250,000 Bekaa migrant workers in Lebanon, the majority of whom are female. Because the labor law excludes Akkar migrant workers, they are neither recognized North Lebanon nor protected, preventing them from enjoying Mount Lebanon basic rights as workers, such as minimum wage, Beirut overtime pay, compensation for unfair dismissal or maternity benefits (Aoun 2019). With their 0 20 40 60 80 100 residency tied to the kafala system, many Primary Secondary Tertiary migrant workers are reliant on their sponsors for permission to move and communicate freely Source: World Bank calculations based on data from the or even work ‘normal’ hours. Qualitative findings LFHLCS 2018-2019. from an Amnesty International study (2019) show that cases of workers who had their passports withheld from them to restrict their movement FIGURE 22: COMPOSITION OF MALE are not uncommon. WORKERS BY GOVERNORATE AND EDUCATION ATTAINMENT (%), 2018-2019 During COVID-19, the lockdowns and restrictions have further curtailed migrant workers’ mobility, bringing to light the challenges they face with Nabatieh regards to accessing information about the South Lebanon pandemic or health care services should they Baalbek-Hermel get sick. As household family stressors increase due to the repercussions of the multiple crises, Bekaa migrant workers are much more vulnerable to Akkar abuse, exploitation and neglect by sponsors. An North Lebanon international assessment conducted of migrant Mount Lebanon workers found that close to 80 percent had lost Beirut their income since the financial/economic crisis of 2019; one third of those losses were reported 0 20 40 60 80 100 during the COVID-19 pandemic (UNOCHA 2020). Primary Secondary Tertiary Note: Refer to the institutional section of the Gender Note for Source: World Bank calculations based on data from the additional details on the legal definition of the kafala system. LFHLCS 2018-2019. The Status of Women in Lebanon 41 Occupation segregation and gender wage gaps Despite being more educated, employed women are concentrated in service sectors such as education, FIGURE 23: JOB CATEGORIES RATES BY health and public administration. Even though the SEX AND SECTOR (%), 2018-2019 degree of sector segregation among women has declined over time, leading to a wider spread across the Elementary 8.8 main sectors of economic activity for younger women, occupations 10.3 Plant opperators 0.8 occupational segregation is still prominent in Lebanon 12.3 (see Figures 23 and 24) (Akeel 2009). The education, Craft workers 4.4 23.8 health and public administration and the services sectors Skilled agricultural 1.7 workers 4.1 represent the largest share (see Figure 23). Analysis of 24.4 Service workers job categories (see Figure 24) across gender shows that, 20.3 8.6 Clerical workers on the one hand, there are many female service workers 3.3 Technicians 8.3 who are likely to be lower-skilled specialists. On the other 4 hand, there is a very high share of fields where few women Professionals 8.2 36.4 occupy management and executive positions, leading to Managers 5.9 7.3 limitations in their ability to secure better wages. 0.7 Armed forces 6.5 Occupational segregation correlates with hours of 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 work and remuneration. Only 46 percent of Lebanese Female Male workers earned labor income during the month prior to the LFHLCS 2018-2019.45 Moreover, this share is lower Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 among women compared to men — 21 versus 55 percent, respectively. The overall low share may be explained by deteriorating economic and social conditions leading up to the 2019 financial crisis. The disproportionate figure FIGURE 24: EMPLOYMENT RATES BY SEX, could be a result of women’s larger share in the services AND SECTOR (%), 2018-2019 sector, which may be associated with irregular earnings if it is in the hospitality business or food/clothing retail. 3.2 There is also a significant difference in the actual number Finance 1.6 of hours worked per week between male and female Education, 36 Health, Public... 20 workers. According to LFHLCS 2018-2019, male workers Services 34.9 spend an average of 52 hours per week working, whereas 17 female workers spend an average of 41 hours per week Transport, 2.3 Communication 8.1 working. The gap in hours worked is also in line with other 14.7 calculations that show men spend, on average, 53 hours Trade 21.6 per week working, whereas women spend 32 hours per Construction 0.8 12.6 week (World Bank 2020e). This can be associated with a Mining, 6.1 lower number of hours of work observed in the education, Manufacture 13.4 health and public administration sectors in general, which Agriculture 2.1 6 are sectors where a large share of women are employed. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Estimations of the gender wage gap will vary Female Male depending on the methodology used but studies found women tend to be at a disadvantage when all factors Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 45 Retrieved from Central Administration of Statistic’s website, based on LFHLCS district-level analysis with references to national findings (LFHLCS 2018-2019). 42 The Status of Women in Lebanon TABLE 4: LOGARITHM OF LABOR EARNINGS PER MONTH, PER HOUR AND HOURS WORKED ACROSS WOMEN AND MEN, 2018-2019 ***log wage Monthly ***log wage per hour ***hours usually worked per week Men 6.9 1.57 52 Women 6.9 1.82 41 Notes: Hourly earnings are calculated using a variable showing usual hours worked per week. *** Significant difference at 1% level, ** at 5% level and * at 10% level. Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the LFHLCS 2018-2019. are taken into account. When focusing on employed Lebanon has made progress in expanding workers’ individuals with non-zero wage income and calculating protections, yet there remain gaps. In 2000, Lebanon the unconditional gender gap, there is no significant passed Labor Law 207 (Article 26) stipulating that difference between women and men using monthly employers must not discriminate based on gender, kind wages. However, when comparing hourly wages, the of work, salary or wages, hiring, promotion, vocational gender gap is to the advantage of women. Table 4 training or attire. There are also no provisions mandating indicates that the hourly wage for women, on average, equal remuneration for work of equal value (World Bank becomes higher than for men, because men work on 2020d). However, prospective employers still have the average 11 hours more than women in a week, which has right to ask about family status and are not required an equalizing effect on earnings per hour (Atamanov et to guarantee returning mothers their positions (or al. 2016). A similar observation can be seen in Figure 25 in categories referring to wage employment (monthly paid and weekly/daily paid). However, studies of econometric FIGURE 25: AVERAGE INCOME/NET EARNINGS wage determination introduced by Oaxaca (1973) and IN LBP FROM MAIN JOB LAST MONTH BY revisited by Stanley and Jarrell (1998) raise questions EMPLOYMENT STATUS, 2018-2019 about the extent of variations in how gender wages estimations are calculated and the need to take into account explained and unexplained factors.46 Another Trainee, 561 apprentice 831 study shows that the gender wage gap in Lebanon is 22 percent for all workers to the disadvantage of women, Weekly/daily paid 805 employee 688 after controlling for characteristics and selection (World Bank 2020e). The gap is higher than what is observed Monthly paid 1470 employee 1509 in Iraq and Jordan’s private sector (World Bank 2020e). Female entrepreneurs are also at a major disadvantage, Unpaid family 300 helper 305 earning less as employers or own-account workers. Significant wage gaps exist among refugee populations, Own account 779 worker 1032 who work an average of 14 days per month (13 days for women and 14 days for men) compared to the standard Employer/Partner 1731 2194 22 working days per month (World Bank 2020c). The average monthly income for refugees averages 43 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 percent of the approved minimum wage requirement in Female Male Lebanon, with men earning $206 and women earning $158 per month (World Bank 2020c). Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 46 This analysis applies only to wage earners. The difference in hourly wages presented in Table 4 is largely driven by differences in observable factors such as education and employment sector. The higher the education attainment, the smaller the gender gap, while the concentration of women in certain sectors such as health, education or tourism may also put them at an advantage. As such, the results do not take into account unexplained or unobservable factors such as gender-based discrimination in the workplace (with regards to salary). The LFHLCS 2018/2019 does not allow for analyzing wage earnings through an Oaxaca Decomposition, which could take into account both the explained and unexplained factors. However, Atamanov et al. 2016 applies it using the HBS 2011/12 data and demonstrates that any wage differential decreases substantially when unexplained factors and a correction for selection bias is included — pointing to a clear disadvantage for women. The Status of Women in Lebanon 43 equivalent) or to provide nursing breaks after their return Studies have shown that societal expectations about from maternity leave (Iqbal 2016, WABA 2019). There are women’s traditional roles at home contribute to no legal differences between the number of hours women gender biases in hiring practices among employers and men can work. There are, however, restrictions on who may be reluctant to hire women (World Bank the ways that women can work in jobs related to mining, 2020d). In a 2018 gender technical assessment carried factory work, agriculture, energy and transportation out to understand female constraints in accessing jobs in (World Bank 2020e). These are important restrictions Lebanon, the majority of employers interviewed reported that add to the constraints that women face due to their preferences for hiring men because of their individual reproductive and caregiving roles — restrictions that are beliefs regarding women’s care roles at home. A share of associated with social norms. employers raised doubts about women’s ability to take on management positions or jobs they considered “more suited for men” (Elzir Assy 2018).47 Women’s role in firms and entrepreneurship Representing a smaller share of the total enterprise percent of firms having a female top manager; this is landscape and having more limited assets to start significantly lower than the world average of 18 percent with, female entrepreneurship was severely affected (World Bank Enterprise Survey 2019). These figures in 2020; many women-owned businesses closed due are in line with findings from the recent LFHLCS 2018- to the pandemic. International estimates point to a 2019, which reveals that, on average, only 11 percent of six percentage-point gender gap in terms of closures women are self-employed ‘entrepreneurs’, compared to to the disadvantage of women (Goldstein et al. 2020). 25 percent of men (see Figure 15).49 Importantly, Figure Additionally, one in five of the many businesses impacted 5 also shows that four out of five women in Lebanon are during the explosions were women-led, with half of them wage employees. likely to be smaller than male-owned firms, unregistered and employ more female employees (UN Women There is a clear link between firms having female 2020a). Of those women-owned businesses damaged participation in ownership and the gender of the top by the explosion, 70 percent of employees were women. manager. Seventy-six percent of firms run by women also have female participation in ownership, while only Compared to the MENA regional average, female 6 percent of the firms managed by men have women participation in ownership and the share of firms with among the owners. Furthermore, female entrepreneurs a woman as the top manager are extremely low in provide greater employment opportunities to other Lebanon. Despite evidence pointing to the benefits of women than do male entrepreneurs. Firms led by gender diversity, only a small share of Lebanese firms women tend to employ a larger proportion of female (10 percent) have women among their owners compared permanent full-time workers (49 percent) compared to to the MENA average (19 percent). Only 5 percent is firms led by men (22 percent) (World Bank Enterprise majority female owned (IFC 2019).48 The proportion Survey 2019). More commonly, firms led by women of women in management is also limited, with only 6 offer formal training to their staff to a considerably 47 Firms interviewed included: Three firms with more than 50 employees; four firms with between 10 and 50 employees; and three firms with less than 10 employees. This has also been confirmed by earlier studies. A 2009 World Bank study found that a 40 percent of female and male Lebanese entrepreneurs directly mentioned family commitments as the major drawback to hiring women. Male entrepreneurs considered women less committed to their work due to, for example, the male entrepreneurs’ perceptions that women had higher absentee rates and greater unavailability for working overtime (Akeel 2009). 