Disaster Risk Management and Gender THE CASE OF JAMAICA Disaster Risk Management and Gender THE CASE OF JAMAICA © 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: +1-202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved. This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Cover photo: Montego Bay, Jamaica. © Sven Thilo | istock.com  | 3 | Table of Contents Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................................. 5 Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................................................................................... 6 Executive Summary.................................................................................................................................................................... 7 DRM policies and gender ...................................................................................................................................................... 8 Gender inequalities in exposure and vulnerabilities to disasters................................................................................ 8 Impacts on endowments: Health and education........................................................................................................ 8 Economic impacts: Employment, wages, assets, and consumption..................................................................... 9 Voice and agency: Gender-based violence and women as agents of change....................................................10 Gender inequalities in preparedness.................................................................................................................................11 Gender inequalities in coping capacity ............................................................................................................................11 Remittances ....................................................................................................................................................................11 Livelihoods and jobs.......................................................................................................................................................11 Migration...........................................................................................................................................................................11 Savings and social protection .....................................................................................................................................12 Recommendations.................................................................................................................................................................12 Note...........................................................................................................................................................................................14 References...............................................................................................................................................................................14 1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................................16 1.1 Disasters and climate risks in Jamaica ...................................................................................................................17 1.2 Why gender matters to disaster risk management...............................................................................................17 1.3 Objective and methodology of this country profile ..............................................................................................17 1.4 Organization of the profile...........................................................................................................................................18 Notes.........................................................................................................................................................................................18 References...............................................................................................................................................................................19 2. Conceptual framework: Identifying gender gaps in DRM and climate resilience..................... 20 Note...........................................................................................................................................................................................22 References...............................................................................................................................................................................22 3. Gender integration in DRM and climate change: Legal frameworks, policies, and institutions.................................................................................................................................................................23 Notes.........................................................................................................................................................................................24 References...............................................................................................................................................................................25 | 4 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility 4. Gender gaps in Jamaica and DRM .......................................................................................................................26 4.1 Gender inequalities in exposure and vulnerability to disasters .........................................................................27 4.1.1. Impacts on endowments: Health and education...........................................................................................27 4.1.2. Economic impacts...............................................................................................................................................29 4.1.3. Voice and agency: Gender-based violence and women as agents of change.........................................32 4.2 Gender inequalities in preparedness.........................................................................................................................33 4.3 Gender inequalities in coping capacity ....................................................................................................................34 4.3.1 Remittances ..........................................................................................................................................................35 4.3.2 Livelihoods and jobs.............................................................................................................................................35 4.3.3 Migration.................................................................................................................................................................35 4.3.4 Savings and social protection ...........................................................................................................................36 Notes.........................................................................................................................................................................................37 References...............................................................................................................................................................................37 5. Recommendations .........................................................................................................................................................42 5.1 Data collection................................................................................................................................................................43 5.2 DRM and climate change policies..............................................................................................................................43 5.3 Provision of health services .......................................................................................................................................43 5.4 Balance between productive and reproductive activities....................................................................................43 5.5 Employment, livelihood, and social protection ......................................................................................................44 5.6 Gender-based violence.................................................................................................................................................44 5.7 Participation in DRM.....................................................................................................................................................45 5.8 Gender-sensitive ESW...................................................................................................................................................45 Note...........................................................................................................................................................................................45 Appendix.........................................................................................................................................................................................46 Appendix A. Gender data for DRM in Jamaica................................................................................................................47 References...............................................................................................................................................................................55 Figure Figure 2.1 Gender dimensions of disaster risk and resilience...............................................................................................21 Tables Table A.1 Exposure and vulnerability.........................................................................................................................................46 Table A.2  Preparedness...............................................................................................................................................................51 Table A.3  Coping capacity...........................................................................................................................................................51  | 5 | Acknowledgments T he preparation of this paper was funded by the Canada-Caribbean Resilience Facility. This Trust Fund, managed by and in collaboration and partnership with the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) at the World Bank, works to achieve more effective and coordinated gender-in- formed climate-resilient preparedness, recovery, and public management practices. It focuses on nine countries: Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Suriname. The paper was prepared and written by Marcela Natalicchio (Senior Governance and Gender Specialist, Consultant for the World Bank). It has received extensive and invaluable contributions from Jeni Klugman, ex-Director of the Gender Global Practice at the World Bank, and Eliana Carolina Rubiano Matulevich, Senior Economist, Poverty and Equity Global Practice, World Bank. It has also received valuable contributions from Naraya Carrasco, Senior Disaster Risk Management Specialist, World Bank. Sergio Andrés Rivera Díaz (PhD student, Department of Economics, UMD), provided the quantitative indicators of gender gaps relevant to disaster risk management (DRM) for Jamaica that inform the tables in the appendix. | 6 |  Abbreviations and Acronyms CCTs Conditional Cash Transfers CDB Caribbean Development Bank CRF Canada-Caribbean Resilience Facility DRM disaster risk management DRR disaster risk reduction DV domestic violence ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean EWS early warning systems FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FHHs female-headed households GBV gender-based violence GDP gross domestic product GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery HFPS high-frequency phone survey IDB Inter-American Development Bank IPV intimate partner violence ITU International Telecommunication Union JSLC Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions LFS Labour Force Survey LGBTQ lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer ODPEM Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management NIS National Insurance Scheme PATH Programme of Advancement through Health and Education PDNA Post-Disaster Needs Assessment PIOJ Planning Institute of Jamaica SEWA Self-Employed Women’s Association SP PER Social Protection Public Expenditure Review WASH water, sanitation, and hygiene All dollar amounts are US dollars unless otherwise indicated.  | 7 | Executive Summary Photo: ©Jodi Jacobson | istock.com | 8 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility T his country profile analyzes gender gaps in the made in the latest National Policy for Gender Equality. disaster risk management (DRM) agenda in Ja- Jamaica’s DRM and climate change policies refer to maica that influence the exposure and vulner- gender, but they do not include policy outcomes and ability, preparedness, and coping capacity of indicators to monitor progress. They also fail to consider different populations. Identified gender gaps need to be gender-based violence (GBV) (GFDRR 2021). The considered when preparing and implementing DRM pol- assessments of damages from natural disasters that icies, programs, and projects before, during, and after di- have occurred in Jamaica only make ad-hoc references sasters strike to improve their effectiveness and equity. to impacts on women. On the other hand, Jamaica’s 2011 National Policy for Gender Equality includes DRM This paper was written to support the preparation of considerations (GFDRR 2021). DRM projects, programs, and policies by the Government of Jamaica, World Bank teams, and other development partners. It has also served as an input to the recent Gender inequalities in exposure and Jamaica Gender Assessment report (World Bank vulnerabilities to disasters 2023), which—along with the World Bank’s Jamaica Country Poverty Assessment—provides insights for Impacts on endowments: Health and education the Jamaica’s Systematic Country Diagnostic (World Bank 2022), which was the basis for discussions with Impacts on health government and the preparation of a new World Bank In Jamaica, the available data on casualties due to Jamaica Country Partnership Strategy (2023). disasters disaggregated by sex show that more men than women die during disasters, which is unusual. The profile follows the framework developed by the Global In most developing countries, the trend is the reverse. Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) Thus, Jamaica needs to collect these data more and the World Bank to identify gender dimensions of systematically and investigate the causes of this finding. DRM and resilience (Erman et al. 2021). According to this framework, gender gaps are presented according to Although there are no data on morbidity by gender (1) exposure and vulnerability, (2) preparedness, and (3) during disasters, inferences suggest that differences coping capacity. in morbidity based on gender do exist. While men tend to engage in risky behavior—such as cigarette The profile was built through a desk review drawing on smoking, drinking, or drug abuse—this behavior in turn global literature on DRM and gender, along with several is correlated with an increase in GBV. Women, on the studies and reports about DRM and gender in Jamaica other hand—besides being the recipients of GBV that is specifically. The desk review also drew from available exacerbated during disasters—suffer more than men damage and loss assessments of different disasters from mental health issues due to increased stress as reported by the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ), during disasters. the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the Caribbean Development and High maternal mortality and adolescent pregnancy rates, Cooperation Committee, and the Office of Disaster combined with data on disasters in Jamaica, point out the Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM). need to address access to quality health care for pregnant women, especially during disasters. Given that Jamaica The main identified gender gaps in Jamaca are found has a high maternal mortality rate, pregnant women and in policies, exposure and vulnerabilities to disasters, their babies are at even higher risk of health complications preparedness, and coping capacity. Each of these gaps during disasters. This needs to be addressed. is considered below. The adolescent fertility rate in Jamaica is 50 births per 1,000 women ages 15–19—above the upper-middle- DRM policies and gender income country average, which is 29.5 (World Bank, no date). The adolescent fertility rate is particularly high Policies in Jamaica still need to reflect appropriately among the vulnerable populations that tend to be hit the gender in DRM, although some progress has been hardest by disasters, which coincides with higher risk Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 9 | of GBV. Adolescent girls’ health and safety need to be indicating that women suffer higher unemployment looked after during disasters. than men during and after a disaster. In Jamaica, women also face vulnerabilities in the labor market that Nutrition is adversely affected during disasters by the reconstruction after disasters should take into account. loss of livelihoods, agricultural production, and fisheries. The distribution of household responsibilities, for This particularly affects pregnant women, single female- example, is uneven among genders. Women shoulder headed households (FHHs), and children. Thus, these a higher load of those responsibilities, constraining groups need to be specifically targeted during disasters their access to the labor market and pushing them to for accessing nutrition. choose lower-paying jobs that are compatible with family chores. During reconstruction, it is important to Disasters also affect water supply, which has target women for training, provide them with access to disproportionate impacts on women’s workload and nonconventional jobs, and provide daycare and the like. their health outcomes. In Jamaica, women typically carry around 17–35 percent more liters of water than Female-headed households: A vulnerable group men. During disasters, this proportion worsens and Several reports in Jamaica suggest that FHHs are hard affects the likelihood of getting jobs, women’s health, hit by disasters. These households typically have fewer and the risk of GBV. resources to repair damage to their houses. Not only do they have less access to financial resources than men, As women in Jamaica typically bear the brunt of caring but they also lack the skills to do the repairs themselves. for the sick, they disproportionately feel the effects of FHHs make up a significant proportion of households rising sickness, diseases, and injuries among family in Jamaica and are particularly vulnerable. Jamaica members caused by disasters. This increased workload has one of the highest incidences of FHHs in the world. can also increase their levels of stress and impair their Incidence of poverty is higher among single female ability to pursue employment or migrate and recover households and close to twice the rate among male- economically from a disaster. Therefore, it is important only households. It is important to provide FHHs with to support women in caring for sick and children after additional support to deal with the consequences of disasters, especially FHHs. disasters and ensure a good recovery—for example, by providing extra income, support for childcare, quotas Impacts on education in the reconstruction work, and training in the skills The disruption of educational and childcare services necessary to rebuild more-resilient houses. associated with disasters in Jamaica also often means an increase in the workload for women and a Women in agriculture and fishery corresponding increase in their levels of stress. At the Reports of natural disasters in Jamaica tend to highlight same time, there are no data that show whether more losses by male farmers, downplaying losses by female girls or boys drop out of schools when disasters strike. farmers. However, women’s contributions to agriculture Based on COVID-19 data, it should be assumed that are more significant than depicted, and they face more boys would have a higher dropout rate. It is important to obstacles to becoming productive. Women represent 30 keep incentives for going to school higher than those for percent of registered farmers in Jamaica (FAO and CDB entering the labor market—for example, by implementing 2019), their plots tend to be smaller (accounting for 11 social protection payments for teenagers. percent of cultivated land), and they have less access to inputs and credit. Economic impacts: Employment, wages, assets, Likewise, in the Caribbean fishery sector, it is and consumption understood that men tend to fish while women work on the processing and marketing side of the industry. Impacts on unemployment and employment during However, women are involved in other productive recovery activities that are not captured by the data. Most data In Jamaica, unemployment rates are much higher fail to capture the actual contributions of small-scale among women than among men. Evidence from the fisheries and aquaculture to employment, production, impact of COVID-19 in Jamaica provides a proxy and consumption (FAO 2013). | 10 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility Women in the Caribbean, including Jamaica, were found prevalence during disasters are not available, and no to have less access to land, training, and technology than data have been found regarding the situation of shelters men. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization in the country. of the United Nations (FAO), only 5 percent of agricultural extension services globally are directed toward women, There are high levels of GBV incidence in Jamaica. This and only 15 percent of agricultural extension personnel leads to the assumption that Jamaica is no different are women. In addition, the Caribbean Development than other countries that suffer disasters, and likely Bank (CDB) found that agriculture extension services experiences an increase of GBV during these events. As in the region are not sufficiently sensitized to these many as one in four women in Jamaica reported having challenges. experienced physical abuse in their lifetime, and one- fifth reported sexual abuse during childhood (Watson There are no legal restrictions on inheritance of assets or Williams 2016). Violence against women in Jamaica ownership of land in Jamaica; however, tradition forces goes largely unreported. Over two in five survivors who land and cooperative membership to be passed down sought help did not get any. to male family members (IDB 2020). The registration of women as farmers may reflect cultural norms that favor Jamaica has strategic action plans to end GBV, laws men to own land, hold the registration of their farms, on domestic violence, and comprehensive laws on and participate in cooperatives (FAO and CDB 2019). human trafficking. Jamaica has the legal underpinnings necessary to have a successful strategy for GBV in DRM, but the different actors and their coordination during Women and small business emergencies needs to be bolstered, shelter protocols Women have high rates of financial account need to be updated accordingly, and data collection and ownership—78 percent of women have this ownership— analysis needs to be improved. almost on par with men, but female-led businesses tend to be smaller than men’s and concentrate in Participation of women in society and DRM specific sectors. Identified challenges for female The agency of Jamaican women remains poor, with entrepreneurship include the lack of an enabling persistent low levels of representation in elected environment to balance work and family responsibilities; positions at national and local levels, although it has limited access to financial and non-financial services, improved in the last years. The participation of women markets, and technology; and little time to participate in in Parliament is low by international standards, and business networks (ILO 2021). women’s representation in the local level government is even lower. This contrasts with the high proportion of Voice and agency: Gender-based violence and women in managerial positions, which is at 56.7 percent women as agents of change (ILO 2018). Gender-based violence In the context of DRM, it is crucial that women participate Globally, disaster and emergency settings have been and are included in policy making and implementation found to increase the risk of physical and sexual processes, but data on the number of women in DRM violence for women and girls. A recent systematic and climate change decision-making processes in review published in the British Medical Journal Jamaica are lacking (GFDRR 2021). The participation (Thurston, Stöckl, and Ranganathan 2021) suggests of women in DRM in Jamaica is improving; to keep that exposure to disasters can increase GBV in various up the momentum it would be important to increase settings. Evidence from a range of countries, such as awareness and knowledge on gender issues during and Haiti and the United States during Hurricane Katrina, after disasters so the decision-making bodies can make indicates that women and girls are at higher risk for informed decisions. GBV and domestic abuse, trafficking, and forced marriages during disasters (Nour 2011). There is a risk The inclusion of women and other vulnerable groups in of exploitation, including sexual abuse for food, shelter, the DRM policy-making cycle is beneficial for disaster and even security. Globally, violence is also common in response and recovery support (Arnold and de Cosmo shelters and camps. Specific data for Jamaica on GBV 2015). In Jamaica, the participation of women in Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 11 | community hazard mapping helped to more effectively for them and the family, while men usually have a identify high-risk areas and critical facilities and procrastinating attitude and take action to prepare at infrastructure that might be affected by a disaster event. the last minute. Men watch TV, but women receive the news through social media and through relatives. FHHs might experience more constraints in preparing as their Gender inequalities in preparedness resources are more limited. How families, communities, and nations prepare for disasters can shape the extent and patterns of loss of Gender inequalities in coping capacity life, property, and livelihoods. There are still knowledge gaps in how men and women use the information they Remittances receive and how they respond and react to early warning systems (EWS). Remittances are an important strategy during disasters although they cannot replace government support. A recent study that focused on Nepal and Peru also Remittances should be well integrated with other shows that marginalized gender groups risk being support, including government support. excluded from disaster risk reduction (DRR) policies, strategies, and decision-making as DRR processes Jamaicans rely on loans and gifts from family, including are not currently designed to enable them to engage. remittances from abroad, during emergencies. Women Proactive efforts are needed to include the needs, rely more on them than men. When it comes to priorities, and capabilities of marginalized gender remittances in Jamaica, women are the main recipients, groups such as disabled women and lesbian, gay, especially single women, which immediately indicates bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) populations, the gender differences in terms of this particular and to magnify their voices at every stage of the EWS. coping strategy. However, further studies are needed to understand the weight of such remittances in the overall Information on the use of the internet in Jamaica strategies for recovery in Jamaica by gender. shows a reverse gap where women have more access to the internet than men, but better access to EWS Livelihoods and jobs does not indicate how the information is utilized, given intrahousehold dynamics. However, there is a gap per In terms of livelihood responses, it was found that, income: access to the internet increases significantly although women in Jamaica may seek jobs such as as you become richer, pointing to the fact that poor domestic helper, especially in the case of single parents households may still be at a disadvantage. In addition, and/or lower-income households, men are more likely data do not include data about how the EWS information to get employment in post-hazard reconstruction; they is utilized, especially given the gendered division of labor are also more likely to migrate (Ramesar 2021). This inside the household. finding is similar to the tendencies observed in other countries in the Caribbean. Thus, it would be advisable A recent assessment of EWS in the Caribbean 2017 to help women by providing them with opportunities hurricane season that included Antigua and Barbuda, to acquire skills and fight stereotypes during the post- Dominica, and Sint Maarten concluded that these disaster reconstruction efforts. systems do not adequately include gender dimensions (WMO 2018). Although the study did not include Migration Jamaica, the situation might be similar, and more analysis is needed to better understand Jamaica’s In terms of migration as an alternative strategy to specific situation. cope with disasters, it was found in Jamaica that this is an easier option for younger people when they have According to the same assessment, women and men acquired skills and especially if they have family ties tend to receive information through different means, in other locations. Further research is needed in this have different risk perceptions, and different roles area to better understand the patterns of migration in preparedness. Women have a perception of risk after disasters in Jamaica, and the impacts of those | 12 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility migrations on different vulnerable female groups in the opportunity to include dimensions of climate change society taking into account difference in vulnerability and gender. between urban and rural women. The design of the social protection program could Savings and social protection be improved by including children under school age and including cash grants for students, which turn Jamaica stands out as a country in the Caribbean in out to be especially relevant for women and FHHs in which gender gaps in access to financial services have particular. Women in Jamaica shoulder more caregiving closed. This should help in setting up a gender-sensitive responsibilities than men, and that works as an obstacle emergency social protection scheme, although trends to entering the labor market. Incorporating benefits regarding savings by gender are discouraging. Single for children under school age would help alleviate this women in Jamaica have less financial resilience than problem. Cash grants for students need to act as a single men, which influences their ability to withstand deterrent of drop out of school, especially for boys. shocks. This is probably because women earn less than men. It may be useful for Jamaica’s government to explore strengthening existing public works to support social Jamaica has a system of social protection in place, protection objectives. This inclusion in social protection but several of this system’s shortcomings could have would be very relevant to ensure income support and a a negative direct impact on women—those in FHHs resilient recovery. in particular—during disasters. These weaknesses were detected in coverage gaps, the adequacy of Finally, social protection policies can have a positive payments, the adequacy of the targeting mechanism, effect on the prevention of GBV, which tends to increase system design issues, and cash transfers that require during disasters. There are three pathways through participation in public works. which safety nets reduce the prevalence of GBV: (1) they reduce poverty and food security, (2) they empower Coverage gaps were found in particular for the poorest women, and (3) they increase women’s social capital and most vulnerable populations, which includes through their participation in the program. women affected by disasters—especially FHHs. As direct beneficiaries, the poorest quintile receives 48 percent of the benefits, with 17 percent of that quintile Recommendations not receiving any benefit at all. Based on the identified gender issues and gaps in There are also concerns regarding the adequacy of Jamaica, a number of recommendations are suggested payments—that is, even for the people who do receive in the following areas: (1) data collection; (2) DRM and social protection benefits, the amount of money they climate change policies; (3) the provision of health receive is not enough to cover their basic needs. The services; (4) a better balance between productive and average annual benefit paid by the Programme of reproductive activities; (5) employment, livelihoods, and Advancement through Health and Education (PATH) for social protection; (6) GBV; (7) women’s participation in each beneficiary is estimated at about J$18,825. This DRM activities; and (8) gender-sensitive EWS. is equivalent to only 15.33 percent of the national per capita food poverty line. 1. Data collection. Better sex-disaggregated data are needed to design DRM programs and policies that The targeting mechanism for PATH, the main social target the specific needs of men and women. More protection program, needs to be reviewed and revised efforts need to be made in collecting disaggregated to improve targeting accuracy and reduce inclusion and gender data when recording and reporting deaths exclusion errors. Errors of the PATH program can have and injuries; types of injuries and illness, including serious implications for women, especially for FHHs mental illnesses; access to essential health ser- who are hit disproportionally during disasters. Currently, vices; access to sexual and reproductive health; the government is reviewing this mechanism and has damage to houses and livelihoods; decisions re- garding access to shelters; GBV occurring during Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 13 | disasters; and access to funds for recovery of hous- a disaster. Cash transfers directed to women can ing, employment, and livelihoods. Better data col- secure a regular stream of income during emergen- lection will allow for better design of gender-respon- cies when household chores and responsibilities sive preparedness, response, and recovery activities increase, especially for FHHs. Programs address- post disaster. ing assistance to care for children, the injured, and the elderly to avoid increasing women’s workload, 2. DRM and climate change policies. DRM and climate such as childcare and elderly care run by volunteers, change policies need to be more specific in the im- should be developed. Access to mental health ser- plementation of actions and measures to address vices needs to be provided to cope with increased women’s needs. Policies need to articulate precise levels of stress. outcomes and indicators to be able to monitor ac- tivities. DRM policies should include the mandate to 5. Measures to improve water collection during disas- prevent and respond to GBV risks during disasters. ters will serve to alleviate burdens on women’s time Plans and protocols need to be developed to ensure and health; such measures will also reduce the risk that actions and programs are actually carried out. of GBV when traveling longer distances. Some po- Training for participants in response to disasters tential measures during the provision of emergency should incorporate a module on identifying and ad- water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services or dressing women’s needs and risks of GBV. in the context of shelters include (1) ensuring inclu- sive community participation in the identification of 3. Provision of health services. Mental health and better sites for water points and alternative sources counseling services need to be improved during of water and (2) escorting women during water col- disasters. Campaigns to restrict risky behaviors in lection to ensure their safety. men such as cigarette smoking, drinking, or drug abuse that can have negative consequences for Employment, livelihood, and social protection. Given both men and women and girls, including through the challenges that women face in the labor market, GBV. Special attention needs to be provided to treat and especially during emergencies, emergency social sickness derived from an increase in stress, such as protection programs need to target vulnerable women. anxiety and depression, to which women are espe- These emergency measures could be added to social cially vulnerable. programs to provide cash for temporary loss of income and restoration of livelihoods, or support to small Access to sexual and reproductive services and businesses, in particular for FHHs and for poor and rural commodities must be declared essential during women. disasters. Pregnant women need access to adequate attention during emergencies, including being treated It is important to have special programs aimed toward by gynecologists and obstetricians, and they must have housing reconstruction that target women, in particular adequate nutrition. Women of reproductive age should FHHs. A survey on the quality of housing by type of have continued access to contraceptives to avoid household should be conducted prior to disasters, and unwanted pregnancies, as well as access to “Dignity then target subsidies and support FHHs that are poor Kits” in communities and shelters.1 Particular attention and that lost housing during a disaster so as to promote should be paid to girls and adolescents who may be at a quick recovery. risk of sexual violence and unwanted pregnancies, and campaigns in the communities need to be used to avoid Jobs created by the reconstruction of infrastructure and these risks. civil works need to target women. The programs need to have a quota for women; they also need to provide 4. Balance between productive and reproductive ac- training to build their skills and increase their chances of tivities. Policies and programs are needed to help obtaining employment during this phase. This should be women—in particular, women who are the heads of complemented with stipends, transport, and childcare, their households—better cope with the increased which are known to increase the likelihood that women time required for household chores and the care of will participate. children, the injured, and the elderly during and after | 14 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility Women in rural areas and women fisherfolk need Note special attention, as these women tend to be more vulnerable to disasters. Inputs and technical assistance 1. Dignity Kits help women and girls maintain proper hygiene after being displaced. For more details, see https://www.unfpa.org/ for restoration and improvement of women’s livelihoods resources/unfpa-basic-dignity-kit post disaster in rural areas are needed to support faster recovery. To increase the overall resilience of women in References rural areas, it is important to promote joint ownership of land and the participation of women in cooperatives, Arnold, M. and S. de Cosmo. 