East Asia and Pacific Region: MARINE PLASTICS SERIES Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands: Using the Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox for Islands in Malaysia Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands: Using the Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox for Islands in Malaysia Copyright © by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000, Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of staff at The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpreta- tions, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands: Using the Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox for Islands in Malaysia CONTENTS Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................................. 8 Abbreviations & Definitions............................................................................................................................... 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY........................................................................................10 CHAPTER 1: PLASTIC WASTE IN SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS........14 1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................14 1.2 Island Economies and Plastic.....................................................................................................................15 1.3 Plastic Waste Management on Small and Remote Islands.............................................................16 CHAPTER 2: GLOBAL EXAMPLES FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT ON SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS .......................................................................18 2.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................................................18 2.2 Case Studies...................................................................................................................................................19 2.2.1 Pitcairn Island—UK Dependency................................................................................................................... 19 2.2.2 Kosrae—Federated States of Micronesia...................................................................................................20 2.2.3 Koror and Babeldaop—Palau..........................................................................................................................21 2.2.4 Kerkennah Island—Tunisia..............................................................................................................................23 2.2.5 East Frisian Islands—Germany.....................................................................................................................24 2.2.6 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................26 CHAPTER 3: TECHNOLOGIES TO MANAGE PLASTIC WASTE............... 28 3.1 Overview..........................................................................................................................................................28 3.2 Technology Types.........................................................................................................................................30 3.2.1 Separation, Handling and Logistics............................................................................................................. 30 3.2.2 Material Recycling/Mechanical Recycling.................................................................................................. 31 3.2.3 Feedstock Recycling/Chemical Recycling..................................................................................................34 3.2.4 Incineration..........................................................................................................................................................36 3.2.5 Landfilling.............................................................................................................................................................37 3.3 Considerations for Technology Uptake ................................................................................................38 CHAPTER 4: TOPIC TOOLBOX TO IDENTIFY OPTIONS FOR MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE............................................................................40 4.1 Understanding a Framework for the Status of Plastic Waste Management on an Island...40 4.1.1 Relevant (Plastic) Waste Metrics.....................................................................................................................41 4.1.2 Existing Solid Waste Management Infrastructure...................................................................................43 4.1.3 Market Access for (Plastic) Recyclables......................................................................................................43 4 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands 4.1.4 Stakeholder Awareness of Solid Waste Management............................................................................44 4.1.5 Sustainable Financing for (Plastic) Waste Management.......................................................................44 4.2 Using the TOPIC Toolbox............................................................................................................................ 45 4.2.1 Island Data Inputs/Waste Characteristics.................................................................................................46 4.2.2 Market Access.....................................................................................................................................................46 4.2.3 Suggested Technologies and Solutions.......................................................................................................48 4.2.4 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................49 CHAPTER 5: APPLICATION OF THE TOPIC TOOLBOX TO MALAYSIA.52 5.1 Island Context in Malaysia......................................................................................................................... 52 5.2 Case Study Islands in Malaysia...............................................................................................................53 5.2.1 Peninsular Islands...............................................................................................................................................54 5.2.2 Semporna Islands..............................................................................................................................................57 5.3 Analysis and Conclusions from the Case study Islands in Malaysia............................................61 CHAPTER 6: KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS.................................................................. 62 6.1 Applicability of the Framework and the TOPIC Toolbox...................................................................62 6.2 Comprehensive Plastic Waste Collection and Separation .............................................................63 6.3 Scale of Plastic/Solid Waste is Critical for Technology Decisions................................................63 6.4 Market Access is Key ................................................................................................................................63 6.5 No Single Technological Solution ...........................................................................................................64 6.6 Upstream Solutions are Essential .........................................................................................................64 REFERENCES.........................................................................................................65 APPENDIX A: TREATMENT OF ABANDONED, LOST OR OTHERWISE DISCARDED FISHING GEAR (ALDFG).............................................................68 APPENDIX B: COMPARISON OF COMMON THERMOFORM PROPERTIES........................................................................................................... 73 APPENDIX C: MALAYSIA ISLAND CASE STUDIES...................................... 75 Contents | 5 FIGURES Figure 1. Elements of an island’s waste management system.............................................................................. 16 Figure 2. Solid waste management on Pitcairn .........................................................................................................20 Figure 3. Waste management on Kosrae / Federated States of Micronesia ....................................................21 Figure 4. Waste management on Koror and Babeldaob/ Palau ...........................................................................22 Figure 5. Deposit refund system setup in Palau .......................................................................................................23 Figure 6. Waste management on Kerkennah Island in Tunisia, North Africa ..................................................24 Figure 7. Waste management on East Frisian Islands, Germany ........................................................................25 Figure 8. Waste management on Langeoog, Germany ..........................................................................................26 Figure 9. Plastic Waste hierarchy and classification of the term recovery and disposal ............................29 Figure 10. Technology types for treatment of plastic waste .................................................................................29 Figure 11. Bins on Tioman Island, Malaysia ................................................................................................................ 