2016/70 k nKonw A A weldegdeg e ol n oNtoet e s eSrei r e ise s f ofro r p r&a c t hteh e nEenregryg y Etx itcrea c t i v e s G l o b a l P r a c t i c e The bottom line The Importance of Health and Safety at African Mine Sites Promoting equity and shared prosperity calls for a closer look at the working and living Why is this issue important? countries such as Botswana, Lesotho, and Namibia are striking. In those countries, TB has recently been the second-leading cause of conditions of millions of mine Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rates death; in South Africa, the third; in Swaziland and Zimbabwe, the workers in Africa, where of tuberculosis and the weakest prevention fourth; in Malawi and Mozambique, the fifth; and in Zambia, the sixth tuberculosis imposes a high burden on mining economies schemes in the world (GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators 2015). and constitutes a regional public Tuberculosis (TB), which kills about two million of the world’s people health crisis. Health hazards are each year, is one of the greatest public health challenges of the Why is TB such a serious problem for Africa? perpetuated by poor enforcement twenty-first century. In 2015 it surpassed HIV/AIDS as the globe’s Africa depends on mines, and mines are a of mining legislation, limited most fatal infectious disease. Yet TB is a highly preventable and cur- application of best international high-risk environment for TB transmission able condition. Although the Millennium Development Goal to reduce practices, weak institutions, and the incidence of TB has been met, the world in 2015 still confronted The exploitation of mineral and energy resources has long been inadequate equipment and skills. 9.6 million new cases and 1.5 million deaths (WHO 2015). Nearly all the predominant source of revenue for resource-rich countries in Attention by Africa’s regional (99 percent) cases are in low-income countries, where they inflict a Sub-Saharan Africa. The region as a whole is second only to the economic communities and the tremendous burden on poor households (Zignol and others 2006). Middle East in its dependence on extractive industries. States such international donor community is Although the global incidence of TB decreased by 45 percent as Angola, Botswana, Sierra Leone, and Zambia are among the most needed. between 1990 and 2014, incidence rates in Africa have continued heavily mineral-dependent in the world. But seven of the region’s to rise, exceeding by far those seen in other regions. The continent economies derive at least half of their foreign exchange from the accounts for 13 percent of the world’s population but a dispropor- mineral sector. In addition to the three just mentioned, they are tionate 28 percent of the world’s burden of TB and 34 percent of Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Namibia, and Niger (Bocoum deaths from the disease (World Bank 2016). Sub-Saharan Africa has 2013 and 2014). In Southern Africa, mining generates more than 60 about 281 new TB cases per 100,000 population, more than double percent of the subregion’s foreign exchange and employs more than the global average of 133. Around a third of the world’s 22 high-bur- a million people (Bocoum 2003). den TB countries are in Africa, more specifically in Southern Africa, While the unprecedented rise in TB cases in Africa has been and most countries in the subregion are above the WHO threshold largely driven by the HIV epidemic, mining is implicated directly Brigitte Bocoum, PhD, for a TB emergency (250 cases per 100,000). Eight of the 14 countries as well. In fact, a third of new TB cases in Sub-Saharan Africa are is a senior mining in the world with the highest TB incidence (at least 400 cases per attributed to mining (Fitzpatrick and others 2013). In Southern Africa specialist in the World 100,000) are in Africa (World Bank 2016). alone, TB incidence is four to seven times higher among miners and Bank’s Energy and Extractives Global Practice. TB remains among the top five causes of death in Sub-Saharan ex-miners than among the general population (World Bank 2014a). In Africa. In terms of the years of life lost to TB, the pandemics in Zambia, a recent national survey found that TB prevalence in mining 2 T h e I m p o r ta n c e o f H e a l th a n d S a f e t y at A f r i c a n Mi n e S it e s areas such as Ndola, Kitwe, and Kolwezi was three to five times well (table 1). For example, deep mines are said to produce more higher than the national average (Government of Zambia 2014). severe problems for workers (high blood pressure, heat exhaustion, In uncontrolled mining operations and communities of the type myocardial infarction, nervous system disorders). Mining of coal, common in Africa, several factors combine to form a perfect storm granite, and