2015. Building Social Resilience: and to ensure that women receive agricultural extension Protecting and Empowering Those Most at Risk. Washington, services. It is essential that the contributions of women DC: GFDRR. in agriculture and fishery are properly assessed and that the impacts of disasters recorded. Erman, A., S. A. De Vries Robbe, S. F. Thies, K. Kabir, and M. Maruo. 2021. Gender Dimensions of Disaster Risk and Gender-based violence. Data and analysis of GBV Resilience: Existing Evidence. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/35202. risks during disasters is needed to inform the design of actions to prevent and respond to violence. It is FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United important to incorporate GBV considerations into DRM Nations). 2013. Good Practice Policies to Eliminate Gender legislation, strategies, and plans for the provision of Inequalities in Fish Value Chains. Rome: FAO. https:// services to victims and for prevention, as well as into openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/ emergency shelter management protocols. e2d1b0d6-d615-4f2d-862f-8f2d1991662a/content. FAO and CDB (Food and Agriculture Organization of the Protocols of emergency shelters can be updated to United Nations and Caribbean Development Bank). 2019. include how to respond and prevent GBV, including Study on the State of Agriculture in the Caribbean. Rome: FAO trainings for workers assigned to emergency shelters. For and CDB. https://www.fao.org/3/ca4726en/CA4726EN.pdf. example, after the floods of 2012 in Fiji, the government, with the assistance of UN Women, updated guidance GFDRR (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery). for evacuation centers to attend to the needs of women 2021. Gender-Responsive Preparedness and Recovery in the and girls. Actions can also be taken in the aftermath of Caribbean: Desk Review. Washington, World Bank. https:// a disaster—for example, after the 2015 earthquake in www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/gender-responsive-disaster- preparedness-and-recovery-caribbean-desk-review. Nepal, several multipurpose centers were established by government, and UN Women and women’s groups IDB (Inter-American Development Bank). 2020. Study of the that reached out to over 40,000 women with a wide Impacts of Climate Change on the Women and Men of the range of services such as psychosocial counseling and Caribbean. Pilot Program for Climate Resilience Countries. legal referrals for survivors of GBV. Technical Note No. IDB-TN-02064. Prepared by Value for Women. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0002937. Participation in DRM. It is important to ensure women’s ILO (International Labour Organization). 2018. Women participation in all stages of the DRM cycle. Targets must in Business and Management: Gaining Momentum in the be set up and monitored, and participation documented. Caribbean. Geneva: ILO. This will help consider women’s needs in preparedness for, response to, and recovery from disasters. ILO (International Labour Organization). 2021. Women’s Entrepreneurship Development Assessment: Jamaica. Port Gender-sensitive EWS. Based on the findings for the of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: ILO. https://www.ilo.org/ region on EWS, an audit from a gender standpoint of wcmsp5/groups/public/---americas/---ro-lima/---sro-port_of_ spain/documents/publication/wcms_773071.pdf. the EWS in Jamaica is recommended. In turn, based on the results of that audit, changes can be introduced to Nour, N. N. 2011. “Maternal Health Considerations During improve the gender sensitivity of the ESW. Disaster Relief.” Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology 4 (1): 22–27. Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 15 | Ramesar, C. 2021. “Review of Gender Inequality of Disaster World Bank. No date. DataBank. “Adolescent Fertility Rate and Climate Risk, Cost of Inaction, Mapping of Gender (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19) – Jamaica,” accessed Differentiated Coping and Adaptive Capacities of Key 2021. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.ADO. Vulnerable Groups and Sectors in Jamaica.” Commissioned TFRT?locations=JM. by UN Women. Unpublished Manuscript. World Bank. 2022. Jamaica: Boosting Recovery and Thurston, A.M., H. Stöckl., and M. Ranganathan. 2021. Sustainable Economic Growth. Systematic Country “Natural Hazards, Disasters, and Violence against Women Diagnostic. Report No: 177372-JM. https://documents1. and Girls: A Global Mixed Methods Systematic Review.” worldbank.org/curated/en/099035010312218535/pdf/ BMJ Global Health 6 (4): e004377. https://doi.org/10.1136/ BOSIB09ab23d2d0710955702715362c5e50.pdf bmjgh-2020-004377 World Bank. 2023. Jamaica Gender Assessment. World Watson Williams, C. 2016. Women’s Health Survey 2016 Bank and Canada. https://documents1.worldbank. Jamaica. IDB, STATIN, and UN Women. https://publications. org/curated/en/099154502222328619/pdf/ iadb.org/en/womens-health-survey-2016-jamaica-final- P175282042506702e0a7d100b3087a5be64.pdf. report. WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2018. Caribbean 2017 Hurricane Season. An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Early Warning System, Geneva.  | 16 |  Introduction Photo: ©jzabloski | istock.com 1 Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 17 | 1.1 Disasters and climate risks in Jamaica turn shape their access to endowments, economic opportunities, and voice and agency (World Bank 2012). Jamaica is the third most exposed country in the Often these differences result in a disadvantage for world to multiple hazards, with over 96 percent of the women, especially if they are poor, heads of households, country’s income and population at risk from two or or live in rural areas. The disadvantages faced by more hazards (GFDRR 2022). The primary risks arise women in terms of their resources and decision-making from hurricanes, floods, droughts, earthquakes, storm power are among the factors that affect their capacity surges, and landslides. (GFDRR 2022). Floods are the to prepare, withstand, and recover from disasters. most frequently occurring natural hazard in Jamaica, and, relatedly, landslides are the second most frequently Disaster risk management (DRM) policies and plans occurring hazard in Jamaica (ECLAC 2007). Flooding are more effective and equitable when they recognize and landslides cause damage mostly to infrastructure and respond to gender disparities. Gender differences as well as agriculture, livestock, housing, fishing, health are relevant at all stages of the DRM cycle—during and education facilities, and water supply. Tourism, preparation, response, and recovery from disasters. commerce, industry, food processing, and mining have Research on DRM and gender is often highly also been adversely affected, to lesser extents. The worst contextualized, but there is a growing body of literature impacted are often the poorest—women especially— that provides important insights and findings. For through the loss of livelihoods, infrastructure, and example, it has been shown that including women in services in rural communities. mapping a community’s vulnerability is beneficial for a better identification of risks and vulnerabilities (Cvetkovic Disasters in Jamaica caused around $1.2 billion in et al. 2018; Morrow 1999) and that early warning losses between 2001 and 2010, which represents 9 systems (EWS) are more effective if they consider the percent of the country’s 2020 gross domestic product different vulnerabilities of men and women (Mustafa et (GDP) ($13.81 billion). The damages and losses from al. 2015). Gender-sensitive responses avoid reinforcing Hurricane Ivan in 2004 alone exceeded $350 million or aggravating existing inequalities and allow for a better (World Bank Treasury 2021). Average annual loss from recovery after disasters (Moreno and Shaw 2018). For hurricanes in Jamaica is $67.3 million (0.5 percent of example, given the global evidence that gender-based GDP); from earthquakes it is $36 million (0.3 percent of violence (GBV) can worsen during and after disasters, GDP) (ReliefWeb 2017). measures need to be taken to avert this risk (Thurston, Stöclk, and Ranganathan 2021). Likewise, recovery Looking ahead, climate change models predict that needs to account for women’s constraints, such as the Jamaica could be impacted by an increased frequency care of dependent children and the elderly. of catastrophic natural events because of heightened surface temperatures and global sea level rise (World Bank Treasury 2021). The probable maximum loss for 1.3 Objective and methodology of this hurricanes (250-year return period) is $3.5 billion (25.3 country profile percent of GDP) and for earthquakes (250-year return period) is $2 billion (14.6 percent of GDP). This country profile analyzes gender gaps in the DRM agenda in Jamaica. The purpose of this analysis is to identify areas where gender gaps influence the exposure 1.2 Why gender matters to disaster risk and vulnerability, preparedness, and coping capacity management of different populations based on gender. Identified gender gaps need to be considered when preparing and Disasters are gender neutral, but their impacts are not; implementing DRM policies, programs, and projects gender inequalities affect how men and women are before, during, and after disasters strike to improve their impacted by disasters. In all societies, women and men effectiveness and equity. However, this analysis does have traditionally been assigned different roles and are not replace the need for specific gender assessments subject to different expectations, norms, and beliefs— for a given policy, program, or project, because women and sometimes to outright discrimination—which in are not a homogeneous group and every project raises specific considerations. The target audience is | 18 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility decision-makers in government, especially the agencies data, reports on the impacts of disasters tend to have working closely on DRM, such as the Office of Disaster very limited data that include information on gender. Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM) Evidence about gender in this profile relies heavily on a and Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ); the Ministry of recent gender assessment for Jamaica conducted by Finance and the Public Service, which allocates budget the World Bank and on the report prepared under the for DRM activities; the ministries that participate in Canada-Caribbean Resilience Facility (CRF) Gender- rescue operations, such as the Health Ministry, the Police Responsive Disaster Preparedness and Recovery in the Department, and the Ministry of Human Development Caribbean: A Desk Review (GFDRR 2021), complemented where the Department of Women’s Affairs is hosted; the by other sources (World Bank 2023). The data gaps staff of the World Bank who work directly on DRM or regarding gender and DRM underline the urgency to on other areas that might be of relevance to DRM, such improve sex and age disaggregated data on DRM in as social protection; and other development agencies Jamaica. that participate in the preparation and implementation of projects, programs, or policies in DRM. 1.4 Organization of the profile The profile follows the framework developed by the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) This profile has six chapters. The next chapter, chapter and the World Bank to identify gender dimensions of 2, presents the conceptual framework used in the DRM and resilience (Erman et al. 2021). According to analysis of gender gaps in DRM and climate resilience. this framework, gender gaps are presented according to Chapter 3 presents the legal frameworks and policies (1) exposure and vulnerability, (2) preparedness, and (3) regarding gender, DRM, and climate change. Chapter coping capacity. 4 puts together the risks of disaster faced by Jamaica and discusses how impacts differ according to This desk review draws on global literature on DRM gender in terms of (1) exposure and vulnerability, (2) and gender, reports of damages and loss of disasters preparedness, and (3) coping capacity; it also includes in Jamaica, and several studies and reports about DRM indicators available in Jamaica on gender gaps relevant and gender in Jamaica. It used available “assessment for DRM. The profile ends with a brief reflection of what of damage and loss” of different disasters as reported the World Bank is doing in Jamaica in terms of DRM and by the PIOJ, the Economic Commission for Latin gender and a section on recommendations. Appendix America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the Caribbean A provides tables with gender indicators for Jamaica Development and Cooperation Committee, and the that correspond to the different stages of DMR and ODPEM. PIOJ reports on natural disasters were used.1 that could be useful when preparing a specific gender From 2001 to 2017, 12 reports were published on the analysis. impacts of hurricanes, storms, and floods. While the assessments largely follow the ECLAC methodology for the socioeconomic and environmental assessment of disasters (ECLAC 2014),2 which has a specific section Notes 1. The PIOJ is an agency of the Ministry of Finance and the Public dedicated to the “vulnerability of women and children,” Service. The PIOJ is the foremost planning agency of the very little has been reported directly on the gendered government that seeks to initiate and coordinate the development impacts of disasters in Jamaica. Reports of the Office of policies, plans, and programs for the sustainable development of of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management Jamaica. (ODPEM) in Jamaica refer to the PIOJ reports or have 2. ECLAC was a pioneer in developing the first guidance on Disaster Damage and Loss Assessment (DaLA) in 1991. It is contained in the their own assessment but do not contain information Handbook for Disaster Impact Assessment, which most updated about gendered effects.3 and third edition is from 2014 (ECLAC 2014). It is recommended to complement the DaLA assessments with PDNA (Post-Disaster Primary data on gender and DRM are scarce in general, Needs Assessments) but Jamaica has been conducting only the DaLA. and Jamaica is no exception. Despite a legal framework 3. The ODPEM is an agency of the Ministry of Local Government and and policies that acknowledge the need to collect gender Rural Development. Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 19 | References Moreno, J. and D. Shaw. 2018. “Women’s Empowerment Following Disaster: A Longitudinal Study of Social Change.” Cvetkovic, V. M., G. Roder, A. Öcal, P. Tarolli, and S. Dragićević. Natural Hazards 92: 205–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 2018. “The Role of Gender in Preparedness and Response s11069-018-3204-4. Behaviors towards Flood Risk in Serbia.” International Journal Morrow, B. H. 1999. “Identifying and Mapping Community of Environmental Research and Public Health 15 (12): 2761. Vulnerability.” Disasters 23 (1): 1–18. https://doi. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122761. org/10.1111/1467-7717.00102. ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Mustafa, D., G. Gioli, S. Qazi, R. Waraich, A. Rehman, and R. Caribbean). 2007. Information on Disaster Risk Management: Zahoor. 2015. “Gendering Flood Early Warning Systems: The Case Study of Five Countries: Jamaica. UN and IDB. https:// Case of Pakistan.” Environmental Hazards 14 (4): 312–28. repositorio.cepal.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/de15ae10- https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2015.1075859. eb34-4ada-9058-4749761c0495/content. ReliefWeb. 2017. Country Disaster Risk Profiles: Jamaica. ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Infographic. World Bank Group. https://reliefweb.int/report/ Caribbean). 2014. Handbook for Disaster Assessment. jamaica/country-disaster-risk-profiles-jamaica. Santiago, Chile: United Nations. https://www.cepal.org/en/ publications/36823-handbook-disaster-assessment. Thurston, A.M., H. Stöckl., and M. Ranganathan. 2021. “Natural Hazards, Disasters, and Violence against Women Erman, A., S. A. De Vries Robbe, S. F. Thies, K. Kabir, and and Girls: A Global Mixed Methods Systematic Review.” M. Maruo. 2021. Gender Dimensions of Disaster Risk and BMJ Global Health 6 (4): e004377. https://doi.org/10.1136/ Resilience: Existing Evidence. World Bank, Washington, DC. bmjgh-2020-004377. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/35202. World Bank. 2012. World Development Report 2012: Gender GFDRR (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery). Equality and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. 2021. Gender-Responsive Disaster Preparedness and Recovery in the Caribbean: A Desk Review. CRF. Washington, World Bank. 2023. Jamaica Gender Assessment, DC: World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/ Washington DC: World Bank. https://documents1. curated/en/715131614832136041/pdf/Gender-Responsive- worldbank.org/curated/en/099154502222328619/pdf/ Disaster-Preparedness-and-Recovery-in-the-Caribbean-Desk- P175282042506702e0a7d100b3087a5be64.pdf. Review.pdf. World Bank Treasury. 2021. “World Bank Catastrophe Bond GFDRR (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery). Provides Jamaica with Financial Protection Against Tropical 2022. Jamaïque. World Bank, accessed on January 21, 2022. Cyclones.” Case Study. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/ https://www.gfdrr.org/fr/jamaique. doc/43a111757d3b1ff1cabde80ee7eb0535-0340012021/ original/Case-Study-Jamaica-Cat-Bond.pdf.  | 20 |  Conceptual framework: 2 Identifying gender gaps in DRM and climate resilience Photo: ©isabeltp | istock.com Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 21 | I n the framework used in this work—the Gender Di- vulnerability and preparedness, and coping capacity. mensions of Disaster Risk and Resilience, a frame- Gender inequality (purple circle) arises from the existing work developed by the Global Facility for Disaster Re- roles of men and women in a society, which influence duction and Recovery (GFDRR)—the gendered effects socioeconomic status, level of agency, and the way men of disasters reflect both the nature of the disaster and and women prepare for, react to, are impacted by, and the existing gender inequalities in society. In figure 2.1, recover from disasters. In the overlay (maroon area) are “disaster impacts (orange circle) depend on the hazard the factors that drive disasters impacts, which are also type and intensity, who and what is exposed, levels of influenced by gender dynamics” (Erman et al. 2021). Figure 2.1  Gender dimensions of disaster risk and resilience Disaster Impacts ! Hazard Impact factors shaped by gender dynamics: Exposure Vulnerability Preparedness Cpoing capacity Disaster risk management Society Gender inequality Source: Erman et al. 2021. | 22 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility Gender dynamics and inequalities lead to differential of Erman et al. (2021), but if it were introduced, it would impacts of natural disasters on endowments (health, be affecting both the DRM and the gender inequalities in education, assets); economic outcomes (employment, figure 2.1. How the DRM strategy is actually implemented assets, wages, consumption); and voice and agency will in part depend on these legal frameworks and (child marriage, gender-based violence, women as institutions. The most important ones are related both agents of change).1 These aspects are also inter-related. to the regulations and institutions associated with the Women’s ability to access economic opportunities DRM framework in the country, but the robustness of in adulthood and old age is determined by their the Women’s Affairs Departments in the Ministry of accumulation of human endowments over childhood Human Development also plays an important role, as and youth and their ability to make choices and act they should be interacting effectively with the DRM upon them over their entire lifetime (agency). Gender authorities. The legal framework regarding gender inequalities, in turn, can be worsened by disasters. issues in the country is also relevant, as it affects the actions government take to address these inequalities. Gender inequalities also shape levels of resilience to disasters, from preparedness levels to coping mechanisms that can support recovery. Globally, Note women tend to perceive risks more acutely than men, 1. The classification of impacts follows the World Development but this does not necessarily translate into higher levels Report 2012 framework that also guides the World Bank Group’s of preparation, given gender roles, according to which Gender Strategy. See World Bank 2012. in some contexts men are in charge of preparations (Villarreal and Meyer 2019; WMO 2018). Also, immediate disaster response and evacuation behavior will depend References on access to early warning systems (EWS) and Bleeker, A., P. Escribano, C. Gonzales, C. Liberati, and B. intrahousehold dynamics—for example, responsibilities Mawby. 2021. “Advancing Gender Equality in Environmental for care—that will shape how women and men act on Migration and Disaster Displacement in the Caribbean.” warnings. Access to safe shelters also impacts women’s Studies and Perspectives. ECLAC Subregional Headquarters ability to evacuate in an effective manner. for The Caribbean 46737, Naciones Unidas Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL). https:// The recovery of families and individuals will depend ideas.repec.org/p/ecr/col033/46737.html. on their access to coping strategies. Such strategies Erman, A., S. A. De Vries Robbe, S. F. Thies, K. Kabir, and include access to savings, remittances, and assets M. Maruo. 2021. Gender Dimensions of Disaster Risk and and to government support. They also include the Resilience: Existing Evidence. World Bank, Washington, DC. type of livelihood that is available and the ability to http://hdl.handle.net/10986/35202. switch income sources in the aftermath of a disaster. An alternative coping strategy is adaptation through Giles Álvarez, L. and J. Khadan. 2020. Mind the Gender Gap: migration. For example, data on the impacts of COVID-19 A Picture of the Socioeconomic Trends Surrounding COVID-19 in Caribbean countries, including Jamaica, show that in the Caribbean with a Gender Lens. Technical Note No. women spent more time than men in caring for the IDB-TN-2094. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development household, children, and the elderly (Giles Álvarez and Bank. https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/ document/Mind-the-Gender-Gap-A-Picture-of-the- Khadan 2020), which affects their ability to look for a Socioeconomic-Trends-Surrounding-COVID-19-in-the- job, restore their livelihoods, or reconstruct their houses. Caribbean-with-a-Gender-Lens.pdf. This unequal assignment of roles between genders also impacts women’s ability to migrate, another known Villarreal, M. and M. A. Meyer. 2019. “Women’s Experiences strategy to cope with disasters (Bleeker et al. 2021). Across Disasters—A Study of Two Towns in Texas.” Disasters The institutional and legal framework are part of 44 (2): 285–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12375. the context that affects both how the disaster risk WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2018. Caribbean management (DRM) is implemented and how gender is 2017 Hurricane Season: An Evidence-Based Assessment of addressed in society. Both will have an effect on how the Early Warning System. Geneva: WMO. the disasters impact women and men differently. This dimension was not considered in the original framework World Bank. 2012. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.  | 23 | Gender integration in 3 DRM and climate change: Legal frameworks, policies, and institutions Photo: ©isabeltp | istock.com | 24 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility J amaica’s disaster risk management (DRM) and their full potential as individuals and to create avenues climate change policies refer to gender, but they for their full integration in national development. The do not include policy outcomes or indicators ministry’s three main functions are Research and to monitor progress. DRM and climate change Policy Development, Public Education and Training, and policies usually do not go beyond statements about the Project Planning and Monitoring.2 However, the Bureau importance of assessing the specific needs of women of Gender Affairs has some challenges to overcome in DRM activities. They do not provide details about rele- to carry its mission. It lacks institutional support, has vant strategies or actions needed to fulfill gender-specif- limited financial resources, and faces human resource ic commitments, and they do not include outcomes or constraints, all of which constitute obstacles to reach its indicators to monitor them. objectives (CDB 2016). The extent of women’s participation in DRM and climate For DRM, the key agency is the Office of Disaster change policy making is not documented. There is Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM). also no evidence that women’s organizations are The ODPEM is the National Disaster Organization, an involved in the design, adoption, or implementation of agency of the Ministry of Local Government and Rural DRM or climate change policies. Therefore, this policy Development. It is responsible for disaster management environment needs to be improved, especially regarding in Jamaica and has been charged with the responsibility its ability to monitor concrete results. of taking action to reduce the impact of disasters and emergencies on the Jamaican population and its Gender-based violence (GBV) is also not considered in economy. It plays a coordinating role in the execution DRM activities or policies (GFDRR 2021). There is no of emergency response and relief operations in major consideration of GBV in disaster settings, no provision disaster events.3 There is evidence in its mandate, of psychosocial services to GBV and domestic violence mission, and values that the agency is committed to (DV) victims and survivors, and no special measures for integrating gender into the DRM cycle. ensuring a safe environment for women and children living in shelters. This lack is a serious omission given Jamaica’s 2011 National Policy for Gender Equality the high prevalence of GBV in Jamaica, the country’s includes DRM considerations. It commits to involve low capacity to prevent and respond to it, and the strong women “in environmental decision making at all levels evidence at global level indicating that GBV increases and integrate gender concerns and perspectives in during disasters. It is urgent that Jamaica take concrete policies and programs for sustainable development measures to include consideration of GBV during to minimize the differential effects of climate change disasters in policies, strategies, and programs related to and natural disasters” (FAO 2011). However, the DRM. reports on the impacts of disasters in Jamaica by the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) only make ad-hoc There are some strengths in the country’s current references to the situation of women, or none at all, with institutional arrangements for gender, but several no reference to the conditions of shelters or the impacts constraints make their mandate difficult to implement. on GBV. Jamaica stands out as a Caribbean country with gender focal points in all government ministries, departments, and agencies, which have as their key responsibility Notes implementing gender-responsive programs through capacity building and technical assistance (UN Women 1. Information about the Bureau of Women’s Affairs is available through the Jamaica Information Service at https://jis.gov.jm/ 2020). The key government institution relevant to gender government/agencies/bureau-of-womens-affairs/. is the Bureau of Women’s Affairs, which is under the 2. More details about the Bureau of Gender Affairs can be found Ministry of Culture, Gender, Entertainment and Sports. through the Jamaica Information Service at https://jis.gov.jm/ This bureau is mandated to mobilize the government government/agencies/bureau-gender-affairs/. to address the “problems that confront women, given 3. See the ODPEM website at https://www.odpem.org.jm/ for further the impact of patriarchy and sexism.”1 These problems details about this office. include high rates of unemployment and various forms of GBV. The bureau aims to enable women to recognize Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 25 | References Caribbean: Desk Review. Washington, DC: World Bank. https:// www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/gender-responsive-disaster- CDB (Caribbean Development Bank). 2016. Country Gender preparedness-and-recovery-caribbean-desk-review. Assessment: Belize. Caribbean Development Bank. https:// ODPEM (Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency www.caribank.org/publications-and-resources/resource- Management). 2022. library/gender-assessments/country-gender-assessment- belize-2016. UN Women. 2020. Jamaica – National Review Report: Implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Action (1995) and the outcomes of the twenty-third special Nations). 2011. FAOLEX Database: Jamaica: National session of the General Assembly (2000). In the context of Policy for Gender Equality. https://www.fao.org/faolex/ the Twenty-fifth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC149363/#:~:text=The%20 on Women and adoption of the Beijing Declaration and National%20Policy%20for%20Gender,with%20the%20 Platform for Action (1995). https://www.unwomen.org/sites/ National%20Development%20Plan. default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/CSW/64/ GFDRR (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery). National-reviews/Jamaica.pdf. 2021. Gender-Responsive Preparedness and Recovery in the  | 26 |  Gender gaps in Jamaica 4 and DRM Photo: ©benedek | istock.com Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 27 | 4.1 Gender inequalities in exposure and global literature indicates that, in most developing vulnerability to disasters countries, women are more likely than men to die in a disaster, especially if they are from a poor background The most recent gender assessment by the World (Bose-Duker, Henry, and Strobl 2021). In Jamaica, only Bank shows that, while women in Jamaica have made 6 reports on the impacts of disasters out of the 12 progress in health and education and often have higher analyzed inform casualties by gender (PIOJ 2001, 2002, levels of achievement than men,1 significant challenges 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2007, 2008, 2010a, 2010b, 2013, remain, especially around economic inclusion and 2016, 2017). When gender is reported, 64 percent of agency. Women in Jamaica—especially those who are casualties are men. Further analysis would be needed to poor, are heads of household, and live in rural settings— understand drivers of the reported patterns in Jamaica. can be at a significant disadvantage when natural disasters strike. This differentiated impact is not always Although there are no data on morbidity by gender during fully recognized. disasters, inferences suggest that differences based on gender do exist. Men in Jamaica tend to engage in Patriarchal norms dominate in Jamaica. A number of risky behaviors such as cigarette smoking, drinking, and studies document the role of patriarchy in Jamaica and drug abuse in larger numbers than women. At the same how women are viewed centrally as caregivers despite time, men have a high rate of homicide—which is not the important role that female-headed households surprising, given that Jamaica has one of the highest (FHHs) play (Blank 2013; Prior 1997; Smith 1988). While rates of intentional male homicides in the world (106.6 93 percent of respondents think that a woman should per 100,000 males in 2017, down from its peak of 113.1 be able to spend her own money, 70 percent of them in 2009) (World Bank, no date-d). According to the global think that a woman’s role is to take care of their home literature, high rates of alcoholism and drug abuse are and 30 percent believe that violence between a husband associated with an exacerbation of these behaviors after and wife should be a private matter (Watson Williams a disaster (North et al. 2011). This, in turn, is associated 2016). with an increased risk of gender-based violence (GBV) (Shiva, Shukla, and Chandra 2021), which indicates an Direct evidence on the differentiated impacts of increased risk of GBV after a disaster that could be of disasters by gender is scarce in Jamaica. However, using special concern in Jamaica. global evidence on disaster risk management (DRM) and gender, as well as data from Jamaica on gender In addition, women generally reported suffering more and disasters, inferences about these differences can than men from mental health issues. For example, be made. The next section presents an analysis of the because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the high-frequency impacts of disasters on endowments (through health phone survey (HFPS) for Jamaica shows that 20, and education), followed by an analysis of economic 29, and 22 percent of women reported experiencing impacts (in the form of employment, wages, assets, difficulties in sleep, anxiety, or more aggressive behavior, and consumption) and, finally, an analysis of impacts on respectively, while men reported these at 14, 22, and 12 voice and agency. percent respectively. In fact, globally, it has been found that women suffer more from anxiety, distress, and 4.1.1. Impacts on endowments: Health and depression when confronted with job loss, financial education insecurity, and the rise of unpaid care needs—all of which happen after disasters (de Paz Nieves, Gaddis, The two main endowments that are impacted are health and Muller 2021). Thus, particular attention needs to be and education. Each is addressed below. paid to providing mental health assistance to women when planning for disaster response and recovery in Health Jamaica. In Jamaica, the available data on casualties that result High maternal mortality and adolescent pregnancy from disasters disaggregated by sex show that more rates combined with data on disasters in Jamaica point men than women die during disasters, which is unusual to the need to address access to quality health care for for countries with a similar level of development. The pregnant women, especially during disasters. Maternal | 28 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility mortality rates have stagnated since 2000, at 80 deaths for abuses against girls and women before and during per 100,000—far above most comparator countries disasters, and ensuring access to reproductive services. in the Caribbean (where the average is 57 deaths per 100,000) and far above countries of a similar income Nutrition is adversely affected during disasters by the level (World Bank, no date-a). While service coverage loss of livelihoods, agricultural production, and fisheries. appears to be high, there are quality challenges, This is especially acute for pregnant women, single including weak surveillance and monitoring; a shortage female households, and children. Global evidence of midwives and nurses (UNFPA 2017); and delays in indicates that pregnant and lactating women and young seeking appropriate medical help because of their children are the most vulnerable to undernutrition (WHO costs, poor education or information, and difficulties 2020). During hurricane Ivan in Jamaica, the Ministry of in reaching adequate facilities because of distance or Health indicated that “12,500 children could be at risk poor infrastructure. At the same time, access to health for folic acid deficiency due to the expected shortage care facilities in Jamaica is interrupted by damage to of fruits and vegetables, which will not be available to facilities, shortage of personnel, loss of medicines, and pregnant women” (PIOJ 2004). Recent surveys in the impassable roads or bridges. This all affects the quality context of the COVID-19 pandemic also provide hints of health care received, including for pregnant women. of what could be happening during and after natural disasters, in which single women’s diet was more In a recent study on climate change, DRM, and gender affected than the diets of men and their partners: in the in Jamaica using focal groups, it was found that Caribbean region, close to half (48 percent) of single Jamaicans resort to improvised clinics run by a nurse females reported a worsening diet compared to 42.5 if one is available in the community or by local senior percent of single males and their partners. Also, single women, and to the use of traditional medicines and females reported the highest incidence of going to practices (Ramesar 2021). In a context where maternal bed hungry (36 percent) according to the World Bank mortality is already high, pregnant women are also most Group’s HFPS.2 Special attention to nutrition needs to at risk because deliveries are carried out in improvised be paid to pregnant and lactating women, children, and clinics and women are treated with local remedies after single female households during disasters in Jamaica. delivering (Ramesar 2021). Particular attention needs to be paid to ensuring access to appropriate health services Disasters also affect water supply, which has for pregnant women during disasters in Jamaica. disproportionate impacts on women’s workload and their health outcomes. Globally, gender roles make women The adolescent fertility rate in Jamaica is 50 births per responsible for fetching water for the home. In Jamaica, 1,000 women ages 15–19, which is above the upper- women typically carry around 17–35 percent more liters middle income average (29.5) (World Bank, no date-b). of water daily than men (Vassell 2009). Globally, during Teenage pregnancy leads to poorer outcomes in disasters, especially in rural areas, women may need education and the labor market (Azevedo et al. 2012); to travel longer distances to fetch water for the family; it also increases health risks for the mother and the this can lead to health problems (Panthea, Nagabhatla, baby (WHO 2024).Teenage pregnancy in Jamaica is and Mileto 2020). Women also have an increased risk of more prevalent among girls from low socioeconomic, harassment and violence while traveling to and from a rural, and inner-city communities that tend to have a water collection point (Sommer et al. 2015). Increased high incidence of poverty, crime, and single-parent and time dedicated to fetching water will also negatively extended-family households (World Bank 2023). These impact their ability to find employment and restore their tend to coincide with the population that is affected the livelihoods. Therefore, given that women in Jamaica most during disasters (PIOJ 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005a, have more responsibilities than men in fetching water 2005b, 2007, 2008, 2010a, 2010b, 2013, 2016, 2017). for the home, the government needs to pay special The heightened risk of adolescent pregnancy in areas attention to the negative consequences that interruption where the most vulnerable populations live, coupled with in water supply during disasters can bring to women, an increased risk of GBV during disasters, means that especially rural women. Greater participation of women there is a need to pay special attention to adolescent in deciding on the location of water points, better access girls by, for example, providing a safe environment to clean water during disasters, and safety measures for during evacuation, developing prevention campaigns the collection of water should all be considered. Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 29 | As women in Jamaica typically bear the brunt of caring rates of boys and girls in Jamaica during disasters. for the sick, they disproportionately feel the effects of Notwithstanding, the PIOJ reports on the impacts of rising incidence of sickness, disease, and injury among disasters make clear the effects of school and daycare family members caused by disasters. This can also closings on women, and there are plenty of references increase their levels of stress and impair their ability to to closing schools and childcare caused by disasters in pursue employment or migrate and recover economically Jamaica. For example, in 2004, Hurricane Ivan severely from the disaster. Data collected during the COVID-19 damaged 1,000 public schools and over 204,000 school pandemic is a good indication of the gender impacts children were affected (Spencer, Polachek, and Strobl on time dedicated to domestic work and childcare 2016), which reduced school attendance in Jamaica during disasters. The World Bank Group’s HFPS in (Raeburn 2013). In 2007, during Hurricane Dean, 1,237 the Caribbean, which included Jamaica, showed that children and their caregivers were affected by damage women experienced larger increases in domestic work to 19 residential childcare facilities, six of which were and childcare: 45 percent of women and 35 percent of run by government (PIOJ 2007). And in 2022, Hurricane men reported an increase in time dedicated to domestic Nicole damaged 147 schools, of which 44 percent were work. And 61 percent of women reported an increase primary schools; the damage was exacerbated by the in childcare activities, compared to 51 percent of men loss of electricity and inaccessibility due to impassable (Giles Álvarez and Khadan 2020). roads, affecting education in the country (PIOJ 2010a). Clearly, Jamaica needs to better assess the effects of During Hurricane Michelle, the main concern of the the closing of education and childcare facilities during Ministry of Health was “the wide scale of destruction disasters on girls, boys, and women, and provide ways and damage to water supplies, houses, and pit latrines, to support these groups and the facilities. inadequate solid waste management, pooling of water and lack of road access to some communities, placing 4.1.2. Economic impacts the affected populations at risk for diseases and illness” (PIOJ 2001). At the same time, “due to an increase in The areas of economic impact from a disaster vector borne diseases (typhoid, malaria, West Nile virus, are addressed by considering employment and dengue and hemorrhagic fevers), there is an increased unemployment, issues confronting female-headed risk of health impairment in the affected communities.” households (FHHs), and topics of women in small The report of Hurricane Ivan (PIOJ 2004) indicates that business and women in agriculture and fishery. Each of “Hurricane Ivan may have impacted many people across these is addressed in the sections below. the island but the group that seems to be the most affected may be Jamaica’s women and children.” Thus, Unemployment and employment during recovery it is important to support women after hurricanes in caring for the sick and children, especially FHHs, so that The global literature shows that women experience they can dedicate more time to recovering livelihoods or higher levels of unemployment than men after a disaster, finding new jobs. but there are no specific data for Jamaica. During disasters, women are more likely to face unemployment Education than men, and they also face more difficulties in re- entering the labor market after a disaster (Erman et al. The disruption of educational and childcare services 2021). Acevedo (2015) analyzes the extent to which associated with disasters in Jamaica often means an labor supply changes in response to extreme weather increase in the workload for women and their levels of events. Using individual supply changes in the Caribbean stress. The closing of schools could also have different part of Colombia, the study finds that the probability of effects on girls and boys as families make decisions unemployment increases by 7 percent among women about who continues their education and who will help in a municipality that has experienced at least one with additional home chores or additional sources flood. This was 3 percent higher than men. Similarly, of income. Evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic after Hurricane Katrina, women were substantially less shows that more boys than girls drop out of school likely than men to keep their pre-hurricane employment as a result of school closings. However, there is no or a job of similar status (Zottarelli 2008). Several specific evidence of what happens in terms of dropout other studies, although based on anecdotal evidence | 30 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility and indirect inferences, state that women had greater women also tend to concentrate in low-productivity employment losses after Hurricane Mitch, which hit and lower-paid sectors and occupations. In 2019, several Central American countries (Bradshaw 2004; the wholesale, accommodation, education, and other Enarson 2000); they were also slower to re-enter the recreation services—the least productive sectors in waged labor market than men (Delaney and Shrader the Jamaican economy—employed 73 percent of 2000). Jamaican women workers. In contrast, men are more likely to be employed in the most productive sectors In Jamaica, unemployment rates are much higher among such as mining and transport (ILO 2018). Sectoral women than men, and evidence from the impact of gender segregation in Jamaica is explained by gender COVID-19 in that country provides a proxy indicating that differences in educational level, gender stereotypes, women suffer higher unemployment than men during and labor market discrimination (UNECE 2020). The and after a disaster. The gender gaps in unemployment unequal distribution of household responsibilities may in Jamaica, according to World Development Indicators, also contribute to sectoral segregation as women, are at 5 percentage points between women and men particularly mothers, tend to choose lower-paying jobs 15–65 years old and 9 percentage points among those that offer more flexibility in terms of hours of operation, 15–24 years old, and they are above those observed location, and mobility so they can fulfill their household on average in Latin America and the Caribbean and in responsibilities. Finally, it was found that in several upper- and middle-income countries In the Caribbean. Caribbean countries, including Jamaica, men have more Although there is no direct evidence of the different mobility than women who have care responsibilities impacts on unemployment for men and women after during disaster recovery. Men can go to other cities or natural disasters, data from the impact of COVID-19 in regions in search of work, while rural women will face Jamaica should be a good indication. COVID-19 had a more difficulties in doing so given their roles as caregivers negative impact on the Jamaican economy, with total in the household (IDB 2020b). This evidence suggests employment falling by 10.8 percent in 2020, while that placing special emphasis on supporting women’s there was a 51.2 percent increase in the number of needs and overcoming their vulnerabilities is needed unemployed (STATIN 2020). This had a disproportionate during the reconstruction phase. This can be done by effect on women. According to STATIN and using the helping women acquire new skills in construction, for July 2020 Labour Force Survey (LFS), while males example, or by providing childcare options to mitigate or experienced a reduction of employment of 10.5 percent, remove the gendered uneven distribution of household women experienced a reduction of 11.2 percent. and child caring responsibilities. In Jamaica, women also face vulnerabilities in the labor market that post-disaster reconstruction should take into Female-headed households: A vulnerable group account. Evidence indicates that women face obstacles in the labor market in Jamaica, especially because Several reports in Jamaica suggest that FHHs are hard of their household and caregiving responsibilities— hit by disasters. They were over-represented among they have less time available to work, which impacts persons reporting damage after Hurricane Ivan (PIOJ the types of jobs they can hold. As a consequence, 2004). According to the 2012 JSLC, of those household women lag behind men in labor participation. About 51 heads who reported their houses completely destroyed, percent of women are actively working or looking for a 48 percent were women; those who reported severe and job, compared to 73 percent of men; this discrepancy minor damage were 57 percent and 54 percent women, appears to be driven by differences in the distribution of respectively—whereas their share in the population is household and caregiving responsibilities. In the most 45.6 percent (PIOJ and STATIN 2012). Earlier reports recent Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions (JSLC) of flooding and landslides (PIOJ 2002) indicated that (PIOJ and STATIN 2018), 45 percent of women reported “in all instances, more than 30 percent of households paid work as a main activity, compared to 63 percent are headed by women. In four communities, women of men, and more than twice the number of women headed more than 40 percent of households, and in one reported being at home. Women dedicated 18 percent community [this] was 54 percent.” It was also reported of their time daily to unpaid care and domestic work, that “anecdotal evidence suggests that additional stress compared to men, who spend 8 percent. Jamaican was caused in FHHs as floods damaged or destroyed Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 31 | additional sources of income, such as livestock, and in planting, weeding, irrigation, and processing, and they particular chickens.” These households typically have tend to care for subsistence crops for their households fewer resources to repair damage to their houses. Not (IDB 2020b). However, women represent only 30 percent only do they have less access to financial resources, but of registered farmers in Jamaica (FAO and CDB 2019), they also lack the skills to do the repairs themselves. their plots tend to be smaller (accounting for 11 percent of cultivated land) (FAO and CDB 2019), they tend to own FHHs make up a significant proportion of the population less land, and they have less access to inputs and credit. in Jamaica and are particularly vulnerable. Jamaica has one of the highest incidences of FHHs in the Likewise, in the Caribbean fishery sector, it is recognized world. According to the 2012 JSLC, 45.6 percent of that men tend to fish while women work on the all households in Jamaica are female headed, with processing and marketing side of the industry—but 26 percent of these households contain a male adult women are involved in other productive activities that resident (Bose-Duker, Henry, and Strobl 2021). Evidence are not captured by the data. Most data fail to capture shows that the incidence of poverty is higher among the actual contributions of small-scale fisheries single FHHs (second highest of all households, 11 and aquaculture to employment, production, and percent), and close to twice the rate among male-only consumption (FAO 2013). Few women are included households (6 percent of all households) (IDB 2020b). in fisheries decision-making bodies. As a result of These vulnerable FHHs need to be considered when misrepresentation and exclusion, the needs of women preparing for, responding to, and recovering from may not be appropriately considered in the recovery disasters by providing them with additional support to efforts. deal with the consequences of disasters and ensure a good recovery. This support can come in the form, for Women in the Caribbean, including Jamaica, were found example, of the provision of extra income, support for to have less access to land, training, and technology childcare, quotas in reconstruction work, and training in than men. According to the Food and Agriculture the skills necessary to re-build more resilient houses. Organization of the United Nations (FAO), only 5 percent of agricultural extension services globally are directed toward women, and only 15 percent of agricultural Women in agriculture and fishery extension personnel are women (FAO and CDB 2019). In addition, the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Reports of natural disasters in Jamaica tend to highlight found that agriculture extension services in the region losses by male farmers and downplay losses by female are not sufficiently sensitized to these challenges of farmers. But women’s contributions to agriculture are this lack of support (Rawwida Baks and Associates more significant than depicted, and they face more 2016). Therefore, women in agriculture are doubly obstacles to becoming more productive than men disadvantaged in their access to both the hard and do. There is an assumption that male farmers are the soft resources necessary to improve production and most affected by losses in agriculture caused by floods resilience. The PIOJ report on flood rains and landslides and landslides, while portraying losses by women as in association with Hurricane Michelle (October- marginal and mostly associated with loss of produce November 2001) in Jamaica in fact points out that “the in their backyard gardens, small livestock such as general acreage owned and accessed by women in the chickens that are additional sources of income, and affected parishes, is in many cases smaller than the loss of stocks in small shops. For example, Hurricane average household, thus further limiting their capacities Ivan reportedly led “women in communities (who) were to withstand external shocks” (PIOJ 2001). farmers lost crops, lost stocks in small shops and produce from their backyard gardens” (PIOJ 2004). There are no legal restrictions on the inheritance of assets However, the agricultural sector in Jamaica is a key or ownership of land in Jamaica—but, by tradition, land source of employment in rural areas: it employed 15 and cooperative membership are passed down to male percent of the total workforce in 2018 (World Bank, no family members (IDB 2020b). Women’s lack of access date-c), and it represents 9 percent of women’s total to farmer’s association and groups not only prevents employment (Rajack-Talley 2016). Women contribute their access to decision-making but to information and to the primary production of cash crops by harvesting, technical assistance that is channeled through those | 32 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility bodies (IDB 2020b). Likewise, the low registration of emergency and curtails their ability to access aid and women as farmers may be a reflection of cultural norms other resources during recovery and reconstruction. that favor men to own land, hold the registration of their The evidence suggests an urgent need for gender- farms, and participate in cooperatives (FAO and CDB sensitive disaster risk reduction policies; the inclusion 2019). of women in disaster management; the promotion of social protection programs; and the establishment of Women and small business coordination systems between disaster management, Women have high rates of financial account ownership, law enforcement, and health authorities to prevent GBV at 78 percent, almost on par with men, but female- and treat its health consequences. led businesses tend to be smaller and concentrate in specific sectors. Jamaican women account for 61 Evidence from a range of countries—such as Haiti and the percent of businesses with no employees, and these United States during Hurricane Katrina—indicates that businesses are concentrated in wholesale and retail (74 women and girls are at higher risk for GBV and domestic percent of women-owned businesses are in wholesale abuse, trafficking, and forced marriages during disasters and retail) and in agriculture (19 percent 19 percent (Nour 2011). There is a risk of exploitation, including of women-owned businesses are in agriculture). Most sexual abuse for food, shelter, and even security (Nour Jamaican women entrepreneurs started their business 2011). Globally, violence is also common in shelters in their peak reproductive years, have secondary/ and camps because of a lack of protection and support technical education or above, and were married or in for women as well as the presence of alcohol and drug union. These findings suggest that women with a better abuse and general lawlessness, among other factors socioeconomic status engage in entrepreneurship (ILO (Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women 2021). Identified challenges for female entrepreneurship 2010; UNFPA 2021). Women’s health (especially mental include the lack of an enabling environment to balance health) and educational achievements, and thus their work and family responsibilities; limited access to economic and social inclusion, can be adversely financial and non-financial services, markets, and affected by this violence. GBV has a detrimental technology; and little time to participate in business impact on survivors and their children, and as a result networks (ILO 2021). To encourage women’s small on the society as a whole. Specific data for Jamaica businesses, more support for female entrepreneurship are not available on GBV prevalence during disasters is needed in Jamaica. This could be provided as access and no data have been found regarding the situation to financial and non-financial services, markets, and of shelters in the country. Even though the reports on technology, as well as affordable daycare options. This natural disasters show that Jamaica has a widespread would make women more resilient to disasters and structure of shelters, information on GBV in shelters is create more options for their recovery. not available.3 Therefore, an effort needs to be made in Jamaica to collect better data on the incidence of GBV 4.1.3. Voice and agency: Gender-based violence during disasters, improving management protocols for and women as agents of change shelters and monitoring during disasters, and all the actions necessary to prepare essential actors—such Gender-based violence as the health sector, police, and DRM authorities at all Globally, disaster and emergency settings have been levels—to prevent and mitigate the incidence of GBV found to increase the risk of physical and sexual violence during disasters. for women and girls (World Bank 2015). A recent systematic review published in the British Medical Journal The high levels of GBV incidence in Jamaica leads to Global Health (Thurston, Stöckl, and Ranganathan 2021) the assumption that Jamaica is no different from any suggests that exposure to disasters can increase GBV other country that suffers disasters, and it too probably in various settings through an increase of stressors that experiences an increase of GBV during these events. trigger GBV, enabling environments that allow GBV to As many as one in four women in Jamaica reported occur, and an exacerbation of underlying drivers of GBV. having experienced physical abuse in their lifetime, In addition to the direct harm, Violence against women and one fifth reported sexual abuse during childhood and girls also prevents women and girls from accessing (Watson Williams 2016). The higher a woman’s services or securing shelters/safe spaces during an educational level, the less likely she is to experience Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 33 | intimate partner physical violence. However, the group international minimum threshold for leadership and of women who reported being sexually abused as participation at national level (UN Women, no date). children show no significant differences in terms of Participation of women in elected seats in deliberative education, age, employment status, or union status. The bodies of local government is even lower, at 18.3 percent main perpetrators of violence against girls in Jamaica in 2016. This contrasts sharply with the high proportion were friends or acquaintances (22.9 percent), complete of women in managerial positions, at 56.7 percent in strangers (16.5 percent), and family members other 2022 (UN Women 2022). than parents or siblings (15.9 percent) (Watson Williams 2016). Violence against women in Jamaica goes largely In the context of DRM, it is crucial that women participate unreported. More than half the survivors (63 percent) and are included in policy making and implementation did not seek any help, while the rest turned to the police processes. However, statistics on the number of women (32 percent) or the health care system (12 percent). in DRM and climate change decision-making processes However, over two in five survivors who sought help in Jamaica are lacking (GFDRR 2021). Notwithstanding, did not get any. The majority of women who received according to the Office of Disaster Preparedness and help did so from friends and family members (Watson Emergency Management (ODPEM) website, women Wiliams 2016). Therefore, the country’s system for do have representation in the DRM office in Jamaica, addressing GBV is in dire need of improvement. which indicates that women’s participation in DRM is improving. The main managerial positions, such as Jamaica has strategic action plans to end GBV, laws Director General and the Deputy Director General, are on domestic violence, and comprehensive laws on men. However, two other positions in the managerial human trafficking. In 2019, the government of Jamaica team—the Senior Director of Project Development, launched its 10-year National Strategic Action Plan to Implementation and M&E and the Regional Disaster Eliminate Gender-Based Violence in Jamaica (2017- Coordinator of the North Region—are both women. Out 2027) (Hartman Reckord 2019). The country’s main law of the 4 Regional Disaster Coordinators, 3 are women, regarding domestic violence is the Domestic Violence and out of the 14 Parish Disaster Coordinators, 13 Act (1996, amended in 2004), which provides protection are female. Thus, it would be important to keep the for victims of GBV and DV and makes provision for a momentum for women’s participation in DRM and third party to start legal proceedings on behalf of DV increase these women’s awareness and knowledge on victims. In 2021, the government sent a new draft bill gender issues during and after disasters, so that they to Parliament to broaden the scope of the definition can make informed decisions. of DV beyond physical violence. Jamaica has also a Trafficking in Persons Act (2007, amended in 2013 The inclusion of women and other vulnerable groups and 2018), which covers prevention, suppression, and in DRM policy-making cycle is beneficial for disaster punishment of human trafficking. Thus, Jamaica has response and recovery support (Arnold and de Cosmo the legal underpinnings necessary to have a successful 2015). In Jamaica, the participation of women in strategy for GBV in DRM, but the different actors and community hazard mapping, for example, helped to their coordination during emergencies needs to be more effectively identify high-risk areas and critical bolstered and shelter protocols updated accordingly, facilities and infrastructure that might be affected by a while the data collection and analysis needs to be disaster event (ODPEM 2015). improved. 4.2 Gender inequalities in preparedness Participation of women in society and DRM The agency of Jamaican women remains poor, with How families, communities, and nations prepare for persistently low levels of representation in elected disasters can shape the extent and patterns of loss of positions at national and local levels, although it has life, property, and livelihoods. Gender can contribute improved in the last years (CIWiL 2020). There was a to the factors that determine disaster preparedness. 28.6 percent representation of women elected to the These include socioeconomic status, risk perception, Jamaican Parliament in 2020—up from 17.1 percent education, access to information and media, and in 2016. This number is still below the 30 percent previous disaster experience (Wachninger et al. 2013). | 34 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility Preparedness includes early warning systems (EWS)— indicate how the information is utilized, especially given both their existence and knowledge about them—and the gendered division of labor inside the household. knowledge of safe evacuation behavior and routes. Gender inequalities can induce behaviors not conducive A recent assessment of EWS in the Caribbean 2017 to effective action following a warning. To be effective, hurricane season, which included Dominica, Antigua EWS should provide accurate information adapted to and Barbuda, and Sint Maarten, concluded that these gender perceptions, in a timely fashion, that can be systems do not adequately include gender dimensions appropriately disseminated so that it elicits an adequate (WMO 2018). It was found that, in these three countries, response from communities and individuals. There are relevant information on social and gender vulnerability still knowledge gaps in how men and women use the and cultural practices are not included systematically information they receive as well as how they respond in the EWS (Collymore 2016). Also, the participation and react to EWS (Erman et al. 2021). of the national gender bureaus in the three countries was negligible or nonexistent in the design and A recent study that focused on Nepal and Peru also implementation of EWS. It was also noted that these shows that marginalized gender groups risk being bureaus are also understaffed, under-resourced, and excluded from disaster risk reduction (DRR) policies, may lack the human and financial resources to support strategies, and decision-making as DRR processes are the EWS process (Kambon 2017). Although the study not currently designed to enable them to engage. For did not include Jamaica, the situation there might be example, marginalized gender groups participate less similar, although more analysis is needed to better in EWS initiatives because of their domestic roles, lack understand Jamaica’s specific situation. of autonomy, mobility challenges, social isolation and persecution, and gendered assumptions (for example, According to the same assessment, women and men in households with both men and women, it is men who tend to receive information through different means, represent their households, not women). Marginalized have different risk perceptions, and perform different gender groups demonstrate high levels of interest in roles in preparedness. While men reported that they participation in DRR and EWS initiatives but feel their shut down all their activities to pay attention to the news voices do not matter or are not welcome. Proactive on radio and TV, women reported that they were busy efforts are needed to include the needs, priorities, and with housework and childcare and did not have time capabilities of marginalized gender groups—such as to watch the news. Women received the news through disabled women and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, social media, and often through messages received from and queer (LGBTQ) populations—and magnify their relatives abroad (Kambom 2017). More information on voices at every stage of the EWS (Brown et al. 2019). this topic is needed in the case of Jamaica. Focus groups conducted for the same study (WMO 2018) showed Information on the use of the internet in Jamaica shows that people’s trust in the information as well as their risk a reverse gap where women have more internet access perceptions and decision-making roles influence how than men, but better access to EWS does not indicate they react to the warning information received. Results how the information is utilized, given intrahousehold showed that, while women have a higher perception of dynamics. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) risk for themselves and their family, men usually take a data from 2018 show that there is a significant gap of procrastinating attitude and make preparation actions 5 percent between access to the internet by men (73 at the last minute (Ormsby 2013). If women are heads percent) and women (78 percent) favoring women. of households, they might experience more constraints This is encouraging for the possibility of reaching out in preparing because their resources are more limited people with EWS regardless of gender. With access to (WMO 2018). the internet, the government could set up a website with real-time updates on dangerous areas and access to services, shelters, and so on, thus saving more lives and 4.3 Gender inequalities in coping capacity assets. However, there is also a gap by income, showing that internet access increases significantly the richer When people are struck by a disaster, their ability to you are, pointing to the fact that poor households may recover will depend on their coping capacity. Individual still be at a disadvantage. In addition, the data do not and household coping strategies are related to their Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 35 | savings and wealth, their ability to diversify their income 4.3.2 Livelihoods and jobs sources, access to government support and borrowing capacity, and ability to adapt through migration. It is In terms of livelihoods impacts, it was found that important to evaluate how men and women compare although women in Jamaica may seek jobs such as in this area and how their different roles in society domestic helper, especially in the case of single parents might affect how they are positioned to access these and/or lower-income households, men are more likely strategies. Therefore, it is expected coping capacity will to get employment in post-hazard reconstruction or be affected by gender. migrate (Ramesar 2021). This trend in Jamaica is similar to that of other countries in the Caribbean. For 4.3.1 Remittances example, earlier studies for Grenada also found that the gendered division of labor marginalizes women Remittances are an important strategy during disasters, in the post-disaster labor market, with fewer benefits although they cannot replace government support. from infrastructure development and community There is evidence that remittances play a crucial role rehabilitation projects (ECLAC, UNIFEM, and UNDP during disasters (Deshingkar and Aheeyar 2006; Lindley 2005). Female-headed households in agriculture often 2006), and they are increasingly compared with an rely primarily on agricultural production, which hampers informal or people-based insurance (Ambrosius and income diversification (Bleeker et al. 2021). Thus, in order Cuecuecha 2013). However, research indicates that they to diversify sources of income for the entire population cannot replace government support, given that systems in Jamaica after a disaster, it would be advisable to help of remittances may shut down during emergencies. women—especially in cases where they play double roles More information from different stakeholders (the as breadwinners and the primary person responsible for private sector, government, senders, and recipients) household chores and childcare—and provide them with is needed to determine both possible obstacles and opportunities to acquire skills and fight stereotypes in possible solutions to ensuring that remittance support post-hazard reconstruction efforts. is sustained during disasters (Pairama and Le Dé 2018). Remittances should also be to be well integrated with other government assistance. 4.3.3 Migration Jamaicans rely on loans and gifts from family, including In terms of migration as an alternative strategy to remittances from abroad, during emergencies; women cope with disasters, it was found that, in Jamaica, rely more on them than men. Total remittances in this is an easier option for younger people if they have Jamaica averaged $2,087.87 million from 2001 to acquired skills and especially if they have family ties in 2022, reaching an all-time high of $3,497.10 million in other locations. Meanwhile, women from rural areas, 2021 (during the COVID-19 pandemic) and a record especially older women, may have a harder time opting low of $968 million in 2001 (Bank of Jamaica 2022). A for migration when they are asked or expected to care national survey of remittance recipients conducted by for their relatives and contribute to agricultural tasks the Bank of Jamaica in 2010 found that the majority of while managing the move (Bleeker et al. 2021). Out- the 2,072 remittance recipients interviewed were female migration can bring benefits in terms of remittances (75 percent) while 25 percent were males. Furthermore, and can help households cope with shocks, but it can most of the interviewees were classified as single (60 also create labor shortages in rural areas as “it hampers percent), 34 percent were married or living together, and the availability of farm labor, from the household level, 6 percent were in the “other” category, which included hired labor, and shared labor agreements” affecting divorcees, widows, and so on (Ramocan 2011). Thus, particularly women who remain in the communities when it comes to remittances in Jamaica, women— (Ishemo and Bushell 2017). Further research is needed in especially single women—are the main recipients, which this area to better understand the patterns of migration immediately points out gender differences in terms of after disasters in Jamaica and their impacts on different this particular coping strategy. However, further studies vulnerable women groups in society, including the divide are needed to fully understand the weight of such between urban and rural women. remittances in the overall strategies for recovery in Jamaica by gender. | 36 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility 4.3.4 Savings and social protection A significant number of vulnerable people still remain without any social protection coverage in Jamaica. Based Jamaica stands out as a country in the Caribbean on the 2017 JSLC, the SP PER review estimates indicate in which gender gaps in access to financial services that there are 101,432 poor children (26,698 extremely have closed, which should help in setting up a gender- poor) who are not covered either by the Programme of sensitive emergency social protection scheme, although Advancement through Health and Education (PATH) trends regarding savings by gender are discouraging. In or Poor Relief; 27,954 poor elderly persons (8,070 Jamaica, 79 percent of men and 78 percent of women extremely poor) who are not covered by PATH, Poor have an account at a formal institution. However, a Relief, or the National Insurance Scheme (NIS); 247,790 2020 Inter-American Development Bank survey (IDB poor working-age adults (66,800 extremely poor) who 2020a) that included Jamaica shows that single women are not covered by PATH or Poor Relief; and 14,822 poor have less financial resilience than single men, which people with disabilities (5,186 extremely poor) who are influences their ability to withstand shocks. Single not covered by PATH, Poor Relief, or NIS (page 18 of the females report a lower probability of having at least two SP PER). weeks’ worth of savings, compared to their partners or single males (Giles Álvarez and Khadan 2020). This is There are also concerns regarding the adequacy of probably because women, on average, earn less than payments—that is, even for the people who do receive men. Moreover, women in rural areas have a harder social protection benefits, the amount of money they time accessing financial resources and diversifying receive is not enough to cover their basic needs. Available their income sources. They have less ownership of information indicates that PATH is not generous and land, which serves as collateral to access loans from that people and families receiving the benefit