East Asia and Pacific Region: MARINE PLASTICS SERIES Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics © 2022 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Further permission required for reuse. Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was prepared by a World Bank team led by Ashraf El-Arini, Thu Thi Le Nguyen, and Thuy Cam Duong, with the core team comprised of Özgül Calicioglu, Klaus Sattler, and Jan Philipp Grotmann-Hoefling. The team is also grateful to Dinh Thuy Quyen, Program Assistant. A team from the Centre for Supporting Green Development (GreenHub) carried out the background field survey. The report on the survey was compiled by Trang Nguyen, Boris Fabres, and Ha Ngan Ha, and the data were analyzed by Chu The Cuong and Nguyen Thu Ha. The plastic product alternatives background report was compiled by Vu Minh Luan and Tran Thi Hoa. A team comprised of Mattis Wolf and Prof. Dr. Oliver Zielinski (German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI); Dr. Marcel Liedermann (University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, BOKU); and Ha Thanh Lan and Phuong Nguyen (WAREC-IWRP) prepared the background report on integrated plastics transport monitoring and analysis. The data were collected by Huu Hieu Le, Ha Thanh Lan, and Phuong Nguyen, and the data were analyzed by Mattis Wolf and Prof. Dr. Oliver Zielinski. The Net Trawl Survey was carried out by DI Dr. Marcel Liedermann, DI Sebastian Pessenlehner, and Prof. DI Dr. Helmut Habersack. The team would like to acknowledge, with thanks, the valuable advice and inputs provided by the World Bank peer reviewers: Ruxandra Maria Floroiu, Rahat Jabeen, Dinesh Aryal and Stephen Ling. This report is a product of the Environmental, Natural Resources, and Blue Economy Global Practice of the World Bank. This work was conducted under the supervision of Carolyn Turk and Mona Sur. The team would like to thank officials from the Vietnam Administration of Sea and Islands (VASI) under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), including Dr. Ta Dinh Thi, Director General, Mr. Luu Anh Duc, Deputy Director, and other VASI officials for their cooperation. We would also like to thank the officials at the Vietnam Environment Administration under MONRE for taking part in the discussion of this study and providing feedbacks. At the city/provincial level, the team would like to thank the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DONRE)s from the cities/provinces of Lao Cai Province, Hai Phong, Hai Duong, Tua Thien Hue, Da Nang, Quang Nam, Khanh Hoa, Soc Trang, Ho Chi Minh City, Can Tho, and Kien Giang. The report was edited by Ann Bishop and designed by Doan Thanh Ha. For preparation of this report, financing from the World Bank-administered PROBLUE multi-donor trust fund is gratefully acknowledged. 4 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...................................................................................... 4 LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................ 8 LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................... 10 ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................. 11 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..................................................................................... 13 KEY MESSAGES:.............................................................................................................................................. 14 OVERALL OBJECTIVE.................................................................................................................................... 16 APPROACH........................................................................................................................................................ 17 KEY FINDINGS.................................................................................................................................................. 19 KNOWLEDGE GAPS AND NEXT STEPS................................................................................................... 23 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 25 2. PLASTIC POLLUTIONDIAGNOSTICS........................................................ 29 2.1 PLASTIC FIELD SURVEYS............................................................................................. 30 2.1.1 PLASTIC FIELD SURVEY OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................... 30 2.1.2 STUDY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 30 2.1.2.1 Survey Location and Site Selection........................................................................................................ 31 2.1.2.2 Field Survey Protocol ................................................................................................................................. 31 2.1.2.3 Waste Categorization and Brand Audit................................................................................................ 32 2.1.2.4 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 33 2.1.2.5 Limitations..................................................................................................................................................... 34 2.1.3 RESULTS............................................................................................................................................. 35 2.1.3.1 Survey Locations........................................................................................................................................... 35 2.1.3.2 Combined Survey Results......................................................................................................................... 39 2.1.3.4 Results of the survey conducted at coastal sites............................................................................. 48 2.1.4. Highlights and Discussion............................................................................................................................ 53 2.2 INTEGRATED PLASTICS TRANSPORT RIVER MONITORING AND ANALYSIS..56 2.2.1 OBJECTIVES OF INTEGRATED PLASTICS TRANSPORT MONITORING AND ANALYSIS...............................................................................................................................56 Contents | 5 2.2.2 STUDY AREA.................................................................................................................................... 56 2.2.3 KEY METHODOLOGIES AND LIMITATIONS............................................................................ 62 2.2.3.1 Data Collection and Field Work............................................................................................................... 62 2.2.3.2 Plastic Detection and Quantification................................................................................................... 64 2.2.3.3 Plastic Flow Calculations and Modelling............................................................................................. 64 2.2.3.4 Limitations.................................................................................................................................................... 64 2.2.4 RESULTS............................................................................................................................................ 64 2.2.4.1 Results of the Drone Surveys................................................................................................................... 65 2.2.4.1 River Bridge Monitoring Surveys............................................................................................................. 68 2.2.4.3 Net Sampling Results................................................................................................................................ 70 2.2.5 DISCUSSION..................................................................................................................................... 73 2.2.5.1 Survey Results.............................................................................................................................................. 73 2.2.5.2 Methodologies.............................................................................................................................................. 73 2.3 ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES.................................................................................... 78 2.3.1 OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................................................... 78 2.3.2 STUDY DESIGN, DATA SOURCES, AND LIMITATIONS........................................................ 78 Study Design............................................................................................................................................................... 78 Data Sources.............................................................................................................................................................. 79 Limitations.................................................................................................................................................................. 80 2.3.3 RESULTS............................................................................................................................................ 80 Plastic bags (different sizes).................................................................................................................................. 80 Fishing Nets................................................................................................................................................................. 83 Various Foam Floats................................................................................................................................................. 84 Styrofoam Food Container..................................................................................................................................... 86 Straws........................................................................................................................................................................... 88 Food packaging.......................................................................................................................................................... 89 2.3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................ 90 3. WAY FORWARD.............................................................................................. 91 4. BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 95 5. ANNEXES.......................................................................................................... 101 ANNEX 2.1.A: SURVEY DATA SHEET TEMPLATES....................................................... 102 6 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics ANNEX 2.1.B: SURVEY PROTOCOLS................................................................................ 106 ANNEX 2.1.C: SURVEY RESULTS FROM RIVER SITES............................................... 108 ANNEX 2.1.D: SURVEY RESULTS FOR COASTAL SITES............................................ 112 ANNEX 2.2.A: KEY METHODOLOGIES – DATA COLLECTION, PLASTIC DETECTION, CLASSIFICATION AND QUANTIFICATION, PLASTIC FLOW CALCULATIONS AND MODELLING.............................................................................. 116 ANNEX 2.2.B: DEVELOPMENT OF A NET SAMPLING DEVICE APPLICABLE FOR VIETNAMESE RIVERS...................................................................................................... 124 ANNEX 2.2.C: DETAILED PROPORTIONAL WASTE TYPES BY SITE...................... 128 ANNEX 2.2.D: FLOW VELOCITY RESULTS FROM NET SAMPLING........................ 130 ANNEX 2.3.A: LIST OF COMPANY REPRESENTATIVES WHO PROVIDED INFORMATION FOR THE PLASTIC ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT.................. 131 ANNEX 2.3.B: LIST OF EXPERTS, SCIENTISTS, AND STATE MANAGERS WHO PROVIDED INFORMATION FOR THE PLASTIC ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT.. 132 ANNEX 2.3.C: PRODUCERS, IMPORTERS, WHOLESALERS OF PLASTIC PRODUCTS AND PLASTIC PRODUCT ALTERNATIVES IN VIETNAM................ 133 Contents | 7 FIGURES Figure 1: Examples of hotspots investigated through drone surveys ................................................................ 20 Figure 2: Percentages of the top 10 polluting plastic items on riverbanks by density (items per unit) and weight (weight per unit).................................................................................................................................... 20 Figure 3: Percentages of the top 10 polluting plastic items at coastal sites by density (items per meter of coastline) and weight (weight per meter of coastline)................................................................................ 21 Figure 4: Overview of Survey Locations....................................................................................................................... 35 Figure 5: Total Number of Waste Items (percentage) on Surveyed Sites in Vietnam................................... 39 Figure 6: Total Weight of Waste (percentage) on Surveyed Sites in Vietnam 2020..................................... 39 Figure 7: Total Number and Weight of Plastic Waste by Source on Surveyed Sites in Vietnam 2020... 40 Figure 8: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at River and Coastal Sites in Vietnam.................................................. 41 Figure 9: Photos of the Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at River and Coastal Sites in Vietnam....................... 41 Figure 10: Percentage of Single-use Plastic Waste at River and Coastal Sites.............................................. 42 Figure 11: Total Number of Waste Items (percentage) at Surveyed River Sites.............................................. 42 Figure 12: Total Weight of Waste (percentage) at Surveyed River Sites........................................................... 44 Figure 13: Total Density and Weight of Plastic Waste by Source on Surveyed River Sites in Vietnam.. 44 Figure 14:Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at River Sites in Vietnam.......................................................................... 45 Figure 15: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at River Sites in Rural and Urban Areas by Density....................... 46 Figure 16: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Tourist and Non-tourist River Sites by Density...........................47 Figure 17: Single-use Plastic Waste by Density at River Sites in Surveyed Locations..................................47 Figure 18: Total Number of Waste Items (percentage) on Surveyed Coastal Sites........................................ 48 Figure 19: Total Weight of Waste (percentage) on Surveyed Ocean Sites........................................................ 48 Figure 20: Total Density and Weight of Plastic Waste by Source on Surveyed Ocean Sites in Vietnam in 2020......................................................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 21: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items (Standing Stock) at Coastal Sites........................................................ 49 Figure 22: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items (daily accumulation) at coastal sites.................................................. 50 Figure 23: Single-use Plastic Waste Density at Coastal Sites in Surveyed Locations ................................. 51 Figure 24: Map of Survey Locations and Survey Sites...........................................................................................60 Figure 25: Data Collection Devices Utilized in the Field Work.............................................................................. 62 Figure 26: Example of a Typical Survey Protocol...................................................................................................... 63 Figure 27: Pictures of Pollution Hotspots in Hai Duong and Hai Phong............................................................. 66 Figure 28: Proportions of Waste Types in Hai Duong, Sapa, and Hai Phong, and the Number of Items by Waste Type, Combined, in all Surveyed Cities............................................................................ 67 Figure 29: Waste transport over the course of the day for Hai Phong, Chanh Duong 02 bridge.............. 70 Figure 30: Waste Classification by Quantity from Net Sampling at Chanh Duong 2................................... 71 Figure 31: Waste Classification by Weight from Net Sampling at Chanh Duong 2........................................ 71 Figure 32: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Red River Sites................................................................................... 108 8 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Figure 33: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Mekong River Sites........................................................................... 108 Figure 34: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Central Provinces River Sites........................................................ 109 Figure 35: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Phu Quoc River Sites........................................................................ 109 Figure 36: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Dong Nai-Sai Gon Riverbank Sites............................................... 110 Figure 37: Single-use Plastic Waste Density at Each Riverbank Location....................................................... 111 Figure 38: Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of the Top 10 Plastic Waste Items on Coastal Sites in the Northern Subzone (Density)............................................................................................ 112 Figure 39: Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of the Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Coastal Sites in the Transitional Subzone (Density)....................................................................................... 113 Figure 40: Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of the Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Coastal Sites in the Southern Subzone (Density)............................................................................................ 113 Figure 41: Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of the Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Rural Coastal Sites (Density)................................................................................................................................. 114 Figure 42: Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at Urban Coastal Sites (Density)................................................................................................................................ 114 Figure 43: Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of the Top 10 Plastic Items at Non-tourism Coastal Sites (Density)................................................................................................................... 115 Figure 44: The Standing Stock and Daily Accumulation of the Top 10 Plastic Items at Tourism Coastal Sites (Density)............................................................................................................................ 115 Figure 45: Camera installation at the bridge. Cameras were installed at several cross sections along the rivers to record floating plastics. RBG cameras with desired resolution of 15-20 MO and 4K video recording were utilized................................................................................................................... 116 Figure 46: UAV operation at a survey location. At selected locations, 2 sets of images were taken (1 high spatial resolution captured at high flight altitude of 60 - 100m and very high spatial resolution captured at low flight altitude of 6m) as shown............................................................117 Figure 47: Final device configuration of net trawls. Nets are arranged in different depths. At each river cross-section, 1-7 vertical profiles are distributed over the entire wetted area, to yield a maximum of 35 sampling points for every deployment. Net types and mesh sizes are selected according to prevailing boundary conditions at the measuring site................................. 118 Figure 48: APLASTIC-Q (Wolf et al. 2020) analysis of imagery based on convolutional neural networks to quantify pollutant items numbers, waste types, areas covered and give a volume estimate. APLASTIC-Q software can give assessments for the quantities and for waste types for survey sites, where the assessments can be used as actionable information................................ 119 Figure 49: Example output of APLASTIC-Q. It gives an estimate on the number of waste items, area covered with waste, waste volume estimate in m3. Moreover, it estimates the waste type items along with the proportion of the waste types for each image or orthomosaic......................... 120 Figure 50: Example of the data gathered for one multi-point measurement performed in the Danube River near Hainburg...................................................................................................................................122 Figure 51: Visualization of the construction plan of the equipment carrier (left); field test of the newly developed equipment carrier (right).........................................................................................................125 Figure 52: Assemblage of the macro plastic measurement device; Top: old assemblage on the left and newly developed configuration on the right. Bottom: Nets with inclination rack and Nets in the uppermost layer assembled with buoyant bodies................................................................... 