TAKING STOCK OF COVID-19 LABOR POLICY RESPONSES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES KEY MESSAGES This brief is based on the analysis of over 1,300 COVID-19 Social Protection and Jobs policies, spanning 55 countries that represent 80 percent of the population in low- and middle-income countries. Findings show that: • Labor policies have played a key role in efforts to mitigate COVID-19’s economic effects in developing countries, comprising 55 percent of all crisis-related social protection and jobs policies. • To stabilize the demand for labor, 91 percent of countries have provided liquidity support to registered firms and 71 percent have adjusted their labor regulations to the crisis. • To avoid mass layoffs or help jobseekers, 35 percent of countries have adopted wage subsidies, 33  percent have resorted to providing unemployment benefits, and 29 percent have reduced or postponed income taxes. • Governments are increasingly targeting self-employed or informal wage workers directly with cash transfers amounting to on average US$714 million, compared to US$304 million for non-labor-related cash transfers. Around 15 percent of countries have adapted public works programs to help those most in need of income protection. • As additional interventions are collected, future analysis will explore how policies affect different income and regional country groups, and how the labor policy response relates to labor market impacts. INTRODUCTION The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered one of In low- (LICs) and middle-income (MICs) countries the largest economic downturns since the Great alone, over 1,300 labor market and social Depression. Beyond its devastating effect on health, protection interventions have been introduced morbidity, and mortality, the pandemic shook economies since the start of the pandemic.1 These policies and labor markets around the globe, leaving no firm, often included a mix of social assistance, social worker, and household untouched. Governments insurance, and labor market interventions, with 98 responded to the crisis with a series of public health percent of countries in the sample announcing at and containment measures that deeply affected societies least one labor market policy or one social assistance and economies, including the supply and demand for policy, and 60 percent announcing at least one social goods, capital, and labor. These were accompanied by insurance policy. a series of social, financial, and macroeconomic policies aimed at mitigating the economic effects of the crisis. 1 In the 55 countries considered in the dataset used for the present analysis alone, over 1,300 labor market and social protection policies have been introduced. 1 Labor market policies were a key component of This JobsWatch brief provides an analysis of labor the response in low- and middle-income countries, market and social protection responses to the comprising 55 percent of all crisis-related policies.2 COVID-19 crisis, with a focus on policies targeted These measures targeted workers and firms, as well as to workers and firms. It includes a comprehensive the regulatory framework of the labor market. Of the set of labor market interventions, using data from the labor market policies announced, 54 percent increased global COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory.6 The analysis can firm liquidity through tax relief, credit and payment inform governments of approaches that can be taken facilities, utility support, and deferral of social security when introducing or adapting their crisis mitigation contributions, to help businesses of all sizes to survive measures. To our knowledge, this is the first summary of and keep their workers. labor market policies adopted by developing countries in response to the COVID-19 crisis. To stabilize the demand for workers and maintain business operations, developing countries prioritized liquidity support to firms THE COVID-19 SPJ POLICY INVENTORY and implemented regulatory adjustments. Among the most common firm liquidity policy types were tax The analysis is based on newly collected data from relief, credit guarantees, and loan payment facilities. the COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. This inventory According to the limited available data on expenditures, adds labor market demand-side policies to the already these credit guarantees alone have an average budget of comprehensive social protection and jobs policies US$1.2 billion.3 In terms of labor regulation, governments collected by Gentilini et al (2020).7 The COVID-19 SPJ have supported additional job flexibility by allowing Policy Inventory contains qualitative and quantitative teleworking, job rotations, shorter working hours, information on labor markets and social protection or other flexible work arrangements. They have also policies introduced between January 2020 and January made changes to remuneration policies, among others. 2021 for 55 low- and middle-income countries.8 Measures to support entrepreneurs and new businesses were the third most common measure, after liquidity The 55 countries included in the inventory represent support and labor regulation adjustments. 