rock produces high levels of dust that is harmful when for TB infection and transmission. Mines are high-risk environments inhaled. Coal, asbestos, and uranium are hazardous to mine, and “In uncontrolled for TB transmission because of poor ventilation and exposure to some health impacts are specific to these products. mining operations and silica dust. Prolonged exposure to silica dust damages the lungs and All of these factors contribute to a strong link between TB in creates susceptibility to silicosis, a fibrogenic lung disease that is the mining population and in the general population that in several communities of the type perhaps the most ancient of occupational hazards and a risk factor countries in Sub-Saharan Africa is disproportionate to the level of common in Africa, several for TB. But silica exposure is associated with TB even in the absence employment in mining and other silica-producing sectors. factors combine to form of silicosis.1 Remedies are available. For example, empirical analysis has a perfect storm for TB Exposure to silica is common in a range of industries, including shown that reducing dust reduces rates of TB among workers. Even mining, quarrying, stone cutting, and construction, with the result in resource-poor settings, water spray controls have been shown infection and transmission.” that many millions of people around the world are silica-exposed. to reduce silica by 80 percent in small stone-crushing mills in India Among the highest recorded rates of TB occur in silica-exposed (Pantoja and others 2009). What has been lacking is will. populations, with an incidence as high as 7,000/100,000 among South African gold miners. Exposure to silica permanently raises the What are the obstacles to progress? risk that one will contract TB at some point in life. Because of the high opportunity cost of accessing care and fear Wide gaps exist between international goals and of stigma and job loss, miners are not likely to seek early diagnosis best practices and Africa’s current performance and treatment. The risk of transmission of TB to other household A 2015 survey of diagnostic and treatment practices by Médecins members and to the mining and source communities is high. Sans Frontières (MSF) and the Stop TB Partnership in 24 countries, That migrant and temporary labor is common in silica-exposed including Mozambique, found huge gaps between current TB control workplaces helps to transmit TB widely in distant communities often policies and best practices critical to meet a global target of 90 poorly served by health services. percent reduction in TB incidence and 95 percent reduction in TB TB burdens in silica-exposed populations have also been strongly mortality by 2035. To meet the internationally agreed Sustainable influenced by the HIV pandemic, partly because the TB risks of Development Goals by 2030, countries and regions that still lag silicosis and HIV infection combine multiplicatively. A TB incidence of behind will have to scale up their implementation of best practices. In 16,100 per 100,000 person-years has been reported among HIV- such environments, alas, changes are often slow to materialize. positive gold miners with silicosis. Responding to the health and safety dangers posed by mining is Overall, small-scale mines, which are on the rise in low-income not a simple matter. Limited resources exist to help miners prevent countries, are reported to be more hazardous than large ones in or even to mitigate occupational hazards such as silicosis, chronic terms of health risks, accidents, and injuries. In their study of silica lung disease, and respiratory failure, as well as other serious health exposure in small-scale gold mining operations, Gottesfeld, Andrew, issues associated with long years of mining. Even in countries with and Dalhoff (2015) show that exposures to silica are more than two a long mining tradition (South Africa, Zambia) occupational safety hundred times greater in small-scale artisanal mines than in larger and health standards and policies remain deficient. Legislation and mines. Small-scale mines tend to employ younger and less-expe- regulation related to monitoring and control of mine dust, technology rienced workers, and sometimes children. Other hazards exist as to prevent dust inhalation, monitoring and evaluation of miners who become ill, post-employment screening, and workers’ compensation 1 More information on TB at mine sites can be found at www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ are scarce. Where they are found they may be poorly enforced. health/brief/tuberculosis-control. 