PAPER NO. 95 B I O D I V E R S I T Y S E R I E S Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996­2001) Nancy Diamond Elisabeth Nkrumah Alan Isaac January 2004 THE WORLD BANK ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENT Participatory Conservation for ProtectedAreas An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996­2001) Nancy Diamond Elisabeth Nkrumah Alan Isaac January 2004 Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are circulated to encourage thought and discussion. The use and citation of this paper should take this into account. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank. Copies are available from the Environment Department, The World Bank, Room MC-5-126. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First printing January 2004 This report was part of an initiative led by Gunars Platais of the Environment Department of the World Bank. The team comprised of Nancy Diamond (social scientist, consultant), Nyane Nkrnmah (Young Professional), Alan Isaac (Intern), and Sharon Esumei (Assistant). Funding was generously provided by the ENVGC, the GEF coordinating unit of the department and is part of their Knowledge Management program. Contents FOREWORD v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix PART A Recent World Bank & Global Environment Facility Documents 1 PART B A Review of External Documents 33 ANNEX 1 Acronym List 77 ANNEX 2 Keyword Search 79 Biodiversity Series iii Foreword This annotated abstract document is part of a practices for donor-funded projects. Our series of assessments on how best to summaries include study objectives, mainstream and improve participation in World methodology (when available) and findings. To Bank/GEF protected area projects. We initiated ensure its practical use, a keyword search list is the series in response to feedback from World also available at the end of the report. In Bank and GEF Secretariat staff. The group addition, to facilitate its wider distribution and suggested two approaches: First, before accessibility, this publication is also available as undertaking further reviews of participation a searchable database on the biodiversity progress for biodiversity projects, staff website (<> under Themes). external documentation of participation and biodiversity conservation. Specifically, they A practical tool-kit on selected topics in suggested a focus on protected area participatory conservation in protected area management. Second, staff also suggested that management has also been developed. It was we focus on topics in participation and developed using a highly participatory process protected area management that were of involving input from task managers and a series particular concern to operational work, of interactive list-serve and roundtable ensuring that the output was of practical use, discussions. Approximately 600 participants, such as a tool-kit. representing over 60 countries, were involved in the list-serve discussions. 110 participants This report provides annotated summaries of representing NGOs, multilaterals, bilaterals and recent publications on participatory Bank staff, attended the roundtable discussions conservation for protected areas. We focused at the Bank's Headquarters in Washington D.C. our attention on lessons learned and good Biodiversity Series v Acknowledgments We wish to acknowledge the invaluable for their generosity with their personal contribution of Chona Cruz and Augusta libraries. Finally, we wish to acknowledge Molnar, who provided guidance and critical Michael Kane, ESDIS, who prepared the comments throughout the project. We also wish electronic searchable abstract database and to thank Kathy McKinnon of the World Bank's Sabine Kassis, who worked to get the Biodiversity Team and Nancy Bell Gelman of document on the website. the African Biodiversity Conservation Group Biodiversity Series vii Executive Summary Background Instrument for the Establishment of the Restructured Global Environment Facility (GEF) During the past decade, conservationists and explicitly addresses the need for public development practitioners have begun to involvement, including information recognize the importance of stakeholder dissemination, consultation, and stakeholder participation in project planning, participation. implementation and management. Development policy makers and planners What exactly is meant by the term, recognized the detriments of top-down "participation"? Participation is largely autocratic approaches to development. They accepted as an integral part of development but argue for greater societal political participation definitions of what constitutes participation and strategies for the inclusion of the poor in vary. There are two main approaches to development decisions. Historically, this trend understanding and promoting participation ­ toward more participatory development has its participation as a means and participation as an roots in community development, end. Under the first approach (participation as empowerment and social justice work in Latin a means), participation is seen as a process America and Francophone Africa during the whereby local people cooperate or collaborate 1960s and from research on the root causes of with externally introduced development poverty in the late 1970s and 1980s. programs or projects. Thus, participation becomes the means to effective implementation. Donors, including the World Bank and the People's participation is sponsored by an Global Environment Facility, are now making external agency and it is seen as a technique to greater efforts to incorporate participation into support the progress of the program or project their development projects. For example, in and ensure a successful outcome. The term 1994, the Board of Executive Directors of the "participatory development" is more commonly World Bank endorsed the report "The World used to describe this widespread approach. It Bank and Participation." This document put in implies externally designed development place a working definition of participation and activities that are implemented in a an action plan to facilitate participation on a participatory manner. The second approach Bank-wide level. The World Bank still has not views "participation as an end." Participation is adopted an operational directive (OD) on the goal and specifically refers to empowering participation. However, there are several World people with the skills, knowledge and Bank policies and ODs, particularly on the issue experience needed to take greater responsibility of social safeguards, which address social issues for their own development. These approaches and emphasize the need to engage stakeholders fall along a continuum between nominal in decision-making. In addition, the participation (i.e., little direct involvement of Biodiversity Series ix Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) people) and transformative participations sources include academic books, handbooks, whereby local people are empowered to direct conference proceedings and articles. The their futures, for the duration of the project and abstracts of internal documents are in beyond. alphabetical order, followed by the abstracts of external documents in alphabetical order. ` Similarly, participatory methodologies exist along a continuum. This continuum ranges Overview of Findings from information sharing and consultation (low The World Bank and the GEF have begun to level participation) to partnerships and self- take stock of its participatory protected area management (high level participation). In activities, including the application of specific information sharing, stakeholders are invited to participatory methods, assessments of progress meetings and informed about the project, its with incorporating participation into protected benefits and their responsibilities and options. area projects and more detailed analyses of Consultations entail two-way communication constraints to participation. The documents and stakeholders can voice their opinions and provide general information on the objections. However, stakeholders have little methodology of participation and specific say over the type of project, the agenda, or what information on the concepts and models in happens after the meeting is over and there is participatory research. This internal literature no assurance that their input will redirect the also addresses: a) the extent to which the World project. Partnerships involve a relationship of Bank/GEF projects have achieved their shared responsibility and risk sharing and participation goals; b) the extent that stakeholders have an equal right to voice their participation has been mainstreamed into the opinions and redirect the course of the project. practices of the World Bank and the GEF; c) the Methodology contribution of participation to project success, and d) the key lessons learned from Our sample of literature included World Bank, participatory projects. While early generation Global Environment Facility and other protected area programs were more focused on (external) documents and, due to time the application of participatory methods, later limitations, we focused on recent documents. generation projects focus more on the systemic For the most part, we emphasized documents issues related to participation (e.g., insecure published after 1995 but we also included a land tenure and conflict). handful of "classics" from the early 1990s. In total, we reviewed 75 documents. The 27 World The World Bank and GEF literature suggests Bank or the Global Environment Facility (GEF) that significant strides have been made in documents included Operations and Evaluation increasing the level of participation in World Department reports, surveys of task managers, Bank and GEF projects. Participation was handbooks, analytical assessments, best practice greatest in GEF projects with community-level notes and books. We focused on general GEF activities and least for infrastructure activities. documents on biodiversity and on publications A 2001 GEF discussion note, based on a longer looking at GEF activities managed by the World study by Singh and Volonte (2001), found that Bank but did not review GEF documents stakeholder participation within the published by the other two implementing biodiversity portfolio was comprehensive in agencies, the United Nations Development approximately 30 percent of projects and Program and the United Nations Environment satisfactory in 25 percent of projects. For World Program. The 56 documents published by other Bank projects, social assessments were the most x Environment Department Papers Executive Summary likely method to be used to gather information participatory protected area management. on stakeholders. GEF projects were more likely Governments are often reluctant to spend loan to use stakeholder consultations to involve money on participation or to allocate funds to communities. NGOs with experience in participatory processes. While the incidence and quantity of participation at the Bank has improved, the Collaboration with buffer zone communities has literature indicates that the quality and sometimes been more difficult because of the effectiveness of participation has not kept pace. tension between conservation planners, Participation practices are not always managers and local communities. It can be empowering local communities or enhancing difficult for task managers of GEF-funded sustainability. Participation has become too biodiversity projects to ensure effective rushed, superficial and largely restricted to the participation in places with real and potential preparation phase of the project cycle (OED park-community conflicts(e.g., uncertain 2001). It is more common to apply forms of tenure). lower participation, such as information sharing and consultations with beneficiaries. However, While the quality of participation has been less many projects do not seek to collaborate with or than expected for many World Bank and GEF empower local populations (Vedeld 2001, OED projects, some of the protected area projects have 2001). Singh and Volonte (2001) found little made great strides related to participation. difference in the achievements and impacts of Their participatory efforts have been effective completed (older) projects versus on-going and empowered communities. They have (newer) projects and this suggests that there overcome some of the barriers to effective has not been much impact of lessons learned. participation. The literature suggests that the best projects: These studies suggest several reasons for the poor quality of participation in World Bank and · Effectively incorporated a variety of GEF projects (e.g., Cruz and Davis 1997, Aycrigg participatory tools and methods such as 1998, GEF 2001). The project cycle is influenced social analysis, gender analysis, by a tight time-line and financial constraints. As Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs), a result, the project design is already relatively focus groups, etc. advanced by the time any stakeholder consultations take place. Even when social · Used participatory processes to obtain analysis is done, projects often fail to feedback throughout the projects cycle and incorporate the results of these analyses into beyond (including design, implementation, project design. There is often a lack of flexibility management plans and beneficiary with funding mechanisms. In addition, some monitoring (Cruz and Davis, 1997) country directors and managers are not supportive of participatory activities. · Incorporated data from participatory tools and methods into the project design and at In-country constraints relate to governments, other times in the project cycle (Bettencourt NGOs and communities. There are sometimes et al. 2001; Kirmise et al. 1998, Mott 1996) problems with NGO capacity to assist with participatory processes. Governments have not · Invested in local capacity building to ensure always had the capacity for, and commitment to that the participatory processes were sustained over the long-term Biodiversity Series xi Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) · Enhanced the policy and legal framework Participation lessons can be found in external to create an enabling environment for handbooks that offer principles and guidelines conservation and sustainable use (GEF 2001, for when to use participatory approaches and Badola 1999) how to improve participation. The DFID-IUCN publication, "Biodiversity in Development, · Utilized flexibility to ensure that the Guiding Principles for Biodiversity in project evolved continuously and, where Development, Lessons from the Field" (2001) necessary, adapted the project to captures the lessons learned from biodiversity incorporate lessons learned from earlier field projects funded by EC or EU member phases (GEF 2001) countries. It highlights what works (and what does not) in participatory biodiversity · Effectively used participatory methods to management. This document also details reduce conflict and build consensus techniques, such as how to adapt tenure between disparate groups, and particularly systems to suit local and national priorities, for in PA management (Beltran 2000, Banarjee dealing with problems with land tenure in et al. 1997, Mott 1996, Turyaho et al. 1996). participatory protected area management. World Wildlife Fund's handbook (2000) on Within the past five to seven years, the literature "Stakeholder Collaboration" aims for indicates that the World Bank and GEF have collaboration that leads to empowerment. made some positive institutional changes to "Evaluating Effectiveness" by Hockings et al better enable the use of participation in projects. (2000) provides the tools for evaluating the For example, social funds are rapid demand- management effectiveness of all types of driven funding mechanisms that funnel protected areas. resources to community-level development projects. These funds are now available to The internal and external literature reinforce support participatory activities (Aycrigg, 1998). many of the key lessons above and provide Increasingly, the GEF and the World Bank are information on how to improve the quality, focused on creating and building partnerships effectiveness and success of protected area with stakeholders including academia, NGOs, projects: local communities and government and the private sector. In addition, the use of NGOs for · Social methodologies (including social policy and advisory services has greatly assessment, surveys, PRAs, consultations, increased with the use of Trust Funds. mapping, interviews, focus groups and gender analysis) and participation play an The external literature provides a broader important role in simplifying complex picture of how participation is being projects, generating NGO commitment, incorporated into biodiversity/PA management integrating community concerns, activities that have been funded by other identifying vulnerable groups, dissipating institutions (bilaterals, multilaterals and NGOs). conflict and developing links between the It provides a deeper understanding of how results of the assessment and project design, participation can best be used to enhance planning and monitoring (Mott 1996). project sustainability and empowerment. Most importantly, the external literature allows for a · For participatory methods to be relevant to better synthesis of lessons learned from around project design, they must first be country- the globe and fosters reciprocal learning driven. The project executing agencies and between agencies. xii Environment Department Papers Executive Summary local stakeholders need to be committed to · Capacity building was important in the process (Cruz and Davis 1997). ensuring that the conservation-development linkages remained strong and helped · Tools and methods need to be integrated control land-use on the fringes of the PA. into the project cycle and reflect a process Capacity building efforts at the local level that continuously provides feedback also improved the ability of communities to throughout the life of the project (Cruz and participate in ecosystem analysis, form local Davis 1997). PA management committees and maintenance plans (Turyaho, 1996) and · Participatory processes must provide drummed up local support for conservation relevant recommendations on how to adapt (MacKinnon, 2001; Bettencourt, 2001; the project design to respond to Badola, 1999). unpredictable social situations (Cruz and Davis 1997). · Effective, transparent, accountable, inclusive and supportive legal and · Participatory processes can address existing institutional frameworks are needed to and potential conflicts (WWF 2000) and support participatory conservation (DFID promote the community-government and IUCN, 2001). Metcalfe's (1996) analysis communication, trust and collaboration that of the Zimbabwe CAMPFIRE's project are needed for co-management schemes suggests that community-based (Beltran 2000, Banarjee 1997, Turyaho 1996, conservation must have a firm footing in IUCN 1998). national legislation and resolve differences between the traditional and statutory · To be effective, co-management must be authority at the local government level. integrated with capacity building (e.g., training and awareness-raising), particularly at the local level and the NGO level. Biodiversity Series xiii Part A Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents 1. Aycrigg, Maria. 1998. "Participation and the participation, this paper takes stock of the World Bank: Successes, Constraints and Bank's experience in mainstreaming Responses." Prepared for the International participation and lays the groundwork for the Conference on Upscaling and Mainstreaming next phase of participatory approaches in World Participation of Primary Stakeholders: Lessons Bank activities. This article was a preliminary Learned and Ways Forward. Social desk review and a precursor to the more in- Development Paper No. 29. World Bank, depth study of participation in the Bank Washington, DC. conducted by OED from 1999 to 2001 (see above). The author researched the Bank's Available from: http://wbln0018.worldbank. achievements in mainstreaming participation org/Networks/ESSD/icdb.nsf/D4856F112 since 1994, reasons for not reaching objectives, E805DF4852566C9007 C27A6/7752CD32ED8 supporting and constraining factors, 575308525676D006 9A68C/$FILE/sdp-29.pdf identification of issues and opportunities for future considerations and recommendations to Keywords: Africa, Africa Region, Asia, support mainstreaming participation. The Caribbean, Central Asia, community, author used focus group meetings with bank community-based projects, control, Europe, staff from the Africa, East Asia and Pacific, executing agencies, joint management, Latin Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and America, local consultation, mainstreaming Caribbean and South Asia regions. In addition, participation, Non-Governmental Organizations she conducted a desk review of operations and (NGOs) (capacity, roles, executing agencies, host analyzed survey responses from World Bank country), ownership, Pacific and Pacific Region, field offices. Staff informants included task team participation, participation barriers and leaders, country operations officers, sector constraints, project, project design, project leaders and social scientists. formulation, project planning, project preparation, social, social funds, trust funds, Findings. While the Bank has made good water user associations, World Bank progress (e.g., more participatory projects, country assistance strategies and analytical Abstract work) and achieved success beyond initial expectations, it has fallen short of some of its Objectives and Methodology. Intended as a original participation goals. Staff suggested that submission to a 1998 World Bank conference on these shortfalls are a result of constraints related Biodiversity Series 1 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) to the Bank institutional issues (i.e., the project because they do not have the requisite skills. In cycle, lack of management support and resource addition, governments are reluctant to spend limitations). They also mentioned a number of loan money on participation because the Bank host country issues (i.e., NGO capacity and rarely insists that participation be included in government commitment). project budgets or that it be paid under recurrent cost financing from the government. Staff elaborated Bank-related constraints to Commitment to participation is also an issue participation. There were regional differences in with governments that are not interested in, or support for participation (e.g., South Asia was who actively discourage the existence of NGOs more supportive than other regions) and and other civil society organizations. Some staff believed that projects have also suffered differences among country director, manager or because of a lack of capacity within civil society, other upper-level management staff. Although it particularly NGOs. Although many projects was helpful for staff to have senior management (half) include some NGO involvement, staff support for participation, finding funds for indicated that NGOs are not a homogeneous participation could be time-consuming for staff. group and they differ in their capacities and Staff are under pressure to meet lending targets abilities. and for some, heavy workloads detracted from the time and money that they were able to Staff responded to these constraints by using devote to participation. It could be very time- social funds and focusing on community-based consuming for staff to pursue and manage trust projects and institutions. Social funds are rapid fund money to pay for input from participation demand-driven funding mechanisms that specialists, particularly for the multiple projects channel resources to community-level that they are managing. Further, trust funds development projects. They have the advantage were usually restricted to activities during of contributing at the community level. project preparation and this helps to explain Accordingly, communities are given the chance why most primary stakeholder consultation and to have more control and have authority over participation occurs during project preparation. handling funds, procuring materials, hiring and Some staff noted that the basic framework of the firing contractors and deciding upon resource project has already been decided by the time the allocations. With respect to community-based project is in the preparation stage and projects and community institutions, a new participation is often just "tinkering around the generation of Bank projects has focused on creating and building partnerships, building the edges of an already defined project when it is capacity of local institutions and creating too late for primary stakeholder views and synergies across sectors. These projects promote concerns to be factored into project design." local ownership and local partners. They also Although staff reported that consultation and help to create the enabling environments participation do take place in some form after needed for transparent and accountable project preparation, these results are not always mechanisms to deliver goods and services at the factored into the project design or community level. Using water user associations, implementation in a meaningful way. joint forest management associations and women's self-help groups, these projects have Staff reported that the most significant in- built partnerships for conservation and the joint country constraint was the level of government management of natural resources. commitment to participation, followed by problems with NGO capacity. Governments are 2. Aycrigg, Maria. 1997. "A Review of not sufficiently committed to participation Participation in the World Bank's GEF Portfolio." Environmental Department 2 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents Dissemination Notes No. 52. World Bank, Findings. Aycrigg reports that stakeholder Washington, DC. identification and participation in projects is becoming increasingly complex but also Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org increasingly systematic and effective. (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) Biodiversity projects had highest ratings for complexity and for the systematic inclusion of Keywords: biodiversity, climate change, Global participation. In comparison, international Environment Facility (GEF), international water projects were less successful at waters, participation, participation barriers and systematically identifying stakeholders or constraints, project, project cycle, resettlement, encouraging broader participation of relevant World Bank stakeholders. In terms of specific issues, 29 percent of the projects addressed indigenous Abstract people issues, 15 percent of projects had plans to address gender-related issues and 41percent Objectives and Methodology. Aycrigg conducted included alternative livelihoods activities. this review of participation in the World Bank's Aycrigg reported that 44 percent of the GEF portfolio in 1997. One objective was to reviewed projects were adaptive and flexible assess the treatment of stakeholder enough to cope with changing needs and identification and participation issues in the conditions at the local or national levels. portfolio over time. She also catalogued Resettlement was only an issue for five percent constraints to, and opportunities for of projects reviewed. participation. Finally, the study was designed to identify lessons that could be applied in future The report lists a number of constraints to Bank project work. The review covered 72 GEF- participation. Bank-related constraints include a financed projects including 41 biodiversity lack of management support, tight project cycles projects, 22 climate change projects, 6 and delivery times, lack of flexibility with international waters projects and 3 ozone funding mechanisms, procurement guidelines protection projects. The methodology included and inconsistent task management due to staff document reviews and interviews with task turnover. In client countries, constraints include managers and consultants. To rank project weak government institutions, new and documents, Aycrigg used a subjective, two-part inexperienced NGOs and lack of familiarity rating system derived from staff interviews. with participation. One rating system focused on whether stakeholder identification and participation 3. Banarjee, Ajit, Gabriel Campbell, Maria C. were systematically and adequately addressed J. Cruz, Shelton Davis, and Augusta Molnar. throughout the project cycle. A second rating 1997. "Participation in Forest Management and system indicated the overall complexity of Conservation. Social Development Paper No. stakeholder identification and participation 19." World Bank, Washington, DC. issues, as well as the degree to which attention to these issues were critical to project success. Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org The study also investigated the percentage of (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) projects addressing five specific issues related to participation: indigenous people, resettlement, Keywords: beneficiaries, beneficiaries gender, alternative livelihoods and adaptive assessments, biodiversity conservation and management. The author did not define the protection, conflict (management, resolution, latter issue. mapping, risk assessments), consensus building, Biodiversity Series 3 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) executing agencies, extension, forestry projects, incorporating stakeholders at the project forests, gender (analysis and considerations), preparation stage, projects then have a Global Environment Facility (GEF), incentives systematic way to include stakeholders (economic, other), India, joint forest during later stages of project design and management, Malawi, monitoring, monitoring operations. and evaluation, Niger, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (capacity, roles, · Second, forestry projects require flexibility executing agencies, host country), participation, in the design of appropriate institutional Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), public arrangements to ensure equitable awareness, roles, security, social, social participation and distribution of forest and assessment, tenure (rights, security, community- conservation benefits, costs and based, devolution, land and resource, land management responsibilities. The rights, use rights), World Bank institutional arrangements used by World Bank projects range from less participatory Abstract models where the government continues to control decision- making and management Objectives and Methodology. This paper focuses to joint public-private partnerships with on the lessons learned from incorporating shared management responsibilities among participation into forest management and government, local households and NGOs conservation projects. The review covers Bank- (e.g., joint forest management). financed forestry projects and biodiversity conservation projects in forest areas that are co- · Third, NGOs have played important project financed by the Global Environment Facility roles in forest management and training. (GEF) and the World Bank. Biodiversity These roles include training service staff conservation projects in non-forests sites, such members and local leaders and assisting as marine and coastal environments, are not communities in developing organizational discussed. For this paper, participation in and management skills. NGOs have also forestry and conservation management refers to carried out village-level publicity and the active involvement of various stakeholders extension, developed micro-planning tool, in defining forest sector and conservation facilitated planning and monitored village- objectives, determining beneficiaries, managing based conservation networks. They have forest resources, resolving conflicts over forest also improved forest marketing information uses and monitoring and evaluating the networks. In addition, NGOs have helped to performance of forestry and biodiversity form women's groups and farm forestry conservation projects. associations. Findings. The authors discuss lessons learned · Fourth, projects must find appropriate related to stakeholder identification and incentives to sustain stakeholder involvement, flexible institutional participation. Tenure is one incentive that arrangements, the role of NGOs and incentives compensates community stakeholders for for sustaining participation: investing their time and resources in sustainable forest use. Secure land and tree · First, the success of community-based tenure improve community participation. forestry and biodiversity conservation There are problems when these rights are projects depends upon stakeholder not in place before benefits are shared. For identification and involvement. By example, in Honduras and India, there were 4 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents laws that prevented farmers from felling or community leaders and negotiations on selling trees without government acceptable land uses and boundaries. permission. 4. Belle, Arati. 2000. "Proceedings of The paper also discusses ways of facilitating Biodiversity Conservation and Use: A Seminar local participation in project design, via the Internet." World Bank Institute, implementation and evaluation. At preparation Washington, DC. and implementation stages, project managers should use social assessments, beneficiary Available from: http://www.worldbank.org/ assessments, gender analysis, consensus wbi/wbien/nrrp/biodivesity.htm building and conflict resolution methods. Consensus-building techniques can include Keywords: biodiversity, community, community opinion surveys, focus group meetings, as well development, community participation, as agreements among stakeholders that involve entitlements, market mechanisms, trade negotiation and contracts. Participatory agreements, World Bank Institute (WBI) monitoring and evaluation allows stakeholders to provide feedback related to project changes. Abstract To detect changes in forest project performance, Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques can be Objectives and Methodology. These proceedings used to engage the community in gathering new summarize 30 contributions from list-serve data to compare with baseline data. In Niger, subscribers who participated in a month-long India and Malawi, forestry and biodiversity electronic discussion about biodiversity conservation projects formed joint government- conservation. Participants came from stakeholder monitoring and evaluation groups. individuals, inside and outside the World Bank, The government could measure technical who represented project managers, university indicators (i.e., rates related to seedlings and and non-governmental organization (NGO) tree plantation rates and financial staff. The discussion was part of the World Bank management). Stakeholder groups can be in Institute's Internet-based Development Forum. charge of the social and participatory aspects of The discussion was divided into three parallel forest management. list-serve sessions: community participation, market mechanisms to address biodiversity The authors also discuss the important role of related problems, and the role of international participation for conflict resolution, particularly conventions and trade agreements. where the livelihood objectives of resource users compete with other objectives such as Findings. Participants supported local biodiversity protection. To develop community involvement in biodiversity participatory conflict resolution strategies, task conservation. These types of biodiversity managers need a thorough understanding of the activities often have the highest stakes and most social structure and power relations causing time available to devote to conservation conflicts. Task managers should involve all objectives and resource management. affected stakeholders in resolving the conflict Participation allows biodiversity managers to be and focus on solutions of underlying interest to in the best position to identify local constraints. users, such as their livelihood. Conflict However, linking biodiversity conservation resolution methods include group consultations with participation has often not worked because and village meetings, negotiations with international agencies have focused almost exclusively on the technical aspects of Biodiversity Series 5 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) biodiversity protection. Interventions that focus Abstract more on the social elements of community development than the technical aspects of Objectives and Methodology. This four-page biodiversity may be more successful. summary summarizes the best practices related Discussants observed that participation can to social development in the Coral Reef raise local expectations. Sometimes Rehabilitation and Management Project communities are disappointed when (COREMAP) in Indonesia. COREMAP aims to conservation does not yield sufficient benefits or establish a viable framework for a national coral yield them quickly enough. To make up for this reef management system via four components: shortfall, projects may make development program strategy and management, public "gifts." However, locals sometimes view these awareness, surveillance and enforcement and gifts as entitlements. Some of the gifts may be of community-based management. It is being greater value than the biodiversity benefits that implemented in 10 Indonesian provinces over are intended to be the long-term advantages of 15 years. the conservation. Another participant stressed the need to get money more directly to Findings. COREMAP has focused on ensuring communities to bypass inefficient bureaucracies. participation using several approaches. The project has extensively involved NGOs, particularly for conducting social assessments. 