80 percent of the population of low- and middle- income countries (Annex A). By income group, these To protect jobs and support the income of both encompass 15 low-income countries (LICs), 23 lower- workers and the unemployed, governments middle-income countries (LMICs), and 17 upper-middle- have targeted workers directly. Governments have income countries (UMICs). High‑income countries (HICs) prioritized labor supply policies such as wage subsidies, will be included in upcoming versions of this analysis. By unemployment benefits, reduction of income taxes, region, five countries are in East Asia and the Pacific, 13 and public works. On average governments allocated in Latin America and the Caribbean, eight in Middle East budgets of US$686 million to these policies.4 Additionally, and North Africa, four in South Asia, 19 in Sub-Saharan governments also used labor-related cash transfers Africa, and six in Europe and Central Asia. Moreover, to support labor income, with an average budget of 36 of the countries represented in the inventory are US$714 million.5 Training and placement assistance was also included in the COVID-19 high-frequency phone also provided by 31 percent of countries. surveys (HFPS) dashboard published by the World Bank.9 2 A comprehensive list of labor market policies categories included in this brief can be seen in Annexes A, B, and C. 3 This budget represents 0.56 percent of GDP for the countries considered. Calculations are based on available data for 26 credit guarantee policies (representing 30 percent of all credit guarantee policies). 4 Based on available data for 17 programs of wage subsidies, unemployment benefits, reduction of income taxes, and public works programs (representing 20 percent of all income support programs). 5 Based on available data for 39 labor-related cash transfer programs (representing 60 percent of cash transfers for workers). 6 The COVID-19 Social Protection and Jobs (SPJ) Policy Inventory builds on and extends program information collected by Gentilini et al. (2020) who have documented in detail social protection policies introduced by countries worldwide since the start of the pandemic. It expands on the labor market component by including demand-side labor market policies and further deepens the information on social protection and labor market programs relevant in the COVID-19 context. 7 Data collected by Gentilini et al. Includes data from March 2020 until December 11, 2020. 8 The COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory includes for each policy qualitative and quantitative information such as benefit name, description, start and end dates, targeting mechanism, planned and actual beneficiaries, and, when available, expenditures. 9 Results from HFPS have been published in the World Bank’s COVID-19 High-Frequency Monitoring Dashboard. 2 BOX 1. COVID-19 SPJ POLICY INVENTORY LABOR MARKET AND JOBS FRAMEWORK The COVID-19 SPJ policy inventory includes both supply-side and demand-side labor market policies. On the labor market supply side, it includes policies that help workers maintain their income and jobs such as public works, income tax reduction, training and placement assistance, or unemployment benefits. On the labor market demand side, it covers policies that help businesses survive and retain workers, such as firm liquidity or entrepreneurship support. Furthermore, the inventory includes changes to the regulations of the employer-worker relationship during the pandemic. While these labor regulations affect both workers and firms, they are implemented through firms and hence captured as demand side interventions for the purposes of this analysis. For a detailed description of each policy see Annexes B, C, and D. Labor Market Policies Supply Demand Training and Public Income tax Unemployment Wage Labor Entrepreneur Firm placement works reduction benefits subsidies regulations support liquidity assistance HOW ARE GOVERNMENTS RESPONDING? Labor market policies are the most prevalent below Figure 1-B). The use of social insurance policies type of social protection response increases with countries’ income level. Developing country governments relied heavily Cash transfers programs targeting workers became on labor market policies to mitigate the economic more popular during the COVID-19 pandemic. Within impact of the pandemic. These policies have often social protection and jobs policies, cash transfer programs responded to the need of supporting or maintaining are considered as social assistance. However, the policy labor and firm income. Of all the social protection and inventory differentiates between the typical cash transfers jobs policies in the sample, 55 percent are labor market targeted to the household and those targeted directly policies, compared to 38 percent social assistance at workers with a labor market policy objective. In fact, policies and 7 percent social insurance policies. In over 38 percent of cash transfer programs included in terms of countries implementing these policies, all but the sample as social assistance are directed to workers. one country in the sample (98 percent of countries) When these programs are considered, the share of labor introduced at least one labor market policy (Figure 1-A), market programs increases from 55 to 60 percent. Cash with countries announcing an average of 13 labor transfers that target workers are mostly intended to market policies each. This pattern holds when looking help workers who are not protected by social insurance at different income groups. For all three income schemes, such as informal workers, the self-employed, level groups considered, the percentage of countries agricultural workers, and other non-traditional wage adopting at least one labor market policy is the highest, workers. On average, each of these labor-related cash followed by the percentage of countries adopting transfer programs benefit around 7.9 million workers social assistance and then social insurance policies (see and households.10 10 Based on available data from 27 policies (representing 50 percent of labor-related cash transfer policies). 