126 Figure 53: Sampling container used for emptying the nets.................................................................................127 Figure 54: Mechanical flow meter attached at the inlet of the net to measure the discharge.................127 figures | 9 TABLES Table 1: Objectives, locations, and brief descriptions of the survey methodologies used in the plastics diagnostics studies.......................................................................................................................... 17 Table 2: Coastal and River Site Selection Criteria................................................................................................ 31 Table 3: Sources and Plastic Sub-categories......................................................................................................... 32 Table 4: Clean-Coast Index........................................................................................................................................... 34 Table 5: List of Survey Sites........................................................................................................................................ 37 Table 6: Clean-Coast Index for Surveyed Coastal Sites..................................................................................... 52 Table 7: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at River and Coastal Sites, by Number.............................................. 54 Table 8: Location and Site Selection Criteria and Information on Selected Study Locations............... 57 Table 9: Survey Sites’ Coordinates............................................................................................................................ 59 Table 10: Data Analysis Carried Out by Survey Site............................................................................................ 61 Table 11: Waste Quantities, Areas, and Volumes for Pollution Hotspots at Thach Khoi 1, Chanh Dunong 1 & 2, and Suoi Cat 1................................................................................................................. 65 Table 12: Detailed Proportional Waste Types, Totals, and Locations.............................................................. 68 Table 13: Plastics River Monitoring Results for Hai Duong, Hai Phong, and Sapa..................................... 69 Table 14: Number and Weight Waste Types Collected During Net Sampling.............................................. 72 Table 15: Top 10 Plastic Waste Items at River and Coastal Sites in Vietnam............................................. 78 Table 16: Categories for Market Alternatives Analysis....................................................................................... 79 Table 17: Plastic Bags and Alternatives – Units Sold and Wholesale Costs................................................. 81 Table 18:Fishing Nets and Alternatives – Units Sold and Wholesale Costs................................................. 84 Table 19: Various Foam Floats and Alternatives – Units Sold and Wholesale Costs................................. 85 Table 20: Styrofoam Trays and Alternatives – Units Sold and Wholesale Costs....................................... 86 Table 21: Plastic Straws and Alternatives – Units Sold and Wholesale Costs............................................ 88 Table 22: Survey Site Characterization Sheet ...................................................................................................... 102 Table 23: Field Survey Data Sheet............................................................................................................................. 104 Table 24: Single-use Plastic Waste Density at Each River Site Location..................................................... 111 Table 25: Detailed Proportional Waste Types by Site.......................................................................................... 128 Table 26: Flow Velocity Results from Net Sampling............................................................................................ 130 10 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics ABBREVIATIONS ASEAN ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS CCI Clean Coast Index DASI Department of Sea and Islands (Province) EPR Extended producer responsibility EPS Expanded polystyrene HPDE High density polyethylene IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LDPE Low density polyethylene MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment NPAP National Plastic Action Partnership (Vietnam) PE Polyethylene PET Polyethylene terephthalate PP Polypropylene PPCP Polypropylene copolymer PVC Polyvinyl chloride SDG United Nations Sustainable Development Goal SUP Single-use plastic SWM Solid Waste Management UAV Unmanned aerial vehicle VASI Vietnam Administration of Sea and Islands VEA Vietnam Environment Administration Abbreviations | 11 12 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I n response to a request from the Government of Vietnam, this World Bank study was conducted from July 2020 to April 2021 to deepen knowledge about the different plastic waste types leaking into rivers and the ocean in Vietnam, and identify their market alternatives for potential substitution. This report summarizes three diagnostics: field surveys on riverbanks, and at coastal sites to determine the extent of plastic pollution, and the top 10 polluting items; remote sensing and net trawl surveys that monitored plastic waste in, and alongside, waterways that flow into the ocean; and a preliminary analysis of alternatives to Vietnam’s most-polluting plastic items. Key Messages: Overall level of Plastic Pollution in Vietnam • Plastic waste was by far the most abundant type of waste collected in the field surveys (around 94 percent in the number of items; and around 71 percent by weight). • Take-away food packaging waste was the most abundant source of plastic waste found in the field surveys (44 percent in number), followed by fisher- ies-related waste (33 percent in number), and household-related waste (22 percent in number). • The Clean Coast Index (CCI) measurement, which is a tool to assess relative coastal cleanliness, showed that 71 percent of the coastal sites surveyed were extremely dirty (a CCI of more than 20) and 86 percent were extremely dirty or dirty (a CCI of more than 10). The most common plastics items found in field surveys in Vietnam, and the potential to replace them in the value chain • In number, the top 10 common plastic items accounted for over 81 percent of all the plastic items collected in river sites, and over 84 percent found in coastal sites. The top five common plastic items accounted for over 63 percent in number in both river and coastal sites. • Single-use plastic (SUP) items accounted for 72 percent (in number) of the total plastic waste identified at riverbanks and 52 percent (in number) of the total plastic waste identified at coastal sites in the field surveys. Plastic bags and their fragments (around 26 percent of items) were the most common single-use items in the survey locations. When both of these categories of waste were combined, they were the most prevalent in river locations, and the second most prevalent in coastal locations. Styrofoam food containers were among the top five items in both river and coastal locations. • Fishing gear was very prevalent, accounting for around 30 percent of plastic waste (in number). 14 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics • Addressing plastic pollution caused by these used, successfully, in this study, to assess plastics items should not be based on replacing SUPs pollution along the riverbanks of selected cities in with non-plastic single-use items, or plastic Vietnam. By mounting a camera on a drone, a large multi-use items, because both may have negative area could be surveyed in a short period of time. impacts, and not align with Vietnam’s goal of Through conducting drone and bridge surveys, a more circular economy. Thus, in promoting using locally available and affordable equipment, alternative products, the focus should be on this study developed local capacity to continue promoting reusable, non-plastic items that support carrying out these surveys. Based on this study overall reduction in the generation of plastic waste. and previous ones, surveying large areas though Specific policy measures should be reviewed and drone surveys has become an increasingly effective analyzed for addressing the use of these items and quick way to identify the most prevalent types and a roadmap should be developed for their of plastic, and to so with minimal labor. progressive phase-out. This should be coupled with • Based on lessons learned in previous drone surveys, a phased approach toward a modern, integrated this study conducted remote sensing-based bridge and sustainable solid waste management system. monitoring for the first time in Vietnam. For • Much greater effort is required to educate this pilot, cameras were mounted on bridges to Vietnam’s population about waste reduction, record plastics flows over long periods of time. reuse, and halting littering, in order to reduce This approach for conducting long-term plastics the demand for low-utility plastic, support more monitoring will enable the Government of Vietnam cost-effective waste management infrastructure, to monitor the impact of its pollution reduction and reduce littering that ends up in rivers and policies over time. Through measuring the volume the ocean. of plastic items floating on rivers over long periods of time, this study’s bridge surveys have proven Prospects for a monitoring system for marine to be particularly suitable for quantifying plastic plastic pollution leakage into rivers. • Field surveys have become a widely accepted • Also, for the first time, this study assessed method for identifying the top 10 polluting submerged plastics by using trawls (nets) lowered plastic items fairly quickly, and with relatively from bridges. While this method was quite labor little capacity required. The European Union (EU) intensive, by identifying the total volume of used this approach prior to developing the EU plastics in a column of river water, as well as single-use plastics directive, and the approach has floating on the surface, this study significantly been successfully applied in a number of countries improved understanding about Vietnam’s plastics in East Asia and Pacific, including Cambodia, pollution. The effectiveness of surveying plastics Vietnam, and the Philippines. with trawls is well established now, and can be replicated if there is adequate time and labor • The automated detection and analysis of plastic to conduct such surveys. In order to establish a items with remote sensing methods was carried out relationship between the amount of plastic, and in Vietnam, using both drone and bridge surveys. the types of surface and submerged plastics, net The findings of these diagnostics indicate that trawls should be replicated in several locations, in these methodologies could be easily upscaled combination with remote sensing bridge surveys. by local stakeholders. With both approaches, This combination will allow the modelling of the images collected were automatically analyzed total plastics river transport that is based only through machine-learning processes. Drone surveys on automated surface measurement. are a state-of-the-art method of plastics assessment that was piloted initially in Cambodia, and then Executive Summary | 15 Rapid economic growth, urbanization, and changing plan. This report, which was produced for Component lifestyles in Vietnam have led to a country-wide plastic 1, is intended to deepen knowledge about the extent pollution crisis. Since 1990, there has been a spectacular of plastic pollution in Vietnam, overall; the plastic increase in plastic use in Vietnam, rising from 3.8 kg/ wastes that are polluting rivers and the ocean off capita in 1990 (MONRE 2020) to 81 kg/capita in 2019 Vietnam; and the alternatives available for these (IUCN-EA-QUANTIS 2020). Only about 15 percent of plastic items. The results of this diagnostic will be the country’s plastic waste is recycled, and more than used as evidence to support strategies, policies, and half—the equivalent of 3.6 MT/year—is mismanaged investments that are designed to enhance Vietnam’s (IUCN-EA-QUANTIS 2020). The remainder of Vietnam’s plastic waste management. plastic waste, if not disposed of in landfills, is buried This report summarizes three diagnostics: (1) field in dumps, openly burned, or dumped in waterways. surveys conducted on riverbanks, and at coastal sites As a result of the latter, Vietnam is estimated to be to determine the extent of plastic pollution, and the one of the top five polluters of the world’s oceans top 10 polluting items; (2) remote sensing and net (Jambeck et al. 2015). trawl surveys that monitored plastic waste in, and Vietnam is committed to addressing its plastic waste alongside, waterways that flow into the ocean; and pollution challenges. In October 2018, the 8th plenary (3) a preliminary analysis of alternatives to Vietnam’s session of the Party Central Committee (12th tenure) most-polluting plastic items. adopted Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW (October 22, 2018) on “the Strategy for Sustainable Development of Overall Objective Vietnam’s Marine Economy to 2030, with a vision to 2045”. This resolution set the goals of “preventing, The objective of the diagnostics was to deepen controlling, and significantly reducing pollution of the knowledge about the different plastic waste types marine environment” and “becoming a regional leader leaking into rivers and the ocean in Vietnam, and in minimizing ocean plastic waste.” On December 4, identify and analyze their market alternatives for 2019, the Prime Minister adopted Decision No. 1746/ potential substitution. The field and river monitoring QD-TTg, which promulgated the National Action Plan surveys aimed to identify the priority plastic items (i.e. for Management of Marine Plastic Litter by 2030. In the top 10 polluters) to inform subsequent analysis of addition, the new Law on Environmental Protection, targeted measures for phasing out low-value plastic which will go into effect on January 1, 2022, introduces items. The objective was to identify the quantities and “pay as you throw” policies that require separating types of plastic waste, and the key locations where the different types of waste, and sets out the legal basis waste is entering Vietnam’s waterways. The overarching for extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes. goal of the surveys was to inform government agencies, mobilize their buy-in to solve plastic waste problems, In response to a request from Vietnam’s Ministry build their capacity, and develop local relationships. of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), For example, the remote sensing and net trawl surveys the World Bank Group has mobilized financing from aimed to serve as a proof-of-concept pilot of innovative PROBLUE, a multi-donor trust fund, to support Vietnam methodologies for plastics monitoring. Another in its efforts to address plastic waste pollution. The intention was to introduce scientific methodologies overall objective of this technical assistance and for monitoring and evaluating plastic waste to key advisory services program is to support Vietnam in audiences that have an interest in plastics management addressing its plastic waste problems, including the and research in Vietnam. These audiences include plastic waste that pollutes the ocean. The program’s national and local government officials, academics, three components are: (1) supporting diagnostics officers in not-for-profit organizations, and other on plastic waste; (2) identifying priority solid waste relevant individuals and organizations. management and plastic policies and investments; and (3) conducting value chain diagnostics on plastics in Vietnam, and recommending a private sector action 16 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Photo: Al.geba - Shutterstock Approach Table 1 provides an overview of the different methodologies used in the plastics diagnostics studies. Table 1: OBJECTIVES, LOCATIONS, AND BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SURVEY METHODOLOGIES USED IN THE PLASTICS DIAGNOSTICS STUDIES Survey Objective Locations Brief description of Methodology methodology Field Surveys The objectives of the field In total, surveys were Standardized surveys of surveys were to: 1) reveal conducted at 38 sites: river and coastal sites were plastic waste quantities, 14 coastal sites in carried out to identify the and the types and key 8 locations, and 24 composition of the top 10 locations for plastic waste riverbank sites in 10 most common plastic waste leakage into waterways, in locations. These were items, spanning 7 categories, order to understand the in Lao Cai Province and 38 sub-categories. For extent of plastic pollution, and Hai Phong in the coastal sites, a score was and the top 10 polluting Northern region; Thua calculated for the standard plastic items on riverbanks, Thien Hue Province, metric of pollution—the and at coastal sites; and Da Nang, Quang Nam Clean Coast Index (CCI). 2) inform government Province, and Khanh Section 2.1.2 gives an agencies, mobilize Hoa Province in the overview of the methodology buy-in to solve plastic Central region; and and discusses its limitations. waste problems, build Soc Trang, Ho Chi Minh capacity, and develop local City, Can Tho, and Kien relationships. Giang (Phu Quoc Island) in the Southern region. Executive Summary | 17 Survey Objective Locations Brief description of Methodology methodology Remote The objectives of plastics Drone surveys were Cameras mounted on drones Sensing – monitoring in, and carried out in Hai Phong were used to take images Drone Surveys alongside rivers, involving (5 sites), Hai Duong (2 over larger areas. These a drone, and bridge and sites), and Sa Pa (2 sites). images were automatically net trawl surveys were analyzed to detect and to: 1) deepen knowledge classify plastic items. about the different plastic Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.5 waste types leaking into provide an overview on the rivers and the ocean; 2) methodology and discuss its increase knowledge about limitations. plastic waste quantities, Remote and the key locations for Plastics transport Cameras were mounted Sensing – plastic waste leakage into monitoring was carried on bridges. Videos were Bridge Surveys waterways; 3) develop and out in 3 locations in automatically analyzed to pilot an integrated plastics Vietnam – Hai Phong, detect and classify plastic transport monitoring Lao Cai/Sa Pa, and Hai items floating on the water concept for rivers; and Duong – with 3 survey over a given period of time. 4) inform policies and sites in each location. Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.5 investment programs to provide an overview of the reduce marine plastic methodology, and discuss its pollution by assessing the limitations. results. Net Trawl The net trawl pilot was Net trawls were lowered from Surveys carried out at Chanh bridges to collect plastic Duong 2 bridge in Hai items at different depths of Phuong. the water column to gain a better understanding of submerged plastics. The transport of plastics at various vertical positions over a cross-section, and over the whole water column was measured. Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.5 provide an overview of the methodology and discuss its limitations. Plastic The analysis of plastic N/A. Country-level This assessment of plastic Alternatives alternatives provides market assessment. alternatives was based on Survey an initial view of the field surveys that revealed main importers and the top 10 polluting producers; production plastic items at river and and consumption figures; coastal sites in Vietnam. and alternatives to, and/ Relevant data on the plastic or the recyclability of the alternatives available in the plastic products that are market in Vietnam were most commonly found on collected from primary riverbanks, in waterways, sources via interviews and and at coastal sites in a desk study of secondary Vietnam. sources. Section 2.3.2 provides an overview of the methodology and discusses its limitations. 18 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Key Findings of the total plastic waste encountered at coastal survey sites. The Clean Coast Index (CCI) measurement results The findings of the three diagnostic studies answer showed that 10 sites (71.4 percent of the total) were questions related to: 1) the extent of plastic pollution extremely dirty (a CCI of more than 20), two sites were on Vietnam’s riverbanks and coasts, and in its waterways, dirty (a CCI of between 10 and 20), and another two 2) the top 10 polluting plastic items found on Vietnam’s sites were moderate (a CCI of between 5 and 10). The riverbanks and coasts, and in its waterways; 3) the potential highest CCIs were recorded at Binh Lap Beach (379) for scaling up continuous plastic monitoring in waterways; and My Ca (192) in Khanh Hoa, Lai Hoa Beach in Soc and 4) the alternatives that are available in the market Trang (176), Truong Beach on Phu Quoc Island (163), in Vietnam to the country’s top 10 polluting plastics. and Got Ferry Beach in Hai Phong (73). 