BANGLADESH JOBS PLATFORM, SARTFP GENDER PLATFORM, & BBN GENDER PLATFORM – KNOWLEDGE NOTE FOR OPERATIONS JUNE 2019 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH What do we know? How can we address it in operations? This knowledge note is designed to support operational teams to design interventions to help address the challenges of female labor force participation in Bangladesh. The note presents a brief overview of the status and dynamics of female labor force participation in Bangladesh, along with a discussion of underlying causes. It then identifies potential areas for investment and policy intervention and provides ‘good practice’ case examples from World Bank projects around the world. Female labor force participation – why does it matter? Increasing women’s participation in the economy has a dramatic impact on growth and poverty reduction. A recent study1 estimated that the overall gain in GDP to South Asia from closing gender gaps in employment and entrepre- neurship would be close to 25 percent. For individual women, opportunities to access quality work, particularly outside the home, has significant implications on their own well-being and that of their household. Evidence from Bangladesh show that where women have opportunities for paid work, they are likely to stay in school longer, and delay otherwise early marriage and childbearing. Substantial evidence has shown that engaging in paid work also raises women’s bargaining power in the household2. One critical result of this is substantially increased household spending on health and education of children, contributing to lower poverty and enhancing the capabilities of the next generation. Female labor force participation in Bangladesh – status and trends The female labor force participation (FLFP) rate in Bangladesh stands at around 37 percent (based on 2016 data). FLFP grew rapidly in the first decade of the 2000s, rising 10 percentage points in part due to rapid expansion of the ready-made-garment sector (RMG), which created close to 3 million jobs over this period. However, the FLFP 1 Kochhar, K., Jain-Chandra, S., and Newiak, M. (eds.) (2017). Women, Work, and Economic Growth: Leveling the Playing Field. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. 2 Of course, the results are not unambiguously positive. There is also evidence that women’s participation in work outside the home can contribute to increased levels of gender-based violence. And working women tend to still be expected to take on the vast majority of childcare and housework. FIGURE 1: Labor force participation rate by sex and location (2003-16) Labor force participation rate 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Female, rural Female, urban Male, rural Male, urban FIGURE 2: Labor force participation rate by age, sex and location (2016) 1.0 0.9 Labor force participation rate 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 15 17 19 21 23 125 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 Age of worker Male, rural Male, urban Female, rural Female, urban Source: Bangladesh Jobs Diagnostic based on data from BBS rate in Bangladesh is low in a global context – FLFP in 2016 averaged around 65 percent in low income countries and 46 percent in middle income countries – and it is particularly low relative to males in Bangladesh, where the participation rate stands at around 85 percent. Moreover, in recent years FLFP has stagnated; in urban areas it has even declined from almost 35 percent in 2010 to below 32 percent in 2016 (Figure 1). The FLFP rate is closely associated with an individual’s age and educational attainment, but the strong life-cycle pattern observed for males is less prominent for females (Figure 2). In addition, a significant difference between rural and urban females is notable, with consistently higher rural participation as a result of access to (often unpaid) household agricultural work. As in most countries in South Asia, the relationship between education and FLFP is U-shaped, with women at the lowest and highest levels of education having the greatest participation rates, whereas those with a mid-level education have neither sufficient returns nor the necessity to participate. Where women are participating in the labor market, they are also far more likely than men to be in vulnerable employment3. Thirty-nine percent of employed women are in unpaid work versus just 5 percent of employed men. And only 20 percent of female workers are wage employed compared with 23 percent of male workers4. 3 Vulnerable employment includes unpaid family workers and own-account workers 4 Based on 2016 LFS data from BBS 2 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH What are the main barriers to female labor force participation in Bangladesh? Women face a broad range of, often mutually reinforcing barriers to participating in the labor force, and particularly in accessing good jobs outside the home. This note applies a basic framework of women’s decisions to seek employment outside the home, considering both the likely relative economic returns to the household (which are shaped by potential earnings as well as costs involved in accessing earnings opportunities) while also considering non-economic factors which may impact net utility. This is illustrated in Figure 3 below, with determining factors organized around those which originate on the supply side and those that originate on the demand or “workplace” side. This organization is used for the remainder of the note. FIGURE 3: Framework for women’s labor force participation Supply side Demand side Human Capital Occupational segregation Impact on earning Access to: information, Gender pay gap potential nance, markets Access to transport Labor abuse: working hours, Impat on costs to overtime pay, etc. household/net earning Access to childcare Labor abuse: working Impact on conditions, sexual Social norms net utility harassment, GBV Supply-side constraints: social