30 Figure 12. MRF in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia .................................................................................. 30 Figure 13. Example of a baler ........................................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 14. Comparison of required energy for production of plastic from recycled and virgin plastic ..... 31 Figure 15. Plastic recycler in Jordan; re-granules from polyolefin recycling in Malaysia ..............................32 Figure 16. Products made by injection molding process using recyclates to a certain content ................33 Figure 17. Products made with intrusion process using recyclates to a certain content .............................33 Figure 18. Example boards made from sintering .......................................................................................................34 Figure 19. Example of a small-scale pyrolysis processing line ..............................................................................35 Figure 20. Waste balance on islands .............................................................................................................................41 Figure 21. Potential sources for financing waste management ...........................................................................45 Figure 22. Toolbox application .........................................................................................................................................46 Figure 23. Toolbox sheet ‘Island inputs’ (Example A) ................................................................................................ 47 Figure 24. Toolbox sheet “Assessment of Relevant Waste Characteristics” (Example B) ............................ 47 Figure 25. Toolbox sheet “Market Access” ...................................................................................................................48 Figure 26. Toolbox sheet “Matrix” ...................................................................................................................................49 Figure 27. Simplified visualization of the ‘Synthesis’ worksheet as used in the island case studies ........49 Figure 28. Toolbox Sheet ‘Conclusion’ .......................................................................................................................... 50 Figure 29. Overview of Malaysian islands by geographic size and number of inhabitants .........................53 Figure 30. Map of Tioman island ....................................................................................................................................54 Figure 31. Collection examples in Tioman for mixed waste and recycling collection .....................................55 Figure 32. Glass recycling .................................................................................................................................................55 Figure 33. OCC collected and stored in depot ...........................................................................................................55 Figure 34. Map of Perhentian islands ...........................................................................................................................56 Figure 35. Collection examples in Perhentian for mixed waste at collection point and public cleansing ................................................................................................................................................................................57 Figure 36. Map of the Semporna Islands studied .....................................................................................................57 Figure 37. Local cargo boat (jungkong) and waste washed on shore in between tides ................................58 Figure 39. Gunny sack with community waste, Mabul Island ..............................................................................58 6 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 38. Community burn pile near one of the villages .......................................................................................58 Figure 40. Ad-hoc waste collection bins, Mabul Island............................................................................................58 Figure 41. Wheelie waste bin donated by Borneo Divers ........................................................................................59 Figure 43. Waste washed over a 12-hour period at Pom Pom Island Resort beach front............................59 Figure 42. Packaging waste found on Panglima Reef..............................................................................................59 Figure 44. Uncollected waste washed in closed properties on Pom Pom Island..............................................59 Figure 45. Shed made from PET and flexible plastics converted to ecobricks at TRACC........................... 60 Figure 47. Smokeless incinerator installed privately at The Reef Dive Resort................................................ 60 Figure 46. Segregation at TRACC.................................................................................................................................. 60 Figure 48. Waste ready for incineration at The Reef Dive Resort....................................................................... 60 Figure 49. Collected waste at Timba Timba island................................................................................................... 61 Figure 50. PET bottle converted to coral planter at Mataking island................................................................. 61 Figure A1. Pre-Treatment process for ALDFG with a view to material recycling ............................................ 69 Figure C1. Asher facility in Semporna ...........................................................................................................................78 TABLES Table 1. Synthesis of presented global case study examples.................................................................................19 Table 2. Summary of Toolbox assessment of Tioman Island ............................................................................... 54 Table 3.Summary of Toolbox assessment of Perhentian Island .......................................................................... 56 Table 4.Summary of Toolbox assessment of Mabul Island.................................................................................... 58 Table 5.Summary of Toolbox assessment of Pom Pom Island............................................................................. 59 Table 6.Summary of Toolbox assessment of Mataking/Timba Timba islands................................................60 BOXES Box 1: Quantities of ALDFG............................................................................................................................................... 15 Box 2: EPR for packaging in Malaysia.......................................................................................................................... 53 Figures | 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands presents the Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox to support island decision-makers in identifying a potential mix of technologies and other solutions for their island. The study assessed the viability of technologies to manage plastic waste in different island contexts, informing the development and piloting of the TOPIC Toolbox in Malaysia, and identifying key takeaways that can be applied in other small and remote island contexts. The study was conducted by a team from cyclos and Lasaju – Dr. Stephan Löhle, Tobias Mangelmann, Thilo Vogeler, Jana Brinkmann, Wassim Chaabane, Jason Anom, and Qurrata Ain. The work was managed by a World Bank team comprised of Kate Philp, Anjali Acharya, and Nainika Singh, under the leadership and guidance of Firas Raad and Mona Sur. Milagros Aime and Klaus Sattler provided peer review. This summary report was prepared by Kate Philp and designed by Sarah Hollis. The study has been enabled and supported by the Ministry of Environment and Water, Malaysia, with guidance provided by Dr. K. Nagulendran and his team - Jamalulail Abu Bakar, Eddy Mazuaansyah Mohd Ali Murad, Nor Haswani Kamis, Nur Hidayah Hasnan and Ilya Najha Jazari. The study team would like to thank the representatives from national and local government departments and NGOs who participated in the stakeholder consultation workshop, held virtually in June 2021, for their valuable insights and input to the TOPIC Toolbox. Funding for this study and the TOPIC Toolbox was provided by PROBLUE, an umbrella multi-donor trust fund, administered by the World Bank, that supports the sustainable and integrated development of marine and coastal resources in healthy oceans. 