3 FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 Percentage of countries with at least one social Percentage of countries with at least one labor protection and labor market policy market policy, by category A. By social protection area Public works 15 Social 98 Income tax reduction 29 Assistance Social Training and placement 62 31 Insurance assistance Unemployment Labor 33 98 benefits Market Wage subsidies 35 0 20 40 60 80 100 Entrepreneurship Percentage of countries 36 support B. By area and income group Labor regulations 71 Firm liquidity support 91 93 LIC 33 0 20 40 60 80 100 100 Percentage of countries 100 Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. LMIC 65 Note: Graph based on 55 countries implementing labor market 100 programs. 100 UMIC 82 regulations (Figure 2). This result holds true when looking 94 across income groups. It should be noted that both firm liquidity and labor regulation policies typically apply to 0 20 40 60 80 100 formal firms and wage workers. Percentage of countries Social Assistance Social Insurance Labor Market Among policies to improve firm liquidity, most governments prioritized giving firms tax relief, followed by credit facilities and guarantees, loan Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. payment facilities, reductions in social security Note: Graphs based on 55 countries. Percentages in panel B) are contributions, and utility and rent support (Figure 3-A). based on the total number of countries in each income group: 15 countries are low-income (LICs), 23 are lower-middle-income Around 76 percent of countries have introduced tax (LMICs) and 17 are upper-middle-income (UMICs). relief policies, such as the postponement of corporate tax payments, extension of VAT tax credits, additional deductions for tax credits, or the extension of the Labor market policies primarily focus on deadline for settling tax liabilities. Around 35 percent providing firms with liquidity and increasing of countries allowed firms to postpone the payment of regulatory flexibility their part of social security contributions. These policies have likely been attractive because they are an easy way Policies increasing firm liquidity and labor regulatory for governments to help businesses without having to flexibility were the most widely used labor market make additional transactions or reallocating resources. policies. These policies were aimed at helping businesses survive (Annex C and D describe them). Together, they Many governments also introduced more active comprise 77 percent of all supply- and demand-side policy options to inject firms with liquidity. Around labor market policies introduced. Moreover, at least 91 67 percent of countries created credit guarantee funds, percent of them introduced some sort of firm liquidity allocating an average of US$1.2 billion. UMICs allocated support and 71 percent introduced changes in labor the biggest budgets to these funds, with an average of 4 FIGURE 3 In terms of labor regulations, governments introduced a series of regulatory adjustments to Percentage of countries with at least one firm protect workers (Figure 3-B). They have permitted new liquidity or labor regulation policy working conditions and methods, such as teleworking and A. Firm liquidity other flexible work arrangements not previously stipulated by law, with 45 percent of countries announcing this Utility and rent support 16 type of adjustment. Around 31 percent of countries have Social security also modified labor regulations to increase requirements 35 contributions for firms to health and workplace safety regulations. Other special measures 42 Dismissal procedures, severance payment Loan payment facilities 51 compensation, hiring flexibility, and leave Credit facilities / 67 policies were frequently modified. However, there guarantees is considerable heterogeneity in these regulations as Tax relief 76 some policies prevented firms from dismissing workers while others allowed them to temporarily cancel their 0 20 40 60 80 contracts. Similarly, in the case of remuneration, some Percentage of countries policies allowed firms to decrease remuneration while B. Labor regulation others required increased allowances for certain type of workers. Hiring flexibility 4 Support to entrepreneurs was also common. Around Severance payment 5 36 percent of countries introduced policies that promote 5 entrepreneurship by encouraging the unemployed and Leave policies target groups to start their own business or to become Other regulations 16 self-employed. Some policies were targeted to already existing ventures by providing them with grants. Dismissal procedures 25 Remuneration 27 Labor income support policies are less Labor inspections 31 common but affect workers Working conditions / methods 45 Policies aimed at supporting labor income have 0 20 40 60 80 been less widely used. Less than 40 percent of Percentage of countries countries have implemented some type of policy directed to increase disposable income for workers and the Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. unemployed such as unemployment benefits, wage Note: Graphs based on 55 countries. Percentages in panel A) are subsidies, income tax reduction, and public works. LICs based on the number of countries implementing firm liquidity tended to implement only one of these policies at a time, policies. Percentages in panel B) are based on the number of countries implementing regulatory adjustment policies. while LMICs and UMICs introduced on average two of these policies at a time. LICs have prioritized public works programs and income