norms, skills, and access Norms around childcare and household work, which make it difficult for women to balance work and family, represents a major social factor limiting FLFP in Bangladesh. In urban areas marriage is highly correlated with lower FLFP, although this is not the case in rural areas. Similarly, having young children dramatically reduces the likelihood of women participating in the labor force, particularly in urban areas5. According to recent Labour Force Survey data, most inactive women (almost 80 percent) report household responsibilities as the main reason for not seeking labor market opportunities. This is supported by time use patterns, which show that females spend on average 26 hours a week on household chores compared with only 8 hours for males; and that women’s time committed to household chores rises by almost 70 percent with marriage, while men’s declines (Figure 4). Associated with gender norms, mobility constraints are also a major impediment to FLFP. This is linked to house- hold responsibilities, but also to purdah practices. While purdah practices do not necessarily prevent women from working, they do significantly restrict access to employment outside the home, which limits women to working in household enterprises and family farms, often as unpaid, contributing-family labor. The results can be seen in Figure 5, which shows that the majority of working females are either working at home or close by it, with signifi- cant differences in rural and urban areas (for women, but not for men). Human capital gaps, which restrict access to good jobs, also contributes to lower FLFP. While enrolment rates for girls are equal to or higher than for boys at the primary and secondary school level in Bangladesh, there remains a gender gap in tertiary education and female students are less likely to enroll in educational fields that open the door to quality jobs. For example, women account for 28 percent of graduates from tertiary education and only 5 Solotaroff et al (2019). Voices to Choices: Bangladesh’s Journey in Women’s Economic Empowerment. Washington, DC: The World Bank. What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 3 FIGURE 4: Hours of weekly household work by sex and employment status 35 30.6 30 28.3 25 20 18.7 17.0 Hours 15 13.6 9.6 10 8.3 7.9 5 0 Married Unamrried Employed Not employed Males Females Source: Bangladesh Jobs Diagnostic based on data from BBS FIGURE 5: Distribution of location of employment by sex and area Rural males 3 2 29 40 26 Rural females 42 28 9 15 6 1 Urban males 3 56 8 31 Urban females 32 10 45 5 9 0 20 40 60 80 100 At home Right by the house Factory/o ce/shop Farm Others Source: Bangladesh Jobs Diagnostic based on data from BBS 20 percent of graduates from STEM fields (2017).6 Moreover, once in a job, women are only half as likely as men to receive on-the-job training (although the levels are very low for both sexes – among young workers (15-30 years of age) just 2.3 percent of women and 4.6 percent of men report having received on-the-job-training7). The lack of technical skills prevents many female workers from being promoted, especially as industries shift to more high–skilled and capital–intensive forms. Lack of access to information and networks limits the potential for women to take advantage of employment opportunities. In Bangladesh, the vast majority of job openings are filled through informal networks, which tend to be less accessible to women. And given that social norms restrict the mobility of many women much beyond the house, access to information about jobs through networks and public sources may also be limited. Similarly, limited access to business networks and trade associations undermines the activity of women entrepreneurs and traders through lower access to information, training, and markets.8 Moreover, men are twice as likely as women to have access to mobile phones and the Internet.9 This puts women at a disadvantage since ICTs are increasingly used as means both to access information and generate income. Lack of access to safe transport represents another significant barrier to FLFP. Given women’s time and mobility constraints, distance and ease of travel are important considerations in work-related decisions. Existing public transportation is not efficient, safe, affordable or regular, with overcrowded buses and waiting areas, and sexual harassment being rife. For example, studies from urban slums show that women do not participate in garment 6 World Bank Education Statistics Database, 2018, http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/ 7 Solotaroff et al (2019) 8 See IFC (2011). Fostering Women’s Economic Empowerment through Special Economic Zones. Washington, DC: IFC; Asia Foundation (2017). Expanding the Benefits of Trade to Women in the BBIN Region: A Program Design Primer. New Delhi, India: Asia Foundation, and; ICRIER (2018).Trade Facilitation Measures to Enhance Participation of Women in Cross-border Trade in BBIN. New Delhi, India: ICRIER. 9 World Bank (2018).The Global Findex Database 2017: Measuring Financial Inclusion and the Fintech Revolution. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 4 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH factory work because of the lack of public transport: they are reluctant to travel long distances to the factories and especially afraid to walk back home after dark.10 Women also report significant harassment in public spaces, with transport being one of the prime areas of concern. A recent study11 found that 94 percent women commuting in public transport in Bangladesh have experienced some form of sexual harassment. Women’s lower access to productive resources, including financial and other assets, undermines their potential to generate sufficient returns from participation in economic activity —from female farmers looking to invest in modern agricultural inputs to women entrepreneurs looking to expand their businesses. In rural areas, 96 percent of household land is solely owned by men.12 Where women are not listed as farmers, they miss out on agricultural extension programs and information on new technologies. The lack of land to put down as collateral also sees them miss out on access to finance.13 While Bangladesh’s dynamic and forward-looking microfinance sector has expanded access to formal financial institutions for women, the gender gap remains wide. Sixty-five percent of unbanked adults are women and the gender gap in account ownership was nearly 30 percentage points in 201714. For women entrepreneurs, access to finance (both in obtaining loans and the cost of borrowing) is a significant — often the most significant — barrier to business operation/expansion and to exporting. 