8 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands ABBREVIATIONS & DEFINITIONS Act 672 Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007. This Act was created to provide for and regulate the management of solid waste and public cleansing, but only applies to the Peninsular states of Perlis, Kedah, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johor, and the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya (referred to as “Act States”). ALDFG Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear EPR Extended Producer Responsibility FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GOF General Operations Force HDPE High Density Polyethylene LDPE Low Density Polyethylene MRF Materials Recovery Facility OCC Old Corrugated Cardboard PAHs Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons PBTs Abbreviation for Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan (i.e., the Local level government being it a City Council, Municipal Council or District Council) PE Polyethylene PET Polyethylene terephthalate PMRS Perhentian Marine Research Station PP Polypropylene PS Polystyrene PVC Polyvinyl Chloride SW Corp Solid Waste Management Corporation i.e. Federal agency set up under Act 673 (Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Corporation Act 2007) to enforce Act 672 and national policies on solid waste management and public cleanliness TOPIC Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (Toolbox) TRACC Tropical Research and Conservation Center WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Abbreviations & Definitions | 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A round the world, the rising threat of mismanaged plastic waste and marine plastic pollution has reached a breaking point. According to a study by Pew (2020), an estimated 11 million tons of plastic waste enters the ocean every year—an amount that is expected nearly triple to 29 million tons by 2040. All communities and ecosystems are susceptible to the harmful impacts of plastic pollution, but small and remote islands are especially vulnerable given their high coastline-to-area ratios and their reliance on the fishery and tourism sectors. Compounding the issue, solid and plastic waste management is complicated in the context of small and remote islands due to the limited scale of plastic waste, inadequate collection and treatment facilities, and high transport costs. While there is no single solution to turn the tide on plastic pollution for small and remote islands, a combination of technologies and other upstream and downstream solutions can help these communities effectively manage plastic waste, safeguarding their valuable ecosystems and livelihoods. New innovative technologies to treat plastic waste only work effectively in specific island contexts with viability impacted by many different aspects including the volumes and type of plastic waste, existing solid waste management systems (organization, legal, finance), infrastructure, and community awareness. In addition to treatment technologies, other solutions need to be considered such as reducing the plastic input to islands upstream, before it becomes plastic waste, as well as sorting and then transporting plastic waste to a viable recycling market. This study combines a global assessment of plastic waste management on islands with a review of existing technologies and their viability in island contexts to develop the Technology Options for Plastic waste for Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox which was then piloted on five islands in Malaysia. The TOPIC Toolbox supports island decision-makers in identifying technologies and a potential mix of technologies and other solutions to treat plastic waste for their island. Photo: Shutterstock / Yusnizam Yusof. 10 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands GLOBAL EXAMPLES This study analyzed a set of global experiences and practices of solid (and plastic) waste management on small and remote islands to assess potential solutions for plastic waste management. A selection of five case studies from the analyzed islands are presented in detail in the report: Pitcairn (UK dependency), Kosrae (Federated States of Micronesia), Koror and Babeldaop (Palau), Kerkennah (Tunisia) and the East Frisian Islands (Germany). Each case study assessed the islands’ size, remoteness, embeddedness within a larger system, waste volume, tourism sector and waste treatment infrastructure. Key Findings: • Technical and organizational solutions can help: • Small and remote islands do not implement technical solutions for treatment of a large ö In the Pacific, deposit refund systems fraction of plastic waste beyond incineration incentivize distributors and consumers and landfills. to properly dispose of waste or recycle • No material recycling technology uptake items of marginal economic value. has been realized on islands categorized as ö Several islands are successfully operating “small.” material recovery facilities. • Island microsystems often cause a bottleneck in the transport of valuable waste to the ö Micro-recycling applications (e.g., pilot established value chain of the mainland or pyrolysis plants or artisanal recycling) can a larger nearby island. help to treat certain fractions of waste. Photo: Shutterstock / sma1050. Executive Summary | 11 THE TOPIC TOOLBOX AND APPLICATION 3. A matrix displaying a set of potentially viable IN MALAYSIA technologies and solutions, as well as further detail on each of these in a synthesis sheet Based on these findings and a systematic review of and individual factsheets. the available technologies, this study introduces the TOPIC Toolbox—a mechanism for island policy- and Beyond the user-entered criteria of the TOPIC Toolbox, decision-makers to identify appropriate technologies there are other qualitative aspects of islands that need and solutions to address plastic waste. TOPIC Toolbox to be considered such as any existing solid waste recommendations are tailored to the unique context management infrastructure, stakeholder awareness of each island by evaluating characteristics such as of solid waste management practices, and financing population, solid waste volume, waste collection rates, aspects. The TOPIC Toolbox does not cover these portion of plastic in waste, seasonal changes (e.g., aspects, so the report also outlines a broader framework tourism), the offtake prices of recyclables and waste that should be considered in tandem. transport costs. These inputs are then translated into To demonstrate the practical applications, this study three different recommendation clusters for plastic used the framework and the TOPIC Toolbox to identify waste management: potential solutions and technologies for managing 1. Suggestions to advance general waste plastic waste on five islands in Malaysia: Tioman, management practices Perhentian, Mabul, Pom Pom and Mataking/Timba Timba. 2. Information on the potential market access available on the mainland Key Findings: • All of the islands are relatively close to mainland Malaysia. In addition to finding/ • Given the small scale of plastic waste on enhancing disposal solutions on the islands, the islands, available solutions are limited they should also better utilize disposal options to transport of recyclables/waste to the readily available on the mainland. mainland, artisanal recycling and controlled landfilling—and, in some cases, controlled • Each of the islands could implement artisanal incineration. recycling solutions and/or Ecobricks to process a portion of the plastic waste, but • The Peninsular islands (Tioman and Perhentian) these solutions cannot treat all of the plastic have reasonable access to recycling markets waste volume. and can improve market access by separating and compacting recyclables to improve • The Act 672 status of an island, as well as the handling and logistics. presence of active NGOs, positively affects the funding and effectiveness of the waste • The absence of market access is a key management system and, in particular, the challenge for islands in the Semporna District collection and separation of plastic. (Mabul, Pom Pom and Mataking/Timba Timba). These islands should focus instead on disposal • Marine litter poses a challenge for the options such as controlled incineration or Semporna District islands further impacting landfilling. the ability of existing informal waste collection on the islands to manage and finance the waste management system. 12 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands FIVE KEY TAKEAWAYS FROM THE STUDY ö Micro-recycling processes (i.e. artisanal material recycling) may be viable, but are insufficient While the design of the TOPIC Toolbox was informed to cover for all plastic waste volumes and by the situation on small and remote islands—and composition regularly occurring in municipal specifically applied in Malaysia—its applicability extends waste beyond. The following key takeaways and recommen- dations for plastic waste management are relevant to 3. Market access is one of the most important all microsystems, including small and remote islands factors determining how plastic and other as well as remote mainland areas. recyclable waste is treated on or off an island. 