48 Companies with women represented on boards and executive committees have a 47 percent higher return on equity and 55 percent more gross income. In Lebanon, 532 firms were covered by the Enterprise Survey. 49 An IFC study, Women on Boards in Lebanon (2019), covering 393 Lebanese companies out of a sample of 1600, reports that 50 percent of firms surveyed have female board members, with women representing 14 percent of all board members. 44 The Status of Women in Lebanon larger extent than firms led by men (29 percent and 20 formal financial institution for business purposes only or percent, respectively). Female top managers are more for both business purposes and personal transactions, prevalent in the food manufacturing sectors (12 percent) compared to less than even 4 percent of women.51 and in service sectors (8 percent), with a quarter of them working in large-sized firms.50 Seventy-eight percent of female-led firms and 34 percent of the male-led firms identified Women have fewer opportunities to access finance political instability as the biggest obstacle to their for their business operations than men do. While establishment.52 In general, female and male managers access to finance is reported as a key challenge facing evaluate obstacles differently. For example, corruption female entrepreneurs in Lebanon and globally, there is identified as a major constraint by all firms, but more are no legal differences between how Lebanese women so among female-led ones: 94 percent of female top and men register a business, sign a contract or open managers identify it as a major or very severe obstacle a bank account (World Bank 2020d). In terms of compared to 77 percent of men who do so. Access to securing financing, only 31 percent of female-led firms infrastructure (such as electricity and transportation) have a bank loan or line of credit compared to male- is another issue that women managers identify as a led firms (40 percent). This disparity might explain major hurdle much more so than men (see Figure 26). why female top managers identify access to finance Practices in the informal sector are also among the top as a main constraint to the current operations of their concerns for women because close to three quarters of establishment more so than their male counterparts: female-led firms (72 percent) compete with informal 57 percent and 47 percent, respectively (see Figure 26) businesses compared to 55 percent of male-led firms. In (World Bank Enterprise Survey 2019). As a result, access part, this could be due to the concentration of women- to and use of financial institutions may be more limited: owned businesses in the services sector, which tend to 20 percent of men report using their accounts at a be more informal. FIGURE 26: MOST IMPORTANT CONSTRAINTS TO FIRM OPERATIONS (%), 2019 Corruption Political Instability Practices of competitors in informal sector Electricity Access to finance Transportation Courts systems Tax administration Tax rates Inadequately educated workforce 0 20 40 60 80 100 Female Top Manager Male Top Manager Note: Share of top managers identifying issues defined as major or very severe obstacles. Source: 2019 Enterprise Survey 50 Lebanese women lead 5 percent of small firms (between 5 and 19 employees), 5 percent of medium-sized firms (between 20 and 99 employees), and 25 percent of large firms (more than 100 employees). 51 Data from Global Findex 2017 shows that only 17 percent of women borrowed money from a financial institution or used a credit card, compared to 28 percent of men who did so. There is also a gender gap between women who borrowed money to start a business compared to men, at 2 and 7 percent, respectively. 52 Data in this section are from the World Bank Enterprise Survey database, https://www.enterprisesurveys.org/. Figures are presented keeping in mind that the share of firms with female top managers (or are female led) is much smaller than the share of firms that is managed or led by men. The Status of Women in Lebanon 45 Access to assets and land ownership Legal restrictions surrounding inheritance and access to assets continue to exist for women in Lebanon; in FIGURE 27: ACCOUNT OWNERSHIP OR MOBILE most circumstances, these restrictions depend on SERVICE PROVIDER, BY SEX (%) 2017 religious affiliation (WBL 2020d). According to the Lebanese Constitution, Articles 9 and 19, women cannot OECD Countries inherit assets in the same way as men can, whether from parents or spouses (World Bank 2020d). The processes for applying for divorce and child custody rights also Middle Upper Income depend on the religion one belongs to, which with few exceptions tend to favour the patriarch. Middle Income Lebanese women have the same rights as men do in Middle East owning property, though in practice they continue to (excluding high income) face financial and social constraints with respect to how they can claim or manage property. According Turkey to Women, Business and the Law (2020), there are no stated legal differences between women and men with regards to their right to land ownership. However, Lebanon female landowners in rural or poor urban communities 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 are unlikely to be aware of their rights, to be able to afford the high fees needed to register their property or Female Male to be a part of a cooperative that might enable them Source: Global Findex Database to access property management funds. Furthermore, while Lebanon withheld its reservation of CEDAW Article 16 (h) calling for equal rights between spouses in terms of ownership, management, acquisition and disposal of FIGURE 28: DEBIT CARD OWNERSHIP, property, it still maintains reservations in other aspects BY SEX (%), 2017 of key marital and family relations, making it difficult for a married woman to carry out her decisions — especially if they are not aligned with the preferences of High income: OECD her (male) spouse. Upper middle income Overall financial inclusion in Lebanon is similar to the regional average, but lower when compared to middle- income and upper-middle-income countries; there are Middle income substantial gender disparities in access to financial services in favour of men. In Lebanon, overall access Middle East & North Africa to accounts is similar to the MENA average, but lower than middle- and upper-middle-income countries. When Turkey plotting access to account ownership and debit cards across gender in Lebanon and selected comparators, it becomes clear that the gender gap in access to financial Lebanon services is highest in Lebanon and Turkey compared to the gender gap average in the MENA region and gender 0 20 40 60 80 100 gap averages in middle-income, upper-middle-income Female Male and OECD countries (see Figures 27 and 28). For example, in 2017, 57 percent of men in Lebanon had accounts in Source: Global Findex Database 46 The Status of Women in Lebanon TABLE 5: HOURS WORKED PER WEEK AND INCOME/NET EARNINGS FROM MAIN JOB BY ECONOMIC SECTORS, LBP THOUSAND, 2017 has a financial account has a debit card has a credit card Age 0.010*** 0.001 -0.012*** Female -0.710*** -0.601*** -0.383*** Second quintile 0.371** 0.395** 0.196 Third quintile 0.534*** 0.592*** 0.423* Fourth quintile 0.545*** 0.674*** 0.475** Fifth quintile (richest) 0.891*** 0.858*** 0.702*** Secondary 0.590*** 0.458*** 0.504*** Completed tertiary or more 1.813*** 1.680*** 1.279*** Note: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10% Note: Lowest quintile and Completed Primary or Less were omitted Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the Global Findex 2017. financial institutions compared to 33 percent of women. These figures have likely been affected by the ongoing FIGURE 29: REASONS FOR NOT HAVING AN financial and economic crisis since 2019,53 which has led ACCOUNT AT A FINANCIAL INSTITUTION (%), BY SEX, 2017 to the inability to withdraw cash from bank accounts (especially from US Dollar-denominated accounts). This 20 has likely affected the requests to open new accounts. No need 12.1 Family member 26.1 In general, education, welfare status and gender are has one 10.3 closely associated with having financial accounts, Lack of money 35.2 25.3 debit and credit cards. However, women have a much lower likelihood of having financial accounts, debit or Religious reasons 2.2 1 credit cards, even after controlling for education and Lack trust 7.7 welfare status (see Table 5). 7 Lack documentation 0.1 0.3 Women are likely to depend on other family members for access to financial services. Lack of money and the Too expensive 12.6 10.1 fact that someone else from the family has an account Too far away 0.8 are two of the most common reasons (see Figure 29). It 0.1 is noteworthy that, compared to men, more than twice 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 the share of women report the reason for the absence of Female Male an account is because another family member has one. Source: Global Findex Database 53 The 2019 banking collapse resulted from long-standing financial and economic crises that caused systemic macro-financial failures, such as risk of bank deposits (or cash outflow), an exchange rate breakdown, a default on sovereign debt, triple digit inflation and severe economic contraction (World Bank, European Union, United Nations. 2020). As widely reported by local and international media outlets, banks responded to the economic financial crisis by tightening controls on cash withdrawals, leaving many customers without access to their savings (Azhari, 2020; Dahan, 2021; Geldi 2021). The Status of Women in Lebanon 47 FIGURE 30: ASSET OWNERSHIP ACROSS FEMALE- AND MALE-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS (%), 2018‑2019 120 100 98 97 96 85 84 84 82 87 80 75 74 78 79 67 60 54 51 49 49 50 40 36 38 20 0 *** *** *** *** * *** *** *** Refrigerator Electric Microwave Washing Tv Air conditioner Water Computer Cell phone Car oven machine heater Female Male Note: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10% Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from LFHLCS 2018-2019. The patterns for borrowing money are very different and cultural constraints. Most of the land cultivated by for men and women. In 2017, 40 percent of men and women is fragmented and smaller than that cultivated 33 percent of women had borrowed money in the past by men: less than 0.6 ha, compared to 1.3 ha for land year.54 More men also borrowed from a formal financial parcels operated by men (FAO 2012). institution than women (20 percent and 13 percent, respectively). A larger share of women, 21 percent, Rural women face additional challenges surrounding reported that it would not be possible for them to come mobility, which are exacerbated by gender norms up with emergency funds, as compared to 15 percent of and biases. Limited public transportation in rural areas men who reported they could. coupled with safety concerns in transport may make it challenging for rural women to access services outside of There are no significant differences in access to key their community unless they have a private car (World assets between female- and male-headed households, Bank 2020d). However, a 2018 study of Syrian refugees with some exceptions. There are no significant in Lebanon found that there was a higher reduction in differences for many assets, such as refrigerators, freedom of movement due to safety concerns among microwaves, televisions and washing machines. However, men than among women, suggesting that social norms male-headed households have much higher access to play a large role as well (IPSOS Group SA 2018). Figure cars and mobile phones (see Figure 30). Such differences 31 shows that fewer women (50 percent) have access to contribute to challenges that vulnerable women may car ownership compared to men (67 percent). As a result, face regarding access to information and safety in they may participate less in decision-making processes transportation, ultimately standing in the way of her and have less access to extension and marketing services, voice and agency. adequate farm inputs and technologies as compared to men. Furthermore, over half of the women employed in Women experience restricted access to rural land the agriculture sector (56 percent) work on a part-time, ownership. Women are important contributors to seasonal or contractual basis, with a notable share (30 agricultural production, but their limited access to percent) considered as ‘helpers’, leaving them vulnerable land and production means their contributions are to exploitation (ILO 2018a). Women are often left with significantly lower than those of their male counterparts. inadequate access to financial services due to limited Based on the 2010 Agriculture Census, only 9 percent income (subsistence agriculture), lack of collateral (land of farms were owned by women, and only five percent ownership), or other sociocultural constraints. Taken was cultivated by them (FAO 2021). Women in rural together, the situation makes rural women among the areas have little access to land due to legal, economic most vulnerable groups of the Lebanese population. 