15 Gaps in social services provision, especially quality childcare represents an additional barrier to FLFP in Bangladesh. Despite the legal mandate to provide childcare for many medium and large firms, few do so in prac- tice. Moreover, while several good models for childcare centers exist from the NGO and private sector, they remain very limited in number, and lack of quality assurance (due, in part, to the absence of a regulatory regime) in the sector remains a concern for women. 10 Asian Development Bank & International Labour Organization (2016). Bangladesh: Looking Beyond Garments. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: ADB. 11 Andaleeb, S.S., S. Mahmud, F.S. Rahman, and K. Chowdhury (2018). Roads free from sexual harassment and crash for women. Dhaka, Bangladesh: BRAC University. 12 Quisumbing, A. R., Kumar, N., & Behrman, J. A. (2017). Do Shocks Affect Men’s and Women’s Assets Differently? Evidence from Bangladesh and Uganda. Development Policy Review, 36(1), 3-34. 13 Solotaroff et al (2019); Asian Development Bank (2010). Country Gender Assessment: Bangladesh. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: ADB. 14 World Bank (2018) 15 Livani and Solotaroff (2019). Promoting Women’s Participation in Cross-border Trade in South Asia. Indian Journal of Women and Social Change, 4 (1), 9-32. What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 5 Demand-side constraints A number of demand side factors also act as significant constraints to women participating in the labor market in Bangladesh. First, while Bangladesh’s labor laws are not particularly restrictive from a gender perspective, women do face legal barriers to working in occupations that are deemed to be physically arduous or dangerous16. Moreover, there are no provisions in the law to protect women from gender discrimination in hiring17, in pay, or in provision of credit. However, under the civil service quota system, 10 percent of Government jobs are reserved for women. Finally, it is worth noting that some legal protections designed to support women in the workplace – notably the requirement for firms with more than 40 female employees to offer childcare services – may act as a barrier, at the margin, to employers hiring women. Indeed, surveys indicate that the majority of employers express reservations about hiring women for a variety of reasons, including additional expenses for providing separate workplace facilities and potential implications in workplace dynamics. Also, surveys reveal discrimination in the labor market. For example, many employers believe that women “disrupt the work environment.”18 Second, women lack access to many occupations and workplaces due to occupational segregation resulting from social norms and practices. While norms are changing, most sectors and occupations remain highly segre- gated by gender in Bangladesh. For example, data from 2016 show that 63 percent of women are employed in agriculture versus just 32 percent of men. The opposite holds for construction and services. The trade (commerce) sector is the largest single subsector for men, accounting for 18 percent of all male jobs, but it accounts for just 2 percent of female jobs. Even within the RMG sector, which is majority female, there exists sharp occupational segregation – cutting and sewing jobs are almost exclusively held by women, while jobs in finishing, which involve greater use of machinery and equipment, are largely held by men. Similar patterns are observed in other sectors such as the fisheries sector where women are directed toward the lower levels of value chains while men occupy the more profitable and managerial segments.19 Within occupations, lack of equal pay and upward mobility prevents many women from participation in the labor market. One explanation for the slowdown in female employment (and the increasing shift toward male employment) in RMG is that as the gender wage gap has narrowed considerably in recent years, and employers are less likely to get the benefit of cheaper female workers, they choose instead to hire males. Once in employ- ment, women are often relegated to the lowest-level positions. For example, it is estimated that women represent around 80 percent of production line workers in Bangladesh’s RMG factories; yet just one in every 20 (5 percent) of production line supervisors is female. Finally, widespread labor abuses – including lack of adequate safety, failure to deliver on contractual rights (hours, pay, rest, etc.), sexual harassment, and gender-based violence – are likely to restrict women’s willingness to seek employment and bias women toward female-dominated occupations. Bangladesh has laws against sexual harassment in public spaces and in the workplace. However, no civil remedies or criminal penalties are prescribed for such acts, which makes enforcement weak and the language of the law vague.20 16 World Bank (2019). Women, Business and the Law 2019: A Decade of Reform, Washington, DC: World Bank Group. 17 Ibid 18 Solotaroff et al (2019) 19 Livani, Rizwan, & Kathuria (2019). Inclusive Regional Trade: Promoting the Economic Empowerment of Women in the BBIN Region. Indian Journal of Women and Social Change, 4 (1), 33-50. 