2 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 4 Table of Contents Abbreviations Overview 9 1 Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 13 1.1 Improving human endowments 13 1.2 Removing constraints on provision of more and better jobs 15 1.3 Removing barriers to women’s ownership and control over assets 20 1.4 Enhancing women’s voice and agency 22 1.5 Persistence of gender gaps: potential causes 25 2 WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 29 2.1 Generating data, knowledge, and evidence on gender 31 2.2 Leveraging knowledge to address gender gaps in WBG operations 33 2.3 Targeting country-level outcomes through country-driven approaches 36 2.4 Partnering to maximize impact 38 3 Looking Ahead 41 References 43 Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 51 Annex B: Leveraging the learning-adapting-expanding approach to tackle gender gaps 65 Acknowledgments This Report has been prepared by a core team comprising Andrea Kucey, Abhilasha Sahay, Brett J. Libresco, Diego Ubfal, Chiara Broccolini, and Jen- nifer Solotaroff. Valuable inputs were provided by Tanima Ahmed, Diana Arango, Anna Tabitha Bonfert, Helle Buchhave, Sarah Bunker, Abigail Goodnow Dalton, Laila Elrefai, Jessica Gesund Forero, Alessandra Heine- mann, Azada Hussaini, Heather Mae Kipnis, Liz Koechlein, Jana Malinska, Mirai Maruo, Elizabeth Afua Laura Mensah, Heather Moylan, Maria Beat- riz Orlando, Carla Pittalis, Laura Rawlings, Hilary Margaret Helen Steiner, Cindy Suh, Priyanka Tayal, and Wendy Teleki, Carol Marina Tojeiro. The team received valuable comments and suggestions from Paola Bui- trago Hernández, Jacobus Joost De Hoop, Sameera Maziad Al Tuwaijri, Besa Rizvanolli, Anna Fruttero, Michael O’Sullivan, Louise Twining-Ward, and Mary Borrowman. The team greatly benefited from consultations with the World Bank Gender Leads Community of Practice and the Gender Leadership Council. World Bank Vice President for Human Development Mamta Murthi and Gender Global Director Hana Brixi provided invalu- able guidance and advice.   Excellent editorial and communications support was provided by Leslie Ashby and Kristyn Schrader-King, respectively. We also thank Nancy Palm and Katharine Corcoran for valuable design and production support. Abbreviations BCC Behavioral Change Communication CPF Country Partnership Framework DPF Development Policy Financing DPO Development Policy Operations FCV Fragility Conflict and Violence FGM Female Genital Mutilation FLFP Female Labor Force Participation FY Fiscal Year GBV Gender-based violence GDP Gross Domestic Product GIL Gender Innovation Lab HLO High Level Outcome IAEG-GS Inter-Agency Expert group on Gender Statistics IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction ICT Information Communication and Technology IDA International Development Agency IEG Independent Evaluation Group IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labor Organization IPV Intimate partner violence MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency MOPAN Multilateral Organization Performance Assessment Network NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees SCD Systematic Country Diagnostic STEM Science Technology Engineering and Medicine WBG World Bank Group WBL Women Business and the Law WEF World Economic Forum WHO World Health Organization 8 Overview A decade ago, the 2012 World Development Report on gender and development brought gen- der to the forefront of the development agenda. Since the launch of that report (Box 1), the World Bank Group’s (WBG’s) commitment to gender equality in its programs has become broader and more ambitious. Support for client countries increasingly addresses gender inequality through the WBG’s lending and investment portfolio, impact evaluations, and other analytical products that support operations and emergency response.1 Strategic partnerships and investments in gen- der data across multiple domains have facilitated evidence-informed policy making for equality and empowerment. In the context of increasingly dire impacts of climate change, conflict and fragility, and food and nutrition insecurity, there is growing recognition that gender equality is a powerful lever for building resilience. This retrospective report explores global progress engagement on gender and highlights promising and lessons learned over the past 10 years in promot- approaches. Reflections and findings will enable the ing gender equality. This report takes stock of global WBG and its partners to develop a deeper understand- progress and considers the impact of evidence-backed ing of what works, provide opportunities to strengthen solutions to close the most persistent gender gaps. and expand efforts in critical areas, and will inform the It examines the evolution of World Bank Group’s new WBG Gender Strategy, to be launched in 2024. Box 1. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development The World Development Report on gender and development: » Broke new ground in building a strong case for gender equality not only as a core development objective, but also as a lever to enhance other development outcomes. » Introduced an economic lens to view gender equality and demonstrated that investing in women and girls is “smart economics.” » Showed that gender equality increases productivity and growth and reduces poverty while improving prospects for society overall and the next generation. » Informed the World Bank Group Gender Strategy (2016–2023) and its ongoing analytical work, operations, and investments. » Introduced a framework with core principles on gender equality that remain highly relevant amid multiple global crises. 1 The World Bank Group Gender Thematic Policy Note series and Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series have served as inputs for this document. The thematic policy notes summarize key issues on gender equality and empowerment and provide evidence on effective and promising solutions, operational good practices, and areas for future engagement; the causal evidence briefs highlight findings from impact evaluations of development interventions in nine areas, providing evidence and lessons on how to close gender gaps and foster women’s economic empowerment. Overview 9 Looking back on 10 years of global progress toward gains; if women’s employment was as much as men’s, gender equality revealed four key reflections. then countries stand to gains as much as 20 percent increase in long-term GDP per capita (Pennings 2022). 1. Advances in human capital have not led to Similarly, economies can gain as much as $5-6 trillion if greater economic opportunities for women. women started and scaled new businesses at the same Globally, there has been progress in access to health rate as men (We-Fi Initiative 2022). A real expansion services and steady improvements in education out- of not only jobs, but quality work available to women comes. In developing countries,2 the number of girls is needed. Women are often in the lowest paid jobs, in attending secondary school has increased by 10 per- piece-rate, subcontracted work, and vulnerable forms cent, fully closing the gender gap, and women’s and of self-employment, with negligible access, to insurance, girls’ tertiary enrollment rate has exceeded that of leave benefits and social protection (UN Women n.d.). men and boys. The maternal mortality ratio in these 2. Gains in gender equality are fragile. countries has dropped by 10 percent,3 and fertility has declined by 4 percent,4 although these aggregated While the COVID-19 pandemic had devastating trends mask regional disparities; girls continue to lag effects on lives and lived experiences of all, the boys in secondary enrollment rates in the Middle East, impact on women was especially pronounced. The North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa, and fertility pandemic exacerbated gender gaps in human capital, remains high in Sub-Saharan Africa. But these global intensified barriers to women’s participation in the advances in health and education have not translated economy and public life, and compounded a co-ex- into enhanced economic opportunities for women. isting pandemic of violence against women and girls (Alon et al. 2020; UNFPA 2020; UN Women 2021a). It The lack of access to economic opportunities, illus- was projected that 11.2 million girls worldwide would trated by low female labor force participation, gen- not return to school in 2020/21 because of pandem- der wage gaps, under-representation in leadership ic-related school closures (UNESCO 2020). The UN positions, and gender-based occupational segre- Women Rapid Gender Assessments of the socioeco- gation confining women towards low productivity nomic impacts of COVID-19 showed that 48 percent jobs, requires urgent action. Female labor force par- ticipation — in formal employment — has remained stagnant since 1990 in most regions of the world, with women at 53 percent participation versus 80 percent for men.5 Closing this gap yields non-trivial economic 2 T  hese include countries that are a part of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Association lending programs across the six WBG regions: South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, Middle East and North Africa, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Sub-Saharan Africa. IBRD lends to governments of middle-income and creditworthy low-income countries and IDA provides interest-free loans – credits – and grants to governments of the poorest countries. Together, IBRD and IDA make up the World Bank. List of IBRD and IDA countries, as of June 2020. 3 See the Gender Data Portal (https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/sh-sta-mmrt/). Most recent year available is 2017. Despite these improvements, maternal mortality remains unacceptably high (with 295,000 women dying during pregnancy and childbirth in 2017 (Maternal Mortality (database), WHO (accessed 2021), https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality). Most of these deaths occur in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2017, 15 countries were considered to be “high alert” (Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Haiti, Guinea, Iraq, Nigeria, South Sudan, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Yemen, Zimbabwe) (Fragile States Index (accessed 2021), https://fragilestatesindex.org/). 4 See the Gender Data Portal (https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/sh-sta-mmrt/). Accessed September 2021. Original Source: United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects. Most recent year available is 2019. A major remaining challenge is that more than 200 million women do not have access to contraceptives, despite wanting to delay or avoid pregnancy (Singh, Darroch, and Ashford 2014). 5 See the Gender Data Portal (https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/sh-sta-mmrt/). 10 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective of women living in 45 countries assessed had difficulty 4. Gender equality and empowerment are accessing sanitary and health products and 37 percent central to advancing sustainable global had trouble accessing medical care. development. This is a time of unprecedented consensus on the The pandemic brought greater employment losses need to accelerate gender equality. Most develop- for women than men for all age groups and educa- ment practitioners and policy makers recognize that tion levels and in urban and rural areas (Alon et al. gender equality and empowerment of women and 2021; Fabrizio, Gomes, and Tavares 2021b; World girls enhance human capital development, economic Bank 2021a), and business closures were higher growth, and resilience of societies. The amount of for women- than men-owned enterprises (Liu, Wei, gender-focused official development assistance — as and Xu 2021; Torres et al 2021). Forty-five percent of a proportion of total official development assistance women had been exposed directly or indirectly to from member countries of the Development Assistance at least one form of GBV since the beginning of the Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooper- pandemic (UN Women 2021a).6, 7 Given reversion in ation and Development increased from 30 percent in progress across multiple gender equality outcomes, the 2012 to 45 percent in 2019/20. Starting with Sweden time needed to close the gender gap has increased from in 2014, countries have been adopting feminist for- 100 to 151 years post-pandemic (WEF 2022). eign and development policies to accelerate change and increase opportunities by integrating gender into 3. Slow, fragile progress suggests that transfor- policy making. These changes — the result of concerted mative change is needed, building on evidence efforts by civil society, development agencies, and gov- and data ernments — leverage improvements in data, research, Investments in data and research continue to be and evidence over the last decade. necessary, however bringing technical solutions to scale often requires addressing gender norms and Addressing the multiple global crises and ensuring understanding the effect of structural factors. Scal- a strong economic recovery will require accelerated ing-up successful interventions requires political and progress towards gender equality and the empow- social will to address gender norms. This implies that erment of women and girls. Investment is needed changing mindsets and mobilizing collective action to increase understanding of how gender influences are often a necessary complement to technical solu- policies and programs and can contribute to better tions to advance gender equality and empowerment. development outcomes. Policies and investments to These changes require a deeper understanding of the respond to climate change, violent conflict, and fra- underlying factors, including the policy arena, but also gility must go beyond gender-based vulnerability domestic policies, market structures, political prior- to enable women to effect change and contribute to ities, legal systems, and social practices that shape durable solutions to enhance long-term economic, structural changes. environmental, and social outcomes. 6  Between April and September 2021, UN Women conducted regional gender assessments in 13 countries (Albania, Bangladesh, Cameroon, Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco, Nigeria, Paraguay, Thailand, Ukraine) focused on GBV and COVID-19. 7 F  or the purpose of the assessments, GBV is defined as physical abuse (being slapped, hit, or the target of a thrown object; other physical harm), verbal abuse (being yelled at, called names, humiliated), being denied basic needs (health care, money, food, water, shelter), being denied communication (with other people, including being forced to stay alone for long periods of time), and sexual harassment (being subjected to inappropriate jokes, suggestive comments, leering, or unwelcome physical contact). Overview 11 12 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 1. Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators In 2016, the WBG launched its Gender Strategy (2016–23), focusing on closing gender gaps in four key outcome areas: improving human endowments, removing constraints on availability of more and better jobs, removing barriers to women’s ownership and control over assets, and enhancing women’s voices and agency. This section examines global progress in these four areas, highlight- ing areas where results have been limited and multiple crises threaten to reverse progress.8 1.1 Improving human endowments Figure 1. Secondary School Enrollment Rates by Gender 75 The past decade has delivered substantial progress in education and health.9 Youth literacy has increased 70 in terms of absolute rates for boys and girls and of relative gender gap. The gender parity index increased Enrollment rate (%) 65 from 0.94 in 2010 to 0.97 in 2020.10 Further, by 2020, girls had a higher human capital index than boys in 60 over 90 percent of countries. In developing countries, the average gender gap in primary and secondary 55 school enrollment rates (Figure 1) has closed substan- tially with girls overtaking boys in tertiary education 50 enrollment (Figure 2). For school completion the gap 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 has narrowed to within 1 to 2 percentage points in pri- Female Male mary completion rates with girls overtaking boys in secondary school completion.11,12 Girls’ and women’s Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Data retrieved from gains in education have benefited from improvements World Bank Gender Data Portal (accessed May 6). in reproductive health in developing countries. The Note: Data as of February 2020. Net enrollment rate is the maternal mortality ratio fell from 272 per 100,000 live ratio of children of official school age enrolled in school to births in 2010 to 230 in 2017, and the adolescent fertility the population of children of official school age. Population- weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction rate fell from 52 births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19 and Development (IBRD) and International Development Agency (IDA) countries. 8  he main reference period of this retrospective is the most recent year of available data and the 9 preceding years, which is typically the decade before T the onset of the pandemic (2010–19/20). Some figures show trends starting in approximately 2000 to compare trends between the first (2000–10) and second (2010–20) decades of the century. Because this is a retrospective of trends in gender equality in developing countries—specifically those where the WBG provides development support—the sample in most charts includes only International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and IDA countries. In some cases, these samples are compared with all countries (regardless of income level or WBG membership) to show how changes in outcomes over time may be different when comparing developing regions with all world regions, including the highest-income ones. 9 Figure 1A in Annex A depicts trends in human capital index of boys and girls over the past decade, depicting substantial gains in gender equality. 10 G  ender parity index for youth literacy rate is ratio of women to men aged 15-24 who can read and write a short simple statement about their everyday life (Gender Data Portal. Literacy Rate, Gender Parity Index (Youth Ages 15-24) (accessed September 2021), https://genderdata.worldbank.org/ indicators/se-adt-1524-lt-fm-zs/?geos=WLD_IBT&view=trend). 