3 T h e I m p o r ta n c e o f H e a l th a n d S a f e t y at A f r i c a n Mi n e S it e s Table 1. Health hazards associated with selected types of mining operations Mineral/mining type Main causes and/or health impacts Open pit/cast mining Dust exposure, noise Underground mining High blood pressure, heat exhaustion, myocardial infarction, and nervous system disorders “The practice of allowing Small-scale mining At least as hazardous as large-scale mines mining companies to Risks of accidents or injuries self-report on health issues Child labor poses high risks Uranium mining Long-term health impacts (for more than 20 years after cessation of work) should be eliminated. Lung cancer Legislation on the health Coal mining Dust exposure: Black lung and other chronic and fatal conditions aspects of mining Mercury (used in mining gold) Severe poisoning include weakness, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums, loose teeth, tremors, nausea, abdominal pain, operations in Africa must headaches, diarrhea, and cardiac weakness be developed in line with Copper mining Respiratory tract irritation, systemic poisoning, and pneumoconiosis international standards and Dust Dust from blasting and drilling accumulates in the lungs causing pneumoconiosis, silicosis, and fibrosis Radon A radioactive, odorless gas, radon is associated with several types of underground mining. Long-term exposure can cause best practices.” lung cancer. Source: WHO (2007). While it is commonly agreed that there is an urgent need allowing mining companies to self-report on health issues should be to improve transparency and accountability at all levels of the eliminated. Legislation on the health aspects of mining operations African mining industry, it is unlikely that government, industry, in Africa must be developed in line with international standards and workers, and international organizations will soon reach agreement best practices. on sharing responsibility for the negative health impacts of the Given the scope of the problem and the importance of mining to sector or on remedial action. Even where support has been forth- the region’s economy, a systematic approach is needed to address coming from governments, industry, and unions, improvements have the crisis of occupational health hazards, particularly TB, in Africa’s come slowly and painfully. Clear and simple-to-administer policy mines and to ensure that the economic benefits of mining, including initiatives are rare. the growing artisanal and small-scale mining industry, are not Mine workers have been able to use scientific evidence to eroded. The historical patterns of migration in the subregion (from improve “hazard visibility” and to obtain changes in health and safety labor-sending countries to South Africa) underscore the regional legislation, even though much of the small-scale mining sector nature of the problem and the need for coordinated, collective still falls outside formal legislative protection or scientific analysis action. In a word, mining’s toll on human health must be recognized in many places. Companies have provided a range of community as a regional public health crisis. Half a million miners currently work initiatives, including vaccination programs and health services. in South Africa’s mines, where the incidence of TB has skyrocketed, But much remains to be done to bring mining practices into line and there are an estimated three million ex-miners living in South with the African Union’s Mining Vision (African Union 2009). Policies, Africa, Mozambique, Lesotho, and Swaziland World Bank 2014b). regulatory capacity, and services related to mine health need to be vastly improved, and standardized service delivery models need to be established both nationally and regionally. The practice of 4 T h e I m p o r ta n c e o f H e a l th a n d S a f e t y at A f r i c a n Mi n e S it e s What is the way forward? Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia. TB-related pilot initiatives are being developed in ongoing World Bank technical assistance Public-private partnerships coordinated by programs in Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Other Africa’s regional development communities areas of strategic undertaking by the Bank include helping the region “The continent’s regional offer promise adopt strategies and protocols for health care quality assurance and treatment, which in turn would gain by being standardized across development communities The continent’s regional development communities should act countries. urgently to establish public-private partnerships capable of ensuring should act urgently to that mining in fact benefits the region’s people in their path toward establish public-private sustainable development. The goal should be the adoption of References partnerships capable of preventive measures to avoid further damage to the region’s health African Union. 