20 IFC (2011); World Bank (2019) 6 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH How can female labor force participation be addressed in operations? World Bank task teams working across a wide variety of disciplines have significant opportunities to facilitate improved opportunities for FLFP in Bangladesh through project interventions. The table below provides a brief overview of ideas on how investment projects can incorporate interventions targeting some of the FLFP challenges discussed in this note. The table cross-references relevant ‘good practice’ project examples, some of which are profiled in the annex. Some of the potential interventions are included in the listed project case examples in the tables below while others reflect gender interventions that are commonly included in Bank projects. TABLE 1: Good Practice Projects and Interventions FLFP challenge Potential intervention areas Project case examples Social norms and practices • Gender-sensitive information provision • Skill India Mission Operation and awareness raising • Ecuador Quito Metro Line One (and • Public campaigns using innovative the AF) media / approaches • Mexico Strengthening • Behavior change interventions Entrepreneurship in Productive Forest • Application of behavior lens to program Landscapes design and implementation to increase • Afghanistan WEE-RDP program uptake among women • JEEViKA • Organizing women collectively (eg. • JEEViKA II establishment of SHGs) • Nigeria for Women • Bangladesh Livestock and Dairy Development Project • Morocco Noor Solar Power AF Human capital / skills • Skills training (technical, vocational, • Solomon Islands CAUSE digital, financial, marketing, business • Skill India Mission Operation development, management, communi- • Uzbekistan Horticulture cations and leadership etc) • PNG UYEPII • Combining jobs-relevant skills training • Argentina Northwestern Road with life skills Development Corridor Supply side • Combining training with capital, access • Adolescent Girls Initiatives (in Liberia, to business and market networks, and to Haiti, Rwanda, Afghanistan, Nepal and regulatory authorities Jordan, Lao PDR, South Sudan) • Targeted apprenticeship programs • India Tejaswini • Supporting women’s enrollment in • Nigeria for Women educational fields that prepare them for • Digital Jobs in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa “in-demand” jobs in the labor market • Afghanistan WEE-RDP • Bangladesh NARI • Bangladesh Sustainable Coastal and Marine Fisheries project • Bangladesh Strengthening PFM Program to Enable Service Delivery • Bangladesh Livestock and Dairy Development Project • Mexico Strengthening Entrepreneurship in Productive Forest Landscapes • JEEViKA • JEEViKA II • Andhra Pradesh Rural Inclusive Growth Project • Morocco Noor Solar Power AF Access to information and networks • Gender-sensitive information provision – • Solomon Islands CAUSE use of specific media, channels, etc. • Yemen RALP • Employment services targeted for • Uzbekistan Horticulture women • PNG UYEPII • Supporting changes in business/trade • Morocco Noor Solar Power AF association membership norms and rules to support greater inclusion of women What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 7 FLFP challenge Potential intervention areas Project case examples Access to (safe) transport • Transport subsidies • Ecuador Quito Metro Line One (and • Female-specific services the AF) • Public awareness campaigns • Mexico Hazme el Paro • Mechanisms to report harassment • Training of transport service providers/ employees on safety issues • Employment of women in public transport service provision • Gender-sensitive transport infrastructure (eg well-lit bus and train stations, security cameras) Access to finance • Credit programs targeting women • Uzbekistan Horticulture • Introduction of movable collateral • Mexico Strengthening mechanisms Entrepreneurship in Productive Forest • Use of payment history review as an Landscapes alternative to collateral • Afghanistan WEE-RDP • Use of psychometric testing in lieu of • Bangladesh Sustainable Coastal and collateral Marine Fisheries project • Promoting women’s access to digital • Bangladesh Livestock and Dairy financial services Development Project • JEEViKA • JEEViKA II • Andhra Pradesh Rural Inclusive Growth Project Access to inputs and markets • Introduction of digital platforms target- • Yemen RALP ing women • Bangladesh Livestock and Dairy • Support for women-owned cooperatives Development Project • Provision of (or grants/loans to pur- • Uzbekistan Horticulture chase) agricultural inputs (including • Mexico Strengthening seeds, fertilizers, machinery) Entrepreneurship in Productive Forest • Provision of (or grants/loans to pur- Landscapes chase) mobile phones • Afghanistan WEE-RDP • Supporting changes in business/trade • India Agriculture Risk Resilience and association membership norms and Insurance Access Program rules to support greater inclusion of • JEEViKA women • JEEViKA II • Supporting e-commerce initiatives • Andhra Pradesh Rural Inclusive Growth Project Access to childcare and social • Mobile childcare programs • Vietnam Dynamic Cities services • Community-based programs • Burkina Faso Youth Employment and • Development of voucher systems Skills Development • JEEViKA Occupational segregation and • Training and piloting programs targeting • Skill India Mission Operation gender pay gap women in ‘typically male’ occupations • Peru Modernization of Water Supply • Public campaigns and Sanitation • Referral services • PNG UYEPII • Awareness raising of employers to re- • India Energy Efficiency Scale-up duce discrimination in hiring/promotion/ Program pay • Bangladesh Scaling-up Renewable • Targeted, innovative training (including Energy Project management and workers; including • Bangladesh Strengthening PFM Demand side skills-specific and cognitive / norms Program to Enable Service Delivery training) • Ecuador