54 Data in this section are from the World Bank Global Findex database, https://globalfindex.worldbank.org/. 48 The Status of Women in Lebanon HUMAN CAPITAL ACCUMULATION The Status of Women in Lebanon 49 Lebanon has made progress in reducing the The World Bank’s Human Capital Index measures the differences between women and men in human amount of human capital girls and boys can expect capital endowments, but gaps remain — especially for to accumulate by the age of 18, given their country’s vulnerable populations. People’s human capital — their measures of survival, health and education. Strikingly, skills, health, knowledge and resilience — is a central driver Lebanon’s overall Human Capital Index score is the same of sustainable growth and poverty alleviation because it for girls and boys, with girls having similar or only slightly shapes their ability to reach their full potential in society lower survival rates, test scores and expected years of (World Bank 2018). The 2012 World Development Report schooling (World Bank 2020e).55 However, the superficial identified addressing gender differences in endowments appearance of gender parity masks persistent challenges of human capital as a key priority in reducing global in the fields of health and education, especially among gender inequality (World Bank 2012). Investments in Lebanon’s large refugee population. women’s health and education, two central components of human capital, not only reduce gaps between women and men in productivity and wages but are also passed on to future generations through higher education and better health outcomes for their children. TABLE 6: EDUCATION INDICATORS OF HUMAN CAPITAL IN SELECT COUNTRIES Expected Years of School Harmonized Test Score Female 10.36 395 Lebanon Male 10.73 384 Female 11.39 444 Jordan Male 10.9 414 Female 7.2 377 Iraq Male 6.7 353 Female 12.5 424 West Bank and Gaza Male 11.9 399 Female 12 483 Turkey Male 12 473 Source: Human Capital Index Database: Expected Years of School Lebanon, 2020. (Expected years of school for Lebanon is 2017. All other data is 2020.) Access to and outcomes in education According to the World Bank’s Human Capital Index, a years of schooling, which considers what children child (male or female) born in Lebanon will grow up to actually learn, the figure drops to only 6.3 years. achieve 52 percent of the potential productivity they could have achieved if they had full education and Gender disparity in education attainment varies by health (Human Capital Project, 2020). The number of education level, with more boys than girls out of school expected years of school is slightly lower for girls than overall. In absolute terms, and according to LFHLCS boys (10.3 compared to 10.7, respectively). In adjusted 2018-2019, more school-aged boys are out of school 55 Lebanon is the only country in the MENA region where boys have more quality-adjusted expected years of school, on average. 50 The Status of Women in Lebanon economic reasons than female students did. In contrast, FIGURE 31: EDUCATION ATTAINMENT, BY SEX more female students reported that they had completed AND LEVEL (IN THOUSANDS), 2018-2019 their studies (see Figure 33). The primary reasons for stopping education for both girls and boys, however, University and above are non-economic and reflect a wide range of factors. Secondary Challenges with enrollment, incorrect assignment Intermediary Elementary of grades and coping in new and often less secure Pre-school environments can be a factor for non-nationals as well Read and write as vulnerable Lebanese (Shuayb et al. 2016). Bullying, Illiterate harassment and violence are prevalent in schools, Not enrolled where almost half (48 percent) of Lebanese students 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 reported having been a victim of verbal or physical abuse Female Male compared to 37 percent internationally (Abdul-Hamid and Yassine 2020). Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 than girls, at 41,000 compared to 39,000, respectively (LFHLCS 2018-2019). During the early education FIGURE 32: CURRENTLY ENROLLED years, there are fewer girls enrolled in elementary STUDENTS, BY SEX AND LEVEL (IN THOUSANDS), 2018-2019 levels compared to boys, but the trend reverses in the later stages of education (see Figure 31). According to University UNESCO, the share of repeaters in primary school is and above significantly higher for boys than it is for girls (7 percent Secondary compared to 4.7 percent). The chance of completing Intermediary primary school for boys is also lower at 83 percent, compared to 87 percent among girls.56 Elementary Pre-school Girls and boys achieve relatively similar harmonized test scores (see Table 6), but scores for both, at 395 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 and 384, respectively, are lower than the regional Female Male average of 407 (World Bank 2020b). More specifically, the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study reports Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 that Lebanese boys are at a similar level in mathematics as the international average with test scores of 456 FIGURE 33: REASONS FOR NON- (international boys’ average is 465), while Lebanese girls’ ENROLLMENT AMONG 3 TO 24-YEAR-OLDS average score of 444 is lower than both that of their male RESIDING IN LEBANON (%), 2018-2019 counterparts and the international girls’ average (469). In science, Lebanese girls and boys perform well below Because of international averages, with scores of 404 for girls and the war in Syria 408 for boys (compared to the international averages of Stopped for non-economic reasons 480 and 474, respectively).57 Stopped for economic reasons A secure learning environment is paramount to Finished / increasing education attainment. Among students stopped education who were not enrolled in primary or secondary school 0 10 20 30 40 50 in Lebanon, when asked about the reasons for not being Female Male enrolled, a greater share of male students reported Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 56 Education data in this section are from the Institute of Statistics of UNESCO. 57 The standardized Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study test was developed by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). The 2011 round was applied in 63 countries. Results are within a range of 0–1,000, with student performance typically ranging between 300 and 700. See Mullis et al. (2012) and Martin et. al. (2012). Note that Lebanon does not participate in any major international reading tests such as IEA’s Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, or OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment. The Status of Women in Lebanon 51 The inaccessibility of childcare in Lebanon, especially FIGURE 34: DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS for poorer families, creates conditions that limit ACCORDING TO THEIR EDUCATION LEVEL women’s accrual of human capital and ability to work. FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 2019-2020 (%) A 2020 World Bank study found that lack of access to childcare can be detrimental to the education of older siblings, especially girls, who may have to take on 13% 20% responsibility for care (Devercelli and Beaton-Day, 2020). Kindergarten 1-3 Decreased participation in school, in turn, may be related 19% Primary to a higher risk of early marriage and adolescent fertility, Lower Secondary creating further impediments to women’s development Upper Secondary of their human capital. Furthermore, greater access to childcare could increase the human capital of poorer 48% children if that childcare includes early childhood development (World Bank, 2020e). Source: Ministry of Education, Statistical Bulletin 2019-2020. In Lebanon, focus group discussions with women The data include students from public schools, private schools from different socioeconomic positions in the North, (free and not free), and UNRWA schools. A total of 1,069,826 South and Beirut/Mount Lebanon areas revealed that students in Lebanon, among them 36,014 from UNRWA. In childcare might be perceived as an option mostly for the Ministry of Education bulletin, kindergarten students are considered in the age cohort of three to six years old. well-off families (Elzir Assy 2018). For children aged three to six years old, the education system offers kindergarten or preschool (see Figure 34), but it is not compulsory despite evidence showing the importance of FIGURE 35: SHARE OF POPULATION WITH early childhood education as an indicator for success in SOME UNIVERSITY EDUCATION BY GENDER AND AGE GROUPS (%), 2018-2019 primary school (UNESCO 2020, Devercelli and Beaton Day 2020). Yet Lebanon is not an outlier: Devercelli and 50 Beaton-Day (2020) report that globally, four out of 10 children (below primary level) in need of childcare do not 40 have access to it; 80 percent of these children live in 30 low- and lower-middle-income countries. This system, 20 as currently constituted, limits poor women’s ability to accrue human capital through multiple channels (child 10 development, adolescent education and family welfare), 0 in addition to its detrimental effects on labor demand 20-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+ and FLFP. Female Male Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from LFHLCS 2018-2019 FIGURE 36: TERTIARY EDUCATION GRADUATES IN SELECTED FIELDS OF STUDY, BY SEX (%), 2011 Education programs Health and Welfare Humanities and the Arts Services Science Agriculture Social Sciences, Business, Law Science and Technology Engineering Manufacturing 0 20 40 60 80 100 Female Male Source: UNESCO data from Atamanov et. al 2016. 52 The Status of Women in Lebanon science and technology. Women greatly outnumber FIGURE 37: PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE OVER men as graduates in education programs (85 percent 20 YEARS OLD IN THE LOWEST QUINTILE OF female graduates), health and welfare programs, and in LABOR INCOME BY EDUCATION AND SEX (%), humanities and the arts (72 percent female graduates in 2018-2019 both fields) (see Figure 36). The high share of women in education is expressed in the disproportionate number Some university 12.7 of females compared to male teachers in the formal 13.5 education system for the 2019-2020 school year at Some secondary 12.1 20.0 81,277 versus 19,860, respectively (MoEHE 2020). Some intermediary 10.4 19.2 The reasons behind decisions that women make about their field of study can depend on different factors; 26.0 Some primary 15.4 for example, social norms play a major role, and global and regional studies have shown that timely and Below primary 38.4 26.8 relevant information about career development and salaries matter. To the latter point, if such information 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 were available to women before they finalize their choice Female Male of study, they may choose differently. Linked to this, the lack of counselling at schools often leaves young women Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from LFHLCS 2018-2019 with limited options to help them in their decision- making, with many turning to family for guidance. In other scenarios, women may choose careers that have Like many countries in the region, there is a clear a more socially acceptable work environment and trend towards a higher educated female population, flexible hours. with more women below the age of 50 having at least some university studies as compared to men in the There is a clear link between the level of schooling and same age cohort (see Figure 35). While there is a large labor income with differences by gender. Comparing proportion of women graduating from tertiary education, the household labor income per capita among population there are significant gender differences in terms of above the age of 20 years shows statistically significant field of study. The selection of field of study generally differences among women and men for all educational reflects traditionally assigned social roles and has direct groups except for the most educated (see Figure 37), implications for occupational segregation by gender. with women having a higher probability of belonging to the poorest quintile of labor income for most educational In Lebanon, the proportion of female graduates is levels. Women with at least some university education only smaller than the male share in the fields of are less likely than women with only a secondary engineering, manufacturing and construction, and education to belong to the poorest quintile. FIGURE 38: ENROLLMENT RATES BY SEX AND NATIONALITY (%), 2011-2012 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Female Male Lebanese Non-Lebanese Source: Aziz et. al. 2016 using HBS data 2011/2012 The Status of Women in Lebanon 53 TABLE 7: SCHOOL ENROLLMENT BY LEVEL, NATIONALITY AND GOVERNORATE FOR SCHOOL