5. Bettencourt, Sofia, and Kathleen Kuehnast. It has placed NGO-hired field managers on 2001. "Protection, Participation and Public islands to interact with communities, create Awareness: Indonesia Coral Reef awareness and support for the program, as well Rehabilitation and Management Project." as to form groups to assist in project Social Development Notes No. 57 World Bank, implementation. COREMAP has formed Washington, DC. community support groups around project components such as project management and Available from: http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ monitoring. It has enabled communities to Networks/ESSD/icdb.nsf/D4856F112E805D propose their own approaches to coral reef F4852566C9007C27A6/12BD6FFE6F352115852 rehabilitation, monitoring and infrastructure 56A2C0073CB28/$FILE/57-+Indonesia improvements. The project has also utilized +Coral.pdf participatory monitoring to involve the local community in the COREMAP project. For Keywords: community, community involvement, example, in the Taka Bone Rate Park Preserve, it community support groups, community-based, has set up a system whereby reef watchers from approaches, Coral Reef Rehabilitation and the local communities monitored and patrolled Management Project (COREMAP), councils coastal areas. In addition, a conflict resolution (inter-village), culturally appropriate plans, mechanisms was set up to address possible Indonesia, inter-village councils, participation, conflicts between local users and outsiders. participation evaluations and participatory monitoring, participation management plans, The project was designed so that a participatory Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), project, process would continue throughout project project design (formulation, planning, implementation. Participation would be preparation), public awareness, social, social reinforced through: a) a public awareness assessment, World Bank component, b) the establishment of local committees to enable feedback information from stakeholders on project implementation, c) 6 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents strengthened traditional inter-village councils, Available from: http://wbln0018.worldbank. d) participatory development of management org/essd/forestpol-e.nsf/hiddendocview/2a73 plans, and e) participatory monitoring by 9220d0007b6c852567530060d924?opendocument beneficiaries. To develop culturally appropriate management plans for the reefs, social Keywords: biodiversity costs and benefits, assessments were conducted using collaborative forest management (CFM), forest consultations (with provincial and district level policy, government, local, local resource use and task forces and with village development rights, social cohesion, social diversity, councils), interviews, focus groups, stakeholders, World Bank Participatory Rural Appraisals and surveys. Because a community-based management Abstract approach cannot be successful without a supporting legal and administrative framework, Objectives and Methodology. The author prepared the project helped establish a national strategy this summary of key issues as part of the on coral reef preservation and the Government development of the Bank's new forest policy of Indonesia created a Ministry of Maritime and development process. It provides a general Fisheries to champion coral reef management. description of collaborative forest management To enhance community management of the reef, (CFM) and discusses its application and the project created a coral reef information implementation issues. network to provide public information and guidelines on the status of the coral reef. In Findings. The paper defines CFM as "a working addition, the project supported the partnership between the key stakeholders in the establishment of a public surveillance system management of a given forest." This definition that coordinated its efforts with reef watchers/ broadens the range of possible management monitors who report any violations. Through a partnerships beyond only local actors and program for enforcement officers, the project is includes NGOs, donors, companies, migrants enhancing the capacity of the government. and others. CFM management structures can include handing control over to user groups and There are several key participation lessons from joint forestry management. The author COREMAP. Participation of local communities considers limiting access to buffer zones, leasing in project design builds sustainability and leads forestland, and local collaboration with to greater ownership. Partnerships between concessions to be "borderline" CFM local universities and NGOs supports project arrangements. CFM, from a government's point implementation. Also, capacity building on the of view, can be a means of supporting local level enables communities to participate in biodiversity conservation but success is ecosystem analysis. dependent on how it is applied in specific circumstances. Too little attention has been paid 6. Carter, J. (undated). "Recent Experience in to whether local communities or government Collaborative Forest Management should bear the costs of biodiversity Approaches: A Review of the Key Issues." conservation. Issues paper on Collaborative Forest Management for the World Bank Forest Policy CFM is most appropriate when there are certain Implementation Review Strategy Discussion. political, social and forest characteristics. Intercooperation, Bern, Switzerland. Favorable political elements include the willingness to experiment, support from key Biodiversity Series 7 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) people, a commitment to decentralization and acknowledge the great diversity of local actors; respect for rights by government institutions. introducing non-participatory practices and Social circumstances relate to common property skewed power relationships when building resource theory. Favorable elements include upon local or indigenous institutions and clearly identifiable users, dependence upon situations where community representatives forest resources, trust, a common community become proxies of the organizations that are understanding of the resource and user-defined establishing CFMs. In addition, if CFMs are set rules of use. Favorable forest characteristics up using loans, the author points out, include the perception that forest resources are repayment funds are difficult to generate under threat; resources that are small enough to directly from CFM. be identified by users and the forest can provide benefits in a relatively short timeframe. In 7. Castilleja, Guillermo. 1993. "GEF addition, it is important to tolerate divergent Opportunities for Collaboration between the views since collaboration does not always Global Environmental Facility and Non- translate to consensus. CFM success is aided by Governmental Organizations." In: Davis, access to information and information Shelton, ed., The Social Challenge of exchange. In addition, it is helpful to pay Biodiversity Conservation. World Bank, attention to supportive larger institutions Washington, DC. including everything from national policy to widespread acceptance of the CFM concept. Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) There are a number of common problems that arise in CFM approaches. There are issues Keywords: Global Environment Facility (GEF), related to excluding some stakeholders and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) determining who has what rights. Elites often (capacity, roles, executing agencies, host dominate forest committees, some points of country),project, project cycle, World view are suppressed and transparency is not Conservation Union (IUCN), World Wildlife always maintained. There are problems with Fund (WWF) determining how to divide benefits between businesses and communities. Government does Abstract not always recognize local rights and Objectives and Methodology. Castilleja's paper sometimes, communities are only allowed examines the role of NGOs in biodiversity access only to degraded forest. One major protection. It appears along with papers by challenge for CFM is the social diversity within Peter Poole and Charles Geisler in an edited many local communities near forests. These collection on the "sociology of biodiversity groups sometimes have conflicting interests, conservation," as it pertains to the work of the needs, institutions, and rights to the forest and Global Environment Facility (GEF). cutting edge CFMs have been able to acknowledge and work with all of these diverse Findings. Castilleja argues that national and groups. To promote effective participation in international NGOs are particularly well suited CFM, several barriers must be addressed: for the tasks being financed by the GEF in the differences in attitudes, visions and values biodiversity area. Government agencies for related to participation by donors, government parks and natural resources are generally weak. and communities, government resistance to the NGOs are strongly committed to conservation. participation of some stakeholders; failure to Many are able to mobilize and work with local communities. 8 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents For GEF biodiversity work, NGOs may be official initiatives and policies affecting their involved in a number of activities. Vis-à-vis the natural resource use. Fifth, host-country NGOs project cycle, NGOs have the potential to be are better able to get involved in advocacy on involved in project identification, design, behalf of vulnerable communities. implementation, monitoring and evaluation. They can be applicants for freestanding projects; The author contends that in all phases of the trustees in trust funds. International project cycle, NGOs would be particularly environment NGOs (e.g., WWF, IUCN, useful. For example, in project design, NGOs Conservation International) have currently could assess the compatibility of conservation played a considerable role in project with the welfare of local communities and the identification and design, The international feasibility of productive activities aimed at NGOs have been involved in data collection on replacing unsustainable use of the protected the geographic distribution of biodiversity and area. Other NGO inputs could include threats to biodiversity; development of global suggestions for the designation of critical and regional strategies; building and habitat areas to be strictly protected and the strengthening local conservation institutions, different level of protection need for each. etc. NGOs could be involved in analysis of the incentives and constraints to sustainability. Castilleja believes that the GEF has not Further, they can help to prepare conservation sufficiently involved national and local NGOs in and rural development proposals that support host countries. National and local NGOs may grassroots initiatives. During project have less technical expertise but they have implementation, the author suggests that NGOs experience in local rural initiatives and other could help administer the community approaches to social development. Therefore, development fund, provide support for the author suggests that national NGOs and productive activities in the buffer zone, grassroots groups are particularly effective in reconcile local interests and resolve conflicts. five areas of activities. First, host-country NGOs They could play an instrumental role in are well suited to be involved in the design and continues monitoring of project progress. implementation of management plans for the conservation of protected areas because they are There are also limits to the capacities of NGOs located in the country and integral to and makes recommendations. The author sustainability. Second, these NGOs should be discussed weakness in NGO capacity to handle involved in the identification of local and administer large sums of money. Some conservation needs. Host-country NGOs are NGOs have difficulties working jointly with important sources of information on the state of governments, regional power-holders and local flora and fauna of specific regions, threats, local communities. Therefore, much more attention land use related to biodiversity and legislative should be given to this capacity-building impacts. The third area for host-country NGO process within NGOs. This capacity building involvement is rural development initiatives. can take place when NGOs become an integral Experience shows that some initiatives are best part of the GEF project cycle, from identification communicated through local NGOs. Fourth, and preparation to appraisal, implementation host-country NGOs should be involved in and evaluation. education programs. National NGOs are well placed for educating the urban population on 8. Clay, J., J. Alcorn, and J. Butler. 2000. the importance of biodiversity. They can also "Indigenous Peoples, Forestry Management provide rural populations with information on and Biodiversity Conservation: An Analytical Biodiversity Series 9 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Study for the World Bank's Forestry Policy Based on a review of Bank projects and those of Implementation Review and Strategy other organizations including the World Development Framework." World Bank, Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the World Washington, DC. Conservation Union (IUCN), the authors lists several principles for participation in the Available from: http://wbln0018.worldbank. participation section of the paper. It is important org/essd/forestpol-e.nsf/hiddendocview/ to find common ground between the 933a91cc782f210085256889005bfc47?opendocument implementing agency and indigenous peoples. It is necessary to allow sufficient time for Keywords: biodiversity, collaborative participation, which includes time for management, co-management, Colombia, indigenous groups to discuss, digest, and consultation (consultative workshops), cultural communicate concerns about project design and survival, evaluation, forestry, Global implementation. Environment Facility (GEF), implementing agency, Indigenous (communities, groups, Donors should obtain informed consent. peoples), Indonesia, Mexico, monitoring, However, there are a number of difficulties and monitoring and evaluation, Papua New Guinea, pitfalls in determining who is qualified to give Participation, Russia, small business informed consent. Therefore, the Bank should development, tenure (rights, security, set standards for determining what can be community-based, devolution, land rights, use considered informed consent. The problem can rights), transparency, World Bank be partly addressed by providing data and Abstract information to various stakeholders and making Objectives and Methodology. This World Bank sure that they understand the issues. The paper commissioned this review to assess how the lists elders, women, and young men as those Bank has integrated indigenous peoples in who should be consulted at the very least. In World Bank and the Global Environment addition, donors must accept the right of Facility (GEF)-funded forestry and biodiversity indigenous peoples to say "no" even when they projects in Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Papua are well informed. It is important to ensure New Guinea, and Russia. The paper is intended transparency. Decision-making should be to assess the adequacy of Bank policies for devolved and stakeholders should be informed including indigenous peoples, the ways in of decisions in a timely way. The authors which the World Bank is incorporating the recommend the use of agreements that are concerns of indigenous peoples, as well as explicit and formal should be used. In this identifying and understanding the trends regard, the paper states that non-governmental related to indigenous peoples in the biodiversity organizations (NGOs) often do not legitimately and conservation portfolio of the World Bank represent indigenous groups. and the GEF. The review methodology is not discussed in the paper. World Bank-required, state-run accountability mechanisms do not ensure that states are Findings. Indigenous groups and the people actually monitoring project impacts on who work with them identified five key issues indigenous peoples. Bank staff are also in the effectiveness of Bank projects: land and constrained in monitoring impacts. Budget resource tenure, participation and consultation, constraints force Task Teams to spend little time cultural survival, small business development in-country and provide little time for and co-management. systematic, site-specific investigations and monitoring. Open communication is important 10 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents because goals change with the changing mapping, ownership, Participatory Rural environments and circumstances of indigenous Appraisal (PRA), social, social assessment, peoples. socioeconomic surveys, stakeholder involvement, participation, World Bank The authors have a number of World Bank- specific lessons and recommendations. Abstract The World Bank should improve participation through changes in the project design, Objectives and Methodology. This report analyzes implementation, and accountability processes. the use of the social assessment (SA) in three Project timetables and budgets should provide areas of the world and looks at key social and the resources to encourage effective participation issues that are relevant across participation. Projects should be examined regions. The three cases are the India Eco- projects to identify obstacles to indigenous Development Project, Ecuador Biodiversity people's participation (e.g., as done with the Protection Project and Ghana Coastal Wetland World Bank's Oaxaca, Mexico forestry project). Management Project. In this paper, social It is important to shift ownership to assessment is defined as a process that beneficiaries and act as an "investment advisor" contributes to the design and implementation of that can provide technical assistance, biodiversity activities by identifying monitoring, and advice for achieving goals. The stakeholders, describing activities that threaten World Banks should provide mechanisms for biodiversity, defining potential conflicts among indigenous peoples to provide constant stakeholders, facilitating stakeholder feedback on project process. In addition, it is participation and determining appropriate crucial to strengthen the capacity of indigenous institutional arrangements. organizations so that they can run businesses and "work as equals" with governments and corporations. Finally, it is also important to Findings. The three case study projects had involve indigenous peoples in the design of several commonalities, as well as differences. income generation projects, discussions on For the three cases, commonalities included property rights, bio-prospecting negotiations. adequate institutional and financial arrangements, the role of NGOs, similar choices 9. Cruz, C. J. Maria, and Shelton Davis. 1997. of sociological field methods and participatory "Social Assessment in World Bank and GEF- tools, linkages between the SA findings and the Funded Biodiversity Conservation Projects: overall project design and concept. In all three Case Studies from India, Ecuador, and projects, NGOs designed and carried out the Ghana." Social Development Paper No. 15. SAs and became active partners in these World Bank, Washington, DC. projects aspects. The case studies differed in the duration of their social assessments, the Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org institutional arrangements and the integration (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) of the SA with other types of data collection. In India, national NGOs were very involved in a Keywords: conflict (management, resolution, two-year social assessment that included site mapping, risk assessments), consultation surveys, PRA training and joint state forestry- (consultative workshops), eco-development parks-NGO teams for PRAs. In Ecuador, five (committees, policies), Ecuador Biodiversity NGOs conducted socioeconomic surveys Protection Project , Ghana Coastal Wetlands including PRAs, site surveys, mapping and Management Project, Global Environment consultations. In Ghana, the SA lasted one year. Facility (GEF), India Eco-Development Project, Biodiversity Series 11 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Methods included socioeconomic surveys using The authors make several recommendations to key informants interviews, direct observations significantly improve biodiversity project and analysis in ethnographies, extensive use of design and performance. They recommend historical photographs and mapping, as well as greater recognition of the changing human NGO-organized bird and habitat surveys with demographics and social diversity of the village participation. populations who are dependent upon protected area resources. Conservation planning can also To ensure that the SA was an integral part of the be improved through greater incorporation of project design and implementation and not just cultural factors. Biodiversity projects can benefit a stand-alone or academic exercise, the three from the careful design of institutional case projects used different methods to link the mechanisms for effective participation and SA with the central project concept, project project approaches that emphasize capacity activities and participatory approaches during strengthening and conflict management (e.g., implementation. The India project conducted resolving or reducing persistent conflicts over joint government-NGO-community PRAs and land tenure and resource access by traditional micro planning, as well as consultative national user communities by clarifying the relationship workshops that provided the opportunity for a between national conservation laws and broad stakeholder discussions of social issues ancestral or customary property rights). With such as land tenure reform. A series of eco- regard to the innovative institutional structures development management interventions created for conservation purposes, biodiversity emerged out of these local micro-planning projects need to assess, during implementation exercises. The Ecuadorian project also used and monitoring and evaluation, whether these national level coordination meetings for all new participatory and decentralized local site stakeholders and they planned to incorporate management committees have greater success in the SA findings into protected area training conserving threatened biological resources than courses on conflict management. Finally, the centralized and custodial PA management researchers from the University of Ghana-Legon forms of the past (e.g., Ghana). presented the results from their social surveys to the planning committees (LSMCs), who, in The report suggests that project performance of turn, identified project activities to be financed World Bank/Global Environmental Facility through the village development fund. SA (GEF) biodiversity projects can be improved linkages have also been made when the through the more systematic incorporation and community officers, who are based at the operationalization of SAs and participation. The project site, conducted follow-up surveys and World Bank and the GEF should focus more meetings with stakeholder groups. attention on improving the SA and stakeholder participation-related skills of task managers and For SAs to be relevant to project design, three project executing agency staff skills. Both the factors are necessary. First, they must be World Bank and GEF should devote more country-driven. The project executing agencies attention to documenting and analyzing the and local stakeholders must take ownership. decision-making process in biodiversity Second, SAs must start early and continue to be projects. Most project documents have very integrated throughout the project cycle. Third, limited information on how decisions are made, SAs must provide project-relevant who makes them and the implications of these recommendations about how to adapt the choices for project design and performance. project design to highly dynamic and sometimes Finally, projects would benefit from the unpredictable social situations. 12 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents systematic use of sociological recording and their involvement in project formulation, techniques as process documentation, PRA, identification of key social issues and risks beneficiary assessments and the use of popular likely to affect project design and performance, media. determining relevant project boundaries and identifying conflicts. Once identified, 10. Davis, Gloria, and Ken Newcombe. Global stakeholder can participate in conservation Environment Facility (GEF). 1994. activities in a variety of ways and at different Incorporating Social Assessment and levels (e.g., consultation and negotiation Participation into Biodiversity Conservation regarding area selection, boundary demarcation Projects. Washington, DC, World Bank. and project design; management of protected areas, trust funds and endowments). The SA Available from: Request from World Bank-GEF should consider what is socially feasible in a Knowledge Bank at http://wbln0018.world given setting and what is feasible in the wider bank.org/essd/geo.nsf/knowledge+base+ social and political context. Key social issues view/publications?opendocument include demographic factors, capacity for participation, gender considerations, tenure Keywords: capacity, capacity building, rights and security, livelihood systems, social demographic factors, gender (analysis and controls and political and organizational considerations), Global Environment Facility structures. As part of the SA, a holistic (GEF), land use, livelihood (strategies, systems), understanding of both immediate and policy- organizational (roles and structures), political related threats, by locals and non-locals, helps structures, project, project cycle, project design project managers determine project boundaries. (formulation, planning, preparation), resources Immediate threats may include large-scale (sharing, use), risks, social, social assessment, development or infrastructure projects, social controls, social issues, social threats, expanding agricultural frontiers, illegal hunting, stakeholder consultation, tenure (rights, logging, fuelwood collection, controlled security, community-based, devolution, land burning, land settlement and cattle grazing. rights, use rights), threats Land use is fraught with local, regional and Abstract national conflicts and new biodiversity Objectives and Methodology. This Best Practice management systems are often instituted Note, aimed primarily at GEF and World Bank without adequate stakeholder consultation and Biodiversity Task Managers, provides an agreement. The authors found that the SA and overview of some key considerations in the participatory strategies can be the first steps design of social assessment (SA) during the toward instituting processes that help to resolve project cycle and incorporating the SA results numerous short-and long-term conflicts over into project management plans. The authors resource use. consulted with GEF and World Bank practitioners, as well as NGOs and government The three main outputs from the SA feed into counterparts. Future plans included field- project management plans: a) strategies for testing of participatory approaches and SA ongoing stakeholder participation (i.e., who methodologies in at least six GEF biodiversity would be involved, how often, resources conservation projects. required, etc.); b) strategies for project delivery (i.e., improving projects by identifying Findings. SA designs should include four stakeholders and effectively working with them elements: determination of key stakeholders (e.g., hiring, joint management, devolution of Biodiversity Series 13 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) management responsibilities, etc.); c) assessing · For ongoing monitoring of conservation social impacts and proposing mitigating actions, projects, the authors propose that where necessary. stakeholders continue to be informed about, or participate in these activities. SA can be effectively incorporated throughout the project cycle: 11. GEF (Global Environment Facility). 2001. · At the project identification stage, the SA "Participation Means Learning Through should review project options, discuss the Doing: GEF's Experience in Biodiversity nature of support requested, project Conservation and Sustainable Use." GEF objectives, anticipated resources and time Lessons Notes 12. Global Environment frame, potential conflicts and risks with Facility, Washington, DC. policy makers. Besides identifying stakeholders, the SA at project identification Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/ can begin to clarify unresolved social and ResultsandImpact/Monitoring___Evaluation/ cultural issue and establish the framework GEF_Lessons_Notes/gef_lessons_notes.html for stakeholder consultation and participation. The SA lays the groundwork Keywords: Argentina, behavioral change, for other research activities needed during bureaucratic reform, conflict (management, preparation (e.g., socio-cultural surveys, resolution, mapping, risk assessments), Congo institutional analysis). It helps to identify Wildlands Protection and Management Project, the organizations, research organizations decentralization and devolution, decentralized and NGOs, preferably in-country, that can management, Dominican Republic Biodiversity carry out some of the SA. Specific to Conservation and Management in the Coastal conservation, the SA can gather information Zone Project, Ghana Coastal Wetlands on the legal context for conservation Management Project, Global Environment management. Facility (GEF), legislation, livelihood (strategies, systems), Madagascar Environment Program · During the preparation stage, the SA should Support, Nepal Biodiversity Protection Project, be carried out as an integral activity that Panama, Philippines Conservation of Priority links social components to biodiversity Protected Area Project, stakeholder conservation objectives. involvement, participation, user groups, village- based project committees, Yemen Socotra · At the appraisal stage, task managers Archipelago Project discuss the results of the technical studies Abstract and the SA with government counterparts. Objectives and Methodology. As part of a larger Field visits should be made to evaluate the Biodiversity Program Study for the Monitoring SA and the preparation process and and Evaluation Unit of the GEF, a team studied determine whether an adequate number of stakeholder participation and social issues, stakeholders were involved. The SA at this including science and technology. This GEF stage should discuss the key social issues Lessons Note is a short 4-page summary of the and relevant strategies. It should lay the longer study by Singh and Volonte (2001) (see groundwork for the monitoring and below). The study team reviewed available evaluation indicators and plans for use of project documentation for 30 GEF-financed SAs for part of the feedback and response biodiversity conservation and sustainable use systems. 14 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents projects that had been or were near project funding and disbursements under the completion. Excluding enabling activities, these Congo Wildlands Protection and Management projects represented 30 percent of the total GEF Project). allocation. Several projects built community-based Findings. The findings indicate that the degree stakeholder participatory systems into their of stakeholder participation varies by country implementation structure to sustain biodiversity and by project, but the most effective conservation activities: user groups, village- approaches were those designed at the local or based project committees, legislation for community levels. Document review indicated decentralized management and bureaucratic that stakeholder participation was reform and devolution of authority. comprehensive in 30 percent of the projects, Community-managed forest areas increased by satisfactory in 25 percent and partial in 20 more than 40 percent when the Nepal percent. Local and international non- Biodiversity Conservation Project established governmental organizations (NGOs) and Community Forest User Groups and Grazing scientific institutions are engaged in over 75 User Groups with the legal authority to enforce percent of the projects; village groups their own rules and manage their own funds. participate in more than 60 percent and only The coastal and inter-coastal committees of the about 25 percent involve the private sector. Argentina Patagonia Project became self- sufficient through income earned from small The review documents how projects have used livelihood projects and decreased their a "learning through doing" approach that dependence on government. The Village Site adjusts project design to respond to changing Management Committees of the Ghana Coastal field realities and applies adaptive management Wetlands Management Project generate greater (also known as learning and innovation or consensus and support for coastal resource process dynamics. Mistakes have led to conservation because village elders and local constructive learning: a) stakeholder government officials were involved. By building participation, especially by affected upon the National Integrated Protected Areas communities, is essential if behavioral change is Law, the Philippines Conservation of Priority expected (e.g., introducing new farming Protected Areas Project was able to mainstream alternatives such as agroforestry under the a sustainable, government-funded multi- Madagascar Environment Program Support), b) stakeholder structure (Protected Area reducing conflicts by using participatory Management Boards) into park management. In appraisals to identify and address rural needs both the Dominican Republic (Biodiversity during activity design (e.g., working with local Conservation and Management in the Coastal Panamanian NGOs on participatory appraisals Zone Project) and in Yemen (Socotra with indigenous communities to reduce park Archipelago Project), project staff are being boundary conflicts, develop co-management hired as civil servants ­ including community plans, set up micro-credit schemes and tribal develop specialists in the Dominican Republic representative for project committees), and c) and extension agents who are villagers in risk assessments are critical in areas under Yemen. political and socioeconomic instability (e.g., despite unrest, working with international and In the final analysis, the review makes the local NGOs, using a community-based following recommendations: a) incorporate conservation approach with decentralized results from social analysis into project design; Biodiversity Series 15 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) b) use participatory approaches to address root political and economic environment. The social causes of biodiversity loss, and c) recognize the and economic environment was unsupportive. difficult livelihood choices of communities and Among stakeholders, there was no basic their trade-offs. conservation philosophy or environmental awareness, communication was poor and social 12. GEF (Global Environment Facility). 1998. cohesion and cooperation was inadequate. "Lessons from an Integrated Conservation and Consequently, UNDP and the PNG government Development Experiment" in Papua New terminated the Lak ICAD project in 1996. Guinea." GEF Lessons Notes No. 3. Global Environment Facility, Washington, DC. Several Lak experiences have contributed to the greater success of other projects. For example, Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/ although biological criteria may be used to ResultsandImpact/Monitoring___Evaluation/ identify broad areas of interest for conservation, GEF_Lessons_Notes/English3PLN.pdf socioeconomic criteria must dictate the actual choice of a project site. To identify important Keywords: environmental awareness, Global preconditions for the success of an integrated Environment Facility (GEF), Lak Integrated conservation and development project, it is Conservation and Development Project, lessons crucial to conduct an initial social feasibility learned and learning, logging, Papua New study. To develop realistic and productive Guinea, project, project site choices, social, community attitudes towards the project, social cohesion, social diversity, social feasibility projects must pay more attention to the style study and substance of their initial contact with a community. Furthermore, the level of a project's Abstract on-site presence should match the community's commitment to the project. Objectives and Methodology. This GEF Lessons Note briefly describes the context and activities 13. GEF (Global Environment Facility). 