2009. “African Mining Vision.” AU Summit of Africa ensuring that mining in and skilled human capital. The necessary partnerships will have to Heads of State, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, February. http://www. engage the major players on the African mining scene in cooperation africaminingvision.org/about.html. fact benefits the region’s toward common objectives. Bocoum, B. 2003. “NEPAD and mining partnerships: A challenge for people in their path toward the ADB.” AfDB Bulletin (Tunis) 6(2): 9–14. The first priority must be preventive—that is, to prevent exposure sustainable development.” to silica. Without prevention, silicosis can be mitigated but not cured, ———. 2013. “African mining.” Enjeux Africains (Paris) special edition because once silicosis is detected by a chest X-ray, it is already too on “Mines of Africa.” November. late: the affected lung will never be normal again. Primary prevention ———. 2014. “Analysis of the development impact of the World aims at interrupting the chain of exposure—the process by which Bank’s EI operations in West Africa: Benin, Togo, Côte d’Ivoire, hazardous agents are formed or used and then transmitted from Benin, and Burkina Faso.” Espoir Magazine, Abidjan Regional their source to the worker. Office of the World Bank, Côte d’Ivoire. The constraints on adequate TB response, detection, and moni- Fitzpatrick, S., F. Jakens, J. Kuehne, and L. Mabote. 2013. “Tuberculosis toring must be addressed. In addition to spotty and nonstandardized in South Africa’s Gold Mines: A United Call to Action.” Results UK, prevention methods, those constraints include poor laboratory diag- London. nostic capacity, lack of legislation, inadequate resources to enforce GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators. 2015. “Global, those policies that do exist, poor compliance of mining companies regional and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-spe- with standards established by governments, and a generalized lack cific mortality for 240 causes of deaths, 1990-2013: A systematic of funding to combat the proliferation of TB in mining economies. Analysis of the Global Burden Study 2013.” Lancet 385(9963): The World Bank is contributing to the effort to lift these 117–71. constraints. Gottesfeld, P., D. Andrew, and J. Dalhoff. 2015. “Silica exposures in The Bank already supports African countries affected by TB artisanal small-scale gold mining in Tanzania and implications epidemics through the Southern Africa TB in the Mining Sector for tuberculosis prevention.” Journal of Occupational and Initiative, a multi-stakeholder effort involving representatives from Environmental Hygiene 12(9): 647–53. ministries of health, mineral resources, and, labor in ten countries; Pantoja, A., K. Floyd, and many others. 2009. “Economic evaluation of mining companies; associations of current and former mineworkers; public-private mix for tuberculosis care and control, India. Part I. labor unions; development agencies; civil society, and research insti- Socio-economic profile and costs among tuberculosis patients.” tutions. The Bank Group is investing $120 million in a regional project International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 13(6): to scale up TB prevention and treatment in the mining sector in 698–704. 5 T h e I m p o r ta n c e o f H e a l th a n d S a f e t y at A f r i c a n Mi n e S it e s Médecins Sans Frontières and Stop TB Partnership. 2015. Out of World Bank. 2014b. “Benefits and costs of reducing tuberculosis Step 2015: TB Policies in 24 Countries—A survey of diagnostic among Southern Africa’s mineworkers.” AFREC, Report 86202, and treatment practices. Geneva. http://www.msfaccess.org/ Washington, DC. March. https://hubs.worldbank.org/docs/image- sites/default/files/MSF_assets/TB/Docs/TB_report_Out_of_Step_ bank/pages/docprofile.aspx?nodeid=19288695 ENG_2015.pdf. World Bank. 2016. “Southern Africa Tuberculosis and Health Systems Stop TB Partnership. 2015. Global Plan to End TB: The Paradigm Shift Support Project.” GP Health, Nutrition and Population with 2016–2020. Geneva. http://www.stoptb.org/assets/documents/ collaboration from GEEDR, Report No. PAD1716, Washington DC. global/plan/GlobalPlanToEndTB_TheParadigmShift_2016-2020_ Government of the Republic of Zambia. 2014. Zambia National StopTBPartnership.pdf, Tuberculosis Prevalence Survey 2013–2014. Ministry of Health, WHO (World Health Organization). 2007. “Elimination of Silicosis.” The Lusaka. Global Occupational Health Network, World Health Organization, Zignol, M., M. S. Hosseini, A. Wright, C. L. Weezenbeek, P. Nunn, C. GOHNET Newsletter, Issue No.12-2007, Geneva, Switzerland. J. Watt, B. G. Williams, and C. Dye. 2006. “Global incidence of ———. 