YEAR 2018-2019 Kindergarten and Cycles 1-3 Basic Education Secondary Governorate Lebanese Non-Lebanese AM & PM Shifts) Lebanese Non-Lebanese Akkar 37,260 22785 6441 389 North 50,787 25994 9012 593 Beirut 9,574 14898 3343 566 Mount Lebanon 32,657 52934 14988 1237 South 31,357 25192 7634 932 Nabatiye 22,935 13958 6645 240 Baalback-Hermel 17,062 23578 5024 283 Bekaa 17,823 26722 4694 663 Total 219,455 206061 57781 4903 Source: RACE II Factsheet, 2019 Conflict and crisis disrupt opportunities for education, Lebanon has made significant progress in absorbing decreasing human capital accumulation for both girls the influx of refugee students into its formal education and boys. There are more than half a million displaced system, but there remain gaps, especially among children, aged three to 18 (with 488,000 of them Syrian adolescents. Enrollment figures from the Reaching All refugees), in Lebanon, and according to the Convention Children with Education Program (RACE) School Year 2018- of the Rights of Child and to Lebanese law, refugee 2019 show that the number of non-Lebanese students children are entitled to access education (World Bank registered in basic education is 206,061 (see Table 7). The 2020c). However, children’s education is generally share of refugees in tertiary education is around 6 percent disrupted by the displacement, and children can face in Lebanon (Ferede 2018). When disaggregated by gender, challenges re-entering the educational sphere due to HBS 2011/2012 household data points to a relatively socioeconomic status and needs, language barriers, equitable distribution between girls and boys at the start curriculum differences, transportation difficulties and of the education cycle, while recent RACE II data from becoming too old for the educational system. the Ministry of Education and Higher Education shows a FIGURE 39: DISTRIBUTION OF NON- FIGURE 40: DISTRIBUTION OF LEBANESE LEBANESE ENROLLMENT BY GENDER AND BY ENROLLMENT BY GENDER AND CYCLE (%), CYCLE (%), 2018-2019 2018-2019 70 50 60 25 45 60 50 40 20 50 35 40 40 30 15 25 30 30 20 10 15 20 20 10 10 5 10 5 0 0 0 0 Kindergarten Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Kindergarten Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Basic Education Secondary Basic Education Secondary Education Education Female Male Overall trend Female Male Overall trend Source: Ministry of Education and Higher Education, RACE II Source: Ministry of Education and Higher Education, RACE II Fact Sheet, September 2019 Fact Sheet, September 2019 54 The Status of Women in Lebanon small gap to the advantage of boys (see Figures 39 and 40).58 However, enrollment figures drop considerably in FIGURE 41: ADOLESCENT FERTILITY RATE secondary education with, for example, only 4,903 non- (BIRTHS PER 1000 WOMEN AGES 15 TO 19), 2000-2018 Lebanese students registered in the RACE II program. Assessments over time show that the drop is much more significant among boys.59 Girls’ enrollment increases in 90 the RACE II program, although it is still much lower than 80 their Lebanese counterparts. For refugee youth 15 to 24 years old, access to education is further limited, with 94 70 percent not enrolled in any formal education, although 60 most of them want to continue education (Inter-Agency Coordination Lebanon 2019). Overall, more than half of 50 refugee children between the ages of 3 and 18 are out of 40 school (World Bank 2020c). 30 The reasons behind low enrollment and high dropouts 20 among adolescent girls and boys vary. The driving factors for why refugee girls and boys are not enrolled 10 or drop out are different. For example, adolescent girls 0 are at risk of violence or get married early; some boys 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 are forced to start working due to household needs. Furthermore, many Syrian refugee parents hesitate to send their girls to school because of perceived risks World Lebanon Jordan Turkey associated with travelling there. For refugee children with MENA OECD Iraq disabilities, enrollment rates are low for both girls and boys, dropping significantly after the age of 14 years to Source: World Development Indicators Database 14 percent for girls; it is negligible for boys (Inter-Agency Coordination Lebanon 2019). Health outcomes and services Fertility rates in Lebanon are below the regional Malta, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E), Qatar and Kuwait average. In general, less time devoted to childbearing and (see Figure 41). However, the story is very different rearing can provide individual women with the time and among refugee population groups. In 2016, more than space for spending more time in activities outside the one third of births in Lebanon were to non-Lebanese household, such as pursuing higher education, careers in (mostly Syrian) women. The maternal mortality rate the labor market or participation in the political arena. among non-Lebanese women was almost double that Fertility declined in Lebanon to 2.1 in 2018, compared to of Lebanese women (30.4 compared to 15.8 deaths per the MENA average of 2.8 births per woman.60 Since the 100,000 live births) (World Bank 2020c). early 1990s, there has been a drastic decline in fertility rates in all MENA countries. Lebanon has followed this Similar to overall trends, adolescent fertility continues trend and has the lowest level of fertility rates after to remain low but early marriage is a rising concern 58 The RACE program is a government program to ensure that vulnerable children (Lebanese and non-Lebanese) between the ages of 3 and 19 affected by the Syria crisis are “able to access formal and non-formal learning opportunities in a safe and protective environment.” Source is from RACE II online portal at http://racepmulebanon.com/index.php/features-mainmenu-47/race2-article, accessed June 2020. 59 Recent data show that the share of girls enrolled in school is slightly to girls’ disadvantage in primary school, with a female-to- male parity index of 0.94. For lower and higher secondary school, the gap increases considerably to the advantage of girls, with a gender parity index of around 1.5. 60 Fertility data in this section are from the World Bank Databank database, http://databank.worldbank.org/. The Status of Women in Lebanon 55 in vulnerable communities. The adolescent fertility rate is an important indicator that sheds light not only on FIGURE 42: MATERNAL MORTALITY RATIO health indicators but also on young women’s ability to (MODELED ESTIMATE, PER 100,000 WOMEN AGED 15 TO 19), 2000-2017 make their own choices and have equal opportunities as stheir male counterparts. Early motherhood has been correlated with a higher risk of maternal mortality and 160 other health implications, as well as lower educational 140 achievement and poorer labor market outcomes (Parsons and McCleary-Sills n/a; Mensch et al. 1998).61 120 At 140 births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19 years old, Lebanon shows extremely low rates of teenage 100 pregnancy, well below neighbouring countries and 80 regional and world averages (40 per 1000 for women aged 15 to 19 years old in MENA). Combined with a high 60 age of first marriage (28 years of age in 2007),62 this indicates that, in general, young Lebanese women may 40 be better positioned to manage social expectations when it comes to early marriage and fertility. However, 20 early or child marriage is not uncommon among the 0 poor, and differences by religion, socioeconomic status 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2017 and nationality persist. For example, there is no codified minimum age of marriage; rather, it is regulated by 15 religious laws. For boys, the minimum age is 18 for all Lebanon Jordan Turkey groups, but girls range from 17 to as young as 12.5 with Iraq Middle East and North Africa the approval of religious figures.63 As a result, not all girls are legally protected from child marriages, which Source: World Development Indicators Database FIGURE 43: NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASE CAUSES OF DEATHS FOR LEBANESE POPULATIONS, BY SEX, 2018 16000 16000 14000 14000 12000 12000 10000 10000 8000 8000 6000 6000 4000 4000 2000 2000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 MALE FEMALE Cancers Diabetes Cardivascular Diseases Chronic Respiratory Diseases Source: WHO Global Health Observatory 61 Mortality data in this section are from the Global Health Observatory database of the World Health Organization. 62 Marriage data in this section are from the World Marriage Data 2019 database of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 63 12 CEDAW 2006 lists all acceptable age requirements for the 18 recognized religious groups (cited in UNICEF 2011). 56 The Status of Women in Lebanon FIGURE 44: RESPONSES TO THE QUESTION, FIGURE 45: MAIN REASON TO NOT OBTAIN “DO YOU REGULARLY HAVE UNMET NEEDED MEDICAL SERVICES, BY SEX MEDICAL NEEDS?” BY SEX (%), 2018-2019 AND INCOME (%), 2018-2019 other reasons 1.3 96.6 1.4 No 97.1 Doesn't trust 1.1 the medical system 1.7 Can't afford it 34.4 3.4 30.5 Yes 2.9 63.2 Didn't need to 66.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Female Male Female Male Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from the Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019 LFSHLC 2018-2019. Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019. have been increasing over the years, particularly in poor Noncommunicable diseases are on the rise across the and refugee communities. Among the Syrian refugee world, affecting women and men differently; Lebanon population, around 41 percent of women (aged 20 to 24 is not an exception to this trend. According to the World years) in Lebanon were married by the age of 18, with Health Organization (2018), noncommunicable disease an increase of 7 percent in one year (2017-2018) (Save is estimated to account for 91 percent of total deaths the Children 2019). Although only 4 percent of Lebanese in Lebanon, affecting men to a greater extent than agree with child marriage, 31 percent of refugees living in women. This is driven by four major risk factors: tobacco informal settlements in Lebanon believe that there are use, physical inactivity, the harmful use of alcohol and no negative repercussions to marrying early.64 unhealthy diets (WHO 2018). Lebanese men have a considerably higher probability of dying from cancer, Progress achieved in maternal mortality appears to diabetes, cardiovascular and chronic respiratory diseases have stalled. The maternal mortality rate has increased between the ages of 30 and 70, with a 20 percent from 23 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2010 to 29 mortality rate compared to 15 percent of women (see in 2017, surpassing the deaths per 100,000 live births Figure 43). Women are more likely to die from chronic from over one decade ago (see Figure 42).65 While the obstructive pulmonary diseases such as bronchitis and increase is notable, the rate remains considerably emphysema. The kinds of risk factors that men and lower than the world and regional averages (211 and 57, women face are also different. Men smoke tobacco more respectively). Maternal mortality is a leading cause of than women and are more likely than women to have death among women of reproductive age worldwide. As hypertension. Women, on the other hand, are more likely a key development outcome indicator, it reflects more to be overweight or obese; in 2016, 35 percent of the than just a single medical event as it is linked to the Lebanese female population above 18 years of age was access and quality of the full cycle of prevention and obese, compared to 27 percent of the men. care. In Lebanon, 98 percent of births were attended by skilled health staff, and 96 percent of pregnant women COVID-19 also affects the health of women and men received prenatal care in 2004. According to WHO data, differently. Global studies have shown that while there births attended by a skilled health nurse rose to achieve is still a lack of clarity about gender gaps in COVID-19 universal coverage in 2017.66 infection rates, men are more likely to face more severe 64 Historically, child marriage has been higher in Syria than its neighbouring countries. Thirteen percent of girls were married by age 18 and 3 percent by age 15 years (2006) compared to 6 and 1 percent in Lebanon (2009) and 10 and 2 percent in Jordan (2018). Latest available data from Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, and other household surveys. Accessed on World Bank DataBank, April 2021. 65 Mortality data in this section are from the World Bank DataBank. 