1998. for the Lak Integrated Conservation and "Study of GEF Project Lessons: Summary Development (ICAD) Project and then Report." Global Environment Facility, summarizes the lessons learned. The project is Washington, DC. located in New Ireland Province, which is an island in the Papua New Guinea (PNG) Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/ archipelago. It began in 1994 and ended in 1996. ResultsandImpact/Monitoring___Evaluation/ Evaluationstudies/evaluationstudies.html Findings. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) helped the Government of Keywords: disseminating lessons, East Asian PNG to establish a conservation area in the Seas Projects, feedback, feedback mechanisms, southern part of New Ireland Province under Global Environment Facility (GEF), Jordan, Lak PNG's GEF-funded Biodiversity Programme. Integrated Conservation and Development The Lak ICAD Project was intended to address Project, lessons learned and learning, Papua severe logging threats to biodiversity by New Guinea, participation, participation addressing both conservation goals and meeting processes, Philippines, Slovakia Biodiversity local development needs in a sustainable Project, stakeholder involvement, participation manner. However, the project had difficulty meeting these goals because of already active logging operations and PNG's particular social, 16 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents Abstract have succeeded and these approaches and activities need to be explicitly built into current Objectives and Methodology. This summary report and future GEF activities. highlights the principal findings and implications of a Global Environment Facility The study looked at successful projects, and the (GEF)-commissioned study of lessons learned staff associated with these projects (e.g., from GEF's pilot phase. The Global workshops for experience sharing among the Environment Facility's (GEF) Senior Monitoring Slovakia Biodiversity Project and others in and Evaluation Coordinator commissioned the Central and Eastern Europe, cross-project study in April 1997 and Resources Futures sharing within Jordan about income-generating International conducted the study and prepared alternatives for pastoral communities, site visits this report. The intended audience was project by Batangas Bay staff from the Philippines to and task managers of GEF projects. the Xiamen, China site of the East Asian Seas Project, cross-project learning about integrated Findings. The study comes to similar conclusions conservation and development projects by the for participation by the private sector, different Lak Integrated Conservation and Development levels of government and communities. Project in Papua New Guinea as well as Stakeholder involvement is a main feature of documentation of lessons learned from the GEF. This emphasis has brought a wide obstacles and adaptations made for a new site). range of new players into GEF-funded projects. The authors found that these projects and staff Although GEF projects have been designed to consistently learn and benefit from both their have global environmental impacts, they will own experience as well as the experiences of succeed on a sustained basis only if they meet others. Even well designed projects evolve the needs of their participants. Participation of continuously and their managers need to be stakeholders at all levels has to be full and able to deal with a variety of technical, social genuine. Project staff need to understand the and political issues at the same time. Successful perspective of stakeholders and how they came managers pay careful attention to feedback to have their attitudes and practices. They need from project staff and participants and in to deal effectively, but neutrally, in a political response, they promptly modify and improve environment. Participation must be a projects. These staff also regularly look beyond continuous, long-term process to involve their own four walls for ideas and solutions and stakeholders in making decisions about matters they make it a priority, although it is sometimes that affect them rather than by intermittently difficult to obtain this information and usually informing participants of what the project difficult to find time to read and digest it. intends to do, or even by periodic consultations with them. To bring stakeholders together and To reinforce project and staff learning, the give them a voice, projects often require a authors have a number of recommendations. vehicle or specific focus. These participatory GEF projects should budget sufficient time and processes take time but are all too often rushed, resources for learning and disseminating at the expense of project success and lessons. Staff incentives should help staff to sustainability. Project staff and organizations learn from their experience and that of others. need social, political and managerial skills, as In addition, the GEF should seek out much as technical knowledge, and they require opportunities for comparison, cross-fertilization training and continuous support. Attention to and sharing of experiences, both within and these matters is a central feature of projects that among its four focal areas. The study Biodiversity Series 17 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) recommends that GEF systematically document stakeholders and make use of skills, experience, lessons learned and good practices. It is also and knowledge. important to experiment with different types of mentoring programs. GEF needs to provide The policy specifically mentions that relevant and timely information to project and biodiversity projects affecting local populations task managers through a variety of print and should include extensive stakeholder electronic media, as well as workshops and participation and lays out basic principles that training opportunities. cover responsibility for participation, timing and documentation of participation and 14. GEF (Global Environment Facility). 1996. funding for all projects. The responsibility for "Public Involvement in GEF-Financed assuring public involvement rests with the Projects." Global Environment Facility, country government and the agency or agencies Washington, DC. executing the project. Stakeholders should be involved early in project identification and Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/ throughout design, implementation, and Operational_Policies/Public_Involvement/ evaluation. All projects should fully document public_involvement.html participation. Furthermore, the policy states that the GEF will include funding for technical and Keywords: accountability, Global Environment financial assistance that enable governments Facility (GEF), ownership, public involvement and executing agencies to carry out effective policy, stakeholder involvement, participation stakeholder participation. Abstract 15. Kirmse, Robert, and Estanislao Gacitua- Mario. 1998. "Social Assessment Builds a Objectives and Methodology. This document on Project for People and Parks in Argentina." the public involvement policy of the Global Social Development Notes No. 38. World Environment Facility addresses stakeholder Bank, Washington, DC. participation issues. It provides the definitions and rationale for participation (Part 1) and the Available from: Social Development, The World basic principles for incorporating participation Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Room MC5-232, in GEF projects (Part 2). Washington, D.C. 20433 USA; Fax: 202-522- 3247; E-mail: sdpublications@worldbank.org Findings. The policy offers useful definitions and Keywords: Argentina Biodiversity Conservation a rationale for including stakeholders in GEF Project, biodiversity, collaboration, community, activities. Stakeholder participation is defined community participation, Global Environment as collaborative engagement in identifying Facility (GEF), Non-Governmental project concepts, objectives, site selection, Organizations (NGOs) (capacity, roles, activity design, and monitoring and evaluation. executing agencies, host country), private sector, Stakeholders are "the individuals, groups, or protected areas, social, social assessment, institutions that have an interest or stake in the stakeholder identification, sustainability, outcome of a GEF-financed project." sustainable land-use, World Bank Stakeholder participation is seen as a means to enhance country ownership and accountability, Abstract address the needs of those affected, build partnership between implementers and Objectives and Methodology. This Social Development Note provides a brief description 18 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents of the use of social assessment (SA) Development." In: Davis, Shelton, ed., The methodology in the Argentina Biodiversity Social Challenge of Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation Project and summarizes the World Bank, Washington, DC. lessons learned. Available from: World Bank Imagebank Findings. The project utilized several SA methods: a census, surveys, interviews and Keywords: Global Environment Facility (GEF), workshops. The project found that an effective protected areas, social, Social Impact SA required several elements. It was helpful to Assessment, social impacts hire a social assessment specialist. In each protected area, a consultative commission was Abstract created to institutionalize participation. In addition, it was useful to develop a social Objectives and Methodology. Geisler reviews the assessment program to collect data, monitor the literature on Protected Areas Social Impact implementation of the mitigation plan and Assessment (PASIA). His contribution appears provide participatory management skills. along with papers by Guillermo Castilleja and Peter Poole in an edited collection on the There were several positive results from using "sociology of biodiversity conservation," as it SA methodology in the Argentina Biodiversity pertains to Global Environment Facility (GEF) Conservation Project. The SA helped the work. Government of Argentina/World Bank team to develop a cooperative approach to protected Findings. Over the last few years, social areas management. By doing the SA, the project scientists have adapted Social Impact was able to identify key stakeholders, Assessment (SIA) methodology to protected understand their priorities and find local area projects. SIAs are designed to address the support for the creation of protected areas. The potential, probable or unintended social effects SA and the participatory research helped the of a proposed development project. They have task team understand the range of potential provided project managers with a better social impacts and risks to the project, including understanding of the complex social and the risks for the people who were living in the natural system interactions resulting from proposed protected areas. The project was able protected area projects. to prepare for the social and economic impacts of creating PAs and learn about the expected SIA has been faulted for limitations on a impacts of resettlement. The resulting number of fronts. In practice, SIA clings to the recommendations were put forth in a project design stage and largely ignores the mitigation plan and a public participation/ opportunity to establish an extended, multi- training plan. Both plans promote collaboration stage process approach to impact assessment. among the public sector, private sector, and Single-stage social assessments are likely to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and overlook surprise, accident or cumulative increased community participation in protected effects. For example, federal policy towards areas management. They also recommend protected areas can change in abrupt and sustainable land use practices to reduce the unexpected ways (e.g., Uganda's 1972 military threats to protected areas. coup that led to poaching by the army). There are often changes in land ownership due to the 16. Geisler, Charles. 1993. "Adapting Social establishment of parks and reserves and some Impact Assessment to Protected Area protected areas protect aboriginal rights Biodiversity Series 19 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) whereas others extinguish these rights, Abstract particularly those in pastoral or seasonal use areas. Other overlooked effects may include Objectives and Methodology. This short report changes in land values, social stratification, summarizes how a joint Government of Mexico- power structures and the values and World Bank team incorporated social perceptions of local resident population. assessment (SA) into their analytical work for a comprehensive review of the Mexico Resource Given these critiques, the author recommends Conservation and Forestry sector work and the incorporating SIAs throughout the project. outcomes of the SA. The SA investigated the Human efforts to manage complex ecosystems potential of the communities and ejido forest are often fraught with difficulties and occasional owners to develop and assess six issues: a) folly. In some cases, SIA is problematic and viable forest enterprises, b) regional, cultural paradoxical because the diversity of species that and gender differences, c) the influence of the are subject to human control may actually populations' relationship with its forest and decline and trigger ecosystem setbacks. wildlands, d) the internal and external Therefore, Geisler argues that it is vital that a constraints to community organization, e) the post hoc or adaptive management approach be pressures on environmentally important areas, taken when SIA is factored into protected area and f) the potential for income-generating projects. Such an approach, which the author strategies that would not degrade the resource argues is well adapted to the World Bank base. Data collection included multi-state project cycle. It provides the opportunity for workshops that were led by an field- continuously monitoring and evaluating the experienced team of local NGO staff and people/protected area equation during the life included representatives of indigenous groups cycle of a project and beyond. who were managing forest lands. The SA also included gender analysis by gender specialists 17. Molnar, Augusta. 1996. "Mexico Resource and focus groups that used drawings, Conservation and Forest Sector Review: photographs and other interactive diagnosis Incorporating Social Assessment into materials to elicit stakeholders' attitudes about Economic and Sector Work." Social government employees. Development Notes No. 23. World Bank, Washington, DC. Findings. The SA process had several positive results. It allowed forest communities to Available from: www-wds.worldbank. org articulate their interests. It raised the awareness (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) of policymakers regarding the potential for development in the sector. The process provided Keywords: customary law, forest communities, a forum to indigenous forest communities to forest enterprises, Mexico Resource analyze their own problems and devise Conservation and Forestry Sector Review, appropriate development options. The use of a policy recommendations, social, social participatory approach for a sector review assessment, tenure (rights, security, community- allowed the Bank team and government to based, devolution, land rights, use rights), reach consensus on key sector issues. They were workshops (including multi-state workshops), able to draft a document that reflected local World Bank realities and smoothed the way for identifying and designing a participatory project. The approach also facilitated the process of turning 20 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents review recommendations into policy such as Findings. To conserve biodiversity, the state deregulating productive forest activities. It governments and India's Forest Department helped the government to shift their practice developed an extensive network of protected towards decentralization and greater areas over the last 20 years. . When Indian participation in resource conservation and forest Government, the World Bank and the Global development. Environment Facility launched the Eco- Development Project, project teams were The SA revealed several policy recommenda- interested in the promise of participatory tions related to resource conservation and forest resource management programs. The sector work in Mexico. The tenure rights for participatory approach to project design private, communal and public forests and included collaborating NGOs. To avoid a rigid wildlands need clarification, through boundary blueprint design, the project focused instead on demarcation and adjudication. Laws and an indicative planning approach that sought to procedures should be reviewed to improve the build stakeholder consensus around an iterative ability of communities to enter into joint Eco-Development Action Plan that could be partnership with private partners. The forest adapted over the life of the project. regulatory frameworks should take into account customary law and cultural values. The SA also The social assessment (SA) had many positive helped to underscore how the potential poverty results. The SA made a complex project less reductions possible from making communal difficult to prepare for task managers. It was a forest enterprises commercially viable and good starting place to encourage the on-going sustainable. participation and commitment of stakeholders and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in 18. Mott, Jessica. 1996. "India: Using Social the project. The concerns of communities and Assessment to Foster Participation in the other socioeconomic and biophysical Protected Areas." Social Development Note information collected during the SA were fed No. 21. World Bank, Washington, DC.. into project implementation and monitoring. The SA helped to create synergies between Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org project planning and monitoring (e.g., legal and (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) usufruct rights and status concerns were integrated into site-specific planning and Keywords: conflict (management, resolution, monitoring). The SA also identified vulnerable mapping, risk assessments), eco-development groups. The SA also enabled stakeholders to (committees, policies), Global Environment identify interactions between parks and people Facility (GEF), India Eco-Development Project, and map out potential and actual conflicts. If protected areas, social, social assessment, World left undetected and unresolved, these conflicts Bank would jeopardize implementation. Commu- nities and park officials found a mutually Abstract agreeable framework for on-going participation during project implementation. They identified Objectives and Methodology. This short paper ecologically appropriate development activities summarizes the use and value of social and livelihoods for both groups and the SA assessment in the India Eco-Development helped to develop site-specific strategies. In Project. This project used the following SA addition, the project designers were able to methods: stakeholder workshops, consultations build upon other Indian experiences with and PRA. Biodiversity Series 21 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) people's involvement in forestry, conservation, The author notes that there are several new and rural development projects. experiments where indigenous people are cooperating with government agencies and 19. Poole, Peter. 1993. "Indigenous Peoples and NGOs in the protection of wildlife, forest and Biodiversity Protection." In: Davis, Shelton, ed., fisheries. In many cases, the protection of The Social Challenge of Biodiversity Conservation. biodiversity by indigenous peoples is a direct World Bank, Washington, DC. result of their subsistence-oriented domestic economies. However, where indigenous peoples Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org move towards a market-oriented relations such (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) as commercial wildlife hunting or wild plant extraction, it is necessary to introduce more Keywords: biodiversity conservation and systematic environmental research and protection, Ecuador, Global Environment management to ensure the sustainability of Facility (GEF), indigenous conservation areas, biological resources. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (capacity, roles, executing agencies, host At present, there are a few examples of country), participation dedicated indigenous conservation areas, because indigenous land claim areas or reserves Abstract are seen to fulfill this function. There are some experiments with innovations that express Objectives and Methodology. Poole's paper looks sustainable use principles in conservation (i.e., at the role of indigenous people in biodiversity extractive reserves) or through the use of "forest protection. It appears along with papers by belts" to protect natural areas. One indigenous Guillermo Castilleja and Charles Geisler in an protected area is the Awa Ethnic Forest Reserve edited collection on the "sociology of in Ecuador. The Awa people in Ecuador stopped biodiversity conservation," as it pertains to logging activities in their community by Global Environment Facility (GEF) work. surrounding their forest reserve by a 200 km boundary of planted gardens and orchards and Findings. The participation of indigenous announcing that the land is under active peoples in biodiversity protection is critical. cultivation. A few other indigenous groups in Indigenous peoples inhabit many of the Latin America have spontaneously decided to remaining areas of high biodiversity. They establish conservation areas. possess traditional knowledge and practices In Canada, the Department of Fisheries and that have been proven historically to be Oceans (DFO) spent 10 million Canadian dollars sustainable in such environments. Indigenous in 1991 to support 120 community-based, people possess rights to relatively large fisheries co-management projects in British amounts of land that either overlap or are Columbia. These fisheries are in crisis, both contiguous with protected areas. They have ecologically and in terms of competing interest close attachments to their ancestral lands and groups. From their participation in land claim often hold advantage over other rural social negotiations elsewhere, the DFO officials sectors because they have the possibility, recognized that agreements over resource access through ancestral land claims, of regaining and management was essential for settlement. some measure of control over lands and Therefore, in negotiations, all project proposals resources. were required to originate within communities and tribal councils. 22 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents Poole suggests that the types of indigenous stakeholders included academia, international, environmental research and management national, and local NGOs, and the private programs being pursued by Canadian sector. indigenous groups and other groups have implications for other areas, such as the Findings. For all GEF projects, the study Amazon region of South America. He provides some generic observations about recommends the creation of a pilot program, participation. Although the GEF's participation perhaps under GEF auspices. This program policy requires projects to provide information could allow representatives from indigenous to stakeholders and document stakeholder groups that are experimenting with innovative consultations, project documents use varying models to serve as technical assistance interpretations of what constitutes a specialists to other indigenous communities. "consultation." In addition, it is common for consultations to be viewed as an end and for 20. Porter, G., R. Clemencon, W. Ofosu-Amaah, projects to fail to follow-up with participants and M. Philips. 1997. "Study of GEF's Overall after the consultations. However, in general, it is Performance." Global Environment Facility, more common for GEF project documents to Washington, DC. document the use of participation in discussions and provide specific plans for project Available from : http://www.gefweb.org/ participation. To bring governmental and non- ResultsandImpact/Monitoring___Evaluation/ governmental stakeholders together, projects Overall_Performance_Studies/ops.pdf have used a variety of institutional mechanisms such as stakeholder councils and advisory Keywords: biodiversity, biodiversity committees. GEF projects have relied on NGOs conservation ethic, Global Environment Facility to execute projects and to provide policy and (GEF), portfolio performance review, advisory services and it is more common for stakeholder involvement, participation, United Trust Fund projects than other types of GEF Nations Development Programme (UNDP), projects to use NGOs for implementation. United Nations Environment Programme In general, GEF projects seem to be paying more (UNEP), World Bank attention to making "adequate" budget allocations for the participation components of Abstract projects. However, the authors point out that, in some cases, "it is difficult to separate Objectives and Methodology. Sections D and E of consultation activities from the public education this Global Environment Facility (GEF) portfolio and awareness components." Some project performance review provide an overview of the allocate as much as 50 percent of their budgets GEF's policies on stakeholder participation, for local-level activities but the study did not participation performance by the GEF document the percentage of GEF projects that implementing agencies (World Bank, UNDP, include allocations at this level. and UNEP) and trends in participation in GEF projects. Section E of this review lists the In reviewing progress since the 1994 evaluation, recommendations from an evaluation of reforms the authors expressed concern about the lack of made since a 1994 GEF Pilot Phase evaluation. adequate governmental and broad-based The team conducted a document review of the community participation in the pilot phase of first round of GEF projects. For this study, GEF projects. In some countries, government has prevented the participation of key Biodiversity Series 23 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) ministries. The evaluators pointed out that Abstract participation is a required element of all GEF proposals but that it is not always carried out in Objectives and Methodology. This study focused practice. The GEF Secretariat is in the process of on Global Environment Facility (GEF) developing indicators of stakeholder biodiversity projects and had three main participation. objectives. First, it was structured to highlight and assess the achievements, initial impacts and The study team makes several specific lessons learned from the GEF biodiversity observations about participation in biodiversity portfolio. Second, the study conducted an projects. There are a number of difficulties analysis of the area covered by GEF-assisted associated with biodiversity projects. GEF projects and third, it assessed the mechanisms biodiversity projects sometimes have a for incorporating lessons learned into more reputation for being overly long and complex. recently approved projects. The Global There is often tension between conservation Environment Facility Secretariat sponsored the planners, managers and local communities. study, in collaboration with the United Nations Biodiversity projects must secure the Environment Program, the United Nations collaboration of communities in buffer zones Development Program, the World Bank and the and promote a "biodiversity conservation ethic" GEF Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel. among stakeholders. Implementing agencies Research was conducted between September generally have limited multidisciplinary 2000 and March 2001. Projects for analysis were experience and capacity in the mainstreaming of divided into two groups. The first group of 82 social and gender concerns. However, the projects included all full and mid-sized projects authors note that those projects that have taken under implementation and also those completed the time to implement broad-based stakeholder as of June 30, 1998. The second group, participation have had positive impacts. composed of 128 projects, included all full and mid-sized projects that started implementation 21. Singh, Shekhar, and Claudio Volonte. 2001. or entered GEF Work Program between July 1, "Biodiversity Program Study." Global 1998 and June 30, 2000. The methodology was Environment Facility, Monitoring and comprised of a quantitative evaluation of the Evaluation Unit, Washington, DC. portfolio and a qualitative assessment of the achievements, initial impacts and lessons Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/ learned from the GEF biodiversity projects. ResultsandImpact/Monitoring___Evaluation/ Evaluationstudies/Biodiv_Program_Study.pdf Findings. The study found that most biodiversity projects had either planned and/or Keywords: benefits, benefit sharing, biodiversity implemented participatory approaches. projects, feedback, feedback mechanisms, Stakeholder participation was comprehensive in Global Environment Facility (GEF), lessons around 30 percent of the projects reviewed, learned and learning, project, project design partial in more than 20 percent and at least (formulation, planning, preparation), protected planned in another nearly 25 percent of the areas, root causes, stakeholder involvement, projects (although data was unavailable as to participation, sustainability, sustainable land- implementation and extent of participation). For use, workshops (including multi-state the remaining projects, participation was either workshops) poor (9 percent), absent (12 percent) or data was unavailable (4 percent). For protected area projects (a sample that included a large 24 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents proportion of the biodiversity projects), the Evaluation Working Paper 1. Global study found that more than half of these were Environment Facility, Washington, DC. assessed to have fully or mostly met their participation objectives. Approximately half of Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/ all PA had comprehensive or partial stakeholder 1_Biodiversity-nocov.pdf participation, some benefit sharing activities and some measures for ensuring sustainability. Keywords: biodiversity awareness, biodiversity conservation and protection, capacity, capacity The authors made a number of recommenda- building, Conservation of the Dana Wildlands tions. After looking for differences between and the Azraq Oasis Project, financing, Global completed and newer on-going projects, the Environment Facility (GEF), incentives authors suggest that better feedback (economic, other), institutional capacity, mechanisms are needed to transmit lessons strengthening, institutions, Jordan, Mexican learned. Although approximately half of the Nature Conservation Fund, Mexico, policy projects reported incorporating some lessons framework, political will, project, Project from past projects into their design, a third of Implementation Review, resources (sharing, the projects had not considered lessons learned. use), sustainability, sustainable land-use, World The authors found minimal differences between Bank the achievements and impacts of completed and newer on-going projects. The study Abstract recommends the first step in any project planning or design process must be the Objectives and Methodology. As part of the 1998 identification of root causes that have led to the GEF Project Implementation Review, the Board degradation or decline of biodiversity. All decided on a thematic review agenda to be production areas projects should include related carried out by the GEF Monitoring and production landscapes that are available for Evaluation (M&E) team in 1999. GEF's communities. All projects should conduct a implementing agencies and Secretariat capacity assessment exercise prior to project encouraged the M&E team to expand the theme initiation since the projects were working with review on the financial sustainability of institutions without much previous experience biodiversity project to include other factors that in stakeholder participation. Where appropriate, influence the overall sustainability of project preparation should include a project biodiversity conservation. The review design workshop. These workshops should methodology involved four components: a) a involve critical stakeholders, in the country or literature review of World Bank and non-World region, to get initial ideas about designing the Bank sources; b) examination of NGO project. Projects should appropriately involve perspectives on sustainability using an IUCN- the private sector in project activities and supported survey study, c) NGO reviews of support, when appropriate. Finally, funding policy papers and internal practices; c) a survey patterns during the project must be compatible of multilateral and bilateral donor agencies with the economic realities of the host country. carried out by the M&E team, and d) GEF project experience. 22. Smith, Scott, and Alejandra Martin. 