11 See Figure 2A, 3A, and 4A in Annex A for gender gaps in primary school enrollment, primary completion rate, and secondary school enrollment. 12 W  omen’s advantage in tertiary enrollment is found in all regions except Sub-Saharan Africa. See Figures 5A and 6A in Annex A for trends in gross tertiary school enrollment for developing countries and Sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, girls have superseded boys in lower secondary completion rates in all regions except Sub-Saharan Africa according to UIS data retrieved from the Gender Data Portal. In East Asia and the Pacific, 93 percent of girls and 91 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 43 percent of girls and 46 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020. In South Asia, 81 percent of girls and 79 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020. In the Middle East and North Africa, 78 percent of girls and 77 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020. In Latin America and the Caribbean, 83 percent of girls and 78 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020. Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 13 Tertiary School Enrollment Rates Figure 2.  Figure 3. Adolescent Fertility Rate According to Gender (Gross) Fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 24–25) 60 35 30 Enrollment rate (%) 55 25 20 50 15 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Female Male 45 Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Data retrieved from 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 World Bank Gender Data Portal (accessed May 2020). Source: United Nations Population Division, World Popular Notes: The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment, regardless Prospects Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data of age, to the population of the age group that officially Portal retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal corresponds to the level of education shown. Population- (accessed May 2020). weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency Note: Adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per countries. 1,000 women aged 15 to 19. Population-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries. in 2010 to fewer than 45 in 2020 (Figure 3).13 This is part and creating safe spaces for girls have improved girls’ of a steady drop in the total fertility rate of 2.65 births educational attainment and continuation, increased per woman in 2010 to 2.52 in 2020. contraceptive use, and reduced teen pregnancy (Evans and Yuan 2019; Halim et al. 2023a). This progress can be largely attributed to targeted Despite improvements in human endowments glob- investments in health care and education systems ally, critical regional disparities remain. Girls lag boys and empowerment of adolescent girls over the last in primary and secondary education enrollment in the decade. Social protection programs, including cash Middle East, North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa and in-kind transfers that promote uptake of health care and in secondary school completion in Sub-Saharan and education have increased school enrollment, atten- Africa. Figures 4 shows that gender gaps in tertiary dance, and completion and reduced early marriage and school enrollment Sub-Sahran Africa is much wider risky sexual behaviors (early sexual debut, transactional than the global average. The adolescent fertility rate sex, unsafe sex) (Bastagli et al. 2016; Camilletti 2020). also remains critically high in Sub-Saharan Africa, These effects are contingent on program modalities, Latin America, and the Caribbean. such as timing, size, and frequency of transfer, and pres- ence of complementary interventions and supply-side The onset of crises, including the COVID-19 pan- services.14 Further, programs  — including World Bank demic, also threatens gains made in development interventions ­ — that focused on improving access and of human capital. It was projected that 11.2 million learning, providing life skills training with mentorship, girls worldwide would not return to school in 2021-22 13 See Figures 7A and 8A in Annex A for trends in maternal mortality ratio and total fertility rate, respectively, over the past decade. 14 For example, Premand and Barry (2022) find that cash plus programs, which include behavioral change communication (BCC) interventions on parenting techniques were more effective in improving early childhood outcomes — such as nutrition, health, and socio-emotional development — than cash alone in Niger. Similarly, a randomized control trial in Bangladesh found that, if cash or food transfers are provided with behavior change communication on nutrition, a decrease in intimate partner violence was sustained four years after the intervention had ended (Roy et al. 2018). See Hammad (2022) for a helpful overview on transfer modalities such as size, timing and frequency of transfer may impact outcomes. 14 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Tertiary School Enrollment Rates According Figure 4.  Ensuring continued progress in accumulation of to Sex in Sub-Saharan Africa (Gross) human capital is important for its intrinsic value not 12 only in improving health and education outcomes for all, but also in empowering women and facili- 10 tating access to economic opportunities. Notably, the Enrollment rate (%) Utilization-Adjusted Human Capital Index (UHCI),15 8 notes that women’s human capital is under-utilized, driven by gender-based occupational segregation and 6 low female employment rates (Pennings 2020). Thus, it is crucial to understand what particular skills should 4 be developed to facilitate the school-to-work transition 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 of girls and increase female labor force participation Female Male overall. For example, there is evidence that work-study programs allowing girls to acquire relevant early-age Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Data retrieved from the World Bank Gender Data Portal (accessed May 2020). work experience; socio-emotional skills training; and digital, STEM, and other job-relevant skills with focus Notes: The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment, regardless on the green transition can be effective (Halim, O’Sul- of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Population- livan, and Sahay 2023). weighted average of Sub-Saharan African countries. 1.2 Removing constraints on provision of more and better jobs because of pandemic-related school closures (UNE- Gender gaps in labor force participation and employ- SCO 2020), in addition to the 130 million primary ment have remained stubbornly large over the past and secondary school-aged girls and youth who were decade, with the largest gaps in the Middle East, North out of school before the crisis. Although evidence is Africa, and South Asia (Figure 5). Female labor force still emerging, the potential impacts are wide rang- participation has stagnated in most regions of the ing. Education disruption puts girls at higher risk of world over the past 30 years and declined in South adolescent pregnancy, early marriage, and violence. Asia (Halim, O’Sullivan, and Sahay 2023). In settings Up to 10 million more girls will be at risk of becom- with smaller gender gaps in participation, such as ing child brides because of the pandemic (UNICEF Sub-Saharan Africa, a large share of women in the active 2021a). Countries affected by fragility and conflict are labor market are engaged in vulnerable employment at greater risk of backsliding on gender gaps in human with inadequate earnings and poor working conditions development. The effects of violence and fragility on (Bue et al. 2022). service delivery can be pernicious, with individuals from displaced households, especially girls, facing The gender gap in the employment-to-population ratio greater barriers to education, reflecting accumulated has not improved at the global or regional level (Fig- disadvantage (Admasu et al 2021). ures 6 and 7).16,17 Latin America and the Caribbean and East Asia and Pacific are the exception, moving from 15 T  he Utilization-adjusted Human Capital Indices (UHCIs) adjust the HCI for labor-market underutilization of human capital, based on fraction of the working age population that are employed, or are in the types of jobs where they might be better able to use their skills and abilities to increase their productivity. 16  onsidering that not everyone who is participating in the labor market is employed (individuals could be unemployed or under-employed), the C employment-to-population ratio is a more accurate measure of economic productivity. 17  t is likely that the drop-off in men’s and women’s employment-to-population ratio in 2020 is capturing the effects of the first 6 to 9 months of the I COVID-19 pandemic. Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 15 Figure 5. Gender gaps in labor force participation (%), 1990–2019 World North America East Asia & Pacific Middle East & North Africa 100 82.7% 78.7% 77% 75 80% 68.7% 66.2% 52.6% 50 25 21.3% 4 1990 2019 Europe & Central Asia Sub-Saharan African South Asia Latin America & Caribbean 100 78.5% 80.6% 81.6% 75 74% 64.2% 62.8% 57.9% 50 25 25.2% 4 Source: Gender Data Portal (SL.TLF.ACTI.ZS) Notes: The top and bottom line in each sub-figure represent the proportion of men and women engaged in the labor market, respectively. Figure 6. Employment to Population Ratio Figure 7. Gender Gap in Employment to Population Ratio According to Region 80 60 70 50 Enrollment (%) 40 60 Enrollment Gap (%) 30 50 20 10 40 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 0 Female Male 9 20 2 0 14 18 16 19 13 15 12 21 7 11 0 2 1 1 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Source: International Labour Organization (ILO). Data retrieved EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR AFR from World Bank Gender Data Portal. Accessed: April 2022 Source: International Labour Organization (ILO). Data retrieved Note: The chart plots employment to population ratio for ages from World Bank Gender Data Portal. Accessed April 2022 15 and up (modeled estimate). Population-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and Note: The chart plots the average gender gap in the International Development Agency countries. employment-to-population ratio in the countries of the region (modeled estimate). Sample includes International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries.18 18  The World Bank Group has its operations and clients in 6 key regions: East Asia and Pacific (EAP), Europe and central Asia (ECA), Latin America and Caribbean (LAC), Middle East and North Africa (MENA), South Asia (SAR), and Africa (AFR). 16 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 116 114 112 110 108 106 104 Share of Youth Not Employed, in School, Figure 8.   atio of Female to Male Youth Figure 9. R or in Training According to Gender Unemployment Rate 40 122 120 Ratio of female to male youth 30 118 Youth NEET by Sex (%) unemployment rate 116 20 114 112 10 110 108 0 106 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 104 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 Female Male Source: ILOSTAT database. Accessed: April 20 Source: International Labor Organization (ILO). Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal. Accessed: May 2020 Note: Youth not in school are those who were not enrolled in school or in a formal training program (e.g., vocational training) Note: The chart plots the gender ratio of the unemployment during a reference period (e.g., 1 week). Sample consists of rate for the population aged 15-24. Population-weighted average countries belonging to the lending categories International of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International International Development Agency countries. Development Agency. a gender gap of 27 and 16 percentage points in 2009 to The gender wage gap has also been wide across all 24 and 13 percentage points in 2021/2022. The Middle regions; globally, for every dollar that a man makes, East, North Africa, and South Asia, with gender gaps a woman makes 77 cents.21 The economic cost of this of approximately 50 percentage points, showed no net gap is nontrivial; by closing gender gaps in lifetime improvement from 2009 to 2022. earnings including overall wealth, pension, and assets, economies stand to gain an average of $160 trillion Addressing cultural and social norms associated with (Wodon and de la Brière 2018).22 South Asia has the women’s work (Jayachandran 2021, Narayan 2022), widest average gap in earnings as a percentage of male and misperceptions about them (Bursztyn et al. 2023) monthly earnings. Sub-Saharan Africa had the small- can prove crucial to achieve further progress. This est decline in the earnings gap over the past decade.23 should be combined with macroeconomic, labor mar- Most of this gap stems from the private sector. The ket, development, fiscal and trade policies that provide wage gap in the public sector, which accounts for 45 the right incentives for female’s work. percent of formal employment in low-income coun- Greater focus is also needed on the school to work tries (Merotto et al.2018) is approximately 10 percent. transition for young women and girls. The propor- An array of factors can contribute towards the gen- tion of young women who are not employed or in der gap in lifetime earnings including gender gaps school or training is consistently higher than for men in skills, occupational sorting, under-representation (Figure 8).19 In addition, gains in educational attain- in leadership and gender gap in promotion rates and ment do not translate into employment for women gender biases on the demand-side that could in turn (Figure 9).20 impact starting salaries, performance evaluations, and promotion rates (Sahay 2023). 19 See Figures 9A to 14A in Annex A for regional trends on gender gap in NEET. 20 See Figure 15A in Annex A for regional trends in female to male youth employment rate. 21 See UN Women. Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value at https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/csw61/equal-pay. 22 This estimate was calculated in 2018 based on data on the earning potential of the labor force in 141 countries. 23 Limited data from 2021 makes it difficult to draw conclusions on the impact of COVID-19 on the earnings gap. Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 17 Figure 10. Share of Firms with a Top Female Manager In the majority of countries, the share of women engaged in informal employment is greater than the share of men, especially in South Asia, Latin % of firms with a top female top manager 20 America and the Caribbean, and Sub-Saharan 15 Africa.  In 56 percent of countries, more women than men work in informal employment.26 While globally there are more men than women in informal employ- 10 ment, the picture is skewed by a select few countries, like China and Russia, and masks stark regional dispar- 5 ities (ILO 2023). Ninety-five percent of women working in South Asia, 89 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa, and 0 59 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean are All Small Medium Large engaged in the informal sector (UN Women n.d.). The First survey (2006–14) Second survey (2015–21) incidence of informality may be higher among women Source: World Bank Enterprise surveys. Accessed May 2022 for many reasons, including the need for flexible and/ or reduced work hours (Sahay 2023). Women may Note: These surveys target formal firms with at least five often be engaged as domestic workers, street-vending, employees. Sample consists of countries belonging to the lending categories of the International Bank for Reconstruction home-based workers or contributing family workers, and Development and International Development Agency deemed as low-skilled jobs, which have negligible pro- tection or social benefits; thereby, making women more vulnerable to the adverse, gendered impacts of crises Women are underrepresented in business leadership, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (ILO 2023).27 Women despite growing evidence that female leadership in vulnerable employment are often the first to lose improves results, including better outcomes for female their incomes (UN Women 2020) and the last to recover employees, such as greater retention after maternity (UN Women 2013). leave; smaller gender gaps in promotion rates (Kunze and Miller 2017); and higher firm profits and productiv- The pandemic accentuated long-standing gender ity (Flabbi et al 2018). Still, women-led firms account for gaps in the labor market and at home, including only 25 percent of formal businesses globally.24 In a study women’s role as caregivers for children, elderly, of almost 22,000 publicly traded organizations world- sick, and people with disabilities as a constraint on wide, 60 percent lacked a single female board member increasing female labor force participation. Studies (Noland et al. Kotschwar 2016). The median share of from multiple countries find that women’s employ- firms (regardless of size) with a woman in top manage- ment losses have been greater than men’s and sectors ment has only increased from 17 percent (2006–14) to 18.4 that make up a large proportion of women were worst percent (2015–21) (Figure 10).25 The share of businesses hit by the pandemic. High-frequency phone surveys led by women decreases as firm size increases, with conducted in 13 countries in Latin America and the women leading 27 percent of small formal firms but Caribbean found that women were 44 percent more only 17 percent of large formal firms (Figure 11). This likely than men to have lost their jobs at the onset of pattern is replicated around the world, except in the the pandemic (World Bank 2021a). Micro data from Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia, where the several national surveys show that the pandemic share of formal women-led firms is smaller. 24  In these calculations (and those used in Figure 11), women-led firms are those with more than 50 percent female ownership or a top female manager (see Ubfal 2023 for statistics using alternative definitions). 25  ecause countries can have multiple enterprise surveys, the first and last survey for each country in the sample were selected under the condition B that they were conducted at least 5 years apart. Then the sample was restricted to countries that had their first survey between 2006 and 2014 and the last one between 2015 and 2021. In this way, the analysis was conducted on a balanced sample of 81 countries. 