66 Skilled births attended by nurse data accessed via online WHO data report. Similar to global trends, gender differences in child mortality rates have declined in Lebanon. representing a slight gap in 2019 to the disadvantage of boys compared to girls, at 8 compared to 7 deaths per 1000 live births, respectively (UN-IGME 2020). The Status of Women in Lebanon 57 FIGURE 46: TYPE OF PRIMARY HEALTH INSURANCE AMONG WOMEN, BY GOVERNORATE (%), 2018-2019 Nabatieh South Lebanon National Social Security/ Baalbek-Hermel Facultative Fund Bekaa Public Servants Cooperation Akkar Army and the Internal Security Forces North Lebanon Private insurance Mount Lebanon Other Beirut No Health Insurance 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the LFHLCS 2018-2019. FIGURE 47: TYPE OF PRIMARY HEALTH INSURANCE AMONG MEN, BY GOVERNORATE (%), 2018‑2019 Nabatieh South Lebanon National Social Security/ Baalbek-Hermel Facultative Fund Bekaa Public Servants Cooperation Akkar Army and the Internal Security Forces North Lebanon Private insurance Mount Lebanon Other Beirut No Health Insurance 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Source: World Bank staff calculations based on data from the LFHLCS 2018-2019. symptoms and die as a result of infection than women are higher for women than men (60 percent of women are, possibly due to differences in immunological compared to 40 percent of men) because women are responses (Jin et al. 2020, Pradhan and Olsson 2020, more highly concentrated among frontline workers: they Iwasaki and Ring 2020). In Lebanon, 69 percent of represent 58 percent of pharmacists and 81 percent of reported deaths have been male compared to 31 percent nurses (UN Women, NCLW, UNFPA, and WHO 2020b, female. Reports of infection are also higher among men, Salti and Mezher 2020). Gender-based differences also with 54 percent of men infected as compared to 46 exist in perceptions surrounding vaccine uptake and percent of women as of January 29, 2021 (UN Women, in the share of those getting vaccinated (World Bank NCLW, UNFPA, and WHO 2020b). 2021c). While data points to fewer women reporting an intent to get vaccinated compared to men (20 compared When taking an intersectional approach and focusing to 37 percent, respectively), their share among those on subgroups by occupation, for example, the disparity registered for the vaccine is higher compared to men (56 may tilt to the disadvantage of women. For example, compared to 44 percent, respectively).67 the infection numbers among the health workforce 67 Data on vaccination uptake can be found at: https://impact.cib.gov.lb/home?dashboardName=vaccine&subsection=statistics. The majority of those vaccinated are the elderly (40 percent), which may explain the higher share of women given the country’s population pyramid. However, reasons underlying emerging trends cannot be fully understand at the time of the writing of the report given fluidity of circumstances. 58 The Status of Women in Lebanon Women are less likely to be able to access medical when they needed it compared to households headed by services should they get sick. Based on national survey men who were able to do so (Inter-Agency Coordination findings, there is only a slight difference between women Lebanon 2019). The costs of doctor and treatment and men reporting “being sick or injured during the last fees and transportation remain major impediments. three months” or that their need for medical services was According to 2019 findings from VASyR, female- unmet in 2018/2019 (see Figure 44). Thirty-four percent headed refugee households borrow more money than of women report being unable to afford health care, a male-headed households to pay for health services rate 4 points higher than among men (see Figure 45). (39 compared to 33 percent) and to buy medicine (40 With private hospitals delivering 82 percent of medical compared to 31 percent). Security concerns can also services, health-care provision is largely privatized; play a role in women’s inability to access services. One in patients may end up paying higher fees for service three refugee women described that unease about their than they would in public hospitals (Truppa et al. 2019, perceived safety has inhibited their own movement, and Devi 2020). A little over half of the people in Lebanon for those women who did in fact experience a security are insured (52 percent) with no significant difference risk or another female in their household faced had, 72 by gender (LFHLCS 2018-2019). The National Social percent (IPSOS 2018). Security Fund is by far the most common source of insurance. While Figure 46 shows that more women are Improvements in overall access may have changed insured by the Social Security Fund, higher coverage as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially among women may be explained by the fact that among vulnerable Lebanese and refugee women in they are often insured by guardians or spouses (see areas outside of main urban centres. According to a Figure 48). In addition to out-of-pocket expenses, lack rapid evaluation carried out by Care Lebanon to assess of awareness about the availability of health services the impact of COVID-19 on select Syrian refugee and or the importance of prevention can be additional Lebanese communities, many of the women interviewed barriers. Reproductive health is among the top reasons (around 43 percent) reported that they have faced for seeking medical help, but only one third of women difficulty accessing sexual and reproductive health and have ever received antenatal care during pregnancy, other family planning services since the start of the public indicating poor accessibility to essential services. health crisis (Panagoulia 2020). In Akkar, over 80 percent of the women who reported difficulty accessing services While access to mental health services is low for pointed to concerns about transmission as a major all, men are much less likely to seek treatment than factor in addition to movement restrictions. Access to women. Although data on access to mental health health care services among women was generally lower services are limited, recent studies show that a small among Syrian refugees (Panagoulia 2020). fraction of the population needing treatment is likely to seek help (only one in five), with men much less likely to get treatment than women who reportedly feel more comfortable speaking to professionals (Karam et al. FIGURE 48: PROBABILITY OF WOMEN HAVING 2019). The same study shows that stigma surrounding HEALTH INSURANCE BY AGE COHORT AND mental health is a big factor, with low perceived need MARITAL STATUS (%), 2018-2019 as the main reason. Other studies point to similar constraints around seeking treatment due to limited 80 awareness and social stigma coupled with insufficient 70 resources for quality services (Panagoulia 2020). 60 Refugee women in Lebanon have poor reproductive 50 health and face additional sexual and reproductive 40 health risks, which may be further exacerbated by 30 traditional norms and attitudes. In fragile situations, refugee women are particularly affected by a lack of 20 access to high-quality family planning and reproductive 10 health services (including antenatal, delivery and 0 emergency care), which puts them at risk of unwanted 15-19 20-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65+ pregnancy and unsafe deliveries. Access to primary NonMarried Married health care has improved to some extent among refugee populations, but fewer female-headed households Source: World Bank staff calculations using data from the reported that they were able to access health care LFSHLC 2018-2019. Source: LFHLCS 2018-2019. 59 AGENCY AND GENDER ROLES 60 The Status of Women in Lebanon Agency is “the ability to make decisions about one’s women are more likely to sink into deeper poverty own life and act on them to achieve desired outcomes,” (ESCWA 2014). Women’s access to justice significantly and is expressed by, for example, freedom from decreased since the COVID-19 pandemic began (Okoro gender-based violence, the ability to have influence and Prettitore 2020). in society and the ability to exercise control over one’s life (Klugman et al. 2014, p. 3). In this sense, There have, however, been significant changes in an adequate legal framework that ensures no gender- the nature and extent of women’s civic engagement, based discrimination while also protecting certain political outcomes and opportunities to enhance rights and freedoms related to maternal outcomes and personal agency through legal reforms. As noted against gender-based violence provides a fundamental earlier, qualitative assessments of the October 2019 cornerstone of women’s agency. As discussed above, country-wide protests showed that women represented while Lebanese women enjoy the same rights to access half of the protest population. Women leveraged their property ownership and work, there are still some undue roles to maintain peace and non-violence and supported legal restrictions related to their nationality, inheritance, protestors through various contributions such as divorce and child custody rights. Much of these rights providing food, first aid and psychosocial services to are directly linked to what religion a person belongs to. protestors. Women also started public dialogue and There is no legal minimum age requirement for women created new spaces to speak out for the rights of women and men to marry. and girls and against sexual harassment (Nassar 2019). Women face inequitable access to formal justice, Propelled by the positive reception to their particularly with respect to personal status cases/ engagement during their protests, women activists disputes. Women face various challenges in their and organizations spoke out after the Port of Beirut attempts to seek justice due to a lack of awareness/ explosions and demanded that the international knowledge of their rights under their family laws; lack community incorporate gendered impacts into of social capital or financial means (limited affordability recovery and response plans. They called for of legal services and litigation for women); and deeply recovery and response plans to include a framework entrenched patriarchal values that are predominant for: conducting gender assessments of needs and at the community and court level (Lombardini et al. priorities; ensuring women’s representation, leadership, 2019). There is a social stigma against women who and inclusion; providing food security, shelter and independently attempt to file lawsuits, especially in sustainable livelihoods; preventing and responding to relation to personal status. This is compounded by a violence against women and girls; and for ensuring lack of trust in the judicial system, which is perceived as access to health services and sexual and reproductive corrupt (Lombardini et al. 2019). Finally, some research health rights (UN Women 2020e).68 As a result, response suggests that the cost of access to justice for personal plans integrated a gender lens to take into consideration status cases extends to life after divorce, during which women’s specific and different needs. Participation in decision‑making spaces Lebanese women’s representation in the political of Defence appointed to office (Houssari 2020).69 The arena has gained considerable traction yet remains 2018 parliamentary elections saw significant change very low. As of January 2020, women represented 30 in the number of women registering as a candidate and percent of ministerial posts, with the first Lebanese running for office; 113 women registered as a candidate and Arab women Deputy Prime Minister and Minister (up from 12 in 2009) and 86 ran for office. 68 Signatories include 44 organizations. 