2000. "Achieving Sustainability of Biodiversity Findings. Although the study did not find much Conservation. Report of a Global Environment empirically based analysis of the sustainability Facility Thematic Review." Monitoring and of biodiversity conservation in the four data Biodiversity Series 25 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) components, there was information available Fifth, biodiversity sustainability is dependent on the five main factors influencing upon resource uses and financial resources. For sustainability ­ political will, awareness and example, the establishment and management understanding of biodiversity, capable of protected areas required some expenditure institutions and people, the policy and legal to finance the incentives for conservation and framework and resources uses and financial promotion of the sustainable use of resources. biodiversity. Other associated costs include the cost of monitoring the protected area. First, political will is a function of ownership and commitment at every level. Political leaders To foster sustainability, the review suggests and institutions at all levels (local, national and several approaches. It is important to focus on international) determine policies, the degree to strengthening the capacity and position of the which they are implemented or enforced and conservation community as well as the resource allocations that affect whether marginalized stakeholders. This approach was biodiversity was sustained or not. Ownership used in the Conservation of the Dana Wildlands and commitment to the sustainability of and the Azraq Oasis Project in Jordan and in the biodiversity conservation needs to occur at all Mexican Nature Conservation Fund. As a result levels. This process can be helped by opening of increased public awareness of the value of up political processes to give voice to all conservation, the Royal Society for the stakeholders, particularly those directly affected Conservation of Nature (RSCN) in Jordan was by the condition of the biological resources. able to expand its own influence, and that of communities, on the policy process. Using its Second, the sustainability of biodiversity can role as a funding mechanism for GEF support to also be improved by increasing awareness and ten protected areas, The Mexican Nature understanding of biodiversity. Conservation Fund was able to insist on greater community involvement in park management. Third, sustainability is dependent upon capable Other sustainability strategies include linking institutions and people. Reliable institutions project activities with national action plans and have helped to enforce the rule of law, establish exploring innovative financial arrangements partnerships of diverse groups and create (e.g., park entrance fees, licensing fees, tourist political space for a multi-sector and multi-level taxes and biodiversity-friendly private forum in which biodiversity strategies could be enterprises). debated. Organizations can build constituencies and become more effective when they can provide the type and quality of services that 23. Vedeld, T. 2001. "Participation in Project people are willing to support. Preparation: Lessons from World Bank- Assisted Projects in India." World Bank Fourth, conservation and sustainable use are Discussion Paper 423. World Bank, supported by an enabling policy and legal Washington, DC. framework. Policies and regulations, as well as the extent to which they are enforced, were Available from: www-wds.worldbank.org important factors for alleviating the root causes (external access) or Imagebank (internal access) of biodiversity loss. Keywords: beneficiaries, beneficiary participation, capacity, capacity building, 26 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents consultation (consultative workshops), over long planning periods. In-country decentralized capacity building, forestry, India, constraints to participation included the institutional capacity, strengthening, hierarchical structures in India, the lack of institutions, mainstreaming participation, government commitment to participation, the participation, private sector, stakeholders, lack of NGOs available to manage participation tribals (and scheduled castes), water resources and the lack of local capacity to take over development, watershed development and projects. The study includes list of specific protection, World Bank problems that Bank staff face (p. 34) and specific recommendations on how to operationalize Abstract better participation for Bank projects. Objectives and Methodology. This study assesses 24. Vedeld, T. 2000. "Participation in the the extent to which the World Bank projects in Himalayan Foothills: Lessons from Watershed India are meeting the Bank's objective of Development in India." Social Development mainstreaming participatory approaches in Paper No. 38. World Bank, Environmentally project preparation and design. Vedeld looks and Socially Sustainable Development critically at the use of participation and the Network, Washington, DC. barriers to its effective use in government, localities, NGOs, and the Bank. The study Available from: includes ten projects covering a variety of http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/essd/essd. sectors and includes one each on watershed nsf/e0a6beef25793a39852567f200651c5c/ development, forestry, and water resources f5659ac4406ef006852567f50057ab04 development. Information was gathered via document review, interviews with key players Keywords: community, community building, and project managers, NGO focus groups, and consultation (consultative workshops), fodder two field visits to project sites. and livestock services, Global Environment Facility (GEF), Haryana, Himachal, income- Findings. Vedeld begins by noting the trend generating activities, India, institutional toward more support for participation and a capacity, strengthening, institutions, Integrated greater emphasis on decentralized capacity Watershed Development Project (IDWP II), building. The study found that the most Jammu and Kashmir, participation quality, important impact of the direct participation of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), policy primary stakeholders has been an improved reforms, Pradesh, primary beneficiary, project, understanding of the local context, the diversity Project Appraisal Document (PAD), Punjab, of stakeholders and the nature of stakeholder Shivalik Hills, training (capacity building, interactions. There were also a number of needs, workshops), trans-humance, tribals (and shortcomings related to the use of participation. scheduled castes), Uttar Pradesh, village These issues included the quality of beneficiary development plans, watershed development participation (consultation rather than and protection, women and gender, World Bank collaboration or empowerment), the scope of consultation (no gender analysis, failure to Abstract consult with scheduled castes and tribes and limited private sector involvement), a lack of Objectives and Methodology. This study examines institutional capacity to sustain projects and the the extent and impacts of primary beneficiary difficulty of maintaining stakeholder interest participation upon the planning of the second Biodiversity Series 27 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) phase of the Integrated Watershed main mechanisms for involving primary Development Project (IDWP II). The study beneficiaries were the prospective studies and methodology consisted of a review of project VDPs. In the prospective studies, the project documents, project and Bank staff used Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs) to questionnaires, field visits, meetings and inform villagers about the project and allowed workshops with project staff, interviews with them to provide some input to project staff. Bank staff, and a focus group held in each of the six affected villages. Project staff increased their capacity and awareness as a result of the PRAs and the VDP Findings. The IWDP II is located in the Shivalik process. They gained skills in participatory Hills in the Himalayan foothills. Using methods and gained greater understanding of treatment technologies, the project was intended the stakeholder diversity. They became aware of to restore the productivity of a watershed and to their inexperience with PRA methods and reduce poverty in five Indian states: Haryana, identified the need for more staff in the social Himachal, Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, unit and more female staff members. They came Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. The five key to recognize the lack of implementing and local components of the IDWP II include watershed institution capacity. Higher-level project staff development and protection, improvement of became more convinced of the general fodder and livestock services, institutional usefulness of participation. strengthening through community building, provision of income- generating activities for Overall, the author points out that participation women and policy reforms. was widespread but thin and relatively few local people were involved in the PRAs. World Although primary stakeholder participation Bank technical staff thought the participation was not a significant element of the first stage of was satisfactory and involved "consultation. " this project (IDWP I), the World Bank made However, World Bank social staff found project community participation a requirement for the participation only "marginally satisfactory" and planning and implementation of the second consisted of mostly "information sharing." phase. Project preparation included two There were some specific problems with the features designed to generate community actual use of participatory methods for project support. The project planners allowed for a six planning. PRAs were used only in some of the to twelve month planning period during the social assessments (SAs) and when used, the design phase. This period allowed flexibility in implementation was fairly mechanical. Staff in village-level organizing and sufficient time to only two states, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal build ownership and establish agreements. Pradesh, had experience with PRA. Consultants Second, the project design included an iterative did the prospective studies and they were social assessment that was based on prospective unfamiliar with stakeholder analysis and unable studies and village development plans (VDPs). to represent diverse views. The SAs were During the planning period, the project carried prepared late and could not be used in the out a three-tiered social assessment that Project Appraisal Document (PAD). In the included: 1) a study of the impacts of previous author's assessment, the effects of participation development on the watershed and local on implementation were more indirect than institutions, 2) a tribal and transhumance study, direct. and 3) a prospective study of new micro- watersheds accompanied buy three VDPs. The 28 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents To further improve participation, the project authors reviewed a total of 121 MSPs including has taken or is planning several actions. There 73 biodiversity projects and the remaining 48 is a need for more training and capacity projects focused on climate change, building related to participation since capacity international waters, ozone or multiple is weak for the implementing agency and local environmental sectors. The regional institutions. Proposals were generated to composition of the MSP portfolio included 29 decentralize authority and avoid centralized percent from Latin America and the Caribbean, decision-making. The project discussed cost- 21 percent from Africa, 16 percent from East sharing proposals with the local community. Asia and the Pacific, 15 percent from Europe The project hired more female project staff and and Central Asia and 9 percent from the Middle there was an increased emphasis on gender East and North Africa. The evaluators used issues in the villages. There was also more stakeholder interviews, a review of key discussion on how to implement a village load documents and visits to 10 countries. Because fund as a village organization activity. only 6 of the 121 MSPs studied were completed, the evaluators assessed interim or indirect 25. Wells, Michael, P. Delfin, J. Ganapin Jr, and indicators of progress such as capacity building, Juha l. Uitto. 2001. "Global Environment innovation and new methodologies, awareness Facility ­ Medium-Sized Projects (MSP) raising and prospects for sustainability. Evaluation." Global Environment Facility, Washington, DC. Findings. MSPs support stakeholder participation in several ways. In contrast to Request from: GEOnline.worldbank.org most of the larger and more traditional GEF projects, MSP procedures have enabled NGOs Keywords: advantages, awareness raising, to become MSP executing agencies. In so doing, capacity, capacity building, co-financing, they have made direct contributions to NGO evaluation, impacts, mainstreaming participation, Medium-Sized Projects (MSPs), capacity building. Project Development Funds- Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) A type (PDF-A) allow for stakeholder (capacity, roles, executing agencies, host consultations during MSP preparation activities country), project, project cycle, Project and these consultations are often the first Development Funds (PDF-A), proposal opportunity for smaller organizations to requirements, stakeholder involvement, participate in GEF activities. These participation, timeframe arrangements have been especially useful where action on threats to biodiversity has been Abstract constrained by the limited capacity of diverse stakeholders to synchronize their efforts. In Objectives and Methodology: The objectives of this addition, many countries report that local evaluation of Medium Size Projects (MSPs) awareness from community consultations has were to assess whether or not: a) MSPs were been one of the most important benefits from responsive to Global Environment Facility the MSP preparation process under PDF-As. (GEF) objectives and policies, b) MSPs filled a MSPs attract considerable co-financing and niche in the GEF that could not be met by provide additional opportunities for innovation. regular projects, small grants or enabling They allow for the scaling up of successful activities, c) MSP project cycle procedures were projects of the Small Grants Programme (SGP) effective. In addition, the evaluation identified of GEF/United Nations Development Program impacts and likely impacts of MSPs and made (UNDP). MSPs could further support recommendations for MSP improvements. The Biodiversity Series 29 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) participation by lengthening their typically Findings. The benchmark for this study is the short time-frames (two to three years), 1994 Final Report of the World Bank's simplifying non-governmental organization Participatory Development Learning Group. (NGO) proposal requirements needed to access This strategy focused on: a) promoting a more GEF funds and broadening the base of local enabling environment for participation within NGOs that can access GEF funds and client countries, b) increasing participation in participate effectively in MSP execution. economic and sector work, c) ensuring that lending and economic and sector work 26. World Bank. 2001. "Participation Process identified and involved relevant stakeholders, Review." Operations Evaluation Department, d) strengthening Bank capacity for participation World Bank, Washington, DC. work through training and recruitment, e) allocating resources and provide incentives to Available from: http://www.worldbank.org/ mainstream participation, and f) monitoring participation/Participation%20Process% and evaluating progress towards achieving 20Review-OED.pdf participation goals. Keywords: collaboration, community, community The OED study found indicators of forest management (and scaling-up), country participation progress for World Bank activities. assistance strategies (CAS), empowerment, Primary stakeholder participation in Bank- Guatemala, impacts, Kenya, Operations assisted projects increased significantly between Evaluation Department, participation, 1994-1998 with more participation in participation evaluations and participatory community-level activities and less monitoring, participation quality, project, participation in infrastructure services activities. project cycle, World Bank Since 1996, most of the increase has been in collaboration and empowerment. For the CAS, Abstract the benefits of participation have improved the relevance of projects to stakeholders, given a Objectives and Methodology. The purpose of this sense of pride and ownership to participating evaluation was to assess how much progress NGOs and local people and strengthened has been made since the Bank committed itself relationships between Bank and CAS to a Participation Action Plan in 1994 and make participants. There has been a substantial recommendations for future World Bank work. increase in the CAS participation of non- The evaluation focused on the extent of governmental stakeholders and examples of mainstreaming; costs, benefits and impacts of benefits include better identification of participation; good practices and development constraints in Kenya and recommendations for Bank participation improving the application of participatory policies and operational work. The OED strategies in Guatemalan projects. methodology included: a) a database consisting of participation data from PADS, b) case studies, However, the study also revealed some c) task manager interviews, d) desk reviews of disappointing trends related to the quality, Country Assistance Strategies (CAS) and e) effectiveness and impacts of participation. consultations with communities in the countries Participation for projects has become too rushed where the project took place. and superficial. The use of participatory approaches has been uneven over the project cycle; most participation took place during the preparation stage and only nine percent of the 30 Environment Department Papers Recent World Bank and Global Environment Facility Documents projects included participatory monitoring and capacity-building approach to participation. evaluation. This pattern weakened the This approach would ensure that government accountability of project implementers to agencies have the capacity to undertake primary stakeholders. Stakeholder participation participatory activities, including monitoring in CAS varied; meetings were sometimes just and evaluation, with communities. OED also opportunities for the Bank to present and gain suggested improving the quality of acceptance for its country programs rather than participation in projects and CAS preparation to learn about local priorities. In terms of by developing benchmarks, standards and impacts, only modest gains have been made for guidelines for participation and also by institutional development and participation in conducting local institutional analysis as part of Bank projects has not necessarily influenced the design process. implementing organizations. The study found that the key obstacles for governments related 27. World Bank. 2001. "Forest Policy to participation included resistance to Implementation Review and Strategy participation, as well as lack of capacity and A Revised Draft Strategy for the World Bank experience with participatory approaches and Group." World Bank, Washington, DC. the necessary follow-up. Within the Bank, staff members cope with scarce time and funding for Available from: http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ participatory activities, rigid project cycles and ESSD/FORESTPOL-E.NSF/23471269758d6018 inconsistent management support. Although the 852566270079d1cf/28c6db741f3f059785256a9b0 data is weak, it appears that projects are 0545be9?OpenDocument spending two to twelve percent of their budgets on participation, with most of the funds coming Keywords: collaborative forest management from governments or trust funds. Community (CFM), community, community participation, members also bear the costs of participation conflict (management, resolution, mapping, risk when voluntary labor or time is required. The assessments), forest management participation, findings indicate that individuals cannot be forest policy, Indigenous (communities, groups, expected to participate if they perceive their peoples), participation, poverty (alleviation, individual costs of doing so to be greater than reduction), World Bank their expected benefits. Abstract To improve participation within the Bank, the study recommends that the Bank develop Objectives and Methodology. This draft document country-level approaches, linked to projects and describes the Bank's proposed new forestry other instruments, to increase the impact of policy and strategy for forestry-related projects. participation. The Bank should encourage the Participation issues are given greater attention commitment of governments to participatory in Annex 2 that is focused on forestry and approaches by funding a more systematic poverty reduction. governance approach to participation that would include decentralization, institutional Findings. Participation is discussed in several reform, transparency and accountability. Other sections of the draft forestry policy. As a global recommendations including advocating a shift challenge, forestry issues in development are from the current focus on facilitating contentious. Participation is key to resolving participation via Bank instruments (such as the conflicts between forest stakeholders and CAS and project preparation) to more of a devising policies that do not threaten the rights of specific groups among the poor. Because the Biodiversity Series 31 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Bank has a poverty reduction mission, Bank on harnessing the potential of forests to reduce forest policies and projects will need to consider poverty, integrating forests in sustainable the impact of forestry projects on communities economic development and protecting global and include them as key stakeholders in forest values. formulating policies and projects that affect access and use of forests. The draft policy Annex Two on Forestry and Poverty Reduction stresses the dependence of communities, further articulates social issues and relevant especially indigenous communities, on the participatory approaches. For example, economic and subsistence resources of forests. indigenous peoples and some other forest users Community participation is included as part of typically rely heavily on forest resources for the poverty reduction strategy for regional their livelihoods, yet their tenure, access, and programs. The progress of poverty reduction rights are often limited by government policies. efforts will be assessed by the existence and Conflicts can develop between subsistence achievements of participation in forest users, commercial users and forest managers. To programs. address these issues, the Bank's poverty alleviation strategy adopts collaborative forest Participation is also listed as one of the major management (CFM). The Bank encourages the principles of national forest programs. The devolution of control over forest management to Bank's role in forestry will be to work with local actors. There are also some recurring client countries to ensure the rights of forest- deficiencies related to participation in forestry dependent peoples. The means to accomplish management. There has been a tendency to this objective include strengthened policies, restrict participatory forestry management to institutions, and legal frameworks to ensure areas of degraded forest. Often, there is that women, the poor, and marginalized groups insufficient consideration of women's concerns are active in forest policies and program. In and the gender- specific use and management of addition, the Bank will support the scaling-up forests and forest products. Management bodies of collaborative and community forest have mistakenly assumed that the poor are management. Other efforts will include working homogeneous and they have not accounted for with NGOs and other partners to integrate stakeholders with diverse interests, uses, values, forestry into rural development. Following the and claims to forest resources. While donors key policy elements, the revised strategy focuses have promoted participatory development and the devolution of control, these goals have not always been achieved due, in part, to in-country government resistance and insufficient capacity of local management agencies. 32 Environment Department Papers Part B Review of External Documents 28. Alexander, S.E. 2000. "Resident Attitudes Membership in the Sanctuary is voluntary. It Towards Conservation and Black Howler involves a commitment to protect reverie Monkeys in Belize: The Community Baboon resources as habitat for black howler monkeys Sanctuary." Environmental Conservation 27 (4): (Alouatta nigra). 341-350. While most local residents understand the Available from: http://uk.cambridge.org/ intrinsic, aesthetic and material values of this journals/enc/ important resource and recognize that protection of it can provide opportunities for Keywords: Belize, benefits, benefit sharing, promoting ecotourism activities in their community, Community Baboon Sanctuary, communities, some members are dissatisfied ecotourism, local, local attitudes, awareness and with the project and threaten to withdraw their environmental education, management membership. Although the howlers had capabilities, management collaboration increased in number since the Sanctuary's establishment, many residents felt that neither Abstract their households nor themselves were benefiting. Some Sanctuary members argued Objectives and Methodology. This study aimed to that management was not well organized and define residents' feelings about resource that benefits to communities and individuals protection in their communities and their were not evenly distributed. Key issues attitudes toward management of the Sanctuary. included the extent and nature of benefits to Member and non-member households were local residents, perceptions regarding surveyed, representing three of the eight management capabilities and how villages located within the Sanctuary management is responding to these issues. boundaries. Seventy-four percent of the sample were member households and 26 percent were While these problems existed, the majority of non-member households. residents did not want the Sanctuary abolished and strongly supported maintaining Sanctuary Findings. The Belizean Government views the status. They might not be reaping benefits Community Baboon Sanctuary as a model for directly but they admitted that their lives were participatory ecotourism development. no worse off than before and they recognized Biodiversity Series 33 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) that some members were benefiting. They had and the market economy. He notes that hope that they, too, would be able to eventually commercializing `traditional' livelihoods may take part in some type of tourism business. For increase the general `standard of living' but can long-term local support to be assured, undermine the social `fabric' of the community. management must orient its work to more It can also aid in the rationalization of custom. directly address those factors that influence He concludes by suggesting that social residents' attitudes about the project. These development should precede economic factors include the extent of local participation, development for communities in transition representative organization, sound management between subsistence and commodity-oriented structure, effective management capabilities, economic practices. fair employment allocation, and education opportunities for community residents 30. Badola, R. 1999. "People and Protected regarding the howlers, protection of their Areas in India: Challenges of Joint Forest habitat and the value of resource conservation. Management and Eco-development." UNASYLVA 50 (4): 12-14. 29. Anderson, P. N. 2001. "Community-Based Conservation And Social Change Amongst Available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/ South Indian Honey-Hunters: An x3030E/x3030e05.htm#people and protected Anthropological Perspective." ORYX 35 (1): 81- areas in india 83. Keywords: capacity, capacity building, eco- Available from: http://www.blackwell-science. development (committees, policies), forest com/~cgilib/jnlpage.asp?Journal=oryx& protection committees, India, institutions, joint File=oryx forest management, national policy (forestry, framework), policy, protected area Keywords: commercialization, community, management, resources (sharing, use), community-based conservation, consultation stakeholders, tenure (rights, security, (consultative workshops), eco-development community-based, devolution, land rights, use (committees, policies), honey-hunters, rights), village eco-development committees, incentives (economic, other), India, local, local World Bank participation, control, ownership, social, social change Abstract Abstract Objectives and Methodology. This paper examines the new eco-development policy in India and Objectives and Methodology. This article assesses the weaknesses and strengths of eco- reconsiders the use of financial incentives for development and joint forest management securing the participation of `local' people in approaches for protected area management in conservation programs. The author raises India. India's network of protected areas cover several less-discussed social consequences of 9.1 million hectares and constitute about 14 these types of incentives. He focuses on a South percent of the country's forest area. They have Indian honey-hunting `tribe.' helped to conserve significant portion of the country's biodiversity. Findings. Anderson outlines the involvement of this `tribe' with an eco-development program Findings. Although the basic approach to the management of protected areas (PAs) has been 34 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents isolationist, there has been a shift in recent years managerial and administrative autonomy. Thus, toward participatory approaches in forest the procurement of funds, expenditures and management and biodiversity conservation. In controls are unclear. The Indian legal, policy 1988, the National Forest Policy in India and administrative frameworks also do not declared that all local communities were to be reflect the new inter-department cooperation involved in natural resource conservation. envisaged by eco-development. Subsequently, in 1990, the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests issued a circular for From a policy and strategic perspective, there joint forest management (JFM) and resources are additional problems. The eco-development sharing. The JFM approach sought to develop approach has neglected to push for changes in partnerships between state forest departments land tenure legislation and agrarian reforms (as owners) and local community organizations that could provide incentives to invest in land (as co-managers). User groups received usufruct improvement and conservation. For example, rights only. Since 1991, the government has under the present tenurial arrangements, it has committed funds for eco-development in 80 PAs been difficult to involve local people in through a centrally sponsored scheme and in conservation. While the list of eco-development seven PAs with World Bank officials. The eco- activities is comprehensive, it does not amount development approach integrates to a strategy. As a result, the conservation- environmental and forest activities with other development linkages are generally weak and development activities such as irrigation, have not been able to control land use of the PA animal husbandry, fisheries etc. It is an attempt fringes. to reduce forest dependence and to compensate communities with some type of alternative The article outlines some ways forward to income-generating opportunities. As part of this overcome these problems. The authors approach, village eco-development committees recommend capacity building and training for or forest protection committees administer all field staff and local communities to create local eco-development activities. conservation awareness. Local level institutions that previously had an essential role in The eco-development approach has benefits and sustaining resource use patterns should be weaknesses. The eco-development approach restored. In addition, institutional linkages with acknowledges that the people living near PAs mainstream development programs need to be may have to bear enormous opportunity costs formalized. Finally, conservation projects must while deriving few benefits from conservation. address the different resource priorities and However, there are there is lack of requirements among the various sectors of a understanding of eco-development among community by establishing equitable forest department officials and local people, partnerships among all stakeholders. who may fear their loss of rights. Participatory methods, such as Participatory Rural Appraisal 31. Barrow, E., H. Gichohi, and M. Infield. and Rapid Rural Appraisal, are widely used but 2000. "Rhetoric or Reality? A Review of not properly understood or applied and the Community Conservation Policy and Practice Forest Department. This agency tends to be in East Africa." Evaluating Eden Series No. 5. totally non-participatory in its decision-making London: International Institute for processes and has difficulty practicing what it Environment and Development and the World has only recently begun to preach. In addition, Conservation Union. Indian PA management does not have financial, Biodiversity Series 35 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Available from: World Conservation Bookstore, enabling community conservation. They point http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/index.html out several difficulties with participation in protected areas. Truly inclusive participation is Keywords: access, collaborative management, co- unrealistic because of limits on the resources of management, community, community conservation authorities. PRA can be misused involvement, community-based conservation, and outside facilitators often cannot notice history, Kenya, Lake Manyara National Park, when more dominant groups can impose their outreach, ownership, participation, views. In terms of time, participation imposes participation processes, Participatory Rural costs on local people. Although people tend to Appraisal (PRA), Tanzania, Tanzanian National participate because they expect something in Parks Planning Unit and Community return (e.g., improved access or a significant Conservation Service (TANAPA), Uganda role in resource management), participation processes often lead to no benefits for local Abstract people. At times, the documentation of participatory processes can be misleading Objectives and Methodology. This book examines because they are prepared by vested interests. the history and practice of community For example, community concerns raised conservation in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. during a participatory process can be It covers the evolution of exclusionary park "laundered out" by the time the final document management to the most recent approaches and is prepared. structures of protected area outreach, collaborative management and community- 32. Beltran, J, ed., 2000. "Indigenous and based conservation. The book includes a case of Traditional Peoples and Protected Areas: the successful use of community participation Principles, Guidelines, and Case Studies." for park planning and management in Lake World Conservation Union, Gland, Manyara National Park by the Tanzanian Switzerland and Cambridge, UK and WWF National Parks Planning Unit and Community International, Gland, Switzerland. Conservation Service (TANAPA). Available from: http://wcpa.iucn.org/pubs/ Findings. The authors briefly discuss two publications.html perspectives on community conservation - a participation perspective and an ownership and Keywords: accountability, agreements, benefits, access perspective. Their framework for benefit sharing, collaborative management, co- community conservation is based on ownership management, collaborative research, conflict rather than on participation. From this (management, resolution, mapping, risk perspective, participation should be seen as a assessments), decentralization and devolution, tool and not a solution to community guidelines and guiding principles, indigenous conservation. Resource and land ownership (communities, groups, peoples), indigenous allow for more participation and collaboration resource use, national boundaries, principles, between locals and authorities. restricted co-management, traditional authority, traditional groups, transparency Local-level participation runs throughout the book because the book emphasizes structures Abstract for community management. The authors explicitly discuss participation in a section on Objectives and Methodology. This IUCN book presents principles and guidelines for the 36 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents planning, implementation, and management of co-management, restricted co-management, and protected areas (PAs) that also involve local non-participatory management. Each of the indigenous and traditional groups (Part A). Part eleven case studies described the involvement B includes eleven case studies featuring of indigenous groups but not all of them are indigenous people participation in PA ideal models. Each case is followed by a critical management. evaluation of the collaboration. The authors made three global observations about Findings. WWF and IUCN/WEPA adopted five participation in the case studies: 1) where principles. First, indigenous resource use and participation has taken place early in the conservation are compatible and indigenous planning process, there have been positive peoples are rightful equal partners in the benefits for both indigenous peoples and management of PAs. Two, agreements between managers, 2) the wider the participation, the indigenous groups and protected area less like the chances for conflict, and 3) where management must respect indigenous rights. co-management exists, the challenge is to Three, decentralization, participation, strengthen and extend it; where it does not exist, transparency, and accountability should be it should be established. taken into account in areas of PA management. Four, indigenous peoples should share equally 33. Biodiversity in Development Project. 2001. in benefits with other stakeholders. Five, "Biodiversity in Development: Guiding indigenous rights and protection are an Principles for Biodiversity in Development, international responsibility because PA systems Lessons from Field Projects." World cross national boundaries. Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Principle 3 covers participation and involvement. The authors suggest that existing Available from: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/ management institutions should be reformed to biodev/reports/guiding_principles.pdf accommodate co-management and co- management should occur under a formal Keywords: biodiversity, biodiversity costs and arrangement. Both agencies and indigenous benefits, European Community/Union, groups should be involved in reporting and guidelines and guiding principles, institutional monitoring. For new PAs, they should only be arrangements, institutions, national capacity, established with the agreement of the planning, planning theory indigenous group stakeholders and formal recognition of land and resource rights. The Abstract establishment of new PAs should make use of collaborative research. All parties need to be Objectives and Methodology. This report aims to mutually accountable and management will be ensure that development cooperation projects designed in a collaborative process. Agencies and programs are effective and sustainable, and will promote communication and necessary take full account of environmental security and policy changes. They will also develop conflict biodiversity issues. It captures the experiences resolution procedures and the capacity of and opinions of people working on biodiversity indigenous organizations. issues in European Community (EC) partner countries and offers lessons learned from The eleven case studies present three main European Community/European Union-funded types of management collaboration: unrestricted field projects. The production of the report Biodiversity Series 37 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) involved consultations with 98 workshop and the private sector. To ensure full participants from 35 countries and 4 sites. participation, project should listen carefully and conduct PRAs to assess local needs, preferences Findings. The report condenses the lessons and culture. learned into a set of seven Guiding Principles and provides short, illustrative cases. All of the Principle D indicates that there is a need to Guiding Principles have implications for support capacity building of sustainable participatory conservation. Principles A, E and structures and to ensure that institutional G suggest harmonizing biodiversity objectives arrangements are effective, transparent, with on-going national institutional capacity, accountable, inclusive and responsible. For policy frameworks (including adapting tenure example, the Negril Environmental Protected systems to suit local and national priorities) and Area was the first of its kind in Jamaica but multi-sectoral, ecosystem-based planning replication was slow because the necessary approaches. However, four Principles are administrative experience, legislation and closely tied to social concerns (B, C, D and F). management infrastructure were missing. Principle B focuses on the promotion of a fair Principle F indicates that it is important to use and equitable sharing, among all levels (local, accurate, appropriate and multidisciplinary national, regional and international), of the costs information. This information needs to be and benefits from biodiversity conservation and accurate, accessible and understood by all sustainable use. For participatory approaches to stakeholders. succeed and be sustainable, stakeholders need to see the benefits fairly early in the project 34. Biodiversity Conservation Network. 