1. What is the estimated extent of plastic The extent of pollution in, and alongside, waterways pollution in selected Vietnam riverbank and coastal sites, and in selected waterways? (based on remote sensing and net trawl surveys): High-altitude drone surveys enabled the identification The extent of pollution on riverbanks (based on of pollution hotspots across survey sites. Low altitude, field surveys): At the 24 riverbank sites surveyed, high-resolution imagery was then effective for analyzing a total of 2,707 solid waste items were collected, the hotspots. This approach was successful in analyzing with an average of 22.5 items per unit.1 Plastic waste the abundance of quantities of waste, along with the accounted for 79.7 percent of the number of items, area and waste volume assessments. The waste situation and 57.2 percent of the weight. Single-use plastic items was alarming in all of the sites investigated. In the sites accounted for 72 percent of the total plastic waste. where no large accumulations were present, plastics Across the Northern, Central, and Southern subzones, were usually trapped in the vegetation on the shore no statistically significant differences were found in or were floating in the river. Figure 1 provides an the totals for plastic waste. However, the average illustration of strongly polluted hotspots in Hai Duong number of plastic waste items on urban riverbank (large waste accumulations), and in the sites in Hai sites (21.4 items per unit) was nearly two times higher Phong (mostly plastic waste trapped in vegetation). than the average number on rural riverbank sites (12.1 River monitoring surveys with cameras mounted on items per unit). Specifically, plastic waste items on bridges to take images at defined time intervals were riverbanks in Can Tho (34.5 items per unit), Ho Chi proven successful in recording floating plastics. For Minh City (33.4 items per unit), and Lao Cai (30.1 items example, the surveys at Suoi Cat (Cau Lao Chai) bridge per unit), were higher than those in other locations; in Sapa identified a high number of objects (360) while the number of items on the riverbanks in Soc floating by on the survey day, with substantial transport Trang Province was the lowest (4.3 items per unit). of more than 10 waste items/half hour estimated for The extent of pollution at coastal sites (based on long periods of the survey day. field surveys): Plastic waste items accounted for 95.4 Net sampling at several depths using mobile nets was percent of the total solid waste, with an average of 81 effective in determining plastics transport in a cross items per meter of coastline.2 Analyses showed that section. Thus, all particle sizes (even small objects) the overall pollution density in Thua Thien Hue (141.1 could be collected, and the plastic concentration items per meter of coastline), in Ho Chi Minh City (135.6 could be determined in connection with flow velocity items per meter of coastline), and in Quang Nam (133.7 measurements. For example, at the Chanh Duong items per meter of coastline) was significantly higher 2 tributary in Hai Phong, the concentration varied than in other locations. The density of plastic items was from 3 to 18 pieces of plastic per 1,000m³ of water. significantly lower in Hai Phong (36.23 items per meter When extrapolated for the total profile, this resulted of coastline) and Da Nang (27.9 items per meter of in the transport per hour of approximately 440 coastline). Single-use plastics accounted for 52 percent pieces of plastic, or approximately 4kg of plastic. A comparison between the camera’s detection, and the 1 For riverbank sites, a survey “unit” is an area 1m2 dug to a 0.3 net measurement results, showed that about twice meter depth. the number of plastic particles were registered over 2 “Meter of coastline” was used as the unit for the coastal site surveys. the total depth of the water column than the camera detected in the uppermost layer of the water. Executive Summary | 19 Figure 1. EXAMPLES OF HOTSPOTS INVESTIGATED THROUGH DRONE SURVEYS 2. What were the top 10 polluting plastic items in most frequently encountered item (20.6 percent and selected Vietnam riverbank and coastal sites, 22 percent, in number, respectively). Therefore, the and in selected waterways? overall average results for the surveys at river sites indicated that 21.9 percent of the total plastic waste Top 10 plastic waste items on riverbanks: With regard encountered was plastic bags, varying between 0–5 to density, the top 10 common plastic waste items at kg, followed by Styrofoam food containers, and soft riverbank sites accounted for between 81.5 percent plastic fragments (the latter mostly comprised of (Mekong River) and 93.4 percent (Red River) of total plastic bag fragments) (Figure 2). plastic waste. In both rural and urban river sites, the sub-category plastic bags size 1 (0–5kg) was the Figure 2: PERCENTAGES OF THE TOP 10 POLLUTING PLASTIC ITEMS ON RIVERBANKS BY DENSITY (ITEMS PER UNIT) AND WEIGHT (WEIGHT PER UNIT) 20 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Figure 3: PERCENTAGES OF THE TOP 10 POLLUTING PLASTIC ITEMS AT COASTAL SITES BY DENSITY (ITEMS PER METER OF COASTLINE) AND WEIGHT (WEIGHT PER METER OF COASTLINE) Top 10 plastic waste items at coastal sites: At coastal wrappers were the most abundant (41.3 percent), and sites, the top 10 plastic items accounted for 84 percent plastic bags ranked second (30.6 percent). of the total plastic waste. Among them, combined fisheries-related waste was the most common (32.5 3. Is it feasible to employ remote sensing methods and net trawl surveys to monitor plastics percent),3 followed by soft plastic fragments (18.1 transport in waterways? percent), plastic bags size 1 (0–5kg) (7.1 percent), and Styrofoam food containers (6.8 percent) (see Figure In this study in Vietnam, the globally novel approach 3). Single-use plastic items accounted for 52 percent. of remote-sensing-based plastics monitoring was successfully piloted. This positive outcome provides a The most common plastic waste items identified foundation for the Government of Vietnam to carry out through remote sensing and the net trawl surveys: longer-term plastic waste monitoring that will improve Drone surveys were effective in detecting waste types. knowledge about plastic pollution, establish baselines Across survey sites, the following items were identified and, over time, measure the impacts of policies and as the most abundant (from the highest to the lowest programs. Valuable technical lessons were learned percent): Polystyrene, including food containers (40 in this first pilot that can provide the foundation for percent), Cup lids, caps, and small plastics (19 percent), upscaling plastics monitoring in Vietnam, as well as other LDPE bags, Wrappers, and PET bottles (18 percent). countries. For example, the simultaneous application The net trawl pilot was also effective in analyzing of net trawls showed the potential to link the results the quantity and weight of different types of waste. to remote sensing, and establish models to estimate For example, in the Chanh Duong 2 tributary in Hai the total plastics load, including submerged plastics, Phong, over six hours, the total amount of collected which are based on the automated detection of surface waste was 121 pieces, of which packages and other plastics. With regard to scaling up plastics transport monitoring, the overall limitations of remote sensing 3 Fishing gear comprises two categories: i) fishing gear 1 (Plastic fishing rope, pieces of net, fishing lures and lines, and hard and net trawl surveys are discussed in section 2.2.3.4. plastic floats); and, ii) fishing gear 2 (Polystyrenes–EPS, buoys, and floats). Executive Summary | 21 4. Are there alternative products in Vietnam to the may not align with the pathway toward a more circular top 10 polluting plastic items? economy. The results of the preliminary analysis of alternative Thus, in promoting alternative products, the focus products showed that for most of the identified priority should be on the promotion of reusable, non-plastic single-use plastics (SUPs), alternative products are items that support overall reduction in the generation already available in the Vietnamese market. These of plastic waste. However, for plastic straws, in particular, alternatives were mainly for plastic bags and take-away due to the availability of relatively cheap raw materials food-related4 waste (for details, see Section 2.3). for alternatives, high customer acceptance, and a large number of producers of substitute products, While alternative products are currently often single-use alternatives to plastic straws are already higher priced than their respective SUP, most of well established. Also, these are sold in volumes that the alternatives are reusable products. In principle, are comparable to plastic straws. Promotion of other the objective should not be to replace SUPs with alternative products through policies and incentives, non-plastic single-use items, or plastic multi-use items, and supporting the transition to a reuse model by because these may also have negative impacts, and compensating for the higher unit price, will be crucial in further reducing the single-use plastic products that 4 In this paper, the term ‘take-away’ applies to the packaging for are responsible for most of Vietnam’s plastic pollution. food cooked and sold for eating elsewhere. The term ‘takeaway’ applies to the key points made in this report. Photo: 22August - Shutterstock 22 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Knowledge gaps and next steps address plastics issues, including bans; levies; design requirements; extended producer responsibility (EPR) 1. Recommendations for an integrated plastics schemes; standards for plastic alternatives; and monitoring concept reporting, monitoring, and enforcement options. A stakeholder engagement plan should also be developed The diagnostics conducted for this study illustrate the to inform policy dialogue on each of these items. feasibility of undertaking low-cost field surveys using The second component of this World Bank technical different methodologies that can provide governments assistance and advisory services program aims to (both national and local) with a snapshot of plastic support these activities. waste leakage, in terms of its volume, types, brands, flow, and hotspots. In addition, this study successfully 3. Analysis and recommendations for measures piloted remote sensing-based identification of plastics to address fisheries- and aquaculture-related floating on rivers, combined with automated image plastic waste. analysis from cameras mounted on bridges that automatically detected and analyzed plastic items The field survey results revealed that fishing gear was over longer periods of time. These positive outcomes the most common plastic item encountered on coastal of both the field and remote sensing surveys provide sites. Considering that the diagnostic studies primarily the foundation for the Government of Vietnam to carry focused on land-based sources of plastics pollution, a out longer-term plastics monitoring that increases more thorough baseline assessment of marine plastic knowledge about plastic pollution, establishes pollution from the fisheries and aquaculture sectors baselines, and measures the impacts, over time, of is required, along with an assessment of potential government policies and other measures. mitigation measures and policy recommendations. In this regard, under the upcoming World Bank Depending on the policy objective for monitoring, Sustainable Fisheries Development Project, the World multiple methodologies could be employed, but Bank will initiate technical assistance to support this location-specific protocols would need to be goal, and identify concrete entry points to kick-start developed to determine the appropriate survey implementation of the Action Plan for Marine Plastic types and frequency. Lessons learned from the Waste Management in the Fisheries Sector, which the different methodologies used in this study could Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has feed into national guidelines on plastics monitoring recently adopted. to support local governments in regularly tracking the progress on plastics policy implementation. To 4. Developing public awareness and guide such local-level monitoring, the development communications strategies about the top 10 of guidelines by MONRE would be necessary. plastic waste items 2. Policy roadmap to address low-value and The survey results, along with the preliminary single-use plastic waste market analysis of plastics alternatives highlighted the importance of public awareness in addressing The survey results indicate that most of the plastic plastic pollution. A substantial increase in citizen and waste leakage at the studied sites was from a small youth education on waste reduction, reuse, and halting number of items, many of which were single-use and waste littering, is required to reduce the demand for low-value products. Therefore, these plastic items low-utility plastic, support more cost-effective waste could be prioritized for policy measures. However, management infrastructure systems, and reduce additional policy analysis is needed to support the littering that ends up in rivers and the ocean. An creation of a roadmap for policy development, and its awareness raising and communication strategy should implementation at both the national and subnational be developed in tandem with the plastics policy analysis levels. Based on international good practices, a range and roadmap, discussed above. of policy instruments would need to be assessed to Executive Summary | 23 1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION G lobally, plastics are widespread, mismanaged, and are dangerous pollutants in the air, on land, and in the water. No other pollutant can match the geographic scale of plastics’ impact, which spreads from the highest mountains to the bottom of the deepest seas, and greatly impacts economies as well as people’s lives. Comprising over 170 chemicals, plastics-related pollution can cause health impacts such as cancer; neurotoxicity; and reproductive, immune, and genetic impacts. Plastic waste in landfills releases toxic chemicals that affect communities (Azoulay et al. 2019) and plastic particles attract, host, and transfer human disease-causing antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Arias-Andres et al. 2018) and viruses (Azoulay et al. 2019, and Van Doremalen 2020). However, limited safeguards, and conflicting and questionable information prevent consumers from making informed choices and reducing their exposure. Vietnam is one of the major polluters of the world’s oceans. Annually, about 2.8 to 3.1 million tons of plastic waste are discharged on land in Vietnam, and the country is estimated to be a major plastics polluter. As a result of discharging an estimated 0.28 to 0.73 million tons, annually, Vietnam is one of the top five polluters of the world’s oceans (Jambeck et al. 2015). Vietnam is also mentioned as one of the countries with the highest level of mismanaged plastic waste generated by its coastal population (Law et al. 2020). In 2016, 0.57 million tons of mismanaged plastic waste leaked into Vietnamese coastal areas (Law et al. 2020). Related health threats include microplastic fibers found in 12 of 24 commercial fish species in the Gulf of Tonkin (Koongolia et al. 2020), and severe plastic pollution of Vietnam’s coral reefs and coastal mangroves. In 2010, Lamb et al. (2018) estimated that 41 million plastic items are embedded in Vietnam’s reefs, and this will rise to 177 million plastic items by 2025. These threats cause coral disease and a decrease of mangrove cover, which, in turn, causes greater flooding in coastal communities, as well as water-borne diseases. Plastic pollution is especially a problem for families that are dependent on fisheries and tourism (Menéndez et al. 2020). Economic growth, urbanization, and changing lifestyles in Vietnam have increased solid waste. In urban areas, an estimated 10–15 percent of waste is uncollected, and in rural areas this rises to 45–60 percent. Also, only 10 percent of waste is recovered through recycling or reuse (MONRE 2020). The situation is urgent: domestic solid waste generated nationwide averages 64,500 tons/day (23.5 million tons/year), and 71 percent is dumped in landfills, most of which are not sanitary landfills (MONRE 2020). Furthermore, total waste is expected to increase by 100 percent in less than 15 years (MONRE 2020). However, addressing the solid waste challenge could bring development co-benefits. Studies indicate that achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.4 (responsible chemical and waste management) is a low-risk strategy for achieving national progress on many of the SDGs (UNEP 2019; WWF 2020). 26 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics The rapid rise of plastic imports, production, and At the 34th Association of Southeast Asian Nations use, and mismanaged waste in Vietnam has led to a (ASEAN) Summit in June 2019, member states, country-wide crisis of plastic pollution, especially in including Vietnam, expressed their concerns about urban and coastal areas, and 55 percent of consumers the high levels of marine plastic debris in the region. consider it a serious problem (Quach & Milne 2019). This led to adopting the Bangkok Declaration on Annual use of plastics has increased from 3.8 kg/capita Combating Marine Debris in the ASEAN Region, and in 1990, to 33 kg/capita in 2010, 41 kg/capita in 2015 the ASEAN Framework of Action on Marine Debris. (MONRE 2020), and 81 kg/capita in 2019 (IUCN-EA- Building on this commitment, the World Bank was QUANTIS 2020). Since China enacted its “National asked by Thailand (the chair of ASEAN in 2020) to Sword” policy in 2018, which banned the import of most support the preparation of the ASEAN Regional Action waste plastics and materials, these wastes were diverted Plan for Combating Marine Debris. Drawing on three to Southeast Asia, and to less-regulated countries, regional stakeholder workshops, and additional rounds including Vietnam. After China announced its plan to of review and inputs from the 10 ASEAN member stop waste imports in July 2017, there was a surge in states, the Regional Action Plan, adopted in May 2021 plastic waste imports in Vietnam from around 40,000 (ASEAN 2021), proposes an integrated approach to tons per month to a peak of 100,000 tons per month address marine plastic pollution in ASEAN over the in November 2017 (Greenpeace 2019). Currently, next five years (2021–2025) through 14 regional actions only 20 percent of plastic materials for industrial use at three key stages of the value chain. These are: (including primary and recycled materials) are locally 1) Reducing Inputs into the System, 2) Enhancing produced in Vietnam; the rest (80 percent of input Collection and Minimizing Leakage, and 3) Creating materials for manufacturing [a total of 8 million tons]) Value for Waste Reuse. are imported (IUCN-EA-QUANTIS 2020). Despite these recent commitments, challenges Vietnam is committed to addressing its plastic waste remain in formulating policies to phase-out single-use pollution challenges. In October 2018, the 8th plenary plastic consumption and incentivize circular economy session of the Party Central Committee (12th tenure) measures on both the supply and demand sides. adopted Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW (October 22, Greater budget allocations to expand collection 2018), “the Strategy for Sustainable Development coverage and improve controlled disposal are also of Vietnam’s Marine Economy to 2030, with a vision to needed. Implementation of institutional reforms to 2045”, which set the goals of “preventing, controlling, address the fragmented approach of public actors on and significantly reducing pollution of the marine this issue will also be key. However, a major obstacle environment”, and “becoming a regional leader in to hinder the commitments is the lack of analytical minimizing ocean plastic waste.” On December 4, studies and data on the amount and varieties of plastic 2019, Vietnam’s Prime Minister adopted Decision in rivers, river basins, and the sea. No. 1746/QD-TTg, which promulgated the National In response to a request from MONRE, the World Action Plan for Management of Marine Plastic Litter Bank Group has mobilized resources from PROBLUE, by 2030. This set targets for reducing marine plastic a multi-donor trust fund, to support Vietnam in its waste by 50 percent by 2025, 75 percent by 2030, and efforts to address plastic waste pollution. The objective eliminating single-use plastics from coastal tourism of the World Bank’s technical assistance and advisory destinations and marine protected areas by 2030. services is to support Vietnam’s efforts to address In turn, Vietnam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and plastic waste issues, including ocean plastics, through Environment (MONRE) is seeking to increase its enhancing knowledge about plastic pollution and understanding about plastic waste problems so that value chains, and identifying effective policies and it can formulate plastics management policies and public and private investments. The ASA program investment programs. In addition, the new Law on has been administered by the World Bank, in close Environmental Protection, which goes into effect on coordination with the Vietnam Agency of Sea and Islands January 1, 2022, introduces “pay as you throw” policies, (VASI), and the Vietnam Environment Administration requires different wastes to be segregated, and sets (VEA), both of which are under MONRE, as well as the legal basis for extended producer responsibility provincial authorities. The ASA program comprised (EPR) schemes. 