69 In the previous cabinet, the first women minister was appointed as Minister of the Interior. The Status of Women in Lebanon 61 FIGURE 49: LEBANESE IN AGREEMENT WITH STATEMENTS ON GENDER ROLES (%), BY SEX, 2018 When jobs are scarce, 52 men have more right to a job than women 72 Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay 44 56 Men make better executives than women 26 46 36 Men make better political leaders than women 56 Preschool children suffer with working mother 63 63 14 University is more important for a boy than a girl 17 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Female Male Source: World Value Survey, Wave VII 2017-2020 Yet despite these high figures, after the 2018 elections, opportunities to engage as political actors. In Lebanon, women made up only 4.7 percent of representatives in the much like other Arab countries, a lot of value is placed on the national parliament (six women out of 128 parliamentarians), family as a key social and cultural asset. Unpaid household compared to 17 percent on average in the MENA region and care work is considered a woman’s job (or a domestic (UN Women 2019).70 Women represent 5.4 percent of the worker’s job overseen by the woman), thus making the country’s municipal councillor and 1.9 percent of mukhtars household a central place for the practice and reproduction (UNDP 2016). Based on this low representation, the 2020 of gender roles (ILO 2009). According to one survey, more World Economic Forum ranks Lebanon at 145 out of men than women agreed with the statement “men are 153 countries in the political empowerment sub-index, better at political leadership than women,” with 56 percent only below Brunei and Qatar (WEF 2020). A provision to of men agreeing compared to 44 percent of women who did establish a quota to get more women into the national so (Arab Barometer 2018). While little difference is observed parliament was included in an early version of the 2013 between 12 to 29-year-old respondents and those over 50, Electoral Bill but did not gather enough support; there are education level does make a difference; higher educated no quota requirements for female representation in either respondents hold more egalitarian views (Arab Barometer parliamentary or local government capacities.71 Global 2018, World Bank 2020d). Notable gender gaps in attitudes examples show that quotas, while debatable, have been about women’s role as political leaders are also evident in used as tools for increasing the opportunities for women the World Value Survey (2018), but with a larger percentage to run for and ultimately secure a public office position. difference (20 percentage points) (see Figure 49). The Quotas could also have an impact in the private sector, as results of a UN Women study of the female candidates who they have been found to increase women’s opportunities ran for parliamentary office in 2018 (a total of 75 out of the to secure decision-making roles in the corporate arena and 86 women who ran for office) revealed that rooted norms participate in decision-making processes in the economic manifested in how the media portrayed the candidates, the sphere. There are currently no quota requirements for types of questions that they were asked and the airtime women to join corporate boards (World Bank 2020d). they received: one in three of the candidates reported that they faced gender-based discrimination during their Perceptions regarding women’s leadership abilities and interviews (Kaakour 2020).72 These disparities are also discrimination in media exposure are linked to entrenched consistent with attitudes about women as executives, with norms about gendered roles and limited women’s many more male respondents agreeing that men make 70 Since the analysis of election results, a number of female parliamentarians have left their parliamentary positions in 2020. 71 Inter-Parliamentary Union (2020). There are no quota requirements for female representation in either parliamentary or local government capacities (Iqbal 2015). 72 Other factors contributed to the small share of women winning office, including financial constraints and the high cost of campaigning. Furthermore, most female candidates ran as independents, defying the traditional convention to run along political affiliations (El Kaakour 2020). Female candidates were also subject to harassment during the election period: based on the study’s 75 candidate respondents, almost 80 percent faced some form of violence. The majority of the abuse took place on social media (El Kaakour 2020). 62 The Status of Women in Lebanon better executives than women (46 compared to 26 percent, The majority of people in Lebanon agree with the respectively). Despite these concerning trends, other statement that children suffer when mothers are surveys paint a more optimistic outlook while recognizing working (with distinct variation by rural and urban there still lies a certain resistance among men.73 areas). Non-family childcare is not widely accepted in Lebanon; 63 percent of women and men believe it could On broader issues, younger cohorts are less likely to negatively affect children. There is more acceptability of hold conservative views in labor market statements. childcare among younger cohorts, but this is slight and For example, one third of younger respondents (18 to 25 somewhat mixed (see Figure 51). A larger difference is years of age) believe that men should have more rights to found when comparing rural and urban areas; women a job than women compared to one half of respondents and men in rural areas tend to have more conservative over 56 years of age. The same pattern is observed for attitudes towards childcare than those living in cities, the statement that being a housewife is as fulfilling as with rural women particularly restrictive in their attitudes working for pay (see Figure 50). (see Figure 52). FIGURE 50: LEBANESE IN AGREEMENT THAT “BEING A HOUSEWIFE IS AS FULFILLING AS WORKING FOR PAY” (%), BY AGE COHORT, 2018 18 to 29 30 to 49 50 to 64 65 or older 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree Source: World Value Survey, Wave VII 2017-2020 FIGURE 51: LEBANESE IN AGREEMENT WITH THE STATEMENT “PRESCHOOL CHILDREN SUFFER WITH A WORKING MOTHER” (%), BY AGE COHORT, 2018 18 to 29 30 to 49 50 to 64 65 or older 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree Source: World Value Survey, Wave VII 2017-2020 73 The International Men and Gender Equality Survey pointed to more positive views of women’s leadership in various aspects of public life. For example, 77 percent of men and 90 percent of women believe that there should be more women in political authority, and 77 percent of men and 92 percent of woman believe that women with the same qualifications can do as a good a job as a man could in political office. The Status of Women in Lebanon 63 FIGURE 52: LEBANESE IN AGREEMENT WITH THE STATEMENT “PRESCHOOL CHILDREN SUFFER WITH A WORKING MOTHER” (%), BY RURAL/URBAN, 2018 Female rural Male rural Female urban Male urban 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree Source: World Value Survey, Wave VII 2017-2020 Subjective well-being and gender norms Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, there was no More men than women responded that they had difference between women and men in terms of freedom of choice, but the difference is nominal. reported life satisfaction or happiness in Lebanon.74 Furthermore, it becomes insignificant once individual No significant differences were found between women characteristics are considered. Respondents were asked and men in terms of self-assessed happiness and life if they feel that they control their lives and have free satisfaction: 85 percent of men and 88 percent of women choice on the scale from “no choice at all” to “a great deal were happy (see Table 8). If average life satisfaction of choice.” The average value for this indicator is higher is compared using a one to ten scale, there are no for men, meaning they feel they have to higher freedom statistically significant differences between women and of choice compared to women. However, this difference men. This finding does not change if the two indicators vanishes if individual characteristics such as employment, are analyzed by gender or by age group. marital status or education are taken into account. TABLE 8: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN HAPPINESS, LIFE SATISFACTION AND FREEDOM OF CHOICE, 2018 Happy respondents (% of total) Average life satisfaction (0-10) Freedom of choice (0‑10) Male 85 6.70 5.98 Female 88 6.67 5.78 Source: World Value Survey, Wave VII 2017-2020 74 Attitudinal data in this section come from the World Values Survey database, Wave VII, 2018. 64 The Status of Women in Lebanon Being married and employed increases the freedom Gender stereotypes regarding who should be of choice among both male and female respondents. responsible for family decisions persist, with more men While women are more likely than men to be unemployed, and youth holding conservative views. Stereotypical more men (70 percent) than women (61 percent) are views of Lebanese women’s role in family and society stressed about losing their job or not finding one. Such is a main challenge to gender equality and women’s attitudes may have changed during the impact of the empowerment in Lebanon (IFES and IWPR 2010). Men 2019 financial crisis and 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, are much more likely to believe that husbands should with women who are already underrepresented in the be the ones responsible for family decisions (see Figure labor market reporting higher job losses than men (48 53), a view that younger people are more likely to hold compared to 40 percent, respectively) and higher wage compared to older cohorts (see Figure 54). The labor reductions (7 compared to 3 percent, respectively) (UN market section analyzed how these norms affect Women, NCLW, UNFPA, and WHO 2020a). women’s participation in employment. FIGURE 53: LEBANESE IN AGREEMENT WITH FIGURE 54: LEBANESE IN AGREEMENT WITH THE STATEMENT “HUSBANDS SHOULD HAVE THE STATEMENT “HUSBANDS SHOULD HAVE THE FINAL SAY IN ALL DECISIONS CONCERNING THE FINAL SAY IN ALL DECISIONS CONCERNING THE FAMILY,” BY GENDER (%), 2018 THE FAMILY,” BY AGE COHORT (%), 2018 Female 15-29 30-49 Male 50+ 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Agree or strongly agree Agree or strongly agree Disagree or strongly disagree Disagree or strongly disagree Source: Arab Barometer V, 2018-2019 Source: Arab Barometer V, 2018-2019 The Status of Women in Lebanon 65 Gender-based violence and violence against women and girls Gender-based violence is a global problem that affects women’s autonomy and decision-making capacity. one out of three women in their lifetime, impacting their It limits women’s possibilities to enjoy fundamental agency and ability to live life to its fullest potential rights and freedoms, and furthermore, has economic (WHO 2017). The Inter-Agency Standing Committee and societal consequences due to higher health care and defines gender-based violence as “an umbrella term for justice systems costs and lost productivity. any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed (i.e. gender) Intimate partner violence, also known as domestic differences between males and females. It includes acts violence, is the most common form of violence that inflict physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering, against women worldwide. According to World Health threats of such acts, coercion, and other deprivations Organization (WHO) 2017 estimates, 38 percent of of liberty. These acts can occur in public or private” women worldwide have experienced physical and/or (IASC 2017). While both women and men can experience sexual violence by a male intimate partner in their lifetime. gender-based violence, the term is “rooted in gender In the MENA region, 40 percent of ever-partnered women inequality, the abuse of power and harmful norms.[It] (aged 15 and older) have experienced physical or sexual is primarily used to underscore the fact that structural, violence (or both) by an intimate partner.76 The regional gender-based power differentials place women and girls average does not capture differences across countries or at risk for multiple forms of violence” (UN Women).75 increasing disparities within countries where population Apart from the negative physical, psychological and mobility is high and in flux (often due to conflict). social impacts, gender-based violence also undermines BOX 4: THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE UN Women estimates that one in three women has The following are types of violence committed endured some form of violence by a partner or non- against women and girls: partner in her lifetime. Violence against women and girls is defined as “any act of gender-based violence 1. Domestic violence, including economic, that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual psychological, emotional, physical and sexual or mental harm or suffering to women and girls, violence; including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary 2. Femicide, such as harmful traditional practices deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public such as honour killings; or in private life. Violence against women and girls 3. Sexual assault, including harassment and rape; encompasses, but is not limited to, physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family or 4. Forced or child marriage; within the general community, and perpetrated or 5. Female genital mutilation; and condoned by the state.” 6. Online or digital violence. Source: UN Women. For more information on violence against women facts and figures, see UN Women website at https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures. 75 For more information on different forms of violence against women, see UN Women website at https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ ending-violence-against-women/faqs/types-of-violence. 76 Preliminary analysis of the World Health Organization on global and regional estimates of violence against women, global prevalence database 2013 using World Bank regions. 66 The Status of Women in Lebanon on violence against women in Lebanon note that this FIGURE 55: MAIN REASONS FOR CALLS reporting rate is extremely low; most victims do not seek TO SEXUAL AND GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE any help (UNFPA 2012). These findings are consistent HOTLINES DURING THE JANUARY with 2020 survey results that show that among women 2021 LOCKDOWN who have known someone that has experienced violence, 76 percent reported that the survivor did not seek help 7% (UN Women and UNFPA 2020). 