Quito Metro Line One AF • Development of organization/company HR policies or Gender Action Plans that promote women’s employment, especially in management positions Labor abuses / sexual harassment • Referral services • Solomon Islands CAUSE / GBV • Public awareness campaigns • PNG UYEPII • Training of company management/ • Argentina Northwestern Road staff and employees on GBV and sexual Development Corridor harassment issues 8 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH Changes in the policy and institutional environment will also be critical to increase FLFP in Bangladesh. The table below outlines possible areas of policy intervention in Bangladesh that could be supported through development policy operations (DPOs) or technical assistance (TA): TABLE 2: Good Practice DPO/TAs and Interventions Potential DPO / TA policy interventions DP0/TA examples Supply-side • Introduction of paternity and/or parental leave • Tonga Third Inclusive Growth DPO • Simplification/harmonization of business/trade • Jordan Second Equitable Growth & Job Creation procedures and documentation Programmatic DPF • Simplification of firm registration • Bangladesh Jobs Programmatic DPC • Introduction of law explicitly restricting discrimina- • Niger First Laying the Foundation for Inclusive tion of provision of credit DPF • Strengthening laws on child marriage • Amending inheritance laws to ensure equal access to women • Introduction / reforms on movable collateral • Enactment of Child Daycare Act • Development of regulatory institution for licensing and oversight of childcare facilities • Strengthening enforcement of Labour Act requiring childcare provision in firms with >40 female workers • Introduction of mechanisms to help finance childcare services for lower income workers (e.g. subsidies, tax credits, etc.) • Extending the school day • Introduce criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment Demand-side • Removal of explicit provisions that restrict women’s • Tonga Third Inclusive Growth DPO access to specific occupations and to jobs that are • Jordan Second Equitable Growth & Job Creation considered ‘arduous or dangerous’ Programmatic DPF • Include provision in Labour Act requiring equal • Bangladesh Jobs Programmatic DPC remuneration for work of equal value • Include provision in Labour Act requiring non-dis- crimination in employment based on gender • Introduction of provision to prohibit dismissal of pregnant workers • Strengthening enforcement capacity for labor inspection • Introducing mechanisms for female workers to report labor abuses, including sexual harassment and GBV • Introduce criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 9 Annex 1: Profiles of ‘Good Practice’ Project Case Studies Solomon Islands Community Access and Urban Services Enhancement Project (P161320) (FY18) The Solomon Islands Community Access and Urban Services Enhancement project (CAUSE) aims to im- prove basic infrastructure and services for vulnerable populations in targeted urban centers. The project re- sponds to some of the most critical challenges of increased urbanization including limited socio-economic opportunities, youth unemployment, and gender disparities in the labor market. CAUSE is comprised of several components focused on urban works and services, road maintenance and repair, and infrastructure and service delivery training (ISDT). The gender focus of the project is on disparities in the labor market and the high prevalence of gen- der-based violence (GBV). More specifically, gender considerations are incorporated in project design through i) targeting women in communications and awareness campaigns and addressing gender issues in the ISDT curriculum; ii) providing training on basic life skills, occupational health and safety, numeracy skills, health, hygiene, nutrition, labor‐based construction and service delivery methods, and contracting and payment arrangements; iii) providing young women and men with counselling and referral services to social intermediaries that support victims of GBV; iv) training project personnel on the project‐based GBV and Sexual Harassment Guidelines including reporting and response protocols; v) pr``oviding employment for women and men and paying for skilled and unskilled labor; and vi) incorporating an electronic banking component to protect the income and savings of female project beneficiaries. Skill India Mission Operation (P158435) (FY17) The objectives of the Skill India Mission Operation are to enhance institutional mechanisms for skills development and to increase access to quality and market-relevant training for the workforce. Women are under-represented in skills develop- ment (SD) programs and face constraints in choosing programs (they are often directed toward training for self-employment in low-return/productivity and traditional segments such as tailoring or beauty). The Skill India Mission Operation supports the development of tailored programs for women. Informed by international ex- perience and evidence, the Operation aims to improve women’s training, employment, and earnings outcomes by including elements on socio-emotional/life skills in the programs and by combining training with a set of complementary services such as information, counselling, and capital. The Program also designs and evaluates pilots to test the cost-effectiveness and impact of financial incentives (such as DBT-enabled skills vouchers, transport support, cash transfers, and scholarships) to bolster participation and placement outcomes among women. Moreover, the Program supports the inclusion of women through fostering the creation of a SD ecosystem that links excluded groups with high-growth sectors and locations in the economy. A range of other activities are targeted at narrowing the gender gap in skills development and employment. These include exposing women to non-traditional and non-stereotypical occupations, facilitating self-employment, and