Solid Increasing Community Resilience through Ground Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Design: Miki Fernández, ULTRA designs, Inc. Proofreading services were provided by Shepherd Incorporated SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems i Acknowledgments T he study on which this report is based was led by a World Bank team composed by Alvaro Federico Barra, and Mika-Petteri Torhonen. The main writers and researchers of the report were Abbas Rajabifard and Katie Potts from the University of Melbourne (Centre for SDIs and Land Administration and Centre for Disaster Management and Public Safety) and Richard Grover from Oxford Brookes University. Invaluable feedback and inputs were provided by Muyiwa Agunbiade, Orhan Altan, Keith Clifford Bell, Professor Zdravko Galic, Ivelisse Justiniano, Rosa Angélica Muñoz Guerrero, Dr. Gary Hunter, Bal Krishna, Arvid Lillethun, Nicholas Paul, and Heri Sutanta. The team highly appreciates the commitment of time and the insights provided by peer reviewers: Churamani Aryal, Christopher Chung, Vivien Deparday, Vladimir Evtimov, Marc Forni, Keith Patrick Garrett, Dong Kyu Kwak, Thea Hilhorst, Niels Holm-Nielsen, and Alanna Leigh Simpson. Particular thanks go to Jorge Muñoz, Practice Manager of the World Bank’s Global Land and Geospatial Unit, Anna Wellenstein, Regional Director for Latin America and the Caribbean in the World Bank’s Sustainable Development Practice Group and to Sameh Naguib Wahba Global Director of the World Bank’s Urban, Disaster Risk Management, Resilience and Land Global Practice, for their guidance and support. The report was made possible with funding from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), which also provided valuable technical information for the study. ii Contents Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................................................................ i Acronyms and Abbreviations..................................................................................................................................................... iv A Note on Terminology................................................................................................................................................................ vi Executive Summary...................................................................................................................................................................... vii Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience ............................................................. 1 Global Development Frameworks for Resilience.............................................................................................................. 4 How Land and Geospatial Systems Can Bolster Resilience............................................................................................ 6 Land and Geospatial Information in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.................................................................. 9 Key Takeaways.......................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 2 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems. .............................................. 15 Key Features of a Reliable Land Administration System................................................................................................. 16 NSDI: The Fundamental Base to Provide Authoritative Geospatial Information...................................................... 20 Improving Resilience. .............................................................................................................................................................. 25 ................................................................................................................................................. 28 Coping with Disaster Events. The Importance of Good Governance................................................................................................................................. 31 iii Bagan, Myanmar. Photo: NASA. .............................................................................. The Aftermath of Disasters: An Opportunity to Build Back Better. 31 Protecting the Systems........................................................................................................................................................... 35 Key Takeaways.......................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Chapter 3 Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience.............................................................................. 39 Initiating the Process............................................................................................................................................................... 40 Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist............................................................................................. 41 ........................................................................................................................ Pre- and Post-Disaster Recommendations. 45 ................................................................................................... Guidance for Action Plan Design and Implementation. 48 Conclusions............................................................................................................................................................................... 51 References..................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 Annex A Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist. ................................................................................ 59 Annex B Country Action Plan Template.................................................................................................................................. 65 Annex C Country Case Studies................................................................................................................................................. 68 iv Acronyms and Abbreviations ANZLIC The Spatial Information Council (Australia/New Zealand). Formerly known as Australian New Zealand Land Information Council. ATR/BPN The Ministry of Agrarian and Spatial Planning/National Land Agency (Indonesia) BIG Geospatial Information Agency (Indonesia) BNPB National disaster management agency (Indonesia) CNCT National Center for Cartography and Remote Census (Tunisia) CORS Continuously Operating Reference Stations CPF la Conservation de la Propriété Fonciére (Tunisia) CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters DDMAs District Disaster Management Authorities (India) (India) DRM Disaster risk management DRR Disaster risk reduction FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency (US) GDLRC General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre (TKGM Turkey) GEJE Great East Japan Earthquake GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GIS Geographic Information System ICDE Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure (Colombia) ICSM Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (Australia/New Zealand) IDEC Cadastral Spatial Data Infrastructure (Nicaragua) IGAC Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi (Colombia) IGIF Integrated Geospatial Information Framework INETER Nicaraguan Institute of Territorial Studies (Nicaragua) KLIS Korea Land Information System (South Korea) LGAF The World Bank’s Land Governance Assessment Framework LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging LMIS Land Management Information System (South Korea) v LUAC Land Use and Allocation Committee (Nigeria) MDEAF Ministère des Domaines de l‟Etat et des Affaires Foncières (Tunisia) NASRDA National Space Research and Development Agency (Nigeria) NDMA National Disaster Management Authority (India) (India) NDMP National Disaster Management Plan (India) (India) NDRP National Disaster Response Plan (Nigeria) NEMA National Emergency Management Agency (Nigeria) NSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure PacRIS Pacific Risk Information System PBLIS Parcel Based Land Information System (South Korea) and the PCRAFI Pacific Catastrophe Risk Financing and Insurance Initiative PICs Pacific Island Countries SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SDMAs State Disaster Management Authorities (India) SNGRD Colombia National System for Disaster Risk Management (Colombia) SNIT Secretariat of the National System of Coordination of Territorial Information (Chile) SNR Notary and register superintendence (Colombia) TI Tribunal Immobilier: The OTC Office de la Topographie et du Cadastre (Tunisia) UAVs Unmanned aerial vehicles UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UN-GGIM United Nations Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction VGGT Voluntary Guidelines for Responsible Governance of Tenure WSN Wireless sensor network All dollar amounts are U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. vi A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY A Note on Terminology In this report the term “land and geospatial systems” tion that consists of a locational indicator and an is used as a generic shorthand to refer to land attribute (the terms “geospatial data” and “geospatial administration systems and geospatial information information” will be used interchangeably in this report). systems.  These systems are the foundations for spatially Locational data about each property enable infor- enabling a society and to enhance their resilience. mation from spatially referenced databases that relate to the property to be retrieved, such as its Land administration is the process of determining, location relative to public and private services, the charac- recording, and disseminating information about the teristics of the neighborhood in which it is located, devel- tenure, value, and use of land when implementing land opment plans, and environmental issues that may impact management policies (UNECE, 1996; Williamson, et al., on it, such as vulnerability to flooding. To be able to use 2010). Land administration systems are those systems this valuable resource effectively, countries should estab- by which the registration of rights and obligations; lish a comprehensive National Spatial Data Infrastructure transfers of properties; spatial planning; development (NSDI) which encompasses not only the geospatial infor- and construction permits and controls; property mation and associated positioning infrastructure but also valuations; property taxation; and expropriation and the policies, standards, and human resources to acquire, compensation are administered.  These systems include process, store, distribute, and use geospatial data.  The land registration, cadastral surveying and mapping, NSDI is authoritative and usually defined with a lead agen- fiscal, legal, planning, and land information systems cy and designated custodian agencies for specific thematic (Steudler and Rajabifard, 2012). Many countries, geospatial information. The NSDI itself should be resilient especially low-income countries, lack a comprehensive in terms of data security, storage, and so forth. land administration systems, and the system in place For the purpose of this report, the term authoritative may be incomplete in terms of covering all land parcels geospatial data is used to describe a data set that is and the rights of citizens.  Also, such systems may be officially recognized data that can be certified and is paper based, and may be in poor condition.  Modern land provided by an authoritative source. An authoritative administration systems are fully digitalized with digital source is an entity (usually a government agency) that records and a computerized system, with many services is given authority to manage or develop data for a available online.  The Land administration systems itself particular business purpose. Trusted data, or a trusted should be resilient in terms of data security, storage, source, is often a term associated with authoritative and so forth. data; however, it can also refer to a subsidiary source Geospatial or spatial information includes data or subset of an authoritative data set. The data may be such as cadastre; topography; elevation; administrative considered to be trusted if there is an official process boundaries; addresses; soil; ground stability; geology; for compiling the data to produce the data subset or a and hydrography. In a few words, is all informa- new data set. (McDougall and Koswatte, 2018). Bay of Fundy, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada. Source: NASA images by Norman Kuring/NASA’s Ocean Color Web, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey. Summary Executive vii viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Countries struck by equally powerful disaster events are affected differently in terms of the devastation caused, the number of casualties, persons displaced, impact on livelihoods, and the pace of reconstruction and recovery. Some communities, cities, and populations prove to be more resilient than others when faced with disasters. The ability of land and people-to-land relationships to recover after hazard events requires reliable administration systems and authoritative geospatial information. Land administration systems provide security of tenure; control inappropriate land uses; ensure The ability of land safe construction of buildings and infrastructure; and undertake land valuation for finance, and people-to- taxation, and compensation. Underpinning effective land administration is accurate geospatial information. An authoritative geospatial information system comprises a series land relationships of fundamental databases including addresses, buildings, settlements, elevation and depth, to recover after functional areas, geographical names, geology and soils, land cover and land use, land hazard events parcels, orthoimagery, physical infrastructure, population distribution, transport and utility requires reliable networks, water, and a geographic reference framework. administration Land administration systems and geospatial information play key roles in the planning, monitoring, and implementation of responses before, during, and after disasters. With systems and disaster events around the world increasing in frequency and severity, better access to land authoritative and geospatial information is critical to disaster risk management activities, from disaster geospatial preparedness and risk mitigation through recovery and reconstruction. information Several key initiatives aimed at building resilience to disasters have emerged in recent decades, including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Hyogo Framework for Action, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. The Integrated Geospatial Information Framework (IGIF), released by the UN and the World Bank, complements the Hyogo and Sendai agendas calling for globally coordinated actions in new geospatial data acquisition and integration. These global initiatives highlight the positive effects that effective land administration and geospatial information systems can have. Absolute economic losses from disaster events are concentrated in high-income counties, but the human cost of disasters falls disproportionately on low- and lower-income countries, where people are more likely to die, be injured, lose their homes, be displaced or evacuated, or require emergency assistance, than equivalent populations in the richest countries. Low- income countries are more likely to have land registries whose information is not up to date nor reflects reality on the ground. Their maps are less likely to be accurate and the countries themselves to be in a poor state of geospatial readiness. Their spatial planning processes are less likely to be able to cope with urban growth and prevent encroachment on drainage channels and evacuation routes, or to be able to stop dangerous practices such as deforestation of slopes above urban areas. When disasters displace people, land records are key to protecting property rights and livelihoods. Enabling people to return to their homes, farms, businesses, or livelihoods is essential for resilient recovery. Receiving compensation for what has been lost enables SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems ix people to start again and rebuild. Without land records, there is no inventory of what has been lost, and it is very difficult to reconstruct the property rights that existed before a disaster swept away physical features on the ground, destroyed paper records or killed those whose memories the community relied upon. Effective land administration is key to mitigating disaster events, for example, by controlling hazardous land uses, preventing development in unsuitable locations, and ensuring that construction is undertaken to appropriate standards. Geospatial information is essential for risk mitigation, recovery, and reconstruction. Without accurate data on topography, elevations, soils, and subsurface structures, reconstruction, including the provision of emergency housing, is hampered. Transport, utility, and infrastructure networks require A system will fail if detailed geospatial data to function. While crowdsourcing the production of maps from it is not capable of satellite images after a disaster can help produce images of sufficient accuracy to aid rescue delivering accurate operations, it does not achieve the engineering accuracy needed for reconstruction and recovery. Understanding where something is enables the relationship between disasters information in and specific places to be identified and appropriate mitigation actions to be undertaken. real time during a Land and geospatial systems can only function if they are themselves resilient. A system will disaster event. fail if it is not capable of delivering accurate information in real time during a disaster event. Land and geospatial systems and the data they contain are vulnerable to natural hazards as well as to malicious human interference. It is critical to ensure information system resilience by digitizing and electronically storing all relevant records and backing them up continuously on secure systems. Sharing this information with disaster risk management agencies and the stakeholders, thus enabling them to harness the valuable data in their planning and operations, enhances the overall process and supports government-wide agendas. Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Land is the core social safety net; once access to land is lost, resuming livelihoods becomes challenging or even impossible, and this increases vulnerability. Land records and cadastral data are key to protecting their property rights and building resilience. A reliable land administration system deals with four key areas: land rights; land use regulation; land valuation and taxation; and land development. A global land management perspective uses land information to achieve sustainable development by providing an institutional framework for land use management and developing and enforcing land policies that lead to an efficient land market. Land information includes details about parcels, ownership, property rights, restrictions, responsibilities and obligations, and valuation, and covers topographical and environmental data, land use information, utilities and infrastructure, and land development plans. Central to accessing and sharing of data is the establishment of a National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI). An NSDI provides the common location platform, institutional collaboration, interoperability, and integration. An effective NSDI is built on three pillars: the Governance pillar includes the leadership, administration model, and institutional arrangements to strengthen multidisciplinary and multi-sectoral participation; the x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Technology pillar involves data, innovation. and standards; and the People pillar recognizes that all stakeholders are integral to the implementation of integrated geospatial information management systems. Lack of interoperability between agencies is a key challenge to the effective use of data for land management: of the nine countries that participated in the study underpinning this report, most noted that agencies worked without sharing land information or recording it to a single standard. The four key challenges to achieving interoperability are technical issues, a lack of capacity, a poor legal framework for the sharing of data, and the absence of a culture of sharing. In developing resilient land and geospatial systems, lessons may be drawn Even countries from historic disasters. These include making recovery plans before disaster events strike, with strong striking a balance between central and local control of resources, and involving community members in planning. economies, well established social Governance problems with land have a negative impact on resilience and are widespread globally. If land administration and geospatial systems are compromised by corruption or systems, and good a lack of responsiveness to citizens’ needs or accountability, they will be poorly placed, and functioning either to plan the mitigation of potential disaster events or to respond to them when they governance can occur. Good governance in land administration and geospatial systems is thus one of the central requirements for effective planning to mitigate the impact of natural hazards and for struggle to respond reconstruction and recovery when disaster events strike. to climate change Effective disaster risk management still eludes many, even within developed countries. and natural Despite a wide range of information and resources related to the implementation of disasters and risk management practices, significant problems are faced during disaster events. Even fail in attempts countries with strong economies, well established social systems, and good and functioning governance can struggle to respond to climate change and natural disasters and fail in to implement attempts to implement effective strategies to address these problems. Investment is needed effective strategies in strategies for improving resilience with a holistic approach to disaster risk management. to address these In fact, investing in resilient infrastructure is cost effective, as lack of resilience is hugely problems. expensive. It typically offers $4 in benefits for each $1 invested. Opportunity should be taken to strengthen disaster risk management by adopting a policy of “Building Back Better” after disaster events. Building back better is not just a matter of rebuilding buildings and infrastructure to higher construction standards so that they are more resilient, but must also involve tackling the factors that undermine the security of livelihoods, such as insecure property rights, poor geospatial information, and weak land administration systems. It also means enhancing community resources needed to improve resilience, such as networks to pass on warnings and carry out emergency drills. Governance is likely also to have to be enhanced so that central, regional, and local governments are more responsive to community needs and more willing to work together and share information and resources, and there is closer monitoring of recovery and reconstruction programs. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems xi Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Several approaches and tools developed during this study can help a country assess the degree of resilience of its land and geospatial systems and to help it plan for and establish more resilient systems. The Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist (set out in Annex A) identifies the strengths and weaknesses of a country’s, region’s, or locality’s land administration and geospatial information systems and their contribution to disaster management systems. The questions are arranged in four themes: (A) Hazards, Exposure, and Risks; (B) Disaster Risk Management; (C) Geospatial Information Access and Fundamental Data Sets; and (D) Comprehensiveness, Accuracy, and Resilience of the Systems. The questions enable a country to assess whether its land administration and Several approaches geospatial information systems provide the basis for planning for disaster events and risk and tools developed mitigation and, when disaster events happen, whether they can generate the data needed during this study for recovery and reconstruction. It should be recognized that improvements in land and geospatial systems can be done incrementally with data sets being added to an NSDI and can help a country the accuracy and precision in individual data sets being increased over time. assess the degree The Pre- and Post-Disaster Recommendations is a list with key features on how land and of resilience of its geospatial information can support pre- and post-disaster needs and actions, and what land and geospatial preconditions are required for that to be realized. It facilitates the dialogue with key systems and to stakeholders involved in disaster management activities to identify gaps between the help it plan for and current and desirable status of land administration and geospatial information systems. The recommendations fall into three groups: (i) formation and deployment, concerned establish more with the establishment of functioning, secure, and stable systems of land administration resilient systems. and geospatial information; (ii) standardization and interoperability; and (iii) currency and timeliness, which is concerned with the routine updating of spatial information and avoiding outdated information that can lead to conflicts, especially after disasters. The Checklist and Recommendations facilitate understanding of the current state of land and geospatial systems preparedness in a country, region, or locality. The next step of the process is to leverage these outputs to develop an Action Plan, detailing how land and geospatial information can be utilized to improve disaster risk management activities. The Action Plan Design and Implementation Guidance (set out in Annex B) is a template for developing this Action Plan. The Action Plan Template is organized into four components: (1) Introduction, explaining the national and local context; (2) Government initiatives to date; (3) the Action Plan setting out the development process and collaboration between stakeholders; and (4) Action Item Guide in which Action Items are developed in response to areas highlighted for attention to improve land and geospatial information for resilience. xii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Conclusions Secure property Community resilience is impossible without reliable land administration and authoritative rights encourage geospatial information systems. Weaknesses in these systems undermine policies and government actions aimed at enhancing the ability of communities and populations to plan investments that for, mitigate, resist, accommodate, and recover from the effects of disaster events. Planning promote resilience for disaster events and mitigating their impact requires accurate geospatial information, as such as stronger do recovery and reconstruction programs. Reliable land administration systems generate information about property rights that enable those displaced by disasters to return to construction. their homes, farms, and businesses, and for those who lose their property or have to be resettled to receive the compensation they need to start over again. Secure property rights encourage investments that promote resilience such as stronger construction. Reliable land administration systems can control actions that can increase the impact of disasters, such as inappropriate land uses and development, deforestation, and encroachment on water channels and floodplains and evacuation routes. Accurate valuations enhance insurance schemes and facilitate funding through taxation and borrowing that can finance investment in resilience. Without resilient land administration and geospatial information systems, other efforts to enhance resilience will be undermined. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems xiii Introduction O n 12 January 2010, Haiti was struck by a force 7.0 Mw earthquake, approximately 25 kilometers west of the capital Port-au-Prince. It is estimated that over 225,000 people were killed and over 1 million displaced. As many as 40 percent of Haiti’s civil servants were killed or injured, and most government buildings were damaged or destroyed (see Box 1.1). On 4 September 2010 Christchurch, New Zealand, was struck by a 7.1 Mw earthquake that caused no fatalities, but a second earthquake of One of the key 6.3 Mw on 22 February 2011 resulted in 185 deaths and over 7,000 casualties. There were differences 18,000 aftershocks from the first earthquake, including over 34 events of 5 Mw or greater. between New The series of Christchurch earthquakes resulted in widespread damage to land, including liquefaction. Approximately 167,000 homes (90 percent of Christchurch’s housing stock) Zealand and Haiti were damaged, and there was also major damage to infrastructure (see Box 2.8. is the respective These two countries were struck by earthquakes of similar magnitude and devastation, but quality of their land the scale of the casualties was very different, as was the resulting longer term impact and and geospatial recovery trajectories. Relief work in Haiti was partly hampered by the poor state of geospatial systems. data, and uncertainty over land rights prevented the reconstruction of infrastructure, with the result that, Haiti is still suffering from the consequences of the earthquake. Although the population of Christchurch initially fell by 3 percent, it has since returned to pre-earthquake levels. The earthquakes were a significant shock to the local economy, but businesses proved to be resilient and adaptable, with business and consumer confidence quickly returning. The reasons why the impact of these two disasters of similar earthquake magnitude should have resulted in such vastly different impacts are complex. However, one of the key differences between New Zealand and Haiti is the respective quality of their land and geospatial systems. New Zealand had a mature, reliable land administration system and an advanced authoritative national spatial data infrastructure in place prior to the Christchurch earthquakes and so could make informed decisions about which properties could be repaired and which should be abandoned. Most owners had private insurance cover, and a valuation infrastructure enabled compensation for the value of lost homes and businesses to be calculated. The building codes and town planning systems minimized earthquake damage and casualties. In Haiti, by contrast, both the quality of land and geospatial information were poor. The recording of property rights was weak, and reference and record systems were often unclear, incomplete, or out of date. Land administration, land use planning, zoning, building codes, and property valuation were all in need of strengthening before the earthquake. INTRODUCTION xiv The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience One implication of the differing impacts of these two disasters is that land and geospatial systems and the information they provide are critical to disaster prediction, prevention, and mitigation strategies; emergency response once disaster has struck; and post- disaster reconstruction and recovery. Comprehensive and resilient land administration and authoritative geospatial information infrastructure support the more rapid recovery of normal lives and livelihoods and the recovery of economic activities and community cohesion. They achieve this by providing accessible data on demand on the impact of a disaster, the value of losses and the losers, appropriate compensation, and required recovery investments. Land and geospatial information play an important role in all phases of disaster risk Receiving management, from prediction, prevention, preparedness, and mitigation of some type of compensation for disasters through to emergency response, search and rescue, evacuation and temporary what has been lost shelter, and post-disaster restoration, reconstruction, and recovery. Without this information, it is almost impossible for countries to develop proper disaster risk management activities. enables people to Robust land and geospatial information systems increase resilience by providing detailed start again and and comprehensive information about a territory, its inhabitants and, its socioeconomic rebuild; however, dynamics. Land and geospatial systems are fundamental to the resilience of communities and regions, and critical at a time when climate change and rapid urbanization are increasing without land both the frequency and intensity of disaster events. records, there is no When disasters displace people and they are forced to leave their homes behind, land inventory of what records can offer critical protection of their property rights. This is crucial, since land and has been lost. homes are usually the main assets that people have and being able to return to homes—and for that matter, farms and businesses—is essential for recovery. Receiving compensation for what has been lost enables people to start again and rebuild; however, without land records, there is no inventory of what has been lost. Similarly, effective land administration is key to mitigating the impact of disaster events, controlling hazardous land uses, preventing development in unsuitable locations, and ensuring that construction is undertaken to appropriate standards. Similarly, geospatial information is essential for recovery and reconstruction. Without this, even the most basic rebuilding post-disaster is impossible. Restoring road networks, transportation, water supplies, and sewage systems requires detailed data about topography, elevation, soil stability, and subsurface structures. At its most basic, if those trying to undertake relief work lack maps of the areas they are working in, rescue efforts will be compromised and the provision of emergency aid made difficult. If data on topography, elevation, soils, and subsoil structures is not available, the engineering works necessary for recovery and reconstruction will be difficult. Kut, Iraq. Photo: © contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data (2018), processed by ESA, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. of Land Systems for Resilience and Geospatial The Importance 1 CHAPTER 1 2 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience S ome parts of the world are regularly subjected and severity around the world (Thomas and López, to cyclones, hurricanes, or tornados, and 2015). This is often a direct result of land-related human others periodically experience blizzards or activities, including unplanned urbanization, unsuitable prolonged drought. If exceptionally heavy land use, deforestation, unsustainable agricultural rain falls in upland areas, there is likely to be flooding production, population growth, and the over- downstream. The once-in-a-century storm will happen. exploitation of natural resources, the impacts of which Places where disasters periodically strike often have are all exacerbated by climate change.2 Between 2017 features that make them attractive places to live, and 2018, 315 disaster events were recorded, including such as fertile soil, natural resources, or accessibility drought, earthquake, extreme temperature, flood, to employment, resulting in substantial populations landslide, mass movement, storm, volcanic activity, being put at risk. Urbanization has increased the risks and wildfire (CRED, 2019). The majority of these were to populations. Urban areas are densely populated, and flood or extreme weather-related events. The yearly their residents highly dependent on infrastructure that economic loss from disasters is reaching an average of can be damaged by natural disasters. This makes them $250 billion to $300 billion. Future losses (expected disaster risk hotspots (World Bank, 2012). Many of the annual losses) are estimated at $314 billion as a result world’s largest cities are particularly vulnerable, as they of earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, and flooding in the are located in low-lying coastal areas. Not all disasters built environment alone (UNISDR, 2015). result from natural events. Some are man-made such as For individual countries, a single disaster can cause those produced by fires, explosions, pollution, biological losses that amount to a significant percentage of gross hazards, and collapsing buildings and infrastructure, domestic product. In addition, major disaster events such as dams or power supplies, economic or political cause large numbers of people to be displaced. In 2016 collapse, or resulting from wars and conflicts. Some and 2017 alone, over 18.8 million people were displaced disasters come upon human populations suddenly with as a result of disaster events. Although absolute economic little advance warning, such as tsunamis or earthquakes. losses are concentrated in high-income counties, the Others are more slow moving and gradual in their human costs of disasters fall disproportionately on low- impact, such as local impacts from climate change and lower-income countries. People exposed to natural or environmental degradation. Many of the causes of hazards in the poorest countries were seven times more disaster events are beyond the ability of human beings likely to die than equivalent populations in the richest to control. countries and six times more likely to be injured, lose Disasters such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, their homes, be displaced or evacuated, or require landslides and hurricanes1 are increasing in frequency emergency assistance (Wallemacq and House, 2018). A classification of urban hazards can be found in IBRD/IDA (2015), p. 20. 1 For a discussion of how land administration systems can contribute to greater resilience in the face of climate change, see Mitchell and 2 McEvoy (2019). SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 3 Figure 1.1: Number of recorded natural disaster events, All-natural disasters Figure 1.2: New human displacemets due to disasters The number of global reported natural disasters in any given year. This includes those from (2008–2018) drought, floods, biological epidemics, extreme weather, extreme temperature, landlised, dry mass movements, extraterrestrial impacts, wildfires, volcanic activity, and earthquakes. 50 40 42.4 38.2 30 32.4 Million 24.2 20 22.1 19.2 19.1 18.8 16.7 17.2 15.0 10 0 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2018 Source: Natural disasters—EMDAT (2018): OurWorldinData.org/natural-disasters/ Source: Extracted from Internal Displacemets Monitoring Centre and Norwegian Refugee Council (2018). Figure 3: Figure 1.3: Global Global natural reported disasters natural by type disasters by type The annual reported number of natural disasters, categorised by type. This includes both weather and non-weather related disasters. The annual reported number of natural disasters by type. This includes both weather and non-weather related disasters. n Mass movement (dry) 500 n Volcanic activity n Wildfire n Landslide n Earthquake 400 n Extreme temperature n Drought n Extreme weather n Flood 300 200 100 0 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 Source: EMDAT (2017): OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database. Universite catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium. Source: EMDAT (2017): OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Universite catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium. CHAPTER 1 4 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience However, human populations are not passive, destined reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, to accept whatever fate throws at them. Rather, they increase preparedness for response and recovery, and can work to make their settlements and societies thus strengthen resilience. They also outline key points more resilient to hazards. Governments can develop that relate to improving resilience to disasters, as well as preventative processes and plans to mitigate or resist highlighting the positive effects that national land and at least some of the impacts of disasters. These can geospatial systems can have. In addition, the Integrated include evacuation plans for the population, backups Geospatial Information Framework (United Nations, for essential services, constructing or retrofitting 2018) builds on many of these ideas with a focus on buildings so that they are more resilient to events like geospatial information and how it can be improved to earthquakes or floods, and inoculating a population support global development. ahead of an epidemic or pandemic. They can involve planning and developing systems to enable rebuilding 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and recovery to take place more quickly once disaster The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development outlines strikes so that the resulting disruption is minimized. a need for new data acquisition and integration approaches, The balance between investing in preventative including supporting developing countries to strengthen the measures to mitigate the impact of disaster events and capacity of their national data systems to ensure access to in facilitating more speedy recovery once disaster strikes high quality, timely, reliable, and disaggregated data (United will vary according to the types of event from which the Nations, 2015). The report identified a series of goals population is most at risk, their likely consequences, and and indicators to assess and measure the progress of the effectiveness of alternative mitigation devices. The development in these areas. This includes national land key to effective policies for prevention and recovery is and geospatial information, and the application of these in planning for the event and testing to ensure that the data to address the identified Sustainable Development plans are effective. In this way systems and facilities can Goals (SDGs). be made more resilient to mitigate the initial impact of Working to achieve the SDGs is undertaken in parallel the disaster and ensure a faster recovery after the event. with establishing safe and resilient communities that have effective disaster risk management practices in Global Development Frameworks for place. Every SDG is related in some way to disaster Resilience risk management and requires disaster resilience to some degree. Land and geospatial information is critical Several key initiatives aiming to build resilience to to the successful implementation of the SDGs through the disasters have emerged in recent years. Many of provision of reliable land data that provides land tenure these initiatives tackle a broad range of issues at security for owners and individuals with interests in land, levels from the global and national down to the local and for land value, use, and development dimensions at and community. In particular, the 2030 Agenda for the local scale that can guide resilient actions (UN-GGIM, Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015),3 the 2017). Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005),4 and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR, Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks 2012)5 aim to reduce substantially the risk of disaster and losses through the implementation of strategic goals The Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005) and and integrated and inclusive measures that prevent and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 3 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf 4 https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/1037 5 https://www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 5 (GFDRR, 2012) both respond to global issues around Hyogo Framework, the Sendai Framework has identified disaster risk management, improved resilience, and four areas requiring further focused action within and sustainable development. The Hyogo Framework for across sectors by states at local, national, regional, and Action underscores the need for, and identifies ways of, global levels. building the resilience of nations and communities to 1. Understanding disaster risk: Comprehending all the disasters. It identifies sustainable development, poverty dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of reduction, good governance, and disaster risk reduction persons and assets, hazard characteristics, and the as mutually supportive objectives and proposes that environment so that the knowledge can be used in order to meet the challenges ahead, there must be to inform risk assessment, prevention, mitigation, accelerated efforts to build the necessary capacities preparedness, and response. at the community and national levels to manage and reduce risk (UNISDR, 2005). It also established land 2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to issues as one of the key priorities for the period of 2005– manage disaster risk: Fostering collaboration and 2015, and they have been gaining momentum within the partnership at national, regional, and global levels. disaster risk management community in recent years. 3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience: Essential investments to enhance resilience in The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction people, communities, and the environment. builds on the Hyogo Framework for Action. It aims to substantially reduce the risk of disaster and losses 4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective in lives, livelihoods, and health and in the economic, response and to “Build Back Better”6 in recovery, physical, social, cultural, and environmental assets of rehabilitation, and reconstruction: Taking the people, businesses, communities, and countries. It opportunity to strengthen and enhance all phases works to achieve this through the implementation of of disaster risk management. integrated and inclusive measures that prevent and The overall focus is to prevent new disasters reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, and reduce the existing disaster risk through the and increase preparedness for response and recovery, application of prevention and reduction measures thereby strengthening resilience (GFDRR, 2012). The in economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, framework identified seven global targets, which educational, environmental, technological, political, and address: institutional areas. To achieve this effectively requires ● global disaster mortality; enhanced implementation capacity and strong country ● the number of people affected by disaster; commitment, facilitated through political leadership. ● the economic losses directly resulting from disaster; ● damage to critical infrastructure and disruption to Integrated Geospatial Information Framework basic services; Within the context of disaster risk management, ● the creation and implementation of disaster risk geospatial information will play an important role reduction strategies; in developing policies, strategies, and legislative ● international cooperation; and arrangements to face future challenges. With the vision ● the availability and access to multi-hazard early and mission of bridging the geospatial digital divide warning systems and disaster risk information and and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, assessments. the United Nations Committee of Experts on Global Learning from the experience of implementing the Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM) and The term “build back better” was first used by World Bank (2005b), Rebuilding a Better Aceh and Nias: Stocktaking of the Reconstruction Effort— 6 Brief for the Coordination Forum Aceh and Nias (CFAN). CHAPTER 1 6 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience the World Bank released the Integrated Geospatial Management Australia, 2008). Hazard information Information Framework (IGIF). The IGIF complements presented using land administration information as the Hyogo and Sendai agendas by calling unequivocally a foundation can assist in making decision makers for globally coordinated actions in new geospatial data more aware of potential risks, and more motivated acquisition and integration (United Nations, 2019). to implement appropriate disaster risk management strategies (World Bank 2010). The ubiquitous nature The IGIF guides the development and strengthening of of maps and other land and geospatial information geospatial information, as well as the management of today makes for straightforward interpretation of visual relevant infrastructures in developing and developed information for the majority of stakeholders (Tate et al., contexts. Implemented at the national level in the 2010). The value in land administration data is that it form of NSDI, it will assist countries in moving toward enables the nature and extent of hazards to be visualized, e-economies; improving services to citizens; building allowing their impacts to be easily understood, and capacity for using geospatial technology; enhancing informing disaster risk management strategies (National informed government decision-making processes; Emergency Management Committee, 2011; Tate et and taking practical actions to achieve a digital al., 2011). Land administration information can reveal transformation.7 vulnerabilities and exposure to certain hazards. Data regarding topography, for example, is particularly useful How Land and Geospatial Systems Can in its ability to reveal tsunami, storm tide, tropical Bolster Resilience cyclone, bushfire, and landslide risks (Middelmann, Land and geospatial information is fundamental 2007). The better the knowledge base of information in improving disaster risk management practices. that is available for assessment of the risks, the more Research has shown that the use of land and geospatial informed the disaster risk management assessment is information for disaster and emergency management likely to be (Schneider et al., 2009). applications can improve operations and outcomes Land and geospatial information is extremely valuable (Mansourian et al., 2004; Asante et al., 2007). Exposure for resilience but to produce it and effectively use it, information, which is derived from land and geospatial right systems need to be in place: a Land Administration information, is a key component and comprises infor- System that provides current, reliable, and complete land mation on people, buildings, infrastructure (transport, tenure, land valuation, land use, and land development energy, communications, and water), businesses, haz- information, and a sustainable Geospatial Information ardous substances, and primary and major industries System (GIS)—or National Spatial Data Infrastructure— (Nadimpalli et al., 2017). The argument for using land that provides comprehensive and authoritative administration information in the process of disaster geospatial information. Resilient land and geospatial risk management is simple: the combination of hazard information systems play a key role at the forefront information with relevant information on land tenure, in all disaster risk management (DRM) phases by also land value, and land use enables the necessary risk pre- providing land-use, building, value, and zoning data vention and mitigation measures to be identified and for disaster risk modelling, monitoring, planning, and assessed in relation to legal, economic, physical, and mitigation, as well as a platform to implement decisive social consequences (Enemark, 2009). actions before, during, and after disasters. Combined land and hazard information has been The more secure, formal, and reconcilable property identified as a critical element in the mitigation of new rights and systems are, the less vulnerable land users disaster risk management developments (Emergency are to eviction or loss of livelihoods following a disaster. http:/ 7 /ggim.un.org/meetings/GGIM-committee/9th-Session/documents/E-C.20-2020-6-Add_1_IGIF.pdf SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 7 Figure 1.4: Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Mature Land Administration Accurate, reliable System and authoritative Land and geospatial information Comprehensive Geospatial Information and Systems Improved Vulnerability Community Resilience Effective and Hazard RISK Decisive DRM Actions Exposure Robust DRM System In the aftermath of disaster, lack of clarity over titles Conversely, if nothing is recorded, it is very difficult to and land claims can significantly delay reconstruction reconstruct the property rights—whether individual or and lead to conflict (GFDRR, 2010a). Comprehensive collective—that existed before a disaster swept away and secure land records offer critical protection of rights physical features on the ground and may also have killed when a population is displaced by a disaster; investment those upon whose memories the community relied. in tenure security is a direct investment in resilience. Minorities, women, children, the elderly, and those with disabilities may be vulnerable due to past discrimination One question that can arise following a disaster event in securing tenure. Culture and customary rights can be is whether settlements should be rebuilt where they destroyed by a collective loss of memory through the previously stood or be moved to a less vulnerable deaths of their custodians through disease or disaster. location. Sometimes there is no real choice—for instance, where an earthquake results in liquefaction of the soil as Box 1.1, on the preparedness of Haiti prior to the 2010 a result of shocks and vibration, so that the subsurface earthquake, reveals an information system lacking even is too unstable for reconstruction. This raises issues the basic data needed for post-disaster emergency about compensation for those who are not permitted rescue operations and the effective land and geospatial to return to their homes or businesses, as well as for the systems needed for disaster planning and risk mitigation. owners of the land that may be requisitioned for new By contrast, Box 1.2, on the Pacific Catastrophe Risk construction. Secure tenure and comprehensive land Financing and Insurance Initiative (PCRAFI), describes administration systems provide guarantees that those a system through which information on the possible undertaking the investment will get the benefits from it, impact of disasters is readily available for use in disaster incentivizing them to increase investment in dwellings. management. This in turn reduces risks and improves resilience through better siting and construction. CHAPTER 1 8 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Box 1.1: Haiti and the 2010 Earthquake On 12 January 2010, Haiti was struck by a force 7.0 Mw earthquake approximately 25 kilometers west of the capital of Port-au-Prince. It is estimated that over 225,000 people were killed by the earthquake, and over 1 million displaced. As many as 40 percent of Haiti’s civil servants were killed or injured, and most government buildings were damaged or destroyed. Even before the 2010 earthquake, the recording of property rights in Haiti was weak, and there were problems with proof of titles. Reference and record systems were often unclear, incomplete, or out of date. “Often there was no reliable way of obtaining enforceable documented guarantees of land title. Overlapping, invalid, or improperly documented titles were a frequent source of conflict, making land disputes common, and no fast or reliable formal process existed for settling such disputes,” (GFDRR, 2010a). The land titling system managed by the Directorate of Revenues (Direction Generale des Impots) was not computerized. Banks could not use contested properties as guarantees. Possession was often the only tool available to defend property rights. Land administration, land use planning, zoning, building codes, and property valuation all needed strengthening before the earthquake. No town planning boards or other land use planning entities existed. While Port- au-Prince and other urban areas did have relatively reliable land survey and cadastre systems, these were complicated by the extensive development of informal settlements (GFDRR, 2010a). Mapping was poor, and this would have impeded relief efforts except for the emergency response of volunteers who created maps. The World Bank and satellite companies such as Digital Globe, GeoEye, and Spot released high-resolution satellite imagery under open licensing schemes. This enabled over 600 OpenStreetMap volunteers from 29 countries to produce a detailed digitized map of Haiti, making 1.2 million edits in about 20 days, which became the de facto base map for recovery and reconstruction. Since then, other World Bank projects have used the OpenStreetMap platform and crowdsourcing to map the built and natural environments in other countries. This is very valuable for rescue work in the aftermath of a disaster, although the level of precision is insufficient for reconstruction. Haiti mapping before and after the 2010 earthquake Source: World Bank, Open Cities: Scaling up Workshop—Launching the Open Cities Guide. Sources: Forni (2014); Lozano-Gracia (2017) and Soden (2014). SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 9 Box 1.2: The Pacific Risk Information System The Pacific Catastrophe Risk Financing and Insurance Initiative (PCRAFI) was initiated on the request of the Pacific Island Countries (PICs) in 2006. It is an innovative program that builds on the principle of regional coordination to provide state-of-the-art disaster risk information and tools for enhanced disaster risk management and improved financial resilience against natural hazards and climate change. The initiative is implemented in collaboration between the World Bank, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, and the Asian Development Bank. The countries involved are the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Marshall Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. PCRAFI established the Pacific Risk Information System (PacRIS), which contains detailed, country-specific information on assets, population, hazards, and risks. The exposure database makes use of remote sensing analyses, field visits, and country-specific data sets to characterize buildings (residential, commercial, and industrial), major infrastructure (such as roads, bridges, airports, ports, and utility assets), major crops, and population. More than 500,000 buildings, representing 15 percent of the estimated number of buildings in the PICs, have been digitized from very high-resolution satellite images. About 80,000 buildings and major infrastructure assets were physically inspected to calibrate satellite-based data, and about 3 million buildings and other assets, mostly in rural areas, were inferred from satellite imagery. PacRIS includes a comprehensive regional historical hazard catalogue of 115,000 earthquake and 2,500 tropical cyclone events, and an historical loss database for major disasters. It has state-of-the art country-specific hazard maps for earthquakes and tropical cyclones, risk maps showing the geographic distribution of potential losses for each country, and other visualizations of the risk assessments. These can be accessed through an open-source web-based platform. Source: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank (2013). Nonetheless, land and geospatial systems can only wide agendas. However, in many contexts, there is a perform if they are themselves resilient. No matter disconnect between various key players or departments. how good the system, it will fail if it is not capable of delivering accurate information in real time during a Land and Geospatial Information in disaster event. Paper-based land records and maps are Low- and Middle-Income Countries vulnerable to deterioration, for example through insect Many of the countries affected by disaster events have infestation or exposure to light, heat, water damage, poorly developed land and geospatial systems. The and dust. In a disaster they can be destroyed by flood or extent of the problem can be illustrated by the responses fire or lost in the collapse of buildings. Remote or cloud to the World Bank’s Land Governance Assessment storage of electronic data offers greater protection, Framework (LGAF),8 which has to date been undertaken though this may also be vulnerable to degradation or by nearly 40 countries. One of the questions posed destruction through hacking, ransomware, or damage to in the LGAF is whether land registry information is up equipment or buildings unless suitable backup systems to date and reflects reality on the ground. Figure 1.5 are put in place. Sharing information with disaster risk shows that for most of the countries the information in management agencies and enabling them to harness registry information is seriously incomplete, with 18 out these valuable data in their planning and operations of 35 countries for which there are data reporting that enhance the overall process and supports government- less than 50 percent of the information was up to date. A diagnostic instrument to assess the state of land governance at the national or subnational level. 