2015. Global Tuberculosis Report 2015. Geneva. http://apps. multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.” Journal of Infectious Diseases who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/191102/1/9789241565059_eng.pdf. 194(4): 479–85. World Bank. 2014a. “Economic Benefits and Costs of Tuberculosis Prevention and Control in the South African Mining Industry— The peer reviewers for this note were Francisco Igualada and Kwawu Mensan Gaba. The author would like to further acknowledge the current work on with Implications for Lesotho, Mozambique and Swaziland.” HIV/ tuberculosis in Southern Africa being piloted by the World Bank’s Global AIDS Technical Assistance in South Africa, AFTHE, Africa Region, Practice on Health. Report ACS 8180. World Bank. June. Get Connected to Live Wire Live Wires are designed for easy reading on the screen and for downloading The Live Wire series of online knowledge notes is an initiative of the World Bank Group’s Energy and self-printing in color or “Live Wire is designed and Extractives Global Practice, reflecting the emphasis on knowledge management and solu- black and white. tions-oriented knowledge that is emerging from the ongoing change process within the Bank for practitioners inside Group. For World Bank employees: and outside the Bank. 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Once a year, the Energy and Extractives Global Practice takes stock of all notes that appeared, reviewing their quality and identifying priority areas to be covered in the following year’s pipeline. Please visit our Live Wire web page for updates: http://www.worldbank.org/energy/livewire e Pa c i f i c 2014/28 ainable energy for all in easT asia and Th 1 Tracking Progress Toward Providing susT TIVES GLOBAL PRACTICE A KNOWLEDGE NOTE SERIES FOR THE ENERGY & EXTRAC THE BOTTOM LINE Tracking Progress Toward Providing Sustainable Energy where does the region stand on the quest for sustainable for All in East Asia and the Pacific 2014/29 and cenTral asia energy for all? in 2010, eaP easTern euroPe sT ainable en ergy for all in databases—technical measures. This note is based on that frame- g su v i d i n had an electrification rate of Why is this important? ess Toward Pro work (World Bank 2014). SE4ALL will publish an updated version of 1 Tracking Progr 95 percent, and 52 percent of the population had access Tracking regional trends is critical to monitoring the GTF in 2015. to nonsolid fuel for cooking. the progress of the Sustainable Energy for All The primary indicators and data sources that the GTF uses to track progress toward the three SE4ALL goals are summarized below. consumption of renewable (SE4ALL) initiative C T I V E S G L O B A L P R A C T I C E ENERGY & EXTRA • Energy access. Access to modern energy services is measured T E S E R I E S F O R T H EIn declaring 2012 the “International Year of Sustainable Energy for energy decreased overall A KNO W L E D G E N Oand 2010, though by the percentage of the population with an electricity between 1990 All,” the UN General Assembly established three objectives to be connection and the percentage of the population with access Energy modern forms grew rapidly. d Providing Sustainable accomplished by 2030: to ensure universal access to modern energy energy intensity levels are high to nonsolid fuels.2 These data are collected using household Tracking Progress Towar services,1 to double the 2010 share of renewable energy in the global surveys and reported in the World Bank’s Global Electrification but declining rapidly. overall THE BOTTOM LINE energy mix, and to double the global rate of improvement in energy e and Central Asia trends are positive, but bold Database and the World Health Organization’s Household Energy for All in Eastern Europ efficiency relative to the period 1990–2010 (SE4ALL 2012). stand policy measures will be required where does the region setting Database. The SE4ALL objectives are global, with individual countries on that frame- on the quest for sustainable to sustain progress. is based share of renewable energy in the their own national targets databases— technical in a measures. way that is Thisconsistent with the overall of • Renewable energy. The note version energy for all? The region SE4ALL will publish an updated their ability energy mix is measured by the percentage of total final energy to Why is this important ? spirit of the work initiative. (World Bank Because2014). countries differ greatly in has near-universal access consumption that is derived from renewable energy resources. of trends is critical to monitoring to pursue thetheGTF in 2015. three objectives, some will make more rapid progress GTF uses to Data used to calculate this indicator are obtained from energy electricity, and 93 percent Tracking regional othersindicators primary will excel and data sources that elsewhere, depending on their the while the population has access le Energy for All in one areaThe goals are summarized below. balances published by the International Energy