1. A comprehensive waste collection and ö Market price at the mainland collection point separation system is required to cover a is often not high enough to cover the entire majority of the available plastic waste volumes. cost of collection, segregation and transport ö Valuables should be extracted from the waste from the island. High value recycling materials streams, and this can be improved through may be able to offset the cost to some degree separation at source, as well as easing logistics and baling and material handling equipment and reducing transport costs (such as with a can reduce costs for transport. baling machine and related material handling 4. There is no single technological solution to equipment). manage plastic waste on small and remote 2. The absolute scale of the plastic waste and the islands. overall waste volume have a significant impact ö Recycling technologies only provide partial on the solutions that can be implemented. solutions for processing plastic waste and ö Most recycling technologies (i.e., non-artisanal need to be combined with other solutions material recycling and chemical recycling) such as controlled landfills and controlled require an industrial scale and a level of waste incineration technologies. volume that cannot be generated on small 5. Sustainably managing plastic on islands requires islands. upstream solutions to reduce the amount of plastic consumed and plastic wasted. Executive Summary | 13 CHAPTER 1: PLASTIC WASTE IN SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS 1.1 INTRODUCTION T he rising production and consumption of plastic combined with mismanagement of plastic waste is leading to significant pollution of marine and coastal areas. Global plastics production has grown rapidly in recent decades, primarily due to increased demand for plastics packaging. Recent analysis suggests that the annual global average per capita plastic consumption will continue to grow from 29 kg in 2016 to 46 kg by 2040 (Pew 2020). Mismanagement of the post-consumption plastic waste, due to either a lack of collection or collection and subsequent mismanagement, results in significant quantities of plastic waste in the terrestrial, riverine, coastal and marine environments. One study estimated 11 million tons of plastic waste enter the ocean every year. Without sustained action, this amount is estimated to nearly triple by 2040 to 29 million tons per year, equivalent to dumping 50 kg of plastic waste on every meter of coastline in the world (Pew 2020). Addressing plastic waste on islands is crucial because of their roles as both receptors and contributors. With a high coastline to area ratio, islands are important receptors of marine plastic debris. Their economies commonly rely on blue economy sectors such as tourism and fisheries, which depend on functional marine ecosystems. These ecosystems are threatened by increasing volumes of plastic waste. Islands also contribute to marine plastic pollution. Their specific characteristics as microsystems result in many imported products in plastic packaging and make effective solid waste management expensive and challenging. Tourism and fisheries sectors also contribute to plastic pollution via littering or mismanagement of single-use plastic packaging and abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear (ALDFG). There is no single technological solution to manage plastic waste in small and remote islands. A mix of different technologies and other upstream and downstream solutions is required, with varied options depending on the island context. Despite the recent development of technological innovations to treat plastic waste in islands, such technologies only work effectively in specific island contexts with actual viability in diverse island contexts yet to be proven. Aspects such as the volumes and type of plastic waste, existing solid waste management systems (organization, legal, finance), and infrastructure and community awareness will all impact the viability of specific solutions to treat plastic waste in islands. Often, the most straightforward solution is to export plastic waste to the mainland or another macrosystem such as a group of islands. The viability of this solution will depend on market access for plastic and other recyclables. This study developed a framework and the Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox to assess and identify appropriate technologies and other solutions to treat plastic waste. Although upstream 14 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands measures to address the use of single use plastics reliance is sometimes replaced or supplemented and the subsequent production of plastic waste are by tourism revenue. Both sectors require functional also important, this study focused specifically on marine ecosystems. These ecosystems, however, existing technologies for the treatment of plastic are increasingly threatened by growing solid waste waste. The study reviewed existing technologies and pollution, particularly littered plastic waste volumes their viability in different island contexts. A framework (Lebreton et al., 2020). The accumulation of plastic was developed to identify key considerations when waste that does not originate from the island itself planning for solutions to plastic waste on small and poses a further challenge (Eunomia, 2016). remote islands. The technology review and framework Conversely, fisheries and tourism are also informed the development of the TOPIC Toolbox to significant contributors of mismanaged plastic support island decision-makers in identifying viable waste. Worldwide, estimates for ALDFG in the sea technologies and a potential mix of technologies and account for a significant portion of marine litter. other solutions for their island. More information on ALDFG is available in Box 1 This report accompanies the TOPIC Toolbox, providing (FAO/UNEP, 2009) and Appendix A elaborates on the context on the issue of plastic waste in small and treatment of retrieved ALDFG. Growing dependency remote islands in Chapter 1, an assessment of global on tourism results in fluctuations in population size case study islands in Chapter 2, and a summary of and, consequently, fluctuations in the amount of plastic the technologies reviewed and incorporated into the waste (Bouvett & Farrugia, 2019). For example, the TOPIC Toolbox in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 outlines the solid waste output of Menorca, Spain in August is framework and provides an overview of the TOPIC twice the average of that in winter months (Lebreton Toolbox, Chapter 5 summarizes the application of et al., 2020). Tourism can also generate additional the framework and Toolbox to case study islands in plastic waste as tourists may use extensive single-use Malaysia, and Chapter 6 concludes with key takeaways plastics for takeaway food and beverages, including from the study that can be applied in other small and bottled water. remote island contexts. Despite the relevance of plastic to island economies, studies on effective solid waste and 1.2 ISLAND ECONOMIES AND PLASTIC plastic waste management on islands have often Many islands rely on the blue economy, but been overlooked (Monteiro, Ivar do Sul & Costa, 2018). key sectors such as fisheries and tourism are The scarcity of data on plastic pollution and plastic increasingly threatened by plastic pollution. Many material flows makes research and decision-making traditional livelihoods primarily depend on fisheries. processes more challenging. In a more globalized and industrialized world, this BOX 1: QUANTITIES OF ALDFG Some of the causes for the loss of fishing gear may include of plastic waste discharged into the seas and oceans tearing of materials due to entanglements, storms or (FAO, 2020). Larger plastic items can often be traced accidents, as well as littering of end-of-life gear. Beyond back to ALDFG (The Ocean Cleanup, 2018; Kühn, et al., fishing nets, ALDFG refers to additional catching equipment 2015). Based on figures from Ellen Mac Arthur Foundation including lines, ropes, floating bodes and sink weights, (2016) and AWI (2022), accounting for the accumulation among others (MacFadyne et al.]