1999. process. If short-term benefits are unattainable, "Final Stories from the Field." Biodiversity then project managers need to suggest Support Program, Washington, DC. complementary short-term development activities. Field experience indicates that if Available from: www.BCNet.org or www.BSP conservation measures disregarded the online.org livelihoods of poor farmers, then they had little chance of success. But income-generating Keywords: Asia, benefits, benefit sharing, activities that were not associated with the biodiversity conservation and protection, natural habitat did not lead to improved Biodiversity Conservation Network, biodiversity management. For tourism Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), activities, sites must be carefully selected, community, community enterprises, forests, community should be directly involved and India, marine, monitoring, monitoring and tourist revenue contributions to community evaluation, natural resources (management, rural development must be carefully regulated. monitoring and evaluation), Pacific and Pacific Region, Papua New Guinea, stakeholders, Principle C emphasizes the need to respect local United States Agency for International values and build upon social and cultural Development (USAID) context. Projects should respect expressed needs and locally adapted approaches, as well as Abstract making full use of indigenous or local knowledge. Project approaches should build Objectives and Methodology. This book provides partnerships between civil society, government 20 stories detailing the lessons learned from 38 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents enterprise-based biodiversity conservation The series of examples in this book highlight the projects in Asia and the Pacific. Each account use of participatory approaches to improve and describes how projects worked closely with develop enterprises while conserving the communities and established a community natural resource: conservation project. The examples include forests and marine environments. In the Biligiri Ranganswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in India, BCN funded enterprise and Findings. The projects show how the participatory resource monitoring activities to Biodiversity Conservation Network's (BCN) support Joint Forest Management. They three core conditions for success are met in each supported a honey-processing unit, a food- enterprise project. The conditions are 1) the processing unit that processed jam and other activity must depend upon the health of the food products and a herbal medicine-processing biodiversity to yield benefits and be sustainable, unit. In addition, BCN provided inputs on 2) enterprises must generate benefits in both the issues such as management and distribution of short and long terms when BCN funding ceases, profits. From the third year of the project, the and 3) the enterprise must involve local community was involved in participatory community members who are stakeholders. All resource monitoring (e.g., preparation of of the BCN projects contributed to biodiversity vegetation maps, determination of relative conservation by meeting threats, directly abundance of woody species, work on protecting biodiversity, improving institutions pollination, seed dispersal and assessment of and educating individuals. The stories also the impact of fire and weeds on the population show how to organize a community of dynamics of tree species). To train enterprise stakeholders to take effective action and workers and other community members, the fundamentally illustrate BCN's basic conclusion project helped to prepare simple manuals on that these enterprises can lead to conservation, production, extraction and regeneration. While but only under certain conditions and never on there has been some success on conserving their own. biodiversity, BCN concludes that four years is too short of a period to initiate, implement and BCN was established to promote biodiversity evaluate the project. Further project progress conservation at specific project sites, evaluate an will depend upon the extent to which the enterprise-oriented approach to conservation community is able to maintain transparency and and develop process lessons. At each site, the distribution of equitable benefits for the biodiversity was threatened by over harvesting enterprise operations and continue of key species, conversion of natural habitats participatory monitoring. and/or the development of human settlements. Each project attempted to meet these threats by In Papua New Guinea, landowners had been developing one or more enterprises that selling their timber rights to large foreign depended on the biodiversity of the site and logging companies for a fraction of their true incorporated local concerns. There was an market value. In the BCN community, a emphasis on natural resource monitoring and participatory rural appraisal indicated that the evaluation. The project armed communities community wanted development because they with the appropriate tools and techniques to have no access to roads, seas or the relatively collect the data needed for informed decision- inaccessible forest. Their cash incomes are very making to address these threats. low and they have few economic option. Therefore, the Pacific Heritage Foundation and Biodiversity Series 39 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) its partners are using BCN funds to counter "Parks in Peril" portfolio (PiP) and examines logging threats and provide alternative sources the impacts of ecological, social, and political of income to residents of six communities in factors on biodiversity conservation. The East New Britain Province. The project aims to analysis features nine case studies of neo- reduce the decline of forest resources by tropical parks in the Latin America and demonstrating the sustainability of small-scale, Caribbean region. The methodology included community-owned sawmill enterprises and site visits, park documents and discussions by providing economic alternatives. The project those living in and near parks to capture the also supported social and biological monitoring "ground truth" from park staff and inhabitants. work and conducted education and awareness Each of the studies covers eight themes: park training efforts. BCN acknowledged that it is establishment, land and resource tenure, paradoxical to put saws in the hands of resource use, organizational roles, linkages communities to save the rainforest but their between park and buffer zones, conflict local partner, the Pacific Heritage Foundation, management and resolution, large-scale threats, believes that educating the population and and national policy framework. The studies also effective monitoring of the resource will ensure treat three additional themes, indigenous the creation of a system of sustainable logging. peoples and social change, transboundary issues and resettlement. The editors ask whether the assumption that humans can both use and 35. Brandon, Katrina, Kent Redford, and conserve biodiversity holds by pointing out that Steven Sanderson, eds. 1998. Parks in Peril: that all human resource use has impacts and People, Parks, and Protected Areas. Island that cost-free "win-win" solutions do not exist. Press, Washington. They state that "there needs to be substantial rethinking about parks and about what can Keywords: Caribbean, conflict (management, realistically be expected of efforts to manage resolution, mapping, risk assessments), and protect them" (p. 11). economic development, Indigenous (communities, groups, peoples), Latin America, Findings. Looking at all PiP sites, the editors local, local attitudes, awareness and describe four categories of strategies and environmental education, national policy activities for local resident participation in park (forestry, framework), natural resources planning and management: local awareness and (management, monitoring and evaluation), neo- environmental education, natural resource tropical parks, organizational (roles and management, compatible economic structures), park, park establishment, park- development, and involvement in protected- buffer zone linkages, Parks in Peril, policy, area management. The editors treat these resettlement, resources (sharing, use), tenure activities as a vehicle to "win the trust and (rights, security, community-based, devolution, cooperation of community members" (p. 69). land rights, use rights), The Nature Building local awareness is the most common Conservancy (TNC), threats, transboundary, participation activity at PiP sites, especially United States Agency for International through environmental education. Among the Development (USAID) most advanced of the environmental education activities is the Rio Bravo Conservation and Abstract Management Area in Belize. Outreach to promote the concepts of sustainable Objectives and Methodology. This analysis looks development and conservation/economic broadly at The Nature Conservancy's (TNC) 40 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents relationships is targeted to schools and with locals on several initiatives. These efforts communities. A majority of PiP sites have were geared toward strengthening local support developed small-scale sustainable resource for development and economic activities that management projects involving particular would be compatible with conservation. A communities or individuals. Common activities committee brought together locals, project staff, include livestock breeding, beekeeping, government staff and other governmental aquaculture, agroforestry and agroecology. institutions involved with the Osa Peninsula. Some PiP sites include development that is They developed the Osa 2000 development compatible with conservation by providing plan. Current BOSCOSA activities include health services and health education and training to strengthen local institutions for ecotourism development. The most popular community forestry, sustainable resource use, method of including locals in management is by and environmental education. hiring them as guards, extensionists, office staff, study assistants and maintenance staff. 36. Castro, G., L. Alfaro, and P. Werbrouck. 2001. "A Partnership Between Government Of the nine case studies, only three officially and Indigenous People for Managing recognize community participation. The form Protected Areas in Peru." Parks 11 (2): 6-13. and extent of community participation varies. For example, in Mexico's Ria Lagartos Special Available from: The World Commission on Biosphere Reserve, a Technical Advisory council Protected Areas, www.wcpa.iucn.org. is the only institution available for local participation in management and conservation Keywords: Global Environment Facility (GEF), decisions. A similar council is planned for the indigenous management of conservation areas, nearby Ria Celestun Reserve. However, it indigenous rights, local, local resource use and remains to be seen, according to the case rights, Peru writers, whether these councils will live up to their full potential as fora for communication Abstract among local stakeholders and conflict resolution. It is more likely that the councils Objectives and Methodology. This article describes serve to transmit and mobilize support for lessons learned from the participatory strategy federal government policies. In Guatemala, used to create a model management scheme for NGOs are able to manage parks. Defensores, the target conservation areas managed by NGO charged with managing the Sierra de las indigenous groups. The project selected areas Minas Biosphere Reserve, maintains strong using a participatory process. Organizations relationships with local communities. They involved in this process included Peruvian park provide environmental education, technical and development agencies, NGOs, indigenous assistance and training to community groups groups, and two indigenous group federations. within the Reserve. Defensores prepares yearly The Global Environment Facility funded this management plans with extensive local project. participation. During the month-long process, dozens of communities evaluated past activities Findings. The project learned how recognize and planned future ones. In Costa Rica's when local indigenous management will be Corcovado National Park, the Proyecto de more successful. The prospects for the success of Maneho y Conservation de Bosque de la local management improve when groups are Peninusula de Osa (BOSCOSA) project worked organized, maintain cultural values and Biodiversity Series 41 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) identities, possess traditional knowledge of level for individual activities (e.g., fishing, natural resources, have access to abundant collection of forest foods and hunting). resources and there is knowledge of indigenous people's rights. Local management is Findings. The collaborative development of undermined by weak organizational structures, management plans with local people (e.g. co- lack of capacity in participatory methods and management) is now an important means of democratic decision-making, poor health protected area conservation. Formal protected conditions, limited energy sources and area managers often need more specific transportation networks, lack of management information about the local people with whom plans and insufficient knowledge of markets. they want to co-manage resources. In the DSWR, the allocation of time differed according Project lessons and challenges suggest that: 1) to gender, ethnicity and seasonality, throughout the trade-offs between conservation and local the year of the study. Colfer and Venkateswarlu resource use that must be balanced using suggest that knowledge of such patterns of participatory methods, 2) management plans behavior has several advantages. This are not always able to control local resource use, information can help conservation area and 3) there are difficulties in working with managers to understand local people's needs diverse communities with different culture, and desires better. It can improve the rapport values, and languages. between managers and local people. In addition, it can 37. Colfer, Pierce, R.L. Wadley, and P. result in better cooperative plans with Venkateswarlu. 1999. "Understanding Local local people. People's Use of Time: A Pre-Condition for Good Co-Management." Environmental 38. Diamond, Nancy K, ed. 2001. "Human Conservation 26 (1): 41-52. Rights, Indigenous Rights and Environmental Issues: Linkage Lessons." Session 3, Keywords: collaborative management, co- Environmental-Democracy Governance management, Danau Sentarum Wildlife Exchange (EDGE) Roundtable Series. Reserve, Indonesia, protected area conservation, Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, time allocations, West Kalimantan DC. Abstract Available from: http://www.bsponline.org/ publications/asia/roundtable/0101summary. Objectives and Methodology. As an early step in html the co-management of conservation areas, the authors describe and propose the wider use of a Keywords: Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), method for studying time allocation. The use of democracy (and decision-making), governance, time allocation data in co-management is government, Indigenous (communities, groups, illustrated by a conservation project in the peoples), Inter-American Development Bank, Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve (DSWR) in International Human Rights Law Group, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The authors mainstreaming indigenous concerns, Nicaragua, analyzed data from spot observations at three United States Agency for International levels: "macro-categories" (i.e., production, Development (USAID) reproduction and leisure), an intermediate level (e.g., agriculture and food preparation) and a 42 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents Abstract groups to respect cultural differences in the pace and timing of meetings, presentation, decision- Objectives and Methodology. The EDGE making styles and sometimes uses traditional Roundtable Series is part of the Biodiversity practices, multilateral lenders in the World Bank Support Network's ENV-DG Linkages Initiative Group do not systematically coordinate their to encourage discussion between experts efforts related to indigenous peoples. The IDB involved in building democracy and tends to have more leverage in working with governance and experts in the environmental governments than do NGOs and can provide sector. This session focused on the link between loans to pay for participatory planning. indigenous rights and environmental issues and Participants discussed the difficulty of how the concerns of indigenous peoples fit into determining who legitimately represents the environmental and democracy-governance indigenous groups. Sometimes, international agendas of donors. The speakers were Ariel groups or national group bring together Dulitzky, International Human Rights Law indigenous representatives, depending on the Group and Carmen Albertos, Indigenous circumstances. In some cases, it is appropriate to Peoples and Community Development Unit establish new, more representative indigenous (IPCD), Inter-American Development Bank organizations to represent indigenous peoples. (IDB). Finally, environmental organizations sometimes have difficulty supporting indigenous rights Findings. Dulitzky discussed the linkages when these communities choose to pursue between human, indigenous, and economic activities that damage the environmental issues in Nicaragua and his environment. organization's work there. The International Human Rights Law Groups worked to increase 39. Diamond, Nancy K, ed., 2001. "Building the ability of indigenous groups to seek justice. Political Capital Outside of Capitol Cities: They provide information, education and Advocating for Rural Rights and Livelihoods." training for indigenous leaders and support Session 4, Environmental-Democracy their advocacy efforts. Governance Exchange (EDGE) Roundtable Series. Biodiversity Support Program, Albertos, the speaker from the IDB, pointed out Washington, DC. that indigenous groups often have economic and social practices that are appropriate for Available from: http://www.bsponline.org/ protected areas. They are a resource for projects publications/asia/roundtable/0103 that seek to decentralize government summary.html responsibilities. She explained how the IDB has mainstreamed indigenous concerns and Keywords: Africa and Africa Region, Asia, recognized and worked with differing Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), Center for indigenous governance styles. The IDB has been International Environmental Law, civil society, successful in mainstreaming because of their community, community-based property rights, institutional mandate, capacity, will, and democracy (and decision-making), donors, positive attitude toward change. environmental advocacy, governance, pluralism, United States Agency for Discussion participants raised a range of International Development (USAID), World concerns. Although the IDB tailors its Resources Institute (WRI) approaches when working with indigenous Biodiversity Series 43 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Abstract common property rights within community- based natural resource management (CBNRM). Objectives and Methodology. The EDGE Roundtable Series is part of the Biodiversity Discussion participants made several Support Network's ENV-DG Linkages Initiative observations about civil society, democracy- to encourage discussion between experts governance and environmental advocacy. Civil involved in building democracy and society and government pluralism tend to build governance and experts in the environmental upon each other. Environmental advocacy sector. This session focused on advocacy related NGOs tend to start with environmental goals to rural rights and livelihoods and how support but eventually shift to broader democracy- for civil society and environmental advocacy governance concerns. It was noted that can further democracy-governance goals. biodiversity conservation implies restricting Presenters included Peter Veit, (World rights to resources while NRM programs imply Resources Institute, Washington, DC) and Owen making economic use of resources. The degree J. Lynch (Center for International to which a government shares control of natural Environmental Law, Washington, DC). resources depends upon the unique evolution of institutions and resource values. In some cases, Findings. Veit argued that support for pluralism communities may have resource rights but they in government and civil society groups is more have inadequate access to courts and justice. effective for environmental protection and encouraging participation than efforts to support multiple political parties. According to 40. d'Ostiani, L.F. 1999. "Lessons Learned from the speaker, multiple political parties have not an Interregional Experience in Participatory resulted in meaningful change in environmental Upland Development." UNASYLVA 50 (1): 9- protection. However, the success of 11. environmental advocacy has depended more on civil society and governmental pluralism. He Available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/ suggested that donors phase investments to x0963e/x0963e04.htm support civil society first and political parties, second. He found that NGO advocacy in Africa Keywords: Food and Agriculture Organization has been most effective where it was (FAO), Italian Government, Participatory constrained by neither totalitarian states or Upland Development Project, training (capacity tradition-bound societies. building, needs, workshops) Lynch argued for better recognition of Abstract community rights to resources. Governments have not promoted CBNRM agreements Objectives and Methodology. The purpose of this between communities and governments and article is to highlight those lessons related to have not recognized indigenous community- participatory projects in mountain areas that based property rights. Instead, governments have major relevance and significant potential and donors, including the World Bank, continue for replication elsewhere. to promote individual private property rights. Lynch suggests a new category of private-group Findings. The Interregional Project for rights that encompasses individual and Participatory Upland Conservation and Development has been funded by the Italian 44 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents Government and executed by FAO. It has been Findings. In the traditional approach to underway since 1992. The project staff have biodiversity conservation, local people and their learned that participatory sustainable mountain economic activities were viewed as threats to development projects are very complex to the undisturbed functioning of the ecosystem manage. These projects require expertise in a and were to be excluded from protected areas. wide array of disciplines. To successfully However, it became evident that the social costs address the needs and wishes of interested of exclusionary conservation projects were parties, project staff should be well-trained in sometimes high and that their success rate, even the difficult process of negotiation, including in biological terms, was disappointing. conflict management. Therefore, the classic approach was replaced by integrated conservation and development 41. Enters, T. and J. Anderson. 1999. projects (ICDPs) that have aimed to enhance "Rethinking the Decentralization and biodiversity conservation through approaches Devolution of Biodiversity Conservation: that attempt to address the needs, constraints Questioning Prevalent Assumptions about and opportunities of local people by involving Community Management of Forest local people as active partners. However, the Resources." UNASYLVA 50 (4): 6-11. success rate of ICDPs has also been discouraging. Despite this result, many continue Available from: http://aginfo.snu.ac.kr/research to view decentralization and devolution of /unasylva/pdf/199_03.pdf or http://www.fao. management responsibilities as the only org/DOCREP/X3030E/X3030E04.HTM solution for maintaining ecosystems and it is difficult to question these assumptions. Keywords: biodiversity conservation and protection, community, community forest The authors challenge three assumptions that management (and scaling-up), conflict underpin the concept of partnership in (management, resolution, mapping, risk participation: 1) local populations are interested assessments), decentralization and devolution, and skilled in sustainable forest resource use forest communities, Integrated Conservation and conservation, 2) contemporary local Development Projects (ICDPs), livelihood communities are homogeneous and stable, and (strategies, systems), tenure (rights, security, 3) community-based tenure, knowledge and community-based, devolution, land rights, use management systems are appropriate. rights) To contest the first assumption, the authors cite Abstract evidence of increased community harvesting of non-wood forest products in response to market Objectives and Methodology. This article demand and community problems with challenges current thinking by examining controlling resource action and taking collective several of the main principles upon which action for managing common or wild resources. devolution and populist approaches to They conclude that prior patterns of sustainable biodiversity conservation and forest resource management can be attributed to low management are based. The focus in this article levels of use, traditional restrictions and is on forest and/or forest margin dwellers and regulations and low market demand for their livelihood strategies in tropical forests. resources. The authors indicate that it is naïve to believe that people are interested in biodiversity conservation and that they prefer to keep Biodiversity Series 45 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) traditional practices and knowledge. They of other stakeholders frequently contradict argue that locals may desire material goods and those of direct users. It is important to recognize a better standard of living from forest the stratified nature of rural societies. In some management. However, these goals may not be situations, it may be necessary to consciously consistent with sustainability. abandon those areas where communities have already made choices that are likely to cause Second, the authors argue that contemporary long-term conflict with conservation. local communities are not necessarily homogeneous and stable. In reality, villagers are 42. Few, R. 2000. "Conservation, Participation, often politically fractured and socially and Power: Protected-Area Planning in the differentiated along gender, wealth, class, age or Coastal Zone of Belize." Journal of Planning ethnic lines. Perceptions of biodiversity are Education and Research 19 (4): 401-408. similarly differentiated. Furthermore, different interest groups that are subsumed in the Keywords: Belize, biodiversity conservation and category "community" interact with the local protection, coastal zone, participation, power, environment and its resources in different ways. protected area planning They may respond differently to changes in the local economy and other external forces. Abstract Third, the authors question the appropriateness Objectives and Methodology. Drawing on debates of community-based tenure, knowledge and over social impacts of biodiversity conservation management systems. Increased tenure security and the role of power relations in community has been linked to sustainable farming participation, this paper reports on field practices. When applied to forest management, research examining community involvement in it is assumed that people are only willing to protected area planning in Belize. The research invest their scarce resources in conservation if takes an actor-oriented approach to analyze the they know they will reap the rewards. The social, political, authors contend that much uncertainty remains and technical processes involved in initiating regarding the implications of tenure change and and planning of two protected area projects. devolution for resource conservation. There are both positive and negative examples from Findings. The author focuses on the scope of Bolivia. Some local governments in indigenous public involvement, the power differentials areas patrol their areas to avoid encroachment among actors in the planning process and the from logging companies. Others have suffered mechanisms through which power was from petty corruption and sold their timber exercised. He observed an emerging pattern resources to logging companies with little whereby planning officials endeavored to concern for sustainable production. Thus, it mitigate or circumvent social and political appears that tenure security is necessary but dissent rather than foster an active, broad-based insufficient condition for sustainable forest form of community participation. The paper management and conserving biodiversity. suggests that the notion of containment may have a general applicability wherever protected The authors provide several recommendations. areas are planned by external agencies that aim They urge consideration of all socio-economic to engage local participation. and political groups in biodiversity conservation work since the needs and interests 46 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents 43. Fisher, R. J. 1999. "Devolution and communities have had no part in decision- Decentralization of Forest Management in making processes, then their ability to manage a Asia and the Pacific." UNASYLVA 50 (4): 3-5. resource responsibly cannot be accurately measured. Finally, the author suggests that Available from: http://aginfo.snu.ac.kr/ community-based activities should not be research/unasylva/pdf/199_02.pdf judged more stringently than conventional forest management (which has not had perfect Keywords: Asia, decentralization and devolution, results). forest management, forest policy, local, local participation, control, ownership, Pacific and The article concludes that it is not enough Pacific Region simply to diversify the responsibility for implementing centrally defined objectives. Abstract Instead, decentralization and devolution policy and implementation must progress to genuinely Objectives and Methodology. In the contemporary devolved forms of decision-making and joint discussion of forest policy, decentralization and objective setting. Otherwise, decentralization devolution are dominant themes. This article and devolution will contribute relatively little to identifies different models of implementation, sustainable forest management or human trends in implementation and offers development. recommendations as to how it can be improved. The focus on the article is on Asia and the 44. Griffin, J., D. Cuming, S. Metcalfe, M. Pacific. t'Sas-Rolfes, J. Singh, E. Chonguica, M. Rowen, and J. Oglethorpe. 1999. "Study on the Findings. The author presents three typical types Development of Transboundary Natural of decentralization and devolution. In the first, Resource Management Areas in Southern governments encourage local public Africa." Biodiversity Support Program, participation in the implementation of decisions Washington, DC. and plans that have been made centrally. For the second, the responsibility for decision-making Available from: Biodiversity Support Program at and implementation is decentralized from http://www.bsponline.org/publications/ central to local government bodies. In the third scenario, control is handed over to local Keywords: benefits, benefit sharing, Biodiversity communities. The author notes that the Support Program (BSP), community, assumptions of various people advocating community-based natural resource management devolution are often inconsistent and fail to (CBNRM), decentralization and devolution, distinguish devolution from decentralization. heterogeneous communities, tenure (rights, security, community-based, devolution, land To enable meaningful devolution, the author rights, use rights), transboundary natural recommends several actions. There is a need to resource management (TBNRM), transparency, develop trust between foresters and local United States Agency for International communities. Further investment is needed for Development (USAID) local capacity building in responsible management. Safeguards are necessary for Abstract foresters to monitor management. But in turn, foresters must be answerable to communities. If Objectives and Methodology. USAID funded this study on transboundary natural resource Biodiversity Series 47 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) management areas (TBNRM) in Southern Africa lack of transparency and corruption, as well as to help guide its future work in natural resource communities feeling cheated by their management. The study methodology consisted governments. In addition, in southern Africa, of stakeholder consultations, a literature review, lack of clarity around the conferring and the circulation of draft papers on specific topics, application of tenure and use rights is a central and large and small consultative meetings with problem for CBNRM schemes. This problem regional stakeholders. The document discusses affects groups such as pastoralists and women participation as part of approaches to resource user groups who rely on resources community-based natural resource management located across community, sub-national, and (CBNRM). national borders. Findings. A focus on communities has made The authors discuss devolution in relation to CBNRM successful and the authors argue that CBNRM. Devolution has typically been limited the long-term success of transboundary to giving rights to smaller statutory authorities conservation and natural resource management or traditional authorities or a mix of these (TBNRM) rests on whether or not communities groups. However, rights are generally not given become real partners as opposed to mere at the household or individual level. According beneficiaries. The extent to which communities to the authors, CBNRM is "fixated at the will be included in collaborative TBNRM interface between the community (meso) and depends upon whether communities are local and regulatory authority (macro) levels." organized at local, regional or bilateral levels to assert themselves in policy dialogues and Five principles of devolution are key to whether they are recognized in official circles. CBNRM. First, resources should have focused The recognition of communities is conditioned values so that communities can compare costs by how much governments have empowered and benefits. Second, differential burdens lead them to control their own resources. to differential benefits. Third, there needs to be a positive relationship between management Typically, there is tension between customary quality and benefits realized. Fourth, the unit of and statutory understandings of community. proprietorship should be the unit of production, Internally, communities are heterogeneous. In management, and benefit. Fifth, the unit of particular, lineage and gender-based issues are proprietorship should be small. However, important factors in community-based applying these principles can be problematic. management for TBNRM in Southern Africa. Practitioners are unsure of the best economic, However, governments often view communities ecological, and local criteria to use in as a uniform unit in policies and laws. As a determining management units. The main result, communities sometimes struggle to problem is that communities lack strong behave as a single stakeholder when dealing property rights on communal lands. For with other stakeholders. devolution to be successful, it must include all "bonafide" stakeholders, even if the process Other problematic issues influence CBRNM must be slowed to build the capacity of local success. The private sector often seeks decisions groups. at higher, more official levels because it has become frustrated by the slow pace of 45. Hockings, M., S. Stolton, and N. Dudley. community decision-making and rigid 2000. "Evaluating Effectiveness: A Framework administration. These situations can lead to a for Assessing the Management of Protected 48 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents Areas." World Conservation Union, Gland, The authors suggest a scoring system as an Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. evaluation tool. Several items in a scoring system to evaluate management processes and Available from: http://wcpa.iucn.org/pubs/ outputs relate directly to local participation. publications.html Management engagement with the neighbors of PAs is scored at four levels (i.e., no contact, Keywords: community, evaluation, protected limited contact, regular contact, and area planning, stakeholder evaluations cooperatively addressing of mutual concern). An element on residents and traditional Abstract landowners scores the level of local participation in management (i.e., no or little Objectives and Methodology. This book is input, input but no involvement, direct intended for protected area and evaluation contribution to management in some areas, and professionals. It provides a framework and tools direct contribution to management). Additional for evaluating the management effectiveness of points can be assigned when there is open all types of protected areas in developing and communication and trust between managers developed countries. and locals. Findings. Management effectiveness relates to 46. Horowitz, L. S. 1998. "Integrating design of parks and park systems, the Indigenous Resource Management with appropriateness of management systems and Wildlife Conservation: A Case Study of processes and the achievement of goals. Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia" Protected area (PA) planning or management Human Ecology 26 (3): 371-403. agencies are the principal stakeholders of evaluations. They are interested in knowing Keywords: Batang Ai National Park, conflict whether the goals of the PA are being met. Local (management, resolution, mapping, risk communities have an interest in knowing assessments), customary law, Iban, indigenous whether a PA is meeting its objectives and management systems, Integrated Conservation constitute another stakeholder group. Ideal Development Projects (ICDPs), land and forest evaluations will include partnerships between management, local, local authority, Malaysia, many players including local managers, senior park, participation, Sarawak, wildlife agency managers, government agencies from other sectors, local communities, indigenous Abstract groups, NGOs, donors, and private sector staff. All relevant stakeholders should be included. Objectives and Methodology. This paper examines The authors also suggest that a transparent the indigenous land and forest management system is needed to make results available to all systems of a community comprised of seven stakeholders. Besides having clear management Iban longhouses. Their territories comprise the goals and criteria for assessing them, area of Batang Ai National Park in Sarawak, management evaluations should include Malaysia. It also discusses the integrated indicators of social, environmental, and conservation and development program (ICDP) management issues and also how the PA relates at the park. to its surroundings. They need to focus on the most important issues and give broad Findings. To enlist the cooperation of local consideration of all of the factors that affect people and their leaders in implementing a new management (such as design and context). conservation strategy, this Malaysian ICDP is Biodiversity Series 49 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) attempting to work within the existing system development. The attitudinal surveys of of customary law. It aims to build upon attitudes showed that communities who had traditional legislative infrastructure and benefited from the program were significantly management practices. In addition to more positive towards the park and wildlife reinforcing local authority, park planners have than communities that did not receive benefits. recognized that it is necessary to offer strong The CCP built an understanding of conservation incentives to local people for their participation objectives amongst in co-management of the protected area. communities whose members were more likely to recognize positive aspects of the Despite a history of conflict between the State park and less likely to demand that it be and indigenous peoples, Horowitz argues that degazetted. State officials have demonstrated a willingness to work with local people and community However, comparisons over the seven-year leaders in this particular situation. At the same duration of the CCP do not show that time, they are encouraging community communities were generally more positive development. They have helped local people to towards conservation over the life of the project. find alternatives to activities that threaten the Communities were more critical of management park's wildlife. and demanded more support and resources than they had received. Their behavior was not 47. Infield, M., and A. Namara. 2001. greatly changed and high levels of poaching "Community Attitudes, and Behavior Towards and illegal grazing continued. Community Conservation: An Assessment of A attitudes were influenced by receipt of Community Conservation Programme Around development assistance but improvements were Lake Mburo, National Park, Uganda." ORYX fragile. They were vulnerable to the poor 35 (1): 48-60. behavior of park staff and law-enforcement activities that were seen as contradictory to Available from: http://www.blackwell-science. community approaches. Land ownership and com /~cgilib/jnlpage.asp?Journal=oryx economic occupations also influenced &File=oryx community attitudes. Keywords: community, community attitudes and The authors conclude that the CCP was not a behavior, community development, community- panacea for the problems of the park. It did not based, conservation, Uganda resolve fundamental conflicts of interest between communities and park Abstract management. However, it did change the way the protagonists perceive and Objectives and Methodology. This paper analyses interact with each other. the impact of a Community Conservation Programme (CCP) implemented over a seven- 48. IUCN (World Conservation Union). 1999. year period around a national park in Uganda. "Parks for Biodiversity: Policy Guidance The authors conducted a survey of community Based on Experience in ACP Countries." attitudes. World Conservation Union, Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Findings. CCP activities included dialogue, conflict reduction, education, community Available from: http://wcpa.iucn.org/pubs/ resource access and support for community publications.html 50 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents Keywords: Africa and Africa Region, capacity, The book recommends several approaches for capacity building, Caribbean Region, working with local communities. The World decentralization and devolution, local, local Conservation Union's (IUCN) Participatory participation, control, ownership, Pacific and Action Research approach encourages local Pacific Region, World Conservation Union people to research and understand their natural (IUCN) resources. When they gain an understanding of their impacts on their resources, they are more Abstract empowered to take charge of the planning and management processes. As much as possible, Objectives and Methodology. Intended to provide managers should include locals in management information to the public, this book offers through boards and co-management structures. background information and summarizes the When necessary, protected area projects should main points from three regional strategies raise the local standard of living by tying (Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific Region) development to the conservation of core areas. that were presented to the European In the past, Integrated Conservation and Commission. Development Projects have only supported conventional development in areas surrounding Findings. Local participation is a concern that core areas. In some areas, they have runs throughout the book. The authors point out inadvertently attracted more people to the that donors should "be suspicious of any location and put more pressure on resources in protected area project that does not have the core area. Responsibility and financing for activities with the local community at its heart." protected areas should be devolved to the The background section also describes five lowest level possible. Projects should encourage principles derived from the Caracas Action Plan local leadership and community initiatives. from the Fourth World Congress on National Achievements can be recognized through award Parks in Caracas, Venezuela. The second schemes, public ceremonies, and personal principle explicitly calls for the involvement of contact above all. local people. While it may be more expensive and complex, approaches that encourage In Africa, parks face a two-fold challenge ­ participation are more likely to succeed. This making protected areas contribute to local needs success is, in part, attributable to the fact that without compromising conservation and participatory conservation requires less formal finding ways for conservation go generate policing since local people often act as unpaid income to cover more of the local costs. For the guardians. former challenge, the basic park management strategy has involved integrating development The authors discuss categories and issues needs with conservation. IUCN recommends related to protected area stakeholders. The book the co-management model as one option. lists five stakeholder categories: 1) the public However, co-management involves risks sector, such as electric and water utilities; 2) the because it can be difficult and time-consuming, commercial sector; 3) non-governmental vulnerable to corruption and pressure from organizations (NGOs); 4) research institutions; vested interests and a lack of community and and 5) local communities. The first step of staff capacity and democracy at the local level. protected area work involves identifying the obvious and not-so-obvious stakeholders, such For the Caribbean region, participation is only as military and religious groups. briefly mentioned in the strategy. What is mentioned is an overriding belief is that parks Biodiversity Series 51 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) must be able to generate income for local 49. IUCN (World Conservation Union). 1998. residents. Tourism is intended to play a large "Protected Areas in the 21st Century: From role in creating economic opportunities. Co- Islands to Networks." Conference Report, management and participation are seen as January, 1998, Albany, Australia. World means to foster local cooperation and reduce Conservation Union, Gland Switzerland and conflicts between managers and locals. It is Cambridge, UK. noted that "the community has to organize itself into a form in which it can participate in Request from: World Conservation Bookstore, decision-making. " Communities must reach a http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/index.html point where they can think about long-term sustainability and not just meeting immediate Keywords: capacity, capacity building, needs. indigenous role, management capabilities, management collaboration, Pacific and Pacific The Pacific Region strategy discusses the Region, protected areas, Venezuela, World uniqueness of the region in terms of tenure. Conservation Union (IUCN) Customary tenure dominates rather than government ownership of natural resources. As Abstract a result, these governments have little control over what happens in sensitive areas. Objectives and Methodology. Several plenary Conservation practitioners must work directly sessions and papers in this conference report with the communities and owners of land and were briefly discussed in this conference report. marine areas. Local owners have considerable The report does not provide papers discussed in respect and knowledge of their natural the plenary sessions. resources but are tempted to exploit resources in order to join the cash economy. In this context, Findings. In a plenary entitled "The Changing the most appropriate role for donors is to work Nature of Society," speakers noted that through community groups and NGOs in order indigenous peoples are playing an important to negotiate with owners. According to IUCN, role in protected area management and there is Pacific Island governments believe that a Trust a continued need for management Fund is the best way to support conservation. collaboration. Often, the interests of indigenous These funds are believed to be the best peoples and conservation managers coincide mechanism for providing funding in the most but there are few forums where stakeholders appropriate, small scale for community-based can resolve conflicts. There is increased use of conservation. A Trust Fund has the potential to co-management. It has been effective at maintain the approaches that have been resolving many deep-rooted conservation successful to date. These approaches take a problems that stem from poor communication long-term approach and provide small but between managers and local communities. sustained amounts of funding. They build Speakers also emphasized that devolution has capacity and minimize the use of outside been valuable and that stakeholders must experts. They have the flexibility to meet the continue to be fully involved in management. needs of communities in the "driver's seat" and allow activities to be led by community "The Capacity to Manage" plenary session demand. notes observe that protected area managers need to gain skills in communication, negotiation, and obtain greater socio-economic 52 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents knowledge. Managers will need to incorporate Keywords: compensation, exclusion of people, local knowledge into management and to Integrated Conservation Development Projects communicate the values associated with (ICDPs), local, local participation, control, protected areas. There is a need to train ownership, Non-Governmental Organizations managers on co-management strategies and (NGOs) (capacity, roles, executing agencies, host how to work with communities. Community country), social, social issues, social threats, groups need training to increase their capacity tropical rainforests to be managers of protected areas. The summary did not specify exactly what Abstract knowledge locals would need. Objectives and Methodology. The overall focus of Several conference papers discussed the role of the book is on the loss of biodiversity in tropical participation. A paper on the Convention on rain forests and the role of protected areas in Biological Diversity stated that the protected stemming this loss. This book is the culmination area planning and management must be done of several years to bring together people from a "with and through" local communities. "The variety of disciplines, national backgrounds and Road from Caracas" paper details the progress work experience to share ideas about made since the 1992 World Parks Congress in conservation of biodiversity in the tropics. Caracas, Venezuela. It mentions that many Tropical rain forests are disappearing rapidly countries have been promoting collaborative due to human encroachment and have become management of PAs that covers the full range of the subject of international concern. The book participation from consultation to collaborative moves from general topics such as "what is management arrangements. While the role of biodiversity" and the history of the park indigenous peoples is increasingly prominent, it movement to more complex questions and is still often inadequately considered in PA concepts. For example, what are design management. For the Pacific Islands region, a problems that need to be improved to keep paper on marine protected areas (MPAs) stated protected areas (PAs) functioning as viable that successful MPA management is a ecosystems? What are the social threats to PAs? transparent process that uses local participation How successful have Integrated Conservation at every step, builds stakeholder capacity and and Development Projects (ICDPs) been and integrates traditional and modern conservation what is the role of local participation in PA approaches. Because government-led PA management? management has failed, other management arrangements have arisen where communities Findings. In a chapter on user rights and own and depend upon the resources to be biodiversity conservation, the authors explicitly conserved. For the South Pacific Biodiversity discuss the devolution of rights to local people. Conservation Programme, the main They point out that there are two main schools characteristics of management are local of thought regarding the devolution of rights to ownership, full local participation, locally local people. Some argue that the only way to driven processes, and benefits for locals. vest locals in the maintenance of forest resources is to give them specific, income- 50. Kramer, Randall, Carel van Schaik, and enhancing rights to its use. Others point to Julie Johnson. 1997. "Last Stand: Protected numerous examples of local populations that Areas and the Defense of Tropical Biodiversity." have exploited their forest resources in ways Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. that are not sustainable, degrading the Biodiversity Series 53 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) biodiversity of the area. The authors suggest the enforcement, should be a fact of life for primary issues shaping the devolution debate protected areas, irrespective of whether or not are population pressure and equity issues. local people are involved, for sustainability into Population pressure drives incursions onto the future. The second is that it is reasonable to protected areas and inequitable distribution of ask that beneficiaries elsewhere be prepared to land and other resources forces disenfranchised pay for these benefits, which they currently individuals to rely on protected areas to receive at no cost. It is largely city dwellers and enhance their incomes. Several other issues lead others are benefiting directly or indirectly from to encroachment. Insecure tenure creates the protected resource. Payment measures may perverse incentives to exploit the forest include taxation, or support by private resources at unsustainable rates. There are also foundations. The third principle is that foreign conflicts between formal laws/policy and involvement in the management of a country's traditional norms, between traditional users and biodiversity is justified, particularly in new migrants and between traditional users transboundary or "common" cases. Much like versus commercial enterprises. ozone, biodiversity is perceived to be a common good. The fourth principle is that active Using three case studies from Costa Rico, involvement of local communities in Bolivia and Belize, the book recommends how conservation is mandatory because the population pressure and equity can be involvement of locals is likely to significantly reconciled with preserving biodiversity through improve protection. However, although this creative user-rights arrangements. In Costa devolution of PA management is effective at the Rica, the keys to success included strong community level, the interests of other government commitment, the institutionaliza- stakeholders, national or international, should tion of these commitments via the creation of always be represented. These interests need to several autonomous NGOs, clear links between be represented, if not at the executive level, then protection of biodiversity and economic at the oversight level. Thus, the advantages of prosperity, establishment of professional and devolution should be married to the strong financial relationships with international NGOs points of state involvement. and local investment. In Belize, the success of the project was the result of respect for, and 51. Lane, M.B. 2001. "Affirming New dependence upon the local entrepreneurial Directions in Planning Theory: Co- capabilities of the local population, as well as Management of Protected Areas." Society and links to international NGOs. In Bolivia, where Natural Resources 14 (8): 657-671. the project was less successful, income opportunities were created without providing Available from: http://tandf.catchword.com/ mechanisms for limiting the subsequent influx titles/08941920.htm of colonizers into the area. As a result, there was greater in-migration and both locals and Keywords: collaborative management, co- migrant were forced into harvesting within the management, conservation management, local, protected area. local stakeholders, planning, planning theory In the final analysis, the book highlights four Abstract principles that would successfully improve protected area management. The first principle Objectives and Methodology. This article considers is that active protection, through law the trajectory of change in planning 54 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents theory over the past 50 years and demonstrates Abstract that planning theorists have converged on similar ground to managers of Objectives and Methodology. This article discusses protected areas the politics of participation in the Western Ghats Forestry Project in India. Findings. In recent years, the conservation management literature has seen many calls for Findings. The author notes that many co-management of parks and protected areas. community groups take a suspicious view of the The rationale for this approach to new vogue among development agencies for protected area management has come from the forms of participatory development. Some of experience of park managers who are struggling these groups see donor participatory to integrate protected areas into the development as an attempt to actively socioeconomic fabric of undermine local efforts to reclaim control over surrounding regions. This rich experience the institutions, forests, fishing grounds, fields informs calls for more co-management schemes. and rivers upon which their livelihoods depend. However, a theoretical rationale for, and The Western Ghats Project illustrates some of explanation of co-management have been slow these issues. The Western Ghats project was in coming. Developing cooperative intended to ensure that poorer people, women, relationships with local stakeholders and tribals and other disadvantaged groups who sharing the burden of management were dependent upon the forest were "not responsibilities have emerged as a potential new worse and preferably better off." However, in paradigm in natural resource planning. many cases, the project caused considerable Therefore, protected areas provide a context to hardship to local villagers. For example, the empirically test many of the ideas and concepts project located funded plantations mainly on that are being debated among scholars of village commons. In these areas, villagers and planning. particularly the poorer villagers derive pasture for animals, fuel, manure, medicinal plants and 52. Lohmann, 1998. "Same Platform, Different other products to fulfill their basic needs. Now, Train: The Politics of Participation." The women much travel longer distances to obtain Corner House Briefing Paper 4. Abstracted firewood. Increasingly, they must take this from: Hildyard, Nicholas, Hegde, Pandurang, wood from forestlands. The result is often Wolverkamp, Paul and Somersekhave Reddy. further forest destruction. In addition, despite 1998. "Same Platform, Different Train: efforts to include women, the project ended up Pluralism, Participation and Power." marginalizing the voices of many women, in UNASYLVA 49(3). particular lower-caste women. Available from: http://cornerhouse.icaap.org/ NGOs played a key role in altering the project to briefings/4.html incorporate greater involvement of villagers and a poverty-oriented focus. However, many Keywords: India, marginalized groups, modifications were simply tacked on to an participation, participation development, existing framework rather than substantively poverty (alleviation, reduction), Western Ghats influencing project design. The project would Forestry Project have taken a very different shape if the NGOs, let alone the villagers, had drawn up their own Biodiversity Series 55 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) project rather than modify someone else's. increasingly expected to play. These roles However, many NGOs continue to participate include protectors of biodiversity and in these types of projects because they believe developers of the communities that live within they can exert influence. and around parks. However, biodiversity conservation and development objectives often In conclusion, the Western Ghats project conflict. The author believes that the links illustrates that "participation" is likely to offer between conservation and development little to marginalized groups if it fails to engage opportunities are unclear and cases where there with the distribution and operations of power is a link are rare. Although participation is one within local communities and the wider society element of ideal integrated conservation in which they live. Facilitating measures may be development projects (ICDPs), it is often important in negotiations. However, they are difficult to fairly target communities and not sufficient. Marginal groups need to be individuals for development. granted the bargaining power to overcome the structural dominance enjoyed by more powerful Park managers are generally poorly equipped groups. Therefore, participation requires wider and lack the financial resources to tackle issues processes of social transformation and that extend well beyond park boundaries. These structural change to the system of social issues include poverty alleviation, tenure and relations through which inequalities are resource allocation issues, as well as social, reproduced. To address the structural causes of justice, and market failures. However, training, inequality, it is necessary to make policy education, and awareness campaigns have been changes and rethink the means by which such successful in building local support for change is achieved. conservation. 53. MacKinnon, K. 2001. "Integrated 54. Maguire, Patrick, Nonette, Royo, Laurent Conservation and Development Projects- Can Some and Tatiana Zaharchenko. 2000. They Work?" PARKS 11 (2): 1-5. "Lessons from the Field." Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), Washington, DC. Available from: The World Commission on Protected Areas, www.wcpa.iucn.org. Available from: http://www.BSPonline.org Keywords: Integrated Conservation Keywords: Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), Development Projects (ICDPs), park, park capacity, capacity building, community, management and park managers, poverty decentralization and devolution, empowerment, (alleviation, reduction) institutional capacity, strengthening, institutions, power, threats, United States Abstract Agency for International Development (USAID) Objectives and Methodology. MacKinnon provides Abstract the editorial introduction on Integrated Conservation and Development Projects to this Objectives and Methodology. For years, special issue of PARKS. conservationists have treated decentralization as a "magic bullet." On the whole, decentralized Findings. The author points out the broad and decision making and increased user group multi-dimensional roles that protected areas are rights have promoted reforestation. However, 56 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents there have been problems and the BSP study, There is a need for more research and efforts to "Shifting the Power: Decentralization and address underlying social factors behind Biodiversity Conservation" suggests a more environmental threats. It is important to pay complicated scenario. BSP conducted a study attention to the position of any potential asking two questions: does decentralization conservation allies hold within the local empower the people living in direct contact community as a whole. It is helpful to find with natural resources and if this power shift institutional partners with capacity and build occurs, does it result in environmental policies the capacity of local resource management and management practices that reduce threats structures instead of creating new ones. Projects to biodiversity? should work with groups normally marginalized from the public arena, encourage Findings. Obstacles to decentralization in local-national linkages and discourage mere conservation were numerous. Adopting laws to divestment of functions and authority. decentralize power did not guarantee that it would occur or that it would prove favorable to 55. Margoluis, R., Cheryl Margoluis, Katrina conservation. Decentralization was often Brandon, and Nick Salafsky. 2000. "In Good accompanied by neo-liberal reforms that reduce Company: Effective Alliances for the government's responsibilities all across the Conservation." Biodiversity Support Program, board including the task of ensuring that local Washington, DC. actors carry out their responsibilities. The BSP study suggests that it is optimal to build in Available from: http://www.BSPonline.org reciprocal forms of accountability between the local and national levels. The study also showed Keywords: alliances, biodiversity conservation that while communities face a problems that and protection, Biodiversity Conservation lead to resource degradation, decentralized Network, Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), conservation programs are unlikely to overcome Fiji, India, Indonesia, international agencies, these problems although they may help address Nepal, Non-Governmental Organizations some of them. In some areas, local people (NGOs) (capacity, roles, executing agencies, host distrust conservationists. They fear that the country), Papua New Guinea, Philippines, programs they bring will diminish their access Solomon Islands, Threat Reduction Assessment, to resources. BSP's Senior Program Officer with United States Agency for International the KEMALA project also indicated that with Development (USAID) decentralization, it is easier to get permits to cut down the forest. Abstract The BSP decentralization study proposes Objectives and Methodology. This study focuses several principles for effective conservation on the characteristics of effective conservation practice. It is important to know, for all alliances and their member organizations and stakeholders, the meaning, value and existing the key principles that can help organizations rights to the natural resources. It is also work together more effectively. The authors necessary to know who benefits most and least examined a range of alliances working to from conservation actions. It is helpful to preserve conservation and conservation NGOs identify institutional partners with authority involved in these alliances. The sample focused and legitimacy, local non-conservation goals on 20 projects supported by the Biodiversity and their relationship to conservation goals. Conservation Network (BCN) in Fiji, India, Biodiversity Series 57 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Indonesia, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, The organizations were not more effective. More Philippines and the Solomon Islands. The flexible alliances were more likely to achieve sample included 39 sites, 43 organizations and conservation success as were alliances that had 37 enterprises. To measure whether a project one strong leader for creating and maintaining had an impact upon biodiversity conservation successful conservation projects. Simpler at each site, the authors used the Threat alliances with fewer member organizations Reduction Assessment (TRA) approach. This were better able to establish and maintain clear technique evaluates the area, the intensity and project goals. Simple alliances, such as the urgency of each threat, as well as the degree partnerships and contractual agreements, allow to which all threats have been addressed by for complementary resources and skills to be project activities. The authors drew from the shared, while minimizing the resources that literature and conventional wisdom to select the need to be invested by each partner. independent variables that were thought to influence conservation success. They used semi- 56. McNeely, J., ed. 1998. Major Conservation structured questionnaires to interview BCN Issues of the 1990s: Results of the World staff and alliance personnel. Conservation Congress Workshops. World Conservation Union, Gland Switzerland and Findings. The study findings showed some Cambridge, UK. disagreement with the conventional wisdom regarding alliances. For example, neither Request from: World Conservation Bookstore, conservation NGOs nor international http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/index.html organizations were best suited or most effective at managing and implementing conservation Keywords: biosphere reserves, collaborative projects. To be effective, organizations need to management, co-management, indigenous play appropriate roles. Although international knowledge, intellectual property rights, poverty organizations generally had the most control (alleviation, reduction), World Conservation over projects, these arrangements proved to be Congress less effective and not sustainable. Local and national organizations need to be involved so Abstract that they can create and manage successful conservation projects on their own. Projects that Objectives and Methodology. This book includes have conservation goals and involve organizing, brief summaries of the proceedings of training or educating people who live around workshops held during the first World areas of high biodiversity may be better Conservation Congress. This meeting was held managed by development organizations that in Montreal, Canada in 1996. It is intended to work with local people. whet the appetites of readers for the topics discussed. The study confirmed some of the commonly accepted assumptions about alliance Findings. Several workshop proceedings management. Complex projects and alliances covered participation issues related to often come with more difficulties because they conservation efforts in general, and less are difficult to maintain in terms of time, energy specifically to protected areas. The most and money. Although they may have had relevant workshops related to Participatory greater access to a variety of technical skills and Conservation included "Biosphere Reserves: financial resources, alliances with more member Myth or Reality," "Collaborative Management 58 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents for Conservation" and "Poverty, People, and the For the "Poverty, People, and the Environment" Environment." workshop, participants discussed possible approaches and policies related to a paradigm The "Biosphere Reserves: Myth or Reality" that links conservation to poverty. The general workshop explored operational issues for approach includes preventing environmental putting the biosphere reserve model into degradation and providing livelihood practice. Three factors contributed to the success opportunities. However, trade barriers, of biosphere reserves: 1) demonstrating the intellectual property rights, tenure rights and direct benefits associated with the Reserve, 2) participation influence biodiversity assuming an "outward focus" that is linked to a conservation. Trade barriers interfere with the targeted communications and outreach strategy, success of biodiversity conservation strategies and, 3) real, rather than token, input into that depend upon the sale of natural products decisions by local people. (i.e., the negative impact of the ivory trade ban upon Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE program). The "Collaborative Management for Despite the presence of intellectual property Conservation" workshop discussed the issues rights laws, individuals or communities that and possibilities provided by collaborative hold traditional knowledge with market value management (CM). Two overarching opinions are generally not compensated. Both public surfaced toward CM ­ CM as an effective way policy and local tenure plans are needed to to manage resources and CM as a means to guarantee local resource rights. promote equitable access to resources. There is some concern that government should still have In addition, stakeholder participation has responsibilities as the caretaker of the helped avoid destructive conflicts. In buffer environment, even when stakeholders are zone management, successful participation incorporated into CM. The disenfranchised strategies have included involving and sectors of society should be included in framing strengthening local institutions, increasing local CM rules. In addition, information should be participation in decision-making; establishing shared to balance power among stakeholders. strategic alliances among stakeholders and CM systems should be aware of, and build upon working by consensus and compromise. It also local knowledge and practices but not helps to recognizing the contradictions between uncritically perpetuate harmful practices. To short-term poverty alleviation and long-term avoid a heavy reliance on natural resources, CM conservation goals. schemes should offer diverse means for generating revenue and flexible incentives that 57. Mehta, J.N., and J.T. Heinen. 