26 Fifty-six percent among 176 countries for which data was collected and analyzed in ILO 2023. 27 n the agriculture sector, for example, women are often informally engaged in small-scale farming or agricultural street vending, making a vital I contribution to food security (Brixi and Van Nieuwkoop 2022). 18 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Share of Firms Led by Women Figure 11.  Increasing levels of forced displacement due to fra- According to Region and Firm Size gility, conflict, and violence intensify gender gaps. 27 The number of forcibly displaced persons worldwide World 22 17 more than doubled from 40 million in 2010 to 89.3 mil- AFR 20 25 lion by the end of 2021, including 48 million internally 15 displaced persons and 26.6 million refugees.28 Violent 41 EAP 31 34 conflict and fragility affect men and women differently, 27 which may reflect norms and dynamics that entrench ECA 24 18 gaps. Displaced women face greater barriers to labor LAC 25 30 market participation than displaced men, although 15 11 constraints vary according to setting. MNA 9 14 There has been some increase in entrepreneurial 13 SAR 13 16 activity but primarily at the micro level and in start- ing enterprises rather than sustaining them. Persistent 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 gender gaps in firm performance have been docu- % of firms led by women in the region by size of firm mented around the world, particularly among small or micro enterprises.29 These gaps can be attributed to a Small Medium Large 5–19 employees 20–99 employees (>=100 employees) range of constraints including lack of skills, networks, and access to finance, technology, and markets, which Source: See Figure 1 in Ubfal (2023). affect women’s decision to become entrepreneurs, their Note: A woman-led firm is defined as a firm with more than sectorial choices and business investments. These con- 50 percent female ownership or with a top female manager. straints are compounded by contextual factors, such Statistics were obtained using sample weights considering the as social norms, lack of access to childcare, and risk of design of the enterprise surveys. Calculation using the last survey available from each country in the pooled World Bank gender-based violence (Ubfal, 2023, Halim et al. 2023). Enterprise Surveys Microdata. These surveys target formal The COVID-19 pandemic has had a disproportionate firms with at least five employees. impact on women-led firms and exacerbated gender gaps in entrepreneurial activity. A higher share of recession of 2020 was a “shecession,” with larger women-owned than men-owned firms closed in each employment declines for women than men in most wave of the Future of Business Survey between May countries, which is attributed to the composition of 2020 and September 2021 (Figure 12) (Goldstein et al. women’s employment across industries and occupa- 2022). Women-led businesses were disproportionally tions and to greater childcare needs during school and affected even in the first few months of the pandemic daycare center closures (Alon et al. 2021). An analysis The share of firms with any female participation in of U.S. monthly Current Population Survey data found ownership had declined by 25 percent early in the that loss of employment among women with young pandemic,30 and women-led businesses faced longer children due to the burden of childcare accounted for closures during the pandemic (Liu, Wei, and Xu 2021). 45 percent of the increase in the employment gender gap (Fabrizio, Gomes, and Tavares 2021). 28  efugee Data Finder (database), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Geneva (accessed May 2021), https://www.unhcr.org/refugee- R statistics/. 29 F  or differences in profits see World Bank (2019) in Africa and World Bank (2021) in Southeast Asia. The evidence from Southeast Asia indicates that gender gaps in performance are observed for microbusinesses but not for small and medium-sized enterprises. Similarly, Fang et al (2022) show that gender gaps in productivity are observed worldwide among formal firms, but only for firms of smaller size. 30 Based on 2019/20 estimates from World Bank Enterprise Surveys. Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 19 Figure 12. Business Closure Rate According to Gender 0.35 CI around gap size 0.32 0.30 Mean male Closure Rate 0.25 0.25 Gender gap 0.20 (Male–female closure rate) 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.15 0.16 Mean female 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10 May 2020 June 2020 July 2020 Aug 2020 Sept 2020 Oct 2020 Sept 2021 Source: World Bank Group/OECD/Facebook Future of Business Survey. 1.3 Removing barriers to women’s Figure 13. Gender Gap in Account Ownership ownership and control over assets a. High-income economies b. Developing economies 100 Over the last 10 years, there have been significant improvements in women’s financial inclusion. In 80 2011, globally, 47 percent of women had an account 60 at a financial institution, compared to 55 percent of 40 men. By 2021, this had risen to 74 percent for women 20 and 78 percent for men—a decrease in the global gen- der gap from 8 to 4 percentage points. Because there 0 2011 2014 2017 2021 2011 2014 2017 is negligible gender gap in high-income economies, developing economies primarily drive this gap as well Women Men as the reduction in gap over the last decade (Figure 13). Source: Global Findex database 2021. Note: The chart plots the percentage of respondents who Persistent gender gaps in account ownership in devel- report having an account (by themselves or with someone oping economies can largely be attributed to limited else) at a bank or another type of financial institution or report account ownership of women at formal financial personally using a mobile money service in the past 12-month institutions. Although the rate of account ownership (age 18+) and borrowing from informal sources has increased for women, there has not been as much improvement in their access to formal financial institutions. According of men.31,32 Women have limited access to large-sized to data collected in 2021, women are more likely than loans from formal financial institutions. men to borrow from family and friends (8 percent more likely) and informal savings organizations (9 percent Mobile money has contributed to closing the more likely), but only 21 percent of women, in 2021, had gender gap in account ownership, particularly in access to formal borrowing, compared with 23 percent Sub-Saharan Africa.33 Global Findex 2021 data show 31 Source: Global Findex database; accessed on December 2022 32  See Figures 16A and Figures 18A-23A in Annex A for gender differences in account ownership at formal finance institutions at the global and regional level. 33 See Figures 17A and Figures 24A-29A in Annex A for gender differences in account ownership at mobile institutions at the global and regional level.  20 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective that mobile money accounts are helping women history are prominent constraints on female business increase their financial access (Klapper et al. 2022). The owners’ involvement in growth-oriented enterprises. spread of mobile money accounts in some regions such Land formalization programs can improve women’s as Sub-Saharan Africa has made possible to include property rights and there is evidence that providing groups of women who had been excluded from the information and monetary incentives can encourage formal financial system. joint land titling in the name of wife and husband (Halim et al. 2023c). Moreover, solving barriers, such Women also lack collateral (e.g., land; housing; as lack of identification, lack of mobile phone owner- other high-value, nonfinancial assets) and a credit ship, distance from a bank, and low financial capabil- history, which increases gender gaps in accessing ity, and promoting digitalization of cash payments can credit.34 Women face longstanding, widespread, sys- be key to increase financial access for women (Klapper temic barriers to ownership of land, housing, and et al. 2022). In parallel, lending products that reduce other high-value family assets—especially those that collateral requirements can improve women’s entre- are inherited. It is difficult to gauge changes in own- preneurs’ access to capital (Ubfal 2023). ership of land over time because of a paucity of data, but in regions where the WBG works, women’s rate of ownership is lower than men’s (Figure 14). Lack of land, housing, and other traditional forms of collateral and, consequently, limited ability to develop a credit Figure 14. Gender Gaps in (A) House and (B) Land Ownership A B 100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 Female Female 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Male Male EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR AFR EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR AFR Source: Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal. Accessed May 2022 Note: Data are from 2015–2020. 34 See Figures 30A-32A in Annex A for gender differences in borrowings made from different sources. Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 21 1.4 Enhancing women’s voice Figure 15. Share of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments and agency 25 % of seats held by women in national parliaments Voice and agency constraints affect women and girls 20 in all regions and income groups. Removing these constraints and unleashing women’s full potential can yield enormous dividends that help make entire soci- 15 eties more resilient and more prosperous. For example, when more women are elected to office, policy mak- 10 ing increasingly reflects the priorities of families and women. Similarly, preventing GBV can alleviate adverse health, economic, and psychological effects on women 5 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 and girls. Agency entails freedom from violence, con- trol over sexual and reproductive health, ownership and Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Data retrieved from control over land and housing, and voice and collective World Bank Gender Data Portal (accessed May 2022). action (Klugman et al. 2014). Note: This chart plots the percentage of parliamentary seats in a single or lower chamber that women hold. Population- Women’s participation and leadership play an weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and important role in closing gender gaps in human Development and International Development Agency countries. endowments and increasing women’s voice and agency (Beaman et al. 2012; Iyer et al. 2012). Although there has been a steady increase in the proportion of other types of GBV are the most extreme manifes- seats that women hold in national parliaments (Fig- tations of gender inequality and the most prevalent ure 15), the gender gap persists. On average, only one forms of violence worldwide, affecting women and woman holds a seat for every three men.35 Latin Amer- girls disproportionately. One in three women world- ica and the Caribbean saw the highest increase (from wide is subjected to physical or sexual violence by an 19 percent in 2010 to 29 percent in 2020), followed intimate partner (Map 1) or a non-partner.36 Nearly closely by Europe and Central Asia (from 15 percent 12 million girls are married each year before reaching in 2010 to 24 percent in 2020). The proportion remains the age 18 (UNICEF 2022) and over 200 million girls low in the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia and women have undergone female genital mutilation (18 percent in 2020). (FGM) (UNICEF 2023).37 Carrying a high risk of death and disability, FGM is mostly carried out on minors GBV persists in all regions, including high-income with devastating consequences (UNICEF 2021b). countries, and imposes nontrivial economic costs. Freedom from violence is a fundamental right and Standing as a major obstacle to achieving gender essential for achieving gender equality. Violence that equality, GBV, in any form, erodes human capital accu- is gender based undermines the safety, health, agency, mulation and economic outcomes. Survivors suffer from and empowerment of those who experience it and of serious health implications, including mental problems their families and communities across generations. and poorer sexual and reproductive health outcomes (Ell- Intimate partner violence (IPV), non-partner violence, sberg et al. 2008; WHO 2021). Yet globally, fewer than 20 harassment in the workplace, child marriage, and percent of women seek official support services after 35 See Inter-Parliamentary Union (accessed May 2022). 36 — over the last decade — on share of women who have ever experienced intimate partner violence. See Figures 33A in Annex A for regional averages ­ Similarly, Figure 34A in Annex A provides regional averages for share of women who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence. Figure 35A in Annex A reports attitudes towards wife beating and Figure 36A in Annex A depicts the share of women who sought help to stop violence. 37 Based on representative data on prevalence from 31 countries 22 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Map 1. Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Source: World Health Organization; accessed in December 2022 and accessible with World Bank regional and income group aggregates on the Gender Data Portal. Note: The map is based on analysis of available data from surveys and studies conducted between 2000 and 2018 on the prevalence of physical and sexual intimate partner violence. experiencing violence38 and safety concerns in pub- term, but over the next decade, an additional 10 mil- lic spaces impact the mobility of women and girls, lion girls could be at risk of becoming child brides and their access to education and job opportunities because of learning disruptions and school closures.39 (Borker 2022). Studies from India and Bangladesh Global fragility and conflict have increased in recent underscore labor market impacts of perceived threats years, increasing GBV. Women who are conflict adja- of sexual harassment and safety (Ahmed and Kotikula cent and have been forcibly displaced are 40 to 55 2021; Borker 2021) and evidence from Sub-Saharan percent more likely to experience IPV in their lifetime Africa suggests that higher levels of GBV are associ- than nondisplaced women or those living far from ated with lower economic development (Ouedraogo conflict events. Forced displacement can also amplify and Stenzel 2021). A study from Brazil suggests that the risk of child marriage and worsen human capi- improved gender equality in the labor market can cur- tal outcomes (Lu, Siddiqui, and Bharadwaj 2021).40 tail the most severe forms of violence against women Approaches to addressing gender dimensions of (Perova et al. 2021). An International Finance Corpo- conflict and displacement requires involving men ration (IFC 2019a) study in Fiji found that staff lost 10 and boys and empower women and girls to increase workdays per year because of domestic and sexual community resilience. violence. Costs of IPV can be up to 3.7 percent of Gross Child marriage is an especially pernicious form of domestic product (Klugman et al. 2014). GBV, given its long-term effects on human capital Incidence and implications of GBV have intensified development and economic opportunities, especially in the context of multiple crises. A shadow pandemic for girls. Child marriage can affect multiple areas of of GBV accompanied the onset of COVID-19. Not only a girl’s lifecycle by lowering educational attainment, did the incidence of IPV increase in the immediate increasing risk of adolescent and early pregnancy, 38 Based on representative data on prevalence from 31 countries. 39 On the effect of COVID-19 on Child Marriage, see Yukich et al (2021). 40  sing data from seven countries, it was found that women who were adolescents at the time of forced displacement were significantly more likely to U marry early and less likely to continue their education and had more children overall (Lu, Siddiqui, and Bharadwaj 2021). Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 23 Map 2. Prevalence of Child Marriage Source: UNICEF Data; Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), AIDS Indicator Surveys (AIS), Reproductive Health Survey (RHS), and other household surveys. Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal (accessed May 2022). Note: Countries in gray do not have comparable data available Figure 16. Mean Age at First Marriage for (A) Women and (B) Men, 2009–11 vs. 2016–19 A B 35 35 Mean age at first marriage (survey 2009–2011) Mean age at first marriage (survey 2009–2011) 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15 15 20 25 30 15 20 25 30 Mean age at first marriage (survey 2016–2019) Mean age at first marriage (survey 2016–2019) EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR AFR Source: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Marriage Data 2019. Note: The charts plot average length of single life expressed in years of women and men who marry before age 50. Sample includes International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries with survey data available for the two periods of comparison. 