Agency and the the progress of the Sustainab respective track starting progress pointstowardand the three SE4ALL comparative advantages as well as on services is measured to nonsolid fuel for cooking. access. Accessthat they modern to are able to energy marshal. United Nations. despite relatively abundant (SE4ALL) initiative the resources and support Energy with an electricity connection Elisa Portale is an l Year of Sustainable Energy for To sustain percentage of by the momentum forthe the population achievement of the SE4ALL 2• Energy efficiency. The rate of improvement of energy efficiency hydropower, the share In declaring 2012 the “Internationa energy economist in with access to nonsolid fuels. three global objectives objectives, andathe means of charting percentage of the population global progress to 2030 is needed. is approximated by the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of renewables in energy All,” the UN General Assembly established the Energy Sector surveys and reported access to modern universalAssistance The World TheseBank and data are the collected International using household Energy Agency led a consor- of energy intensity, where energy intensity is the ratio of total consumption has remained to be accomplished by 2030: to ensure Management Database and the World of theenergy intium of 15 renewable international in the World Bank’s Global agencies toElectrification establish the SE4ALL Global primary energy consumption to gross domestic product (GDP) energy the 2010 share of Program (ESMAP) relatively low. very high energy services, to double Database. measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Data used to 1 t ’s Household provides Energy a system for regular World Bank’s Energy the global rate of improvemen and Extractives Tracking Framework Health (GTF), which Organization in the energy intensity levels have come and to double the global energy mix, Global Practice. (SE4ALL 2012). based on energy. of renewable The sharepractical, rigorous—yet energy given available calculate energy intensity are obtained from energy balances to the period 1990–2010 global reporting, Renewable down rapidly. The big questions in energy efficiency relative setting by the percentage of total final energy consumption published by the International Energy Agency and the United evolve Joeri withde Wit is an countries individual mix is measured Data used to are how renewables will The SE4ALL objectives are global, economist in with the overall from renewable energy when every resources. person on the planet has access Nations. picks up a way energy that is consistent 1 The universal derived that isaccess goal will be achieved balances published when energy demand in from energy their own national targets through electricity, clean cooking fuels, clean heating fuels, rates the Bank’s Energy and countries differ greatly in their ability calculate this indicator are obtained to modern energy services provided productive use and community services. The term “modern solutions” cookingNations. again and whether recent spirit of the initiative. Because Extractives Global rapid progress and energy for Energy Agency and the United liquefied petroleum gas), 2 Solid fuels are defined to include both traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural will make more by the refers to solutions International that involve electricity or gaseous fuels (including is pellets and briquettes), and of decline in energy intensity some t of those of efficiency energy and forest residues, dung, and so on), processed biomass (such as to pursue the three objectives, Practice. depending on their or solid/liquid fuels paired with Energy efficiency. The rate stoves exhibiting of overall improvemen emissions rates at or near other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). will excel elsewhere, rate (CAGR) of energy will continue. in one area while others liquefied petroleum gas (www.sustainableenergyforall.org). annual growth as well as on approximated by the compound and comparative advantages is the ratio of total primary energy respective starting points marshal. where energy intensity that they are able to intensity, measured in purchas- the resources and support domestic product (GDP) for the achievement of the SE4ALL consumption to gross calculate energy intensity Elisa Portale is an To sustain momentum terms. Data used to charting global progress to 2030 is needed. ing power parity (PPP) the International energy economist in objectives, a means of balances published by the Energy Sector International Energy Agency led a consor- are obtained from energy The World Bank and the SE4ALL Global Energy Agency and the United Nations. Management Assistance agencies to establish the the GTF to provide a regional and tium of 15 international for