1. Introduction | 27 three components: (1) Supporting diagnostics on plastic This report summarizes three diagnostic studies. These waste; (2) Identifying priority solid waste management were: (1) field surveys on riverbanks and at coastal and plastic pollution policies and investments; and sites to determine the extent of plastic pollution, and (3) Conducting value chain diagnostics for plastics in the top 10 polluting plastic items; (2) remote sensing Vietnam, and recommending a private sector action and drone surveys to monitor plastic leakage through plan. The studies summarized in this report fell under waterways into the ocean, and (3) preliminary analysis Component 1. of alternatives to the top-polluting plastic items in Vietnam. The field surveys, plastic monitoring, and The overall objective of Component 1 was to deepen analysis of alternatives complement each other to knowledge about the different plastic waste types provide a holistic picture of the extent of pollution, leaking into rivers and the ocean in Vietnam, and the polluting items that end up in waterways and the identify and analyze their market alternatives for ocean, and ways to address the problem. potential substitution. For this purpose, Component 1 aimed to quantify the plastic waste at key locations This report comprises three chapters. Following the where leakage occurs (such as riverbanks and introduction (Chapter 1), the diagnostic studies are beaches), and monitor the transport of plastics in presented in Chapter 2: field surveys (Section 2.1), rivers. Component 1 intended to identify the most plastic monitoring (Section 2.2), and the analysis of common plastic items accumulating on riverbanks plastic alternatives (Section 2.3). Chapter 3 presents and at coastal sites, as well as flowing through rivers, conclusions, limitations, and the way forward. and also identify market alternatives. The overarching goal was to provide an evidence base to support the development of strategies, policies, and investments in Vietnam that will enhance plastic waste management. 28 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics 2. PLASTIC POLLUTION DIAGNOSTICS 2.1 PLASTIC FIELD SURVEYS 2.1.1 Plastic Field Survey Objectives T he overall objective of the plastic field surveys was to deepen knowledge about the different plastic waste types leaking into rivers and the ocean in Vietnam. This has been achieved through surveys that increased understanding about plastic waste quantities and the key locations for plastic waste leakage into waterways. Based on the surveys, the top 10 most common plastic waste items were identified. The results are intended to inform policies and investment programs that will reduce marine plastic pollution. The specific objectives of the plastic field surveys are listed below: 1. To quantify the amount of solid waste leaking into the environment in 10 selected river and coastal sites in Vietnam. This enabled the identification of the 10 most common plastic waste types to inform policies and investments. 2. To inform government agencies, mobilize buy-in to solve plastic waste problems, build capacity, and develop local relationships. 3. To introduce scientific methodologies for plastic waste monitoring and evaluation to national and local government officials, academics, not-for-profit officers, and other individuals and organizations that have an interest in plastic management and research in Vietnam. 2.1.2 Study Design and Methodology The plastic field surveys were carried out in seven steps from location selection to submission of the final report: 1. A set of criteria for choosing suitable locations in Vietnam was developed, based on consultation with government agencies such as the Vietnam Environment Administration (VEA) and the Vietnam Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI), and then 10 field survey locations were selected. 2. Taking Vietnam’s situation into account, field survey methodologies were identified, selected, and modified. 3. Documents were sent to local authorities in each location to obtain permission to carry out a survey. 4. Assigned local officers were consulted through email and calls about the selection of survey sites, logistics, and the process of recruiting volunteers. 5. The survey team met local officers during field trips to introduce the project and discuss the circumstances of local solid waste management. The survey team also worked with different volunteers in the field such as students, government officers, workers, and farmers to collect data. 6. After each trip, the data collected were analyzed, a report was prepared that identified the top 10 plastic waste items leaking into the environment in each location, and this report was shared with the local authority to get their comments. 30 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics 7. The final report was prepared that summarized all data obtained in the 10 locations selected for the field surveys. 2.1.2.1 Survey Location and Site Selection 2.1.2.2 Field Survey Protocol In consultation with government agencies, survey The survey design methodology and interpretation locations were defined as a city or a province in was based on the internationally recognized scientific Vietnam, and survey sites as the specific points within survey manuals of the United Nations Environment locations where on-the-ground surveys would be Programme (UNEP), Guidelines for the Monitoring and undertaken. Assessment of Plastic Litter in the Ocean (GESAMP 2019). The techniques adapted to Vietnam’s context The selection of sites aimed to provide a good concerned (i) waste lists and categories, and (ii) representation of plastic pollution in Vietnam. Criteria additional details for each step, such as division of for location selection were based on a number of the two categories plastic bag and beverage bottle factors: population level; geographic location; (PET) into two categories, each: plastic bags size 1 expected amount of plastic waste; potential negative (bags with a weight-holding capacity of up to 5kg), environmental and economic impacts from plastic and plastic bag size 2 (bags with a weight-holding waste (for example, in a tourism area or protected capacity of more than 5kg); and beverage bottle size 1 area); inclusion of river and coastal areas; priority (0–500 ml), and beverage bottle size 2 (more than 500 areas identified by the Government of Vietnam; and ml). While the survey protocol which was employed commitment at the local level to address plastic waste was based on the GESAMP guidelines, for quality challenges, including through local legislation, waste checking purposes, OSPAR’s6 method (González et management initiatives, and plans. Information on all al. 2016) was applied in the Danang river survey. these criteria was collected through desk studies of published and “gray” (unpublished) literature such In each location, at least two members of the survey as government reports and working papers, as well team, together with 6 to 10 local volunteers, carried as discussions with national and local authorities. out the surveys. Survey team members focused on managing the whole survey process and ensuring In each location, three to four survey sites were its quality and diligence. This included collecting selected, comprising both coastal and river areas.5 information from the local authority; identifying The criteria for each area type are listed in Table 2. survey sites; and managing and participating in the 5 However, some landlocked locations did not have coastal sites; 6 OSPAR is the mechanism by which 15 governments and the see Section 2.1.3.1. European Union cooperate to protect the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. Table 2: COASTAL AND RIVER SITE SELECTION CRITERIA Coastal Site Criteria River Site Criteria • Sandy beach or pebble shoreline • At least 100 meters in length, • Clear, direct, year-round access parallel to the water • No breakwaters or jetties • Digging on the banks is possible • At least 100 meters in length, parallel to the water • Regularly flooded during the rainy season • If the survey includes two coastal sites in a location, choose a beach with no regular clean-up activities (or cleaning at least three months prior to the survey time), and a beach with regular clean-ups. If the survey includes only one coastal site in a location, choose either. 2.1 Plastic Field Surveys | 31 collection, classifying, counting, and weighing of plastic 2.1.2.3 Waste Categorization and Brand Audit items, as well as data entry. The volunteers focused Based on the GESAMP guidelines (2019), the data on waste collection, classification, and counting and sheet (see Annex 2.1.A) was designed with seven weighing. Before the start of survey work in each categories: i) Plastic, ii) Metal, iii) Glass, iv) Rubber, location, volunteers were introduced to the survey v) Paper, vi) Cloth/Fabric, and vii) Mixed Waste, method, including the size of items to collect, how to as well as 28 sub-categories of plastic (henceforth classify items into different categories, how to count called items). and weigh items, and safety protocols (see Annex 2.1.A for the data sheet template used in the survey). Both the International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) method (Ocean Conservancy 2006) and the scoring method While the collection, classification, and tallying of (Whiting 1998) were used to identify the source waste broadly followed the same principles at coastal of the plastic items that were collected. The ICC and river sites, there were certain methodological method assigns waste items to one of five sources: differences between the two. These differences shoreline/recreational, ocean/waterway, smoking-relat- concerned the selection of sections of the site to ed, dumping, and medical/personal hygiene activities. sample, and the actual sampling. While survey teams Whiting’s cross-tabulation probability scoring system at river sites dug down to a depth of 30cm in an area assigns a score for the probability that an item of one meter square, sampling at coastal sites did not waste comes from a particular source. involve digging, and instead items were collected from the surface of the ground (see Annex 2.1.B). By combining the ICC method and the Whiting At coastal sites to assess the impact of the tide on method, the plastic waste collected in this study was standing stock7 and the accumulation rate,8 surveying classified into five sources: i) Fisheries-related waste, was carried out on two consecutive days. ii) Agriculture-related waste, iii) Take-away food-related waste, iv) Household-related waste and v) Sanitary and medical-related waste. These five categories were 7 Standing stock is a measure of the amount of debris at a coastal site expressed as the [unit quantity of debris] per [unit length or cross-matched with the 28 plastic items presented area of the coastal site]. Each survey event was a snapshot of the concentration of debris at a survey site, and a series of these snap- in Table 3. Table 3 also identifies those plastic items shots over time provided information on changes in the baseline that are classified as single-use plastics (SUPs9). concentration of debris. This is an efficient way to assess large- scale spatial patterns in the distribution and composition of debris (Cheshire et al. 2009; GESAMP 2019; Lippiatt et al. 2013). 8 The accumulation rate provides information on the balance of 9 According to the GESAMP (2019), single-use plastic waste—of- debris over a given length of beach at a coastal site (arrival mi- ten referred as disposable plastics—is commonly plastic used nus removal rates), over a given period of time. This is expressed for packaging, and includes items intended to be used only as [unit quantity of debris] per [unit length of the coastal site] once before they are thrown away or recycled. per [unit of time], for example, kg/km/month. Accumulation survey data indicate the net flux of debris (Cheshire et al. 2009; GESAMP 2019; Lippiatt et al. 2013). Table 3: SOURCES AND PLASTIC SUB-CATEGORIES # Sources Plastic Items SUP? i) Fisheries-related Fishing gear 1: Plastic fishing rope, net pieces, fishing No waste: items used for lures & lines, hard plastic floats fishing and aquaculture Fishing gear 2: Polystyrenes-ESP, buoys & floats No activities String, plastic cords, and rope; No Plastic rope ii) Agriculture-related Fertilizer bags or containers No waste: items used in agriculture 32 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics # Sources Plastic Items SUP? iii) Take-away related waste: Plastic bags size 1 (0–5kg) Yes items used for packaging Plastic bags size 2 (>5kg) Yes take-away food in the hospitality and tourism Soft plastic fragments (mostly from plastic bags) Yes sector Styrofoam food containers Yes Cups, utensils... (PET) Yes Cups, utensils...(PP) Yes Straws Yes iv) Household-relat- Hard plastic fragments (from plastic toys, kitchenware, Yes ed waste: items that unidentified objects) originate from different Plastic film fragments Yes human activities, and discarded or left by the Crisp/Sweet packages Yes public on the coast or inland, and carried by Food wrappers Yes wind and rivers. Other wrappers (Wet tissue wrappers, chopstick Yes wrappers...) Beverage bottles (PET) size 1 (0–100ml) Yes Beverage bottles (PET) size 2 (>100ml) Yes Other beverage bottles (HDPE…) Yes Food bottles (for sauces and cooking oil ) Yes Cleaner and cosmetic bottles (e.g., shampoo bottles, Yes cosmetic jars, shower gel) (0–100ml) Cleaner and cosmetic bottles (e.g., shampoo bottles, Yes cosmetic jars, shower gel) (>100ml) Bottle caps/HDPE Yes Cigar tips Yes Lighters No Other plastics (slippers, sanitary products, diapers...) No v) Sanitary and medi- Personal hygiene products (toothbrushes, toothpaste No cal-related waste: items tubes, razors...) related to personal care Medical products (band-aids, medical masks, syringes...) No and health/hygiene Brand audits were conducted after all waste items 2.1.2.4 Data Analysis had been sorted, tallied, and weighed. The survey Statistical analyses were performed to determine groups filtered out all the waste with brands that could whether the deposition rates of debris differed be identified, and then classified the waste by the significantly across the survey sites (river soil and commercial product’s brand name. The item counter coastal beaches), with respect to their geographic gathered all the pieces of a specific product, and called location. Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance out to the data recorder: the name of the i) product, (ANOVA) by ranks was used for the statistical analyses ii) variant, iii) material, and iv) manufacturer, and v) because the sample groups did not show normality the total number of pieces. The data recorder then and equal variance, and differed in their sample size. wrote this information down on a brand audit form. Where differences were detected, Tukey’s HSD (Honestly 2.1 Plastic Field Surveys | 33 Significant Difference) test was performed to identify more information see 2.1.2.2); for coastal sites, one the beach survey groups that were significantly different unit was defined as 1m2 (1m long x 1m wide). at the 5 percent level. In addition, the Clean-Coast index (CCI) developed The combined survey results provided a simple by Alkalay, Pasternak, and Zask (2007) was used as a overview of the surveyed items, based on the total tool for the relative evaluation of coastal cleanliness. item numbers and weights observed. However, to The calculation used for the CCI is presented in the enable a comparison between different sites, locations, following equation: and groups of locations (for example, all locations along a specific river system), the analysis considered the number of items per unit (called density, henceforth) and the weight per unit. Where the coefficient k = 20, to simplify the presentation The definition of units differed, depending on the type of data for communicating with the public, results for of site: for river sites, one unit was defined as 1m2 x the appearance of waste at coastal sites were graded 0.3m depth (1m length x 1m width x 0.3m depth—for as shown in Table 4. Table 4: CLEAN-COAST INDEX CCI Very clean Clean Moderate Dirty Extremely dirty No waste was No waste was A few pieces A lot of waste Most of the seen seen over a of waste were on shore/at beach/site was large area detected sites covered with waste Numeric 0–2 2–5 5–10 10–20 20+ index 2.1.2.5 Limitations • In terms of sample sizes, the number of survey Limitations of the study were related to meteorological sites at each location was small: 3–4 sites/sampling factors, sample size, and the use of quadrats along units, each, in a 100-meter section, from which four rivers during the surveys. 5-meter-transects of coastal area were selected. Local authorities were advised to apply the same • The planned survey schedule based on the method, and to conduct surveys at additional occurrence of the Southwest (May-October) sites in both monsoon seasons so that they could Monsoon during the year could not be gather more robust baseline data. followed. The plan was to conduct the surveys • In interpreting the data, the survey team during the Southwest Monsoon season (May– recognized the possibility that widespread October). However, the field trips were delayed impacts on travel and group behavior of the and rescheduled many times due to COVID-19 local population, reductions in foreign tourists, pandemic restrictions. As a result, the surveys and other travel industry changes caused by were conducted from July 2020 to January 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic, may have biased over two monsoon seasons, and 11 locations were the comparison of data between tourist and not surveyed in the same monsoon season. This non-tourist locations. In future surveys that include possibly influenced the quantities and types of a tourist/non-tourist site comparison, it would waste deposited on the shore, and, therefore, be useful, as well, to collect information on any interpretation of the results across locations and changes in the local population (local or tourist). sites needs to take this into account.10 • Regarding the use of quadrats along rivers, digging down 30cm helped to show the effect of water flow 10 Anecdotal information given by coastal inhabitants during the and plastic waste movement, but the amount did GreenHub and IUCN marine protected area surveys in 2019 not reflect what was on the surface. Therefore, to indicated that greater volumes of marine waste were deposited during the Northeast Monsoon season than in the Southwest compare results for river sites, GreenHub added Monsoon season. OSPAR’s method (González et al. 2016). 