11% Pandemic-related lockdowns and closures, coupled with the broader economic crisis, have exacerbated the situation, increasing the risks of violence against 53% women. During the first five months of the lockdown, 29% several sources recorded notable increases in the reporting of gender-based violence. For example, the GBVIMS recorded a 3 percent increase in intimate partner violence, a 5 percent increase in physical assault incidents and a 9 percent increase of incidents occurring Cash assistance/basic needs in a survivor’s home (UN Women 2020d). Two other Psychosocial support/counselling Access to safety options (i.e. referral to safe houses) organizations, KAFA (Enough) Violence & Exploitation Access to health services/hospital coverage and ABAAD, reported sharp increases in calls to their hotlines during the early months of the pandemic and Source: UN Women, NCLW, UNFPA, and WHO 2021. a 40 percent increase in demand for their services (UN Women 2020d). There is no nationally representative prevalence This rise in hotline call rates has continued into 2021, data on gender-based violence in Lebanon.77 However, with spikes during lockdown periods. According to a several studies confirm that gender-based violence, rapid survey of 38 sexual and gender-based violence including physical, sexual and psychological violence by service providers during the 7-25 January 2021 lockdown, an intimate partner, is prevalent in Lebanon. UNFPA data more than half (53 percent) said that calls, predominately points to an average of one in two persons reporting made by women, were considerably higher during the that they know of someone subjected to domestic lockdown than prior (UN Women 2021).79 While the violence, with 65 percent of the cases committed by majority of requests were seeking cash assistance family members and 71 percent of incidents taking place support, 40 percent were asking for explicit support for inside the perpetrator’s home (UNFPA 2017). In a study gender-based violence services. Another survey carried by the American University of Beirut Medical Center for out on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender Gynaecological Care, married women between 20 and 65 equality and violence against women and girls shows years old were interviewed on various forms of intimate the same worrisome trends: more than one-third in the partner violence. Forty-one percent of the women gave study reported feeling unsafe in their home, and more a history of physical abuse, 33 percent of sexual abuse, than half of women and men agreed to the statement 65 percent of verbal abuse and 19 percent of emotional that “women face an increased risk of violence by their abuse (Awwad et al. 2014). Furthermore, 22 percent of husbands because of the lockdown (UN Women and the women reported spouse- imposed social isolation, UNFPA 2020).”80 The sharp increase is in line with reports and 33 percent reported economic abuse. The 2014 rate from the Internal Security Force’s dedicated 1745 hotline (per 100,000 population) of sexual violence offences (Yassine 2021). reported to the police was 3.6.78 However, most studies 77 Few countries in the MENA region have undertaken large scale, population-based surveys on the prevalence of and attitudes towards gender- based violence. Some, including Lebanon, have conducted prevalence studies within selected groups of women. 78 According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) classification, “sexual violence” includes rape and sexual assault, including sexual offences against children. Crime data in this section comes from the UNODC database. 79 The survey was carried out as part of the sexual and gender-based violence task force, which is an Inter-Agency (UN, government and NGO) taskforce that falls under the structure of the Lebanon Crisis Response Plan, a plan that coordinates and directs the response to the Syria crisis in Lebanon. Results are not by disaggregated by nationality. 80 Part of a regional effort to collect data from nine Arab States. The Lebanon-specific country survey was a UN Women–UNFPA partnership, with support from the Sexual and Gender-based Violence Task Force. It was conducted between 4 and 27 May 2020, using random domain technology. There were 1,431 respondents (513 women). The survey was weighted to ensure representation by age, sex and education. The Status of Women in Lebanon 67 FIGURE 56: ATTITUDES ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE BY SEX AND AGE COHORT, 2018 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Never 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always justifiable justifiable Sex [Age=Up to 29] Male Sex [Age=Up to 29] Female Sex [Age=30-49] Male Sex [Age=30-49] Female Sex [Age=50 and more] Male Sex [Age=50 and more] Female Source: Source: World Value Survey, Wave VII 2018. Question on “Is it ever justifiable for a man to beat his wife?” Attitudes towards domestic violence may be improving poor living, inadequate facilities and limited access to and shared across different age cohorts. In 2017, more support. Women face the largest risks at home in refugee than 75 percent of the Lebanese population considered situations because added pressures within households that it is never or not justifiable for a man to beat his wife lead to an increase in intimate partner violence (UNFPA (see Figure 56). There is little difference between young 2016). According to a study in northern Lebanon, Syrian respondents (up to 29 years old) and those in the oldest women reported an overall increase in harassment by age group (50 and above), with a higher share of the Lebanese men, while Lebanese women expressed being latter responding that physical violence against a woman afraid of walking at night due to fear of being attacked (spouse) is never justifiable. Another study shows that a by Syrian men (Ghanem 2016). An assessment by the majority of Lebanese men (67 percent) and 79 percent of International Rescue Committee demonstrates that Lebanese women believe that men who commit marital rape and sexual violence are the main forms of gender- rape should be prosecuted (El Feki et al. 2017). On this based violence faced by refugee Syrian women and question, attitudes among Syrian refugees are relatively girls in Lebanon and that intimate partner violence, similar among men (65 percent), but more Syrian refugee early marriage and survival sex are other common women (84 percent) believe that it is unacceptable and forms of violence (Lilleston et al. 2012). Previous surveys should be criminalized. In general, men’s attitudes are reveal that the majority of incidents are not reported; more restrictive and less egalitarian than those of women. 38 percent of women said that when violence against women happens, it is not reported. Only 22 percent of Refugee women in Lebanon face an increased risk of Syrian women accessed gender-based violence services multiple forms of violence. Refugee women face an (UN Women 2019b). A survey on reproductive health and increased risk of violence stemming from insecurity, violence applied in six health clinics in Lebanon in 2012 68 The Status of Women in Lebanon BOX 5: SEXUAL HARASSMENT LAW 205 In December 2020, Lebanon issued Law 205, The law provides for the protection of victims and penalizing sexual harassment in private and public witnesses during an interrogation and in all steps places and at the workplace. This new law imposes of a trial. It also protects victims, witnesses and penalties of one month to four years of imprisonment whistleblowers from any form of direct or indirect and/or fines ranging from three to 50 times the discrimination or disciplinary measures in public and minimum wage. A number of factors can increase the private workplaces. It enables victims to seek additional penalty, including the setting in which the harassment damages for psychological, moral or material harm. occurs (e.g. state institutions, universities, public The law does not prevent employers from imposing transportation); the nature of the relationship and disciplinary measures (including termination) against the power dynamics between the harasser and the employees charged under the law. victim (e.g. abuse of position of workplace power, dependency relationships; authority over the victim; The law creates a special fund at the Ministry of use of extreme material, moral or financial pressure); Social Affairs to offer support and rehabilitation the victim (e.g. a minor, a person with special needs to victims of sexual harassment. This law was the or someone unable to defend him/herself), and the result of joint efforts by civil society, members of number of perpetrators. Penalties can be doubled for parliament, the Mashreq Gender Facility, NCLW, the multiple incidents. American University of Beirut/Knowledge is Power project and advisers to the Ministry of Justice. revealed that one third of the women had been exposed (Law 293, Iqbal 2015). Article 21 of Law 293 requires the to conflict violence and over one fourth had been exposed creation of an independent fund to support and protect to more than one type of conflict violence (Masterson et victims of violence, including tools for violence prevention al. 2014). The great majority of the women, 96 percent, and rehabilitation of perpetrators. The law stipulates identified the perpetrator as an armed person. Among the fund be considered as a part of the Ministry of women who experienced violence, 28 percent suffered Social Affairs’ annual budget, pending approval of the physical injury and 70 percent had psychological Council of Ministers (Law 293). In December 2020, the difficulties due to the event. More than half of the Lebanese Parliament passed Law 205 to criminalize victims did not speak to anyone about the violence, and sexual harassment in public places and in the workplace two thirds did not seek any medical care. The impact of (See Box 5). COVID-19 is likely exacerbating this problem. For all laws that contribute positively to the The ability to exercise agency is also linked to feelings advancement of women in areas of access, agency of stability, security and safety during displacement. and economic participation, there remain challenges Yet this has proven to be exceptionally difficult for with enforcement at the legal, societal and family refugee women. Refugee women are much less likely levels. Legal protection gaps exist, and enforcement to hold residency in Lebanon than refugee men (by nine remains a challenge. Despite its advances in including percentage points), making it hard for them to feel secure protective and punitive measures, Law 293 has serious in their daily life or to access basic services (UN Women shortcomings: it fails to criminalize forced sex (or rape) in 2019b). Refugee women have also reported movement marriage; it does not afford migrant domestic workers outside the home as a top concern (VASyR 2021). any protection from violence; it does not clearly define or classify crimes that fall under domestic violence; In general, significant progress has been made on and its application is influenced by traditional religious laws pertaining to violence against women and girls. and patriarchal leaders (Mikdashi 2015; UNDP 2018). Prior to 2014, there was no legislation protecting against On a positive note, the Lebanese parliament endorsed domestic violence and abuse. Adopted in May of 2014, amendments to the 2014 law, broadening its scope Law 293 for the Protection of Women and Other Family to include violence related to (but not necessarily Members from Domestic Violence prohibits all forms of committed during) marriage and to include economic violence (including physical, sexual, psychological and and psychological violence. economic) and provides clear sentencing guidelines 69 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 70 The Status of Women in Lebanon PRIORITY AREAS FOR ACTION POLICIES AND PROGRAMS COLLABORATION KNOWLEDGE Supporting policies & Engaging with a diverse Unpacking data programs that boost women’s set of actors to capitalize to strengthen employment, entrepreneurship on momentum for impact of reforms toward a more equal ‘future change toward and service delivery of work’ economy. gender equality. benefits to women. Support women’s employment Leverage the momentum of Deepen understanding of factors and entrepreneurship, especially in reforms on sexual harassment to and drivers affecting different non-traditional sectors. determine next steps, additional groups with a specific focus on reforms. rural/urban, vulnerable groups. Invest in childcare for improved early childhood development, Capitalize on women’s civil society Investigate role of social norms in human capital accumulation and engagement to better anchor determining certain attitudes and women’s economic activity. development initiatives for broader behaviors across different groups. ownership and sustainability of Promoting upskilling, digital and outcomes. Shed light on gender equality links financial inclusion. to macro-policies, migration. Promote women in leadership, Capacity-building for reforms and jointly with universities, networks. Increased sex-disaggregated data implementation. at individual/household levels. The multiple crises have had disproportionate also stalled, especially among vulnerable Lebanese and impacts across the human development and economic the refugee