tax reductions. LMICs have US$1.5 billion.11 LICs and LMICs also implemented this been able to implement more unemployment benefit policy but with a smaller budget. Around half of the programs, which, in some cases, were accompanied countries analyzed have also offered loan repayment by wage subsidies. UMICs, in turn, have prioritized facilities to support businesses’ liquidity, by reducing the wage subsidies, accompanied by either unemployment interest on their loans or allowing firms to restructure benefits or income tax reductions. or postpone their debts. Other recurring measures included support for utilities such as water, natural gas, On average, budgets allocated to labor-related and electricity bills, or the suspension of rents. cash transfers are roughly equal to the combined 11 Average budgets are calculated based on available data from 26 policies (30 percent of credit guarantees policies). 5 FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 Average expenditure for labor-related cash transfers Percentage of countries with at least one new policy (CT), non-labor-related CT, and income support by or adaptation of an existing one—by labor market income group (in millions of US$) policy category 1125.7 75 Public works 38 28 Unemployment 1,000 44 benefits 795.5 Training and placement 24 assistance 76 641.5 Millions of dollars 16 Wage subsidies 441.5 74 500 20 Entrepreneurship 80 281.8 support 252.7 63 Income tax reduction 19 44 12.9 Labor regulations 5.8 2.0 85 0 LIC LMIC UMIC 94 Firm liquidity support 82 Other CT CT to workers Income support 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage of countries implementing Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. policies Note: Expenditures based on 117 programs (17 are income support, 39 are labor-related CT, 61 are non-labor CT). Non-labor Adaptation New CT include unconditional cash transfer policies for households; labor-related CT include unconditional cash transfer policies to Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. formal workers, informal workers, independent workers, and Note: Graph based on number of countries implementing each farmers; and income support include unemployment benefits, category of labor market programs. wage subsidies, income tax reduction, and public works. value of all other labor market policies, including Most countries have adopted a combination public works, unemployment benefits, and wage of new and adapted policies subsidies. However, the budget allocated to cash transfers for workers remain twice as large as the The labor market policies adopted by governments amount allocated to non-labor cash transfers (Figure 4). are a combination of completely new initiatives and Governments have allocated on average US$686 million adaptations of existing policies (Figure 5). Around 60 for increasing workers’ income through traditional percent of labor market policies adopted by governments labor market policies, while the average budget for are new, while the remainder are adaptations. cash transfers directed to workers is US$714 million, compared to US$304 million for non-labor-related cash Most programs related to training and placement transfers.12 Moreover, average expenditure on labor- assistance, entrepreneurship support, wage related cash transfers is higher than non-labor-related subsidies, and unemployment benefits were newly cash transfers. This is especially true for LMICs and created in response to the economic downturn. For UMICs, while LICs follow the opposite pattern. This most of these policies, this is true irrespective of might be explained by LMICs’ and UMICs’ increased countries’ income level and may result from the lack ability to target specific types of workers. of pre-existing active labor market policies in LICs, 12 Some of the programs have much lower budgets and the spread of the distribution is large, as shown by the median expenditures by type of policy. The median budget allocated to traditional labor market policies for income support is US$174 million, the median budget for cash transfers directed to workers is US$41 million, and the median budget for non-labor-related cash transfers is US$47 million. 6 LMICs, and UMICs. In the case of unemployment FIGURE 6 benefits, while most policies are new there is some Percentage of countries with labor market and regional variability: policies were mostly new in LMICs social protection policies by area and category and mostly adaptations in UMICs, probably because unemployment insurance (UI) schemes are scarcer in A. By social protection area the former than in the latter. 82 Social 27 Almost all countries in the sample adapted Assistance 16 pre‑existing firm liquidity support programs. This 13 is expected, as firm liquidity programs included deferrals of 40 Social 11 existing loan payments and postponements/grace periods Insurance 4 for firms to meet their social security obligations. However, 2 among firm liquidity programs, most governments that 84 Labor 40 introduced access to credit guarantees developed these Market 27 funds in direct response to the pandemic. Regarding 13 income support policies, public works policies were also 0 20 40 60 80 largely adaptations of existing programs. Percentage of countries implementing programs B. By labor market category Labor market policies have remained the most widely used policy over time 50 Public works 13 13 Labor market policies have remained the most 13 widely used over time. The percentage of countries Unemployment 50 11 adopting additional social protection policies has benefits 11 decreased for every three-month period since the World 0 Health Organization (WHO) declared the pandemic Training and 29 placement 24 (Figure 6-A). Yet, the percentage of countries adopting assistance 12 labor market policies remains the highest for each period. 