. of ALDFG over recent decades would result in more than 13 million tons of plastic present in the seas worldwide The actual quantities of ALDFG are difficult to determine that can be directly attributed to ALDFG. Further details as there is little data available. According to the Food on ALDFG, including potential treatment solutions, are and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) provided in Appendix A. estimates, the amount of waste from the fisheries sector amounts to around 10 percent of the total annual influx Chapter 1: Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands | 15 1.3 PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT ON mainland source could be an option. Compared to SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS the mainland, islands have a higher shoreline-to-ar- ea ratio resulting in high volumes of accumulated Plastic waste management, and solid waste marine plastic pollution. Within the island microsystem, management more broadly, is often complicated actions can only focus on the removal and treatment in the context of small and remote islands. Small of marine plastic from the environment; its occurrence and remote islands form microsystems characterized and composition can barely be influenced, aside from by their isolation from larger macrosystems such as any local mismanaged plastic waste that may end up the mainland. Microsystems can also be found on the as marine litter. Plastic that is already in the marine mainland, for example remote or mountainous areas. and terrestrial environments can be costly and re- Their degree of self-dependency is higher and their source-intensive to collect, separate and treat as it degree of connectedness is lower than in macrosystems. These characteristics lead to several key challenges may be partially degraded or tangled with different related to external sources of plastic, limited scale, types or waste or other materials, such as seaweed inadequate collection and treatment facilities, and high (Chaabane, W., 2019). transport costs. A simplified schematic representing Limited scale is a fundamental challenge for plastic waste management in an island context is (plastic) waste management solutions within any shown in Figure 1. microsystem. In a macrosystem, a waste management Plastic waste generation on islands is driven practice or technology that requires a certain scale can by two main sources, both external—packaged simply expand its area of coverage. This is not possible goods imported for consumption and plastic debris within a microsystem such as a small or remote island, washed ashore as marine litter—with different as the island sets natural boundaries. The interface with implications for waste management. The remote the mainland, usually via a boat connection, results in nature of many islands can result in higher proportions a bottleneck for integrating the microsystem into the of goods for consumption packaged in plastic, including macrosystem. Certain waste management solutions many fresh goods. All, or the majority, of the packaged may be unviable on an island due to the limited scale, goods consumed on small islands are imported, so while others may be available only at a higher cost transporting the used packaging waste back to the (Eunomia Research & Consulting Ltd., 2016). Figure 1. ELEMENTS OF AN ISLAND’S WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Source: cyclos/Lasaju 16 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Limited scale can be addressed by integrating of collection. Informal activities only exist in places the microsystem into a larger macrosystem, such where revenues exceeding the costs are generated. as with the mainland or other nearby islands, The business model depends on the accessibility of but this will depend on the costs involved. The recycling facilities or other places to sell the collected additional costs and effort to address the bottleneck waste to. Specifically, in an island context, recycling will depend on several factors including regularity facilities are usually absent on site. Additional costs and type of transport, cost and physical distance, to overcome the bottleneck of the island microsystem among others. These factors will determine the and cover transport to recycling hubs on the mainland degree to which the island’s waste management consume the (low) margin from informal recycling can be integrated into the mainland’s regular waste business, making the informal sector’s business model management system. Island stakeholders may also within an isolated microsystem less viable and less set up shared inter-island waste management systems prevalent than on the mainland. However, if there is to achieve a certain scale. In doing so they will still good market access, there may still be a small informal need to address the bottleneck by expanding the sector. scope beyond one island (Burt, A. J. et al. 2020). The The most common (plastic) waste treatment after costs of developing waste management solutions collection on small and remote islands is either at the small scale of microsystems will need to be landfilling or incineration. This treatment is typically evaluated against the costs of integrating the waste in the form of open dumping or open burning at one management, or certain components or steps of it, or several specific locations on the island, without into the macrosystem. adequate treatment of the resulting emissions to air, Although essential for further treatment and land or water. These practices play a major role due transport of plastic waste, solid waste collection to their simple method and perceived low cost, likely is often limited on islands. Collection is an essential based on excluding long-term environmental, social part of the plastic waste management process as and economic costs from the equation (Shamshiry, any waste that is not collected cannot be considered E. et al. 2011). for further treatment. Collection generally accounts Transport to the mainland or a nearby island is for a relatively high proportion of the total cost of a commonly part of the solid waste management solid waste management system. Insufficient collection system for small and remote islands, but it can be will affect the viability of any subsequent treatment an expensive option. As well as transport of overall and transport of plastic waste. Due to the lack of solid waste, some islands transport pre-treated waste solid waste collection infrastructure on many islands, fractions, for example baled plastic waste, to the waste, including plastic, is often randomly dumped mainland for further treatment. Transport of waste or incinerated near the generation source, negatively is particularly relevant if the treatment of specific affecting the environment, the economy (e.g., due to waste fractions can be undertaken more efficiently impacts on tourism or fisheries) and residents’ health. or more in line with the environmental and health Solid waste collection on islands is further limited standards of the mainland. Transport from islands due to the informal sector being less prevalent tends to be expensive as it relies on boat or plane than on the mainland. The waste management sector, transport and can be easily disrupted by the weather. particularly the collection of recyclables including plastic, Like collection, transport generally accounts for a is characterized by a high level of labor intensity with relatively high proportion of the total costs of a solid low initial cost for market entry. Perceived as easy to waste management system. However, in some cases, set up, it attracts a lot of informal engagement to specific waste fractions can be sold to cover some of generate income (Alam, 2014). Informal stakeholders the cost or there may be cost savings due to reverse operate on almost all steps along the plastic waste logistics, taking advantage of returning empty cargo management chain, albeit dominantly at the level boats. Chapter 1: Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands | 17 CHAPTER 2: GLOBAL EXAMPLES FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT ON SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS T his study analyzed a set of global experiences and practices of solid (and plastic) waste management on small and remote islands to assess potential solutions for plastic waste management. This chapter presents a selection of the analyzed islands in detail and a summary of key findings. 2.1 OVERVIEW Based on a global assessment, small and remote islands face significant challenges in implementing effective plastic waste management. A broad assessment of global practices was undertaken, with the waste management systems of close to 30 islands analyzed in detail. Many of these islands face significant challenges in adequately managing their (plastic) waste, resulting in high rates of plastic mismanagement. All in all, after carefully researching islands from different socioeconomic contexts, embedded in different administrative systems, with different geographic features concerning distance and remoteness from the mainland, the study was not able to identify any significant plastic recycling technology uptake realized on islands defined as “small” (i.e., based on island population and geographic size). The assessed islands were chosen based on the availability of detailed information in English, the islands’ small size and remote locations, and their practices to address: • Limited availability of suitable land/landforms for solid waste disposal. • Remoteness, resulting in high costs for assets and consumables typically applied for waste management operations. • Small and sometimes sparse populations, which limit economies of scale (i.e., represent the particularities of a microsystem). A selection of five case studies from the analyzed islands are presented in detail in the following sections. The selection of a limited number of case studies presented within this chapter is based on identified effective and/ or innovative solutions to manage plastic waste on small and remote islands, with a particular focus on lessons that can be applied beyond the specific context. These particular aspects are highlighted as bullet points concluding each case study. 