24 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective discouraging them from working, lowering labor Social norms are embedded in existing power struc- force participation and future earnings prospects, and tures across politic, social, and economic spheres impeding retention of jobs and profits even when paid (WDR 2012, Narayan 2022, WBL 2022); and remain key work is secured.41 barriers in areas where progress has been slowest. This includes lack of redistribution of childcare and house- Although child marriage rates have been declining, work, limited access to more and better jobs, GBV pre- progress has been slow. In most countries for which vention, access to technology and financial assets, and data are available, more than 30 percent of women women’s leadership in public and private sectors. Lack aged 20 to 24 were married by age 15 (Map 2). Inci- of investment in infrastructure and services (including dence is alarmingly high in Sub-Saharan Africa (Niger, transport and care), as well as investment in water and 28 percent; Central African Republic, 26 percent) and sanitation can constrain women’s time. Legal discrim- South Asia (Bangladesh, 16 percent; Nepal, 8 per- ination limits women’s access to economic opportu- cent.42 Progress on decreasing the prevalence of early nities. According to Women, Business, and the Law marriage has been promising albeit slow. Figure 16 (WBL) (2022), women have around three-quarters of suggests a slight increase in mean age of women at the economic rights of men (Figure 17), and nearly 2.4 the time of their first marriage between 2009–11 and billion women of working age still do not have equal 2016–19 for most countries – indicated by data points economic opportunities. Women have fewer economic lying below the 45-degree line. rights than men in most developing countries, but disparities are greatest in Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle 1.5 Persistence of gender gaps: East and North Africa and South Asia (Map 3).43 potential causes In the last half-century, gender parity in legal reforms has been achieved to the greatest degree in mobility Several channels can explain the persistence in gen- and marriage, while progress has been slowest in der inequality—from lack of enabling infrastructure parental rights and pay (Figure 18). There have been and services to discrimination, weak formal institu- improvements in the score for entrepreneurship with tions, and limited political and social will to address most countries reaching equality in the ability to sign deeply held social norms. a contract, open a bank account, and register a busi- ness, but many economies (104 of them) still lack a Figure 17. Limited progress in gender-equal legislation: Worldwide women have 77% of men’s economic rights WBL $ $ $ 2022 Score Mobility Workplace Pay Marriage Parent Entrepre Assets Pension hood neurship 89 81 69 80 56 84 81 73 Source: Women, Business, and the Law 2022. Balanced sample of 190 countries. Score value represents share of right enjoyed by women relative to men. For example, under parenthood, women have only 56 percent of the right that men do. 41 W  odon et al. (2017) demonstrated the harms of child marriage and its associated economic costs in a conceptual framework positing five domains of main impacts: fertility and population growth; educational attainment and learning; labor force participation; decision making and investments; and health, nutrition, and violence. 42 See Figure 37A in Annex A for regional averages on proportion of women married by age 15. 43  omen, Business and the Law measures legal differences between men’s and women’s access to economic opportunities in 190 economies. Thirty-five W aspects of the law are scored across eight indicators of four or five binary questions. Each indicator represents a different phase of a woman’s career. Indicator-level scores are obtained by calculating the unweighted average of the questions within that indicator and scaling the result to 100. Overall scores are then calculated by taking the average of each indicator, with 100 representing the highest possible score.  Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 25 Map 3. Women, Business, and the Law (WBL) index score 2022, by country (scale 1-100) Source: Women, Business, and the Law. Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal. (accessed May 2022).  verall WBL scores, global averages, by rights category Figure 18. O (IBRD and IDA countries), 1970–2021 100 90 80 Score (world average) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Mobility Pay Parent Assets Marriage Pension Workplace Entrepreneurship Source: Women, Business, and the Law (The World Bank). Balance sample of 141 countries, 1970–2021 26 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective legal provision that expressly prohibits gender-based requires addressing gender norms and understand- discrimination in access to credit. Even when more ing the effect of structural factors, including the policy progressive laws that remove barriers to women’s arena, domestic policies, market structures, political opportunities have passed, their implementation and priorities, legal systems, and social practices that shape enforcement can be constrained by informal norms structural changes. supported by existing power structures. For example, Recent evidence demonstrates that norms can be in countries that prohibit discrimination based on gen- changed with targeted efforts. The WBG can leverage der in employment, employers frequently discriminate its convening power and global knowledge to support in favor of men if they see women as secondary bread- coalitions of government champions, private sector, winners (WBL 2022).44 civil society, and development partners that advocate There are significant misperceptions around certain for changes in key legal reforms. In many regions social norms, with a majority of both men and women customs and social norms will constrain the imple- around the world supporting the right of women to mentation of these reforms. The evidence indicates work outside the home, but perceiving that support to that conducting activities to develop and disseminate be much lower, especially among men, than its actual new laws and promote behavioral change that lead to levels (Bursztyn et al. 2020; Bursztyn et al. 2023). This their implementation, including simple information implies that simple information interventions could campaigns to correct misperceptions, can make a dif- be highly effective. ference.45 However, as pointed above, it is crucial to understand the effect of structural factors, including Accelerating progress requires changing mindsets the right macroeconomic policies, which could either and mobilizing collective action as a complement to facilitate or inhibit any attempted change. technical solutions. Investments in data and research continue to be necessary, but to scale-up effective tech- nical solutions and achieve transformative change 44 P  olicy and programmatic interventions can help women and girls enter spaces that have historically been dominated by men, such as encouraging girls to consider education and jobs in science, technology, engineer, and mathematics (STEM), cross over to more profitable male-dominated sectors, and take leadership roles in the public and private sectors, particularly in growth-oriented enterprises. Discussions around the division of housework and the provision of childcare services can help alleviate women’s time constraints while also moving the needle on norms related to outsourcing childcare. Leveling the playing field in these ways can also reduce the risk of GBV, which is underpinned by the same social norms. 45 An excellent example is the reform of the Family Code in the Democratic Republic of Congo (see Braunmiller and Dry 2022). Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 27 28 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective WBG Engagement on Gender 2.  and Main Findings Over the last 10 years the WBG’s corporate commitments on gender have increased, with an enhanced focus on results. Figure 19 depicts key milestones since 2010 when Gender and Development was adopted as a special theme under the 16th International Development Agency (IDA) replenishment.46 IDA has helped to elevate gender as a priority, focusing on a framework for action; developing regional action plans; and emphasizing health, education, social protection, and agriculture across cycles. The nature and ambition of IDA and Bank support has evolved over time, improving data collection, seeking to close specific gender outcome gaps, addressing GBV, and integrating gender analysis into Country Partnership Frameworks (CPFs). By the 20th IDA replenishment—negotiated in 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic—policy commitments were at the forefront of economic empowerment, including on childcare, productive economic inclusion, facilitating entry of women into higher-skilled jobs, and on fiscal policy and budget systems. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and IFC capital increases also reflect strong commitments to integrate gender into WBG programming. The WBG commitments on gender are anchored in the WBG Gender Strategy (2016-2023). Figure 19. Key Milestones in World Bank Group Approach to Gender in Development 2010 2016 Looking forward IDA Cycles WBG Gender Strategy  aintain the momentum of • M (2016–23) #Accelerate Equality and final Gender identified year of WBG Gender Strategy as special theme Introduced an outcome-­ (FY16–23) in IDA16, main- oriented approach and streaming gender installed a more rigorous Support IDA implementation •  in analytical and Gender Tag methodology  aunch Update to the Gender • L operational work to review operations Strategy (FY24–30) with focus on “Accelerating Gender Equal- ity and Empowerment for All” World Development IEG Mid Term Review Report Marked progress in strategy Embedded an economic implementing by integrating lens to gender equality, gender equality with other call to strengthen data and key priorities, strengthening analytical work to identify country-driven approaches, and address gender gaps leveraging knowledge and moving towards delivery at scale 2012 2021 46  here were crucial steps prior to 2010 that also helped advance the agenda. In particular, the 2001 Gender Strategy strengthened the country-driven T approach through the strategy paper, Integrating Gender into the World Bank’s Work: A Strategy to Action. The 2009 International Evaluation Group evaluation of the 2001 strategy (WBG 2010) highlighted the need for stronger results monitoring and better country-specific gender diagnostics. WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 29 Figure 20. World Bank Group Approach to Addressing Gender Inequality Development Transformational operations Country-driven approach • Priorities informed by Generating data, robust dialogue and knowledge, and evidence diagnostics Learning • Coherent program aligned Enhanced outcome with country partnership orientation to Adapting Leveraging knowledge framework objectives and accelerate gender to deliver smart solutions high-level outcomes equality at the • Analytics, operations, and county level Expanding Expanding to accelerate gender dialogue aligned with equality and empowerment objectives and focuses on outcomes Partnering to maximize impact The WBG’s approach to advancing gender equality Bank support for GBV prevention and response over has increasingly leveraged knowledge, data, and evi- 2012-22 details a growing evidence base and highlights dence to improve results in operations and enhance an expansion and diversification of activities address- outcomes in country programs. The 2012 World Devel- ing GBV in all sectors, regions, and country-income opment Report on gender and development helped levels. Evidence-informed support has improved out- build awareness that development outcomes can be comes on GBV and broader development objectives. achieved more quickly and efficiently when a gender This includes sector approaches, such as in educa- lens is applied to policy advice, project design, and tion projects, where retention has been increased by implementation support. Today, WBG teams almost addressing sexual harassment and abuse in schools, universally use evidence and data to target specific and in transport projects where interventions have gender gaps in operations, advisory services, and contributed to greater female labor force participation analytics. This enhanced focus on gender in opera- by enhancing safety on public transport. tions and investments is increasingly coming together The value of the WBG’s country-driven model to ori- in a coherent and strategic way through the WBG’s ent outcomes is also emphasized in recent reports country-driven model. The WBG is one of many key and evaluations. A forthcoming IEG report finds that stakeholders committed to advancing gender equal- the WBG can improve the transformational potential of ity and empowerment and works in partnership with its support for Women and Girls Economic Empower- governments and other stakeholders to drive better, ment and GBV prevention and response in FCV coun- more-focused results. tries by using a more comprehensive, strategic coun- Recent evaluations and assessments suggest try-level approach. The 2021 WBG DPF Retrospective embedding knowledge and learning in operations found that rigorous analytical work to underpin DPOs improves results. The introduction of corporate mea- has helped influence policy dialogue and reforms, sures such as the gender tag have promoted exten- and that DPOs have supported strong outcomes on sive integration into operations downstream which is gender through country-driven approaches and have increasingly informed by evidence and global knowl- been able to effectively leverage other WBG engage- edge. For example, a forthcoming retrospective on ments and open new areas of engagement to advance 30 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective World Bank Group (WBG) Support to Clients to Improve the Quality Box 2.  of Sex-Disaggregated Data Since 2012, the WBG has worked closely with partners and clients to increase the availability, quality, and relevance of gender statistics and sex-disaggregated data. This includes partnering with national statistics offices to improve gender data under the Strengthening Gender Statistics project in 12 countries eligible for International Development Agency (IDA) financing. Other efforts include collecting new data, such as initiatives on work and employment, asset ownership and control, and private sector indicator harmonization, including through Harmonized Indicators for Private Sector Operations and Joint Impact Indicators. The WBG has also augmented existing databases and worked on methodological advances, through Living Standards Measurement Survey, to increase the accuracy and reliability of data collected on employment, assets, and time use. Continuing efforts to improve gender data is key to informing effective policy, project design, and implementation support. gender equality. A forthcoming Country Engagement 2.1 Generating data, knowledge, Review suggests CPFs could move from a cross-cutting and evidence on gender approach on gender to be more selective on gender priorities and align the program to focus on key out- Data, knowledge, and evidence are increasingly comes. The draft 2023 MOPAN assessment report notes informing government policies and operations. Over that the well-established Country Engagement Model the last decade, there has been more-reliable and bet- (CEM) promotes the upstream integration of evidence ter data available to assess how economic realities for and cross-cutting themes and downstream adaptation men and women differ and what social factors influ- to changing needs and contexts. ence them and an increase in demand for help from clients in collecting high-quality sex-disaggregated Two key observations emerge during implementation data to inform public policy and support gender equal- of the current WBG Gender Strategy: a learning-adapt- ity (Box 2). The WBG Gender Data Portal, revamped ing-expanding approach can support transformational in 2022, makes the latest gender statistics accessible programs and drive results at scale, and a coherent coun- through compelling narratives and data visualizations try driven model with clear priorities can enhance out- to increase understanding of gender data and facili- come orientation on gender. Using the strategic approach tate analyses that inform policy choices.47 Better data depicted in Figure 20, the following section reflects on facilitate diagnostics and monitoring, and researchers, WBG engagement on gender over the past decade and operational staff, and clients are increasingly working highlights key lessons to strengthen implementation and together to design policies and operations informed by results. Annex B provides additional details on how the the best available evidence. WBG has leveraged the learning-adapting-expanding approach to address gender gaps. The WBG has built capacity and expertise in gender analysis and gender-responsive programming across all sectors. Investments in research and evidence in the public and private sectors have yielded a growing global knowledge base about what types of develop- 47 A list of indicators is included in the Gender Data Portal (https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/). WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 31 Gender Innovation Labs Generate Evidence on What Works Box 3.  to Accelerate Gender Equality Gender Innovation Labs periodically conduct systematic reviews of literature on evaluation findings from gender-focused interventions and generate evidence to inform the four pillars of the current WBG Gender Equality Strategy. A few recent examples include studies on occupational segregation (World Bank 2022a), child marriage (Williams, Heise, and Tas 2022), empowerment through self-help groups (Javed, Zahra, and Munoz Boudet 2022), and barriers to women’s economic participation (World Bank 2022b). GILs also conduct studies to generate evidence on what works to change deep- seated social norms. Examples include the Uganda Farm and Family Balance Project (Ambler, Jones, and O’Sullivan 2018) (Africa GIL), the Laos People’s Democratic Republic Poverty Reduction Fund (East Asia and the Pacific GIL) (World Bank n.d.), GBV prevention among indigenous communities (Latin America and the Caribbean GIL) (Contreras-Urbina n.d.), the self-help groups in South Asia systematic review (South Asia GIL) (Javed, Munoz Boudet, and Zahra 2021), and Egypt’s experiment in providing access to nurseries (Middle East and North Africa GIL) (Elbehairy n.d.). Under the coordination of the global gender team, the Gender Innovation Lab Federation conducts monthly meetings to coordinate actions across the five GILs. The Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series is one outstanding product of this cooperation. It highlights findings from impact evaluations of development interventions conducted by the GILs in nine thematic areas, providing evidence and lessons on how to close gender gaps and foster women’s economic empowerment. ment policies and programs work to increase gender toring (Box 3). At the same time, the Bank’s longstand- outcomes. The 2012 World Development Report on ing research units48 are generating evidence related to gender and development sparked the establishment gender.49 The Gender Group has been working on a of the World Bank’s regional Gender Innovation Labs Gender Thematic Policy Note series summarizing (GILs), financed by the Umbrella Facility for Gen- key findings of research from within and outside the der Equality. These labs, of which there are currently World Bank on gender equality and empowerment five (Africa, East Asia and the Pacific, Latin America that provides evidence on effective and promising and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, solutions, operational good practices, and areas for South Asia), generate evidence on the effectiveness of future engagement.50 These efforts respond to teams’ approaches to close gender gaps by testing innova- requests for technical solutions to inform operations tions; conducting impact evaluations; and supplying and investments. lessons for project design, implementation, and moni- 48 See Development Research Group and Development Impact Evaluation Unit. 49 T  opics include women’s employment and entrepreneurship (McKenzie and Puerto 2021), health (Banerjee, Ferrara, and Orozco-Olvera 2019), GBV (Anukriti, Erten, and Mukherjee 2022), human endowments (Baird, McIntosh, and Ozler, 2019), financial inclusion and control over assets (Demirgüç-Kunt and Klapper 2016), and social norms (Gauri, Rahman, and Sen 2019). Multiple studies have been conducted on each topic, with one each highlighted here for brevity. In addition to contributing to the evidence base on women’s economic status, the WBG has made measurement and methodological contributions. For example, it developed a tablet-based tool for family planning counselors that collects detailed information on all factors relevant to counseling and adoption of modern contraceptive methods—an area with limited to no data (Bergstrom and Ozler 2021). 