6 68 Wage subsidies 16 11 Despite the decline in new social protection and 0 jobs policies, some governments continue to 40 announce new labor market policies (Figure 6-B). The Entrepreneurship 15 support 20 number of new policies introduced since the crisis has 5 declined, as many of the policies created at the beginning 56 of the crisis are still active or have been extended. In Income tax 19 reduction 0 addition, many new programs were introduced at the 0 beginning of the pandemic as governments were trying 69 to provide rapid assistance. Labor regulations 18 3 5 The composition of labor policies has evolved over 86 Firm liquidity 32 the past year, with policies such as training and support 14 placement assistance, and entrepreneurship support 10 gaining relative importance in the period from June 0 20 40 60 80 to November 2020. This increase may reflect a shift of Percentage of countries implementing policy priorities to prepare and connect jobseekers to labor programs market opportunities and address the early impacts of the Period 1 (Mar−May 20) Period 2 (Jun−Aug 20) crisis on unemployment. In contrast, interventions such Period 3 (Sep−Nov 20) Period 4 (Dec 20−Jan 21) as income tax reduction or deferrals, wage subsidies, and Source: COVID-19 SPJ Policy Inventory. Own elaboration. unemployment benefits were not implemented in the Note: Panel A) is based on 55 countries. Panel B) is based on last three months (Figure 6-B). Firm liquidity measures, number of countries implementing each category of labor market however, have been used throughout the crisis. programs. 7 WHAT’S NEXT? Our next JobsWatch brief will explore more can shed light on the differences in the labor market developing and developed countries as we expand policy responses across different types of countries. the COVID-19 SPJ policy inventory. The extensions So far, only broad measures of policy type have been will not only provide evidence on more countries but also disaggregated by countries’ income level. Adding new enable deeper analysis and answer the question whether countries to the inventory will enable more detailed the findings presented in this brief will hold globally. comparisons by region and income group. Further work will shed light on the evolution and timing of the labor Subsequent analysis can help identify patterns policies. Finally, a follow-up brief will provide initial in the policy responses across income or regional insights on the relationship between the COVID‑19 labor country groups and relate them to underlying labor market mitigation policies and labor market impacts in market conditions. For example, more program data developing countries. 8 ANNEXES ANNEX A Countries included in the brief Region Country list East Asia and the Pacific Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Mongolia, Thailand Europe and Central Asia Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan Latin America and the Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Caribbean Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Peru Middle East and North Africa Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Yemen South Asia Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan Sub-Saharan Africa Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia ANNEX B Description of labor market policies included in the brief Policy Description Unemployment Benefits payable to workers satisfying criteria for membership in an unemployment insurance scheme. These benefits are often paid only for a limited period. Can also include benefits payable to workers either failing to satisfy criteria for membership in an unemployment insurance scheme or who have exceeded the period for entitlement to unemployment insurance benefit. Unemployment assistance is normally means tested. Public works Income support for the poor given in the form of cash wages or services in exchange for work effort. These programs typically provide short-term employment at low wages for unskilled and semi-skilled workers on labor-intensive projects such as road construction and maintenance, irrigation infrastructure, reforestation, and soil conservation. Training and This includes intermediation services such as counseling, placement assistance, job matching, labor placement assistance exchanges, and other related services. It also includes different training programs such as vocational, cash for training, and workplace training. Wage subsidies Includes wage subsidies to employers who maintain existing jobs with and without reduced work time (including zero working hours). Entrepreneurship Programs that promote entrepreneurship by encouraging the unemployed and target groups to start their support own business or to become self-employed. Employment measures that help people with physical, mental, or psychological conditions limiting their activities to be involved in the labor market. Other policies aiming to keep workers employed, bring them into employment, increase their productivity and earnings, and improve the functioning of labor markets. Income tax reduction Labor income tax deferral or reduction, change in basic personal income tax credits. Only includes labor income. Labor regulation Includes changes in the regulation for compensation, dismissal procedures, working conditions, leave policies, and labor inspections. Firm liquidity support Includes policies that allow businesses to take out credit, facilitate repayment conditions, reduce or postpone taxes and social security contributions, and provide support for rent and utility payments. 