18 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Table 1. SYNTHESIS OF PRESENTED GLOBAL CASE STUDY EXAMPLES Pitcairn Kosrae Koror & Kerkennah East Frisian Islands Babeldaob Size1 Very small Small Medium Medium Small (each one) Remoteness Maximal High High Low Low Embedded in No, but some No, but part of No Yes, forms part Yes, forms part of larger system UK standards Micronesia of Tunisia Germany Waste volume 0.4 1.1—of which 2.0—of which 0.6 0.9-1.8—of which 22-46% kg/head/day2 0.14 is plastics 0.16 is plastics is packaging3 Tourism impact Insignificant Insignificant Significant Dominant Dominant on waste volume Waste Controlled Controlled Sanitary landfill, Sanitary landfill, Export of all waste except treatment landfill, no landfill, export pyrolysis pilot pyrolysis pilot compostables infrastructure export of valuables Notable Minimal scale Island-specific Island-spe- Very high Notably low plastic findings and maximal deposit refund cific deposit seasonality, waste management costs remoteness, system for refund system tourist arrival through embeddedness yet effective specific plastic cross-subsidizes levy dedicated in Extended Producer (plastic) waste items overall waste to plastic waste Responsibility (EPR) management management management system 2.2 CASE STUDIES Pitcairn has an uncontrolled landfill (open pit) in proximity to the only settlement on the island. With some 2.2.1 Pitcairn Island—UK Dependency separation at source for composting, all other residual Pitcairn Island is located in the southern Pacific Ocean waste is transferred to this landfill. Some uncontrolled with a population of around 50. Thousands of kilometers burning of waste fractions may reduce volume, with away from the mainland with infrequent and scarce remainders deposited into the landfill or littered. There boat connections, Pitcairn forms the archetype of a are existing plans to upgrade the landfill, including small and remote island. Pitcairn is obliged to manage compaction equipment to use existing space more all occurring waste internally—the only alternative effectively. Transport is primarily via quad motorbikes being to allow mismanagement of the waste. Plastic that are suitable for the existing road infrastructure pollution from other parts of the world is quite apparent. and the purchase of a slightly bigger collection vehicle The neighboring island Henderson, administered by is being considered. Better preparation of certain Pitcairn, is rated as one of the spots on earth most waste fractions for export is also being considered. No affected by inflowing external marine litter [The New treatment on site of plastic waste beyond landfilling York Times, 2017]. At the same time, according to is currently planned to be undertaken. Pitcairn Island Strategic Development Plan [2013], The example of Pitcairn Island as an extreme example due to the low level of uncollected waste, the main island’s waste management system has been largely of a small and remote microsystem showcases several seen as a success story given the remoteness of the aspects of an island’s waste management system. islands. See Figure 2 for details on waste management • A formal waste management system is necessary on Pitcairn. no matter the scale. Although the landfill is 1 According to island context 2 Excludes differing levels of home composting 3 In Germany, “packaging” is accounted for—dominantly but not exclusively consisting of plastics Chapter 2: Global Examples for Waste Management on Small and Remote Islands | 19 Figure 2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ON PITCAIRN Source: cyclos/ Lasaju less than one kilometer from most households, 2.2.2 Kosrae—Federated States of Micronesia inhabitants only transport half their waste to the Kosrae Island forms part of the Federated States of waste management facility, with the remainder Micronesia, a nation exclusively consisting of islands with of the daily volumes transported to the landfill Kosrae being the second most populous with around by public collection vehicles. 6,000 inhabitants. All islands within the Federated States • The demand for adequate waste management of Micronesia face similar challenges as isolated island infrastructure poses a challenge on small islands. microsystems and small-scale solutions are unlikely to be The space requirements for a landfill that can be cross-subsidized. Unlike Pitcairn Island, Kosrae’s waste considered environmentally sound are significant. management system is less complete, with collection Whereas in the case of Pitcairn, the required only undertaken to a limited extent. Kosrae is split space does seem to be available, this may not into four municipalities and only two have operated be the case on islands that are smaller or more public waste collection schemes in recent years. This densely inhabited. demonstrates how waste management responsibilities are split among different jurisdictions, resulting in • Waste management comes at a cost. Within different levels of service, particularly for collection. Pitcairn’s waste management strategy, the The collection that is undertaken—at around US$ 1 operational costs of the collection vehicle as well per household per month—must be cross-subsidized as the landfill are considered a bottleneck. The through other budgetary allocations. See Figure 3 valorization potential of recyclable materials on for details on Kosrae’s waste management practices. the other hand is negligible. Only Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and scrap metal (mainly cans) are considered valuable with limited income potential, particularly after transport costs. 20 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 3. WASTE MANAGEMENT ON KOSRAE / FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA Source: cyclos/ Lasaju More notable on Korsrae is the deposit refund successfully on a small scale, if the regulatory scheme that is levered upon metal, glass and certain framework allows—the deposit refund scheme plastic containers. The fee includes a non-refundable is a distinct to Kosrae and is not available for the component of currently US$ 0.01 out of US$ 0.06 in total. whole of the Federated States of Micronesia. This is lower than the required fee to effectively run • Sustainable finance mechanisms are required this deposit refund system, hence there is a proposal to run a specific waste management system. to raise the non-refundable fee to US$ 0.02 out of a In this case, the deposit refund scheme requires planned total of US$ 0.07. The waste fractions that non-refundable components to fund the operation. are collected through the deposit refund system are transported to the material recovery and sorting • Even with higher population numbers (in facility (co-located with the landfill), compacted and comparison to very small islands like Pitcairn), then shipped abroad. Plastic waste treatment beyond the uptake of plastic waste treatment solutions disposal to the landfill is not undertaken within the is limited. In the case of Kosrae, landfilling is Federated States of Micronesia, with export destinations considered to be the most environmentally-sound chosen according to the best offtake price. treatment option for many waste fractions. Kosrae’s waste management experiences result in • As a prerequisite for any further treatment, several key findings: collection of waste poses a financial burden • The operation of a deposit refund scheme keeps that has not yet been prioritized. items it is imposed on from being littered— specifically plastics, where the marginal economic 2.2.3 Koror and Babeldaop—Palau value has not created a pull-effect on collection Similar to the Federated States of Micronesia, the and recycling. United States of Palau form a nation in the Pacific • It also showcases that highly specific waste Ocean. Palau’s territory is primarily two islands, Koror management solutions can be implemented and Babeldaop, connected by a bridge. Koror houses Chapter 2: Global Examples for Waste Management on Small and Remote Islands | 21 around 70 percent of the total population in an urban The operationalization of the system is undertaken setting, whereas roughly 30 percent of the population at a higher level than on Kosrae, perhaps due to live in a more rural setting within Babeldaop. The waste the more complex finance streams. For example, all collection system significantly differs between the two fees are channeled through the National Treasury. connected islands. Whereas curb side collection is Furthermore, unlike Kosrae, additional packaging implemented in the densely populated urban areas, the items are subject to this fee, (e.g., liquid beverage more rural population takes their garbage to one of 42 cartons like “Tetra Pak”), causing more complexity segregation points spread around the island. Businesses and versatility in treatment options. Unlike PET bottles must transport waste to the landfill themselves. See and metal cans, which are exported for recycling, Figure 4 for details on Koror and