2001. "Does can change with local conditions. Non- Community-Based Conservation Shape governmental organizations (NGOs) are useful favorable Attitudes Among Locals? An facilitators but they risk intruding if they Empirical Study from Nepal." Environmental consider themselves to be stakeholders. In Management 28 (2): 165-177. general, a long-term approach and support are useful to craft the details of CM systems, build Available from: http://link.springer.de/link/ trust between government and communities, service/journals/00267/ resolve conflicts that arise over time and look out for the interests and rights of future Keywords: Annapurna Conservation Area, generations. benefits, benefit sharing, community, community-based conservation, local, local Biodiversity Series 59 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) attitudes, awareness and environmental results revealed that the most significant education, Makalu-Barun Conservation Area, predictors of local attitudes were participation Nepal, people-park relations in training, benefits from tourism, the wildlife depredation issue, ethnicity, gender and Abstract educational levels. These predictors were relevant for one or the other conservation areas. Objectives and Methodology. This article is geared The authors concluded that the CBC approach to the needs of policy-makers and resource has potential to shape favorable local attitudes managers in Nepal and worldwide who are and that these attitudes will be mediated by interested in understanding whether some personal attributes. community-based conservation approaches lead to improved attitudes on the part of local 58. Metcalfe, S. 1999. "Study on the people. It also discusses whether or not Development of Transboundary Natural attitudes are influenced by the personal costs Resources Management Areas in Southern and benefits associated with various Africa: Community Perspectives." Biodiversity intervention programs, as well as socioeconomic Support Program, Washington, DC. and demographic characteristics. The authors explore these questions by looking at the Available from: Biodiversity Support Program at experiences in Annapurna and Makalu-Barun http://www.bsponline.org/publications/ Conservation Areas, Nepal. The research was conducted during 1996 and 1997; the data Keywords: Africa and Africa Region, Biodiversity collection methods included random household Support Program (BSP), community, questionnaire surveys, informal interviews, and community perspectives, community-based review of official records and published natural resource management (CBNRM), literature. private sector, stakeholders, tenure (rights, security, community-based, devolution, land Findings. Like many developing countries, rights, use rights), transboundary natural Nepal has adopted a community-based resource management (TBNRM), United States conservation (CBC) approach to policy Agency for International Development (USAID) formulations, planning and management in recent years to manage its protected areas. This Abstract new approach has been adopted mainly in response to poor park-people relations. Under Objectives and Methodology. This supplement to this approach, the government has created new the BSP Transboundary Study (see #39), "people-oriented" conservation areas. It has explains specific community perspectives formed and devolved legal authority to regarding Transboundary Natural Resource grassroots-level institutions to manage local Management (TBNRM) and Community-Based resources. In addition, it has fostered Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). It infrastructure development, promoted tourism discusses many of the community management and provided trainings on income generation issues presented in the main report and also for local people. describes the relationships between communities and other stakeholders, The study results indicated that the majority of constraints to community management and the local people held favorable attitudes toward interventions needed to improve community- these conservation areas. Logistic regression based management. 60 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents Findings. Communities have different organizations to represent communities at all relationships with each type of stakeholder. levels. It is important to encourage indigenous Governments ultimately decide whether to knowledge systems, provide training and grant rights and listen to community voices. In capacity building and support communication southern Africa, governments have not sought and information sharing. TBNRM should be an the participation of civil society and have not extension of CBNRM and allow a unique encouraged input from informally organized process to develop that informs the institutional rural communities. Communities are in greater structure of TBNRM. contact with the private sector because tourism provides a new way to value natural resources. 59. Metcalfe, Simon. 1996. "Whose Resources However, communities need clearer tenure are at Stake? Community-Based Conservation rights to be seen by the private sector as and Community Self-Governance." The partners. NGOs have a history of building local University of Reading Agricultural Extension capacities. The ability of communities to and Rural Development Department. The participate with other stakeholders depends Rural Extension Bulletin Number 10. upon their ability to establish community-based organizations. The role of donors can be unclear. Available from: http://www.undp.org/eo/ While donors are necessary to support CBNRM, documents/who.htm communities are unsure of where their interests fall within donor priorities. CBNRM-related has Keywords: CAMPFIRE, capacity, capacity helped to inform stakeholders, identify issues building, community, community self- and conflict, as well as provide options. governance, conservation, participation, participation evaluations and participatory The document lists the constraints to monitoring, planning, planning theory, community management from the point of view stakeholders, tenure (rights, security, of communities and proposes some solutions. community-based, devolution, land rights, use These constraints include weak communal rights), traditional authority, traditional groups, property rights and contestation of rights United States Agency for International between traditional and statutory authorities. Development (USAID), Zimbabwe The time demands of community management create high costs. Large programs tend to Abstract marginalize communities and there is a problem with top-down implementation. There is Objectives and Methodology. This four-page sometimes a lack of NGO transparency. Both article shows how political and social factors communities and government staff lack skills, have led to different community dynamics in including the skills needed to work together. two different village wards and to very different Sometimes, cultural heritage is made outcomes in response to a project. It focuses on subordinate to conservation. Some activities lessons from the CAMPFIRE project in lack incentives for compatible land uses in Zimbabwe. protected areas (PAs). To overcome these constraints, communities need to be involved Findings. According to the author, the concepts early on in CBNRM initiatives. Governments of community and community ownership are should improve the formal access rights for attractive but are in danger of being idealized. communities. Projects should support the Colonial interventions and the more recent development of community-based introduction of democratic structures based on Biodiversity Series 61 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) individual adult representation principles have 60. Pimbert, Michel, and Gujja Biksham. 1997. altered traditional systems of rights and "Village Voices Challenging Wetland obligations that govern access to resources. Management Policies: Experiences in Conflict between these interventions and Participatory Rural Appraisal from India and traditional systems can rupture community Pakistan." Nature and Resources 33 (1). conservation policies. Keywords: community, community opposition, Political and social differences influence how conflict (management, resolution, mapping, risk the CAMPFIRE Project is able to operate. For assessments), India, Keoladeo National Park, example, in the Chapoto Ward of Guruve Pakistan, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), District, there is conflict between the protected area management, protected area democratically elected Ward Development management, Punjab, Rajasthan, tenure (rights, Committee and the traditional chief. As long as security, community-based, devolution, land the chief's authority is not recognized and the rights, use rights), training (capacity building, community continues to support him, the needs, workshops), Ucchali wetland complex, effectiveness of the CAMPFIRE Committee is wetland management undermined. For project activities in this area, CAMPFIRE has had to rely upon firm district Abstract level oversight, supervision and enforcement. On the other hand, there is a viable relationship Objectives and Methodology. This article reports between the Ward Committee and the on the community-wetland interactions of two traditional chief in Kanyurira Ward. sites of international importance for Communities adhere to decisions. In addition, conservation. These sites are the Ucchali this ward has had more consistent technical and wetland complex in the Pakistani Province of institutional support than other wards. Punjab and the Keoladeo National Park in the Indian State of Rajasthan. Based on CAMPFIRE's experiences, the author notes several other challenges to community- Findings. Although agencies drew up based conservation. Programs are flawed if they management plans for these wetlands following espouse community-based conservation but do western scientific principles and the not have a firm footing in national legislation. internationally agreed guidelines of the Ramsar Projects that are not set within an integrated Convention, local community opposition has programmatic policy framework provide a poor hampered effective PA management. To prevent environment for sound institutional more intense conflicts with local communities, development. Half-hearted devolution of the conservation authorities initiated local resource tenure will lead to cooptation of consultations related to wetland management. communities, not community ­based natural Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs) were resource management (CBNRM). At the local carried out in several villages that neighbored level, there is a need reconcile traditional and the two wetlands in India and Pakistan. statutory authority since this issue directly impacts CBNRM. Finally, dedicated and The purpose of the PRAs was three-fold. One sensitive implementation facilitates a well objective was to assess the social impact of the designed program's successful outcome. PA management system on local communities and to make the assessment available to all stakeholders. The second objective was to revise 62 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents the protected area management plans in the The PRA also showed that farmers who had lost light of the interactive dialogues between local land or land rights could not appreciate the people and outsiders. The third objective was to value of vague "long-term" conservation initiate a dialogue on the policy reforms needed benefits for society or humanity. In their view, to involve local communities as equal partners conservation benefits should be immediate and in wetland conservation. They were designed to quantifiable. Villagers felt that they should have involve key government and WWF staff in a fair share of the benefits accruing from experiential learning. The training workshops successful management of the wetlands or fair and appraisals reinforced the message that compensation for loss of productive resources. participation is not just the application of a method. Instead, participation was viewed as To avoid further conflict, the authors part of a process of dialogue, action, analysis, recommend incorporating villager proposals conflict resolution and change. into protected area activities. Villager proposals should be added to existing management and The PRAs revealed a profound mismatch used to shape legal reforms. In addition, between local experiences of the social and increased dialogue between villagers, ecological history of the wetlands and the conservation agencies and government perceptions of outsiders. External organizations departments must become an essential part of assume that the Ucchali and Khabbaki Lakes are the development of compensation and joint natural features of the landscape. However, management schemes. villagers see Lake Khabbaki as a disaster flood zone instead of a lake. The wetland is of recent 61. Rambaldi, Giacomo. 1997. "RRA as a Tool origin and was formed by heavy rains over the in Integrating People's Participation in last 50 years. It sits on prime agricultural land Protected Areas Management." Sylvatrop 7 (1 that is owned by neighboring villagers. & 2): 28-39. Currently, Khabbaki is a waterfowl sanctuary. When it was created, local people's prior land Keywords: National Integrated Protected Areas rights were neglected and this situation set the Programme (NIPAP), Philippines, Rapid Rural stage for conflicts between the state and local Appraisal (RRA), traditional resource communities. management The interactive dialogue between the villagers Abstract and the conservationists revealed many ecological and social differences, including Objectives and Methodology. This paper focuses differences between villages in the area. During on the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques the PRA mapping and dialogues, the villagers used for protected area (PA) management by the drew the boundaries of the wetlands and these National Integrated Protected Areas Programme were compared with those boundaries drawn (NIPAP) in the Philippines. Through a by conservation scientists. The villagers shared workshop and data analysis, the NIPAP a wider analysis of the wetlands. In addition, evaluated several communities to choose target local level diversity suggests that standardized sites. Their criteria included economic, and undifferentiated approaches to wetland geographic, cultural and ecological planning and implementation are inappropriate. considerations related to resource use and access. Biodiversity Series 63 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Findings. The NIPAP assumed that sustainable, 62. Roe, D., Mayers, J., M. Grieg-Gran, participatory community-based PA planning A.,Hothari, C. Fabricius, and R. Hughes. 2000. should be based upon a thorough "Evaluating Eden: Exploring the Myths and understanding of local people's knowledge, Realities of Community-Based Wildlife perception, practices and their relationships Management." Evaluating Eden Series No. 5. with natural resources. This understanding London: International Institute for would be progressive and would enhance the Environment and Development and the World empowerment of local disadvantaged groups. Conservation Union. In addition to helping to integrate local knowledge and traditional resource Available from: World Conservation Bookstore, management systems into PA management http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/index.html design, the NIPAP promoted a two-way learning process between insiders and Keywords: Africa and Africa Region, Asia, outsiders. Direct participation of villagers in Australia, Central America, community, discussions and workshops allowed them to community-based wildlife management have a deeper understanding of their resources. (CWM), community-government relationships, In addition, the participatory learning customary law, South America, stakeholders, experiences enabled them to have more relevant statutory laws and effective planning output for practical and reliable management strategies. Abstract The NIPAP used Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Objectives and Methodology. This book focuses on as a strategy to integrate people's participation a study about community-based wildlife in protected areas management planning. The (CWM). The study assessed the environmental, RRA tools and methods used at the village level economic, and social impacts of CWM. It focused on several techniques. The NIPAP examined the strengths of CWM for wildlife undertook a historical transect to detail resource conservation (Chapter 7) and the factors that changes over time. The activity allowed make CWM work (Chapter 8). The book villagers to use culturally accepted indicators to includes CWM case studies from Africa, Asia, measure resource changes. The project also did Central America, South America and Australia two-stage resource mapping to help farmers, forest dwellers and fishermen to depict the Findings. CWM increased environmental territory and the distribution of resources awareness among community members and known to them. Social mapping enabled officials. CWM has improved relationships, villagers, usually women, to picture their mutual respect and understanding between village, social infrastructure and services. resource users and officials. Stakeholders have Villagers participated in transects and transect gained an expanded appreciation for the mapping to identify resource use patterns. validity of both scientific and local knowledge. Seasonal calendars captured information on CWM shortcomings include the continued climate, income and expenditures and seasonal persistence of poaching due to a lack of law livelihood matrixes described seasonal access enforcement, unsustainable use by communities and or management of resources. Venn in spite of CWM, introduction of exotic species diagrams enabled the project to identify and continued use of incompatible agricultural stakeholders and their relative importance and practices. interaction in the community. 64 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents Environmental, social, human and physical Keywords: Global Environment Facility (GEF), factors contribute to successful CWM: Grenada, habitat protection, social, Social Impact Assessment, social impacts, stakeholder · From an environmental perspective, CWMs involvement, participation, World Bank benefit from clear and defensible boundaries, a manageable scale and wildlife Abstract are easy to monitor. Collective action is motivated by sufficient scarcity of resources, Objectives and Methodology. This case study resources have value and communities are analyzes the participatory methods and results in close proximity to resources. Other of the World Bank-funded project in Grenada, favorable factors include seasonal factors including an unexpected shift in that affect livelihoods and the ease of use of the policy agenda toward habitat protection for the CWM scheme. the elusive Grenada Dove, the · Social attributes also help CWM national bird of Grenada. arrangements to succeed. It is helpful to have clear tenure rights, cultural values Findings. The process of locating waste disposal related to wildlife and low demand for sites in the Eastern Caribbean country of wildlife. CWM works well with small Grenada illustrate important lessons in the communities. It helps to have identifiable implementation of new international mandates local stakeholders who have the capacity to to invite stakeholder participation in projects resolve conflicts, negotiate with their with environmental and social impacts. The neighbors and equitably distribute benefits. authors conclude that the impact of new Institutions for CWM need to represent requirements for stakeholder inclusion by stakeholders, be built on motivation and funding agencies such as the World Bank and retain flexibility. It helps to have effective Global Environmental Facility has been use rules and a balance between customary palpable, but mixed. As the catalysts of more and statutory laws. Finally, there needs to participatory methods, funding agencies still be institutional space to build community- must give more careful consideration to the government relationships and coordinated methods by which their participatory efforts among government, civil, and requirements are implemented. In particular, private organizations. they must develop more effective knowledge of, · Human attributes include a balance of and relationships with a broader range of scientific and indigenous knowledge, stakeholders than are routinely considered by versatile leadership, and education. existing methods. They must also allow for, and · Physical attributes include a strategy for learn from unexpected contingencies and be developing and maintaining finances and flexible as to project goals and methods. infrastructure. 64. Salafsky, N., and E. Wollenberg. 2000. 63. Rosenberg J., and F.L. Korsmo. 2001. "Local "Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Participation, International Politics, and the Conceptual Framework and Scale for Environment: The World Bank and the Assessing the Integration of Human Needs Grenada Dove." Journal of Environmental and Biodiversity." World Development 28 (8): Management 62 (3): 283-300. 1421-38. Available from: http://www.academicpress. Keywords: Asia, biodiversity, Biodiversity com/jem Conservation Network, conservation, livelihood Biodiversity Series 65 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) (strategies, systems), natural resources and its relevance to protected area management (management, monitoring and evaluation), in Sri Lanka. It was presented at an Pacific and Pacific Region, United States Agency international conference in protected area (PA) for International Development (USAID) management. Abstract Findings. In Sri Lanka, an estimated 1.5 million people live within five kilometers of protected Objectives and Methodology. The authors develop area boundaries. This population creates a high a conceptual framework for defining the linkage demand for land as well as subsistence between livelihood activities and conservation , resources such as fuel wood and non-timber measure the strength of the linkage and test forest products. Many of the problems both by evaluating 39 Asian and Pacific project associated with PA management occur because sites of the Biodiversity Conservation Network. the poverty and landlessness around protected areas are inducements for encroachment and Findings. Although there has been increasing poaching. To meet the demands of local interest in trying to link the livelihoods of populations, resources are degraded. Often, people living near natural resources to the community members release livestock into the conservation of those resources, there has been protected areas. Outside the reserve, encroached little attempt to systematically assess or land is used for homesteads, crop cultivation measure this linkage. The authors constructed a and livestock rearing. Therefore, it is five-dimensional scale to assess the strength of increasingly important to enlist the support of these linkages. The five dimensions include the surrounding communities to manage species, habitat, spatial, temporal and natural resources. conservation association. After testing the framework and the scale, the authors discussed The author defines participation as a process the relevance of linkage for designing through which various stakeholders influence appropriate conservation strategies. and share control over Protected Area Management, including conservation and 65. Samaranayake, Mallika. 2001. "Promoting sustainable use. The process includes the and Enhancing Stakeholder Participation." various decisions taken by stakeholders with International Conference on Protected Area regard to the resources that affect them. Management in the 21st Century (ICPAM 21). Participatory processes involve the various June 17-20, 2001. Subic Bay Freeport, The stages of the development cycle. In addition, Philippines. there are considerations related to the roles and functions of the different stakeholders in Available from: http://www.icpam.org/ committing themselves to the common objective papers_011.shtml of Protected Area Management. The author contends that the most effective PA Keywords: landlessness, Participatory Rural management projects are those that involve Appraisal (PRA), poverty (alleviation, people with a stake in the outcome. These reduction), Sri Lanka, subsistence resources people include communities and representatives of implementation agencies (i.e., Abstract forest officers, wildlife officers, law enforcement officers), civil administrators and politicians, Objectives and Methodology. This short 5-page donors, NGOs, religious groups, community- paper details the methodology of participation based organizations and private sector firms. 66 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents There are several useful Participatory Rural Park model, has failed in Africa. However, Appraisal (PRA) and other methodologies for under the names of Community-based Wildlife PA management. Participatory Rural Appraisal Management (CWM) or Community-Based (PRA) uses participatory methods to do social Conservation (CBC), rural communities are mapping and obtain generational information given ownership rights or custodianship and on population. PRAs can be used to identify management responsibilities for the resource. historical trends in the use of forest products. This new approach is currently under Problem analysis can identify causes and effects experimentation in many parts of Africa. of the pressure on the reserve. Wealth and Well- being Ranking as well as Venn Diagrams can 67. Straelig, de S. and F. Helles. 2000. "Park- help managers to understand power and People Conflict Resolution in Royal Chitwan institutional relationships. Other methods for National Park, Nepal: Buying Time at High obtaining stakeholder perspectives include Cost?" Environmental Conservation 27 (4): 368- brainstorming, semi-structured interviews, 381. stakeholder consultation workshops and Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat (SWOT) Available from: http://uk.cambridge.org/ analyses and focus group discussions. journals/enc/ 66. Songorwa, A.N. 1999. "Community-Based Keywords: community, community-based Wildlife Management in Tanzania: Are the conservation, conflict (management, resolution, Communities Interested?" World Development mapping, risk assessments), forests, Grass 27 (12): 2061-2079. Cutting Program, nature-based development, Nepal, Royal Chitwan National Park Available from: www.sciencedirect.com Abstract Keywords: Africa and Africa Region, community, community-based conservation, community- Objectives and Methodology. The aim of the based wildlife management (CWM), Selous present study was to assess Conservation Programme, Tanzania the extent to which the Grass Cutting Program (GCP) of the Royal Chitwan National Park is a Abstract form of `community-based conservation' on the one hand, or `nature-based development' on the Objectives and Methodology. Using the Selous other. Conservation Programme (SCP) in Tanzania and seven other African cases, this paper Findings. The Grass Cutting Programme (GCP) examines the plausibility of assumptions of Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) has regarding the interest and willingness of been very successful in gaining local people's communities to conserve wildlife on their lands acceptance of RCNP. The GCP is internationally under Community-Based Wildlife Management recognized as a model for park-people conflict (CWM) or Community-Based Conservation resolution. However, it (CBC) schemes. has seemingly become a spent force. During the ten days of open access in 1999, almost 50 000 Findings. Many conservationists believe that the tons of biomass were removed from the Park. fences-and-fines approach to wildlife The total gross economic value of the GCP in protection, based on the American National 1999 was more than US$ 1 million. But illegal Biodiversity Series 67 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) fuelwood was the single most important local community members in the Gamba product extracted from RCNP and accounted Protected Areas Complex in southwestern for half of the total quantity and economic value Gabon. The authors analyzed the perseverance of all resources collected. of all those who participated in training sessions in techniques related to ecological surveys and Therefore, the authors argue that the GCP does participatory rural appraisal (socioeconomic not, in its present form, comply with the concept studies). They studied participants in training of community-based conservation. Instead, it is dating form 1996. an example of nature-based development, where important natural core areas are Findings. In central Africa, where governments exploited in the name of development. This and funding agencies cover only a fraction of study suggests a two-fold approach to the recurrent expenditures needed to effectively reappraise the importance of the GCP in solving manage the protected-areas network. Therefore, park-people conflicts without ignoring nature it is essential to invest in the people who will be conservation. Firstly, access should be provided called on to participate in conservation efforts in different areas at different times instead of over the long term. opening the whole Park at the same time. Secondly, since for the last 10-15 years buffer- Study results indicated significant differences in zone community forestry has not been able to the impact of training on government staff substitute fuelwood from RCNP, other ways to compared to local community members. Two address local people's energy demand should years after training, only 7.7 percent of the be considered. The authors argue that park- government agents who attended training people conflicts in RCNP have not been solved sessions continued ecological surveys and none but only postponed, especially by continued to practice participatory rural compromising forest conservation and the appraisals. After the same time period, 76.2% possibility of the GCP to supply villagers with and 60.0% of the members of local communities essential products in the future. who received training were still active in ecological surveys and participatory rural 68. Thibault, M., and S. Blaney. 2001. appraisal, respectively. However, definitive "Sustainable Human Resources In A Protected conclusions regarding the participation of Area In Southwestern Gabon." Conservation nongovernmental organization members cannot Biology 15 (3): 591-595. be drawn because of the low number of initial participants in the training programs. Available from: http://www.blackwell-synergy. com/Journals/issuelist.asp?journal=cb The authors conclude that village collaborators seem to be a more "sustainable" human Keywords: capacity, capacity building, Gabon, resource than government agents or of Gamba Protected Areas Complex, Participatory nongovernmental organizations members. Rural Appraisal (PRA), protected areas, Even though local communities cannot be solely sustainability, sustainable land-use responsible for managing protected areas, today's conservation professionals must Abstract acknowledge the strengths and limitations of village collaborators. Implementing a process Objectives and Methodology. This study examined involving the participation of community the capacity built in government agents and members is a demanding task because 68 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents protected-area managers must be based in the Sanctuaries or National Parks. These ordinances field to identify key individuals and to organize mandated respect for the rights of local intensive training sessions. Also, if constant communities that are living or using resources support is provided during the first years, then within the areas that are needed as TPAs. The the most capable and motivated collaborators government granted rights and privileges for will be able to pursue further training. They will local people to continue use the resources then be able to work their way up through the within the TPAs, and even, in some cases, to ranks of the organizational structures of reside there. This situation has resulted in a protected areas. system of "split management" where TPA staff have tried to manage the whole ecosystem and 69. Tisen, Oswald, and Michael Meredith. local people controlled the harvesting of 2000. "Participation of Local Communities in resources. Management of Totally Protected Areas." Hornbill (4). In the past, the State of Sarawak, the Forest Department and local communities have had Available from: http://www.mered.org.uk/ conflicts over the establishment of TPAs. The mike/papers/Comanagement.htm general view of the local communities was that TPAs were an obstruction to their traditional Keywords: collaborative management, co- way of lives. They have felt the need to defend management, community, democracy (and their rights constantly. Management generally decision-making), Integrated Conservation saw these community rights as externally Development Projects (ICDPs), Malaysia, imposed constraints. They felt that these participation, Sarawak, Totally Protected Areas constraints made their conservation objectives (TPS) difficult if not impossible to achieve but they were beyond the control of the Forest Abstract Department. In addition, many of the community members holding harvesting Objectives and Methodology. This paper reviews licenses have over-harvested resources. As a the range of options for involving local people result of unsustainable harvesting practices by in protected area activities in Sarawak and community members, the TPA was unable to assessed the value of integrated conservation fulfill its legal purpose of conservation. and development projects (ICDPs) for Totally Protected Areas (TPA) management. It A new approach to TPA management was concludes with recommendations for clearly needed that could also better manage implementing collaborative management in harvesting. The government considered two Sarawak. broad approaches to managing the exploitation of TPAs by local people: integrated conservation Findings. In the 1950s, the State of Sarawak (ICDPs) and development projects and recognized the need to put aside areas for the collaborative management. ICDPs promote purpose of conservation and protection of development in or around a TPA. Using wildlife and their habitat. The government politically and economically acceptable enacted Wild Life Protection Ordinance in 1957 approaches, ICDPs aim to curtail the local and the National Park Ordinance in 1958. These people's use of resources in TPAs by offering a ordinances provided for the establishment of development incentive (e.g., school, dispensary, Totally Protected Areas (TPAs), either Wildlife road, etc.) in exchange for not harvesting in the Biodiversity Series 69 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) TPA or by providing livelihood alternatives to serve as compensation for voluntary reductions local people who previously had no alternatives in harvesting. to harvesting in the TPA. However, in many cases, the ICDP approach may be untenable 70. Turner, M.D. 1999. "No Space for because of the assumptions that development Participation: Pastoralist Narratives and the can "compensate" people for their lost Etiology of Park-Herder Conflict in harvesting rights. Therefore, the authors suggest Southeastern Niger." Land Degradation and that these underlying assumptions should be Development 10 (4): 345-363. critically examined and that ICDPs be treated with caution. When local people are no longer Keywords: Fulsse, history, Niger, park, park- able to harvest in the TPA, ICDP project herder conflict, participation, pastoralists, state- planners need to develop activities that fill a sponsored programs gap in local people's livelihood strategies and this link must be clear. However, the more Abstract preferred approach is collaborative management, which is also referred to as co- Objectives and Methodology. This paper examines management, participatory management, joint the growing conflict management, shared management, multi- between Fulsse herders and managers of stakeholder management, or round-table National Park "W" in southeastern Niger. The management. The term, "collaborative research entailed an examination of historical management" describes a wide range of documents and oral histories. situations in which some, or all of the relevant stakeholders in a protected area are involved in Findings. Increasingly, state-sponsored programs management activities. If supportive policy and for protecting natural areas in Africa have legislation exist, they strengthen a management adopted "participatory" approaches. These are partnership. a welcome change from earlier, more coercive approaches. However, these more participatory To address the TPA-community conflicts, the programs face several major impediment to State of Sarawak recently recognized the critical their effectiveness. These problems related to importance of collaborative management. They how conservationists conceptualize the logic, established legal mechanisms to support constraints and spatial scales associated with decision-making participation by local the production practices of rural inhabitants, communities. The Master Plan for Wildlife including those practices that may cross the (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak perimeters of protected areas. Forest Department 1996) recommended that a Special Committee be established for each TPA. For the coercive past and "participatory" These committees bring together the Forest present, the "development narratives" related to Department and local people with legal rights Fulsse livestock husbandry in West Africa or privileges in the TPA. They can provide a provide support for the rationale and reactions forum for collaboration in resource management of conservationists to herder incursions. Turner and are also a means of channeling the benefits shows that these narratives are constructed by of the TPA to local people. For example, the sequentially conflating linguistic group, ethnic Special Committee could use part of the identity, production practices, production logic entrance fees collected from visitors for projects and environmental trajectories in an ahistoric benefiting local people and this revenue could fashion. For example, the development/ 70 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents conservation community has often charac- and park managers, participation, partnerships, terized the Fulsse people of West Africa as pastoralists, Uganda "pastoralists." As such, the Fulsse are viewed as highly mobile managers of an unsustainable Abstract (ecological or social) form of livestock husbandry, tradition-bound and politically Objectives and Methodology. This report, from unorganized. two of the workers most closely involved in this work, outlines the stages by which the project However, historical research indicates that herd has built up local community and political management by the Say Fulsse has historically support for the park. been governed by a two-tiered political structure. They display highly circumscribed Findings. Lake Mburu National Park had a patterns of mobility with close integration to disconcerting beginning. When it was agricultural production. Increased incursions of established in 1983, pastoralists and herders into the park are traced, not to a rigid agriculturalists were forcibly evicted from the adherence to livestock mobility but to the area. Three years later, in the disorder caused by growing shortage of pastures in their home the fall of the government, these communities territory near Say. Draconian enforcements by moved back to the park and were determined to park guards and "participatory" programs to vandalize the park infrastructure and kill many educate local herders about the merits of of the wildlife. The new government reduced sedentary livestock husbandry provide little the size of the park in an attempt to provide for space for herder-park constructive engagement. the legitimate needs of the dispossessed. In fact, these actions have reduced the positive However, resentment against the park potential of participatory programs by eroding continued. indigenous political control over livestock movements. When the Lake Mburo Community Conservation Project was launched in 1991, its 71. Turyaho, Moses and Mark Infield. 