9 ANNEX C Description of labor regulation policies Labor regulation Description policies Severance payment Changes in the regulation for compensation and/or benefits an employer provides to an employee after employment is over. Severance packages may include extended benefits, such as health insurance and outplacement assistance to help an employee secure a new position. Hiring flexibility Changes in the regulation that allows the extension of contracts or work permits in the situation when terms are approaching, such as automatic contract extension and work-permit requirements relaxation. Dismissal procedures Changes in the scope of layoffs, such as total prohibition of layoffs or limiting them only to particular workers; changes in termination procedures including suspension of requirements of notification, consultation or obtaining the approval of a third party, suspension of reassignment or retraining obligation, and/or priority rules for re-employment. Working conditions/ Regulation that promotes alternate arrangements or schedules vis-a-vis the traditional working day and methods week. These arrangements might help employers to adjust to the needs of the market. Also, they might allow employees to choose a different work schedule to meet personal or family needs. Working conditions might include changes in the working schedules, relaxation of rest requirements (reduction in uninterrupted daily and weekly rest time), and extension of overtime work. In general, working conditions include flexible time, reduced/part-time, compressed work week, telework/telecommuting. Leave policies Changes in leave regulations that might give employers flexibility in declining leave requests (annual, unpaid, on demand, and other). Leave policies might include extended period for leave use and additional types of leave, such as overtime and right to use a part of the next year annual leave - advance leave) Remuneration Changes in remuneration regulations that might include introducing a form of hazard pay and higher workload bonuses and some other pay adjustments, such as wage payment deferrals. Labor inspections Changes in occupational health and safety requirements, including interventions to improve the capacity or resources, and staffing of labor inspectors to enforce COVID-19 related regulations. Other regulatory Other regulatory adjustments might include relaxation of other aspects covered by labor regulations, such as adjustment temporary suspension of preventive examinations and the possibility of carrying out some mandatory trainings entirely by means of electronic communication. ANNEX D Description of firm liquidity policies Firm liquidity Description policies Credit facilities/ Loans made to a business or corporation that allow the borrowing business to take out money over an guarantees extended period rather than reapplying for a loan each time it needs money. Includes: revolving loan facilities, committed facilities, letters of credit, and most retail credit accounts. Loan payment Relaxation of loan repayment conditions. facilities Tax relief Reductions, exemptions, deferrals of corporate income tax, payroll, etc. Utility and rent Transfers, postponement, or reduction of utility and rent payments to assist firms support Social security Reductions, exemptions, postponements of social security contributions for firms. contributions for firms Other special Other measures not listed, such as access to public tenders. measures 10 REFERENCES Gentilini, Ugo; Almenfi, Mohamed; Orton, Ian; Dale, Pamela. 2020. Social Protection and Jobs Responses to COVID-19 : A Real-Time Review of Country Measures. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank. org/handle/10986/33635. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. Khamis, Melanie; Prinz, Daniel; Newhouse, David Locke; Palacios-Lopez, Amparo; Pape, Utz Johann; Weber, Michael. 2021. Early Labor Market Impacts of COVID-19 in Developing Countries (English). Jobs Notes; Issue No. 14. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/607281611295650533/ Early-Labor-Market-Impacts-of-COVID-19-in-Developing-Countries. This note was prepared by Luciana De la Flor, Ingrid Mujica, María Belén Fonteñez, David Newhouse, Claudia Rodriguez Alas, Gayatri Sabharwal, and Michael Weber as part of the World Bank’s JobsWatch Covid-19: Monitoring Labor Market Impacts and Policy Responses to the Pandemic in the Developing World. It is a joint product of the Jobs Group, the Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice, and the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. The authors would like to thank Sonia Madhvani (World Bank) and Ankit Grover (World Bank) for helpful comments, Ugo Gentilini (World Bank), Mohamed Almenfi (World Bank), Miglena Abels (World Bank) for sharing data, and Loli Arribas-Banos, Benu Bidani, Ambar Narayan, and Ian Walker for their guidance. The production and publication of this report has been made possible through financial support from the World Bank’s Jobs Umbrella Multi-donor Trust Fund (MDTF), which is supported by the UK’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office/UK AID, the Governments of Austria, Germany, Italy, Norway, the Austrian Development Agency, and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. All Jobs Group’s publications are available for free and can be accessed through the World Bank or the Jobs and Development Partnership website. Please send all queries or feedback to Jobs Group. Join the conversation on Twitter: @WBG_Jobs #Jobs4Dev. 11