Babeldaop’s waste and glass bottles, which are crushed/ recycled on the management practices. island, this fraction is being landfilled. The complexity The waste management system is financed largely of the system is visualized in Figure 5. through a cross-subsidy of Palau’s deposit refund Palau’s waste management experiences result in scheme. Out of US$ 0.10 surcharge per obliged several key findings: item, US$ 0.05 is refundable and US$ 0.025 is used • Similar to Kosrae, the operation of a highly for handling the deposit refund system itself. The individualized waste management system is remaining US$ 0.025 goes to a fund that finances possible on a small scale—in this case a deposit other waste management activities in Palau. Since refund scheme. Unconventional ways for managing 2018, the income from this deposit refund system and financing waste management can yield success has been sufficient to cover operational expenses in smaller island contexts. (salaries, consumables, etc.) of the waste management • Due to the strong involvement of national facility, despite the total waste amount being barely government institutions and the generally complex related to the quantity of items subject to the deposit setup, Palau highlights potential limits in applying refund system. holistic waste management concepts for islands Figure 4. WASTE MANAGEMENT ON KOROR AND BABELDAOB/ PALAU Source: cyclos/ Lasaju 22 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 5. DEPOSIT REFUND SYSTEM SETUP IN PALAU 1 Import Ministry of Finance 2 3 4 Beverage Customs National Distributors Treasury Pay Deposit $0.10 per container Recycling Fund Deposit 10 $0.025 per Sale *Based on market container Proceeds price/contract Sell Increments Refund $0.05 per container Finance of Koror State 7 Receipt Redemption $0.025 per Center’s container Compensation Issue Consumer Receipt Koror State 8 MPIIC 9 Container Redemption Center (Recycle dealer) 5 6 Sell Sell 11 Shipping Out Source: Bureau of Public Works, Republic of Palau, 2018 that form smaller parts of mainland-dominated 2.2.4 Kerkennah Island—Tunisia countries, unlike in Palau. Kerkennah Island is a Tunisian archipelago that is • Palau’s deposit refund system for common plastic characterized by a large seasonal change in population. items showcases how growing coverage of Due to its popularity as a holiday destination, the different waste management aspects results population rises from 14,000 people during low season in a more sophisticated system set up. This is to around 250,000 during July and August, a nearly due to several factors including the involvement twentyfold increase. Kerkennah has had many solid of public and private sectors, certain fluctuating waste management issues due to its geography and cost factors (transport, prices for resources, etc.) the absence of a sanitary landfill. The landfill was closed and the decoupling of the resource value of the in 2010 due to a lack of acceptance by residents. waste item against its value within the system. Subsequently, many dumpsites were established across the island, resulting in environmental and social issues. • Unconventional waste management solutions In addition, collection was limited due to constraints still require coverage of significant costs. The in logistical and financial capacities to transport the waste management fees per inhabitant are levered collected materials to the mainland. The sanitary in an unconventional way, but are substantial at landfill was reopened in late 2021. around US$ 20 per inhabitant per year. This fee calculation is based on the non-refundable part Due to the mounting waste management challenges, of the deposit refund system whose revenue is several measures have been taken within a short allegedly insufficient to cover all waste management timeframe to reset the waste management system. In related expenses (i.e., additional financial collaboration with the national authorities, the island’s contributions are required to cover the cost of municipal government provided a recycling center to two the current waste management system beyond local collectors for the storage of recyclable materials. In operation of the waste management facility). addition, citizens were involved by bringing recyclable Chapter 2: Global Examples for Waste Management on Small and Remote Islands | 23 materials to some collection points in different zones • Accelerated environmental and social problems of the island. Logistics were improved considerably to have led to a reconsideration of past deficiencies in ensure collection of the waste and the reopening of the waste management system. The consequences the landfill. During the high season, the government of waste mismanagement directly affect the supports the municipality to significantly scale up local population, with the potential to create collection operations. The installation of a pyrolysis political pressure and accelerate change of plant is planned with a focus on the treatment of practices. non-recyclable materials, including some fishing gear. • Unlike the previous case studies, Kerkennah is In order to attribute costs to the high seasonality, the part of a much bigger country. With its status island’s government raised a fee as part of the boat as a prime tourist location, mobilizing national ticket price for all visitors of the island. This fee is resources that exceed the island’s own (financial) dedicated to exclusively fund solid waste management capacity can prove effective to initiate a shift operations, particularly the removal of littered waste. of waste management practices. See Figure 6 for details on Kerkennah Island’s waste management practices. 2.2.5 East Frisian Islands—Germany Kerkennah’s waste management experiences result Germany has a highly complex and formalized solid in several key findings: waste management system with significant benefits from • Kerkennah has extreme fluctuations in population scale. However, there are still certain microsystems— numbers. A waste management fee is levied for usually on islands—that require particular solutions. The every arrival, roughly reflecting the increased East Frisian Islands comprise six permanently inhabited number of people on the island. This represents islands, each with a few thousand inhabitants and an approach to match waste management costs each heavily reliant on tourism with all its associated with the number of visitors. characteristics and challenges. The East Frisian Islands’ Figure 6. WASTE MANAGEMENT ON KERKENNAH ISLAND IN TUNISIA, NORTH AFRICA Source: cyclos/ Lasaju 24 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands level of isolation is quite low. A daily ferry to the of waste not collected through the regular system mainland runs regularly to each of the islands. While (e.g., bulky items like furniture or dangerous fractions), there are similarities among the six islands, there which also keeps this waste apart. Composting to are also significant differences in how they manage treat organic waste is undertaken at different levels. waste. See Figure 7 for details on the islands’ waste The management of municipal waste in Germany management practices. builds on two main pillars: 1) the extended producer The collection infrastructure varies significantly between responsibility (EPR) system for packaging (and also the islands: Borkum is accessible for cars and uses for electric and electronic waste) and 2) the collection collection vehicles that resemble those on the mainland. and treatment of all other municipal waste fractions. In Norderney, the lower waste volumes result in smaller, In Germany, EPR costs are borne by the producers and yet similar cars. Two other islands—Langeoog and are paid for every obliged item that is purchased by a Spiekeroog—do not allow regular motorized traffic consumer. Cost estimates are available as a national and rely on basic electric carts for waste collection. average, at around US$ 17 per person per year. As The remaining two islands – Juist and Baltrum - only there are no geographical EPR fee modulations, this operate non-motorized collection vehicles in the form average slightly favors those regions with higher costs of horse carts. for associated waste management, such as small Most collected waste fractions are transported with and remote islands. Apart from the EPR system, the the regular ferry to the mainland, which is then fed municipality charges a fee for other fractions to cover all into the further treatment infrastructure. All islands operational expenses. This fee is charged per residential have a waste hub/waste center. The collected waste is plot. In Langeoog, for example, this comes to around accumulated and kept separately in at least two fractions US$ 19 per inhabitant per year (including a tourism across the islands—household waste and packaging factor). See Figure 8 for details on Langeoog’s waste including plastic waste. These waste management management practices. hubs also serve as bring stations for different types Figure 7. WASTE MANAGEMENT ON EAST FRISIAN ISLANDS, GERMANY Source: cyclos/ Lasaju Chapter 2: Global Examples for Waste Management on Small and Remote Islands | 25 Several findings applicable