50  ive notes, are already available (Increasing Female Labor Force Participation, Closing Gender Gaps in Earnings, What works in supporting women- F led businesses?, Increasing Access to Technology for Inclusion, and Placing Gender Equality at the Center of Climate Action.) 32 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective There has been an increasing number of WBG prod- lished in January 2015, includes representation from ucts and research that make a strong business case across the Bank Group and offers leadership for oper- for closing gender gaps in the private sector. Analysis ationalizing SOGI inclusion in the institution’s work. within private sector reports and studies on childcare, For example, the task force has provided inputs to over entrepreneurship, employment and corporate lead- 30 Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCDs), Country ership, insurance, disruptive technologies, and GBV Partnership Frameworks (CPFs), and Country Eco- have facilitated identification of priorities at regional nomic Memorandums (CEMs). Sixteen SCDs now and national levels.51 Since 2009, the Women, Business, mention SOGI, including Albania and Croatia. The and the Law initiative has measured legal and regu- task force has also offered support to in-country social latory differences in access to economic opportunities specialists to identify SOGI entry points in operations, between men and women and has become an important such as in Mexico, El Salvador, and North Macedonia. tool for policy dialogue. These data have increasingly While at a nascent stage of implementation, this work supported reforms through country operations and stream is critical to ensuring all people are afforded the helped to accelerate progress in key areas. opportunity to reach their full potential.  While the current Gender strategy (FY 16-23) focused on closing gender gaps between girls and boys and 2.2 Leveraging knowledge to men and women, the WBG has also increased its efforts to address sexual orientation and gender iden- address gender gaps in WBG tity as a development issue. The WBG has expanded operations the evidence base on the links between LGBTI exclu- Corporate commitments have helped focus efforts sions and development, finding that due to exclusion through operations and investments to address rel- especially from education and economic opportunities, evant gender gaps. A key innovation of the Gender LGBTI people are likely overrepresented in the bottom Strategy was the introduction of a rigorous results-ori- 40 percent. Equally, LGBTI people experience widespread ented “gender tag” and an IFC “gender flag” that legal discrimination and regulatory barriers which pre- relies on gender analysis to inform interventions to vent them from accessing markets, services, and spaces; narrow gender gaps.52 This mechanism, tracked as these in turn hinder their ability to participate equally in part of the Corporate Scorecard, has inspired action in society and contribute fully to their societies and econo- operations and investments across the WBG portfolio. mies (Cortez et al., 2021). New internal policies and struc- The share of Bank operations that are gender tagged tures have strengthened the Bank’s commitment to work- has risen dramatically—from 50 percent in fiscal 2017 ing against discrimination based on sexual orientation to more than 90 percent in fiscal 2022 (Figure 21), a and gender identity (SOGI). The World Bank’s Envi- trend consistent across sectors and regions.53 IFC has ronmental and Social Framework, the ESF Directive on quadrupled its share of gender flagged investments Disadvantaged or Vulnerable Groups, and the Good and doubled its gender-flagged advisory services Practice Note on Non-Discrimination: SOGI establish during the same period, and remains on track to meet policy and guide teams on addressing such discrimi- corporate capital increase commitments (as reflected nation at key entry points. The SOGI Task Force, estab- in its Corporate Scorecard and Key Performance 51  or example, it has been estimated that the insurance industry could earn up to $1.7 trillion by 2030 if it targeted women, with half of the earnings F from emerging economies (IFC 2015). IFC produces guides with private sector best practices to inspire and influence actions, such as the Guide for Fund Managers (IFC 2020), Bonds to Bridge Gender Gaps, Women in E-commerce (https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ ifc_external_corporate_site/gender+at+ifc/priorities/digital_economy_sa/ecommerce), and Respectful Workplaces (IFC 2019b). IFC also produces sector, thematic, and country-specific research, such as The Business Case for Women’s Employment in Agribusiness (IFC 2017) and The Impact of Domestic and Sexual Violence on the Workplace in Solomon Islands (IFC 2019c). 52  o be tagged, a Bank operation must use diagnostics to identify a gender gap, propose specific actions to narrow the gap, and track progress on the T proposed action. IFC applies similar criteria for investment and advisory services to receive the gender flag. 53  iscal 2017 was the baseline for the Corporate Scorecard (https://scorecard.worldbank.org/en/scorecard/home) and 18th replenishment of the F Results Measurement System (IDA 2017) reporting. WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 33  ender-Tagged World Bank Operations, Figure 21. G teams located in HQ. Investments in training and Fiscal 17–22 supporting technical staff and facilitating access to 100% 93% analytical work, research, and evidence have allowed 92% 80% operational teams to adapt innovations and expand 90% effective solutions. 81% 80% 84% 67% 62% 56% 65% 61% There has been a growing emphasis on translating 60% 55% 54% 61% global knowledge and evidence to country specific 59% 50% 51% contexts and to promote coordination across the 40% 39% institution to share good practice gender solutions. When operational staff, gender experts, and research- 20% ers jointly generate evidence, it has facilitated uptake FY17 FY18 FY19 FY20 FY21 FY22 into operations and informed dialogue with internal All Operations IBRD IDA and external stakeholders. This approach has gained traction; for example, research conducted by the Africa GIL has influenced the design of sub-components of Indicators). The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Bank operations with commitments totaling $10 billion Agency (MIGA) adopted the gender flag approach as and directly affected government strategies and policies part of its first gender strategy implementation plan in multiple countries. Other regions have found gender in 2021. programs and platforms can serve as an effective pro- cess to translate technical knowledge into operations, The gender architecture created to provide upstream while also improving coordination and results. technical and operational support on the Gender Tag and Flag has expanded significantly after several Outcomes can be enhanced in operations where there years of targeted efforts to build capacity. With the is a focused effort to learn from past policies and pro- introduction of corporate commitments on gender, grams through a data- and evidence-driven approach, the WBG institutions expanded dedicated resources test new solutions, adapt to different country circum- to produce knowledge, provide training, incubate, stances, and expand solutions that show promise. and deliver programs, and develop tools and guid- By embedding this learning-testing-adapting-scaling ance to inform teams. This dedicated effort focused approach in various initiatives, the WBG has made on building expertise within technical families and incremental gains in advancing gender equality. One at the regional level to create a network of support example of this is the increase in multisector opera- staff, with over 3,000 staff members trained to date. tions to promote empowerment of women and ado- Each Bank region maintains a customized structure lescent girls. These innovative projects have an explicit that delivers upstream support, including to share data development objective of promoting gender equality and knowledge, country-specific gender analysis, and through various entry points such as increasing access evidence-based solutions.54 On the private sector side, to education and good-quality reproductive, child, and IFC’s gender architecture is somewhat decentralized, maternal health services; expanding economic oppor- with regional leads and their teams located in the field tunities, including breaking into male-dominated close to operations to enhance country-level impact occupations; and addressing prevalent gender norms with industry, product and strategy leads and their that threaten to undermine economic opportunities. 54  n addition to the wide range of evidence curated and shared by technical experts, task teams have access to practical resources, such as the Gender I Tag Good Practice Note, DPO Dashboard, GBV Dashboard, online good practice source book, and quarterly newsletters that feature good practice examples for specific instruments and sectors. 34 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Projects such as the Sahel Women’s Empowerment and increase safety and mobility for women and expand Demographic Dividend and new education projects access to higher-paying jobs in this male-dominated (e.g., Angola, Nigeria, Mozambique, and Tanzania) sector; and (iii) institutional changes in the water sec- are expanding regional support to empower girls, tor to boost women’s employment at water utilities including through interventions to shift norms and globally (from a low 18 percent (World Bank 2019)) and mindsets of boys and girls. Similarly, social protection are being supported through interventions to address programs that include complementary interventions harmful gender norms, lack of role models and men- (e.g., asset transfers, training, coaching, childcare, case tors, inadequate recruitment processes, deficient work management, referral services to prevent and respond environments, and lack of accessible training. to violence against women and children) have also bol- Work to prevent and respond to GBV has increased stered women’s economic empowerment (Camilletti et significantly in the last decade and is present in every al 2021; Heinemann and Beegle 2021). sector. The WBG has adopted guidelines to address The introduction of a corporate commitment on gen- sexual exploitation and abuse and sexual harassment der has led to investments and innovations at the in WBG activities and procurement and has increased sector and regional level. In the first years of Gender its emphasis on prevention and response, focusing on Strategy implementation, global practices and indus- institutions and policy reforms,55 as well as system try groups identified the most critical gender gaps strengthening and safe spaces. Since fiscal 2017, 390 and priority areas and themes for action in follow-up World Bank operations in all global practices have notes. This effort was often complemented by prac- included actions to prevent and respond to GBV— tical how-to notes on specific topics such as disaster compared with 38 projects over the FY08-13 period. risk management, land ownership, labor force partic- The World Bank’s engagement on GBV has expanded ipation, and entrepreneurship. In energy, water, and to contexts involving fragility, conflict, and violence transport, teams introduced innovations with a focus and in all regions. There are unique entry points across on women’s employment. An investment in analysis in sectors to engage in GBV prevention, with investments the energy sector led to the creation of the South Asia in knowledge, including impact evaluations, advi- WePOWER partnership of more than 30 electricity util- sory services and analytics, and evidence generation ities and energy-sector organizations that collectively through the GBV Innovations Development Market- aim to increase workforce participation of women place, driving improvements.56 IFC has developed a in the sector. This initiative is now being replicated robust business case for the private sector, as well as in other regions and has informed operations across sector guidance notes. Training and recruitment of the sector. Other examples of sector wide approaches specialists has improved technical expertise on GBV include: (i) to help mining companies address obsta- across the WBG. The surge in GBV associated with the cles to equality and inclusion in the workplace, along COVID lockdowns brought even greater attention to the supply chain, and in community engagement and this development issue, including increased demand investment; (ii) in the transport sector for designs to from clients and new commitments as part of IDA20. 55  here has also been a notable increase in the number of Development Policy Operations that introduce actions to address GBV. Between fiscal T 2017 and fiscal 2021, 20 operations in almost every region included GBV measures in their activities. Examples include Bhutan COVID-19 Crisis Development Policy Credit, Afghanistan Incentive Program Development Policy Operation, and Uzbekistan Supporting a Transparent and Inclusive Market Transition Development Policy Operation. 56  The WBG, in partnership with the Sexual Violence Research Initiative, launched the Development Marketplace to Address Gender-Based Violence (https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/development-marketplace-innovations-to-address-gender-based-violence) in 2015 to support evidence-based research, pilot interventions, and other activities related to GBV prevention and response. Over 5 years, it awarded 50 projects in 34 countries covering a wide range of topics: economic empowerment to address GBV; GBV, education, and adolescents; health sector response; interventions to reduce GBV in humanitarian settings; interventions to reduce IPV; methods to measure intervention effectiveness; risk factors for GBV; safety, security, and justice; sexual violence on sex workers; shifting cultural norms to address GBV; technology and GBV. WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 35 There are positive trends in the scope of invest- on gender were enhanced through strong coun- ments to address gender gaps through operations, try-driven approaches and coordinated support from but also indications that the focus on design could the Bank, IFC, and MIGA for the public and private be complemented by an emphasis on results and sectors. The current WBG effort to enhance outcome impact, including support during implementation. orientation (WBG 2021)—amplifies the potential of this An early review of fully implemented gender-tagged approach to build greater accountability for outcomes. Bank operations (50 as of September 2022)57 reveals that good progress has been made toward intended There are opportunities to leverage all WBG instru- results, with documented World Bank contributions ments to drive results at the country and sector level. to addressing the gender gaps identified at project Coherent country engagement on gender can facilitate design). More-recent operations indicate progress in implementation of complementary approaches across terms of greater ambition in project interventions to sectors and public-private spheres. The WBG is increas- advance gender equality and more operations with ingly working with governments to identify priority a gender focus. For example, a review of the quality areas, informed by analytical work and evidence, to of gender-tagged operations in Latin America sug- better inform programs and target results. Given the gests that the ambition and quality of gender-tagged multitude of entry points, identifying synergies across operations are increasing, with a significant share of the country program portfolio can create opportunities operations going beyond the corporate gender tag to enhance gender equality and empowerment out- commitment. There are more Bank-wide operations comes. There are also opportunities to leverage deeper designed with a development objective to empower understanding of country- and local-level policy are- women and girls (particularly in Africa) and more nas and engage with a wide range of stakeholders to direct investments to support GBV prevention. A advance innovations, context-appropriate framing, and growing trend is the inclusion of gender reforms collaborative action. Many countries now emphasize in development operations, which are supported gender equality and empowerment as national priori- by investments across country programs. Significant ties and acknowledge their contribution to addressing effort has been made at the design stage; greater focus other pressing development priorities. and systematic effort to support implementation could Recent country examples demonstrate how WBG sup- strengthen results. port can address country-level challenges by focusing on specific actions to achieve outcomes. WBG engage- 2.3 Targeting country-level ment with Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kosovo, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Turkey, and Uzbekistan pri- outcomes through country-driven oritizes women’s labor force participation, entrepre- approaches neurship, enrollment in higher education (particularly WBG country programs are increasingly prioritiz- science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), ing closing gender gaps and coordinating support maternal and reproductive health, and voice and agency. with clearer linkages to gender outcomes. The cur- Proposed portfolios of operations include instruments rent WBG Gender Strategy defines a country-driven to support policy reform and investments to equalize approach as coherent alignment with country part- pay, provide employment benefits to part-time workers, nership framework objectives supported by policy address GBV, and connect female entrepreneurs with dialogue and diagnosis of gender gaps to achieve finance institutions. More countries have prioritized sustained outcomes. The Gender Strategy Mid-Term women’s empowerment and labor force participation Review (World Bank Group 2021b) found that results as country development goals (Box 4), and this trend 57 More than 2,000 gender-tagged operations are being implemented. 