develop- ing a cadre of women trainers. Andhra Pradesh Rural Inclusive Growth Project (P152210) (FY14) The objective of the Andhra Pradesh Rural Inclusive Growth Project is to enable selected poor households to enhance agri- cultural incomes and secure increased access to human development services and social entitlements. The selected poor households include households that are geographically and socially excluded and have low income levels. Priority program beneficiaries are targeted small and marginal farmers and scheduled casts/scheduled tribes from communities in the 150 most backward mandals in the state (identified based on a few parameters, one of which is female illiteracy rate). The project components include value chain development (for example, supply of agriculture inputs, access to financial services, and productivity enhancements and improved market access for small and marginal farmers); enhanced human development (including improving household-level food consumption patterns, strengthening service delivery of the de- partments of women and child development and health and family welfare, and strengthening the demand for quality nutri- tion, health, sanitation and preschool education services); improved access to social protection services and entitlements (through strengthening technology-enabled services and establishing a facility to explore improved service delivery for women and people with disabilities); and promoting digital empowerment among poor rural women. 10 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH Peru Modernization of Water Supply and Sanitation Services (P157043) (FY19) The Peru Modernization of Water Supply and Sanitation Services project aims to increase access to and improve the quality of water and sanitation services in select areas. The project also supports the development of sectoral institutions and the management capacity of participating service providers. Beyond ensuring women’s and men’s equal benefit from sanitation works, the project addresses gender gaps in employment in technical and managerial positions within public utilities (hereafter EPSs for Empresa Prestadora de Servicios de Saneamiento). An assessment, which was carried out in the project preparation phase, found that there are few women in technical and managerial positions within EPSs. The project incorporates a few actions to address some of the gender issues found in the assessment. For example, the social analysis will be used to support a strategy for effective targeting of subsidies (eg. for household connections to women‐headed households). Furthermore, the social analysis will inform public utilities’ outlining and implementation of human resource actions to increase the number of female employees in technical and managerial positions. Papua New Guinea Urban Youth Employment Project II (P166420) (FY20) The objective of the Papua New Guinea (PNG) Urban Youth Employment Project II (hereafter UYEP II) is to improve the capacity of young men and women in project areas to engage in productive income generation activities. Urban poverty is increasing in PNG and there are limited employment opportunities for the urban population. Young women face additional challenges such as gender discrimination in the labor market. Furthermore, gender-based violence (GBV) is widespread. The project consists of several components such as providing youth with Basic Life Skills and Job Readiness Training (BLST), placing them in public works schemes, offering skills training (internships and vocational training), and providing referral services (GBV services as well as job search, microenterprise and training services). Gender is integrated across the different project components. Informed by a gender and labor study carried out for UYEP I, the project includes specific actions to address the existing gender gaps. For example, the community awareness and mobilization campaign to support youth’s enrollment in the program adopts a nuanced communications strategy targeted to women. The BLST component contains gender-specific content covering topics such as gender equity and GBV awareness and prevention. Similarly, the existing menu of works and services is expanded to support women’s participation. Women are encouraged to perform other infrastructure works to break gender stereotypes and acquire skills that are not otherwise available to them. Moreover, the public works and services component includes a GBV and Violence Prevention Pilot. Finally, the project increases the stipend rate (from the UYEP I) to partly compensate for child care and it adds an electronic banking component to help protect women’s income and savings. Uzbekistan Horticulture Development Project (P133703) (FY14) The project development objective of the Uzbekistan Horticulture Development Project is to enhance the productivity and profitability of the horticulture sector in eight regions of Uzbekistan. The social analysis carried out for the project found that while 90 percent of all farms in the country are owned by men, women predominantly work in the fields, and in some cases, make managerial decisions in the absence of men in the household. Moreover, women work mainly in the informal sector, either part-time and/or without any formal labor contract. The Uzbekistan Horticulture Development project includes activities such as strengthening research institutes and exten- sion services and implementing various training and demonstration activities to promote the adoption of improved technol- ogies and practices. The project supports value chain development through strengthening market information and quality and food safety systems; providing technical assistance to the Government for improving the policy environment for the horticulture sector; and increasing access to finance for farmers and private sector entrepreneurs. The project design is cognizant of gender issues and special attention is given to the inclusion