8 CHAPTER 1 10 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Figure 1.5: Whether registry information is up to date and reflects the reality on the ground9 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Madagascar Brazil Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Colombia Côte d’Ivoire Georgia Ghana Guatemala Honduras Mali Moldova Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Tanzania Uganda Ukraine Afghanistan Congo Dem. Rep. Croatia Ethiopia Gambia Guinea India Indonesia Malawi Mauritania Mozambique Peru Phillipines Sierra Africa Vietnam Zambia A score of A is given if more than 90 percent of the information they contain is up to date; B if between 70 and 90 percent is; C if between 50 9 and 70 percent is; and D if less than 50 percent of the information in the registry cadastre is up to date. A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, and D = 1. Source: The World Bank Land Governance Assessment Framework (http:/ /www.worldbank.org/en/programs/land-governance-assessment-framework). The World Bank’s annual Doing Business survey how well a country’s mapping function is performing— (World Bank, 2018) examines various indicators of particularly whether it is able to map boundaries. For the efficiency of registering properties. Figure 1.6 the majority of LGAF countries, less than 70 percent shows the results of the assessment of the reliability of privately held land is mapped. In many developing of registration infrastructure for the LGAF countries. countries land and geospatial systems are incomplete, Most of the countries had serious deficiencies in this inaccurate, and out of date. This conclusion is not regard, with only 10 of the countries achieving a score surprising. A 2019 survey by Geospatial Media in excess of 4 out of 8. The Doing Business survey also Communication of the geospatial readiness of 75 examined the geographical coverage of land registries countries based upon their data infrastructure, policy and mapping agencies in terms of the registration framework, institutional capacity, user adoption, and and mapping of private plots. This was poor for most industry framework awarded just 11 countries (all with of the LGAF countries, with 27 out of 37 scoring 0 the exception of China, developed economies) scores of out of 8. Byamugisha (2013) reports that 80 percent 40 out of 100 or better, and 44 countries (all emerging of Sub-Saharan and South Asian countries still have or transitional economies) scores of less than 25.10 paper-based systems, that are in various states of Spatial planning and building regulation are vital deterioration, even though 61 percent of the rest of the in ensuring that urban development does not take world has electronic databases for encumbrances. place in vulnerable areas, and that development Figure 1.7 explores whether the information about proposals incorporate designs and specifications that privately held registered land is identifiable in maps in are appropriate for the risks encountered locally. The the registry or cadastre and provides an indication of magnitude of the impact of disaster events is often 10 https://issuu.com/geospatialworld/docs/20190329-geobuiz-report-2019-freeve SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 11 Figure 1.6: Reliability of registration infrastructure11 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Madagascar Afghanistan Brazil Burkina Faso Cameroon Croatia Gambia Ghana India Colombia Congo Dem. Rep. Côte d’Ivoire Ethiopia Georgia Guatemala Guinea Indonesia Kenya Malawi Mali Mauritania Mozambique Nigeria Peru Rwanda Senegal Sierra-Leone Burundi Honduras Moldova Philippines Tanzania Uganda Ukraine South Africa Vietnam Zambia Figure 1.7: Whether the information held in records of the LGAF countries is incorporated in maps and reflects reality12 4.5 4.0 3.5 30 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Madagascar Afghanistan Brazil Burkina Faso Cameroon Côte d’Ivoire Congo Dem. Rep. Ghana India Sierra Leone Colombia Croatia Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Indonesia Kenya Malawi Georgia Guatemala Honduras Mali Mauritania Mozambique Nigeria Peru Phillipines Rwanda Senegal South Africa Burundi Moldova South Sudan Tanzania Uganda Ukraine Vietnam Zambia 11 Countries were scored on a scale of 0 to 8 on whether titles are kept in digital form, whether there is an electronic database for checking for encumbrances, whether maps of land plots are in digital form, whether there is a geographic information system for recording boundaries, whether the land registry and mapping data are linked, and whether immovable property is identified in a unique manner. The instrument focus on commercial/industrial property (a hypothetical factory) and does not consider mortgages. The World Bank Doing Business, http:/ /www. doingbusiness.org/ 12 A score of A means that more than 9 percent of records for privately held land registered in the registry are readily identifiable in maps in the registry or cadastre; B between 70 and 90 percent; C between 50 and 70 percent; and D less than 50 percent of privately held land in the registry is readily identified in maps in the registry or cadastre. A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, and D = 1. Source: The World Bank Land Governance Assessment Framework. CHAPTER 1 12 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience amplified by development having taken place and water channels and the removal of vegetation on in unsuitable locations, and by being informally slopes increases runoff rates and the risk of flooding and constructed and without an appropriate degree of landslides, while building on firebreaks and evacuation resilience. Inappropriate land uses can also increase the routes is likely to increase the casualties resulting from risk and the consequences of a disaster event, as Box wildfires. An efficient land administration system can 1.3 illustrates. For instance, encroachment on forests prevent such developments. Box 1.3: Flooding and Landslides in Sierra Leone The population of Freetown, Sierra Leone, has grown rapidly, partly as a result of the influx of people fleeing the civil war in the 1990s and partly because of the boom in iron ore exports. The resulting housing shortage has caused the expansion of urbanization into vulnerable areas, and to the stripping of vegetation from the lower slopes of Sugar Loaf Mountain for fuel, destabilizing the soil and speeding up the rate of water runoff. On 14 August 2017 Freetown was struck by powerful rainstorms that caused water to cascade down Sugar Loaf Mountain, creating major landslides that engulfed houses and buildings, entombing those inside and sweeping others away. The World Bank subsequently estimated the death toll at 1,141, with approximately 3,000 people losing their homes. The economic loss was put at $32 million, and the recovery costs at $82 million. As a World Bank report noted (IBRD/IDA, 2017), the recovery process should be informed by planning and urban design principles. Account needs to be taken of the location of hazards, and spatial planning tools are needed to achieve the policy goal of reducing unacceptably high levels of vulnerability resulting from unsuitable land use, poor infrastructure design, and inappropriate building practices. Although this was not stated in the report, standards of governance also need to be enhanced: in a situation in which there is a chronic housing shortage and no effective means of enforcing town planning and building control policies, commercial opportunities exist for anyone able to exercise control over land, no matter how unsuitable it is for development. The location of informal housing in locations vulnerable to disaster events is a trade-off between affordability and accessibility to work opportunities, and often offers better quality housing than could be secured in older, more crowded urban areas. Sources: IBRD/IDA (2017); Trenchard (2018). SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 13 Figure 1.8 shows the extent to which planning and utilize this essential information, it is necessary processes in the LGAF countries are unable to cope to have in place a reliable and effective land with urban growth. In just five of the LGAF countries administration system that provides current, reliable, are the authorities in the largest city able to cope with and complete land tenure, land use, and land value the demands arising from new development. Most information, and a sustainable Geospatial Information developing countries are struggling to cope with urban System (i.e., NSDI) that provides comprehensive and growth and are ill prepared for disaster events when authoritative geospatial information. they occur. Urban growth is not being planned to enable ● Land and geospatial systems play a key role in all the resilience of urban areas to disaster. Without proper disaster risk management phases by providing land spatial planning, development is likely to take place in use, building, value, and zoning data for disaster hazardous areas, which are only available as they had risk modelling, monitoring, planning, and mitigation, been favored the least for earlier development. The as well as a platform to implement decisive actions land’s lack of suitability is likely to mean that the cost of before, during, and after disasters. obtaining such land is lower than in more suitable sites, ● Land and geospatial systems offer critical protection and thus more appealing to people with lower incomes. of rights when populations are displaced by a disaster. Thus, households with the fewest resources to cope They encourage investments in dwellings, which with disaster are among those most exposed to it. reduce risks and improve resilience through better siting and construction of buildings. Better information improves the understanding of risks and evidence- Key Takeaways based land use planning and land management. This ● Land and geospatial information is essential in has the effect of directing housing, occupancy, and increasing the resilience of communities. To produce businesses to areas of lower hazard exposure. Figure 1.8: The extent to which planning processes are able to cope with urban growth13 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Madagascar Afghanistan Brazil Burkina Faso Cameroon Colombia Côte d’Ivoire Croatia Gambia Georgia Ghana Guatemala Honduras India Indonesia Malawi Mali Moldova Nigeria Phillipines Rwanda Sierra Leone Senegal Burundi Congo Dem. Rep. Guinea Kenya Mozambique Peru South Africa South Sudan Tanzania Uganda Ukraine Ethiopia Mauritania Vietnam Zambia A: in the largest city in the country, the urban planning process/authority is able to cope with the increasing demand for serviced units/land 13 as evidenced by the fact that almost all new dwellings are formal. B: the authorities in the largest city are able to cope to some extent so that most new dwellings are formal. C: in the largest city, the authorities are struggling to cope with increasing demand so that most new dwellings are informal. D: the authorities cannot cope so that almost all new dwellings are informal. A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, and D = 1 . Source: The World Bank Land Governance Assessment Framework. CHAPTER 1 14 The Importance of Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience ● Land and geospatial information secures the faster unless the systems themselves are resilient so that recovery of economic activities through accessible data and access to data are not lost in a disaster and instant data on the impact post-disaster, helping event. These systems should be capable of recovering to minimize the value of losses and disruptions, and quickly after a disaster so that they are able to guide to determine the appropriate levels of compensation recovery and reconstruction. Improving the resilience and required investment. It allows claims on land and of land administration and spatial data infrastructure property to be validated easily and underpins the requires addressing the security risks of systems, return and restoration of pre-disaster activities. and on-the-ground emergency response data and ● Land and geospatial systems are of no use in disasters services. Aerial image after the the April 25, 2015 earthquake in Nepal. Source: Wikipedia. Systems Requirements Resilient Land and Geospatial for Establishing 15 CHAPTER 2 16 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems A s the previous chapter has shown, land for which the rights are recognized or allocated; the administration systems and geospatial data transfer from one party to another of land rights infrastructure are fundamental to disaster through sale, lease, loan, gift, or inheritance; and the risk management. They play a major role in adjudication of doubts and disputes regarding rights developing plans for the mitigation of disasters, and in and obligations and parcel boundaries facilitating recovery and reconstruction. Disasters have ● Land use regulation—land use planning and enforce- devastating impacts on the populations affected, and ment and the adjudication of land use conflicts on the economies of the areas and countries concerned. ● Land valuation and taxation—the gathering of reve- Land is the core social safety net; once access to land nues through forms of land valuation, value capture, is lost, resuming livelihoods becomes challenging or and taxation; the adjudication of land valuation and even impossible, and this increases vulnerability. When taxation disputes (FAO, 2002); and the determination disasters displace people, land records and cadastral data of compensation for losses or when property is ex- are key to protecting their property rights and building propriated; and resilience. They also play a key role in rebuilding—the ● Land development—implementing utilities, infra- absence of clear property rights and challenges by those structure, and construction planning; and the en- claiming rights over land needed for reconstruction forcement of construction standards and building or for the improvement of infrastructure can hold up codes. reconstruction, or cause projects to be abandoned. Figure 2.1 illustrates schematically what such a system This chapter explores the key aspects for efficient and looks like. Land policies and the institutional framework effective land administration and geospatial information feed into land information, which is then used to manage systems, the importance of land governance, and how these systems work when disasters happen. It presents land tenure, land use, land value, and land development. a series of recommendations to improve the resilience These aspects interact with each other and produce an of the systems themselves. efficient land market and effective land management. The result should be sustainable development that is resilient in the face of disaster events. Key Features of a Reliable Land Administration System In the context of land administration, land information includes authoritative detail about parcels, ownership, Land administration is the process of determining, property rights, restrictions, responsibilities and recording, and disseminating information about the obligations, and valuation. It covers topographical and tenure, value, and use of land when implementing land environmental data, land use information, utilities management policies (UNECE, 1996; Williamson et al., and infrastructure, and land development plans. This 2010). The systems that support land administration information must be accessible to all the agencies that information are the foundations for spatially enabling need it: agencies should not maintain their own databases a society. These systems include land registration; just because they cannot access the information they cadastral surveying and mapping; fiscal, legal, and require because it is the property of another agency. multipurpose cadastres and land information systems Instead specialists should be responsible for compiling (Steudler and Rajabifard, 2012). In any country, land and maintaining databases, the contents of which administration, whether formal or informal, comprises should be shared with those who need access to them. an extensive range of systems with a number of This principle is illustrated by the Netherlands System processes to administer, including: of Base Registers discussed in Box 2.1. ● Land rights—the recognition or allocation of rights and obligations; the delimitation of boundaries of parcels SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 17 Figure 2.1: A global land management perspective Sustainable development Economic, social, and environmental Efficient land market Efficient land-use management Land tenure Land value Land use Land development Titles, mortgages, Policies and spatial planning Construction planning Assessment of land value and easments Control of land use and permits Collection of property tax Secure legal rights Regulation and implementation Land information Land Institutional Policies Cadastral and topographic data Frameworks Geospatial data infrastructure Source: Williamson et al. (2010). Box 2.1: The Netherlands System of Base Registers Since 1996 the Netherlands has developed a series of base registers which contain information that all public bodies are obliged to use. One body is responsible for the production and maintenance of the data set. Key registers include those for persons, the cadastre, addresses, buildings, businesses, topography, subsurface, vehicles, and property values. Not all data sets are geospatially referenced, but they contain a wide range of accurate and reliable social, commercial, and economic data as well as geospatial information. The way the base registers function can be illustrated by the one for the values of immovable property, which has been part of the system of base registers since 2006. Municipalities carry out annual assessments for the property tax and contribute to the register. The assessments are used by any other public body that requires property values, including for national taxation, charges for water systems and treatment, and to set a maximum rent for social housing. The values are also used by notaries, banks, and insurance companies for the prevention of mortgage and real estate fraud. The assessments undertaken by municipalities are supervised by the Council for Real Estate Assessment, a government body, which sets standards for assessment and audits the work of municipalities. It has the power to require municipalities to carry out a reassessment where it considers that the work undertaken is not of sufficient quality. The significance of these registers is that the Netherlands recognizes that it is a country that is vulnerable to natural hazards, with a significant chance of experiencing a disaster event. Much of the country is reclaimed land that is below sea level and vulnerable to flooding. In 1953, over 1,800 people were killed and approximately 9 percent of farmland was flooded as a result of a North Sea storm surge. More currently, the Dutch government fears that climate change will result in mosquitos, ticks, and other insects, which coupled with a water-dominated landscape, high population density, and large concentrations of poultry in chicken farms, may make the country vulnerable to diseases such as malaria and dengue fever (The Times, 13 June 2019). Source: Kuijper and Kathmann (2016). CHAPTER 2 18 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Cadastre information is at the core of any land activities, contribute to difficulties in tax collection, administration system. It provides information about distort land markets, and result in poor urban and land use geographical objects and their attributes, including, planning, which, in turn, can compound the losses from critically, their locations, assets, and asset values, disaster events. Some countries face significant challenges which is vital support for implementing land policies, in this respect, such as steep rugged terrain, heavy land management strategies, land markets, effective seasonal rains, hot spells, or lengthy periods when the land land use management, and effective disaster risk is covered by snow, which make traditional land surveying management practices (Williamson, 2002; Nasruddin difficult and time consuming, or significant forested areas and Rahman, 2006). Cadastres describe the nature of or lengthy periods with low cloud cover which challenge property interests, the ownership and control of parcels the use of imagery methods. The scattered Pacific Islands, and interests, fixtures and property values, and aid in for example, present a real challenge for land recording the registration of rights in land, taxation of land and due to customary land practices, and for geospatial property, and the management of current and future uses information systems that need highly accurate data to of land (Larsson, 1991; Henssen, 1995). Furthermore, produce bathymetric or topographic maps that are needed accurate, accessible, and up-to-date land valuation for estimating flood and coastal risks. A compromised supports insurance, compensation, expropriation, and geospatial base has negative direct implications, for strategic advice to governments in disaster mitigation example for tsunami, flood, and landslide modelling, and and recovery (Mitchell et al., 2014a, 2014b). to the national capability to put in place disaster response and early warning systems. Although establishing such When building resilience, establishing an effective systems may sound like a formidable challenge, with land administration systems prior to a disaster event is political will and the financial backing of donors and essential to ensuring fast and comprehensive recovery. international development banks, they can be achieved Improvements in tenure security and land use practices relatively quickly as Box 2.3 illustrates. can foster resilience to disaster events through increased food security and environmental sustainability, and by Central to an effective system is interoperability—a key encouraging private investment to make buildings and lesson from the example of the Netherlands (Box 2.1). properties more resilient. Conversely, disaster events This means that land information data collected and can result in the loss of official records concerning land maintained by one body must be accessible by all the ownership and undermine tenure security, settlement other bodies that need to make use of it. There should planning, and the transition to sustainable development not be duplicate—and even conflicting—databases (IASG, 2008). Mismanagement of these issues can purporting to contain the same information, maintained increase vulnerability to disaster through unsustainable by different bodies for their own exclusive use. Rather, land use and insecurity of tenure (UN-Habitat, 2010). those with specific responsibility and specialist skills and In attempting to achieve an effective land administration equipment should produce high quality data on which systems that supports resilience to disasters, a number all other bodies can rely. Thus, for example, land use of issues can arise. For example, if the land registration planners can access data about topography, hydrography, system is inefficient or ineffective, key data about what or vegetation cover, and valuers can access the location happens where, where production is located, and who of buildings and parcel land rights. This is possible lives where will not be available. This can be compounded when there is a high degree of cooperation between by an inoperative land information system, an incomplete organizations, rather than unproductive competition and/or outdated cadastre, a lack of trained surveyors to and rivalry. It also implies that the data should be readily conduct high-quality land surveying, and the absence accessible on demand. This can only be achieved if the of geospatial data sharing protocols. Situations like this data are available electronically and compiled using undermine disaster risk management and mitigation common standards. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 19 Box 2.2: World Bank Support on Land Use Planning and Land Development for Resilience Rebuilding in the town of Lukla in the Khumbu region, Nepal. Photo: LSP1982. This report sheds light on how different pillars of the land management process (Figure 2.1) can be linked to increased resilience of communities. It places particular emphasis on land tenure and land valuation, and less on land use planning and land development. Several World Bank global programs, projects, and knowledge products explore these latter pillars in more depth, for example: • The Global Program for Resilient Housing supports national and local governments  by coordinating global policy to improve existing housing through bottom-up strengthening measures, access to financing, and the use of advanced technologies. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disasterriskmanagement/brief/global-program-for- resilient-housing • The Building Regulation for Resilience Program develops and promotes a new stream of activities to increase regulatory capacity and in turn promote a healthier and safer built environment. https:/ /www.gfdrr.org/en/ building-regulation-for-resilience • A Practitioner’s Guide to Leveraging Private Investment for Regenerating Urban Land demonstrates how urban regeneration can help cities address the rising demand for land by densifying existing urban cores, particularly pockets of underused or disinvested land. Higher density is associated with economic growth and social integration. Denser, transit-friendlier cities also help lower carbon emissions, reduce pollution, and contribute to increased resilience. https:/ /urban-regeneration.worldbank.org/about • Building Urban Resilience in East Asia is a program that aims to increase the resilience of cities to disasters and climate change impacts by using a risk-based approach in public investment decision-making processes. The initiative demonstrates a scalable methodology and practical tools for risk assessment, which can be used for city- level investment decisions. The program is part of a broader effort of the World Bank to incentivize governments to effectively use risk information. —Jha, Abhas K., Todd W. Miner, and Zuzana Stanton-Geddes. (2013). “Building urban resilience: principles, tools, and practice.” • The self-paced e-learning course on Sustainable Urban Land Use Planning highlights a functional and integrated understanding of the dynamics of urban land use and demonstrates how policies and planning instruments may be effectively utilized to manage urban growth and achieve sustainable, equitable, and efficient development outcomes. https:/ /olc.worldbank.org/content/sustainable-urban-land-use-planning-self-paced CHAPTER 2 20 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Box 2.3: Quick Increase in Land Administration Coverage in Rwanda In 2004 Rwanda adopted a land policy, and in 2005 an organic land law which established the institutional and administrative structures for land management and administration. This combination of policy, law, and institutional arrangement provided the basis for a country-wide Land Tenure Reform (LTR) project. From 2007 to 2010, pilots were undertaken to register about 15,000 parcels in four localities, reflecting the diversity of the country. A process for systematic low-cost demarcation and adjudication using aerial photography or high- resolution satellite imagery was designed and implemented through trained local para-surveyors. Demarcation was undertaken in public in the presence of neighbors and local authorities. Data were computerized, and results displayed publicly for a period of at least one month, in which objections could be raised and corrections made as needed. Titles and lease certificates were issued at the central level and distributed to land holders. Refinement of processes based on a thorough review of the pilot experience allowed rapid scale-up and rollout as a national program. In less than three years, the Rwanda Natural Resource Authority (RNRA) demarcated over 11.3 million land parcels out of an estimated 11.5 million in the country in a participatory way and at a unit cost of less than $6 per parcel (Nkurunziza 2015), setting a new standard for first time registration of land rights that many countries are endeavoring to emulate. NSDI: The Fundamental Base to Provide around three pillars: Governance, Technology, and Authoritative Geospatial Information People. (United Nations, 2018). Authoritative and up-to-date geospatial data should be ● The Governance pillar includes the leadership, easily and seamlessly accessible to provide a powerful administration model, and institutional arrangements collective resource to improve resilience. It should be to strengthen multidisciplinary and multi-sectoral seen as a benefit for a government, the private sector, participation. It involves the legal and policy and the civil society, not a burden. To be able to use framework necessary to institute appropriate this valuable resource effectively, a National Spatial national geospatial information legislation and Data Infrastructure (NSDI) needs to be in place, with policy that enables the availability, accessibility, coordination across technologies, policies, standards, exchange, application, and management of geospatial and human resources to acquire, process, store, information. It also establishes the business model for distribute, and use geospatial data.14 This system how the system is to be financed, developing financial provides a common location platform and, in the context partnerships and identifying investment needs and of resilience, is essential for identifying the impact areas funding sources for delivering integrated geospatial and damage, directing the responses, reconstituting the information management. pre-disaster land use, identifying areas for temporary ● The Technology pillar is about data, innovation, and shelter, and facilitating longer term planning and standards. It provides the geospatial data framework reconstruction and recovery of production systems and custodianship guidelines for collecting best (UN-Habitat, 2010). The example of Norway (Box 2.4) practices and managing the integrated and illustrates the components of an effective NSDI. authoritative geospatial information required for A reliable NSDI that can provide the necessary cross-sector and multidisciplinary collaboration. information to support sustainable development and to It recognizes that technology and processes are improve resilience should be organized and established continuously evolving and creates opportunities US Executive Order 12906 (“Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access”). https:/ 14 /www.archives.gov/files/federal-register/ executive-orders/pdf/12906.pdf SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 21 Box 2.4: Norway’s National Spatial Data Infrastructure Public administration and services Private sector International Crisis NGOs value adding reporting management Environmental Projects management Innovation and Municipality research planning Adapted from: GEONODE, A national node for spatial data. The Norwegian government has established a portal to provide geospatial data to support the public and private sectors in a variety of functions, including public services and private investment. Data delivery organizations deliver data to the National Geoportal, where Geospatial Information specialists convert it into ready-made maps for end users. Some 50 organizations and 400 municipalities contribute to the system, and 600 have an agreement on the joint platform, standards, and cost sharing, with the Norwegian Mapping Authority as the coordinator. Data capture is funded by partners, with 34 percent of the costs met by local authorities, 24 percent by the national mapping agencies, and 14 percent from the road administration. Cross-sectoral themes include topography, population, pollution, agriculture, geology, cultural heritage, fisheries, energy, biodiversity, climate and weather, cadastral information, and crisis management. Included in the databases are orthophotos and terrain models, LiDAR data, bathymetry, urban zoning plans, hydropower, cultural monuments, wildlife, land slide susceptibility, aquaculture, soil pollution and contamination, noise, and borehole stability data, among others. Access is either free, subject to fees, or restricted as required by privacy, national security, or other rules. Free access applies to certain data sets, such as topographical names, place names, addresses, administrative units, transport, terrain models, LiDAR, and bathymetry. The aim is that by 2020 all public sector spatial data will be in the portal, which is aimed at supporting a wide range of tools for different users. User groups define their needs and drive developments, and the system is orientated toward the needs of large users, such as the police, emergency services, coastal rescue, the military, local government, and national crisis management. The legal basis for the development is derived from the European Union’s INSPIRE Directive, which was translated into Norwegian law in 2010, with a fitness-for-purpose revision in 2017. Implementation has built on the national spatial data standards, which have existed for 30 years, on cooperative data capture, which has been taking place over the past 25 years, and on the “Digital Norway” cooperation, which has existed for 15 years. Source: Lillethun (2017). CHAPTER 2 22 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems for the innovation and creativity that enable Figure 2.2 illustrates the three pillars and nine key governments to bridge the digital divide. It establishes strategic aspects that are required for a reliable NSDI, and ensures the adoption of best practice standards surrounded by the benefits that are able to be realized and compliance mechanisms that enable legal, data, when implemented together. semantic, and technical interoperability, which are Implicit in an NSDI is the need for greater institutional fundamental to delivering integrated geospatial collaboration, interoperability, and integration at the information. national level. This is both a technical issue, requiring ● The People pillar brings in the user aspects. It databases that communicate with each other and portals recognizes that stakeholders (including the general through which they can be accessed; and a human community) are integral to the implementation of and political issue, which depends on the willingness integrated geospatial information management of institutions and individuals to share data and work systems, and that their buy-in and commitment is together for the common good rather than for an critical to success. Accordingly, it builds effective organization’s own goals or profit. This needs to happen cross-sector and interdisciplinary cooperation, across the various national data information systems industry and private sector partnerships, and and platforms that support the development and international cooperation as an important premise maintenance of geospatial information for improving to developing a sustainable NSDI. It promotes societal infrastructure (United Nations, 2018). enduring capacity-building programs and education systems so that geospatial information management The reality is that many countries that are vulnerable to and entrepreneurship can be sustained in the longer disaster events lack NSDI or may not have a culture of term. data sharing. Interoperability is a particular challenge Figure 2.2: The NSDI pillars Knowledge • Decisions • Development Governance Legal Governance and and Financial Institutions Policy Technology • Applications • Value Users • Citizens • Access Technology Data Innovation Standards Capacity Communication People Partnerships and and Education Engagement Society • Economy • Environment Source: United Nations, 2018. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 23 with most of the countries that were investigated ● Capacity. Those who need to access data may in this study,15 who reported that agencies worked lack the equipment or software with which to do without sharing land information or recording it to so, or the people with the technical competence a single standard. Central to the interoperability to enable access or understand the importance of of systems is whether the country has a national interoperability. geospatial information management policy or strategy. ● Legal. There needs to be a legal framework for If the policy or strategy exists, its status needs to be the sharing of data. This includes who has access known, particularly whether it has been endorsed by to what data, who has the right to change it, and the government and by law, and whether there are clear who has obligations to convey to the data owner objectives and a roadmap to achieve these. The policy any errors that have been identified through use. or strategy needs to be aligned with other government Licensing agreements covering intellectual property policies which impact on it, particularly e-government rights need to be in place to enable users to access and open data policies. The e-government policy is likely relevant data. Policies need to be in place as to which to determine the policies for the migration of data and data are to be regarded as open, and which data the the supply of public services online. The data policies owners can charge an access fee to. This is linked to will determine the extent to which data sets can be the question as to how various data providers are to made public, what licensing arrangements are required be financed. In some cases, this may be through the in accessing data sets, and the re-use and redistribution government’s budget, but in others, the data owner rules. It will need to address institutional arrangements may be expected to recoup the costs of acquiring and governance, communications, standards and and maintaining the data through fees charged to infrastructure management, and how the policy or users. For example, a land registry and cadastre strategy is to be financed. might be financed through user charges such as fees for registering property transfers or mortgages, or Interoperability problems mean that a NSDI policy for checking the land register or accessing parcel cannot be implemented, as data produced by one data. Since the sharing of data is electronic, the organization cannot readily be accessed by others. Thus, framework for interoperability will be influenced by for example, data on flood risks and drainage produced e-government policies, such as portal and database by water boards may not be available to local authorities specifications, and by plans for migrating public responsible for civil defense and the evacuation of the services from paper-based delivery through offices population. The impediments to interoperability fall into to electronic services accessed through the Internet. four main categories (Source: http://ggim.un.org/IGIF/). ● Cultural. A culture of data sharing needs to be ● Technical. These include the absence of data developed so that the data can be accessed by those standards and data models, or the failure to adopt who need it for risk mitigation and recovery planning. them universally. There may be inconsistencies There is a risk of silo mentalities, where those who in the accuracy, scaling, language, feature types, own data see it as being their private domain rather attribute types and domain, metadata, or spatial than regarding themselves as a service provider to representation of data so that it is not transferable others. Open data with interoperability requires the between or within organizations and between development of a culture in which data owners and databases. Use should be made of international data users see themselves as owners of processes rather standards. than of data, and as suppliers to other process owners. As part of this study nine case studies were conducted by independent consultants. The country-level case studies are the key component 15 of this overall project, being the primary source of investigation, information gathering, and data collection. The case studies focus on the current status of land and geospatial information and systems they can offer to disaster risk management practices. CHAPTER 2 24 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Box 2.5: International Context Comparison To compare land and geospatial systems across geographies, and between countries at different stages of development and facing different resilience challenges, nine case studies were conducted to supplement this report. The findings of these are summarized in Annex C. As part of the case study investigations, an international workshop on land and geospatial resilience was held in September 2018 in Melbourne, where the land administration and NSDI arrangements in each case country were presented and discussed. Topics included country histories of disasters and the impacts experienced, how land administration systems and geospatial systems contributed and were affected, which organizations were involved and what their responsibilities were, and the overall resilience of the country. Comparisons were drawn between the interoperability challenges in LAS and in geospatial systems in each country, and discussions held on improving resilience. Interoperability challenges in land administration systems in the case study countries At the national level there is little to no coordination between the jurisdictions, and the information is not recorded Australia in a standard way spatially, so interoperability is a challenge.  Chile Agencies work with different land information, which is not shared, and not recorded to a spatial standard. Colombia Modernization of LAS completed which enables automation and interoperability with other systems. India Agencies work with different land information, which is not shared, and not recorded to a spatial standard. Indonesia Agencies work with different land information, which is not shared, and not recorded to a spatial standard. Agencies work with different land information, which is not shared, and not recorded to a spatial standard. Nicaragua However, there are currently inter-institutional efforts to characterize rights, restrictions, and responsibilities within the legal framework. Nigeria Agencies work with different land information, which is not shared, and not recorded to a spatial standard. Tunisia Agencies work with different land information, which is not shared, and not recorded to a spatial standard. Turkey There is limited sharing, and spatial information is not recorded in a standard way. There were also interoperability issues with geospatial systems in the case study countries, even though geospatial standards existed in each of the countries except Nicaragua and Turkey. Interoperability challenges in geospatial systems Australia The national policy promotes interoperability; however, the adoption is at the discretion of each jurisdiction. Chile The National Policy promotes interoperability. However, there is no law yet to regulate and impose the adoption of the policy on to departments. Colombia There are inconsistencies in the production of geographic information. India Interoperability exists with sharing of data, software, and hardware. Indonesia Interoperability is possible—data, software, and hardware can be shared across organizations. Nicaragua Initiative in place to create a geo-repository of data and collect information from the 30 state institutions that generate geospatial data with adequate ISO standards to ensure their interoperability. Nigeria Inconsistencies in the production of geographic information result in different levels of accuracy, and different scaling, coding, and classification systems. Tunisia There is a lack of coordination between the various stakeholders; lack of centralization of all the sectoral databases made; a lack of a common geographic reference frame; the non-implementation of existing standards; and a lack of interoperability between the thematic GISs of the governmental institutions. Turkey Efforts and initiatives to set relevant principles and standards for metadata, data sharing, and interoperability have been undertaken, but not achieved to date. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 25 Improving Resilience for mitigation measures such as financial protection in the form of insurance. Land and geospatial systems An effective disaster management system should are also used in the effective enforcement of policy, contain: particularly the control of development and of building ● Investment in structural measures to mitigate the and construction so that zoning and building codes impact of disaster events, risk assessment, early are followed. Recovery and reconstruction require up- warning systems, and hazard mapping and scenario to-date information about land rights and the spatial building to assess risks and plan responses to hazards; distribution of people and economic activities, and the ● A culture of preparedness, learning lessons from past ability to map and monitor the impact of disaster events experience, with training and evacuation drills that and recovery activities in real time. are practiced at local and community levels; Developing land and geospatial systems for resilience ● Stakeholder involvement where all parties know their is a challenging undertaking. However, many of the roles; benefits of such systems can be obtained at a fraction ● Legislation, regulation, and enforcement; and of the cost of developed countries’ systems. Funds may ● Use of sophisticated instrumentation to underpin be available to defray some of the initial costs through planning and assessment. (World Bank, 2012) bilateral aid or International Finance Institution loans, Land and geospatial information play an important role and maintenance costs can be controlled through the in disaster management systems, with an emphasis use of systems such as open source software. Rather on structural measures that take a holistic approach than using traditional, high accuracy, and expensive land to planning and development. This includes spatial surveying techniques to record land rights and related planning to ensure that developments take place only information, it is possible to adopt a spatially “fit for in suitable places; that protected areas such as forests, purpose” approach to meet basic needs using affordable runoffs, and evacuation routes are not destroyed or modern technologies, such as orthophotos, drones, and encroached upon; and that building controls are in place crowdsourcing, to build a spatial framework and show to ensure that construction takes place to appropriate how land is owned, occupied, and used.17 General standards. boundaries rather than measured parcel boundaries can be used, and a participatory approach adopted involving An NSDI comprises a series of fundamental categories of geospatial data that needs to be readily available and citizens and communities identifying and recording legal accessible, including addresses, buildings, settlements, and social tenure rights and uses of the land (Enemark elevation and depth, functional areas, geographical et al., 2014). The scale and accuracy of mapping may names, geology and soils, land cover and land use, vary, for example, according to building density, land land parcels, orthoimagery, physical infrastructure, value, topography, and risk factors. Over time there population distribution, transport and utility networks, will be opportunities for upgrading and improvement water, and a geographic reference framework16. These as data are updated and the cost of equipment falls. data are essential for assessing risks and planning In particular, the rise in remote sensing is enabling the responses to disaster events. They are also needed development of geospatial databases more cheaply 16 The geographic reference framework will generally include the physical infrastructure of conventional geodetic networks as well as modern base stations using satellite navigation/positioning called Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS). 17 For an example of the application of the “fit for purpose” approach in a post-disaster situation see Unger and Chhatkuli (2019). Following an earthquake in Nepal in 2015, 475 settlements needed to be relocated, but many of the victims who required housing and reconstruction grants could not access them because they lacked the necessary documentation. In response to this, the land management authorities in Nepal considered adopting a “fit for purpose” approach to secure the tenure rights of the poor and vulnerable. The report reviews the pilot studies. CHAPTER 2 26 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Box 2.6: India: The Importance of Developing an NSDI to Enhance Resilience India has multiple megacities and a geographic location that makes it vulnerable to a large number of disaster threats, including storms, cyclones, typhoons, storm surges, flooding and landslides, wildfires, earthquakes, tsunamis, extreme temperatures and drought, and epidemic diseases. Recent disaster events have included the 2004 Pacific Tsunami, the 2014 floods in Kashmir with a death toll of over 500, and the 2018 floods in Kerala (see Box 2.10). In 2016, the Prime Minister set out a 10-point agenda for improving the country’s response to disasters, including investing in risk mapping and leveraging technology to enhance the efficiency of disaster risk management efforts. At its core, the approach is designed to shift policy from being relief centric following disaster events to a more proactive, holistic, and integrated approach of strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation, and emergency response. In India, disaster events are managed under the Disaster Management Act (2005), which lays down institutional and coordination mechanisms for effective disaster management at the national, state, district, and local levels. Institutionally, the government of India has created a multi-tiered system consisting of three authorities: ● The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) headed by the Prime Minister ● The State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by the respective Chief Ministers ● The District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) headed by the District Collectors and co-chaired by chairpersons of the local bodies These bodies follow the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) published in 2016, which provides a framework for direction for government agencies on how to manage all phases of the disaster management cycle. In addition, the Department of Science and Technology and Department of Space have established a national SDI joint initiative aimed at developing and maintaining standard digital collections of spatial data, and common solutions for the discovery, access, and use of spatial data in response to needs of diverse user groups. It will also increase awareness and understanding of the concept and benefits of NSDI. Since December 2009, the India Geo Portal has increasingly made the data holdings of various agencies accessible through interoperable geographic information services. Overall, the mainland and geospatial information for resilience policy issues in India can be summarized as: ● The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) provides a framework and direction to the government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle; ● A strong foundation of spatial databases exists, though updates, integration and standardization, and mechanisms for effective dissemination are needed; ● Disaster components are in the process of being integrated into development plans; and ● Spatial data infrastructure (SDI) and disaster management interfaces need to evolve and be strengthened. However, the challenge of ‘the right information at the right time’ remains. In a country like India, it becomes more challenging given the several overlaps of ‘restricted map zones’ and ‘disaster vulnerable areas’. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 27 Box 2.7: Community Resilience Disaster events do not respect administrative or national boundaries. Therefore, the nature of disaster risk management within a government needs to be dynamic, encouraging cooperation from all jurisdictional levels (Emergency Management Australia, 2008). However, managing hazards, risks, and disasters is not a matter just for government. The responsibility also falls to individuals, families, and the community as a whole to ensure that suitable plans are in place and adequate resilience exists within the community (Emergency Management Australia, 2008). Governments, citizens, and the private sector all have roles to play in the effective management of disaster risk. As societal impacts from hazards are escalating, the management of risks needs to be addressed from the local level up (Tate et al., 2010). Communities need to be aware of the responsibility they have in the management of risk events and should know how to manage their exposure and vulnerability to reduce the overall risk. This is even more significant as the intensity and frequency of hazards increases in the coming decades (The World Bank and the United Nations, 2010). The ability of countries to deal with risks can be significantly improved by risk governance and disaster preparedness (Butsch et al., 2016). In the context of disaster prevention, communities and governments must work together to develop strategies to protect the population, prioritize resilient future infrastructure investments, and integrate the mitigation of and adaptation to hazards into long-term planning. than is possible using traditional surveying methods. affected and can draw upon local knowledge. The This may include deriving land use and the location of experience from Haiti and Aceh is that mega-disasters buildings from orthophotos, using LiDAR to produce can destroy local capacity and slow down recovery, information about the characteristics of buildings, and particularly through the deaths of people whose using change detection software to update maps. skills or knowledge are needed in the aftermath. This suggests that land and geospatial data and systems In developing resilient land and geospatial systems, should be backed up remotely and are interoperable certain key lessons may be drawn from the experiences and accessible after disasters to those who need to of large-scale disasters (Ranghieri and Ishiwatari, 2014). use them—in other words, there is a functioning NSDI ● Make recovery plans before disaster events strike, as in place. The outpouring of support from national this can help promote more resilient recovery. One and international bodies and nongovernmental lesson learned from the 2011 Japanese tsunami is organizations after a disaster can overwhelm local that the design of new residential areas could have governments operating with constrained financial and been facilitated had a pre-disaster recovery plan been human resources, requiring management by central in place to select suitable areas in safer locations. government. Contingency plans are needed so that This implies that the land and geospatial systems additional resources and capacity can be drawn in from contain the necessary information and that the elsewhere, for instance, for damage assessment and spatial planning framework exists to enable this. As planning of rebuilding, and to replace casualties. The large-scale disasters tend to reoccur in high risk areas, expertise for this has to be developed before rather pre-disaster recovery planning is both necessary and than after a disaster, so that personnel from areas not cost-effective. at risk, who may be drafted into an affected area, are ● A balance must be struck between central and local familiar with it and have experience of working there. control of resources. Local control helps to make ● Involve community members in planning. There needs recovery more responsive to the needs of those to be a shared vision for recovery and reconstruction CHAPTER 2 28 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems that recognizes local cultures and values and is tsunami, which resulted in meltdown at a nuclear power perceived by the population as legitimate. As the plant. The size and scale of the tsunami was greater experience from Japan shows, there are major than anything that had been expected and planned for, benefits in involving communities which are exposed even though Japan was well prepared for earthquakes to potential disaster events as active participants in and tsunamis, with warning systems and rehearsed measures to mitigate risk, such as regular emergency evacuation and response plans. Relative to the scale of and evacuation drills. the disaster, casualties were low, as effective policies and practices were in place. The tsunami revealed some Coping with Disaster Events weaknesses, including a lack of backup systems and The test of the resilience of land and geospatial systems the loss of land records. The disaster raised important is how they behave when a disaster event strikes, how questions about future mitigation strategies and effective mitigation measures prove to be, or how they the trade-offs between choices. Relocating housing contribute to recovery and reconstruction. to higher land may be safer, but there is limited land available, and this may result in economic losses and the Boxes 2.8 and 2.9 examine how two countries with diminution of lifestyles. well-developed