population. Moreover, job losses due to the dimensions of gender equality, reversing many of the crises have disproportionately affected women — who positive gains made over the last decade. This Gender are also burdened by increased care responsibilities and Assessment points to gender discrepancies, progress higher risks of gender-based violence during lockdowns and challenges in different dimensions of gender equality and protracted closures. in Lebanon, based on existing data and qualitative literature. The role of social norms cannot be overlooked. Over the years, there has been greater recognition of how gender The low levels of fertility, adolescent pregnancy norms in the MENA region impact individual outcomes, and maternal mortality, combined with high levels such as labor force participation, entrepreneurial activity of education, would seem to present conditions and physical and human capital accumulation. In conducive to women increasing their role in the Lebanon, women’s participation in the labor market is economic and political spheres. Prior to October 2019, directly affected by a combination of legal, normative and data pointed to an increasing trend of women becoming market-driven constraints that come into play at critical more economically active. However, female labor force points in a woman’s life. Yet there is little knowledge participation rates remain extremely low in Lebanon, about how these norms relate to other characteristics, and closer examination of regional trends shows striking such as education attainment, socioeconomic status or disparities. Progress made in health and education has urban/rural location. The Status of Women in Lebanon 71 In this context, there are opportunities for further analysis and action. This Gender Assessment takes a holistic approach in its analysis of the status of women in Lebanon, but it is not intended to be an exhaustive review. This Assessment identifies priorities to support women’s empowerment and to address identified gender gaps in Lebanon. These priorities can be grouped under three pillars: ‘areas for action’, ‘collaboration’ and ‘knowledge’. There are inter-linkages across these pillars and a need for them to build on one another. The three pillars include activities that focus on i) supporting policies and programs that boost women’s employment and entrepreneurship towards a more equal ‘future of work’ economy, ii) engaging with a diverse set of actors to capitalize on momentum for change towards gender equality, and iii) unpacking data to strengthen the impacts of reforms and service delivery benefits to women. Based on the assessment findings, the following are recommendations for future analysis and action under the three main pillars: 1) POLICIES AND PROGRAMS Support policies and programs that boost women’s employment and entrepreneurship for a more equal ‘future of work’ economy. • Support women’s employment and entrepreneurship, especially in non-traditional sectors. The analysis shows that women are generally well educated and well represented in STEM fields in tertiary education. However, this is not necessarily translating into jobs in these fields. Going forward, it would be useful to identify how to bridge this disconnect by, for example, improving women entrepreneurs’ access to technical and financial services and strengthening women’s role in the digital economy. Given the multiple crises in Lebanon, creative solutions to improve women’s access to finance and international markets would improve their resilience. • Investing in childcare will contribute to improved early childhood development, human capital accumulation and women’s economic activity. Studies have shown the multiple benefits of childcare, yet in Lebanon, access to quality, affordable childcare is limited. A forthcoming assessment of the childcare industry in Lebanon will provide a comprehensive understanding of childcare supply and demand. New evidence in this area should be leveraged to promote a multisectoral dialogue involving various stakeholders to address childcare as a national priority. 2) COLLABORATION Engage with a diverse set of actors to capitalize on momentum for change towards gender equality. • Leverage the momentum of reforms on sexual harassment. This can open doors to introducing a stronger regulatory framework and strengthening implementation mechanisms and responsibilities for survivors of gender-based violence (e.g. referral systems, support systems and service delivery). 72 The Status of Women in Lebanon • Capitalize on women’s civil society engagement to better anchor development initiatives for broader ownership and sustainability of outcomes. Women’s strengthened roles in the protests (or ‘social revolution’) and the demonstrable convening/consensus-building to address gender equality issues after the Beirut port explosions could be leveraged for more development impact across thematic areas. • Promote women in leadership. Women’s limited representation in decision-making spaces calls for a greater need to support and groom young female leaders in the economy and politics. These efforts should be done in collaboration with academic institutions and professional networks. 3) KNOWLEDGE Unpack data in order to strengthen the impacts of reforms and service delivery benefits to women. • A better understanding of intersectionality to determine gender equality outcomes. Women are not a homogeneous group; they have different characteristics, such as the urban/rural divide, citizenship, different educational backgrounds and employment status and their relation to gender-differentiated development outcomes. Going forward, analysis on how these characteristics overlap and intersect could provide a more nuanced understanding to inform policies and programs targeted at different population groups. More analysis is needed to understand the role of gender at the macro level, such as how gender relates to reforms surrounding procurement, taxation and subsidies in the context of financial and economic recovery. • A specific focus on vulnerable women’s access to livelihoods. Analysis of characteristics that may result in overlapping disadvantages is important to identifying interventions that enhance the well-being of women in refugee and host community populations, low-skilled populations in marginalized geographic regions and other vulnerable groups. Programs targeting these groups may need to provide a more comprehensive package of services to improve poor and vulnerable women’s access to income-generating activities. Data collection on individual welfare is essential to better address the determinants of poverty. • Unpack the role of social norms to better understand certain attitudes and behaviors across different groups. Understanding social norms will shed light on the drivers behind conservative trends regarding gender equality observed among younger women and men in Lebanon. This can point to opportunities for focused interventions that contribute to more equitable attitudes and behaviors. The Status of Women in Lebanon 73 ANNEX 1 LEBANON’S LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY STATUS OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS International Treaties and Conventions on Gender Equality Signature Ratification Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action 1995 CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of 16 Apr 1997 (a) International Treaties and Conventions on Discrimination against Women (with reservations to article 9 (2), Article 16 (1) (c) (d) (f) Convention on the Political Rights of Women 1954 1956 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education 1964 Gender Equality International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1972 (1966) CRC - Convention on the Rights of the Child 1990 1991 CRC – OP-SC – Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of 2002 the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict CRC-OP-SC - Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights 2001 2004 of the Child on the sale of children child prostitution and child pornography 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals 2015 ILO - Convention Date Status C045 - Underground Work (Women) Convention, 1935 (No. 45) 26 Jul 1962 In Force C081 - Labor Inspection Convention, 1947 (No. 81) 26 Jul 1962 In Force C089 - Night Work (Women) Convention (Revised), 1948 (No. 89) 26 Jul 1962 In Force C098 - Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention, 01 Jun 1977 In Force 1949 (No. 98) ILO Conventions C100 - Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100) 01 Jun 1977 In Force C111 - Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 01 Jun 1977 In Force 1958 (No. 111) C122 - Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (No. 122) 01 Jun 1977 In Force C142 - Human Resources Development Convention, 1975 (No. 142) 23 Feb 2000 In Force C182 - Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention, 1999 (No. 182) 11 Sep 2001 In Force C138 - Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)Minimum age 10 Jun 2003 In Force specified: 14 years 74 The Status of Women in Lebanon ANNEX 2 WOMEN, BUSINESS, AND THE LAW 2021 LEBANON’S INDEX SCORE 52.5 OUT OF 100 Question Answer Law Can a woman choose where to live in the same way as a man? Yes Can a woman travel outside her home in the same way as a man? Yes Mobility Can a woman apply for a passport in the same way as a man? Yes Passport Law, Art. 6; Passport application procedures Can a woman travel outside the country in the same way as a man? Yes Can a woman get a job in the same way as a man? Yes Does the law prohibit discrimination in employment based on gender? Yes Labor Code, Art. 26 Workplace Is there legislation on sexual harassment in employment? No Are there criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in No employment? Criminal penalties No Civil remedies No Does the law mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value? No Can a woman work at night in the same way as a man? Yes Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous in the same way as a man? Yes Jobs deemed hazardous Yes Jobs deemed arduous Yes Jobs deemed morally inappropriate Yes Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way as a man? No Equal Remuneration Mining No Labor Code, Art. 27 and Annex 1 Construction Yes Factories No Labor Code, Art. 27 and Annex 1 Agriculture No Labor Code of 1946, Art. 27 and Annex 1 Energy No Labor Law, Art. 27 and Annex 1 Water Yes Transportation No Labor Law, Art. 27 and Annex 1 Other Yes The Status of Women in Lebanon 75 Question Answer Law Is there no legal provision that requires a married woman to obey her Yes husband? Can a woman be “head of household” or “head of family” in the same way Yes as a man? Is there legislation specifically addressing domestic violence? Yes Domestic Violence Marriage Law Can a woman obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man? No Constitution of Lebanon, Arts. 9 and 19 Does a woman have the same rights to remarry as a man? No Constitution of Lebanon, Arts. 9 and 19 Is paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to mothers? No Labor Code, Art. 28 Length of paid maternity leave 70 Does the government administer 100% of maternity leave benefits? No Labor Code, Art. 29 Is there paid leave available to fathers? No Parenthood Length of paid paternity leave 0 Is there paid parental leave? No Shared days 0 Days for the mother 0 Days for the father 0 Is dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited? Yes Labor Code, Art. 52 Does the law prohibit discrimination in access to credit based on gender? No Entrepreneurship Can a woman sign a contract in the same way as a man? Yes Can a woman register a business in the same way as a man? Yes Can a woman open a bank account in the same way as a man? Yes Do men and women have equal ownership rights to immovable property? Yes Constitution of Lebanon, Art. 7 Do sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their No Constitution of parents? Lebanon, Arts. 9 and 19 Do female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets? No Constitution of Lebanon, Arts. 9 and 19 Assets Does the law grant spouses equal administrative authority over assets Yes Constitution of during marriage? Lebanon, Arts. 9 and 19 Does the law provide for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions? No Constitution of Lebanon, Arts. 9 and 19 What is the default marital property regime? Separation of property 76 The Status of Women in Lebanon Question Answer Law Is the age at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits No the same? Age (women) NS Age (men) NS Is the age at which men and women can retire with partial pension No benefits the same? Retirement Age (women) NS Age (men) NS Is the mandatory retirement age for men and women the same? Yes Age (women) 64 Labor Code, Art. 55 Age (men) 64 Labor Code, Art. 55 Are periods of absence from work due to childcare accounted for in No pension benefits? The Status of Women in Lebanon 77 REFERENCES Abdulrahim, Sawsan, Kristine J. 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