34 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics 2.1.3 Results 2.1.3.1 Survey Locations In total, there were 38 survey sites—24 river sites and 14 coastal sites—in 10 different locations. Figure 6 provides a map of all the survey locations. Figure 4: OVERVIEW OF SURVEY LOCATIONS Note: The numbers in brackets represent the number of survey sites per location. R = River site; C = Coastal site 2.1 Plastic Field Surveys | 35 To enable a comparison between different zones The Southern subzone, from Dai Lanh cape to Ha and river systems, the survey sites in the 10 different Tien sees interaction between the land of southern locations were clustered as follows: Vietnam with the sub-equatorial monsoons, and the marine part of the Southern subzone in the East Sea Coastal Sites that has sub-equatorial monsoon. Based on the criteria of geology-landform, cli- mate-hydrology, ecology-biogeography, and land-sea River Sites interaction, the Vietnamese coastal zone was divided Vietnam has up to 2,360 rivers, streams, and canals. into three coastal subzones: the Northern subzone The country has 112 estuaries, and along the coast, (Hai Phong and Thua Thien Hue), the transitional there is an estuary every 23km. Most major rivers in subzone (Da Nang, Quang Nam, and Khanh Hoa) Vietnam originate in other countries, with the middle and the Southern subzone (Ho Chi Minh City, Soc and lower parts of rivers flowing through Vietnam Trang, Can Tho, and Phu Quoc island). and into the ocean. Nine major river systems stretch from North to South. The Northern subzone from Mong Cai to Hai Van cape is the place where interaction occurs between River sites were compared by clustering them as the land in northern Vietnam with tropical monsoons follows: According to Lebreton et al. (2017), the and cold winters, and the part in the East Sea with Mekong river is one of the 20 most-polluted rivers tropical monsoons. in the world, and therefore it was included in this study’s surveys. Other river sites were clustered into The transitional subzone in the center of Vietnam, four groups: the Red River; the rivers in the central stretching from Hai Van cape to Dai Lanh cape, is provinces of Vietnam; the Phu Quoc rivers; and the characterized by the interaction between the land of Dong Nai-Sai Gon rivers. The surveyed river sites in Ho southern Vietnam with sub-equatorial monsoons and Chi Minh City belong to the Dong Nai-Sai Gon rivers. year-round warmth, and the marine part of Northern subzone in the East Sea that has tropical monsoons. Table 5 lists the survey sites along with several char- acteristics for each site (region/river system, location, type of site, survey date, and site conditions). Photo: Claudiovidri - Shutterstock 36 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Table 5: LIST OF SURVEY SITES No. Survey Survey sites River System/ Site Rural (R) Tourism Survey locations Subzone Type versus (T) versus Date Urban (U) Non-tourism (NT) 1 Ngoi Dum Red River River U NT 2 Muong Hoa Red River River R T Lao Cai July 2020 Province 3 Ta Van Red River River R T 4 Ngoi Duong Red River River U NT 5 Do Son Northern Coastal U T 6 Hai Cat Hai Northern Coastal U T September Phong 2020 7 city Lach Tray Red River River U NT 8 Van Uc Red River River R TNT 9 Thuan An Northern Coastal U T November 10 Hue city Huong Central rivers River U T 2020 11 Bo Central rivers River R NT10cm, with reasonable accuracy. transport is complex, and involves higher costs. During this study, the software was improved to be based However, this has the advantage of determining the on a larger knowledge base, and be more applicable for river monitoring surveys. In future, with further development of the methodology, it is expected to Prospects on the Costs of Various Monitoring quantify waste types as well. Systems The equipment costs varied with the different However, the method is still at a piloting stage and monitoring methods. The drone surveys used needs to be further developed. Specifically: equipment worth, approximately, $250 to $1,000 for • Rivers with very high flow velocity, water movement, drones, and $300 to $800 for cameras. The bridge foam, and sun reflection are a challenge for surveys used GoPro cameras worth approximately $500. data analysis, and lead to overestimation of the To cover the entire width of a river, several cameras waste quantity. This can be reduced by analyzing can be mounted on one bridge. the image sections that do not contain these Recent research in Germany by Escobar-Sánchez et al. problematic images. (2021) explored the cost efficiency of beach monitoring • Distances of around 10 meters from cameras to using UAV and OSPAR (field survey) methods. These the water’s surface can cause low image quality, authors concluded that the OSPAR methods yielded a leading to an underestimation of the total amount higher efficiency score for beach litter monitoring on waste items that are passing. Careful selection the Baltic Sea in Germany, but they also suggested of survey sites can help mitigate this challenge. that UAV monitoring could perform better at other sites (“non-accessible sites, fragile ecosystems, floating Passing boats caused false positive classifications. litter or heavily polluted beaches”). This problem did not occur very often, and mitigation measures were taken such as only allowing a maximal In Vietnam’s context, the parameters were different waste count for a single analysis. As a result, this effect for beach litter monitoring than was the case with the caused only a slight overestimation of the waste quantities. beaches that Escobar-Sánchez et al. (2021) analyzed in Germany. These differences were as follows: Relationship Between Drone Survey Results, River Monitoring, and Net Trawl Surveys • Personnel costs in Vietnam were far lower, in general; The drone surveys and river monitoring surveys with cameras and net trawl devices generated different • The consumer electronic UAVs, which were used information. Drone monitoring captured immobilized in this study, were less expensive in Vietnam; plastic waste such as accumulated plastic waste, waste • Some parts of the studied rivers were harder to trapped in vegetation, or plastics washed ashore. The access by foot, but were easy to monitor using installed cameras and the net trawl devices measured drones; mobilized plastic waste on the river surface, and in • Plastic waste was usually distributed very hetero- the vertical river column, respectively. geneously in Vietnam. The sites contained a large The results of both methodologies are expected amount of dense plastics in a small area. With the to correlate. To better understand the correlation monitoring strategy employed in Vietnam, the between the two methodologies, however, further study team was able to monitor these hotspots, and studies are necessary. For example, although no large provide assessments of the waste quantities and accumulations of immobilized plastic waste were found types. In these densely polluted areas, the drone at surveyed sites in Hai Phong, the high volume of monitoring method was expected to yield results plastic waste transport found through river monitoring significantly faster than field survey methods, as suggested the presence of plastic waste hotspots the drones could usually be deployed quickly, and in Hai Phong. Further studies could better explain the area of interest was usually less than 100m². the relationship/exchanges between immobilized However, for these riverine plastic hotspots, precise and mobilized plastics in the riverine environment. comparisons between the field surveys and drone Inspecting survey locations and their surroundings surveys were not carried out; and by using an interdisciplinary team to assess littering • In future, bridge monitoring costs should be lower behaviors and waste management systems at surveyed if they are scaled up—for example, a permanently locations could help to gather further insights about installed CCTV system would require fewer people these exchanges, and the factors that influence them. to operate the cameras. 2.2 Integrated Plastics Transport River Monitoringand Analysis | 75 Recommendations for the Development of be applied to automatically and continuously measure Monitoring Systems plastics pollution over longer periods of time. If such To develop effective policies and monitoring measures, automated monitoring systems are installed in the having a solid understanding of the priority plastic desired locations, the main additional requirement is types is essential. Surveys in Vietnam and other labor to guard the equipment. By carrying out further countries have shown that only a few plastic items trawl samplings (which are labor and time intensive), are responsible for most of the pollution. Several of and combining these with bridge monitoring, it should these items are either non-essential and/or already be feasible to establish a relationship between surface have good alternatives available in the market. By and submerged plastics. Thus, through continuous targeting these specific items, plastics pollution, overall, and automated monitoring of only the surface plastics, could be significantly reduced. Thus, the surveys and it should be possible to estimate the total plastics other methods applied in this study generally focused transport in a river. However, successfully establishing on identifying the priority plastic types. such an approach will require further testing. In order to measure the impacts of any procedures put in In general, for all of the survey methods used in the place to reduce plastics pollution, good understanding study, a key component of the work is identifying of the quantities of plastics is a major benefit. For the capacities in the country, concerned, and using this reason, especially, bridge surveys were piloted, locally available and affordable technologies so that the initially, and then combined with trawl surveys in order surveys can be replicated and upscaled to additional to better understand both the types and qualities of locations, based on the government’s priorities and submerged plastics. This successfully tested method can requirements. Photo: Roman Striga - Shutterstock 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 77 2.3 ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES T 2.3.1 Objective he aim of this study was to provide an initial overview of the main importers and producers, production and consumption figures, and alternatives to, and/or the recyclability of plastic products that are most commonly found at river and coastal sites in Vietnam. In addition, this study attempted to make a comparison of wholesale prices for plastic products and their alternatives. 2.3.2 Study Design, Data Sources, and Limitations Study Design This assessment of plastic alternatives is based on Section 2.1 (Plastic Field Surveys), which identified the top 10 plastic waste items found at 40 river and coastal sites in Vietnam during surveys conducted in 2020 and 2021 (Table 15). Table 15: TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT RIVER AND COASTAL SITES IN VIETNAM Rank Top 10 Plastic Waste Items % 1 Soft plastic fragments (LDPE) 17.4 Fishing gear 1: rope, net pieces, lures, lines, hard plastic 2 16.6 floats (PE & PP) 3 Fishing gear 2: Polystyrenes-ESP, buoys, floats (PS & EPS) 13.0 4 Plastic bags size 1 (0-5kg) 8.4 5 Styrofoam food containers (PS) 7.4 6 Hard plastic fragments (HDPE) 6.1 7 Straws (mainly PP) 4.6 8 Other food wrappers 3.2 9 Other plastic (plastic slippers, diapers, etc.) 3.2 10 Crisp/Sweet packages (PP & PS) 3.1 Note: Percent was calculated by dividing the number of specific plastic waste items by the number for all plastic waste items sampled during the surveys. 78 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics For analyzing alternatives, the list of the top 10 bag fragments. Also, other food wrappers (item 8) plastic waste items was adjusted to reflect the fact and crisp/sweet packages (item 10) were combined that plastic alternatives can be identified by product into one category due to the similarities of these type (for example, bags) but not by waste item (for categories. example, soft plastic fragments): • Some plastic waste item categories were either • Hard plastic fragments (item 6) and other plastics simplified by focusing on specific products within (item 9) were excluded; these categories included the broader waste item category (for example, a variety of different materials that, thereby, made fishing nets under fishing gear 1) or by broadening areas of application, and the identification of the scope of the assessment (for example, different potential alternatives too ambiguous. sizes of plastic bags were assessed). • Plastic bags size 1 (item 4) and soft plastic fragments Table 16 shows the six remaining plastic waste items (item 1) were combined for the market assessment that were assessed. since the latter category largely consisted of plastic Table 16: CATEGORIES FOR MARKET ALTERNATIVES ANALYSIS Product Type Categories for Alternatives’ Analysis Corresponding Top 10 Plastic Waste Items Plastic bags (different sizes) Plastic bags size 1 (0-5kg) Soft plastic fragments (LDPE) Fishing nets Fishing gear 1: Plastic rope, net pieces, lures, lines, hard plastic floats (PE & PP) Various foam floats Fishing gear 2: Polystyrenes-ESP, buoys, floats (PS & EPS) Styrofoam food containers Styrofoam food containers (PS) Straws Straws (mainly PP) Food packaging Other food wrappers Crisp/Sweet packages (PP & PS) For each of the six product type categories, this study: Data Sources The study was based on both primary and secondary data: • identified the main importers and producers by product category, both for plastic products and • Primary data their alternatives, ö From interviewing plastic item producers/ • defined product sub-categories (for example, importers, producers of alternative products, parachute fishing nets and aquaculture nets as large consumers of single-use plastics such a sub-set of fishing nets), as food and beverage companies (see Annex • assessed the recyclability of each plastic 2.3.A). sub-category, and ö From interviewing environmental experts, • estimated units sold per annum, and wholesale researchers, and public officials regarding prices for each sub-category. recommendations for alternative products (see Annex 2.3.B). 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 79 • Secondary data 2.3.3 Results ö From reviewing publicly available plastic Plastic bags (different sizes) industry publications. Plastic bags come in a variety of sizes, weights, ö From synthesizing information about suppliers thicknesses, and colors. What they have in common is a and markets for each product on company low collection and recycling rate due their low residual websites and business registration information value, and a lack of adequate waste management pages such as Yellow Pages Vietnam, infrastructure and logistics in Vietnam. e-commerce sites, and import and export data on Trademap.org. There are around 10 major companies in Vietnam that produce, import, and sell wholesale plastic bags with Limitations a focus on the local market (see Annex 2.3.C). The actual number of plastic bag producers in Vietnam However, the assessment: is considerably higher, but their products are mainly • does not provide a comprehensive market overview for export. There are also a number of companies for all plastic products and producers/ importers that can produce biodegradable plastic products14 per product category, but focused on the most that meet European standards. important ones. The “standard” plastic bags listed in Table 17 were • identified potential alternative/substitute products, sold around five times more frequently (809,000 tons but did not evaluate their environmental impact, per year) than comparable alternatives (162,000 tons suitability for consumers, or the effects they would per year). This means that there is certainly a market have on consumer behavior, producers, and the for the alternative bag types presented here. It should supply chain. be noted, however, that the alternatives that make • gave a rough estimate of wholesale prices for up the majority of the total units sold are also made specific products, but did not undertake an analysis from plastic, although they possess characteristics of the economic effects that a change from plastic that make them somewhat favorable (for example, products to alternatives would have. biodegradability under specific conditions in the case of compostable plastic bags, and reusability in the As such, this study needs to be seen as a first attempt case of polypropylene woven bags). When comparing to identify alternatives to those plastic products that wholesale costs per unit, most “standard” plastic bags are most commonly found at river and coastal sites in are considerably cheaper than the alternatives, even Vietnam. Several opportunities exist to refine, deepen, when accounting for different use cases (single-use and extend the assessment, and these are discussed versus re-use). For example, compostable plastic bags in Section 2.3.4. are roughly five times more expensive than “standard” plastic bags. 14 Biodegradable plastic is defined as material that completely decomposes into CO2, water, and organic matter. Currently, in Vietnam, there are companies that produce biodegradable plastic products with certificates obtained from TUV OK compost INDUSTRIAL, TUV OK compost HOME, (BPI) Biodegradable Product Institute Compostable, and DIN CERTCO compostable. Oxo-biodegradable bags—plastic bags that break down into small pieces much faster than conventional plastic bags—are not included in the definition. 80 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Table 17: PLASTIC BAGS AND ALTERNATIVES – UNITS SOLD AND WHOLESALE COSTS Plastic Bag Type Units sold Avg. Alternative Units sold Avg. wholesale per year wholesale Bag Type per year cost per unit (estimate) cost per unit (estimate) PE bag 284,692 tons 30,000 – Compostable 51,897 tons 160,000 VND/ 40,000 VND/ plastic bag kg (various sizes) kg (various sizes) (single-use) PP woven bag 86,400 tons 19,000–25,000 VND/piece (pcs) (use for 1–2 years) Non-woven bag 1,728 tons 8,000–15,000– 30,000 VND/ pcs (use for 1–3 years) Wooden bag 61,000–125,000 VND/ pcs (use for 1–3 years) Ivory paper bag 20,976 tons 2,000–20,000 VND/pcs (use for 3–10 times) 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 81 Plastic Bag Type Units sold Avg. Alternative Units sold Avg. wholesale per year wholesale Bag Type per year cost per unit (estimate) cost per unit (estimate) HDPE plastic 360,000 tons 36,000–48,000 Flat Non-woven 6,000–6,500 bag VND/kg Fabric Bag VND/pcs (various sizes) (use for at least 5–10 times) Kraft paper bag 1,000–9,000 VND/pcs (use for 1–3 times) Cup-bag 1,584 tons 42,000–60,000 Canvas bag for 6,000–10,000 VND/kg cup VND/pcs (various sizes) (use for at least 1 year) T-shaped kraft 16 tons 700–1000 VND/ paper bag for pcs cup (single-use) Milktea cup-bag 1,408 tons 30,000–48,000 Compostable 160,000 VND/ VND/kg plastic cup-bag kg (various sizes) (single-use) 82 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Plastic Bag Type Units sold Avg. Alternative Units sold Avg. wholesale per year wholesale Bag Type per year cost per unit (estimate) cost per unit (estimate) Waste plastic 69,458 tons 17,000–23,000 Compostable 347 tons 95,000–118,000 bag (5kg VND/kg waste plastic VND/kg carrying bag capacity) (single-use) (various sizes) Food bags 91,364 tons 76,000–96,000 Compostable 914 tons 145,000 VND/ VND/kg food bag kg (various sizes) (single-use) Fishing Nets Alternative products such as biodegradable fishing Fishing nets come in a variety of sizes and applications, nets15 are just being introduced in Vietnam and are ranging from nets for aquacultures to parachute considerably more expensive than plastic fishing nets nets or fishing gill nets. After their typical lifetime (see Table 18). The absence of commercially competitive of four to six years, fishing net products are rarely substitute products also leads to a negligible number collected and recycled. of manufacturers and importers of substitute products for fishing nets (see Annex 2.3.C). 15 Typically, base raw materials for biodegradable fishing nets are blended polybutylene succinate (PBS) and polybutylene adipate-co-tere- phthalate (PBAT), together with other biodegradable materials and additives. Biodegradable nets can completely decompose in seawater within six months (piloting stage). 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 83 Table 18: FISHING NETS AND ALTERNATIVES – UNITS SOLD AND WHOLESALE COSTS Fishing Net Units sold per Avg. wholesale Alternative Units sold per Avg. wholesale Type year (estimate) cost per unit Product Types year (estimate) cost per unit Parachute 45,054 tons 20,800–25,000 Biodegradable N/A 70,000–138,000 fishing net VND/m2 net VND/m2 Mesh size: 1.5 (durability of (decomposes cm–40 cm 4–6 years) after 6 months in seawater) Parachute 3,090–5,200 (currently braided fiber VND/m2 piloting) fishing net/ Rake net (durability of 4–5 years) Mesh size: 0.6 cm–40 cm Aquaculture 13,000–30,000 nets VND/m2 Mesh role size: (durability of 1–4m x100m 4–5 years) Aquaculture 6,200–13,000 nets VND/m2 Mesh size: (durability of 4–5 years) 0.3 cm–1.6cm Fishing 2,200–3,000 Gill Net VND/m2 Monofilament (durability of Mesh size 5–8 4–5 years) cm Fishing net 1,439 (small fishing) VND–2,000 VND/m2 Mesh size: from 1.5 cm to (durability of 100 cm 4–5 years) Various Foam Floats are more durable. Table 19 also lists plastic drums, Floating foam products are mainly used in riverside and Line-X float coating (a coating applied to foam and coastal areas for aquaculture and fishing activities. floats), as alternatives because these products may The number of companies producing or importing offer considerably higher durability than standard foam foam floats into Vietnam is quite large; a range of floats. The fact that these products are presented as typical manufacturers is listed in Annex 2.3.C. alternatives, despite being made from plastics points to the challenge of identifying suitable non-plastic As Table 19 shows, substitute floating products are alternatives for this product category. mainly made from wood and have a higher price but 84 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Table 19: VARIOUS FOAM FLOATS AND ALTERNATIVES – UNITS SOLD AND WHOLESALE COSTS Foam Float Units sold per Avg. wholesale Alternative Units sold per Avg. wholesale Type year (estimate) cost per unit Product Types year (estimate) cost per unit Porous floating 8,334 tons 350,000 VND/ Line X coating 1,300,000 fish cage pcs float (paint VND/pcs 0.5–0.6 mm (durability of thick) (in piloting, 2–3 years) durability of 10 years) Drum float 800,000– 1,200,000 160 lit–220 lit VND/pcs (durability of 3–5 years) EPS foam float 406 tons 8,700–9,000 Wooden float 25,000–40,000 Size 8–15cm VND/unit VND/pcs 10–14cm (durability of 1 (durability of year) 3–5 years) Small fishing 860–1,500 Wooden float 3,000–6,000 float VND/pcs VND/pcs Size: 0.8 cm; Weight: 5g (for single-use) Length: 6.6 cm (durability of 1 year) Material: foam Size: 1.8cm x 0.4cm PVC fishing 54,000–78,000 Wooden float 200,000– float/pool VND/pcs 276,000 VND/ marker 12cm–40cm pcs Size 14x20 (durability of 1 year) 45cm–80cm (durability of cm; 13x18 cm; 15x15 cm 2–3 years) 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 85 Styrofoam Food Container Styrofoam food containers are a common packaging Most alternative products listed in Table 20 are solution for take-away food. Styrofoam cannot be substitutes with similar use cases to plastic products, recycled and it is not biodegradable. This plastic but the list also contains products (for example, waste is discharged directly into the environment or stainless steel trays, glass containers) that would disposed of together with other household waste. require businesses and consumers to move away from a single-use, to a reusable model. The main producers and importers of this product are listed in Annex 2.3.C. Table 20: STYROFOAM TRAYS AND ALTERNATIVES – UNITS SOLD AND WHOLESALE COSTS Styrofoam Units sold per Avg. wholesale Alternative Units sold per Avg. wholesale tray types year (estimate) cost per unit Product Types year (estimate) cost per unit Foam tray 5,133 million 700 Leaf tray 51 million pcs 1,800–2,300 pcs VND–2,000VND/ VND/unit Various sizes unit (for single-use) Bagasse tray 1,300–3,200 VND/unit (for single-use) PLA tray 4.2 million pcs 2,300–3,500 VND/unit (for single-use) Aluminum tray 3.6 million pcs 3,800–5,320 9,600 VND/unit (for single-use) Food foam tray 1,000–1,500 stainless steel 42,000–65,000 VND/unit tray VND/unit (At least one year of use equals to 360 times) 86 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Styrofoam Units sold per Avg. wholesale Alternative Units sold per Avg. wholesale