regular This note uses data from Program (ESMAP) of the which provides a system for Eastern Tracking Framework (GTF), the three pillars of SE4ALL World Bank’s Energy and Extractives on rigorous—yet practical, given available country perspective on Global Practice. global reporting, based has access Joeri de Wit is an will be achieved when every person on the planet The universal access goal heating fuels, clean cooking fuels, clean energy economist in 1 agricultural provided through electricity, biomass (wood, charcoal, to modern energy services The term “modern cooking solutions” to include both traditional and briquettes), and Solid fuels are defined the Bank’s Energy and use and community services. biomass (such as pellets 2 and energy for productive petroleum gas), and so on), processed fuels (including liquefied and forest residues, dung, involve electricity or gaseous at or near those of Extractives Global refers to solutions that overall emissions rates other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). with stoves exhibiting Practice. or solid/liquid fuels paired (www.sustainableenergyforall.org). liquefied petroleum gas Contribute to If you can’t spare the time to contribute to Live Wire, but have an idea for a topic, or case we should cover, let us know! 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This note is databases—technical updated version of energy for all? The region SE4ALL will publish an has near-universal access to WhyD is this important? ERGY PRACTICE work (World Bank 2014). E G E N O T E S E R I E S F O R T H E E N to of A K N O W L is critical monitoring the GTF in 2015. the GTF uses to Tracking regional trends electricity, and 93 percent and data sources that for All The primary indicators summarized below. n has access able Energy are the populatio the progress of the Sustain track progress toward the three SE4ALL goals Understanding CO Emissions from the Global Energy Sector nonsolid fuel for cooking. is measured to modern energy services THE BOTTOM LINE to Your Name Here t (SE4ALL) initiativ e Energy access. Access connection despite relatively abundan 2 populatio n with an electricity ional Year of Sustainab le Energy for by the percentage of the to nonsolid fuels. 2 hydropower, the share the energy sector contributes In declaring 2012 the “Internat objectives the populatio n with access established three global and the percentage of about 40 percent of global of renewables in energy All,” the UN General Assembly using househo ld surveys and reported access to modern These data are collected Why is this issue important? 2030: to ensure universal World Become an author emissions of CO2. three- consumption has remained to be accomplished by energy in Global Electrifica tion Database and the share of renewab le in the World Bank’s quarters of those emissionsrelatively low. very high energy Mitigating climate change energy requires services, to 1 double the 2010 knowledge of the improvem ent tion’s Househo ld Energy Database. rate of Organiza CO intensity levels have come and to double the global Figure 1. CO2 emissions Health Figure 2. energy-related The share of renewable 2 energy in the energy come from six major the global energy mix, sources of CO question s2 emissions to the period 1990–201 0 (SE4ALL 2012). by sector Renewab le energy. emissions by country consumption down rapidly. The big economies. although coal-fired in energy efficiency relative countries setting percenta ge of total final energy mix is measured by the of Live Wire and global, with individual LICs evolve les will opportunities to cut emissions of greenhouse aregases used to plants account for just are how renewab Identifying The SE4ALL objectives le energy resources. Data 0.5% picks up understanding of the main sources ofin those a way that is consistent with emis- the overall that is derived from renewab balances published 40 percent of world energy when energy demand requires a clear their own national targets in their ability Other this indicator are obtained from energy recent rates (CO ) accounts for more than 80 percent of countries differ greatly Residential calculate Other MICs Nations. sions. Carbon again and whether dioxide Because sectors Agency and the United spirit of the initiative. 