still face financial institutions. Women farmers tend to rely on enormous difficulties. Although it is not possible to non-banking systems (Bleeker et al. 2021). compare the adequacy of PATH with other Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) because of a lack of comparable Jamaica has a system of social protection in place, but variables in the 2017 JSLC, available data show room several of its shortcomings could have a negative direct for improved adequacy. The average annual benefit paid impact on women—those FHHs in particular—during by PATH per beneficiary is estimated at about J$18,825. disasters. According to the Jamaica Social Protection This is equivalent to only 15.33 percent of the national Public Expenditure Review (SP PER) of 2019, carried per capita food poverty line established in the 2017 JSLC out by the World Bank, the following weakness were of J$122,797.60. This is the poverty line that was most detected in the social protection systems in Jamaica: (1) recently used to establish PATH’s benefit increases in coverage gaps, (2) inadequate payments, (3) inadequate the benefit review mechanism. For reference, according targeting mechanism, (4) design issues, (5) inadequate to the ASPIRE database, CCT progress in Latin America cash transfers for public works (World Bank 2019). and the Caribbean pays, on average, about 21 percent of the average income in the poorest quintile. While this Coverage gaps were found in particular for the poorest is not an exact comparison, it is an indication of what and most vulnerable populations, which includes share of benefits may be available for consumption, women (in particular FHHs) affected by disasters. When particularly if assuming that the poor use most of their reviewing coverage of the population that receive only income for consumption (page 19 of the SP PER). direct benefits, this coverage is just above 55 percent of the population, while 17 percent of the population The targeting mechanism for PATH, Jamaica’s main do not receive any type of social protection benefit or social protection program, needs to be reviewed and service. Eighty-three percent of the poorest quintile also revised to improve targeting accuracy and reduce report at least one household member receiving a social inclusion and exclusion errors. Again, this can have assistance, social insurance, or labor market program serious implications for women, especially for FHHs benefit or service. However, as direct beneficiaries, the who are hit disproportionally hard during disasters. It share reduces to 48 percent, with close to 17 percent of is important to note that the PIOJ and the Ministry of the poorest quintile not receiving any benefit at all (page Labor and Social Security are currently working on 15 of the SP PER). updating the current mechanism. This is an opportunity to actually include climate change considerations, such Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 37 | as the most vulnerable places and families as well as food insecurity; (2) by empowering women; and 3) by gender. For determining how to target the families most increasing women’s social capital through participation vulnerable to disasters, a consideration of the quality of in program activities (Botea et al., no date). the house would be a good proxy. The design of the social protection could be improved Notes by including children under school age and cash grants 1. Jamaica presents what are called “reserve gaps” where women for students, which turn out to be especially relevant fare better than men in particular areas. In Jamaica, women have for women and FHHs in particular. Currently there is no higher rates of enrolment in all levels of education than boys, and dedicated benefit for children under school age—such they have higher levels of educational attainment than boys. a benefit would function as a childcare subsidy. This 2. More information about the World Bank’s HFPS can be found at https:// www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/brief/high-frequency- is important given that women dedicate more time to monitoring-surveys#:~:text=The%20COVID%2D19%20 household chores and raising children, which becomes pandemic%20disrupted,frequency%20phone%20surveys%20 an impediment to accessing the labor market. During (HFPS); the library of HFPS is available at https://microdata. disasters, the need to obtain additional income is worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/hfps/?page=1&ps= 15&repo=hfps. magnified and therefore the need to place children under 3. Jamaica has 869 designated shelters for emergencies, most of school age in daycare is also magnified. Also, cash which are government schools, but they are also found in some grants for students represent a low amount, much lower churches, community centers, private schools, and government than the opportunity cost to enter the labor market. This facilities. For a complete list of shelters 2020–21, see https://www. odpem.org.jm/shelters/. has an impact particularly on boys as they have a higher drop-out rate, representing one of the reverse gender gaps in Jamaica. This will be more significant during References disasters when the pressure to get an extra income is higher. Acevedo, M. C. 2015. “The Effect of Extreme Meteorological Events on Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from It may be useful for Jamaica’s government to explore the Colombian Caribbean.” Unpublished Manuscript. strengthening existing public works to support social https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/maria_acevedo/files/ protection objectives. This takes into consideration the labormarkets10dec2015.pdf. high prevalence of poverty among working-age adults in Jamaica, many of whom are neither direct nor indirect Ambrosius, C. and A. Cuecuecha. 2013. “Are Remittances a beneficiaries of social assistance nor covered by social Substitute for Credit? Carrying the Financial Burden of Health Shocks in National and Transnational Households.” World insurance. Improving the design of public works in Development 46 (6): 143–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Jamaica may also improve the government’s ability worlddev.2013.01.032. to rapidly deploy this type of program in communities affected by various climate shocks (as in the case Arnold, M. and S. de Cosmo. 2015. Building Social Resilience: of Mexico’s Temporary Employment Program; see Protecting and Empowering Those Most at Risk. Washington, Discover 2024). Strengthening public works can serve DC: GFDRR. the dual objectives of providing income support to Azevedo, J. P., M. Favara, S. E. Haddock, L. F. Lopez-Calva, affected households and speeding up recovery efforts M. Müller and E. Perova. 2012. Teenage Pregnancy and in a resilient way. In order to include women, these public Opportunities in Latin America and the Caribbean: On works programs need to target them especially, through Early Child Bearing, Poverty and Economic Achievement. quotas and/or by providing training and daycare. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://documents1. worldbank.org/curated/en/742021468225584924/ pdf/831670v10REVIS00Box385190B00PUBLIC0.pdf. Finally, social protection policies can have a positive effect on the prevention of GBV, which tends to increase Bank of Jamaica. 2022. Remittances Bulletin, September during disasters. 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World Bank DataBank. “Intentional and Answers, January 20, 2020. https://www.who.int/ homicides, male (per 100,000 male) – Jamaica,” accessed news-room/questions-and-answers/item/malnutrition- 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/VC.IHR.PSRC. emergencies-and-disasters. MA.P5?locations=JM. WHO (World Health Organization). 2024. “Adolescent Zottarelli, L. 2008. “Post-Hurricane Katrina Employment Pregnancy.” Fact Sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/ Recovery: The Interaction of Race and Place.” Social fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy. Science Quarterly 89 (3): 592–607. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/42956505.  | 42 |  Recommendations Photo: ©Juanmonino | istock.com 5 Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 43 | T he recommendations that follow are on the disasters. Plans and protocols need to be developed to following topics, which include (1) data collec- ensure actions and programs are actually carried out. tion; (2) disaster risk management (DRM) and Training for participants in response to disasters should climate change policies; (3) the provision of incorporate a module on identifying and addressing health services; (4) a better balance between productive women’s needs and the risks of GBV. and reproductive activities; (5) employment, livelihoods, and social protection; (6) gender-based violence (GBV); (7) women’s participation in DRM activities; and (8) gen- 5.3 Provision of health services der-sensitive early warning systems (EWS). Access to mental health counseling and mental health services is needed. Campaigns to restrict risky 5.1 Data collection behaviors in men need to be implemented. These include behaviors such as drinking, violence, and drug Better sex-disaggregated data are needed to design abuse that can have negative consequences for both DRM programs and policies that target the specific men and for women and girls, including through GBV. needs of men and women. More efforts need to be Special attention needs to be paid to treat sickness made in collecting disaggregated gender data when derived from an increase in stress to which women are recording and reporting deaths and injuries; types of especially vulnerable, such as anxiety and depression. injuries and illness, including mental illnesses; access to essential health services; access to sexual and Access to sexual and reproductive services and reproductive health; damage to houses and livelihoods; commodities must be declared essential during decisions regarding access to shelters; GBV occurring disasters. Pregnant women need access to adequate during disasters; and access to funds for the recovery attention during emergencies, including the ability to be of housing, employment, and livelihoods. Better data treated by gynecologists and obstetricians and to have collection will allow for the better design of gender- adequate nutrition. Women of reproductive age should responsive preparedness, response, and recovery have continued access to contraceptives to avoid activities post-disaster. For example, in 2009, after unwanted pregnancies, as well as access to “Dignity Tropical Storm Ondoy and Typhoon Pepeng, the Kits” in communities and shelters.1 Particular attention government of the Philippines passed two laws that should be paid to girls and adolescents who may be established a legal basis for gender mainstreaming in at risk of sexual violence and unwanted pregnancies. climate change and disaster risk management. The Community campaigns need to be used to avoid these 2010 Philippines Disaster Reduction and Management risks. Act institutionalizes gender analysis in early recovery and Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) and requires the inclusion of the Gender Development Office 5.4 Balance between productive and on the newly formed Local Disaster Risk Management reproductive activities Committees. The other law is the requirement of the Gender Development Office on the newly formed Local Policies and programs are needed to help women Disaster Risk Management Committee. better cope with the increased time they dedicate to household chores and the care of children, the injured, and the elderly, particularly in female-headed 5.2 DRM and climate change policies households (FHHs) during and after a disaster. Cash transfers directed to women can secure a regular stream DRM and climate change policies need to be more of income during emergencies when household chores specific in the implementation of actions and and responsibilities increase, especially for FHHs. measures to address women’s needs. Policies need to Programs addressing assistance that helps to care for articulate precise outcomes and indicators to be able children, the injured, and the elderly to avoid increasing to monitor activities. DRM policies should include the women’s workload—such as programs that provide mandate to prevent and respond to GBV risks during childcare or elderly care run by volunteers—should be | 44 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility developed. Access to mental health services needs to providing an integrated microfinance package that be provided to cope with increased levels of stress. includes micro-insurance. Implementing measures to improve water collection It is important to have special programs for housing during disasters will serve to alleviate burdens on reconstruction that target women, particularly FHHs. women’s time and health; it will also reduce the A survey on the quality of housing by type of household risk of GBV when traveling longer distances. Some should be conducted prior to disasters, and then target potential measures during the provision of emergency subsidies and support FHHs that are poor and that lost water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services or in their housing during a disaster so as to promote a quick the context of shelters include: (1) ensuring inclusive recovery. community participation in the identification of better sites for water points, as well as alternative sources of Jobs created by reconstructing infrastructure and water; and (2) escorting women during water collection civil works need to target women. The programs to ensure their safety. need to have a quota for women and provide training to build their skills, increasing their chances of getting employment during this phase. This should be 5.5 Employment, livelihood, and social complemented with stipends, transport, and childcare protection that will increase the likelihood that women can and will participate. For example, after the 2015 earthquake in Given the challenges that women face in the labor Nepal, women played a crucial role in rebuilding efforts, market, especially during emergencies, emergency despite the disproportionate impact that the disaster social protection programs need to target vulnerable had on them. Some women were trained as masons to women. These emergency measures could be added help repair and reconstruct houses, infrastructure, and to social programs to provide cash to help compensate cultural sites to be earthquake proof. for the temporary loss of income, to restore livelihoods, and to support to small businesses. These measures Women in rural areas and women fisherfolk need should particularly target FHHs and poor and rural special attention, as these women tend to be more women. For example, in Uganda, the World Bank and vulnerable than other women to disasters. Inputs and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery technical assistance to restore and improve women’s (GFDRR) are supporting the government to strengthen livelihoods post disaster in rural areas are needed the financial resilience of the poorest through a large to support faster recovery. To increase the overall social protection project that provides employment to resilience of women in rural areas, it is important to the population through labor-intensive public works promote joint ownership of land and the participation projects and direct cash transfers to households of women in cooperatives, and to ensure that women without able-bodied members. The project requires at receive agricultural extension services. It is essential least 40 percent of public works projects’ participants that the contributions of women in agriculture and to be women; some of the activities have to be located fishery are properly assessed and impacts of disasters very close to the villages, meeting the needs of women; recorded. and women’s participation needs to be assured in the community committees. These measures are complemented with skills development training, the 5.6 Gender-based violence provision of livelihood grants, and follow-up mentoring support. Another example comes from the aftermath Data and analysis of GBV risks during disasters is of the Gujarat Earthquake in India in 2001, the Self- needed to inform the design of actions to prevent Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) took an and respond to violence. It is important to incorporate innovative approach to providing insurance for women. GBV considerations into DRM legislation, strategies, They set up village development committees to provide and plans for the provision of services to victims and small loans to the poorest village women. To reduce for prevention, as well as into emergency shelter vulnerability of women to future shocks, SEWA began management protocols. Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 45 | Protocols of emergency shelters can be updated to up quotas for the participation of women in DRM include how to respond to and prevent GBV, including community committees and in trainings on DRM; (3) trainings for workers assigned to emergency shelters. introducing changes in the curriculum of community For example, after the floods of 2012 in Fiji, the trainings to ensure that the roles of women during the government—with the assistance of UN Women— DRM cycle are properly highlighted: what are the current updated guidance for evacuation centers to attend gaps, and how they can be improved; (4) creating women- to the needs of women and girls. Actions can also be only spaces where they can feel more comfortable taken in the aftermath of a disaster, for example, after discussing issues pertaining to reproductive health and 2015 earthquake in Nepal, several multipurpose centers GBV; (5) making sure the meetings of committees and were established by the government, UN Women, and trainings take place in spaces where women will feel women’s groups that reached out to over 40,000 women safe and are at times at are convenient considering their with a wide range of services such as psychosocial household duties. counseling and legal referrals for survivors of GBV. 5.8 Gender-sensitive ESW 5.7 Participation in DRM Based on the findings for the region on ESW, an audit It is important to ensure women’s participation in all of the ESW in Jamaica from a gender standpoint is stages of the DRM cycle. Targets must be set up and recommended. Based on the results of that audit, monitored, and participation documented. This will help changes can be introduced to improve the gender programs to consider their needs in preparedness for, sensitivity of the ESW. response to, and recovery from disasters. In terms of community involvement of women in DRM, Note several suggestions have already been successfully 1. Dignity Kits help women and girls maintain proper hygiene after tried in different countries. These include (1) ensuring being displaced. For more details, see https://www.unfpa.org/ the participation of women at the community level resources/unfpa-basic-dignity-kit. in identifying vulnerabilities to disasters; (2) setting  | 46 |  Appendix Photo: ©Jodi Jacobson | istock.com Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 47 | Appendix A. Gender data for DRM in Jamaica Table A.1 Exposure and vulnerability GENDER GAPS DOMAIN AVAILABLE FACTS SOURCE Health outcomes Mortality rates under 5 years old in 2019 Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency   ● Female: 12.2 per 1,000 live births Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, ● Male: 15.5 per 1,000 live births WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population Division) at www.childmortality.org Adult mortality rates in 2019 UN DESA. 2019. “World Population Prospects: ● Female: 103.3 deaths per 1,000 female population ages 2019 Revision.” 