land and geospatial systems—New Zealand and Japan—have coped with disaster events. Effective disaster risk management still eludes many New Zealand experienced two major earthquakes regions and communities, even within developed in Christchurch in 2010 and 2011, each with a force countries. Despite a wide range of available information comparable to the 2010 Haiti earthquake (see Box and resources related to the implementation of risk 1.1), but with only a tiny fraction of the casualties. New management practices, significant problems are faced Zealand has a high level of governance with efficient during disaster events. Even countries with strong and effective policies and implementation, and a low economies, well-established social systems and good level of corruption. It has well-developed geospatial governance can struggle to respond to climate change information and good systems for land and property and natural disasters and fail in attempts to implement registration and valuation. Prior to the earthquakes, effective strategies to address these issues. Further it had effective spatial planning and building control attention and an alternative approach is needed. systems. The government underwrote insurance so that Investment is required in strategies for improving private companies were willing to provide affordable resilience to natural disasters, weather extremes, and cover for buildings and contents in spite of New other climate risks (Revi and Rosenzweig, 2013). These Zealand’s location in an earthquake zone, with the result countries have within their reach resources such as that most households were insured. As Box 2.8 shows, established land administration systems that are known the systems did not work perfectly, and some lessons to be effective in disaster risk management. However, were learned from the Christchurch earthquakes, but how to harness them effectively, optimizing these recovery has been speedier than in Haiti, with the institutions and the information they generate is not economy, property market, and population recovering always clear. As these examples of disaster events in to their pre-earthquake levels. developed countries have illustrated, a holistic approach The Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011 was one of to disaster risk management is required to enhance the most complex disaster events ever experienced in resilience and reduce the vulnerability of stakeholders to modern times. An undersea earthquake triggered a huge disasters (International Federation of Surveyors, 2006). SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 29 Box 2.8: New Zealand’s Response to the Christchurch Earthquakes, 2010–11 On 4 September 2010 Christchurch was struck by a 7.1 Mw earthquake that caused no fatalities; a second earthquake of 6.3 Mw on 22 February 2011 resulted in 185 deaths and over 7,000 casualties. There were 18,000 aftershocks from the first earthquake, including over 34 events of 5 Mw or greater. The Christchurch earthquakes resulted in widespread damage to land, including liquefaction in some areas. Approximately 167,000 homes (90 percent of Christchurch’s housing stock) were damaged, and there was major damage to infrastructure as well. Air quality was affected, and silt and other contaminates were deposited in waterways. Most of Christchurch’s underground pipes and 52 percent of its sealed roads were damaged, at an estimated cost of approximately $1.75 billion. In some areas damage was so severe that the properties could not be fixed without large-scale remediation over entire areas. The government decided that intervention was needed to provide certainty for property owners and insurance companies. Every residential property was classified into two zones: ● Red Zone—land not recommended for continued residential development because repair would be prolonged and uneconomic, or there was an unacceptable risk to life from rock fall or cliff collapse; or ● Green Zone—land with buildings suitable for repairing and rebuilding. The government offered to purchase properties in the Green Zone on a voluntary basis, with remuneration based on 2007/08 property tax assessments less insurance payments received by the owner, and with the owners free to make contents claims from insurance companies. Government offers were higher than post- earthquake values, and similar to pre-earthquake ones. Nearly 800 hectares of land were categorized as Red, often to the relief of owners who could then sell their properties to the government. The government assumed responsibility for maintaining and managing the properties it bought, and for determining the long-term use of the land. Commercial properties in the Red Zone were purchased at 100 percent of their 2007/08 ratable land value, at 100 percent of improvements if insured, and 100 percent of ratable land value with nothing for improvements if uninsured. The government in the latter case would take on responsibility for demolishing and clearing improvements. New Zealand had well-developed land and geospatial systems prior to the Christchurch earthquakes so that it could make informed decisions about in which areas properties could be repaired and in which they should be abandoned. It had provided support for the insurance industry so that most owners had private insurance cover, put in place a valuation infrastructure that enabled compensation to be calculated, and promulgated building codes that minimized earthquake damage and casualties. Post the event, aerial LiDAR surveys were carried out to quantify changes in ground elevations, estimate vertical and horizontal tectonic movements, and determine the spatial distribution of liquefaction. Some aspects were found wanting. Legislation had to be passed and amended to provide suitable powers for the government to act. There were issues in explaining consultations and how the population would be involved in reconstruction decisions, as well as in communicating with individuals. Information about damaged properties was often uncertain; on the upside, this resulted in the creation of a national database of parcels and owners. The compensation offers for commercial properties were challenged legally and required amended legislation and offers. Regeneration planning has taken time to get underway. Source: Greater Christchurch Group (2017). CHAPTER 2 30 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Box 2.9: The Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011 On 11 March 2011 an earthquake of 9 Mw occurred in the Pacific Ocean east of Tohoku. This was followed by a tsunami along 650 kilometers of coast, which washed away entire towns and villages, and flooded 500 square kilometers of land. The tsunami caused a cooling system failure at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plan, resulting in a level 7 nuclear meltdown and the release of radioactive material. There were over 5,000 aftershocks of up to 7.9 Mw. The tsunami destroyed 130,000 buildings, severely damaged 234,000 others, and partially damaged another 726,000. The buildings destroyed released thousands of tons of ozone-destroying and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The tsunami resulted in over 20,000 people killed or missing and over 6,000 injured. More than 470,000 people had to be evacuated and housed in temporary shelters. The economic damage was estimated at around $210 billion. “The Great East Japan Earthquake was the first disaster ever recorded that included an earthquake, a tsunami, a nuclear power plant accident, a power supply failure, and a large-scale disruption of supply chains.” —Ranghieri and Ishiwatari, 2014, p. 2. “The loss of life and property could have been far greater if the country’s policies and practices had been less effective.” —Ranghieri and Ishiwatari, 2014, p. 3. Japan’s structural precautions and strict earthquake building codes proved effective in protecting buildings and people, even though the disaster event exceeded expectations and what had been planned for. Buildings were destroyed or damaged by the tsunami rather than the earthquake. Houses that were relocated to higher ground after previous tsunamis were unharmed, but this was not the case for coastal villages, which depend on their location for their economic activities. Even so, local governments did not effectively regulate land use, leading to excessive development and an increase in population in some coastal areas, where economic development, population growth, and urbanization had increased the vulnerability of residents. Tsunami-prone areas must be ready for recurring disasters; the maintenance of coastal forest greenbelts by communities to mitigate tsunamis had been weakened by changes in society brought about by economic development and urbanization (Ranghieri and Ishiwatari, 2014). The disaster events identified further important weaknesses. There was a lack of real-time information on conditions on the ground and coordination between parties. This required the government to collect information from municipalities and through crowdsourcing. Critical records needed for reconstruction were lost, and some local governments lacked formal backup systems, although land ownership data were restored fairly quickly from other official and private backups. Some municipalities suffered damage to offices or computer servers, resulting in the loss of data and the loss of many experienced staff killed in the disaster, as well as the destruction of emergency centers and hospitals. Twinning arrangements between municipalities in affected and non-affected areas proved to be effective. However, no agency was mandated with authority to regulate voluntary activities, resulting in inappropriate aid in some cases and wasted resources (Bisir, 2014). SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 31 The Importance of Good Governance or permitted development needs to be terminated to mitigate risks from natural hazards, those who Governance is the way in which society is managed and lose property rights can expect fair and prompt how the competing priorities and interests of different compensation. Governments need to deal fairly and groups are reconciled. It is concerned with the processes impartially with individuals and groups so that disaster by which citizens participate in decision making, how mitigation and reconstruction and recovery plans do government is accountable to its citizens, and how not discriminate against or favor certain groups. society obliges its members to observe its rules and laws (Grover et al., 2007). It includes the formal institutions The Aftermath of Disasters: An of government but also informal arrangements. Good Opportunity to Build Back Better governance means that government is well managed, inclusive, and results in desirable outcomes. Good Many emerging and developing economies, by contrast, governance in land and geospatial systems is one of the lack the critical land and geospatial infrastructure central requirements for achieving effective planning needed to plan for disaster events and to enable them to mitigate the impact of natural hazards, and for to improve their resilience to these eventualities. Such reconstruction and recovery when disaster events strike. events may act as a spur to bring about improvements. In such circumstances the reconstruction of what has Governance problems on land are widespread globally been damaged or destroyed is not enough. There is no and have a negative impact on resilience. If land and point in rebuilding poorly constructed informal building geospatial systems are compromised by corruption and that has not withstood a disaster event, or allowing office capture, they will be poorly positioned, either to ongoing deforestation or encroachment on waterways, enable the planning of mitigation measures for potential fire breaks, or evacuation routes which had contributed disaster events or to respond to these events when they to the impact of a previous disaster. occur. Weak governance may mean that land is not used “If restored to pre-disaster standards disaster-affected appropriately to create wealth for the benefit of society, communities would face the same difficulties if exposed and that unsuitable development, which makes a society to another disaster event in the future.” (Mannakkara vulnerable to natural hazards, is not constrained. Planning and Wilkinson, 2014) to mitigate the impact of natural hazards either does not take place or is ineffective. Failings in governance Rather, in line with the Sendai Framework, the make the impact of disasters far worse; at best, weak opportunity must be taken to strengthen disaster risk governance may cause the process of recovery and management by adopting a policy of “Building Back reconstruction to be delayed unnecessarily. Better.” As President Clinton (2006) argued, “Good recovery must leave communities safer by reducing The Voluntary Guidelines for Responsible Governance risks and building resilience.” of Tenure (VGGT)18 provides a summary of how the principles of good governance are applied to the various Building back better is not just a matter of rebuilding aspects of land governance. Good governance means buildings and infrastructure to higher construction relevant policies are formulated and implemented standards so that they are more resilient but must also effectively. For example, if land has to be expropriated involve tackling the factors that undermine the security in order to facilitate plans to respond to disaster events, of livelihoods, such as insecure property rights. It also The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security promotes 18 secure tenure rights and equitable access to land, fisheries, and forests as a means of eradicating hunger and poverty, supporting sustainable development, and enhancing the environment. They were officially endorsed by the Committee on World Food Security on 11 May 2012. Since then implementation has been encouraged by G20, Rio+20, the United Nations General Assembly, and the Francophone Assembly of Parliamentarians. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2801e/i2801e.pdf CHAPTER 2 32 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems means enhancing the community resources needed to 36 times initial costs (World Bank, 2013a). For instance, improve resilience, such as networks to pass on warnings in October 1999 a Category 5 cyclone devastated the and to facilitate emergency drills. Governance will also eastern coastline of India and left 10,000 people dead have to be enhanced so that central, regional, and local and 1.7 million homeless, with losses estimated at governments are more responsive to community needs, US$4.5 billion. In October 2013 a Category 4 cyclone more willing to work together, to share information and hit the same area causing fewer than 40 deaths with resources, and to monitor recovery and reconstruction losses estimated at US$700 million. Between those programs more closely. two events there had been investment in early warning systems, cyclone shelters, evacuation routes and The costs of improving resilience are illustrated in coastal embankments, improved weather forecasting, Table 2.1, which shows that the markups involved are and preparedness simulations, such as storm drills relatively modest. The “building back better premium” involving community and volunteer organizations, and is made up of the cost of quality improvements, plus making use of greater ownership of mobile phones technological modernization, plus relocation to safer (World Bank, 2013a). areas if needed, plus disaster risk reduction standards and multi-year information. In the case of infrastructure, the costs of not building back better are particularly high. Natural shocks are Table 2.1: Building back better factor among the leading causes of infrastructure disruptions. The consequences of failure to invest in resilience go Building Back Sector Better Premium far beyond immediate economic losses arising from destruction of infrastructure and property and the Housing 1.10–1.35 loss of productive capability. Also included are long- Schools 1.10–1.50 lasting impacts, such as on health care and morbidity Hospitals 1.10–1.50 and mortality and loss of educational opportunities if Agriculture/livestock and fisheries 1.10–1.40 children and youths cannot attend schools and training. infrastructure Industrial facilities 1.10–1.40 The benefits of building back better are illustrated in the Commerce and trade 1.10–1.35 program adopted by Kerala in India after the 2018 floods Sources: World Bank (2013a); GFDRR (2010). (see Box 2.10). Although Kerala coped with the aftermath of the disaster, it was realized that weaknesses in its land administration and poor land management controls had Early warning systems of hazard events are notably contributed to the scale of flooding, and that recovery cost effective, typically yielding benefits that are 4 to was hampered by weaknesses in these systems. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 33 Box 2.10: Building Back Better—Kerala after the 2018 Floods Between 1 June and 19 August 2018, the state of Kerala in India experienced its worst floods since 1924, following rainfall that was 42 percent above normal. There were 498 casualties, 5.4 million people (one-sixth of the state’s population) lost assets and property, and 1.4 million were displaced and forced to move temporarily into relief camps. With many areas underwater for more than two weeks, and thousands of major landslides being triggered, 1,259 out of 1,664 villages were affected. The impact of the heavy rainfall in 2018 was aggravated by a number of factors, including: changes in land use and cover; the poor condition of waterways and reservoirs, leading to shrinkage of their carrying capacity; encroachment of settlements onto flood plains; poor agricultural practices  impacting downstream areas; encroachment into bodies of water; sand mining from rivers, water channels, and canals; and poorly controlled urban development. Weaknesses in Kerala’s land and geospatial systems exacerbated the impact of natural events. Kerala suffers from a fragmented system of land records, which are in many cases out of date and vulnerable to destruction. Three hundred seventy-nine of the 983 villages directly impacted by the floods (39 percent) had only historical mapping of land holdings, commonly dating back a century. Land holding maps were grossly out of date and kept in paper and cloth, commonly in unsatisfactory condition. Many maps needed conservation before they could be digitized. Out-of-date and inconsistent land records were an impediment to the relocation and compensation of those who lost their assets and shelter. The poor physical state of many of the records made consulting them problematic, and the courts were clogged with litigation over land disputes. The absence of secure backup continues to leave these records vulnerable to destruction. The state was able to cope with the immediate aftermath of the floods and the necessary relief work but recognized there was a need to go beyond traditional approaches to recovery and reconstruction in order to prepare better for future disasters. It therefore adopted the Rebuild Kerala Initiative, to produce a “more resilient, green, inclusive and vibrant” vision for the future. This involved tackling the root causes of the factors that undermine resilience. Property taxation and land value capture were identified as the means of achieving the necessary revenue. Flooding in urban areas exposed the lack of risk-informed urban planning and approved master plans, a failure to comply with design standards, and uncontrolled encroachment onto water channels and floodplains. Resilience could be improved even further by prioritizing the resurveying and updating of records for villages in the areas most vulnerable to disasters. Records and maps would be fully integrated through a unified on-line Land Information Management System that brings together the Department of Registration’s Deeds, the Department of Revenue’s Record of Rights, and the Survey and Land Records Department’s Field Book through interlinked digital databases. Source: Rebuild Kerala Development Programme: A Resilient Recovery Policy Framework and Action Plan for Shaping Kerala’s Resilient, Risk-Informed Development and Recovery from 2018 Floods, Rebuild Kerala Initiative. CHAPTER 2 34 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems Figure 2.3: The gap between relief and recovery Land and geospatial systems can also support “building better before” the next disaster happens by providing accurate information for resilient building codes, better planning regulations, the safe production of new housing, or the improvement of existing housing stock. All over the developing world, poor families faced with dysfunctional land and housing markets find themselves priced out of formal housing. Thus, the poor find themselves with no option but to trade livability for opportunity—by living in flood-prone, landslide- prone, or other at-risk areas for access to jobs and services. People living in these locations are aware of Source: GFDRR (2010b). the risks, but they have few alternatives for livelihoods. They end up building their own homes, which may be Reconstruction takes time (see Figure 2.3), particularly substandard and often not aligned with building and because of the need to rebuild infrastructure. Both planning codes. In many cases, however, these homes tenure and eligibility for support need to be clarified, could withstand an earthquake or hurricane with a few designs have to be drawn up, contracts awarded, and small improvements.19 Secure land tenure is essential construction work undertaken. One issue is whether to building better before, as the lack of it reduces the transition gap between emergency support and incentives for people living in informal housing to make reconstruction can be shortened by changing the way these improvements to their houses or land. in which reconstruction is organized. In developed Is investing in resilience cost effective? The answer is economies, many households have insurance, so that that the lack of resilience is expensive. A study of power, compensation and the organization of immediate water and sanitation, transport, and telecommunications recovery work is primarily undertaken by insurance infrastructure found that natural disasters caused companies working alongside governments, with loss damage estimated at $18 billion per year to low- and adjustors determining claims and approving payments. middle-income countries, but that more resilient designs In developing economies, few households have would cost only 3 percent more compared with overall insurance, and insurance can only be obtained through investment needs. On average, there is $4 in benefit for government grants and compensation. However, this each $1 invested (Hallegatte, et al., 2019). requires proof of ownership and occupation which may rely on owners producing documents that were lost Investing in improved prevention and mitigation and in when properties were damaged, on land registration speedier recovery not only requires complete and up- that was inadequate before the disaster, or on records to-date land and geospatial information, it also requires damaged or destroyed by the disaster event. In the financial resources. Revenue streams are needed to absence of backup and remote storage, governments fund these, whether paid for from existing sources or have to reach alternative solutions to determine who funded through borrowing. Resilience increases the is eligible for compensation. Box 2.11 illustrates how value of land and property by making the income it the US Federal Emergency Management Agency was generates less risky. Therefore, there is potential for compelled to resolve this problem following Hurricane using property taxes and land value capture devices Maria in Puerto Rico in 2017. to help fund resilience. For example, land owners in https:/ 19 /blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/building-better-next-disaster-how-retrofitting-homes-can-save-lives-and-strengthen- economies SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 35 Box 2.11: Proving Entitlement to Federal Assistance in Puerto Rico On 20 September 2017 Puerto Rico was struck by Hurricane Maria, a Category 5 storm, which caused widespread destruction just two weeks after the island had been struck by Hurricane Irma. Maria left more than half a million homes damaged by the storm and associated flooding. Less than 1 percent of homeowners were insured against damage. The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provided assistance with repairs to damaged homes but was required by law to establish proof of ownership and occupancy. Acceptable documentation in such cases includes a title deed or lease, bill of sale or land installment contract, mortgage payment booklet, property tax receipt or property tax bill, last will and testament (along with a death certificate) naming the applicant heir to the property, and property structure insurance. In the wake of the disaster many homeowners found themselves unable to produce the necessary documentation, either because it had been lost or because they had never had it. The weakness with FEMA’s approach was that it relied on individuals securing documentation under difficult or impossible circumstances, rather than making use of a secure, central record of tenure. Where verification had been destroyed or did not exist, FEMA was obliged to respond by being prepared to accept self-declaration that included the length of time the applicant had lived at the disaster- damaged location and an explanation of circumstances that prevented standard verification. Although this was clearly better than denying assistance to those entitled to aid, it could have been avoided through the use of land administration records such as land registers, cadastral plans, and property tax assessments. Source: FEMA Provides Alternatives for Verifying Proof of Ownership in Puerto Rico, https://www.fema.gov/news-release/2018/03/10/fema- provides-alternatives-verifying-proof-ownership-puerto-rico, accessed 17 May 2019. areas at risk of flooding are being taxed to finance flood Records should be digitized and stored electronically. prevention works, which is a good economic deal as it Such paper or other hard copies that need to be retained enhances the value of their property by reducing the risk as historic records and as backup should be stored in of damage or destruction. Land and geospatial systems purpose built archives, under controlled conditions, can also support and streamline public finances. including temperature, insect, dust, and humidity control, and fire suppression. The buildings in which Protecting the Systems they are housed should be structurally sound, built in accordance with appropriate construction codes and Land and geospatial systems and the data they contain standards, and well maintained. are vulnerable to natural hazards as well as to malicious Organizations with the responsibility for land and human interference. If the necessary data are not geospatial systems need to have business recovery plans available following a disaster event or systems break that set out the responses and recovery measures they down, this impacts on reconstruction and recovery. In should take to avoid or minimize disruption in the event many countries, significant information is kept in paper of a disaster event so that they can continue operations form, including maps, title deeds and land registers, at an acceptable level. They have internal as well as cadastre records of parcels, and registers of state assets. external clients who depend on their information and In the ordinary course of events, such records are processes, and in turn depend on internal and external vulnerable to damage or destruction from light, heat, suppliers. They need to understand how their supply dampness, dust, and fungoid or insect infestation unless chains function so that they can plan for disaster events kept under strictly controlled conditions, which is rarely to result in the minimum possible disruption both to the case. They are also vulnerable to fire, flooding, theft, themselves and to their internal and external clients. and malicious damage, even if no disaster events occur. Information system resilience is more broadly and CHAPTER 2 36 Requirements for Establishing Resilient Land and Geospatial Systems technically defined as the ability of an information system down voice mail, e-mails, a parking fine database, and to continue to: (i) operate under adverse conditions or the system used to pay water bills and property taxes. stress even if in a degraded or debilitated state, while The attackers demanded 13 Bitcoins (about $100,000) maintaining essential operational capabilities; and (ii) to release the systems (New York Times, 22 May 2019). recover to an effective operational posture in a time The city did not pay the ransom but is reported to have frame consistent with mission needs and mandates. spent $18 million on its systems as a result, and five weeks after the event a number of the systems were still Electronic records are also vulnerable to threats, not fully functioning, with bills remaining unsent (CBS including destruction, and need to be backed up Baltimore, 12 June 2019). Protocols are also needed continuously onto secure systems. For instance, in a to prevent employees, particularly corrupt employees region prone to earthquakes, the backup system should or those with a grievance against their employer, from not be located in the same seismic zone. They must also obtaining unauthorized access, making alterations, be protected from hacking, including from hostile states or maliciously destroying records. Employees also and from criminal elements seeking to hold records need to be trained against letting hackers into the ransom. In May 2019, for instance, the city of Baltimore, system through carelessness, such as opening e-mails USA, was subjected to a ransomware attack that took containing malware or using easily guessed passwords. Box 2.12: Sustainable Electronic Land Administration System and Digitization in Lithuania and Korea In Lithuania the Centre of Registers administers the Real Property Cadastre and Register, the Address Register, the Register of Legal Entities, and the country’s mass property valuation system. The Centre has fully automated paperless systems. The Cadastre and Register cover the entire country, and all private properties (more than 6 million in total) are registered to the land registry and recorded in the cadastre maps. The Centre is financed from fees and funds allocated by the Ministry of Justice from the state budget and is a profitable operation that may retain 5 percent of annual profits in a reserve fund. Registering a property in Lithuania is fast and simple. Parties to the transaction do not need to go the Centre of Registers, but go instead to a notary, who sends a property data verification request electronically to the Centre of Registers. The request is cleared by the Centre of Registers in a few hours. Once the request has been cleared and the notary has been notified, he or she can proceed to prepare the sale purchase agreement and register the transaction electronically. Korea has digitalized and unified its land information systems over the last decade to ensure that it has comprehensive data on rights, parcels, and use of land. The Parcel Based Land Information System (PBLIS) and the Land Management Information System (LMIS) were integrated in 2006 as the new Korea Land Information System (KLIS), offering efficient services and easy access for clients. The KLIS became a key pillar of the Republic of Korea’s e-government system, which has been internationally recognized as one of the best information systems globally. KLIS has 35 million parcels, 750,000 digital maps, and a unified One Map that have brought transparency, efficiency, reliability, and better services to Korean citizens, cost effectively. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 37 Box 2.13: Indonesia’s Data Security Arrangements In Indonesia, more than 60 million land records are stored in a database, and millions of records are inserted into the existing data inventory every year. Ensuring data security and disaster recovery is crucial for protection against any data loss, malicious attacks, and unanticipated events, including disaster events.  The Ministry of Agrarian and Spatial Planning/National Land Agency (ATR/BPN) owns its main data storage and has recently established a separate data center to configure remote active-passive replication systems to reduce the vulnerability of data loss, and to ensure the quick recovery of an entire system. The new data center complies with enterprise standards. All mandatory systems for security measures are properly equipped, such as a fire suppression system, video surveillance, security access, a cooling system, and backup batteries, among others. In addition, ATR/BPN has a plan to ensure all backups have at least one offline backup destination in case of severe physical damage to databases by disaster events. This is supported by the World Bank loan operation, Acceleration Program of Agrarian Reform and One Map Policy Implementation (http:/ /projects.worldbank.org/ P160661?lang=en). Threats related to cybersecurity are increasing, potentially jeopardizing the data sensitivity and criticality of services provided by the ATR/BPN. It was discovered that about half a million vulnerability exploits were detected in the most common network services and applications at the ATR/BPN in 2018. ATR/BPN is protecting its systems and data with strong technical defenses and security features and plans to further strengthen its security controls through comprehensive treatments and penetration tests against rapidly evolving cybersecurity risks. Key Takeaways ● Land and geospatial systems play an important part in ● Recovery and reconstruction require up-to-date disaster management activities, though the emphasis information about land rights, the spatial distribution has to be on holistic approaches. Structural measures of people and economic activities, and the ability include spatial planning decisions to ensure that to map and monitor the impact of disaster events developments take place only in suitable places and and recovery activities in real time. Data need to that essential protections such as forests and runoffs be digitized and securely backed up, with systems are not destroyed or encroached upon. protected from hazard events and malicious ● Land and geospatial systems are needed for the interference being able to operate under adverse effective enforcement of policies, particularly conditions and recover to an effective operational controlling development and construction to status in a time frame consistent with the required ensure that zoning and building codes are followed. needs and mandates. Enforcement of regulations and policies is only ● Many low-income countries do not have the quality of possible with good land governance. land management or information systems that enables ● Geospatial information systems are needed to them to respond to a disaster event. Investments in store, manage, and disseminate the geospatial data improving these systems not only improve outcomes essential for assessing risks, planning responses to in human terms but represent good value for money disaster events, and establishing mitigation measures and return on the capital employed. such as insurance. April 22, 2015, after 42 years sleeping, Calbuco Volcano woke up. Photo: gadaian. Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience 39 CHAPTER 3 40 Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Figure 3.1: Developing land and geosatial systems for resilience Resilience Checklist Gap Feedback from Action Plan Country Analysis Stakeholders Gudance Action Plan Pre- and Post-disaster Recommendations Source: Denniz Futalan, Pexels.com. T his chapter is primarily aimed at helping countries Initiating the Process and practitioners develop land and geospatial systems for resilience. It partly reflects the During the initial stages of the process it is findings and lessons learned from the first recommended that land administration and geospatial phase of investigation where nine country case studies information experts are involved. In this context, the were conducted.20 It also draws on lessons learned from guiding tools will (a) facilitate an understanding of the emergency responses and recovery and reconstruction current state of resilience with information obtained activities in countries that have experienced disaster from the questionnaire and (b) help in identifying gaps events, and from countries vulnerable to disaster in the systems utilizing the pre- and post-disaster events that have been seeking to enhance their land recommendations checklist. However, improving and geospatial systems to improve their disaster risk land and geospatial systems for resilience is a multi- management. Central to this is the Land and Geospatial stakeholder/multidisciplinary task. In developing an Information for Resilience Checklist (Annex A), which action plan, it is recommended that a wide variety of is aimed at identifying the strengths and weaknesses key people be involved, and their inputs obtained, of a country’s, region’s, or locality’s land and geospatial ensuring that all necessary information on commitments systems and their contribution to planning for disaster and agreements are captured for use in future mitigation, recovery, and reconstruction. The chapter implementation. also introduces two guiding tools: The Pre- and Post- The guiding tools have been developed to support the Disaster Recommendations and the Guidance for process of improving land and geospatial systems to Action Plan Design and Implementation. The first one effectively produce information and ensure it is utilized lists key recommendations for how land and geospatial to build resilience by helping countries and practitioners information can support pre- and post- disaster needs determine: and actions, and what preconditions are required for this. The second one is a template for developing a ● How resilient land and geospatial systems are to Country Action Plan (Annex B) to enhance capacity and disaster events; resilience. ● To what extent land and geospatial systems are able to contribute support to external applications, such as disaster risk management activities; The case studies were carried out in Australia, Chile, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Tunisia, and Turkey, and they can be found 20 in Annex C. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 41 ● In which areas land and geospatial systems could To help practitioners make an initial background be enhanced to support disaster risk management assessment, a set of illustrative questions was functions; developed to collect essential information, such ● The key land and geospatial organizations and as: key stakeholders and organizations involved in stakeholders involved; and the establishment of land and geospatial systems ● The data, technology, systems, and information to enhance resilience; existing data, technologies, infrastructures that exist within the country. systems, and infrastructure; preconditions for land and geospatial systems for resilience that have not yet Land and Geospatial Information been achieved; and other specific resilience dimensions for Resilience Checklist requiring attention. The checklist is not a “walk through and tick box” operation but is intended to be the start To determine the resilience of land exposed to disaster of a conversation with key stakeholders. The answers events, it is necessary to establish are likely to be nuanced, rather than a straight yes or i. How prepared land and geospatial systems are for no, and one approach to using them would be through disaster events by examining their effectiveness focus groups with discussion facilitated by a moderator. in carrying out the basic functions and operations The questions were arranged in four themes: (1) Hazards, expected of them; Exposure, and Risks; (2) Disaster Risk Management; ii. Whether disaster events have been anticipated and (3) Geospatial Information Access and Fundamental mitigation measures put in place; Data Sets; and (4) Comprehensiveness, Accuracy, iii. How well the systems are able to respond to disaster and Resilience of the Systems. The questions enable events; a country to assess whether its land and geospatial iv. How resilient land and geospatial data are; and systems provide the basis for planning for disaster v. The extent to which the various agencies that need events and risk mitigation and, when disaster events access to land and geospatial data and systems for happen, whether they can generate the data needed risk mitigation, recovery planning, and reconstruction for recovery and reconstruction. The complete checklist are able to do so. can be found in Annex A. CHAPTER 3 42 Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Theme 1 themselves resilient to disaster events and can play Hazards, Exposure, and Risks a role in disaster mitigation planning, recovery, and reconstruction. The type of hazards to which a society In designing land and geospatial systems that contribute is exposed should influence how land and geospatial to disaster resilience, certain questions need to be systems and data are organized to respond to them. addressed: For instance, if the principal hazards are earthquakes, ● What are the most likely disaster events that a country/ tsunamis, or flooding, populations will be displaced and region/community/population is exposed to? will need to be rehoused, at least temporarily, before attempts are made to resettle them on their land ● What are the probabilities of their occurrence? or in safer locations. By contrast, epidemics require ● What are the likely consequences of these events? knowledge of where the population at risk is located ● Which locations are likely to be affected by disaster so that health care can be targeted to those localities. events? Table 3.1 identifies the most common hazards identified The answers to these questions should inform the in nine case study countries. For most of these countries design of land and geospatial systems so that they are flooding and landslides are the most important hazards. Table 3.1: Most common hazard events in the case study countries Nicaragua Indonesia Colombia Australia Nigeria Tunisia Turkey Chile India More common hazard events Earthquakes ● ● ● ● Tsunamis ● ● Volcanic eruptions ● Flooding ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Landslides ● ● ● ● ● ● Hurricanes/typhoons/large storms ● ● ● ● ● Coastal erosion ● Gully erosion ● Sandstorms ● Extreme temperatures ● ● ● ● Drought ● ● ● ● ● Wildfires ● ● ● ● ● Epidemics ● ● Anthropogenic factors* ● * Military insurgency, building collapse, oil/hazardous material spillage/dangerous cargo, bomb explosion SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 43 Theme 2 and community. It is necessary to determine which Disaster Mitigation, Recovery, and Reconstruction level of government has responsibility for disaster Plans risk mitigation and recovery planning. Where multiple agencies or levels of government contribute to disaster Key questions here include: risk and recovery planning, it is important to establish ● Do disaster mitigation, recovery, and reconstruction how these functions are coordinated, what the chain plans exist for the country/region/community? of command looks like, and how the various agencies communicate with each other, including how data are ● Which agency or agencies are responsible for the shared. These agencies and levels of government need plans? to have DRM policies and plans in place, supported by ● What, according to the plans, are the roles and the necessary human, technical, and financial resources. responsibilities of the different agencies? Table 3.2 shows the status of disaster reduction and Disaster risk management takes place at different recovery policies in the case study countries examined levels in countries, including national, regional, local, in this project. Table 3.2: Disaster reduction and recovery policy in the case study countries Australia A national policy exists which directs each state jurisdiction to manage disasters within their own territory up to a certain level of disaster. Chile Information not available. Colombia National policy exists. India The Disaster Management Act 2005 enjoins central and state governments to make provisions for the implementation of disaster management plans. Indonesia The national policy is guided by Law 24/2007 on Disaster Mitigation, which was enacted after two devastating disasters (the earthquake and tsunami in Aceh in 2004, and the earthquake in Yogyakarta in 2006). The extent and severity of disaster determine which governmental level is responsible for the management. Nicaragua A national policy is in place that has guided the development of the National Risk Management Plan (PNGR), a normative instrument for the organization and planning of an adequate management of risk and therefore of development, through the co-direction of the SINAPRED (National System for the Prevention, Mitigation and Response of Disasters). Nigeria The National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP) for the country was drawn up under the auspices of the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), which was established in March 1999. The plan establishes a process and structure for the systematic, coordinated, and effective delivery of federal assistance. Tunisia National policy exists. Turkey National policy exists. CHAPTER 3 44 Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience Theme 3 the responsibility of a particular organization, which is Access to Geospatial Information and Fundamental a specialist in the area and has the capacity to produce Data Sets high quality data and maintain its currency. Secondly, all organizations that need to access the data are able to do Key questions include: so, there are no duplicate data sets as each organization ● What is the status of the national geospatial data relies on the data produced by other bodies, and there policy? is a culture of data sharing. A key precondition for these characteristics is the existence of a NSDI policy and ● Are there laws governing data sharing between public systems, including data standards and data models, and bodies? Do these laws apply to geospatial data? allowance for interoperability through data portals. The ● Is there a portal through which agencies can upload reality is that many countries which are vulnerable to data sets and interactive digital maps? disaster events lack NSDI or may not share sufficient ● Which data sets are currently available through the data. Interoperability is a particular challenge, with most NSDI portal? What is the timetable for adding other of the case study countries reporting that agencies data sets? worked with different land information, or experienced Chapter 2 examined some examples of good practice in information not being shared or recorded to a single geospatial data management. Successful systems have standard. two prime characteristics. Firstly, each type of data is Box 3.1: Fundamental Geospatial Data Themes An important aspect of NSDI is the type of data that needs to be available. The United Nations Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM) agreed at its seventh session21 on the minimum set of global fundamental geospatial data themes that will need to be organized, planned, acquired, integrated, managed, maintained, curated, published, and archived. The 14 Global Fundamental Geospatial Data Themes are: Addresses Buildings and Elevation and Functional Geographical settlements depth areas names Geology Global Geodetic Land cover Land Orthoimagery and soils Reference Frame and land use parcels Physical Population Transport Water infrastructure distribution networks http:/ 21 /ggim.un.org/meetings/GGIM-committee/8th-Session/documents/E-C20-2018-7-Add_1-Global-fundamental-geospatial-data-themes. pdf SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 45 Theme 4 ● The efficiency of land use planning and development Comprehensiveness, Accuracy, and Resilience of the controls, and their ability to cope with urban growth. Systems Are there accurate records of the uses to which properties are put? One of the key functions of land and geospatial ● The comprehensiveness of records of public lands. systems is to enable populations affected by disaster events to recover their homes and livelihoods so that ● The extent to which information in land registries or reconstruction can proceed. It is therefore essential cadastres is up to date and reflects the reality on the that a land administration systems accurately records ground. land and property rights. The key areas in which ● The quality of property valuations and the efficiency data are needed include: ownership, property rights and equity of expropriation processes and the fairness and obligations, occupancy, valuations, spatial and of compensation. development plans, public building, and emergency Land and geospatial information is only of value in services and civil defense. The questions that need to recovery and reconstruction if it can be accessed after a be addressed on land information include: disaster event. This requires that databases can survive ● Which agencies are responsible for collecting and disaster events and remain accessible to users. Key maintaining data on land tenure? questions include: ● To what extent do land records comprehensively ● Is there a system in place that supports the capture, record land rights? Do they legally recognize and management, and maintenance of land and geospatial include customary as well as formal tenures? data? ● What proportion of the land and parcels are formally ● Are data digitized and stored in a standardized way? registered? Are there differences between urban and ● Are there copies of databases stored remotely or in rural areas? the cloud (redundancy)? The World Bank’s Land Governance Assessment ● Are data regularly backed up? Framework (LGAF) provides a tried and tested method ● Are IT systems protected from unauthorized access of collecting data that enables a country to assess the and alteration, hacking, malware, and ransomware? state of its land and property data (Deininger et al., 2012; World Bank, 2012; World Bank, 2013b). The framework’s approach is to develop a consensus view of the state of play rather than this being scored by experts Pre- and Post-Disaster Recommendations coming from outside the country, or local practitioners In order to facilitate dialogue with key stakeholders who may not have the international perspective to involved in disaster management activities, and to calibrate their country’s performance accurately. The quickly identify gaps between the current and desirable main aspects of land and property data of relevance to status of land and geospatial systems for resilience, a disaster risk management and recovery planning include series of recommendations are presented as a checklist. the following: These were developed through theory and practice, ● Whether and how individual and customary land drawing on expert knowledge from academics and tenure rights are legally recognized and protected. practitioners in the field of disaster management, Do the records include customary as well as formal land administration, and geospatial infrastructure, as tenures? Do they record land rights of women, well as data and experiences captured through case indigenous peoples, and ethnic, religious, and studies in a variety of countries that had experienced linguistic minorities? significant disaster events. The recommendations CHAPTER 3 46 Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience outline how land and geospatial systems can support Deployment of a National Spatial Data Infrastructure pre- and post-disaster needs and actions. They detail allows the sharing of spatial data between institutions the preconditions required for this to be achieved and and stakeholders, so that those who need relevant identify key areas for land and geospatial organizations data have access to it. It provides a “one-stop shop” to focus on to enhance the resilience of their systems. for post-disaster information needs and acts as The aim is to highlight the importance of developing a fundamental platform for all stages of disaster robust and sustainable land and geospatial systems that management. Having a functioning NSDI can facilitate can support disaster risk management activities. The discovering, obtaining, and utilizing alternative and recommendations fall into three groups: supplementary land and geospatial data where information resources are limited, or where primary ● Formation and deployment; systems have been damaged. ● Standardization and interoperability; and ● Currency and timeliness. Standardization and interoperability refers to the Three preconditions for each category define attributes capability for information and services to be exchanged of healthy and resilient land and geospatial systems. between various land and geospatial systems in order The preconditions act as a guide for a rapid, at-a- to improve operational efficiencies in pre- and post- glance assessment of the existing or proposed land disaster situations and to achieve cost savings through administration and geospatial systems. the elimination of duplication. The standardization of land administration and spatial information, with The formation and deployment category is concerned enhancement of interoperability, makes it easier to with the establishment of functioning, secure, and integrate systems and achieve a sustained and consistent stable systems of land and geospatial information. The flow of information across different institutions and preconditions in this category ensure the availability stakeholders. The following standards aid in the flow of and accessibility of the minimum information needed information: to protect the rights of landowners and land users and provide decision makers with the information needed ● Use of international standards in the creation after a disaster to enable critical time-constrained of digital databases. This precondition is for the decisions. The following preconditions should be met adoption of international spatial information and to ensure that effective land and geospatial systems service standards such as ISO 19115, ISO 19119, are in place and are likely to remain operational in post- INSPIRE, or OGC, as well as widely accepted disaster situations. geospatial data models and protocols in the design and development of the land and geospatial systems. ● Converting paper cadastral and land records to Fulfilling this precondition significantly improves data a digital format. If a cadastre and land registry discovery capabilities and effective data and service system does not exist, then a digital system must be sharing between multiple stakeholders and systems. developed from scratch. ● The development of appropriate legal regulations ● Making regular backups of digital databases. This and a culture of publicly sharing data. Establishing ensures that digital land records and geospatial data can the legal grounds for sharing information across be restored rapidly should a system crash or the data the various institutions and stakeholders at all local be corrupted after a disaster. It also guards against any and national levels is the backbone of acceptance accidental or malicious loss or erasure and guarantees and support for opening data and information. The that the continuity and availability of land and geospatial development of an open system like this, backed up systems is not compromised by data loss. by legal regulations and government policies, can ● Implementing a National Spatial Data Infrastructure. help all the institutions involved in the creation and SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 47 management of land and geospatial information bidirectional flows of information between the public embrace the culture of data sharing and reuse. This and the authorities. This precondition can benefit precondition ensures that in case of disaster or loss from the knowledge of local people in updating land of data, alternative sources of vital information are administration and spatial information databases, accessible and reusable by authorities and the public thus preventing land conflicts and helping in conflict without permissions or approvals. resolution. ● Availability of alternative communication and information sharing channels. The availability The currency and timeliness of information is a constant of alternative communication and information requirement of land and geospatial systems. Outdated sharing channels such as social media and media cadastre and land registry information can lead to major sharing platforms, coupled with robust and resilient land conflicts, especially after disasters, when physical communication networks such as mobile or satellite indicators of land boundaries are likely to be destroyed broadband, can help to establish interaction and or altered. Routine land registry data collections and the Figure 3.2: Pre- and post-disaster recommendations for land and geospatial information for resilience Precondition Post-disaster action • To prevent data loss and allow quick recovery of ➀ Converting paper cadastarl and land recors to a digital format databases • To enable decission-makers and emergency Formation and deployment personnel to identify the source and nature of ➁ Making regular backups of digital land databses problems • To have access to alternative and multiple information sources ➂ Implementing a National Spatial • To protect the rights and land tenure of local Data Infrastrcture (NSDI) communities ➃ Use of international standards in creation of digital databases • To (re-)establish communications between different Standarization and emergency units interoperability • To help in finding and using other national and ➄ Legal regulation and culture of publicly sharing data international information resources • To enable the development of new tools and applications ➅ Availability of alternative communication and information sharing channels • To create a two-way flow of information between people and emergency personnel Establish a geodatic reference ➆ compatible with global positioining system • To update land databses and related information Currency and • To assist in the collection of the necessary field data timelines ➇ Regular and persistent updating of digital land databases • To conduct rapid damage assessment and inspection report • To identify lands for immediate shelters and ➈ On-demand availability of advanced surveying and data collection tools temporary settlements CHAPTER 3 48 Developing Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience continuous updating of spatial information should be Plan Template has been developed (see Annex B). The considered an important resilience factor for land and template guides the development of the elements geospatial systems. They include the following: required to address gaps in existing land and geospatial systems and ensure that the commitments agreed upon ● Establishment of a geodetic reference system that are documented. The Action Plan Template is organized