36 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Box 4. Bangladesh: A Success Story The country engagement in Bangladesh adopted a deliberate, coherent approach toward achieving gender priorities, with emphasis on reducing the fertility rate and increasing female labor participation rate. Key lessons from Bangladesh’s long-term country engagement on gender include: » Using a whole-of portfolio approach helps address multiple dimensions of gender gaps. » Given the nature of gender issues and social norms, a long-term approach and continuity across multiple CPF cycles, as well as an iterative approach enabled through course correction is more conducive to producing outcomes. » Partnership with private sector and civil society is key to driving job creation and reducing fertility. Bangladesh’s total fertility rate decreased from 6.9 births per woman in the early 1970s to 2.0 in 2020. Extreme poverty fell from 43.8 percent in 1991 to 14.8 percent in 2016, and the country’s per-capita GDP more than doubled in the last decade. Although gender gaps in the labor market remain wide, female labor force participation (FLFP) increased nearly 10 points to 37.7% since 2000 even while declining in the rest of the Region. The Bangladesh Jobs Diagnostic 2017 reports that women captured more than 70 percent of all new jobs in the country during this period. Women’s entrepreneurship has also expanded in recent years but still remains limited: women make up only 7.1 percent of Bangladesh’s entrepreneurs. The rapid decline in the fertility rate as well as the increase in uptake of jobs by women can be attributed to the deliberate efforts by the Government, which made demographics a top priority under the country’s first Five-Year Plan, published in 1971. Government agencies, NGOs, academic institutions, and development partners worked together to scale up innovative ideas and findings from early programs feeding into the Bangladesh’s national Family Planning Program (introduced in 1977). The government continues to highlight gender equality as a priority for economic growth in its latest Five-Year Plan (FY21-25). It aims to harness women and girls’ full potential through improving their access to resources and opportunities, as well as removing barriers and restrictive societal norms. The 2015 National Social Security Strategy (NSSS) also prioritizes improving access to quality jobs for vulnerable groups, particularly women, as well as providing childcare services. The World Bank has been a consistent partner in fostering Bangladesh’s gender agenda by using a wide range of lending and analytical instruments. Early on, the Bank financed projects focusing on family planning service delivery, infant and maternal mortality, and maternal nutrition. Bank- supported operations beginning in the 1990s provided stipends to girls who performed well in secondary school and remained unmarried, raising girls’ secondary enrollment from 4 million to 9 million. Ongoing and pipeline projects, such as the Health Sector Support Project (FY18) and the Urban Health Nutrition and Population project (FY24) continue to complement these efforts, while in the last year, 3.5 million girls received stipends to stay in school. Programmatic support across sectors has helped to integrate actions that enable women’s economic empowerment and employment. This includes increasing access to skills to expand employment opportunities for women, including in STEM sectors such as power (e.g., through the Electricity WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 37 Distribution Modernization Project) and ICT. These efforts are complemented by support for policy reforms, for example to regulate childcare services and maternity leave and set up a mechanism to report sexual harassment, as well as business development training and facilitating market links for women. For example, an IDA17 operation reached nearly 1 million poor women in rural areas with livelihood support, agricultural outreach, small-scale infrastructure, and youth skills, and average household income rose almost 80%. To support women’s entrepreneurship, the Bank and IFC work with public and private-sector entities to help women entrepreneurs establish and expand businesses through the Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative (We-Fi). Sources: Bangladesh Country Gender Assessment 2021; Bangladesh Country Gender Assessment 2021 is also reflected in recent CPFs that have introduced groups, and a range of actors to understand how high-level outcomes (HLOs). operations can be implemented to deliver gender equality and empowerment goals. There has been more attention paid and resources provided to support country-driven approaches on gender. This includes developing tailored country 2.4 Partnering to maximize impact gender programs and platforms to identify key oper- ational, technical, and analytical work to support International financial institutions and multilateral implementation of WBG programs; investments in development banks have stepped up the global effort capacity building; and policy dialogue and direct to achieve gender equality and empowerment. Gen- engagement with clients. These approaches can der equality is an area of focus in all development also facilitate institutional strengthening across the institutions, and teams work together to exchange whole of government—including finance ministries, knowledge and collaborate on pressing challenges, line ministries, and women’s ministries—to improve including through biennial global summits.58 A com- policies and programs designed to accelerate gen- parative advantage of the WBG is its combination of der equality and strengthen budget processes and country depth and global breadth, multisector knowl- national strategies on poverty reduction, economic edge and research, and its ability to mobilize and growth, and investment. The WBG often helps gov- leverage financing through public and private sector ernments implement consultation and monitoring instruments. The Umbrella Facility for Gender Equal- mechanisms that engage stakeholders and enhance ity is a platform on gender that generates and shares process legitimacy. In settings of fragility, conflict, evidence-informed solutions with international finan- and violence, different approaches and strong cial institutions, governments, and other development partnerships are needed, including country- and partners to influence policy dialogue at the country region-specific knowledge and local partnerships, level by making data and evidence available, improv- including civil society, the private sector, women’s ing development financing design through knowledge 58 I  n May 2022, the Building Back Better: Advancing Gender Equality for a More Resilient Future Summit held in Cairo focused on the care economy, climate change, and digitization. It featured a plenary that the WBG organized on how to accelerate women’s participation in the labor force and invest in a more-equitable care economy. It highlighted key barriers to and opportunities for accelerating women’s empowerment at work, with an emphasis on care. 38 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective World Bank Group (WBG)—United Nations Cooperation Box 5.  on Gender Equality The WBG and UN agencies work together on national and regional operations with high potential impact on gender equality. For example, the World Bank, the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), and the West African Health Organization supported the 2015 launch of the Sahel Women’s Empowerment and Demographic Dividend project, a regional flagship initiative to accelerate demographic transition in the Sahel by creating conditions conducive to girls staying in school longer and marrying and having children later. UNFPA and the West African Health Organization continue to oversee technical aspects and coordination, and the Bank provides financial support. Other recent operations include a 2021 project to upgrade health care facilities and strengthen provision of sexual and reproductive health services in Bangladesh, with UNFPA as an implementing partner. Canada and Norway support the WBG Mashreq Gender Facility program. generation, and increasing awareness of and demand approaches to support host countries and refugee self-re- for gender-smart approaches.59 liance. The World Bank has a representative on the UN Women Count Steering Committee and works closely UN agencies are partners on policy, analysis, and with UN agencies as part of IAEG-GS (the Inter-Agency client support, particularly in fragile and conflict-af- Expert group on Gender Statistics chaired by UN Stats). fected countries.60 At an institutional level, there is a structured partnership with UN Women,61 although An evolving landscape of committed actors is partnerships are most common at the country level expanding opportunities for effective partnerships. (Box 5). In 2021, the WBG and UN Women launched Public and private sector leaders have embraced the an open-access course on gender equality in transpor- economic and social imperatives of increasing gender tation (UN Women 2021b) and a report on ensuring equality and empowerment. The past few decades economic and political opportunities for all women have also witnessed a growth of private sector actors in Lebanon (World Bank and UN Women 2021). The in development assistance to support gender equal- WBG–United Nations High Commissioner for Refu- ity. There is a growing sense of urgency on the need gees (UNHCR) Joint Data Center on Forced Displace- to accelerate gender equality which has created more ment aims to improve the quality and quantity of data opportunities to partner and collaborate with a wide for evidence-based policy decisions and response to variety of actors. For example, experience in imple- global refugee crises. Both institutions are building on menting interventions at the local level have demon- their ongoing joint initiatives on forced displacement, strated the value of building coalitions to advance including analytical work, collaboration with govern- positive change. The WBG will continue to collabo- ments, microdata collection, and joint missions. The rate with nongovernmental organizations, civil soci- WBG-UNHCR Strengthened Partnership for Address- ety organizations, academia, and other local and com- ing Forced Displacement, part of the Global Com- munity-based partners to help close gender gaps and pact on Refugees provides complementary tools and empower women and girls. 59  he Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality operates in a multi-year framework, addressing medium- and long-term obstacles to gender equality in T alignment with the 2016-23 WBG Gender Strategy. 60 F  or instance, from fiscal 2016 to 2021, $3.72 billion in IDA financing has been implemented with support of UN partners ($1.2 billion indirect financing; $2.5 billion direct financing). Through indirect financing, the WBG has negotiated standard forms of agreement with 12 UN agencies. Some UN agencies have also been direct recipients of IDA grants to support implementation of projects or activities within projects in difficult environments. 61 I  ts executive director is a permanent member of the WBG Gender and Development Advisory Council and an observer on the governing committee of the Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative. WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 39 40 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 3. Looking Ahead The reflections on global progress and the WBG’s engagement on gender and development will serve as the foundation for the new WBG Gender Strategy (2024–30). The stock take of global progress indicates that many of the targeted outcomes from the previous strategy—on human endowments, jobs, assets, and voice and agency—remain highly relevant and take on new urgency in the current global context. Global progress has been too slow, and fragile, however, and accelerating the pace will require concerted efforts to address constraints across multiple fronts. An increased emphasis on women’s empowerment and promoting greater women’s leadership and decision-making will unleash greater opportunities and will help drive change. Ending extreme poverty and overcoming the headwinds of multiple overlapping crises will be impossible without accelerating progress on gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. Gender equality is a development outcome in its own right but can also serve as an accelerator for other development priorities. With continued investment in analytics and evidence, greater emphasis on leadership and social norms to complement changes in policies and programs, and collective effort by partners across the public and private sectors, civil society, and development partners, gender equality is a goal that can be achieved together. 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The Cost of Gender Inequality. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/29865. References 49 50 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 1. Human Endowments 1.1 Education The last decade has brought significant gains in gen- The global average gender gap in primary school der equality in the domains of education and health. enrollment rate has closed substantially since 2000, Collectively these gains can be seen in progress among as shown in Figure 2A.63 Girls seem to be catching up girls in their Human Capital Index (HCI), defined as to boys due to higher rates of enrollment among girls the amount of human capital a child born, in a given who are beyond primary school age—at least through year, could expect to attain by age 18.62 By 2020, girls 2017 and the gap widens thereafter. Primary school had a higher HCI than boys in over 90 percent of coun- completion rates are close to gender parity with a tries with sex-disaggregated data, catching up with gap of 1-2 percentage points in 2012 (around 87 and and even overtaking boys in secondary education in 88 percent for girls and boys, respectively) (Figure most regions (Figure 1A). 3A). Notably, most of this improvement is driven by an increase in completion rate among girls. Gender parity has been achieved in secondary enrollment rate; although, regional disparities persist (Figure 4A). Figure 1A Trends in Human Capital index of Boys and Girls, 2010 and 2020 .05 0 Boys catching up Girls catching up HCI Gap: Boys–Girls Boys’ advantage widens -.05 Girls’ advantage widens 2020 -1 2010 -15 6 8 10 12 Log GDP Per Capita Notes: Adapted from Human capital at 2020: Progress masks persistent gender gaps. Data Source: World Bank staff calculations based on the methodology described in World Bank (2018). https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30498. Sample includes 90 countries for which sex-disaggregated value of HCI was available in 2010 and 2020. 62  he Human Capital Index (HCI) measures the expected productivity as a future worker of a child born today. It is a function of education and health, T underscoring their importance for the productivity of people. It ranges between 0 and 1, where 1 indicates the benchmark of complete education and full health 63  et enrollment refers only to pupils of official primary school age, whereas gross enrollment includes pupils of any age. Net enrollment rates below N 100 per cent provide a measure of the proportion of primary school age children who are not enrolled in primary school. Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 51 The most noteworthy progress has been in tertiary A gap of at least two percentage points has been stub- school enrollments. As shown in Figure 5A, over the born since about 2003 (4.6 percent for women and 6.7 past decade, females’ tertiary enrollment rates have percent for men), peaking at three percentage points exceeded those for males in tertiary education, espe- from 2011-2015. Despite growing advantage in higher cially after 2012. Women’s advantage in tertiary enroll- education, women remain at a disadvantage in eco- ments is found in all regions except AFR, where enroll- nomic opportunities in all regions. ments for both males and females are low (Figure 6A). Figure 2A Primary school enrollment rates by gender (Gross) Figure 3A Primary completion rates by gender 105 90 Completion rate (%) Enrollment Rate (%) 85 100 80 95 75 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Female Male Female Male Notes: The chart above plots the ratio of total enrollment, Notes: The chart plots the number of new entrants (enrollments regardless of age, to the population of the age group that minus repeaters) in the last grade of primary education, officially corresponds to the level of education shown regardless of age, divided by the population at the entrance (gross rate) Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Sample: age for the last grade of primary education. Source: UNESCO Countries belonging to the lending categories IBRD and IDA. Institute for Statistics. Retrieved from Gender Data Portal. Retrieved from Gender Data Portal. Accessed: May 2022 Accessed: May 2022 Sample: countries belonging to the lending categories IBRD and IDA. Secondary school enrollment rates by Figure 4A  Figure 5A Tertiary school enrollment rates by gender (Gross) gender (Gross) 75 35 Enrollment rate (%) 70 Enrollment rate (%) 30 65 25 60 20 55 15 50 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Female Male Female Male Notes: The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment, regardless Notes: The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Source: UNESCO corresponds to the level of education shown (gross rate). Institute for Statistics Retrieved from Gender Data Portal. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics Retrieved from Gender Accessed: May 2022. Sample: countries belonging to the lending Data Portal. Accessed May 2022. Sample: countries belonging categories IBRD and IDA to the lending categories IBRD and IDA. 52 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Figure 6A Tertiary school enrollment rates by gender in AFR 12 10 Enrollment rate (%) 8 6 4 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Female Male Notes: The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics Retrieved from the Gender Data Portal. Accessed: May 2022. Sample: countries belonging to the lending categories IBRD and IDA Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 53 1.2. Reproductive health There has been notable improvement in reproductive health. An important indicator of this progress is the drop in the global maternal mortality ratio (MMR), which has continued to decline in developing countries in the last decade at only a slightly lower rate than during the previous decade and MMR in Africa region remains particularly high (Figure 7A). The total fertility rate (TFR) also has improved in the last 10 years among IBRD and IDA countries (Figure 8A), despite a slight decrease in the rate of decline compared to the previous decade. While 2000-2010 saw the TFR drop from 2.89 to 2.65 births per woman (a change of 0.24 births per woman), between 2010-2020 it had fallen to around 2.53 births per woman (a change of 0.21). Total fertility rate in AFR region has declined but remains significantly higher than the global average. A major remaining challenge, however, is that more than 200 million women in developing countries want to avoid pregnancy but don’t have access to modern contraception.​ 64 Figure 7A Maternal mortality ratio Figure 8A Total fertility rate 6 800 Fertility Rate (births per woman) 5 Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) 600 4 400 3 200 2 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Total AFR Total AFR Notes: The chart plots the ratio of the number of women who Notes: The charts plots the number of children that would die from pregnancy-related causes while pregnant or within be born to a woman if she were to live to the end of her 42 days of pregnancy termination per 100,000 live births. The childbearing years and bear children in accordance with age- data are estimated with a regression model using information specific fertility rates of the specified year. Source: (1) United on the proportion of maternal deaths among non-AIDS deaths Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects: 2019 in women ages 15–49, fertility, birth attendants, and GDP Revision. (2) Census reports and other statistical publications measured using purchasing power parities (PPPs). Sample from national statistical offices, (3) Eurostat: Demographic includes countries from IBRD and IDA lending categories. Statistics, (4) United Nations Statistical Division. Population Source: Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for and Vital Statistics Report (various years), (5) U.S. Census Child Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank Group, Bureau: International Database, and (6) Secretariat of the UN DESA Population Division) at www.childmortality.org. Pacific Community: Statistics and Demography Program. Retrieved from the Gender Data Portal. Accessed: May 2022 Retrieved from the Gender Data Portal. Accessed: May 2022 Sample: Countries belonging to the lending categories IBRD and IDA 64 Singh et al, 2014 54 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 2. More and better jobs Gender gaps in share of youth not in employment, education, or training (NEET) has narrowed—albeit slightly— over the past decade and remain particularly wide in SAR and MENA region (Figure 12A-13A). The ratio of female-to-male youth unemployment is highest in MNA, with female unemployment youth rising to more than twice that of male for at least three years in the past decade (Figure 15A). Figure 9A Share of youth NEET (%) — EAP region Figure 10A Share of youth NEET (%) — ECA region 30 30 Share of youth NEET Share of youth NEET 20 20 10 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 10 Female Male 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 Female Male Figure 11A Share of youth NEET (%) — LAC region Figure 12A Share of youth NEET (%) — MNA region 30 Share of youth NEET Share of youth NEET 20 30 20 10 10 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 Female Male Female Male Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 55 Figure 13A Share of youth NEET (%)­— SAR region Figure 14A Share of youth NEET (%) — AFR region 60 30 50 Share of youth NEET Share of youth NEET 40 20 30 20 10 10 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 Female Male Female Male Notes: The NEET chart plots percentage of female and male population between the ages of 15 and 24 who are not in employment, education, or training. Youth not in education are those who were neither enrolled in school nor in a formal training program (e.g., vocational training) during a specified reference period (e.g., one week). The series is part of the ILO modelled estimates and is harmonized to account for differences in national data and scope of coverage, collection, and tabulation methodologies as well as for other country-specific factors. Aggregation method: Weighted average. Source: Elaboration of International Labor Organization, ILOSTAT. Sample: countries belonging to the lending categories IBRD and IDA. Accessed: May 2022 Updated data points accessible on the Gender Data Portal. Figure 15A Ratio of female to male youth unemployment rate (% age 15-24) 230 Ratio of female to male youth unemployment rate 210 190 170 150 130 110 90 70 50 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR AFR Notes: The chart plots the regional Ratio of female to male youth unemployment is the percentage of female to male youth unemployment rates (modeled ILO estimates. Source: International Labor Organization, ILOSTAT database. Accessed May 2022. Data retrieved from the Gender Data Portal. Sample: countries belonging to the lending categories IBRD and IDA. 56 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 3. Ownership and control over assets 3.1 Ownership of Account Women’s ownership of accounts at formal financial institutions has been rising over time, as have men’s; how- ever, the gender gap has remained fairly the same (Figure 16A).65 Strikingly, the gender gap in ownership of mobile accounts has increased over time (Figure 17A). Both men’s and women’s rates have been increasing over time although gender gap has widened. Figures 18A-23A and Figures 24A-29A show regional differences between men and women in ownership of an account at a FFI and a mobile account, respectively.  wnership of account in formal financial Figure 16A O Figure 17A Ownership of Mobile Accounts institutions .06 % of individuals with a mobile account .6 % of individuals with an account .04 .4 at formal fin. inst. .2 .02 0 0 2014 2017 2021 2014 2017 2021 Male Female Male Female Note: the chart shows the share of adults on the total of Note: The chart shows the share of adults on the total the population (ages 15 and above) that report to have population (ages 15 and above) that have a mobile account but an account at a formal financial institution. Source: not a formal account. Source: Global Findex database. Data Global Findex database. Data retrieved from the retrieved from the Gender Data Portal. Gender Data Portal. Figure 18A Account at FFI — EAP Figure 19A Account at FFI — ECA .8 .6 % of individuals with an account % of individuals with an account .4 .6 at formal fin. inst. at formal fin. inst. .3 .4 .2 .2 .1 0 0 2014 2017 2021 2014 2017 2021 Male Female Male Female 65  he Global Findex databases defines account ownership as having an individual or jointly owned account either at a financial institution or through a T mobile money provider. FFI account ownership includes accounts at a bank or another type of formal, regulated financial institution, such as a credit union, a cooperative, or a microfinance institution. Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 57 Figure 20A Account at FFI — LAC Figure 21A Account at FFI — MNA .6 % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. .8 .6 .4 .4 .2 .2 0 0 2014 2017 2021 2014 2017 2021 Male Female Male Female Figure 22A Account at FFI — SAR Figure 23A Account at FFI — AFR % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. .5 .3 .4 .2 .3 .2 .1 .1 0 0 2014 2017 2021 2014 2017 2021 Male Female Male Female Figure 24A Account at mobile institutions — EAP Figure 25A Account at mobile institutions — ECA % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. .015 .01 .005 0 2014 2017 2021 Male Female 2014 Male2017 Female 2021 58 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Figure 26A Account at mobile institutions — LAC % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. Figure 27A Account at mobile institutions — MENA % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. .025 .025 .02 .02 .015 .015 .01 .01 .005 .005 0 0 2014 2017 2021 2014 2017 2021 Male Female Male Female Figure 28A Account at mobile institutions — SAR Figure 29A Account at mobile institutions — AFR .015 % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. % of individuals with an account at formal fin. inst. .025 .02 .01 .015 .005 .01 .005 0 2014 2017 2021 0 2014 2017 2021 Male Female Male Female Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 59 3.2 Borrowing Note: We present these analytics for the 3 years sep- arately, i.e., 2014, 2017, and 2021, since there are dif- The average share of adults reporting borrowing from ferences in the questions on borrowing behavior in a financial institution or using a credit card — in IBRD the past 12 months across the three surveys. 67 Conse- and IDA countries  —  has remained largely stable quently, it’s not possible to make direct comparisons. between 2014 and 2021 with women remaining less To make the comparison easier, statistics on borrowing likely than man to access formal credit. Borrowing patterns are computed first at the country level (using from informal channels or from family and friends sampling weights) and aggregated at the global level remain the most common source of access to credit, using adult population as weight (separately for the especially for women. world and for IBRD and IDA countries). Figure 30A Share of adults borrowing by source (weighted average) YEAR=2021 .025 % of adults borrowing by source (weighted avg) .02 .015 .1 .05 0 Female Male Borrowed formally Borrowed informally Borrowed from friends 66 Across the years, the Findex survey questions have changed regarding the source of informal borrowing, see the notes of the charts below. 67  Data for 2011 on formal borrowing do not include the use of a credit card, so the comparison is not possible. 60 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Figure 31A Share of adults borrowing by source (weighted average) YEAR=2017 % of adults borrowing by source (weighted avg) .2 .15 .1 .05 0 Female Male Borrowed formally Borrowed informally Borrowed from friends Figure 32A Share of adults borrowing by source (weighted average) — IBRD and IDA countries YEAR=2014 .2 % of adults borrowing by source (weighted avg) .15 .1 .05 0 Female Male Borrowed formally Borrowed informally Borrowed from friends Note: The charts show the share of adults on the total of the population (ages 15 and above) that borrowed in the past 12 months: formally (which includes all adults who borrowed any money from a financial institution or through the use of a credit card), informally (includes all adults who borrowed any money from an informal savings/group club but not formally), and from friends (which includes all adults who borrowed any money from family and friends but not formally or informally). Source: Global Findex database. Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 61 4. Voice and Agency: Figure 35A reports the regional averages of the per- Gender Based Violence centage of women who agree that a husband is justi- fied in hitting or beating his wife for at least one spe- In this section, we report regional averages of key GBV cific reason. EAP and AFR countries report the highest indicators. As data are available for a limited number prevalence (Mali 79%, Papua New Guinea, 68.9%) of countries, for each country we use the latest estimate Figure 36A reports the regional averages of the per- available between 2010 and 2020. centage of ever-married women who have ever expe- rienced any physical or sexual violence who sought 4.1 Intimate Partner Violence help to stop violence, with SAR and MENA regions Figure 33A shows the regional averages of ever-mar- reporting the lowest rate. ried women who have ever experienced IPV (age 15-49). Among African countries, Sierra Leone and 4.2 Child marriage Democratic Republic of Congo reported the high- Figure 37A shows the regional averages of the per- est rates (51.7% and 50.7% respectively), while SAR centage of young women aged 20-24 who were first regions, 50.8% of Afghanistan women reported to have married by exact age 15. The 10 countries with the experienced IPV at one point. highest prevalence are in the AFR (Chad,29.7%, and Figure 34A shows the regional average of the per- Niger 28%) and in the SAR (Bangladesh 19.3% and centage of women (age 15-49) who ever experienced Afghanistan 8.8%). physical or sexual violence. Countries with the highest prevalence are located in AFR (Sierra Leone 62% and Kenya 60% and SAR regions (Afghanistan 53%). Share of women ever experienced Figure 33A   omen who experienced physical or sexual Figure 34A W intimate partner violence violence (age 15-49) 35.0 40.0 30.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 25.0 20.0 20.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 AFR EAP SAR LAC MENA ECA AFR SAR LAC EAP MENA ECA Notes: The charts plot the percentage of who have ever Notes: The charts plot the percentage of who have ever experienced intimate partner violence (% of ever-married experienced physical or sexual violence (ages 15-49). Source women ages 15-49). Source DHS Sample: 49 countries with DHS. Sample: 49 countries with last survey data available last survey data available between 2010 and 2020. between 2010 and 2020. 62 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective  ife beating justified for at least Figure 35A W one specific reason 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 EAP AFR MENA SAR ECA LAC Notes: The charts plot the percentage of who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence (ages 15-49). Source DHS. Sample: 49 countries with last survey data available between 2010 and 2020. Figure 36A Sought help to stop violence 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 SAR MENA ECA EAP AFR LAC Notes: The charts plot the percentage of who have experienced any physical or sexual violence who sought help to stop violence (ages 15-49). Source DHS. Sample: 48 countries with last survey data available between 2010 and 2020  oung women (age 20-24) first married Figure 37A: Y by exact age 15 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 AFR SAR LAC MENA EAP ECA Notes: The charts plot the percentage of women (aged 20-49) who were first married or lived with a spouse or consensual partner by age 15. Source: DHS. Sample: 60 countries with last survey data available between 2010 and 2020. Annex A: Progress over time in Gender Equality 63 64 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Annex B: Leveraging the learning-adapting-expanding approach to tackle gender gaps This review looks at how the World Bank Group has used its learn- ing-adapting-expanding approach to tackle persistent gender gaps across the four pillars of the World Bank Group Gender Strategy. Human Endowments driven development approaches are being adapted to help mitigate the social and economic risks of COVID- The recent COVID-19 pandemic threatens advance- 19 facing refugees and host communities. Support is ments made in education and health, especially among targeted at vulnerable groups, including women and adolescent girls. The need to innovate and adapt is unemployed youth. paramount. Box B.1 provides an example of how the World Bank Group has adopted a cycle of testing, iter- ating, and replicating to adjust operational design and More and Better Jobs scale up or replicate programs targeted at adolescents Gender gaps in employment, productivity, and to enhance impact. earnings have been consistently stubborn over the The World Bank Group response to recent changes last decade, especially in SAR and MNA. The World in global landscape is helping to address the dispro- Bank Group has adopted a multi-pronged approach portionate impact of the COVID-19 crisis on women. to address an array of constraints faced by women in Examples include the Bangladesh Covid-19 Emer- entering and staying in the workforce. This includes gency Response and Preparedness Project, the Sri designing social protection programs that bundle Lanka COVID-19 Emergency Response and Health cash transfers with complementary training and Systems Preparedness Project, and several educational psychosocial interventions aimed at boosting wom- projects in Uganda, Ethiopia, Benin, Pakistan, and Ban- en’s economic empowerment. The Bank Group also gladesh promoting advocacy campaigns about girls’ works to promote policies that embrace flexible work- re-enrollment in schools. Sahel Adaptive Social Pro- ing arrangements, effective anti-sexual-harassment tection programs in Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Niger mechanisms, and childcare services (Boxes B.2 and and Senegal have been augmented with an integrated B.3);68 engage men and women together to