of women in project activities. For example, the project prioritizes support to small- and medium-sized producers and agribusinesses. Also, the project benefits approximately 8,000 farmers (of which a substantive number are women) by providing access to cold storage, processing, marketing and value addition facilities. Furthermore, the project uses a value chain approach to provide support to farmers and producers groups for development of more effective and efficient farming systems; introduces technology packages for increased productivity and value addition; and supports improved market access. These services are made available with a defined focus on how they reach women in agriculture. What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 11 Argentina Northwestern Road Development Corridor Project (P163115) (FY18) The Argentina Northwestern Road Development Corridor Project is a rural transport project that aims to improve connectivity and road safety along targeted road sections of the Northwestern Corridor. The project area is home to, among others, indigenous peoples (IPs). IPs, particularly indigenous women, are among the most vulnerable groups as they are dispropor- tionally affected by insecure land tenure and have lower access to markets and services. There are significant gender gaps in labor force participation and unemployment and the gender-based violence (GBV) prevalence rate is high in the project area. To address some of these gender gaps, the project includes specific activities to reduce GBV and to promote economic opportunities for indigenous women. For example, the project constructs community centers providing labor and entrepre- neurship training, sexual education, and access to technology. These centers provide a place for women to gather, benefit from skills training, and engage in productive activities such as clothing manufacturing. In addition, the project promotes cultural tourism and income generation for indigenous women. Mexico Strengthening Entrepreneurship in Productive Forest Landscapes Project (P164661) (FY18) The Strengthening Entrepreneurship in Productive Forest Landscapes Project in Mexico aims to strengthen sustainable for- est management and increase economic opportunities for forest-dependent populations and enterprises in select forest landscapes. Women face significant challenges in accessing forest resources and means of production in Mexico. In addition, women’s participation in the management of forest landscapes is limited due to a variety of cultural, socioeconomic, and institutional barriers. Informed by a qualitative study, the project aims to remove some of the barriers that women face to managing natural resources, provide women with access to finance for these activities, and enhance women’s voice. For example, the project includes a specific funding window for women-led groups to develop, produce, and commercialize timber and non-timber forest products. A unique feature of the project is that it tests outreach mechanisms and behaviorally-framed messages to encourage wom- en’s participation in natural resource management activities and their uptake of programs. Potential behaviorally-informed activities include facilitating registration in easily accessible spaces for women (such as schools and clinics) and/or paying for group transport to government offices; simplifying application forms and making the information about the program clear, accessible, and understandable for poorly educated rural women (for example, using images, infographics, and sto- ries to help women digest information about the program); increasing the number of female program promoters or technical advisors; working around existing norms and associating the concept of a ”good woman” and the ”mother role” to that of a woman who participates in productive activities; and providing small in-kind or monetary incentives or community recogni- tion for women’s participation in beneficiary programs. Ecuador Quito Metro Line One (P144489) (FY14) and the Quito Metro Line One AF (P158756) (FY18) The Quito Metro Line One, a transport project in Ecuador, addresses the growing transport demand in the city of Quito and aims to improve mobility in the city. The project (hereafter PLMQ for Primera Linea Metro de Quito) specifically aims to reduce travel time, decrease transport service operational costs, improve connectivity, security and comfort of the current system, and reduce the emission of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Gender considerations are integrated in project design, with a focus on two areas. First, PLMQ considers women’s specific needs in the use of public transportation. The project design is gender-sensitive to improve women’s comfort and safety on public transport, more specifically by including adequate lighting in platforms, stations, and surrounding areas, child-friend- ly access and safe facilities. Moreover, the project implements communication and education campaigns to change behavior patterns. These campaigns aim to create a ”metro user culture” that promotes good behavior of male riders toward women, among others. Also, based on national and international good practices, the project incorporates and promotes the use of tools and mechanisms to prevent and report sexual violence in public transport. This includes strengthening women’s skills to report harassment. The PLMQ supports a second gender objective which is the promotion of women’s employment in the transport sector. Women account for only 11 percent of employees in the transportation, storage, and communications sector and as low as 5 percent of employees in the construction sector in Ecuador. To address this gender gap in employment, the project imple- ments a strategy to increase (to 20 percent) the participation of women directly employed by the company that operates the Metro. This goal is facilitated by gender-sensitive recruitment procedures and training for women. 