is compatible with the global positioning systems. into four components: Countries should establish high-precision geodetic reference systems (e.g., ITRF-compatible datum) ● Introduction: An explanation of the national and which are closely aligned with global positioning local context, setting out why land and geospatial systems. This allows for the speedy updating of land information for resilience is important for the country. and geospatial information using high precision GNSS ● Government Efforts to Date: A brief account of key technologies and equipment. government initiatives to date aimed at integrating ● Regular and continuous updating of digital land land and geospatial systems with disaster risk databases. The continuous updating of digital management processes. This section should explain databases is essential to minimize the gap between how the proposed action plan builds on any previous real world conditions and digital records. Regular and plans (if relevant) and related efforts to enhance land continuous updating and the backing up of land and and geospatial information for resilience. geospatial information ensure quick and efficient ● Action Plan: A description of the action plan data and systems recovery after a disaster event. development process, highlighting collaboration ● On-demand availability of advanced surveying and between stakeholders from the range of organizations data collection tools. The availability of advanced and disciplines. surveying equipment wireless sensor network (WSN) ● Action Item Guide: The action items to be technology and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) developed respond to gaps or areas highlighted for provides decision makers with the ability to collect attention to improve land and geospatial systems the information required for establishing situational for resilience. Each action item must be specific, awareness after a disaster event. These technologies clear, and succinct. The Action Item Guide requires are invaluable for updating land and geospatial input from stakeholders to develop actions that systems in a timely and efficient manner following a address the problems identified. The action item disaster event. descriptions should be developed in consultation with stakeholders, as they clarify the intentions of Guidance for Action Plan Design and the action and the agencies and actors involved. Key Implementation questions for the Action Item Guide include: The guiding tools presented above facilitate What is the problem that the action item will understanding of the current state of land and geospatial address? Describe the social, economic, political, systems preparedness in a country, region, or locality. or environmental problem to be addressed by the The output of each tool contributes to improving the action item. Where possible include baseline data overall resilience of land and geospatial information and contextual facts. and its contribution to disaster risk management. The What is the main objective or strategic goal to be next step of the process is to leverage these outputs to addressed by the action item? Describe the specific develop an Action Plan that provides actions detailing dimension or strategic goal that the action item is a how land and geospatial information can be utilized to response to. improve disaster risk management activities. What is the action item? Describe what the action To facilitate the development of this plan, an Action item entails, its expected results, the timescale, and SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 49 overall objective. preparing the Context Report, the primary output from How will the action item contribute to solving the Country Case Study Template, which presents the problem? Describe how the action item will background information and an overall understanding contribute to solving the problem or changing of the land and geospatial arrangements within a practice in a way that tackles the problem. Explain specific country context. how the action item will be implemented. A clear ● Determine the extent to which conditions of the Pre- description should be provided of the milestones and Post- Disaster Recommendations for Land and and how they will achieve what the action items Geospatial Information for Resilience are met. sets out to do, and how obtaining the expected ● Analyze the results of the Land and Geospatial results will contribute to solving the problem. Information Checklist for Resilience to determine Interdisciplinary and interagency collaboration is a the overall resilience and the elements identified as fundamental requirement for developing an action plan requiring attention. that has a robust implementation strategy. Input from ● Host a workshop to develop a Country Action Plan the different stakeholders provides rigor to the plan for improving land and geospatial information for and generates commitment for its implementation. resilience. The attendees at the workshop should The Action Plan Template is a useful tool to produce a include all relevant stakeholders. The outputs from formally documented plan. It is intended that the plan the Land and Geospatial Information Checklist should be developed during a workshop with stakeholders serve as supporting documentation to facilitate the from land, geospatial, and disaster risk management completion of the Country Action Plan Template. backgrounds. Elements of the action plan itself and ● Once the Country Action Plan is complete, details action items that address problem areas will be of what actions are to take place, who is to be generated, discussed, and agreed upon by all relevant responsible for implementing them, and when the parties. actions will begin and be completed are documented. Success of the process hinges on each stakeholder The recommended process for developing an action and organization taking responsibility for their plan is as follows: assigned actions and completing the action. The ● Identify and engage key stakeholders including Country Action Plan should be regularly reviewed land administration and geospatial experts, disaster and updated to reflect improvements made, any risk management practitioners, and planning and slippages in implementation, and new issues arising, environmental specialists, among others. Many of and to document the overall impact on the land and these stakeholders can be identified in the course of geospatial information for resilience of the country. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 51 Conclusions 51 52 CONCLUSIONS D isasters happen. There is nothing humanity can agencies who need information to access it and for do to prevent earthquakes, tsunamis, or volcanic databases to be maintained by those with the expertise eruptions from occurring, and even disasters and capacity to do so. Geospatial data that are regularly with a human cause may strike suddenly and without and frequently updated provide the most reliable warning. However, communities and populations can basis for resilience monitoring and disaster responses. be made more resilient in the face of disaster through However, essential data management policies, practices, the identification of risks and the potential impacts of integration, and analytical capacities are currently disaster events, through measures to prevent activities limited. Moving information to comprehensive national that magnify the effects of a hazard event and to geospatial information systems, and joint coordination mitigate its consequences, and through planning for and sharing, exchanging, or servicing platforms that are recovery and reconstruction before disaster strikes. up to date, will help take resilience to the next level. Resilience is the ability of communities and societies Comprehensive and resilient land and geospatial systems to absorb, accommodate, and recover from the secure the quick recovery of economic activities, help effects of a disaster in a timely and efficient manner. to minimize the value of losses and disruptions, and Resilience requires reliable land administration provide appropriate levels of compensation and required systems and authoritative geospatial information. Land investment to restore activities. Building resilience into administration systems provide an important repository communities and populations is cost effective. For of pre-disaster land use, property assets, and land relatively small investments infrastructure can be made occupancy, which provides the basis for estimating more resilient and therefore less prone to disruption damage, loss, and economic impact, as well as eligibility from hazard events. for support, return, or compensation. The more secure property rights are, the less vulnerable land users are Land administration systems, NSDI, and resilience cannot from eviction or loss of livelihoods in the case of a be considered in isolation from land use management as disaster. They provide for populations displaced by a the latter influences growth patterns and investments disaster to return to their homes, farms, and businesses that can be undertaken to promote development in a and start the process of reconstruction and recovery. risk-and-disaster-sensitive manner. There is an ample Secure tenure can increase investments by their global knowledge of land use management, land use owners in resilience for dwellings and other buildings planning, urbanization, and development control and enable owners to raise finances to do so secured policies that can mitigate the impact of disaster events, against their properties. Comprehensive land records but large gaps in their implementation exist in most and information about land and buildings lead to an developing contexts. Reducing disaster risk through improved understanding of risks and potential losses. land use management requires inputs from various Land use planning can direct housing and businesses disciplines and across different stakeholders, and, above to areas of low hazard exposure and away from areas all, it requires good data and information on physical, of high risk. It can prevent developments that increase socioeconomic, and political dimensions of land. vulnerability, such as those on insecure hillsides or Certain areas are prone to disasters, for instance, as they floodplains. Development control can ensure that are flood prone, lie in earthquake zones, or are located buildings comply with construction standards, further near volcanoes. There are often good reasons why reducing their vulnerability to disasters. people choose to live in such places, such as fertility Geospatial information systems provide essential of the soil, but it does mean that many areas where information for all phases of Disaster Risk Management disasters strike are likely to experience repeated events. phases, from disaster prediction to post-disaster Buildings, infrastructure, administrative systems, or recovery and restoration. An effective NSDI enables databases damaged or destroyed by a disaster event will SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 53 be impacted again by the next disaster unless they are administration systems should be capable of recovering made more resilient. quickly after a disaster so that they are able to guide recovery and reconstruction. Improving the resilience Resilience cannot prevent natural disasters from of land administration systems and NSDI requires occurring but can mitigate the consequences and addressing the security risks of systems and on-the- enable recovery to take place more quickly. The only ground emergency response data and services. The sensible course of action is to build back better so data and services also need to be accessible to make an that the replacement structures are more resilient and, impact. Spatial data services cannot be compromised therefore, stand a greater chance of surviving the next by excessive secrecy requirements and so fail to provide disaster event. Building back better is not just about required land and geospatial information for disaster risk constructing more resilient buildings and infrastructure management and during recovery and reconstruction but is also about how livelihoods are protected so that a population can recover the means to support itself after once a disaster event takes place. a disaster event. This cannot happen unless property Improving land and geospatial systems for resilience rights are protected. Protecting property rights means starts with a desire from the community for a better protecting the rights of surviving dependents, including, approach to managing land. In the context of disasters, disproportionately, minorities, women, and children. specific events often highlight the need for a change or System resilience cannot be achieved without outline situations where significant problems arise. Land appropriate resources and capacity. This means and geospatial information underpin the resilience of developing appropriate sources of revenue that are communities, cities, and countries to better withstand capable of supporting land and geospatial information the shocks of disasters and recover more quickly. systems, prevention work to mitigate the impact of Reliable land administration systems and authoritative disaster events, and preparations for recovery and NSDI are fundamental to resilience and building back reconstruction when disaster events occur. One of better, providing better tools to anticipate, plan, and the groups who are among the principal beneficiaries respond to the impacts of disasters. of improved resilience and reduction in damages and But decision makers and stakeholders need to work losses when disaster events strike are property owners, hard to ensure that all of this information leads to the value of whose assets is reduced by risk of loss but effective action. This involves developing better enhanced by improved resilience. They can contribute integration strategies across organizations at all toward the costs of improved resilience through jurisdictional levels so that information can be utilized property taxation and value capture tools which recoup where it can benefit the larger community. It also some of the benefits they gain from improved resilience. means developing ways of encouraging participation in Such measures also require well-developed land and the establishment and improvement in wider resilience geospatial systems to function effectively. activities. Finally, it means better tracking of outcomes Land and geospatial systems are of no use in disasters to keep organizations and stakeholders accountable unless the systems themselves are resilient so that data for their promised actions so improvements can be and access to data are not lost in a disaster event. 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Implementation Completion and Results Report (TF-055353) on a Proposed Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Aceh and North Sumatra Grant in the Amount of US$28.50 Million to the Republic of Indonesia for the Reconstruction of Aceh Land Administration System Project, The World Bank, Washington DC. Source: https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/innovation-meaningless-catchword-or-something-more-useful. Photo: World Bank. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 59 ANNEX A Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist Guidance: There are different possible approaches to completing the assessment. It is recommended that this is undertaken by a representative group drawn from agencies and stakeholders guided by an expert moderator. The draft assessment can then be validated using focus groups comprising the various stakeholders and agencies at national, regional, local, and community levels. Country: If the assessment is for a subnational area, region, or locality, identify the area: Date: Author(s): How was the assessment compiled? ANNEX A 60 Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist SECTION A Hazards, Exposure, and Risks What are the principal disaster events to which your Do the agencies responsible for disaster mitigation, country/region/community is exposed? recovery, and reconstruction plans have access to data sets for: What research has been done into how likely specific disaster events are? a. Buildings (residential, commercial and industrial)? b. Population? Have the probabilities of different magnitudes of impact c. Major infrastructure (roads, bridges, airports, of each type of disaster event been assessed? ports, railways, navigable waterways, irrigation and Have risk maps for the different hazards been produced? drainage channels, and water supply, sewerage, electricity, gas, and telecommunications networks)? Has the assessment of the likelihood of disaster events d. Major crops, fisheries, and commercial forestry? occurring drawn on the historical record of such events? e. Public services and facilities (e.g., schools, clinics, If so, over what time period has the historical record surgeries, hospitals, care and nursing homes, offices been studied? used by public bodies and agencies, vehicle and (Remember that natural hazard events tend to reoccur in equipment depots)? the same places. What appears as a long time in human Have the data sets been quantified, digitized, mapped, history is very short in geological terms. For events like and field verified? earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions, it will be Is this access of digital data via a portal? necessary to explore the geological record). Have the data sets and maps been used to assess the Has a historical hazard catalogue of disaster events likely financial, economic, and social impacts of disaster been compiled? events on: Has a historical loss database been compiled for major a. Population? disaster events? b. Housing stock? Have the geographical distributions of losses from c. Business and commerce? major disaster events been plotted? d. Farming, forestry, and fishing? e. Public services and facilities? Have risk profiles of the frequency of hazard events and f. Major infrastructure (roads, bridges, airports, their associated economic, financial, and social losses ports, railways, navigable waterways, irrigation and been compiled? drainage channels)? Have the likely impacts of potential disaster events g. Utility networks (water, sewerage, electricity, gas been mapped? If so, in what detail and resolution? and telecommunications)? SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 61 SECTION B Disaster Risk Management Do disaster mitigation, recovery, and reconstruction Does each agency have an effective business recovery plans exist for your country/region/community? plan that is regularly tested? Which agency or agencies are responsible for the plans? What are the roles and responsibilities of the different What is the legal status of the plans? levels of government? National, regional, local, community levels. Are the plans concerned with emergency responses to disaster events or do they also include plans for: Does each of the tiers of government have the capacity to fulfill these roles and responsibilities? Identify the a. Disaster mitigation and prevention? areas where capacity needs to be enhanced. b. Disaster recovery? c. Reconstruction following a disaster event? Does each of the tiers of government understand what its roles and responsibilities are and have plans and What financial and human resources have been systems in place to enable them to discharge these? allocated to the plans? When was the capacity to fulfil these last tested? Are How frequently are the plans updated? their roles regularly rehearsed? If so, what was the date What was date of the most recent update? of the last rehearsal or testing? How frequently are the plans tested? Does each government body have an effective business recovery plan that is regularly tested? What was the date when the plans were last tested? What roles and responsibilities are assigned to the What are the roles and responsibilities of the different following agencies? agencies according to the plans? a. The national mapping agency Do the agencies have the human and technical capacity b. Land registry and cadastre to fulfil these roles and responsibilities? Identify the c. Valuation and property tax administration areas where capacity needs to be enhanced. d. Spatial planning and development control Does each of the agencies understand what its roles e. Building approval and control and responsibilities are and have plans and systems in f. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries management. place to enable them to discharge these? When was Does each of these bodies have the human and the capacity to fulfill these last tested? Are their roles technical capacity to fulfill their assigned roles and regularly rehearsed? If so, what was the date of the last responsibilities? Identify the areas where capacity rehearsal or testing? needs to be enhanced. ANNEX A 62 Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist SECTION C Geospatial Information Access and Fundamental Data Sets Is there a national geospatial information policy or How well developed is the culture of data sharing strategy for the country? between agencies and also between different levels of government? Does the policy include: What are the principal constraints on agencies using i. Legal issues? data sets via the NSDI portal? Are there human or ii. Financial issues? technical capacity constraints? iii. Institutional arrangements? Has the country adopted data standards? Are these iv. Capacity building? standards compatible with ISO standards? v. Standards and data management? vi. Engagement with stakeholders? Has metadata been defined for geospatial information? vii. Communications? Is this consistently applied? viii. Applications? Is there a formal street addressing system and what What is the status of the national geospatial information format/s (standard) does it take? Does this include policy? Is it endorsed by the government? Are its addresses and textual descriptions of locations? Is it provisions enshrined in law? used by all agencies and tiers of government? What Are there clear objectives for the national geospatial body is responsible for maintaining the data set of information strategy and a roadmap for achieving them? addresses and localities? To what extent have the objectives for the national How well developed is the country’s e-government geospatial information strategy been realized? Identify policies? What are the policies for the migration of data the areas where the implementation of the strategy is and public services on-line? How do the e-government incomplete. policies affect disaster mitigation, recovery, and reconstruction planning? Is there a National Spatial Data Infrastructure Policy for the country? If so, which body is responsible for it? What is the government’s policy toward open data? What are the policies toward the licensing of and Is there a portal through which agencies can upload charging for access to data? How do the open data data sets and interactive digital maps? policies affect disaster mitigation, recovery, and Is there a portal through which agencies can access reconstruction planning? data sets and interactive digital maps uploaded by other How are agencies who make available data sets through bodies? the NSDI portal compensated for the costs of creating Are there laws governing data sharing between public and maintaining the currency of their data sets? bodies? Do these laws apply to geospatial data? What is the geographic referencing system (datum and Are there any legal requirements for data concerning coordinates), including elevation, being used? Is there an hazard events or disaster mitigation, recovery, and existing geodetic network? What format does it take? reconstruction plans to be publicly available? What is the accuracy level/s? What is the geodetic What data sets are currently available through the NSDI datum? Is the datum on WGS-84 (or other ITRF)? portal? What is the timetable for adding other data sets? What is the vertical (elevation) system? What datum? What are the principal constraints on adding data sets to What orders of accuracy? the NSDI portal? Are there human or technical capacity For each of the following geospatial information data constraints? sets, answer the following questions: SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 63 SECTION C (Continuation) i. The organization responsible for compiling and ix. The charges or fees that are levied for their use. maintaining them. x. Whether they are freely available for use in disaster ii. How frequently they are updated and when they mitigation, recovery, and reconstruction planning. were last updated. Do fundamental data sets exist? iii. Whether the organization has access to advanced Geospatial data: Addresses | Buildings and settlements surveying equipment such as wireless sensor | Elevation and depth | Functional areas | Geographical networks or unmanned aerial vehicles to collect names | Geology and soils | Land cover and land use information. | Land parcels | Orthoimagery | Physical infrastructure iv. The extent to which the data sets have been | Population distribution | Transport networks | Water digitized. | Geographic Reference Framework (Geodetic Network/ v. How the data sets are backed up and how frequently CORS this is done. vi. Whether the data sets are available as interactive Land data: Ownership | Property rights and obligations digital maps. | Occupancy | Valuations | Spatial and development vii. Whether the data sets are available through the plans | Public buildings and public services | Emergency NSDI portal. services and civil defense viii. The licensing arrangements that enable other bodies to use them. ANNEX A 64 Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience Checklist SECTION D Comprehensiveness, Accuracy, and Resilience of the Systems Which bodies are responsible for collecting and Which bodies are responsible for valuing properties for maintaining data on land tenure? property taxation and expropriation? Which bodies are responsible for collecting and Are the market values of properties known and maintaining data on parcel and official administrative recorded? boundaries? Are there clear, transparent, and participative processes To what extent do land records comprehensively record for the expropriation of land? Is the compensation for land rights? Do they legally recognize and include land that is expropriated fair and timely? customary as well as formal tenures? Are individual Is data recorded in a standardized way so that it can be and collective or communal tenure rights recognized stored and retrieved using computers? and recorded? Do they record land rights of women, Have maps been digitized? Are textual data and indigenous peoples, and ethnic, religious, and linguistic statistical data stored in digital form? minorities? Are there differences between urban and rural areas? What arrangements have been made for databases to be backed up? Are the backup systems in a remote and Do the land records accurately reflect the situation on secure location? the ground? How up to date is the information on land tenure and boundaries? Are there differences between What testing takes place to check whether backup urban and rural areas? systems are accessible in the event of a disaster event? What proportion of the land and parcels are formally Are IT systems protected from unauthorized access and registered? What proportion of land transfers are alteration, hacking, malware, and ransomware? formally registered? Are there differences between Are paper records needed for reference and historical urban and rural areas? purposes stored in ways that protect them from Are there accurate records of public land and property so deterioration as a result of temperature, dampness, or that their extent is known, their boundaries delineated, infestation, and from destruction through fire, floods, and the property rights of public bodies protected? or building collapse? Which bodies are responsible for spatial planning and Have arrangements been made for the land and development? geospatial systems to draw on personnel from other districts or regions in the event of an emergency? Have Is the land use planning and development system able those persons received adequate training and briefing, to cope with urban growth or is it being overwhelmed and are they familiar with the tasks they would have to by informal development and construction? undertake? Are there accurate records of the uses to which properties are put? SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 65 ANNEX B Country Action Plan Template Country Name Country Action Plan 201X–202X 1. Introduction Briefly explain the national and local context by discussing why Land and Geospatial Systems for Resilience are important for the country. 2. Government Initiatives to Date Provide a brief narrative of key government initiatives to date that work toward integrating national land and geospatial information with disaster risk management processes. This section should explain how the new action plan builds on any previous action plans (if relevant) and related efforts to strengthen Land and Geospatial Information for Resilience. 