positively set of productive inclusion measures tailored to the impact intra-household division of labor and care needs of cash transfer recipients, 90 percent of whom responsibilities; and circumvent collateral require- are women, and to promote climate resilience and ments through credit scoring using psychometrics.69 empowerment. In the Solomon Islands, community 68 See also, IFC’s Tackling Childcare initiative 69  everal projects are integrating gender in emerging development priorities. For example, the Dominica Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and S Climate Resilience IPF supports women farmers through training on climate resilience technologies and the provision of productive assets and inputs, while the Nigeria Livestock Productivity and Resilience Support Project supports women in acquiring livestock, accessing productive services, and improving their agency in livestock value chains to boost food production. It has taken on board the Africa GIL diagnostic, Closing Gaps, Increasing Opportunities. Annex B: Leveraging the learning-adapting-expanding approach to tackle gender gaps 65 Box B.1: Sahel Women’s Empowerment and Demographic Dividend Project The Sahel Women’s Empowerment and Demographic Dividend (SWEDD) regional initiative was launched in 2015 by the UN and the World Bank Group in six Sahel countries: Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, Mauritania and Niger. It aims to accelerate the demographic transition by creating conditions for girls to stay longer in school and delay marriage and childbearing. In its first five years, SWEDD supported 160,000 girls with scholarships, trained over 20,000 young women in non-traditional professions that bring them into higher income-earning opportunities, established 3,400 safe spaces for 120,000 out-of-school adolescents, and trained 24,000 husbands/future husbands to help increase men’s participation in household tasks. The project also invested in strengthening the capacity of strategic regional partners, including West African Health Organization (WAHO) and the African Union. Testing and iterating: SWEDD set up new impact evaluations to position itself as a learning project. Since the early design stage of the project, Africa GIL joined the SWEDD project team to provide technical inputs based on rigorous global evidence of adolescent girls’ projects, which reveals gains in women’s earnings, employment, and sexual and reproductive health. Further, additional evidence from a safe space intervention in Sierra Leone demonstrates that adolescent empowerment programs can help young girls build resilience to pandemic and conflict shocks (Bandiera et al 2020). This evidence is especially relevant to designing strategies that can help slow down deceleration in achievement of human endowments in the aftermath of COVID-19. Scale-up and replication: These promising results sparked client demand for adolescent empowerment programs. In 2019, World Bank Group approved $376 million in new funds for SWEDD II to scale up activities in Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, and Mauritania and expand into Cameroon and the Republic of Guinea. SWEDD II tests a new generation of interventions that are deploying a psychology-based training to promote an entrepreneurial mindset, engaging men versus providing childcare services to shift norms and time allocation, and providing holistic menstrual hygiene management support. Other important components that SWEDD II focuses on strengthening the legal frameworks that support women’s right to health and education, eliminating GBV, and bolstering collaboration among legal professionals, parliamentarians, and religious and traditional leaders. In FY22, a new generation of education programs that include safe-space interventions were considered in Angola, Tanzania, and Nigeria. Expansion to SWEDD III is also being considered with strong emphasis on country-driven agendas, cross-country learning agenda, and multi-sectoral projects. Ownership and Control Voice and Agency over Assets Expanding women’s agency and their ability to make One of the key constraints to women’s financial inclu- decisions is key to improving their lives. Among vari- sion is lack of accounts at formal institutions and lack ous initiatives to strengthen women’s voice, the World of collateral. These constraints are especially salient Bank Group published a report in 2014, Voice and for women entrepreneurs whose dependence on assets Agency — Empowering Women and Girls for Shared for collateral is critical. The World Bank and IFC work Prosperity, which seeks to collate global knowledge together with external partners to devise solutions to on this front, shed light on nature of constraints such constraints (Box B.4). faced by women and girls, and identify promising 66 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Box B.2: SheWorks initiative Partnerships with the private sector are critical to advancing economic opportunities for women. Following the success of the IFC-led SheWorks global private sector partnership launched in 2014, the SheWorks Sri Lanka partnership was established in March 2018. It is a collaboration of 15 leading Sri Lankan companies spread across priority sectors, such as garments and apparel, tourism, information technology, banking and finance, as well as male-dominated sectors, like automobiles and manufacturing. The aim is to create a demonstration effect in the country, by helping companies identify and implement gender-smart policies and practices to foster more equal and inclusive workplaces. As a prerequisite, each member had to make a minimum of three gender-smart commitments: » Increase women’s business leadership (e.g., offer a mentorship or leadership program) » Ensure recruitment and retention of women in the workplace (e.g., identify and implement gender-smart solutions around flexible working) » Explore employer-supported childcare (e.g., conduct a childcare needs assessment and put childcare services into action) » Promote effective anti-sexual harassment mechanisms » Support women in the value chain as employees and entrepreneurs » Foster the company’s leadership and commitment to women’s employment as a smart business strategy More than 170,000 employees are benefiting from greater employment and advancement opportunities. Member companies have achieved five key business results over a two-year period: 1. 12 percent increase in women employed, equating to over 12,000 more women employed 2. Increase in the share of women in non-traditional job roles and sectors: 12 companies have increased the number of women in non-traditional roles. For example, the South Asia Gateway Terminal company operating in the shipping and logistics industry registered an increase in the total share of women executives from 17 percent to 28 percent. 3. One-third increase in the share of women on boards of directors and a 21 percent increase in the share of women in leadership roles 4. More parents stay employed due to employer-provided childcare support: eight companies that signed up for this commitment have introduced at least one initiative to support the childcare needs of their employees (such as maternity benefits, paternity, or establishing a lactation room). 5. 12 companies have created more respectful and supportive workplaces. opportunities to bring about a transformative change. A wide range of operational work has been imple- The report also underlines the vital role information mented to promote women’s leadership, for example, and communication technologies can play in ampli- the Egypt RISE project, IFC’s Women on Boards and fying women’s voices, expanding their economic and in Business Leadership, and the Waka Mere initiative. learning opportunities, and broadening their views MIGA continues to sponsor its flagship annual Gender and aspirations. Leadership Award to recognize senior managers with Annex B: Leveraging the learning-adapting-expanding approach to tackle gender gaps 67 Box B.3: Youth Employment & Skills Development Project (PEJDC) The IDA-funded Burkina Faso PEJDC project is a public works program approved in 2013 to address youth unemployment in the country, especially among vulnerable groups. The public works include construction of bridges and rural roads, maintenance of streets, administrative places and urban roads, and reforestation. Early on, the project found that many young mothers were not able to find childcare, so they were either forced to pass on the opportunity or bring their children to the worksite where they would often be left unattended. Focus group discussions and interviews with participants led to an innovative intervention: creation of mobile crèches, or day care centers, that followed women as they moved from one worksite to another. Full-coverage tents or existing safe spaces were designed specifically for children ages 0–6, along with nutritious meals, low-cost toys and learning materials, and information for parents on childcare and nutrition. Each childcare center was operated by 7 to 10 caregivers, who received three days of training. The crèches offered a childcare solution that not only kept children safe and provided them with meaningful care and stimulation, but also enabled their mothers to benefit from temporary work opportunities. The Burkina Faso government and other partners joined the World Bank team in setting up pilot units across three locations, funded in part by the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality. The mobile childcare pilot was subsequently scaled up to 20 sites. A recent impact evaluation study conducted to assess effects of this intervention finds that 25 percent of eligible women took the opportunity to use the mobile crèches, which tripled the use of childcare centers for children ages 0–6 years old. These effects are persistent and extend beyond the public works program, which suggests that initial exposure to childcare centers generates lasting demand. The study also finds improved employment outcomes for women and positive effects on their financial resilience and savings. Children experienced improved development scores, driven by improvements in gross and fine motor skills. These promising findings have led to adoption of this mobile crèche model in other contexts, including Cameroon, Madagascar, Ethiopia, and Democratic Republic of Congo. a proven track record of furthering the cause of wom- financing, as well as the number of operations, aimed en’s advancement and gender equality in business at preventing and responding to GBV in a scaled and while contributing to the World Bank Group’s twin sustainable manner. From IDA17 through IDA20, each goals of ending poverty and boosting shared prosper- cycle has showcased increased ambition to address ity in a sustainable way. GBV, including strengthening health and education systems and fostering the development of national While the Bank Group has a longstanding commitment strategies. Since FY17, there have been 243 operations to addressing and responding to GBV, there has been that go beyond risk mitigation and ESF compliance.70 a renewed focus on it as a key development challenge An increasing number of projects have shown that since the Mid-Term Review of the Bank Group’s Gen- an analysis of GBV can be successfully accompanied der Strategy. This has led to a significant increase in 70  he World Bank Group has rapidly moved beyond mitigation by leveraging research, staff engagement, and operations across sectors to address the T . drivers, risk factors, and consequences of GBV using innovative, evidence-based approaches​ 68 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective Box B.4: Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative (We-Fi) Women entrepreneurs around the globe are creating jobs, driving prosperity in their communities, strengthening industries, and fueling innovation. Yet in many low-income countries, they often face severe financial, legal, cultural, and social barriers. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified existing inequalities disproportionately impacting women-led businesses. The largest effort singularly focused on women entrepreneurs housed at the World Bank Group is the Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative (We-Fi). This financial intermediary facility is supported by 14 donor governments and works with seven MDBs, including the World Bank and IFC, as implementing partners. We-Fi empowers women in four key areas: 1. Increasing access to finance, by providing capital, risk mitigation and capacity building to enable financial institutions to expand women’s access to finance 2. Increasing access to markets, by enhancing linkages between MSME buyers and suppliers and helping them better compete in supply chains 3. Increasing access to training, mentoring and networks 4. Improving the industry environment, by helping governments ease the legal and regulatory constraints and gender biases that make running a business difficult for women Since its launch in 2017, We-Fi has allocated $354 million to programs and expect to leverage an additional $3.5 billion. To date, the We-Fi portfolio encompassed activities in 55 countries; two-thirds of which are in low income (IDA-eligible) and fragile countries where women-led SMEs (WSMEs) are the most vulnerable. We-Fi programs have benefitted over 11,000 WSMEs with financial and non-financial support. As an implementing partner, the World Bank has led many successful We-Fi projects linked to operations, including the following: » In collaboration with Access Bank and the Development Bank of Nigeria (DBN), a digital cashflow lending product was launched to reduce the reliance on collateral and allow WSMEs to apply for loans on their phones. It provided 1,400 WSMEs with loans in less than a year, mobilizing $6.9 million in additional financing and incentivizing three institutions to put in place a system for capturing and reporting sex-disaggregated data. » The World Bank Group has partnered with international shipper UPS to train WSMEs in the MNA region on using e-commerce platforms to boost sales and adapt to consumer demand during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through reform and market advisory work, the program has mobilized $71 million in additional financing for WSMEs, reached 678 WSMEs, and enacted two legal reforms to promote an inclusive e-commerce environment. » The World Bank’s Women, Business and the Law initiative has developed recommendations for 12 countries on removing barriers to women’s entrepreneurship (for example, in Pakistan and Senegal). Annex B: Leveraging the learning-adapting-expanding approach to tackle gender gaps 69 Box B.5: Bangladesh: Health and Gender Support Project for Cox’s Bazar District By December 2019, Bangladesh had hosted around 1.1 million displaced Rohingya People in Cox’s Bazar district in Chattogram division, placing immense strain on existing infrastructure and social service delivery and increasing the risk of GBV and exposure to infectious diseases, like diphtheria. A survey conducted in 2015 found that 48 percent of married women in the host community in Chattogram division experienced violence. GBV response services were provided at one one-stop crisis center and two one-stop crisis cells; however, these were not adequate to cover the total need for service provision. In response, the Health and Gender Support Project, approved in 2020, aims to strengthen GBV response services at different tiers of health facilities. Working in partnership with WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA and the IOM, and in coordination with local NGOs, the project supports expansion and training of critical health staff and deployment of a standardized and integrated package of services across both health nutrition and population and GBV, including psychosocial counselling, provision of emergency contraceptives, and referral to other health centers. In tandem, the project is promoting GBV prevention through information dissemination using a network of community volunteers and support groups and through behavior change communication campaigns. By April 2022, 28 health facilities were providing GBV response services, compared to only three in 2019. The rising incidents of GBV fueled by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns resulted in an increase in the demand for GBV services provided through the project, thereby increasing service utilization through health facilities. Only major cases are now referred to the one-stop crisis center, as less severe cases can now be treated through the health system and one-stop crisis cells. The number of women and girls within the the displaced Rohingya population receiving psychosocial counseling services has increased by 58 percent. by actions and indicators that meet the gender tag studies, and tool kits developed for client use. It has (Box B.5). The Bank Group is also expanding techni- also adopted enhanced screening and assessment of cal expertise on GBV by building its Community of investments made to mitigate risk of GBV. It works Practice and offering staff evidence, tools, solutions, with private sector through its Respectful Workplaces and good examples through the new Gender Tag GBV Program, which includes over 30 businesses. Dashboard, the Violence Against Women and Girls Similarly, MIGA has strengthened its work on GBV resource guide and the Development Marketplace. issues. MIGA has introduced a GBV risk identification Leveraging women’s and girls’ voice and agency in and management process through the development decision making, and leadership can improve resource and implementation of a new web-based GBV tool, management, lower environmental damage, and land which provides technical GBV guidance for Environ- fragmentation, promote environmental stewardship, and mental and Social Specialists. It builds on IFC’s tools increase resilience. An example of an intervention aim- and offers a streamlined approach to help manage ing to foster women’s access to leadership opportunities GBV risks in MIGA’s portfolio. MIGA has added to its in climate action is the Costa Rica Sustainable Fisheries staff a GBV specialist and is scaling up staff knowledge Development Project. and skills to enable GBV assessments of projects and to support clients in developing mitigation measures. IFC has increased efforts to address GBV in the workplace through action plans, sector briefs, case 70 Gender Equality in Development: A Ten-Year Retrospective 71