12 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH Yemen Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project (P089259) (FY06) The objective of the Yemen Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock project (hereafter RALP) was to enable poor rural producers to improve their production, processing, and marketing systems as well as to protect their assets such as soil, water, range- land, seeds, and animals. Critical social issues were assessed during project preparation through social/gender assessments and governorate prepa- ration reports. Moreover, consultations were held with female agricultural extension workers, local council representatives, members of women’s organizations, and female farmers. The assessments found that women played an important role in rural livelihoods while also facing a range of barriers such as limited decision-making power, restricted mobility, and low access to land and credit. These barriers were addressed through a set of gender-sensitive project implementation arrangements. RALP’s activities included improving women’s access to seeds, community labor-saving devices such as biogas stoves, agro-processing fa- cilities, and promoting women’s participation in producer groups and supporting production-related startup activities. For example, RALP supported the establishment of seed grower groups and associations and women were targeted as members of these groups. The aim was to increase crop yield and income for farmers by increasing their access to markets and to agricultural inputs and services. In addition, RALP addressed the specific needs of female livestock herders and owners since they were underserved by livestock service providers. Livestock owners were provided veterinary goods and services, innovative husbandry methods, and feed supplements and fodders for improved livestock productivity. The project also included activities related to small vegetable gardens, fruit production and postharvest handling/marketing, coffee produc- tion and post-harvest handling/ marketing; handicraft production and marketing, and soil conservation, water harvesting, and agro-forestry. Finally, gender considerations were incorporated in project management activities. This included hiring female project staff, developing different mobilization strategies for female and male farmers, and establishing partnerships with women’s asso- ciations and supporting capacity building activities for them. What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 13 Annex 2: Resources and Data Sources Resources World Bank (2019). Voices to Choices: Bangladesh’s Journey in Women’s Economic Empowerment. Washington, DC. World Bank (2017). Bangladesh Jobs Diagnostics. Washington, DC. World Bank (2015). More and Better Jobs to Accelerate Shared Growth and End Extreme Poverty: A Systematic Country Diagnostics. Washington, DC. World Bank (2008). Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh. Washington, DC. Data Sources World Bank, World Development Indicators World Bank, Global Findex International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT World Economic Forum. Global Gender Gap Index World Bank. Women, Business and the Law World Bank. Enterprise Surveys World Bank. Doing Business Indicators Food and Agriculture Organization. Gender and Land Rights Database 14 FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN BANGLADESH Annex 3: Jobs/Gender Platforms Jobs Platforms in Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal Jobs Platforms have been established in Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal with the objective to improve the coordination and delivery of Bank activities in order to maximize their impact on the quantity, quality, and inclusiveness of jobs. The platforms are designed to provide inputs to CMU and GP task teams to: (i) support measurement and monitoring of the Bank’s impact on jobs in the country; (ii) increase knowledge on the jobs situation and challenges; and (iii) identify potential country-spe- cific solutions to key jobs challenges and help support their incorporation into operational and analytical projects. Contacts: ■■ Bangladesh: Thomas Farole: tfarole@worldbank.org ■■ Bhutan: Amer Ahmed: sahmed20@worldbank.org ■■ Nepal: Jasmine Rajbhandary: jrajbhandary@worldbank.org Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal Gender Platform The objective of the Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal (BBN) Gender Platform is to generate and share knowledge and support its application into the World Bank’s operations and policy dialogue in Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal. The main priority areas of the Platform are women’s labor force participation and economic empowerment; violence against women and girls; and women’s voice and leadership. Contacts: ■■ Bangladesh: Sabah Moyeen: smoyeen@worldbank.org ■■ Bhutan and Nepal: Jaya Sharma: jsharma2@worldbank.org South Asia Regional Trade Facilitation Program (SARTFP) Gender Platform The South Asia Regional Trade Facilitation Program (SARTFP) Gender Platform provides technical support and knowledge generation and sharing on the linkages between gender and trade—with a focus on women’s economic empowerment— to SARTFP-funded activities and other Bank-supported tasks that are closely aligned with SARTFP objectives. The SARTFP Program, supported by Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), seeks to improve cross-border trade and connectivity in the Eastern Corridor of South Asia (specifically in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Northeast India, and Nepal). The model does this through three thematic pathways – transport connectivity, trade facilitation and trade policy, and local enterprise development and economic opportunities. Contacts: ■■ Hiska Reyes: hreyes@worldbank.org ■■ Gitanjali Chaturvedi: gchaturvedi@worldbank.org What do we know? How can we address it in operations? 15