tray types year (estimate) cost per unit Product Types year (estimate) cost per unit Small sticky 5,341 million 150–500 VND/ Bagasse box 51.3 million 2,750–3,200 rice box pcs unit pcs VND/unit (for single-use) Foam food box 2,760 VND/unit Kraft box 1,206 million 2,800 VND/unit pcs (for single-use) Foam food box 473–546 VND/ Paper rice box 5,700 unit VND–6,900 VND/unit (for single-use) Glass box 99,000 VND/ unit–180,000/ unit (for single-use) Aluminum box 5,000 VND/unit (for single-use) Bagasse rice 2,300 – 5,500 box VND/unit (for single-use) 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 87 Straws 21). This is due customer acceptance, the availability In Vietnam, alternatives to plastic straws are well of relatively cheap raw materials for alternatives, and established and sold in volumes that, although smaller, a larger number of producers of substitute products are comparable to plastic straw volumes (see Table (see Annex 2.3.C). Table 21: PLASTIC STRAWS AND ALTERNATIVES – UNITS SOLD AND WHOLESALE COSTS Straw type Units sold per Avg. wholesale Alternative Units sold per Avg. wholesale year (estimate) cost per unit Product Types year (estimate) cost per unit Straight straw 1,257 million 200 VND–1,000 Bamboo/ 65 million pcs. 600–1,000 PP plastic pcs. VND/unit wooden straw VND/unit (for wholesales) or 1,000–6,000 VND/unit for retail (use for 3–6 months) Paper/kraft 850 million 200–500 VND/ straw pcs. unit (single-use) Grass straw 85 million pcs. 400–500 VND/ unit (single-use) Compostable 3,200–3,800 plastic straw VND/unit (single-use) Rice straw/ 580 million 300–800 VND/ vegetable pcs. unit straws (single-use) U-shaped 2,560 million 100 VND–300 U-shaped 680 million 400 VND/unit straws for dairy pcs. VND/unit paper straw/ pcs. (single-use) factories sugar cane PP plastic fibers 88 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Straw type Units sold per Avg. wholesale Alternative Units sold per Avg. wholesale year (estimate) cost per unit Product Types year (estimate) cost per unit Curved straws 1,505 million 1,200 Stainless steel 7,000–15,000 PP plastic pcs. VND–1,500 straw VND/unit VND/units (durability of 3–10 years) Glass straw 4,000– 10,000VND/ unit (durability of 6 months–2 years) Food packaging At the same time, alternative packaging products Food packaging waste is the product category often have considerably different properties, which with the greatest variety for specific products puts their suitability as substitutes into question. presented in this study. Different polymers and In the absence of specific regulation and change polymer blends, composite packaging, coloring, in business practices and consumer behavior, sizes, and organic contamination often make the alternatives are unlikely to replace current food recycling of food packaging waste very challenging. packaging on a larger scale. Food packaging type and Units sold Avg. wholesale Alternative Product Units sold Wholesale size per year cost per unit Types per year cost per (estimate) (estimate) unit (VND) Packaging of agricultural 2,089,871 301–900 VND/ Kraft paper bag 800– 4,350 Products; tons pcs Various sizes VND/pcs Structure: PVC, PET, BOF; Number of colors: from 1–9 colors The largest size is 120 cm. Aluminium bag 2,900– Various sizes 9,600 VND/pcs 2.3 Analysis of Alternatives | 89 Food packaging type and Units sold Avg. wholesale Alternative Product Units sold Wholesale size per year cost per unit Types per year cost per (estimate) (estimate) unit (VND) Food Packaging 2,089,871 6mic–30mic Tin box packaging 10,500– Structure: OPP/PE, OPP/ tons thickness PE Various sizes 55,000 PP, OPP/MCPP, OPP/ bag price from VND/box LLDPE, PET/LLDPE, PET/ 62 VND–1,383 MPET/ VND/pcs LLDPE… Number of colors: from 1–9 colors Tin cans 300– The largest size is 120 cm. Various sizes 28,000 VND/ tin Glass jar with tin lid 4,000– Types from 15 25,000 ml–1000 ml VND/ box Packaging of Frozen Food PA plastic Stencils bags 1,200– Structure: PA/LLDPE, PA/ membrane: 38x50cm 2,000 PE/LLDPE... 807,000 VND/ weight 35–40gram VND/pcs Number of colors: from kg 19 colors The largest size is 120 cm LDPE bag 8x4x18 inch: 111–145 VND/ pcs 2.3.4 Summary and Conclusions single-use items, or with plastic multi-use items that may also have negative impacts, and would not be in line with This assessment of plastic alternatives was based on a pathway toward a more circular economy. field surveys, which revealed the top 10 polluting plastic items at river and coastal sites in Vietnam. The relevant Thus, in promoting alternative products, the focus should data on alternatives available in the market were collected be on the promotion of reusable, non-plastic items from primary sources via interviews, and from secondary that support an overall reduction of waste generation. sources reviewed in desk studies. Nonetheless, for plastic straws, in particular, due to the availability of relatively cheap raw materials for alternatives, The results of the preliminary plastic alternatives analysis high customer acceptance, and a larger number of producers showed that for most of the identified priority single-use of substitute products, single-use alternatives to plastic plastics, alternative products were already available in straws are already well established, and sold in volumes the Vietnamese market. This included alternatives that comparable to plastic straws. Promotion of other alternative are mainly available for plastic bags and take-away-food products through policies and incentives, and supporting related waste. the transition to a reuse model to compensate for the While alternative products are currently often higher priced higher unit price, will be crucial in further reducing the than their respective single-use plastic (SUP) product, most priority single-use plastic products that are responsible of the alternatives are reusable products. In principal, the for, by far, the greatest amount of plastic pollution. objective should not be to replace SUPs with non-plastic, 90 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics 3. WAY FORWARD I mprovements in plastic waste monitoring. The studies summarized in this report illustrate the feasibility of undertaking low-cost surveys using different methodologies that can provide governments (both national and local) with a snapshot of plastic waste leakage with regard to volume, types, brands, flow, and hotspots. Depending on the policy objectives for monitoring, multiple methodologies could be employed, so location-specific protocols would need to be developed to determine the most appropriate survey types and frequency. Lessons learned from the different methodologies used in this study could feed into national guidelines on plastic monitoring that would support local governments in regularly tracking progress in implementing the policies concerned with plastics. To guide local-level monitoring, development of guidelines by MONRE will be necessary. The remote-sensing based plastics transport monitoring on rivers has provided valuable and promising results. Remote-sensing based identification of plastics floating on rivers, combined with automated image analysis, is a very new approach at a global level, and is at an early stage of development. In this study, this approach was successfully piloted in Vietnam with plastic items that were automatically detected and analyzed over longer periods of time by cameras mounted on bridges. This positive outcome of the survey should provide the foundation for the Government of Vietnam to carry out longer-term plastic monitoring in order to increase knowledge about plastic pollution, establish baselines, and measure the impacts of policies and other measures over time. The simultaneous application of net trawls showed the potential to link results to remote sensing, and establish models to estimate total plastic loads, including of the load of submerged plastics, which is based on the automated detection of surface plastics. A high number of very valuable technical lessons were learned in this first pilot that could provide the foundation for the government to upscale plastic monitoring. Policies to address low-value and single-use plastic waste. The survey results indicate that most of the plastic waste leakage at the studied sites was from a small number of items, many of which were single-use and low-value products. These included plastic bags and take-away plastic waste (for example, food packaging such as Styrofoam, plastic cutlery, plastic straws, and drink-stirrers). Therefore, policies are needed to reduce the input of low-value plastic products, as their use is becoming progressively restricted, worldwide, and Vietnam could benefit from other countries’ experience in implementing waste reduction policies. A roadmap should be developed to phase-in the implementation of bans, restrictions, and taxes/fees on identified SUPs, which are very common in the tourism and retail sectors. Analyzing measures to address fisheries-related waste. Given the extent to which fishing gear was identified in the field survey as one of the top two plastic items found in all coastal locations, in order to inform effective policy measures, further analysis is needed across the key sub-sectors (for example, ports, aquaculture, and capture fisheries). This would guide implementation of the Action Plan for Marine Plastic Waste Management in the Fisheries Sector, which was recently adopted by Vietnam’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. 92 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Developing public awareness about the top 10 Other areas for further analysis include: polluting plastic items. The survey results, along with the • a more extensive analysis of product alternatives preliminary market analysis of alternatives, highlighted that would include lifecycle costs and environmental the importance of improving public awareness about impacts; the negative impacts of plastic pollution. A substantial increase in educating citizens and youth about waste • an economic analysis in specific locations of the reduction, reuse, and the need to halt littering, is cost of the impact of plastic waste items; required to: reduce demand for low-utility plastic; • plastic ocean transport modelling/ocean current support more cost-effective waste management modeling to better understand the potential infrastructure systems; and reduce littering, and the transboundary pathways of plastic waste; and subsequent pollution of rivers and the ocean. 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ANNEXES ANNEX 2.1.A: SURVEY DATA SHEET TEMPLATES Table 22: SURVEY SITE CHARACTERIZATION SHEET Overview of survey location Shoreline Debris Organization   Debris density data Surveyor name     sheet Phone number       Date  Date of this survey Shoreline code (ID)   Unique code for a beach Shoreline name Name for section of shoreline (e.g, beach name, park) Location Ward, District, Province Time start/end Start End Coordinates of start of Longitude Latitude Record in both corners if shoreline site width > 6m. If transect, record at water’s edge. Coordinates of end of Longitude Latitude Record in both corners if shoreline site width > 6m. If transect, record at back of shoreline. Photo     Photo ID Characteristics of shoreline Width of beach (100m)   Length measured along the midpoint of the coast (in metres) Substratum type Sand, Gravel, Coral,… Substrate uniformity Percent coverage of the main substrate type (%) Tidal range Maximum & Minimum vertical tidal range. Use tide chart (usually in feet) 102 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Overview of survey location Tidal distance Horizontal distance (in metres) from low – to high – tide line. Measure on beach at low and high tides or estimate based on wrack lines. Back of shoreline Describe landward limit (e.g; vegetation, rock wall, cliff dunes, parking lot). Aspect Direction you are facing when you look out at the water (e.g: northeast) Location & land use Resident Not used yet Tourist Agriculture Aquaculture Nearest town   Name of nearest town Nearest town distance   Distance to nearest town (km) Nearest town direction Direction to nearest town (cardinal direction) Nearest river name If applicable, name of nearest river or stream. If blank, assumed to mean no inputs nearby. Nearest river distance   (km) Nearest river direction   Direction to nearest river/stream Rive/creek input to beach Yes No Whether nearest river/stream has an outlet within this shoreline section Pipe or drain input Yes No If there is a storm drain or channelized outlet within shoreline section Source: Lippiatt et al., 2013 Annex 2.1.A: Survey Data Sheet Templates | 103 Table 23: FIELD SURVEY DATA SHEET The name of the survey site ID transect Time Start   End Date: dd/mm/yy Length of transect (m) Width of transect (m)       ID Item Size(1-2) Number Weight P PLASTIC       1 Hard plastic fragments       2 Soft plastic fragments       3 Film plastic fragments       4 Crisp/Sweet packages       5 Food wrappers       6 Other wrappers       Size 1 (0-500ml)     7 Beverage bottles (PET) Size 2 (> 500ml)     8 Other Beverage bottles (HDPE,…)       9 Containers and bottles       Cleaner and cosmetics bottles (shampoo Size 1 (0-100ml)     10 bottles, cosmetic jars, shower gel bottles e.g) Size 2 (>100ml)     11 Bottle caps (HDPE)       12 Cigar/Cigarette butts       Size 1 (0-5kg)     13 Plastic bags Size 2 (>5kg)     104 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics 14 Styrofoam food containers       Single-use plastic products (Cups,       15 Utensils…) (PET) Single-use plastic products (Cups,       16 Utensils…) (PP) 17 Straws       18 Fertilizer bags or containers       19 Plastic strings, cords and ropes       20 Personal hygiene products       21 Medical products       Fishing gear 1: Fishing plastic ropes, net       22 pieces, fishing lures & lines, hard plastic floats Fishing gear 2: Polystyrenes - ESP, Buoys       23 & Floats 24 Other plastic       25 Lighters       M METAL       G GLASS       R RUBBER       P PAPER       C CLOTH/FABRIC       O MIXED WASTE       L Large Debris items (>1m)/ Large Debris items (> foot of -0.3m) Item Status (sunken, stranded, Approximate Approximate Description/ type buried) width (m) length (m) photo ID # (vessel, net, etc.) Notes on debris items, description of “Other/unclassifiable” items, and so on. Annex 2.1.A: Survey Data Sheet Templates | 105 ANNEX 2.1.B: SURVEY PROTOCOLS COASTAL SITES • Before arriving at sites Surveying should take place at low tide. When planning the monitoring schedule, consult tidal charts to determine the correct time for low tide. • Working at sites Step 1: Fill out the site characterization Step 2: Identify a section of 100m on each sheet beach. Each 100m-section is divided into 20 equal sections, each with a width of 5m, and perpendicular to the shore. Step 3: Select 4 randomly divided sections Step 4: In each transect, walk from the water’s on the beach, herein called transects edge to the back of the shoreline and collect waste items that are larger than 2.5cm (Plastic, metal, grass, rubber, cloth, wood, others) Step 5: Sort, count, and weigh the waste Step 6: Throw the waste collected into the items collected, and fill out the data sheet. trash bin Audit the brands of the waste and write these on the brand audit sheet Photo source: (Lippiatt, 2013; WIOMSA, n.d) 106 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics RIVER SITES • Working at sites       Step 1: Fill out the site characteristics sheet  Step 2: Select quadrat: In the selected area, a one-square metre quadrat is placed every few (10 to   20) metres where digging is possible (for example: tidal flooded areas, areas of periodic flooding, and areas close to creek outlets). Pick up the waste on the surface of the quadrat.  Step 3: Collect the waste items which are larger Step 4: Clean, sort, count, and weigh the waste than 2.5 cm (in at least one dimension) in the items collected, and fill out the data sheet. Audit the quadrat to a depth of 30cm   brands in the waste, and write these on the brand audit sheet  Step 6: Throw the waste collected into the trash bin    Photo source: (Lippiatt, 2013; WIOMSA, n.d)  Annex 2.1.B: Survey Protocols | 107 ANNEX 2.1.C: SURVEY RESULTS FROM RIVER SITES In the Red river (Lao Cai and Hai Phong), 20/28 subcategories of plastic were detected, and the top 10 items accounted for 93.4% of the total plastic waste. Figure 32: TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT RED RIVER SITES In the Mekong river (Can Tho and Soc Trang), there were 25/28 plastic waste categories, and the top 10 items accounted for 81.5% of all the plastic waste items recorded. Figure 33: TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT MEKONG RIVER SITES 108 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Riverbanks in Central provinces (Hue, Quang Nam, Da Nang, Khanh Hoa), 22/28 sub-categories of plastic waste were detected, and the top 10 items accounted for 86.2% of all items recorded. Figure 34: TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT CENTRAL PROVINCES RIVER SITES Phu Quoc rivers had 17/28 sub-categories of plastic waste and the top 10 items accounted for 89.6% in density. Figure 35: TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT PHU QUOC RIVER SITES Annex 2.1.C: Survey Results from River Sites | 109 Dong Nai – Sai Gon river (Ho Chi Minh) had 21/28 subcategories of plastic and the top 10 items accounted for 84.4% in number. Figure 36: TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT DONG NAI-SAI GON RIVERBANK SITES At each river site location, single-use plastics (SUPs) with highest fractions of SUP waste were Soc Trang account for a significant amount. At the river sites, (93%), Thua Thien Hue (80%), Hai Phong (77%), and SUP items accounted for between 66% and 93% Da Nang (76%). The top three locations that had the (although the amount of waste collected was different highest density of SUP waste items were Can Tho for each site). The percentage of SUP waste at river (24.9 items/unit), Lao Cai (22.9 items/unit), and Ho sites, by location, is presented in Figure . The locations Chi Minh City (21.9 items/unit). Photo: xuanhuongho - Shutterstock 110 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Figure 37: SINGLE-USE PLASTIC WASTE DENSITY AT EACH RIVERBANK LOCATION Table 24: SINGLE-USE PLASTIC WASTE DENSITY AT EACH RIVER SITE LOCATION Province Single use Other Total (Density: item/unit) (Density: item/unit (Density: item/unit) Can Tho 24.9 9.7 34.5 Da Nang 8.9 2.8 11.7 Hai Phong 9.8 3 12.8 Ho Chi Minh 21.9 11.5 33.4 Hue 8.3 2.1 10.4 Khanh Hoa 5.8 2.3 8.1 Lao Cai 22.9 7.15 30.1 Phu Quoc 7 2.6 9.6 Quang Nam 6.4 3 9.4 Soc Trang 4 0.3 4.3 Annex 2.1.C: Survey Results from River Sites | 111 ANNEX 2.1.D: SURVEY RESULTS FOR COASTAL SITES Beaches in the Northern subzone (Hai Phong, Thua Thien Hue) were characterized by a large amount of fishing gear 1 (standing stock: 22.3%, ), hard plastic fragments (12.4%, ranked second), and straws (12.3%, ranked third) (Figure 37). Figure 38: STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF THE TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS ON COASTAL SITES IN THE NORTHERN SUBZONE (DENSITY) At coastal sites in the Transitional subzone (Da Nang, Quang Nam, Khanh Hoa) and in the Southern subzone (Ho Chi Minh, Soc Trang, Phu Quoc), soft plastic fragments (21.7%, in the Transitional subzone, 19.9% in the Southern subzone) was the top plastic waste item, followed by fishing gear 1 and fishing gear 2. These three plastic categories together comprised 53% of the total standing stock and 46% (Transitional subzone sites) and 52.6% (Southern subzone sites) of daily accumulation. Additionally, Styrofoam food containers were common in the Southern subzone sites (10.1%, ranked fourth) and the Transitional subzone (4.4%, ranked sixth). However, this plastic category was found less in the Northern subzone, and was not even in the top 10 list (accounting for only 1.4%). 