3. Country Action Plan (CAP) Development Process Describe the CAP development process, highlighting how you collaborated with stakeholders from a range of organizations and disciplines. ANNEX B 66 Country Action Plan Template 4. Action Items Use the template below for each action item in the plan. Each action item must be specific, clear, and succinct. Action Item Template Action item start and end date (e.g., 30 October 2018–30 October 2020). Lead implementing agency Other involved agencies/ actors Action item described What is the problem • Describe the social, economic, political, or environmental problem addressed by that the action item will the action item. When available include baseline data and contextual facts. address? What is the main objective or strategic goal to be addressed by the action item? What is the action item? • Describe what the action item entails, its expected results, and overall objective. How will the action item • Describe how the action item will contribute to solve the problem or change contribute to solve the government practice toward tackling the problem. problem? In order to do this, explain how the action item will be implemented. You should provide a clear description of how the milestones listed below will achieve what the action item sets out to do and obtain the expected results that will contribute to solving the problem. Additional information Use this optional space to provide other useful information, for example: • Action item budget • Link to other government programs or initiatives • Link to other relevant plans • Link to Sustainable Development Goals Milestone activity with a verifiable deliverable Start date End date SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 67 Comments for filling the template: ● Action plans should be written in plain language with ● Measurable: It is possible to verify the fulfilment of minimal use of jargon or technical terms. the action item. Where action items have multiple ● Focus on the quality of action items rather than subitems, they are broken into clear, measurable quantity. Between 5 and 15 ambitious action items is milestones. Establish clear definitions to help you ideal. Where multiple action items address the same measure if you’re reaching your goal. policy issue, they should be grouped as individual ● Answerable: The action item clearly specifies the main milestones under a single action item. implementing agency, the coordinating or supporting ● The expected length of each action item is agencies where relevant, and if necessary, other civil approximately half a page. A few paragraphs that society, multilateral, or private sector partners who clearly state the specific action or reform the have a role in implementing the action item. organizations are going to undertake should suffice. ● Realistic: The action item should be able to be met Successful action plans have individual action items with the resources available and within the assigned that conform to the SMART principles: time frame. Be sure to consider obstacles that may need to be overcome. ● Specific: The action item precisely describes the ● Time bound: The action item clearly states the problem it is trying to solve, the activities it comprises, date when it will be completed, as well as dates and the expected outcomes. State exactly what you for milestones, benchmarks, and any other want to achieve. Can you break a larger task down into deadline. smaller items? ANNEX C 68 Country Case Studies ANNEX C Country Case Studies Australia KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Australia’s most common Total area: 7,692,024 km2  hazard events are flooding, Population: 23.40 million  cyclones, wildfires, and GDP (PPP): 1.313 trillion  86% Urban drought. GINI: 44.9 (2017)  Government: Federal   STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations.  Managed at each individual Interoperability Challenges.  At the national level there jurisdictional level—each state or territory has a is little to no coordination between the jurisdictions, land organization or department overseeing land and the information is not recorded in a standard way administration.  There is a national coordinating and spatially, so interoperability is a challenge at the national information sharing body called the Australian New level.  Zealand Land Information Council (ANZLIC, also known Tenure Types. Crown (23%) and freehold (77%).  as the Spatial Information Council) and its technical committee, the Intergovernmental Committee on Cadastral Data. Around 95% of cadastral parcels are Surveying and Mapping (ICSM). mapped and registered.  Information Management.  In the state of Victoria, the Cadastral Scale. Cadastral mapping is typically at scales official coordinating body for the management of land of 1:2000–4000 in urban areas and 1:10,000–50,000 information is Land Use Victoria.   in rural areas.    SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 69 (Continuation) Australia STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS  Governing Organizations Interoperability Challenges.  The national policy promotes interoperability;  however, the adoption is at ● Each state land and geospatial organization  the discretion of each jurisdiction.  ● ANZLIC—Australia and New Zealand Land Information Council  Key National Data Sets.  orthophoto, administrative boundaries, addresses, cadastre, hydrology, elevation/ ● ICSM—ANZLIC Committee on Surveying and topography,  transport network, geographic names, Mapping  statistical units, buildings, land cover/land use, points of SDI.  Australia Spatial Data Infrastructure (ASDI) to interest, public services.  which all jurisdictions contribute, and in addition each jurisdiction maintains their own SDI.  Standards.  Yes, geospatial information policies are in place at the national  and jurisdictional levels (e.g., Victorian Spatial Information Strategy and Victorian Spatial Information Framework).   LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE  DRR Policy.  Yes, national policy, which directs each DRR Policy  x  Land/Geospatial Data.  No formal state jurisdiction to manage within their own territory regulations, however each jurisdiction makes use of up to a certain disaster level.   land and geospatial data for DRR activities.    Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 70 Country Case Studies Chile KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Chile’s most common Total area: 756,096 km2 hazard events are wildfires, Population: 17.57 million earthquakes, landslides, GDP (PPP): 481 billion 90% Urban extreme temperature, and GINI: 47.7 (2015) volcanic eruptions. Government: Republic STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. Information Management. The official coordinating body for the management of land information is SNIT— ● The Ministry of Agriculture manages the comprehen- the Executive Secretary Office belonging to the Ministry sive geocoded digital catalogue of lands and proper- of Public Assets. ties. ● The Internal Revenue Service ensures that each Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with taxpayer fully complies with their tax obligations, different land information, which are not shared and not applying and monitoring internal taxes effectively and recorded to a spatial standard. efficiently, with strict adherence to current legislation. Tenure Types. Information not available. ● The Ministry of National Assets administers and Cadastral Data. Information not available. manages the fiscal patrimony of the country and maintains the land and property cadastre, keeping Cadastral Accuracy. Information not available. it updated, elaborate, and in coordination with the other entities of the state. STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organizations. Most state institutions Interoperability Challenges. The National Policy collect geospatial data. The Executive Secretariat of promotes interoperability; however, there is no law yet the National System of Coordination of Territorial to regulate and impose the adoption of the policy onto Information (SNIT) carries out this work with the various departments. public institutions. Key National Data Sets. orthophoto, administrative SDI. Ministry of National Property manages the SDI boundaries, addresses, cadastre, hydrology, elevation/ Chile. topography, transport network, geographic names, statistical units, buildings, land cover/land use, points of Standards. Yes, there is a National Geospatial Informa- interest, public services. tion Policy. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 71 (Continuation) Chile LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. Information not available. group focused on emergency and disaster management called the “Multisectoral Working Group for Territorial DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. There is a Information in the Management of Emergencies, technical body that manages and standardizes the Disasters or Catastrophes.” geographic information of the country, plus a working Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 72 Country Case Studies Colombia KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Colombia’s most common Total area: 1,141,748 km2 hazard events are flooding Population: 49.99 million and landslides. An epidemic % Urban: 77% 77% Urban in the form of a dengue GDP (PPP): 750.28 billion outbreak has also become a GINI: 50.8 (2017) major incident in the past. Government: Republic STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. Information Management. The official coordinating bodies for the management of land information are the ● The Ministry of Treasury and Public Credit IGAC and the SNR. ● The Ministry of Housing, City and Territory Interoperability Challenges. Completion of automation ● The Ministry of Environment and Sustainable and modernization to allow for complete interoperability. Development ● IGAC—Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi Tenure Types. Information not available. (National) Cadastral Data. Around 85% of cadastral parcels are ● SNR—Notary and register superintendence (National) mapped and registered. ● These entities are responsible for the verification, Cadastral Scale. Information not available. control, and storage of the cadastral information of the country STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organization. Interoperability Challenges. Inconsistencies in the production of geographic information ● Primarily managed by IGAC: Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute. Key National Data Sets. Orthophoto, administrative SDI. The ICDE: Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure boundaries, addresses, cadastre, hydrology, elevation/ manages the SDI. topography, transport network, geographic names, statistical units, buildings, land cover/land use, points of Standards. Standards policy exists. The intersectoral interest, public services. commission on policies and information management (COINFO) in 2009 established the parameters of standardization of geographic information and geographic information systems (GIS). SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 73 (Continuation) Colombia LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. Policy exists DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. The National System for Disaster Risk Management’s (SNGRD) main objective promotes integration of geospatial data. Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 74 Country Case Studies India KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS India’s most common Total area: 3,287,263 km2 hazard events are flooding, Population: 1,324.17 million landslides, extreme GDP (PPP): 8.701 trillion 31% Urban temperature, drought, and GINI: 33.9 (2013) typhoons. Government: Federal parliamentary km 2008 Jun 12 04:45:24 OMC - Martin Weinelt km 2008 Jun 12 03:54:25 OMC - Martin Weinelt STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. Information Management. The official coordinating body for the management of land information is the ● At the national level, the Department of Land Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Resources in the Union Ministry of Rural Development Development, Government of India. has the mandate to address land policy issues. ● At the state level there are three key agencies: Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with different land information, which are not shared and not › The Revenue Department which manages the land recorded to a spatial standard. records › The Department of Stamps and Registration that Tenure Types. Information not available. oversees registration Cadastral Data. 86% of land records are computerized › The Survey Department that carries out land and 46% of cadastral maps are digitized. surveys. Cadastral Scale. Information not available. STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organizations. The Survey, Settlements and Interoperability Challenges. Interoperability exists with Land Record Departments of the state governments. sharing of data, software, and hardware. SDI. Department of Science and Technology, Key National Data Sets. orthophoto, administrative Government of India is in charge of the NSDI. boundaries, addresses, cadastre, hydrology, elevation/ topography, transport network, geographic names, Standards. Standards policy exists. statistical units, buildings, land cover/land use, points of interest, public services. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 75 (Continuation) India LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. The Disaster Management Act 2005 enjoins based National Database for Emergency Management central and state governments to make provisions for (NDEM) in collaboration with various government the implementation of the disaster management plans. ministries and agencies. The ministry, with technical support from the United Nations Development Program DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. The Ministry of (UNDP), is also in the process of developing GIS-based Home Affairs has initiated the development of a GIS- tools for emergency management on a pilot basis. Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ● ANNEX C 76 Country Case Studies Indonesia KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Indonesia’s most common Total area: 1,904,456 km2 hazard events are Population: 261.11 million earthquakes, tsunamis, GDP (PPP): 3,492 trillion 55% Urban flooding, landslides, and GINI: 39.5 (2017) typhoons. Government: Republic STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with different land information, which are not shared and not ● Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning/ recorded to a spatial standard. National Land Agency (ATR/BPN) manages data related to land ownership. Tenure Types. Information not available. ● Local government manages data related to the value Cadastral Data. Information is not available; however, of land formerly built by the tax office. literature suggests around 50% of land is mapped and Information Management. The official coordinating registered in the cadastre. body for the management of land information is the Cadastral Scale. Nationally, topographic data of up to Ministry of Land Affairs and Spatial Planning/National scale 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Land Agency (ATR/BPN). STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organizations. Interoperability Challenges. Interoperability is possible—data, software, and hardware can be shared ● The Geospatial Information Agency (BIG) is across organizations. responsible for coordinating all national mapping activities. Key National Data Sets. orthophoto, administrative boundaries, addresses, cadastre, hydrology, elevation/ SDI. The production of Basic Geospatial Data (IGD) is topography, transport network, geographic names, the right and responsibility of BIG. statistical units, buildings, land cover/land use, points of Standards. Standards policy exists. interest, public services. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 77 (Continuation) Indonesia LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. The national policy is guided by Law DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. BNPB (national 24/2007 on Disaster Mitigation, which was enacted disaster management agency) has developed InaRisk after two devastating disasters (earthquake and tsunami System which shows natural hazards risk for the whole in Aceh in 2004, and earthquake in Yogyakarta in 2006). country. InaRisk is currently at the third generation, The extent and severity of disaster determine which based on how the system calculates the risk for a governmental level is responsible for the management. particular area. Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 78 Country Case Studies Nicaragua KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Nicaragua is impacted by Total area: 130,375 km2 many hazards, including Population: 6.16 million floods, wildfire, earthquakes, GDP (PPP): 35.75 billion 58% Urban tsunamis, hurricanes, GINI: 45.7 (2009) landslides, and drought. There Government: Presidential are also threats from active 2008 Jun 12 04:45:24 OMC - Martin Weinelt republic km volcanoes, large storms, and 2008 Jun 12 03:54:25 OMC - Martin Weinelt km epidemics. STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. Information Management. The coordinating entity for the management of land information is the National ● The Nicaraguan Institute of Territorial Studies Cadastral Commission. (INETER) is the general directorate of physical cadastre and is responsible for the legal, administrative, and Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with ordering of real estate in the national territory. different land information, which are not shared and ● The Ministry of Finance and Public Credit manages not recorded to a spatial standard; however, there is the tax cadastre for the fiscal and economic valuation currently inter-institutional efforts to characterize the of the real estate of the Ministry of Finance and Public rights, restrictions, and responsibilities within the legal Credit through the Income General Division. framework. ● The municipalities manage the municipal cadastre Tenure Types. Information not available. for administrative, fiscal, and property management Cadastral Data. Nine of the state areas are registered, purposes in the municipal territory. and two are cadastral areas; the remaining six are unregistered. The technical information is unavailable. Cadastral Scale. Varies from 1:100–1:10,000. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 79 (Continuation) Nicaragua STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organization. Key National Data Sets. (1) Cartography of rivers, roads, towns, urban centers, contour lines, administrative ● The Nicaraguan Institute of Territorial Studies division scale 1: 750,000 nationwide; (2) Topographic (INETER) maps at 1: 50,000 scale; (3) Ortho-photomaps at SDI. INETER is also responsible for the Cadastral Spatial 1:10,000; 1:20,000, and 1:40,000 scales for the Pacific Data Infrastructure (IDEC). region and the center of the country; (4) Cadastral maps Standards. No standards policy exists. at scale 1: 5,000 from the cities of Estelí, Granada, León, Managua, Masaya, Rivas, San Jorge, and municipalities Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with of Managua; (5) Thematic maps: map of the city of different land information, which are not shared and Managua, maps of administrative division, Nicaragua not recorded to a spatial standard; however, there is and relief map nationwide; (6) Nine “Physical Cadastre currently inter-institutional efforts to characterize the Delegations” in Managua, Masaya, Carazo, Granada, rights, restrictions, and responsibilities within the legal Rivas, León, Chinandega, Estelí, Madriz. framework. LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. There is a national policy that has guided DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. No official the development of the National Risk Management Plan regulations yet, but there are initiatives such as social, (PNGR), a normative instrument for the organization infrastructure, and health interchanging information and planning of an adequate management of risk, and between state institutions. therefore of development, through the codirection of the SINAPRED (National System for the Prevention, Mitigation and Response of Disasters). Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 80 Country Case Studies Nigeria KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Nigeria’s most common Total area: 923,770 km2 hazard events are flooding, Population: 185.99 million coastal erosion, gully erosion, GDP (PPP): 1.169 trillion 49% Urban drought, wildfire, sandstorms, GINI: 48.8 (2010) thunderstorms, windstorms, Government: Federal and pest invasion. In addition, there are anthropogenic factors such as: military insurgency, building collapse, oil spillage, bomb explosion, hazardous material spillage/ dangerous cargo. STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. ● The Directorate of Land Registry is responsible for keeping up-to-date records of all land transactions in ● The LUAC (Land Use and Allocation Committee) the state. oversees land allocation and is overseen by the Executive Secretary who is the committee head who Information Management. The official coordinating treats and coordinates all matters that border on body for the management of land information is the the Land Use Allocation Committee. The Committee office of Surveyor General and Land Registry. came into existence in 1978. Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with ● The Land Services is in charge of subsequent different land information, which are not shared and not transactions on land. Land services is the core recorded to a spatial standard. professional directorate of the bureau, and it is saddled Tenure Types. State (70%) and private (30%). with the technical aspect of land administration in the state. They also deal with acquisition and revocation Cadastral Data. Only 0.3% of parcels—121,000 for government (Power of Eminent). cadastral parcels of approximately 4,000,000 in Lagos— ● The Land Regularisation Directorate oversees are mapped and registered. regularizing informal land. Regularisation of Title to Cadastral Scale. Information not available. land is the process of granting title to those who have erroneously purchased uncommitted government acquisition. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 81 (Continuation) Nigeria STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organizations. Standards. Standards policy exists. ● Office of the Surveyor General of the Federation is Interoperability Challenges. Inconsistencies in the empowered to coordinate the practice of surveying production of geographic information resulting in and mapping. different accuracies, scaling, coding, and classification ● National Space Research and Development Agency systems. (NASRDA) is the national clearinghouse. Key National Data Sets. (1) geodetic control database; ● Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (2) digital imagery and image maps; (3) administrative ● National Mining Cadastral Office boundaries; (4) cadastral databases; (5) topographic database/DEM; (6) land use/land cover data; (7) SDI. NASRDA was set up aiming to ensure proper demographic database; (8) transportation data. implementation and strengthened synergy among stakeholders, and to manage and implement standards, clearinghouse and metadata, capacity building and awareness, legal and sustainability, and funding. LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP) coordinated, and effective delivery of federal assistance. for the country was made under the auspices of the DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. No regulations National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), or policy; however, GIS is included as part of NEMA which was established in March 1999. The plan strategy for disaster management plan. establishes a process and structure for the systematic, Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 82 Country Case Studies Tunisia KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Tunisia’s most common Total area: 164,000 km2 hazard events are floods, Population: 11.52 million wildfires, droughts, and GDP (PPP): 144.2 billion 61% Urban extreme temperatures. GINI: 36.1 (2010) Flooding is a recurrent Government: Republic phenomenon, particularly flash floods, in low-lying areas in cities where building on dry riverbeds is a common occurrence. STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organizations. Information Management. No official coordinating body for the management of land information, although ● The TI (Tribunal Immobilier) oversees managing the management of land is at the national level and optional and obligatory land registration in Tunisia, administered at regional/local levels. and also the legal certification for field investigation and ownership issues. Interoperability Challenges. These agencies work with ● The OTC (Office de la Topographie et du Cadastre) different land information, which are not shared and not oversees all technical operations regarding boundary recorded to a spatial standard. demarcation of land requisition by order of the judge Tenure Types. State (20%) and private (80%). and the production of final cadastral maps. Cadastral Data. Cadastral areas which are mapped ● The CPF (la Conservation de la Propriété Fonciére) cover 85% of the land that can be registered and titled performs all registration of land ownership and (among 70% of the territory covered on the map). provides the titles. 35,000 hectares of the entire target site of 3.5 million ● The MDEAF (Ministère des Domaines de l‟Etat et hectares have been registered to date. des Affaires Foncières) manages national (state) land property. Cadastral Scale. Rural areas: 1:2000; urban areas: 1:500. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 83 (Continuation) Tunisia STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organizations. Standards. Standards policy exists. ● CNCT (National Center for Cartography and Remote Interoperability Challenges. Lack of coordination Census, Ministry of Defence), coordinator of the between the various stakeholders; lack of centralization National Spatial Data Infrastructure, in charge of of all the sectoral databases made; lack of a common cartography and satellite imagery. geographic reference frame; non-implementation of ● OTC, in charge of geodesy, topography, and cadastre. existing standards; lack of interoperability between the thematic GISs of the governmental institutions. SDI. GEONAT (Geomatisation Nationale) was set up aiming to contribute to the building of the geospatial Key National Data Sets. (1) ortho-photo database; (2) information infrastructure in Tunisia, in response to topographic database with high accuracy for urban the growing needs in digital, reliable, and updated areas (towns, governorates, cities) and a lower accuracy geospatial information in support of national decision for the remaining areas; (3) address database which making. GEONAT was put on hold and reactivated after must gather all data mainly relating to access roads with the adoption of Law 24 in May 2009, restructuring the geographic points associated with addresses, localities, institutional organization of the national geomatics and municipalities; (4) cadastral database that mainly sector. provides plots, buildings, and cadastral boundaries (to be developed in cooperation with the National Office of Topography and Cadastre). LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. National policy exists. DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. No information available. Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● ANNEX C 84 Country Case Studies Turkey KEY HAZARDS STATISTICS Turkey’s most common Total area: 783,562 km2 hazard events are floods, Population: 80.81 million earthquakes, landslides, and % Urban: 92% 92% Urban extreme temperatures. GDP (PPP): 857.7 billion GINI: 40.0 (2013) Government: Republic STATUS OF LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM Governing Organization. Interoperability Challenges. There is limited sharing and information is not recorded in a standard way spatially. ● The General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre (GDLRC) is the primary agency which produces and Tenure Types. No information available. manages the land registry, cadastre, and property Cadastral Data. No information available. ownership information and data. Information Management. The General Directorate of Cadastral Scale. No information available. Land Registry and Cadastre is the official coordinating body for the management of land information. STATUS OF GEOSPATIAL SYSTEMS Governing Organizations. Standards. No standards policy exists. ● The Ministry of Environment and Urbanization Interoperability Challenges. Effort and initiatives to set SDI. The Ministry of Environment and Urbanization/ relevant principles and standards for metadata, data DG GIS oversees developing Turkey National GIS in sharing, and interoperability have been undertaken, but accordance with the task described in the Decree Law not achieved to date. of the Establishment of the Ministry (Law No. 644). Key National Data Sets. orthophoto, administrative Since its establishment, DG GIS has some ongoing boundaries, addresses, cadastre, hydrology, elevation/ projects and activities to fulfill the aforementioned task. topography, transport network, geographic names, However, creating a national spatial data infrastructure statistical units, buildings, land cover/land use, points of has not been accomplished yet. interest, public services. SOLID GROUND Increasing Community Resilience through Improved Land Administration and Geospatial Information Systems 85 (Continuation) Turkey LAND AND GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION FOR RESILIENCE DRR Policy. National policy exists. DRR Policy x Land/Geospatial Data. No policy exists. Positive à Negative Digital data are available ● Willingness of stakeholders to share data ● Level of SDI awareness ● Standards ● Metadata ● Interoperability ● Notes