1996. goal was to demonstrate that the park could Uganda: From Conflict to Partnership: The provide real benefits to local people. The project Work of the Lake Mburo Community has progressed through three stages for building Conservation Project with Pastoralists, of the relationship between the park and Fishermen and Farmers." The University of neighboring communities: creating good Reading Agricultural Extension and Rural relationships, institutionalizing these Development Department. The Rural relationships and strengthening the Park Extension Bulletin Number 10. Management Advisory Committee (PMAC). The authors believe that this three-pronged Available from: The Publications Office, AERDD, approach has brought people closer to the park The University of Reading, PO Box 238, Earley and vice verse. Via participation of Local Gate, Reading RG6 6AL, UK. Tel. (0)1734 318119 Conservation Committees (LCCs) in park Fax. (0)1734 261244. protection activities, hostilities are slowly giving away to mutual sharing of responsibilities and Keywords: community, conflict (management, the communities. resolution, mapping, risk assessments), farmers, fishermen, Lake Mburo Community In the first stage, the project focused on creating Conservation Project, park, park management a good relationship by establishing contacts Biodiversity Series 71 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) through the Community Conservation Unit The third stage focused on strengthening the (CCU). They organized regular meetings with PMAC institution. The authors indicate that this the people and their leaders to discuss park- process is on-going. The PMAC has held community-related issues. Eventually, these general meetings and the committee has interactions evolved into a park planning successfully implemented an experiment on process with strong community input and the revenue-sharing supported by USAID funds. development of the park's first ever management plan for the 1994-1998 time period. 72. Uniyal, V.K., and J. Zacharias. 2001. In addition, the project helped form a Park "Periyar Tiger Reserve: Building Bridges with Management Advisory Committee (PMAC) that Local Communities for Biodiversity was comprised of Uganda National Parks Conservation." Parks 11 (2): 14-23. (UNP) staff, District Government, pastoralists, agropastoralists, agriculturalists and fishers. Available upon request from: The World Communities assisted in developing, and at Commission on Protected Areas, times, funding community micro-projects. These www.wcpa.iucn.org. activities helped to create economic links between the park and people or in other Keywords: community enterprises, eco- situation, simply served to improve the public development (committees, policies), India Eco- image of the park. The project also helped local Development Project, micro-development, communities gain assistance from the micro-planning, Participatory Rural Appraisal government (e.g., the park's main access road (PRA), Periyar Tiger Reserve, tribals (and helped to ease local transport problems for scheduled castes) marketing). Other interventions included a continuous series of awareness programs for Abstract communities, schools and other government institutions neighboring the park. Objectives and Methodology. This article documents the participatory strategy for the The second stage focused on institutionalizing India Eco-Development Project in southern these relationships. Community representatives India's Periyar Tiger Reserve. Surrounding the attended consultations and workshops that reserve, a large and diverse population makes culminated in a draft plan submitted for use of reserve resources and threatens approval to the Board of Trustees. This draft biodiversity conservation. The articles featured was put in place to ensure the institutionaliza- three Eco-Development Committees (EDCs) and tion of the PMAC, as an advisory board. Each their impacts: improved pepper cultivation for a parish representative on the PMAC also chaired tribal group EDC, an EDC of bark smugglers a democratically elected, parish-based LCCs. trained to be trekking guides and an EDC of The PMAC performed functions such as vendors who serve the pilgrims that cross the monitoring and advising the park on the park annually. implementation of management programs, promoting community participation in park Findings. The IEP's participatory strategy makes management, coordinating communications and use of micro-planning strategies developed by developing linkages between the park and teams consisting of trained forest staff, community. In addition, the PMAC developed ecologists, sociologists, and NGOs. Early on in modalities for benefit, resource and revenue planning, park staff were trained in sharing and controlling disbursement of funds. participatory appraisal and planning 72 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents techniques. The teams use participatory rural more parties who work toward common goals appraisal techniques to create the plans with by sharing responsibility, authority, and local stakeholders who are organized into the accountability for achieving results. There are EDCs. Each of the micro-development plans degrees of collaboration. They range from described a sustainable, income-generating consultation, which is a one-way flow of activity for its EDC members. information with dominance and advocacy by one or two groups to transferred responsibility The project organized three types of EDCs to where there is full control by other stakeholders, accommodate the wide variety of types of empowerment and a two-way flow of "communities." Neighborhood EDCs were information. In the middle of this continuum, based on settlements and villages. User-group shared control gives communities and other EDCs represent people who depend on specific stakeholders a fairly high involvement in resources. Professional group EDCs were decision-making and shared responsibility. formed by individuals who had specific skills that were useful for park conservation, According to WWF, collaboration may not work monitoring, and tourism management. Under under several circumstances. There are the latter EDC type, the project organized bark problems when there are fundamental smugglers, tribal guides, and park guards. ideological differences. Collaboration is difficult when there is little or no room for negotiation, 73. WWF (World Wildlife Fund). 2000. where power is not evenly spread and where "Stakeholder Collaboration: Building Bridges key parties are not willing to participate. In for Conservation." World Wildlife Fund, some situation, there is not enough time to work Washington, DC. though problems. In other places, the price of collaboration exceeds the benefits gained. Available upon request from: Ecoregional Collaboration will be difficult where the Conservation Strategies Unit, Research and institutional culture of stakeholder Development, World Wildlife Fund. 1250 24th organizations is unresponsive to collaboration. Street, NW. Washington DC 20037 Therefore, before starting a collaborative process, managers should ask five questions. Is Keywords: collaboration, conflict (management, any stakeholder collaboration already resolution, mapping, risk assessments), occurring? Are there particular factors or stakeholder identification, United States Agency conditions enabling this? If stakeholder for International Development (USAID) collaboration is not happening, are there reasons why? Can existing stakeholder efforts be built Abstract upon? Are there any collaboration gaps that your organization can fill? Objectives and Methodology. This manual focuses on improving understanding about, and Because stakeholder identification is important effectiveness of stakeholder collaboration. It to collaboration, this book suggests a describes terms such as collaboration and stakeholder checklist to categorize all stakeholder identification. It details how stakeholders. It is necessary to determine collaboration and stakeholder identification whether stakeholders are primary, secondary or should be utilized to create successful projects. opposition stakeholders. Managers must identify the nature and limits of their stake and Findings. WWF describes "collaboration" as a interest in the issues being explored, including mutually beneficial relationship between two or Biodiversity Series 73 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) the basis of this stake (customary rights, different priorities among these issues. The third ownership, legal responsibilities. It is relevant to means of resolving conflict is by "cost cutting". know whether their relationship with proposed Using this solution, Party A gets what it wants actions and objectives is supportive or in and the cost that Party B incurs for agreeing to opposition to others. Managers also must the proposal are reduced or eliminated. In the explore stakeholder perceptions of the last approach, termed "bridging", no party feasibility of a conservation initiative and their achieves its initial demands. Instead, a new perception of the degree of collaboration and/or option is devised that satisfies the most compromise required for success. Stakeholder important issues underlying these demands. profiles should also stratify by gender, Most often, high-priority interests are served socioeconomic status, political affiliation or while lower-priority interests are discarded. profession. 74. Wunder, S. 2000. "Ecotourism and The manual details how specific people can be Economic Incentives - An Empirical used to improve and facilitate stakeholder Approach." Ecological Economics 32 (3): 465- processes. The facilitator should prepare ground 479. rules. They should outline the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders and the Available from: http://www.ecological mechanisms for their involvement. The economics.org/publica/publica.htm convener should identify stakeholders and bring them to the table. They should propose a Keywords: Amazon, conservation attitudes, process for collaboration. They need to catalyze, conservation incentives, Cuyabeno Wildlife convene, energize and create an open credible Reserve, ecotourism, Ecuador, impacts on local process. development, incentives (economic, other), tourism, Tourism participation WWF presents four main approaches to resolving conflict in the collaboration process. Abstract One approach is to "expand the pie." For example, some stakeholder conflicts are based Objectives and Methodology. The author on a shortage of resources (i.e., natural, conceptualizes and empirically analyzes the link financial, professional etc) and solutions can be between tourism, local benefits and found when available resources are increased. conservation. He uses data from three This approach is useful when the parties find indigenous group near the Cuyabeno Wildlife one another's proposals inherently acceptable Reserve in the Ecuadorian Amazon region, near but reject them because only one group's the border of Colombia and Peru. He quantifies proposal can be accommodated with existing local cash flows from tourism to obtain a resources. The "expanding the pie" approach comparative analysis of income structure, often starts by asking - how can we accomplish spending, and the impacts on local my interest and your interest. The second means development and on conservation attitudes. to resolve conflict is through the "low priority/ high priority" method. In this solution, each Findings. Within the new array of `green' party concedes on its own low priority issues products and services, ecotourism claims to that also happen to be of high priority for the combine environmental responsibility with the other party. According to WWF, this approach is generation of local economic benefits that will only possible when several issues are under have both a development impact and serve as consideration at once and the parties have conservation incentives. Economic incentives 74 Environment Department Papers Review of External Documents are imperative for nature conservation, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, protected areas, particularly in remote and ill-monitored United States, wildlife trust regions. In these areas, the state presence is weak and this situation hinders the use of Abstract alternative tools of environmental regulation. Objectives and Methodology. This study examines Three Cuyabeno indigenous groups have how decentralization of decision-making and developed different modes of tourism management authority affects biodiversity participation ranging from autonomous conservation. The research focuses on whether operations to pure salary employment. The or not decentralization empowers the people analysis revealed that for the whole study area, living in most direct contact with natural tourism has actually provided significant resources and if this power shift does occur, additional income. Counter to common belief, does it result in environmental policies and the mode of participation is less decisive for management practices that reduce threats to local income generation than the tourist biodiversity? The authors drew material from attraction of the natural site, the degree of six case studies Bolivia, Botswana, Guatemala, tourism specialization and the level of local Mexico, Panama and the United States (Florida). organization. However, as a conservation These cases were chosen illustrate a broad array incentive, the participation and on the of primary levels of decentralized authority substitution versus complementarity of other over natural resources and a similar diversity of productive activities: only if tourism changes case study units, operating arrangements and labor and land allocation decisions, will it have countries. For five of these studies, the authors a local conservation impact. The author contracted case study authors and provided discusses the circumstances under which the them with standardized research topic guides to conjectured link between tourism, local incomes give the study a consistent framework for and conservation is likely to be effective. He comparison. The Bolivian authors donated their provides some general lessons for government case study. policies, for the design of integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), Findings. The study sets forth two main and to a number of site-specific recommenda- assumptions. First, devolution of authority, tions for improving incentive structures. responsibility and funding capability will give greater power over natural resources 75. Wyckoff-Baird, Barbara, Andrea Kaus, management to those people in most direct Catherine Christen, and Margaret Keck. 2001. contact with the resources. Devolution will "Shifting the Power: Decentralization and transfer these assets from the central Biodiversity Conservation." Biodiversity government to regional and local institutions Support Program, Washington, DC. and organizations. Second, the authors assume that the people most directly in contact with Available from: http://www.BSPonline.org natural resources will promote conservation and thus reduce threats to biodiversity once they Keywords: biodiversity conservation and have the power to decide how to manage them protection, Bolivia, Botswana, community, and have viable economic alternatives to over- community development, conflict use. (management, resolution, mapping, risk assessments), decentralization and devolution, For the six case studies, different entities hold decentralized authority. For the Botswana and Biodiversity Series 75 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Mexico case studies (NW Kalahari Desert and In Mexico, the community-based control of Forest Ejidos of Quintana Roo), the community harvesting and sales of valuable timber resulted was the unit of decentralization. In Panama from a break with the state-owned timber (Wildlands of Kuna Yala), the decentralized monopoly in the early 1980s. Timber revenues authority is the indigenous autonomous district. and resources now go directly to local It is managed, in part by the Kuna people, along communities. These communities are ejidos and with research institutions and international they hold a special legally recognized form of conservation organizations that help the Kuna common property. By 1986, these ejidos formally establish the protected area. In the case of banded together in societies that were Guatemala's Sierra de la Minas Biosphere recognized under Mexican law. They operated Reserve, the decentralized authority is a private as community enterprises that were dedicated NGO that was given the right to manage the to sustained yield forest exploitation and joint reserve by the government. A number of sales. This community forestry initiative has communities live within the boundaries of the been managed via continuous negotiation reserve. In administering the reserve, the NGO between the state and federal government, works in association with local communities foreign funding agencies, local ejidos and and leaders, local governments and NGOs and regional forest societies. Responsibility for forest also raises money abroad for reserve policy and regulation and enforcement rests maintenance. Under decentralization, Bolivian with federal government. municipalities have control over local forest resources and they also have the right to receive In these cases, the authors found that central 25 percent of the royalties from commercial government had devolved authority to lower timber harvesting and clearing concessions and levels of government or other organizations to to get assistance with the development of social shed onerous responsibilities rather than being infrastructure. In the United States, a Federal- motivated to improve natural resources State body manages the Florida Everglades. management. The cases studied tended not to involve the devolution of resource management For Botswana, all community members belong authority. Instead, they revealed continuing, to the wildlife trust that was established in 1997. complex associations between national and local The trust is officially registered with the authority with respect to both management and government. The Trust has sought to preserve financial responsibilities. The authors found cultural conditions and enhance the that the impact of decentralization upon natural organizational capacity of the community to resource management depended on who gets utilize and manage its natural resources. Policy more authority as a result (e.g., the State, NGO, decisions have relied on extensive public communities or municipalities). Devolution discussions with both males and females. actually increased the opportunities and power However, the district councils and central available to some community members while government maintained control over funding decreasing power to others. The authors capacities and set off-take quotas for wildlife conclude that these outcomes may actually and wildlife management species lists. In this exacerbate, rather than resolve, conflict over particular example, there are conflicts between natural resources. In the final analysis, the the central government delineations of authors indicated that conservation did improve protected areas and local delineations and this with decentralization although biodiversity situation has limited local access to land and conservation may not be improving because of resources. decentralization. 76 Environment Department Papers Annex 1 Acronym List BCN Biodiversity Conservation Network BSP Biodiversity Support Program CAMPFIRE Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CAS Country Assistance Strategy CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resource Management CBO Community-Based Organization CCU Community Conservation Unit CFM Collaborative Forest Management COREMAP Indonesia Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Project CWM Community-Based Wildlife Management DFID Department for International Development (UK) DFO Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Canada) EDC Eco-Development Committee EDGE Environment/Democracy-Governance Exchange FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GEF Global Environment Facility ICAD Integrated Conservation and Development ICDP Integrated Conservation and Development Project IDB Inter-American Development Bank IDWP Integrated Watershed Development Project IPCD Indigenous Peoples and Community Development Unit IUCN The World Conservation Union (or the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) JFM Joint Forest Management LCC Local Conservation Committee MPA Marine Protected Area MSP Medium-Size Project NFP National Forest Program NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIPAP National Integrated Protected Areas Programme NRM Natural Resource Management Biodiversity Series 77 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) OED Operations Evaluation Department PA Protected Area PAD Project Appraisal Document PASIA Protected Areas Social Impact Assessment PDF Project Development Funds PDLG Participatory Development Learning Group PMAC Park Management Advisory Committee PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal RRA Rapid Rural Assessment RSCN Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature SA Social Assessment SGP Small Grants Program SIA Social Impact Assessment SWOT Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats TANPA Tanzania National Parks Planning Unit and Conservation Service TBNRM Trans-Boundary Natural Resource Management TPA Totally Protected Area TRA Threat Reduction Assessment UNDP United Nations Development Program UNP Uganda National Parks USAID United States Agency for International Development VDP Village Development Plan TNC The Nature Conservancy PiP Parks in Peril Program BOSCOSA Proyecto de Maneho y Conservation de Bosque de la Peninusula de Osa. WWF World Wildlife Fund or Worldwide Fund for Nature 78 Environment Department Papers Annex 2 Keyword Index Keyword Abstract Number access 31 accountability 14, 32 advantages 25 Africa, Africa Region 1, 39, 48, 58, 62, 66 agreements 32 alliances 55 Amazon 74 Annapurna Conservation Area 57 Argentina 11 Argentina Biodiversity Conservation Project 15 Asia 1, 34, 39, 43, 62, 64 Australia 62 awareness raising 25 Batang Ai National Park 46 behavioral change 11 Belize 28, 42 beneficiaries 3, 23 - assessments 3 - participation 23 benefits, benefit sharing 21, 28, 32, 34, 44, 57 biodiversity 2, 4, 8, 15, 20, 33, 64 - awareness 22 - conservation and protection 3, 19, 22, 34, 41, 42, 55, 75 - costs and benefits 6, 33 - conservation ethic 20 - projects 21 Biodiversity Conservation Network 34, 55, 64 Biodiversity Support Program (BSP) 34, 38, 39, 44, 54, 55, 58, biosphere reserves 56 Bolivia 75 Biodiversity Series 79 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Keyword Abstract Number Botswana 75 bureaucratic reform 11 CAMPFIRE 59 capacity, capacity building 10, 22, 23, 25, 30, 48, 49, 54, 59, 68 Caribbean 1, 35 Center for International Environmental Law 39 Central America 62 Central Asia 1 civil society 39 climate change 2 coastal zone 42 co-financing 25 collaboration 15, 26, 73 - collaborative forest management (CFM) 6, 27 - collaborative management, co-management 8, 31, 32, 37, 51, 56, 69 - collaborative research 32 Colombia 8 commercialization 29 community 1, 4, 5, 15, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 34, 39, 41, 44, 45, 47, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 66, 67, 69, 71, 75 - attitudes and behavior 47 - community-based approaches 5 - community-based conservation 29, 31, 47, 57, 66, 67 - community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) 44, 58 - community-based projects 1 - community-based property rights 39 - community-based wildlife management (CWM) 62, 66 - community building 24 - community-government relationships 62 - community perspectives 58 - development 4, 47, 75 - enterprises 34, 72 - forest management (and scaling-up) 26, 41 - involvement 5, 31 - opposition 60 - participation 4 , 15, 27 - self-governance 59 - support groups 5 Community Baboon Sanctuary 28 compensation 50 80 Environment Department Papers Keyword Index Keyword Abstract Number conflict (management, resolution, mapping, 3, 9, 11, 18, 27, 32, 35, 41, 46, 60, 67, risk assessments) 71, 73, 75 Congo Wildlands Protection and Management Project 11 consensus building 3 conservation 59, 64 - attitudes 74 - incentives 74 - management 51 Conservation of the Dana Wildlands and the Azraq 22 Oasis Project consultation (consultative workshops) 8, 9, 29, 23, 24 Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Project 5 (COREMAP) councils (inter-village) 5 country assistance strategies (CAS) 26 cultural survival 8 culturally appropriate plans 5 customary law 17, 46, 62 Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve 74 Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve 37 decentralization and devolution 11, 32, 41, 43, 44, 48, 54, 75 decentralized capacity building 23 decentralized management 11 democracy (and decision-making) 38, 39, 69 demographic factors 10 disseminating lessons 13 Dominican Republic Biodiversity Conservation 11 and Management in the Coastal Zone Project donors 39 East Asian Seas Project 13 eco-development (committees, policies) 9, 18, 29, 30, 72 economic development 35 ecotourism 28, 74 Ecuador 74 Ecuador Biodiversity Protection Project 9 empowerment 26, 54 entitlements 4 environmental advocacy 39 environmental awareness 12 Europe 1 European Community/Union 33 evaluation 8, 25, 45 exclusion of people 50 Biodiversity Series 81 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Keyword Abstract Number extension 3 farmers 71 feedback, feedback mechanisms 13, 21 Fiji 55 financing 22 fishermen 71 fodder and livestock services 24 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 40 forests 3, 34, 67 - communities 17, 41 - enterprises 17 - forestry 8, 23 - forestry projects 3 - management 43 - policy 6, 27, 43 - protection committees 30 Fulsse 70 Gabon 68 Gamba Protected Areas Complex 68 gender (analysis and considerations) 3, 10 Ghana Coastal Wetlands Management Project 9, 11 Global Environment Facility (GEF) 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 36, 63 governance 38, 39 government 6, 38 Grass Cutting Program 67 Grenada 63 Guatemala 26, 75 guidelines and guiding principles 32, 33 habitat protection 63 Haryana 24 heterogeneous communities 44 Himachal 24 history 31, 70 honey-hunters 29 Iban 46 impacts 25, 26 impacts on local development 74 implementing agency 8 incentives (economic, other) 3, 22, 29, 74 income-generating activities 24 India 3, 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 52, 55, 60 India Eco-Development Project 9, 18, 72 82 Environment Department Papers Keyword Index Keyword Abstract Number Indigenous (communities, groups, peoples) 8, 27, 32, 35, 38 - conservation areas 19 - Ecuador 19 - knowledge 56 - management of conservation areas 36 - management systems 46 - Peru 36 - rights 36 - resource use 32 - role 49 Indonesia 5, 8, 37, 55 Institutions 22, 23, 24, 30, 33, 54 - institutional arrangements 33 - institutional capacity, strengthening 22, 23, 24, 54 Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDPs) 41, 46, 50, 53, 69 Integrated Watershed Development Project (IDWP II) 24 intellectual property rights 56 Inter-American Development Bank 38 international agencies 55 International Human Rights Law Group 38 international waters 2 inter-village councils 5 Italian Government 40 Jammu and Kashmir 24 joint forest management 3, 30 joint management 1 Jordan 13, 22 Kenya 26, 31 Keoladeo National Park 60 Lak Integrated Conservation and Development Project 12, 13 Lake Manyara National Park 31 Lake Mburo Community Conservation Project 71 land and forest management 46 land use 10 landlessness 65 Latin America 1, 35 legislation 11 lessons learned and learning 12, 13, 21 livelihood (strategies, systems) 10, 11, 41, 64 local 1, 6, 28, 29, 35, 36, 43, 46, 48, 50, 51, 57 - local attitudes, awareness and environmental education 28, 35, 57 - local authority 46 - participation, control, ownership 1, 29, 43, 48, 50 Biodiversity Series 83 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Keyword Abstract Number - resource use, rights 6, 36 - stakeholders 51 logging 12 Madagascar Environment Program Support 11 mainstreaming indigenous concerns 38 mainstreaming participation 1, 23, 26 Makalu-Barun Conservation Area 57 Malawi 3 Malaysia 46, 69 management capabilities, collaboration 28, 49 mapping 9 marginalized groups 52 marine 34 market mechanisms 4 Medium-Sized Projects (MSPs) 25 Mexican Nature Conservation Fund 22 Mexico 8, 22, 75 Mexico Resource Conservation and Forestry Sector Review 17 micro-development, micro-planning 72 monitoring, monitoring and evaluation 3, 8, 34 national boundaries 32 national capacity 33 National Integrated Protected Areas Programme (NIPAP) 61 national policy (forestry, framework) 30, 35 natural resources (management, monitoring and evaluation) 34, 35, 64 nature-based development 67 neo-tropical parks 35 Nepal 55, 57, 67 Nepal Biodiversity Protection Project 11 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (capacity, 1, 3, 7, 15, 19, 25, 50, 55 roles, executing agencies, host country) Nicaragua 38 Niger 3, 70 Operations Evaluation Department 26 organizational (roles, structures) 10, 35 outreach 31 ownership 9, 14, 31 Pacific and Pacific Region 1, 34, 43, 48, 49, 64 Pakistan 60 Panama 11, 75 Papua New Guinea 8, 12, 13, 34, 55 park 35, 46, 53, 70, 71 - park-buffer zone linkages 35 84 Environment Department Papers Keyword Index Keyword Abstract Number - park establishment 35 - park-herder conflict 70 - park management and park managers 53, 71 Parks in Peril 35 participation 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 26, 27, 31, 42, 46, 52, 59, 69, 70, 71 - barriers, constraints 1, 2, 23 - development 52 - evaluations, participatory monitoring 5, 26, 59 - forest management 27 - management plans 5 - primary beneficiary 24 - processes 13, 31 - quality 24, 26 - tourism 74 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 3, 5, 9, 24, 31, 60, 65, 68, 72 Participatory Upland Development Project 40 partnerships 71 pastoralists 70, 71 people-park relations 57 Periyar Tiger Reserve 72 Philippines 13, 55, 61 Philippines Conservation of Priority Protected Area Project 11 planning, planning theory 33, 51, 59 pluralism 39 policy 30, 35 - framework 22 - recommendations 17 - reforms 24 political structures 10 political will 22 portfolio performance review 20 poverty (alleviation, reduction) 27, 52, 53, 56, 65 power 42, 54 Pradesh 24 principles 32 private sector 15, 23, 58 project 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26 - project appraisal document (PAD) 24 - cycle 2, 7, 10, 25, 26 - design, formulation, planning, preparation 1, 5, 10, 21 - Project Development Funds (PDF-A) 25 - Project Implementation Review 22 Biodiversity Series 85 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Keyword Abstract Number - site choices 12 proposal requirements 25 protected areas 15, 16, 18, 21, 49, 68, 75 - conservation 37 - management 30, 60, 60 - planning 42, 45 public awareness 3, 5 public involvement policy 14 Punjab 24, 60 Rajasthan 60 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) 61 resettlement 2, 35 resources (sharing, use) 10, 22, 30, 35 restricted co-management 32 risks 10 root causes 21 Royal Chitwan National Park 67 Russia 8 Sarawak 46, 69 Selous Conservation Programme 66 Shivalik Hills 24 Slovakia Biodiversity Project 13 small business development 8 social 1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 29, 50, 63 - social assessment 3, 5, 9, 10, 15, 17, 18 - social change 29 - social cohesion, diversity 6, 12 - social controls 10 - social feasibility study 12 - social funds 1 - Social Impact Assessment, social impacts 16, 63 - social issues, social threats 10, 50 - socioeconomic surveys 9 Solomon Islands 55 South America 62 Sri Lanka 65 stakeholders 6, 23, 30, 34, 58, 59, 62 - consultation 1, 10 - evaluations 45 - identification 15, 73 - involvement, participation 9, 11, 13, 14, 20, 21, 25, 63 state-sponsored programs 70 statutory laws 62 86 Environment Department Papers Keyword Index Keyword Abstract Number subsistence resources 65 sustainability, sustainable land-use 15, 21, 22, 68 Tanzania 31, 66 Tanzanian National Parks Planning Unit and 31 Community Conservation Service (TANAPA) tenure (rights, security, community-based, devolution, 3, 8, 10, 17, 30, 35, 41, 44, 58, 59, 60 land and resource, land rights, use rights) Caribbean Region 48 The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 35 Threat Reduction Assessment 55 threats 10, 35, 54 time allocations 37 timeframe 25 Totally Protected Areas (TPS) 69 tourism 74 trade agreements 4 traditional authority, traditional groups 32, 59 traditional resource management 61 training (capacity building, needs, workshops) 24, 40, 60 transboundary 35 transboundary natural resource management (TBNRM) 44, 58 trans-humance 24 transparency 8, 32, 44 tribals (and scheduled castes) 23, 24, 72 tropical rainforests 50 trust funds 1 Ucchali wetland complex 60 Uganda 31, 47, 71 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 20 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 20 United States 75 United States Agency for International Development 34, 35, 38, 39, 44, 54, 55, 58, 59, 64, 73 (USAID) user groups 11 Uttar Pradesh 24 Venezuela 49 village development plans 24 village eco-development committees 30 village-based project committees 11 water resources development 23 water user associations 1 watershed development and protection 23, 24 West Kalimantan 37 Western Ghats Forestry Project 52 Biodiversity Series 87 Participatory Conservation for Protected Areas -- An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources (1996 ­ 2001) Keyword Abstract Number wetland management 60 wildlife 46 wildlife trust 75 women and gender 24 workshops (including multi-state workshops) 17, 21 World Bank 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 30, 63 World Bank Institute (BBI) 4 World Conservation Congress 56 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 7, 48, 49 World Resources Institute (WRI) 39 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 7 Yemen Socotra Archipelago Project 11 Zimbabwe 59 88 Environment Department Papers