112 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Figure 39: STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF THE TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT COASTAL SITES IN THE TRANSITIONAL SUBZONE (DENSITY) Figure 40: STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF THE TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT COASTAL SITES IN THE SOUTHERN SUBZONE (DENSITY) Annex 2.1.D: Survey Results for Coastal Sites | 113 The top 10 items accounted for 84% in rural sites and in urban areas. Even though there was a noticeable 87% in urban sites. The composition of plastic waste difference in the densities of plastic debris between was also undifferentiated between rural and urban the rural and urban areas (in rural coastal sites, the top areas, but their fraction was different. In rural sites, 10 items accounted for from 3 to 21 item.m-1, and in soft plastic fragments were the most frequently found urban coastal sites, the top 10 items only accounted items (20.6%). The second most abundant sub-category for from 1 to 13 item.m-1). Also, the composition of was fishing gear 2 (15.4%), followed by fishing gear 1. plastic categories was very similar between the two These sub-categories were also ranked in top three environments. Figure 41: STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF THE TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT RURAL COASTAL SITES (DENSITY) Soft plastic fragment 20.6% 25.5% Fishi ng gear 2: Polystyrenes- E 15.4% 4.1% Fishi ng gear 1: Fishing Plastic 14.9% 20.9% Styrofoam food container 8.0% 9.2% Plastic bags size 1 6.9% 6.4% Hard plasti c fragment 5.1% 2.7% Plastic bags size 2 3.4% 3.0% Straws 3.3% 2.4% Other food wrappers 3.3% 4.3% Other wrappers 2.9% 4.7% 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 items.m-1 Standing stock 1 day accumulation Figure 42: STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF TOP 10 PLASTIC WASTE ITEMS AT URBAN COASTAL SITES (DENSITY) Urban coastal sites Fishi ng gear 1: Fishing Plastic 23.6% 16.5% Soft plastic fragment 14.4% 8.7% Fishi ng gear 2: Polystyrenes- E 12.1% 10.2% Hard plasti c fragment 8.1% 11.0% Plastic bags size 1 7.5% 6.4% Straws 7.2% 5.4% Styrofoam food container 5.2% 6.6% Crisp/Sweet packages 3.4% 5.9% Other plastic 2.8% 2.5% Plastic rope 2.7% 6.8% 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 items.m-1 Standing stock 1 day accumulation 114 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics The top 10 items accounted for 87% at non-tourism abundant types were fishing gear 1 and 2, both of which sites and 85% in tourism sites. The composition of plastic accounted for 30%. At tourism sites, fishing gear 1 waste was similar between tourism and non-tourism (18.4%) and fishing gear 2 (16.2%) were the top two areas. In non-tourism sites, soft plastic fragments items, followed by Styrofoam food containers (9.6%, was the most frequently found category in density and 2.9% at non-tourism sites). At non-tourism sites, (31%). Combined with plastic bags size 1, these two straws accounted for only 2.4% in standing stock, but categories added up to 42.8%. The subsequent most at tourism sites, this percentage was 6.7% Figure 43: STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF THE TOP 10 PLASTIC ITEMS AT NON-TOURISM COASTAL SITES (DENSITY) Figure 44: THE STANDING STOCK AND DAILY ACCUMULATION OF THE TOP 10 PLASTIC ITEMS AT TOURISM COASTAL SITES (DENSITY) Annex 2.1.D: Survey Results for Coastal Sites | 115 ANNEX 2.2.A: KEY METHODOLOGIES – DATA COLLECTION, PLASTIC DETECTION, CLASSIFICATION AND QUANTIFICATION, PLASTIC FLOW CALCULATIONS AND MODELLING Overview of methodologies adopted for data collection Monitoring of floating plastics on rivers through remote sensing: This method utilized 3 GoPro cameras installed on bridges (Figure 45) to monitor plastic waste transportation at the selected rivers in three cities (Hai Phong, Hai Duong, and Sapa). Installed cameras survey lasted 8 hours each per camera yielding a 24-hour footage per survey site. Images were subsequently analyzed for waste quantities and types using an automated artificial intelligence (AI)-based approach. Figure 45: CAMERA INSTALLATION AT THE BRIDGE. CAMERAS WERE INSTALLED AT SEVERAL CROSS SECTIONS ALONG THE RIVERS TO RECORD FLOATING PLASTICS. RBG CAMERAS WITH DESIRED RESOLUTION OF 15-20 MO AND 4K VIDEO RECORDING WERE UTILIZED. 116 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Monitoring of plastics on rivers and riverbeds through resolution (GSD) of ~0.2cm. Obtained high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV): This method employs imagery obtained at 6m were subsequently analyzed a two-step approach to monitor plastics on shore with an automated AI method. and larger waste accumulations. The first captures a For automated plastic quantification, a UAV was high-level overview of the area of interest around the deployed to capture floating and deposited plastics bridge location near each river survey site at a 60m along the river and riverbanks (Figure 46). Recorded height with an automated flight pattern. The second imageries were fed into APLASTIC-Q model to detect captures locations of waste accumulations using a drone and analyze of plastics pollution in terms of waste pilot. After capturing, selected high-polluted locations quantity and waste types. are monitored in detail at 6m height at a geospatial Figure 46: UAV OPERATION AT A SURVEY LOCATION. AT SELECTED LOCATIONS, 2 SETS OF IMAGES WERE TAKEN (1 HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION CAPTURED AT HIGH FLIGHT ALTITUDE OF 60 - 100M AND VERY HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION CAPTURED AT LOW FLIGHT ALTITUDE OF 6M) AS SHOWN. The area size of the high-altitude flights covers ~250 local features of the site, a number of low altitude meters each upstream and downstream of a survey flight were taken to ensure a good representation of location. The upper and lower edges of the survey the plastic pollution. locations are fixed at 100m from the riverbanks or up These surveys included areas of high and medium to the river dike. density of plastic waste, and potential areas with visibly The area size of each low-altitude flight covered different types of plastic waste. The method possesses the approximately 10x10 meters with focus on the robustness to detect and quantify waste in the imagery accumulated plastic waste areas. Depending on the and classify waste types for the various wastes detected. Annex 2.2.A: Key Methodologies – Data Collection, Plastic Detection, Classification and Quantification, Plastic Flow Calculations and Modelling | 117 Monitoring of submerged plastics in rivers through under different conditions led to the determination of net trawls: With this approach, multiple nets are an annual load via the correlation between transport exposed to the river in various depths. The nets and discharge. The use of automated camera enables (Figure 47) filter considerable volume of water over the correlation between detectable plastic (mostly a timeframe (approximately 45 minutes in this study). surface floating) and total transported plastic (except A simultaneous flow velocity measurement was used very large particle). Thus, camera observations enabled to determine flow rate through the nets thus resulting calculation of total plastic transport. in a plastic concentration. Repeated measurements Figure 47: FINAL DEVICE CONFIGURATION OF NET TRAWLS. NETS ARE ARRANGED IN DIFFERENT DEPTHS. AT EACH RIVER CROSS-SECTION, 1-7 VERTICAL PROFILES ARE DISTRIBUTED OVER THE ENTIRE WETTED AREA, TO YIELD A MAXIMUM OF 35 SAMPLING POINTS FOR EVERY DEPLOYMENT. NET TYPES AND MESH SIZES ARE SELECTED ACCORDING TO PREVAILING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT THE MEASURING SITE. Additional considerations during data use of water resources and waste discharge in Thai collection Binh, Thack Khoi, Chanh Duong River and Cat Stream were investigated. In addition, point-source discharges To enhance river monitoring, relevant data on current (both in flow and quality) were identified in the river status of the river network, hydrological data (such basin and stream. Relevant local stakeholders were as flow rate, discharge, water quality), as well as also identified, and institutional settings were mapped topographical data (such as cross section of rivers, and included in later consultations. water infrastructure etc) were collected. The current 118 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Data Analysis The first CNN comprises tiles with a shape of 128x128x128 pixels. It detects if there is plastic in a tile and labels The method ‘Machine learning for aquatic plastic litter them either as Water, vegetation, Litter-high, Litter-low, detection, classification and quantification’ (APLASTIC-Q) Sand and others. The classification of the first CNN was utilized for data analysis. APLASTIC-Q is based restricts the application of the second CNN which on two convolutional neural networks 16 1(CNNs). Input comprises tiles with 64x64x3 pixels. The second CNN images from low altitudes (6m) with high resolution drone is restricted to evaluate only areas in which pollution overflights. Subsequently, each image is partitioned was detected using the Litter-high and Litter-low labels. into two different ways resulting in two different sets The two output classification maps are then used to of image tiles. APLASTIC-Q can process images (file estimate the number of different types of debris objects formats: JPG, PNG, TIFF), videos (MP4, MOV, AVI) in the input image and the number of pollutants for and orthomosaics 17 2(TIFF). each type of pollutant i.e. P – bottles PET (P for plastic, PET for Polyethylene terephthalate), P – polystyrene, 161 Convolutional neural network (CNN) is a class of deep neural networks, most applied to analyzing visual imagery. CNNs use P – bags LDPE (Low-density polyethylene), etc. Labels relatively little pre-processing compared to other image classifi- used for the second CNN do not only comprise plastic cation algorithms. Which is why the network learns to optimize the filters or convolution kernels that in traditional algorithms are waste items but also non plastic (NP) waste like rubber, hand-engineered. metal, and glass thus enabling assessment on the 17 Orthomosaic, or Ortho-rectified photo mosaic is created with a set of drone survey images. The images have overlaps in be- relative abundances of plastic waste over the analyzed tween the set and are all geo referenced. The set gets processed study sites. with a photogrammetry software, common software’s are Pix4D- mapper or Agisoft Metashape. Figure 48: APLASTIC-Q (Wolf et al. 2020) ANALYSIS OF IMAGERY BASED ON CONVOLUTIONAL NEURAL NETWORKS TO QUANTIFY POLLUTANT ITEMS NUMBERS, WASTE TYPES, AREAS COVERED AND GIVE A VOLUME ESTIMATE. APLASTIC-Q SOFTWARE CAN GIVE ASSESSMENTS FOR THE QUANTITIES AND FOR WASTE TYPES FOR SURVEY SITES, WHERE THE ASSESSMENTS CAN BE USED AS ACTIONABLE INFORMATION. Waste area and waste volume assessment per input as 100% polluted. For the waste volume assessment, imagery is done with the two output classification maps, the tiles which got classified as Litter – low have been the consideration of altitude and litter parameters. estimated to be 7cm thick on average, the tiles for The consideration of altitude assigns a real-world area, Litter – high are estimated to be 30cm thick on average. which one tile covers. The litter parameters consider For example, if a tile with dimension 128x128x3 was areas which are classified as Litter-low and hence do detected as litter – high with the geospatial resolution not contain many waste items and areas which are (GSD) 0.2cm, the real-world area is 0.065m²: this leads classified as Litter-high and hence can often contain to a waste area assessment for that tile of 0.065m² and even piled up waste. For the waste area assessment, the a waste volume assessment for that tile of 0.019m³. tiles which are classified as Litter – low are considered These area and volume assessments are added up 50% polluted, the tiles for Litter – high are considered for all tiles analyzed of the input image. Annex 2.2.A: Key Methodologies – Data Collection, Plastic Detection, Classification and Quantification, Plastic Flow Calculations and Modelling | 119 Plastic Detection, Classification of plastic true-color low altitude with very high-resolution images types, and Quantification of Plastics to monitoring waste hotspots was analyzed regarding waste quantity and waste types. In addition, the images The imagery produced by the data collection from the low-cost cameras installed on bridges are approaches are analyzed in terms of various plastic analyzed with respect to these litter statistics as well. waste statistics. These statistics involve assessments for (i) waste quantities in terms of abundances along The data analysis method is based on computer vision with areas and waste volume assessments for (ii) waste and machine learning algorithms, it is briefly described types in terms of numbers of items per waste type and in the following section, more details can be found top 10 identified plastic items with relative abundance. in Wolf et al. (2020). The method was established for a World Bank-funded plastic diagnostics study in Several types of imagery are collected as part of Cambodia (2019) (Wolf et al. 2020) and was further this plastics study. Each set of imagery has different developed in this study. The data analysis method can advantages for data analysis. (1) The set of high-altitude detect and classify plastic debris in various aquatic overview imagery is used to identify plastic hotspots environments including: River surfaces, banks near and visually contextualize the study sites. (2) The set of rivers, and beaches. Figure 49: EXAMPLE OUTPUT OF APLASTIC-Q. IT GIVES AN ESTIMATE ON THE NUMBER OF WASTE ITEMS, AREA COVERED WITH WASTE, WASTE VOLUME ESTIMATE IN M3. MOREOVER, IT ESTIMATES THE WASTE TYPE ITEMS ALONG WITH THE PROPORTION OF THE WASTE TYPES FOR EACH IMAGE OR ORTHOMOSAIC 120 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Assessment of plastic waste and got classified successfully by the PLD. In the transportation based on data analysis next step each cluster is analyzed individually. If the PLQ detected any kind of pollution in the images The assessment of waste emissions for the river corresponding to the cluster, the waste litter counter monitoring is based on the methodology mentioned for that data batch is increased by one. If not, the above as well. The waste assessment is in three steps: data from the PLD is assumed to be a false positive 1. Sections of the GoPro time-lapse images are and the count does not increase. analyzed according to the method above 2. The analysis results of the time-lapse images Assessment of plastic waste are processed using a plastic waste assessment transportation through counting waste approach mentioned below detections in single images 3. Visualization of results bridge monitoring survey days The waste analysis of the PLD is again the focus of the estimation. In this method, the data of each There are two methods how the plastic waste image is analyzed individually. If the PLD and the assessments have been processed at step (2), and the PLQ detected any kind of pollution in the image, the selection of these methods depend on local factors. waste litter counter for that data batch is increased When the waste transportation is on a high level, the by the number of litter tiles the PLD detected. An method on assessment of plastic waste transportation upper limit constraint of maximally five litter objects through counting waste detections in single images per image is used. This is done that the effects of was found to be more effective, as it also enables the sun glitter, unsteady water or passing by boats are detection of multiple plastic objects passing by at the reduced to the waste estimations. same time. When only few items were transported by the river, the assessment of plastic waste transportation The best use case for that method is, if a continuous through clustering was found to be more effective, stream of a few small litter objects is present. This as it counts single plastics in a more accurate way, as was the case for heavy polluted tributaries, like the multiple waste detections are necessary. Chanh Duong bridge at Hai Phong. This method is again independent of the flow speed, but it works Assessment of plastic waste well for rivers with continuous flow speeds. transportation through clustering The method cannot distinguish between on large litter object and many smaller ones. This may lead Data from the monitoring analysis is saved in the form to an overestimation if larger objects float by, or it of large arrays. Each classes of both machine learning may lead to an underestimation if multiple objects algorithms of the monitoring software are represented float by and trigger the upper limit constrain. If a in its own array. Each entry in those arrays corresponds continuous waste detection is caused, in the form to the waste estimations of the Plastic Litter Detector of a litter object that is trapped in the view of the (PLD) or Plastic Litter Quantifier (PLQ) respectively camera or reflections in the surface of the water - this for one single image. The data from the PLD and the may lead to an overestimation, as the waste item is PLQ is divided into batches. The batch size depends counted multiple times. This effect was mitigated by on the time lapse interval, that is the time between analyzing a section of the time lapse images. Through the recording of two images and the chosen time this, unwanted sections are cut out, like sun glitter, resolution of the estimation. For Instance: The time manmade buildings, and trapped waste items. lapse interval is 8 sec., it is estimated how many litter objects passed the river in one-hour intervals. In that case 1h/8s = 3600s/8s = 450 images are the batch Plastic Flow Calculations and Modelling size for the estimation. The waste analysis of the PLD The calculated plastic concentration for an example is the focus of the estimation. The method looks for coming from the Austrian Danube River can be seen so-called clusters in the data. These are successive in Figure 50. The measurements clearly show that images, in which the PLD detected pollution. These plastic is not only found in the uppermost layer of clusters appear if a litter item was captured by the the river but is distributed over the full water column. camera and is visible in multiple successive images Annex 2.2.A: Key Methodologies – Data Collection, Plastic Detection, Classification and Quantification, Plastic Flow Calculations and Modelling | 121 Figure 50: EXAMPLE OF THE DATA GATHERED FOR ONE MULTI-POINT MEASUREMENT PERFORMED IN THE DANUBE RIVER NEAR HAINBURG Note: The sampling was conducted on 13 January 2015 at a Danube discharge of 3.392 m³ s-1. The plastic concentration [mg/1000m³] is displayed for each net (Liedermann et al., 201818).3 3 Liedermann, M; Gmeiner, P; Pessenlehner, S; Haimann, M; Hohenblum, P; Habersack, H. (2018): A Methodology for Measuring Microplastic Transport in Large or Medium Rivers WATER-SUI. 2018; 10(4) A transport rate qi,j [g m-2 s-1] can then calculated Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations using as a product of plastic concentration Ci,j [g m-3] and the Finite Volume Method on a mesh consisting of the measured flow velocity vi,j [m s-1]: arbitrarily shaped polyhedra. This approach has the potential to deliver more accurate results than standard qi,j = C i,j vi,j (2) methods when applied to recirculating flows, as it can significantly reduce numerical diffusion (Tritthart, 2005). A mean plastic transport value for the cross-section Convective fluxes at cell boundaries are interpolated and an estimation of yearly yields based on a number using a second‐order upwind scheme. Pressure–velocity of measurements at different discharge/seasonal coupling is performed using the SIMPLE algorithm in conditions can then be determined, comparable to a generalized formulation. The hydrodynamic model the analysis of suspended sediments in rivers, (e.g. implements both the standard k‐ε and the improved Haimann et al., 201418).4 k‐ω turbulence closure models. The elevation of Hydrodynamic numerical models can be used for the free water surface is derived iteratively from the an upscaling process. If basic data (river geometry, computed non-hydrostatic pressure field. This model water level) are available, numerical models can be can be used if required in the course of the project. used to model hydrological events that could not The model also has a module for modelling particle (not yet) be sampled. For this purpose, BOKU/IWA paths (Tritthart et al., 201920),6which could be used to has developed its own model R-Sim3D (Tritthart and model plastic particles in the vicinity of the camera and Gutknecht, 200719).5It solves the three-dimensional to give probabilities for the location of the passage within the cross section. 19 Haimann, M; Liedermann, M; Lalk, P; Habersack, H. An inte- grated suspended sediment transport monitoring and analysis 21 Tritthart, M; Gmeiner, P; Liedermann, M; Habersack, H. (2019): concept Int. Journal of Sediment Research 2014, 29(2), 135-148. A meso-scale gravel tracer model for large gravel-bed rivers, Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research, 7, 89-102; 20 Tritthart, M; Gutknecht, D. (2007): THREE-DIMENSIONAL ISSN 2324-9676 SIMULATION OF FREE-SURFACE FLOWS USING POLYHEDRAL FINITE VOLUMES ENG APPL COMP FLUID. 2007; 1(1): 1-14. 