6% production, they were 2 by the International Energy China will make more rapid progress 10% 15% intensity gas emissions globally, 1 primarily from the burning s, some efficiency is contribute to your responsible for more than of decline in energy total greenhouse to pursue the three objective on their Other HICs . The rate of improvement of energy energy sector—defined toexcel elsewhere, depending include Energy efficiency 30% growth rate (CAGR) of energy will continue. of fossil fuels (IFCC 2007). The will 8% in one area while others by the compound annual Energy 70 percent of energy-sector as well as on 41% approxim and heat generation—contributed and compara 41tive advantages ated Japan 4% energy the ratio of total primary Industry emissions in 2010. despite fuels consumed for electricity respective starting points 20% Russia energy intensity is that they are able to marshal. in 2010 (figure 1). Energy-related intensity, where USA product (GDP) measured in purchas- improvements in some percent of global CO2 emissions the resources and support 7% domestic practice and career! such of achievem ent of the SE4ALL Other consumption to gross calculate energy intensity bulk 19% is an at the point of combustion make up the for the India countries, the global CO2 Elisa 2 emissions COPortale To sustain momentum transport Road is needed. 7% (PPP) EU terms. Data used to andinare generated by the burning of fossil global progress to 2030 6% transport fuels, industrial ing power parity the International economist objectives, a means of charting balances published by emissions 11% emission factor for energy energy 16% EnergyandSector nonrenewable municipal waste to generate nal Energy Agency led electricity Internatio a consor- are obtained from energy The World Bank and the the waste, generation has hardly changed United Nations. ent Assistance venting and leakage to establish the emissions SE4ALL Global Energy Agency and the sector at the point and over the last 20 years. and heat. Black carbon and methane Managem tium of 15 international agencies Notes: Energy-related CO2 emissions are CO2 emissions from the energy from the GTF to provide a regional of the for regular This note usesanddata domestic presented in this note. which provides a system bunkers, Program (ESMAP) of combustion. Other Transport includes international marine aviation for Eastern are not included in the analysis Tracking Framework (GTF), Other Sectors on the include three pillars of SE4ALL commercial/public Extractives given available rail and pipeline transport; perspect ive World Bank’s Energy and aviation and navigation, on rigorous— yet practical, country and heat genera- global reporting, based services, agriculture/forestry, fishing, energy industries other than electricity Global Practice. not specified elsewhere; Energy = fuels consumed for electricity and Where do emissions come from? tion, and other emissions as has in the opening paragraph. HIC, MIC, and LIC refer to high-, middle-, access Joeri de Wit is an will be achieved when on the planet heat generation, every person defined The universal access goal of countries heating fuels, energy economistare Emissions concentrated in 1 in a handful to modern energy services provided through electricity, fuels, clean and low-income clean cooking countries. cooking solutions” to include both traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural The term “modern Source: IEA 2012a. Solid fuels are defined and briquettes), and the Bank’s Energy and use and community services. biomass (such as pellets 2 and come primarily from burning and energy coal for productive that involve electricity or gaseous fuels (including liquefied petroleum gas), near those of and forest residues, dung, and so on), processed Vivien Foster is sector Extractives Global refers to solutions overall emissions rates at or other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). with stoves exhibiting manager for the Sus- or solid/liquid fuels paired energy-related CO2 emissions closely The geographical pattern of Practice. (www.sustainableenergy forall.org). liquefied petroleum gas middle-income countries, and only 0.5 percent by all low-income tainable Energy Depart- mirrors the distribution of energy consumption (figure 2). In 2010, ment at the World Bank countries put together. almost half of all such emissions were associated with the two (vfoster@worldbank.org). Coal is, by far, the largest source of energy-related CO2 emissions largest global energy consumers, and more than three-quarters globally, accounting for more than 70 percent of the total (figure 3). Daron Bedrosyan were associated with the top six emitting countries. Of the remaining works for London This reflects both the widespread use of coal to generate electrical energy-related CO2 emissions, about 8 percent were contributed Economics in Toronto. power, as well as the exceptionally high CO2 intensity of coal-fired by other high-income countries, another 15 percent by other Previously, he was an power (figure 4). Per unit of energy produced, coal emits significantly energy analyst with the more CO emissions than oil and more than twice as much as natural 2 World Bank’s Energy Practice. Gas Inventory 1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Greenhouse 0.php gas. Data—Comparisons By Gas (database). http://unfccc.int/ghg_data/items/380