15–59 ● Male: 174.6 deaths per 1,000 male population ages UC Berkeley and Max Planck Institute for 15–59 Demographic Research. 2019. Human Mortality Database. ● Maternal mortality ratio in 2014 (national estimate per WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank, and UNPD. 100,000 live births): > 74 2019. Trends in Maternal Mortality: 2000 to 2017. ● Maternal mortality ratio in 2017 (modeled estimate per Geneva. 100,000 live births): 80 Prevalence of stunting, height for age in 2016 (percent of UNICEF, WHO, and World Bank. Joint Child children under 5 years of age) Malnutrition Estimates (JME) 2016. ● Female: 9 percent ● Male: 9.5 percent Life expectancy at birth in 2017 UN DESA. 2019. “World Population Prospects: ● Female: 76.12 years 2019 Revision.” ● Male: 72.89 years Food security: PIOJ and STATIN. 2017. Jamaica Survey of Living ● 55.3 percent female-headed households reported Conditions. Executive Summary. sufficient food in 2017 ● 60.6 percent male-headed households reported sufficient food in 2017 Household has not had enough food to eat on a daily basis: PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Female headed: 14 percent Conditions 2018. ● Male headed: 9 percent Household has sometimes had enough food to eat on a PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living daily basis: Conditions 2018. ● Female headed: 29 percent ● Male headed: 25 percent | 48 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility GENDER GAPS DOMAIN AVAILABLE FACTS SOURCE Asset ownership, Distribution of agricultural land area PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living access, and right ● Ownership of the land when female head: 41.6 percent Conditions 2018. to use ● Ownership of the land when male head: 40.3 percent ● Difference: 1.3 percentage points Available land for living: PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Land rent free when female head: 30.4 percent Conditions 2018. ● Land rent free when male head: 37.6 percent ● Difference: 7.2 percentage points Management of agricultural land, 2003 da Costa, Jacqueline. 2003. “Land Policy ● Women operate 19 percent of all farms Administration and Management. A Jamaica Case Access to agricultural credit, 2003 Study.” Kingston. ● Women farmers received only 5 percent of the loans granted by the Agricultural Credit Bank USAID. 2010 Landlinks Country Profiles: Jamaica. Household ever received formal credit No data. ● Male (missing) ● Female (missing) Has employment of some kind (ages 14–64) ILOSTAT. 2019. Jamaica Labour Force Survey ● Female: 57 percent 2016. ● Male: 69.6 percent Hours worked (average per week for ages 14–64) ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey ● Female: 22.3 hours 2016. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. ● Male: 30.5 hours Labor income (gross average income last 12 months, local ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey currency) 2016. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. ● Female: 287,000 ● Male: 295,000 Labor income (median) ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey ● Female: 144,000 2016. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. ● Male: 216,000 Own account workers / total workers (ages 14–64) ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey ● Female: 14.8 percent 2016. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. ● Male: 25.3 percent Farming, selling, odd jobs, or hustling PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Male: 8 percent Conditions 2018. ● Female: 4 percent Average time spent on farming activities (hours per week) PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Male: 0.31 Conditions 2018. ● Female: 0.08 Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 49 | Gender gap in EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT education Primary education, 2011, percentage of individuals 25+ years World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 99.35 percent ● Male: 99.13 percent Secondary education, 2011, percentage of individuals 25+ years: World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 64.63 percent ● Male: 56.55 percent Post-Secondary education, 2011, percentage of individuals 25+ World Bank World Development Indicators. years: ● Female: 17.74 percent ● Male: 9.9 percent University education, 2011, percentage of individuals 25+ years: World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 8.35 percent ● Male: 5.17 percent Human Capital Index, 2018, score World Bank Human Capital Index 2018. ● Female: 0.57 ● Male: 0.51 Children out of school, primary, 2019, percentage of children in World Bank World Development Indicators. primary school age: ● Female: 17.12 percent ● Male: 17.18 percent Net enrolment rate, 2018, percentage of children in primary school World Bank World Development Indicators. age: ● Female: 81.8 percent ● Male: 80.9 percent Labor Labor force participation rate for ages 15–24, 2019 World Bank World Development Indicators. employment ● Male: 38.31 percent ● Female: 31.44 percent STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Labor force composition, 2019 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female labor force constitutes 45.9 percent of total labor force STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Part time employment, 2017 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 11.06 percent of female employment ● Male: 9.53 percent of male employment STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Vulnerable employment, 2019 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 30.6 percent of female employment ● Male: 40.2 percent of male employment STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Employment in agriculture, 2019 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 8.22 percent of female employment ● Male: 20.91 percent of male employment STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Employment in industry, 2019 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 5.72 percent of female employment ● Male: 24.68 percent of male employment STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. | 50 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility Employment in services, 2019 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 86.06 percent of female employment ● Male: 54.42 percent of male employment STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Formal sector, 2015 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 51 percent of workers in the formal sector ● Male: 49 percent of workers in the formal sector STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Child labor incidence (7–14 years) 6.2 percent, 2011 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● 6.4 percent among girls ● 6.0 percent among boys STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Children (7–14 years) in unpaid family employment, 2011 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● 80.41 percent of girls in employment ● 79.16 percent of boys in employment STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica.   Informal sector, 2015 World Bank World Development Indicators. ● Female: 38.8 percent of workers in the informal sector ● Male: 61.2 percent of workers in the informal sector STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical Institute of Jamaica.   Informality defined as being own-account worker: PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Female: 34.3 percent Conditions 2018 (16.5 percent urban and 17.8 percent rural) ● Male: 42.4 percent (17.8 percent urban and 24.6 percent rural   Household provides reliable income stream PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Female head: 33 percent Conditions 2018. ● Male head: 42 percent Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 51 | Voice and Women’s experience of physical, sexual, and emotional World Bank World Development Indicators. agency violence ● Physical/sexual violence committed by husband/partner, 2016: 27.8 percent of women ● Physical violence committed by husband/partner, 2016: 25.2 percent of women ● Sexual violence committed by husband/partner, 2016: 7.7 percent of women ● Emotional violence committed by husband/partner, 2016: World Bank World Development Indicators. 28.8 percent of women ● Sexual harassment committed by non-partners, 2016: 24.1 percent of women Sex of households’ head (percentage of households) PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Female: 42.2percent Conditions 2018. ● Male: 57.7percent Sex of households’ head (percentage of households) ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey ● Female: 44.5 percent 2016. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. ● Male: 55.5 percent Proportion of seats held by women in the national parliament, World Bank World Development Indicators. 2019: 17.46 percent Proportion of firms with female top manager, 2010: World Bank World Development Indicators. 24.1percent Average time spent in social activities PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Male: 1.95 hours Conditions 2018. ● Female: 1.77 hours Disciplined by denying food PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● Male: 2.5 percent Conditions 2018. ● Female: 0.9 percent Gender Women’s attitude toward traditional gender roles, 2016, Watson Williams, Carol. 2016. Women’s Health attitudes percentage of women agreeing with the following statements: Survey 2016 Jamaica. IDB, STATIN, and UN- ● It is natural that men should be the head of the household: Women. 77.4 percent ● A woman’s role is to take care of her home: 70.2 percent ● A wife should obey her husband: 32.2 percent Women’s attitude toward women’s empowerment, 2016, Watson Williams, Carol. 2016. Women’s Health percentage of women agreeing with the following statements: Survey 2016 Jamaica. IDB, STATIN, and UN- ● Women and men should share authority in the family: Women. 92.8percent ● A woman should be able to spend her own money: 92.1percent Access to Mobile money account (percent of those ages 15+) World Bank World Development Indicators. information / ● Female: 77.76 percent early ● Male: 79.2 percent warning systems | 52 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility Table A.2 Preparedness DOMAIN AVAILABLE FACTS SOURCE Access to Mobile money account (percent of those ages 15+) World Bank World Development information/ early ● Female: 77.76percent Indicators. warning systems ● Male: 79.2 percent Made or received digital payments in the past year (percent of those Not available. ages 15+) Made digital payments in the past year (percent of those ages 15+) Not available. Received digital payments in the past year (percent of those ages 15+) Not available. 68.2 percent of individuals use the internet World Bank World Development Indicators. Across all quintiles females have more access to the internet: PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey ● Q1 Poorest: Females 66 percent and males 62 percent of Living Conditions 2018. ● Q2: Females 75 percent and males 68 percent ● Q3: Females 81 percent and males 75 percent ● Q4: Females 82 percent and males 78 percent ● Q5 Richest: Females 88 percent and males 82 percent Table A.3 Coping capacity DOMAIN AVAILABLE FACTS SOURCE Access to financial Account ownership at a financial institution or with a World Bank World Development Indicators. assets mobile-money-service provider, 2014, (percent of population ages 15+) ● Female: 77.76 percent ● Male: 79.2 percent Housing loan participants Not available. Received wages in the past year (percent of those Not available. ages 15+) Has employment of some kind (ages 14– 64): ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey 2016. ● Female: 57 percent Statistical Institute of Jamaica ● Male: 69.6 percent Reported a gross average income for the last 12 ILOSTAT. 2016. Jamaica Labour Force Survey 2016. months Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Female: 26 percent Male: 29 percent No deposit and no withdrawal from an account in the Not available. past year (percent of those ages 15+) The private credit bureau coverage (percentage of World Bank World Development Indicators. adults) has increased from 10 to 52 percent in a span of 5 years (2014–19) Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 53 | Access to social Received government payments/subsidies in the past year PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living protection (percent of those ages 15+): Conditions 2018. ● 64.3 percent of female-headed households received benefit from the Program of Advancement through Health and Education in 2017 In 2018: PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● 61 percent of female-headed households had a member Conditions 2018. who received benefits from PATH; this was 2 percentage points more likely than the 59 percent of male-headed households that had a member who received benefits from PATH Among households with elders, only 30 percent received PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living a public sector pension in the past year (percent of those Conditions 2018. ages 64+) Among households with elders, 19 percent received an PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living occupational (private) sector pension in the past year Conditions 2018. (percent of those ages 64+) Received public sector wages in the past year (percent of Not available. those ages 15+) Among households with elders: PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living ● 20 percent received public sector pensions, Conditions 2018. ● 8.5 percent occupational (private) sector pensions, and ● and 10 percent both types of pensions. ● The remaining 61 percent of households with elders received no pension. Labor Workers who received payments for agricultural products in Not available. (stability of the past year (percent of those ages 15+) income, Where men and women work: ILOSTAT. Jamaica Labour Force Survey 2016. number of ● 21 percent of employed men carry out their work at farm Statistical Institute of Jamaica. sources of plantations of farms; only 8 percent of female do. income) ● 7 percent of women work at their family dwelling; only 3 percent of men do. ● 35 percent of employees received payments from self- ILOSTAT. Jamaica Labour Force Survey 2016. employment in the past year (percent of those ages 15+). Statistical Institute of Jamaica. ● Men (40 percent) are 10 percentage ppints more likely to be self-employed than women (30 percent) Workers who borrowed money for health or medical Not available. purposes (percent of those ages 15+) Coming up with emergency funds: possible (percent of Not available. those ages 15+) Coming up with emergency funds: not possible (percent of those ages 15+) | 54 | Canada Caribbean Resilient Facility In the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions of 2018, 86 ILOSTAT. Jamaica Labour Force Survey 2016. percent of households reported receiving remittances; and Statistical Institute of Jamaica. in the Jamaica Labour Force Survey (JLFS) of 2016, 76 percent reported receiving remittances. PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2018. The JLFS distinguishes the sources of remittances: ● Parent: 44 percent ● Spouse: 17 percent ● Other relative: 22 percent ● Friends: 3 percent ● Savings: 6 percent ● Other: 7 percent Main source of emergency funds: Family or friends (percent Not available. able to raise funds, age 15+) Main source of emergency funds: Money from working (percent able to raise funds, age 15+) Main source of emergency funds: Loan from a bank, employer, or private lender (percent able to raise funds, age 15+) Main source of emergency funds: Savings (percent able to Not available. raise funds, age 15+) Main source of emergency funds: Sale of assets (percent able to raise funds, age 15+) Main source of emergency funds: other (percent able to raise funds, age 15+) Hours spent in own-use production: last 7 days PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living Water collection Conditions 2018. ● On average, 4.4 minutes fetching water ● Males: 5.7 minutes ● Females: 3.4 minutes Fuel collection On average, 2.2 minutes gathering wood ● Males: 3.7 minutes ● Females: 0.9 minutes Engages in agriculture for own production (as opposed to PIOJ and STATIN. Jamaica Survey of Living market) Conditions 2018. ● An average of 12 minutes ● Males: 19 minutes ● Females: 5 minutes Disaster Risk Management and Gender: The Case of Jamaica | 55 | References da Costa, Jacqueline. 2003. “Land Policy Administration UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and and Management: A Jamaica Case Study.” Kingston: Social Affairs). 2019. World Population Prospects, 2019 Paper prepared for workshop on Land Administration and Revision. New York: United Nations. Management in the English Speaking Caribbean. UNFPA, World Health Organization, UNICEF, World Bank HMD (Human Mortality Database). 2019. Max Planck Group, the United Nations Population Division. 2019. Trends Institute for Demographic Research (Germany), University in Maternal Mortality: 2000 to 2017. Estimates by WHO, of California, Berkeley (USA), and French Institute for UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group and the United Nations Demographic Studies (France). https://www.mortality.org/. Population Division. Geneva: WHO. ILOSTAT. Labour Force Survey 2016: Jamaica, 2016. UNICEF, WHO, and World Bank. 2016. Joint Child Malnutrition Statistical Institute of Jamaica. https://webapps.ilo.org/ Estimates - 2016 edition. https://data.unicef.org/resources/ surveyLib/index.php/catalog/5734. joint-child-malnutrition-estimates-2016-edition/. PIOJ and STATIN (Planning Institute of Jamaica and the USAID. 2010. Landlinks Country Profiles: Jamaica. Statistical Institute of Jamaica). 2017. Jamaica Survey https://www.land-links.org/country-profile/ of Living Conditions (JSLC) 2017: Executive Summary. jamaica/#1529277125778-ffd39966-9ffc. https://www.pioj.gov.jm/product/jamaica-survey-of-living- conditions-jslc-2018-overview/. Watson Williams, Carol. 2016. Women’s Health Survey 2016 Jamaica. IDB, STATIN, and UN Women. https://publications. PIOJ and STATIN (Planning Institute of Jamaica and the iadb.org/en/womens-health-survey-2016-jamaica-final- Statistical Institute of Jamaica). 2018. Jamaica Survey of report. Living Conditions 2018. https://www.pioj.gov.jm/product/ jamaica-survey-of-living-conditions-jslc-2018-overview/. World Bank. 2018. Human Capital Index. 2018. Database. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ STATIN. 2015. “2015 Informal Sector Survey.” Statistical dataset/0038030/Human-Capital-Index. Institute of Jamaica. https://statinja.gov.jm/projects. aspx#collapsemgnt. World Bank. Various years. 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