122 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Advantages and Disadvantages of the different methodologies Methodology Advantages/Strengths Disadvantage/Weakness Analysis of Drone Images Accurate plastics counting and Limited to visible wastes as optical type identification; cameras can only image surfaces; Drone flights can cover large Drone flights can be difficult in areas and therefore, more areas constricted places and those with can be imaged, analyzed, and significant signal interferences; monitored; Require significantly high drone With the combination of piloting skills; low-altitude and high-altitude flights, the waste accumulation Generation of orthomosaics is and possible sources can be difficult to impossible for areas with assessed. moving features or objects. Analysis of Images from Counting of plastics is accurate; Cameras and peripherals can be Bridge-based Monitoring expensive, particularly if the rivers is Identifications of plastic types wide and the bridge is long; can be accurate provided that the image resolution is high Plastics type identification requires enough; very high-resolution images; Method can be used for long Plastics partially hidden in term monitoring; vegetation and/or among debris may be missed or misclassified; Method can also be used during nighttime provided that artificial Factor such as rough water surface illumination is available. and sun glint might adversely affect the automated counting and plastics identification. Net trawl survey Can catch even small floating Method is not really build for plastics <5cm detection of larger plastics, as they can clog the net Capable of identifying submerged plastics under the Device weights over 20kg and water surface survey needs at least two persons to carry out Results can be used to compare them with other plastics Postprocessing of the cought monitoring results plastics can include steps of drying out the material – this can pose Immanent flow velocities enable problems to regions with very high more accurate monthly / yearly humidity extrapolations of plastics freight Lesson learned: Firstly, it is necessary to closely coordinate with the due to not updating detailed information about parties in the consortium to come up with a detailed the weather, led to the camera with failed drone survey process for each work item. Secondly, it is sensor, making the image blurry due to too high necessary to update accurate information about humidity (85-90%) in Sa Pa - Lao Cai at the survey weather, COVID-19 epidemic, tidal schedule of time. And finally, better coordination with the field survey areas affected by tides. The last survey, survey team is needed. Annex 2.2.A: Key Methodologies – Data Collection, Plastic Detection, Classification and Quantification, Plastic Flow Calculations and Modelling | 123 ANNEX 2.2.B: DEVELOPMENT OF A NET SAMPLING DEVICE APPLICABLE FOR VIETNAMESE RIVERS Although terrestrial environments and freshwaters are recognized as the origins and transport paths of plastics, the majority of research to date focuses on the marine environment (Horton et al., 2017). However, studies in freshwater environments have been rapidly advancing over recent years. Horton et al. (2017) gave a detailed overview of freshwater studies ranging from lakes, (e.g. Imhof et al., 2016; Fischer et al., 2016), to rivers (Baldwin et al., 2016; Dris et al., 2015; Faure et al., 2015; Lechner et al., 2014; Mani et al., 2015; McCormick et al., 2014 and Yonkos et al., 2014) and river sediments, (e.g. Klein et al., 2015; Horton et al., 2017). A number of studies have been performed that addressed the transport of microplastics in riverine systems. Measurements were undertaken in recent years in tributaries of the Great Lakes (Baldwin et al., 2016), the Seine River (Dris et al., 2015; Dris et al., 2018), various rivers in Switzerland (Faure et al., 2015), the Rhine River (Mani et al., 2015), various river sites near Chicago (McCormick et al., 2014) and the Danube River (Lechner et al., 2014). The researchers all used benthic nets (Lechner et al., 2014) or surface trawls as first used by Carpenter et al. (1972), described by Brown and Cheng (1981) and proposed as a standard methodology for surface waters by Lippiat et al. (2013). Moore et al. (2011) tried to address multiple depths by using different devices including a modified large Helley Smith sampler in concrete-lined creeks near Los Angeles. Also, Dris et al. (2018) addressed different depths in one point in the center of the Seine River by coupling a plankton net (addressing fibres) with a propeller-type current meter to sample down to 2 meters. But so far, only Liedermann et al. (2018) sampled the entire cross-section with a multi-point method to address microplastic transport in medium and large rivers. Within the framework of the project, it was therefore planned to construct a simplified measuring device for macro plastic, based on the experience gained from measurements on the Danube, which could be replicated as easily as possible anywhere in the world and which could be used for sampling plastic transport in different river systems. For this purpose, particularly the equipment carrier had to be adapted. But also mesh and frame-sizes were optimized as now mainly macro plastic is targeted. Equipment carrier The modified BfG sampler as used for plastic measurements by Liedermann et al. (2018) built the basis for the newly developed equipment carrier within the project. Facing some advantages of the modified BfG sampler when addressing plastic measurements like the smooth positioning in the water and its usability up to high hydraulic forces, there are also disadvantages. Due to its construction only a very small net could be attached within the frame to measure bed near concentrations. Also, it was aimed to get a more flexible system towards the used weights in order to a better adaption to the hydraulic boundary conditions of any river in the world. Furthermore, it was aimed to develop a much easier equipment carrier compared to the complex constriction of the BfG sampler in order o get the needed material easily under the prevailing circumstances in other countries. 124 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics The resulting device is depicted in Figure 51 as sketch (e.g. net frame and cross beams) are not welded in and during a field test. The frame consists of 48 mm order to be able to disassemble the device quickly. steel pipes. Two cross beams connect the net frame at To attach the weights, 12 threaded bars are welded the bottom. In the rear the frame is connected at the to the frame. Each bar can be attached with 2 weights fin, giving stability in the water column. The dimensions of approximately 10 kg, so in total 240 kg additionally of the used frame for the macro plastic measurement to the weight of the carrier itself. net are 600x600 mm. Connections between the parts Figure 51: VISUALIZATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION PLAN OF THE EQUIPMENT CARRIER (LEFT); FIELD TEST OF THE NEWLY DEVELOPED EQUIPMENT CARRIER (RIGHT) Mesh size For the evaluation of the performance of the different mesh types towards macro plastic measurement 2 As mesh sizes varied throughout the previous studies, major aspects are relevant, (i) the sampling efficiency different sizes were used within the project, to also and (ii) the filtration efficiency. address the differences between larger and smaller mesh types. The following mesh sizes were tested Towards macro plastic, no clear trend in terms of during measurements: sampling efficiency was found during field tests for the mentioned net types, since depending on • 250  µm with 34 % porosity the vertical, either the one or the other net had a • 500 µm with 38 % porosity higher concentration. In terms of filtration efficiency, • 2,43 mm with 44 % porosity Liedermann et al (2018) compared the 250 µm and • 8 mm with very high but undefined porosity 500 µm nets and found that the 500 µm net had a better efficiency. The comparison with the 2.43 mm and 8 mm Based on the porosity values and to reach the required nets shows that both nets have a significantly better “open area ratio” of three (Tranter and Smith, 1968), the filtration efficiency. When using the coarser nets for net length was calculated. Calculations were performed macro plastics, a significantly longer measuring time for the 250 µm and the 500 µm nets, resulting in a used can be achieved under different boundary conditions length of 2,5 m. The two bigger meshes characterized by a (higher suspended matter load). Therefore, the coarser higher porosity were produced with the same dimensions meshes should be preferred when addressing macro and therefore fulfill the required “open area ratio”. plastics. However, since the 8 mm net does not cover the complete range of macro plastic, the 2.43 mm net is recommended for sampling. Annex 2.2.B: Development of a Net Sampling Device Applicable for Vietnamese Rivers | 125 Frame size Macro plastic measurement device and assemblage For the frame size, the aim was to use the largest possible net dimensions in order to get the highest The net frame was equipped with a fin on each side possible discharge through the nets. For the used to assure streamwise alignment and another 1.6 device, the nets are positioned at the surface, in the m-long fin was added in the middle of the frame to middle of the water column and at the bottom of ensure good positioning within the water column. the river. At the center and surface layer two nets are The uppermost frame carrying buoyant bodies is only attached parallel, at the bottom layer one net is directly fixed by a stopper; to avoid dropping too low during attached at the equipment carrier. The uppermost handling samples. The center nets can be adjusted net assemblage was equipped with a buoyant body in height according to the prevailing water depth by to ensure that these nets are skimming the water using a displaceable stopper. For the lowermost net surface. As previously mentioned, the frame size is assemblage, a single centered net was applied to directly influenced and is vice versa influencing the the sampler near the bed instead of the basket. An mesh dimensions (due to its open area ratio) as well inclination rack is used, which allows the nets to have as the length of the used net. an upright position when deployed. The sampling container of Liedermann et al. (2018) is used to reduce Hence, during the tests, double frames with the dimensions the emptying time. A mechanical flow meter is attached of 600x600 mm as well as 900x900 mm were evaluated. to measure the discharge through the nets, which is For the final device assemblage 600x600 mm were used. required for calculating plastic concentration. Figure 52: ASSEMBLAGE OF THE MACRO PLASTIC MEASUREMENT DEVICE; TOP: OLD ASSEMBLAGE ON THE LEFT AND NEWLY DEVELOPED CONFIGURATION ON THE RIGHT. BOTTOM: NETS WITH INCLINATION RACK AND NETS IN THE UPPERMOST LAYER ASSEMBLED WITH BUOYANT BODIES. 126 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Figure 53: SAMPLING CONTAINER USED FOR EMPTYING THE NETS Figure 54: MECHANICAL FLOW METER ATTACHED AT THE INLET OF THE NET TO MEASURE THE DISCHARGE Annex 2.2.B: Development of a Net Sampling Device Applicable for Vietnamese Rivers | 127 ANNEX 2.2.C: DETAILED PROPORTIONAL WASTE TYPES BY SITE Table 25: DETAILED PROPORTIONAL WASTE TYPES BY SITE Hai Hai Hai Hai Hai Hai Hai Phong, Phong, Phong, Phong, Phong, Duong, Duong, Suoi Suoi Chanh Chanh Chanh Chanh Chanh Waste types Thach Thach Cat Cat Duong Duong Duong Duong Duong Khoi 1, Khoi 1, 01_1 01_2 01, Site 01, Site 01, 02, 02, site 1 site 2 1 2 Site 3 site 1 site 2 Bags LDPE 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 10% 3% 5% 0% thick Bags LDPE 4% 2% 11% 15% 38% 13% 49% 16% 7% Bags robust 7% 2% 10% 0% 3% 2% 4% 8% 4% PET Wrappers 2% 7% 0% 0% 3% 2% 4% 0% 0% under 10cm Wrappers 3% 2% 2% 0% 5% 1% 4% 2% 0% over 10cm Bottles PET 7% 4% 7% 10% 8% 6% 2% 9% 16% Polystyrene under 20cm, including 36% 44% 43% 18% 23% 23% 19% 14% 26% food containers Polystyrene 3% 2% 7% 0% 1% 0% 1% 0% 1% over 20cm PPCP bottle 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 128 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Hai Hai Hai Hai Hai Hai Hai Phong, Phong, Phong, Phong, Phong, Duong, Duong, Suoi Suoi Chanh Chanh Chanh Chanh Chanh Waste types Thach Thach Cat Cat Duong Duong Duong Duong Duong Khoi 1, Khoi 1, 01_1 01_2 01, 01, Site 01, Site 02, 02, site site 1 site 2 Site 1 2 3 site 1 2 PPCP medical waste 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% PPCP other 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Fishing gear 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% Cup lids, caps and 15% 27% 4% 20% 0% 2% 0% 16% 22% small plastics Other plastics over 8% 0% 5% 4% 2% 7% 1% 7% 4% 20cm Rubber 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% Metal 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Glass 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Other non-plastics 14% 9% 11% 33% 13% 33% 14% 19% 19% Annex 2.2.C: Detailed Proportional Waste Types by Site | 129 ANNEX 2.2.D: FLOW VELOCITY RESULTS FROM NET SAMPLING Table 26: FLOW VELOCITY RESULTS FROM NET SAMPLING Flow velocity (m/s) Time Pos. 1 (GOPRO2) Pos. 2 (GOPRO1) Pos. 3 (GOPRO3) Upper net Lower net Upper net Lower net Upper net Lower net 8:30 AM     0.26 0.18     9:40 AM 0.35 0.24         10:20 AM 0.41 0.27         11:30 AM     0.43 0.3     1:20 PM         0.58 0.36 2:25 PM         0.63 0.41 130 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics ANNEX 2.3.A: LIST OF COMPANY REPRESENTATIVES WHO PROVIDED INFORMATION FOR THE PLASTIC ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT No.  Name  Company  1 Nguyen Van Son An Phat Xanh Plastic Joint Stock Company  2 Nguyen Thi Thao Vina Straws Joint Stock Company  3 Le Trung Nguyen Duy Tan Plastic Joint Stock Company  4 Nguyen Minh Anh SDC Vietnam Investment Joint Stock Company  5 Ms. An Hien Long Vietnam Company Limited  6 Mr. Van Han My Plastic Company, Tien Du, Bac Ninh  Mai Phuong Company Limited, Tien Son Industrial Park, 7 Mai Phuong Bac Ninh  Fishing villages of Luoi, Tran Phu,  8 Le Anh Cuong  Minh Cuong, Thuong Tin, Hanoi  Fishing villages of Luoi, Tran Phu,  9 Nguyen thi thuong  Minh Cuong, Thuong Tin, Hanoi   10 Mr. Sang  Plastic Craft Village - Nhu Quynh, Van Lam Hung Yen  11  Duong Van Khoa  Plastic Craft Village - Nhu Quynh, Van Lam Hung Yen  12 Ms. Ngoc  Plastic shop owner - Nhu Quynh, Van Lam, Hung Yen  13  Nguyen Tat Thanh  Owner Supermarket Duc Thanh, Ha Dong, Hanoi  14  Nhu Dinh Tu  Tiffood 24h Food Joint Stock Company  15  Duong To Phuong  Food Shop 105 Xuan La  16  Nguyen Thi Phuong  Food store 215 Cau Giay  17  Nguyen Hong Nhung  Shop House Drinks, Xuan Phuong Cau Dien  Co Bong Coffee Shop, Lane 105 Xuan La, Bac Tu Liem, 18  Nguyen Thi Bong  Hanoi  19  Nguyen Thi Thu  Hai Dang Joint Stock Company  Annex 2.3.A: List of Company Representatives who Provided Information for the Plastic Alternatives Assessment | 131 ANNEX 2.3.B: LIST OF EXPERTS, SCIENTISTS, AND STATE MANAGERS WHO PROVIDED INFORMATION FOR THE PLASTIC ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT No.  Name  Company   1 Huynh Thi My  General Secretary of Vietnam Plastic Association  2  Nguyen Lam Tung  Amber Vietnam Company  3  Tran Thi Minh  General Statistics Office  4  Nguyen Thi Tham  Commercial Research Institute - Foreign Trade University  5  Do Van Lam  National Center for Socio-Economic Forecasting  6  Dinh Hong Embroidery  Hanoi University of Economics and Business  7  Nguyen Mai Anh  Hanoi Polytechnic University  8  Ho Dang Phuc  Vietnam Mathematical Institute  9  Tran Duy Khanh  APEC Institute for Research and Training for Entrepreneurs  10  Bui Dac Dung  Science and technology  11  Bui Van Thuyet  University of Natural Resources and Environment  12  Nguyen Van Chien  Owner of plastic shop, fishing net- District 7, Ho Chi Minh city  13  Nguyen Thi Hang  Ho Chi Minh City Department of Planning and Investment  14  Nguyen Van Hoang  Hanoi Department of Natural Resources and Environment  15  Nguyen Thi Mai  Hanoi Department of Science and Technology  16  Nguyen Lan Phuong  Vietnam Association of Cities  17  Nguyen Thanh Minh  General Secretary of Hanoi Advertising Association  18  Nguyen Hoang Cuong  Lecturer, Institute of Policy and Development, Ministry of Planning and Investment  19  Nguyen Thi Thu  Lecturer, Institute of Policy and Development, Ministry of Planning and Investment  132 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics ANNEX 2.3.C: PRODUCERS, IMPORTERS, WHOLESALERS OF PLASTIC PRODUCTS AND PLASTIC PROD- UCT ALTERNATIVES IN VIETNAM Producers/ Alternatives # Name Website Product Importers/ product Wholesalers KKP Foam Trays Food F1 www.khayxopthucpham.com Producer – KKP Co.,Ltd containers Dong Sai Gon Food F2 https://dongsaigonplas.com Producer plasic Co.Ltd containers The gioi tui xop Food F3 http://thegioituixop.com Wholesalers (Store) containers Vinam Pack Food F4 http://baobivinam.com/ Producer Co.Ltd containers Hunufa Food F5 https://hunufamart.com Importer Vietnam Co., ltd containers Doanh Thuong Food F6 https://doanhthuongphat.vn Producer Phat Co.,Ltd containers Song Minh Food F7 Packaging https://baobisongminh.com/ Producer containers Trading Daily Care Alternative Food Product: F8 Import & Export http://www.dailycare.vn/ Wholesalers containers Trading Co.,Ltd - Bagasse Alternative QueenPack Food Product: F9 https://queenpack.com.vn Importer Co.Ltd containers - Bagasse Hapobe Alternative Food Product: F10 Packaging https://hapobe.com Producer containers Co.,Ltd - Bagasse Joy Food one Alternative Food Product: F11 member limited https://joyfood.com.vn/ Wholesalers containers company - Bagasse P1 An Phat https://aneco.com.vn/ Plastic Compostable Holdings (with thong-tin-san-pham/ong- Producer bag plastic bags Aneco brands) hut-bao-ve-moi-truong.html Annex 2.3.C: Producers, Importers, Wholesalers of Plastic Products and Plastic Product Alternatives in Vietnam | 133 Producers/ Alternatives # Name Website Product Importers/ product Wholesalers P2 Binh Minh Packaging https://www.baobibinhminh. Plastic Production Producer com/ bag Trading Service Co., Ltd P3 Giang Thanh Plastic Industry Co., http://giangthanh.bizz.vn/ Producer bag Ltd P4 Hoang Thinh Packaging http://baobihoangthinh. Plastic Producer Company com/ bag Limited P5 Khang Loi https://baobikhangloi.com. Plastic Packaging Producer vn/ bag company P6 Nam Khanh http://www.namkhan- Plastic Packaging Co., Producer hphongco.com/ bag Ltd P7 Nhat Thai Trading And http://baobinhatthai. Plastic Wholesalers Manufacturing com/?lang=en bag Co., Ltd P8 Nhat Viet Paper & Plastic Plastic Packaging One http://baobinhatviet.com/ Producer bag Member Co., Ltd P9 Quoc Thai Service Trading http://www.baobiquocthai. Plastic Production Producer com.vn/ bag Company Limited ... P10 Thanh Cong Vina Trading http://baobithanhcong.bizz. Plastic Producer Investment And vn bag Production JSC E1 Bac Viet Eps Plastic Trading http://epsbacviet.com.vn EPS Producer Production Co ., Ltd; E2 Eps Vietnam Packaging www.epsvietnam.bizz.vn EPS Producer Investment JSC; E3 Hoang Phong Development http://thungphuyhoang- EPS Wholesalers Drum float and Investment phong.com/ Co., Ltd; 134 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Producers/ Alternatives # Name Website Product Importers/ product Wholesalers E4 Minh Phu www.epsminhphu.com EPS Producer Plastics Co.,Ltd; E5 Tan Huy Hoang www.tanhuyhoang.com EPS Producer Co.,Ltd; E6 Tin Thanh Eps www.tinthanheps.vn EPS Producer Foam Co., Ltd N1 Compostable An Phat https://anphatholdings.com/ Fishing Importer plastic Holdings JSC en/ net fishing net N2 Forever https://www.forevernetco. Fishing Industries Co., Producer com net Ltd. N3 Han-A Vina Co., Fishing http://hanavina.com/ Producer Ltd; net N4 Hiep Hung Manufacturing Fishing https://nhuahiephung.com/ Wholesalers & Trading Co., net Ltd. N5 Le Ha Vina Co. Fishing https://www.lehagroup.com/ Producer Ltd net N6 Penro Industries Fishing (Vietnam) http://penroindustries.com/ Producer net Co.,Ltd N7 S.N.Y VINA Fishing www.snyvina.net.co Producer Co.Ltd net N8 Saigon Fishing http://www.sfn.vn/index. Fishing Net Joint Stock php?vnTRUST =mod:pro- Producer net Company duct|act:detail|pID:8 N9 Siam Brothers https://www.siambrothersvn. Fishing Producer Vietnam JSC com.html net N10 Fishing Thai Viet Co.Ltd www.luoithaiviet.com.vn Producer net N11 Fishing Thanh Loi www.luoithanhloi.com Importer net N12 Thien Phuoc Manufacturing https://luoithienphuoc.com. Fishing Producer and Trading vn/ net Co., Ltd N13 Thuan Loi Phat Production Trading Fishing www.luoinhua.com Importer And Service net Company Limited Annex 2.3.C: Producers, Importers, Wholesalers of Plastic Products and Plastic Product Alternatives in Vietnam | 135 Producers/ Alternatives # Name Website Product Importers/ product Wholesalers FP1 Pham Gia Food Packaging Co., http://baobiphamgia.com Producer Packaging Ltd. FP2 Binh Minh https://baobibinhminh.net/ Food Kraft paper Packaging Joint bao-bi-thuc-pham-dong- Producer Packaging bag Stock Company goi/ FP3 Duc Kien http://dongkinhprinting. Food Packaging Co., Wholesalers Paper bag com/in-bao-bi-giay-7.htm Packaging Ltd FP4 Gia Huy Package Printing https://www.baobigiahuy. Food Wholesalers Production com/ Packaging Company Limited FP5 Global Packing Food Technology http://globalpack.com.vn/ Importer Packaging Co.,Ltd FP6 Hanoi Packaging http://hanopaco.com.vn/ Production And Food danh-muc/san-pham-dich- Producer Import- Export Packaging vu.html Company Limited FP7 Food Hoai Anh Plastic http://nhuahoaianh.com/ Producer Packaging FP8 Hop Phat Metal http://hopphatmetal.vn/ Food Tin box Packaging Joint Producer san-pham Packaging packaging Stock Company FP9 Nhat Thai Food http://baobinhatthai.com Wholesalers Packaging Packaging FP10 Phat Thanh http://www.baobiphatthanh. Plastic Food com/bao-bi-thuc-pham- Producer Packaging Packaging dong-goi/ Co.Ltd FP11 Royal Packing Food Solution Joint https://hoanggiaps.com/ Producer Packaging Stock Company FP12 Tan Gia Phu Paper Packaging http://baobigiaygiaphu.ticc. Food Producer Production vn/ Packaging Trading Private Enterprise 136 | Vietnam: Plastic Pollution Diagnostics Producers/ Alternatives # Name Website Product Importers/ product Wholesalers FP13 Tan Hiep Loi Packaging http://www.tanhieploi.com. Food Production Producer vn/san-pham/ Packaging Trading Joint Stock Company FP14 Vinapackink Food http://vinapackink.com.vn/ Producer Co., Ltd.  Packaging S1 An Phat https://aneco.com.vn/ Compostable Holdings (with thong-tin-san-pham/ong- Straw Producer plastic straw Aneco brands) hut-bao-ve-moi-truong.html S2 Hoa Viet Uc www.hoavietuc.com Straw Producer Co.Ltd S3 Minh Quang http://onghutthuytinh.com Straw Wholesalers Glass straw glass straw S4 Nature Straw https://onghutthiennhien.vn Straw Wholesalers Grass straw JSC S5 Ningbo Changya Plastic www.cnnbcy.com Straw Producer Vietnam Co.Ltd S6 Ongtre Vietnam https://ongtre.vn/ Bamboo Straw Producer Co.Ltd ong-hut-tre/ straw S7 Post And Telecommuni- https://ecostrawsgreen. cations Printing com/san-pham/ong-hut- Straw Wholesalers Paper straw JSC (PTP with giay-8mm-chat-luong-cao- EcoStraw gia-re-1.html brands) S8 Sao Khue Production & https://saokhueco.vn/ Straw Producer Rice straw Commercial Co. thuong-hieu-ong-hut-gao/ Ltd... S9 STD JSC plastic www.stdvina.com.vn Straw Producer food S10 Tan Hung Phat www.tahufa.com Straw Importer Co.Ltd S11 Thien Minh Production www.thienminhgp.vn Straw Producer and Trading Technology S12 Viet Dung Plastic www.lynhua.net Straw Wholesalers Packaging Co.Ltd Annex 2.3.C: Producers, Importers, Wholesalers of Plastic Products and Plastic Product Alternatives in Vietnam | 137 JUNE 2021