to other islands’ contexts like islands, are cross subsidized by the current can be derived from the East Frisian Islands. EPR system setup. If islands form a negligible • Waste management solutions in microsystems part of the entire country, these subsidies can are highly specific to the respective charac- be sustained. teristics and a one size-fits-all solution is usually inadequate. Even though the five islands’ size and 2.2.6 Conclusion economies are similar, each has found a distinct Based on the analysis of these islands, small way of running its waste management system. islands do not implement technical solutions for • Costs for waste management are in a similar treatment of a large fraction of plastic waste range with other islands worldwide, despite beyond (proper) incineration and (sanitary) significant socioeconomic differences. For any landfills. Based on the analysis of islands from different island worldwide, detailed research is required socioeconomic contexts, embedded in different to understand the entirety of direct and indirect administrative systems, with different geographic cost contributions for the waste management features concerning distance and remoteness from system. Nevertheless, for the example of Langeoog, the mainland, no material recycling technology annual waste management costs per person are uptake has been realized on islands that this study in a similar range, if not lower, than in Palau or considers as “small.” Nevertheless, technical and the Federated States of Micronesia. organizational solutions can help in overcoming the microsystem’s bottleneck to feed certain fractions • Cross-subsidies within the system represent a of valuable waste into a mainland or larger island’s feasible way to finance waste management on established value chain. For example, the deposit islands—particularly for plastic packaging with a refund systems in island states in the Pacific and the marginal economic value. The German EPR system operation of material recovery facilities on several of does not have geographically differentiated fee the other islands help to advance the respective waste structures. Therefore, areas with higher costs, Figure 8. WASTE MANAGEMENT ON LANGEOOG, GERMANY Source: cyclos/ Lasaju 26 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands management systems. Micro-recycling applications for tourists. In general, the different islands’ waste (e.g., pilot pyrolysis plants or artisanal recycling) can management practices showcase the necessity of a also help to treat certain fractions of the waste but holistic understanding of the management of plastic are currently only operated on a trial or experimental waste as an integrated part of a wider general waste basis, or at a very small scale to produce souvenirs management setup. Photo: Shutterstock / imrankadir. Chapter 2: Global Examples for Waste Management on Small and Remote Islands | 27 CHAPTER 3: TECHNOLOGIES TO MANAGE PLASTIC WASTE T he technologies available to manage plastic waste vary depending on many factors associated with both the broader waste management system and the characteristics of the plastic waste. This chapter outlines categories of technologies to manage plastic waste, classified according to the waste hierarchy. Although prevention and reuse of plastic waste are the preferred options, this report focuses on technologies downstream of these two areas to manage plastic waste that is already being produced and cannot be efficiently reused. The first step is pre-treatment of waste through separation, handling and logistics, followed by recycling (material recycling and feedstock recycling), and lastly, disposal (including both incineration and landfilling). 3.1 OVERVIEW Technologies to manage plastic waste can be classified according to their level in the waste hierarchy (Figure 9). The higher in the waste hierarchy, the lower the resource use and related polluting emissions to air (including greenhouse gas emissions), land and water, and the lower the risk of mismanaged waste. Higher ranking processes, technologies or practices within the waste hierarchy are preferred from a perspective of resource efficiency and climate change, environmental and social impacts of mismanaged waste. The prevention of plastic waste is the most preferred option and can occur by either reducing the consumption of a plastic product (“reduce” under the 3Rs) or by reapplying it for the same or a different purpose after its first use (“reuse” under the 3Rs). Prevention of plastic waste reduces the pressure on a waste management system and should always be considered as a first option. However, ongoing consumption of plastic, particularly for packaging, means that although prevention is a crucial supplement to any waste management system, it cannot replace waste management entirely. Plastic packaging has limited reusability so preparation for reuse is primarily applied to more complex products. Preparation for reuse includes cleaning from contamination, dismantling and detaching reusable parts from larger waste items, as well as exchanging faulty or dysfunctional parts with technologies used throughout these stages. Although reuse itself is not considered part of waste management, preparation for reuse is. This concept is usually applied to complex items like electric or electronic appliances as well as vehicles (bicycles, cars, etc.). In the case of common plastic items, certain bottles (e.g., jerrycans) or containers (e.g., takeaway food boxes) are prepared for reuse mainly through cleaning. For plastic packaging, reusability tends to be limited by the nature of its design. Every packaging item is designed to protect the product against external influences to ease logistics and so on—with minimal packaging costs being a determining factor. Once the product has been consumed, the purpose of the packaging has been fulfilled. Designing packaging beyond this primary purpose is generally out of scope for the packaging producer or user. Plastic packaging will therefore 28 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 9. PLASTIC WASTE HIERARCHY AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE TERM RECOVERY AND DISPOSAL Source: cyclos/ Lasaju have limited secondary purposes and any preparation from waste to produce new materials and reduce the for reuse will likely involve simple cleaning alone. usage of virgin/primary materials. Both for products and packaging, reusability as a The final level in the waste hierarchy is plastic waste prevention strategy is embedded in the design waste disposal, most commonly through phase with very limited interaction with the waste (controlled) incineration or (sanitary) landfilling. management system. These processes do not extract value from the waste, This report focuses on technologies to manage plastic so the expenditure needs to be considered against the waste downstream of prevention and preparation for cost of alternative forms of managing (or mismanaging) reuse in the waste hierarchy, with technical solutions the waste. Adhering to environmental and health classified across four key areas and associated standards is necessary to enable safe and sanitary pre-treatment requirements classified across separation, disposal and reduce impacts on the environment and handling and logistics (see Figure 10). communities, but also increases the cost. After products or packaging become waste, the next level for plastic waste management is recovery of the resources from the waste—either Figure 10. the material itself or its chemical constituents. TECHNOLOGY TYPES FOR TREATMENT OF PLASTIC WASTE These recovery processes include all kinds of recycling (“recycle” under the 3Rs) as well as some other treatment processes like incineration applications with energy recovery. With resources being recovered and fed back into the production process, associated costs have the potential to be financially offset to a certain extent, recovering a part of the value within the waste. Generally, all plastics consist of polymer chains, which vary in their composition and structure. For manufacturing any plastic material, so-called monomers, have to be produced by separating hydrocarbon structures. Most commonly the fossil resource crude oil—a hydrocarbon— is used as a basic input material to start this process. The monomers form the building blocks for the polymers. In a recovery process, the material or its chemical constituents are recovered Source: Fraunhofer IVV, 2019, modified by cyclos) Chapter 3: Technologies to Manage Plastic Waste | 29 The following sections outline brief descriptions of for differentiated collection. Common waste the different technology types categorized in Figure fractions targeted for separation could include 10. Further details and technology examples can be aluminum cans and other metals, old corrugated found in the TOPIC Toolbox. cardboard (OCC), PET bottles and/or other (rigid) plastics (see Figure 11). A simpler solution of 3.2 TECHNOLOGY TYPES just “recyclables” and “non-recyclables,” or even 3.2.1 Separation, Handling and Logistics simply of dry waste (packaging and others) and wet Pre-treatment of waste is required to enable waste (organic/food), could also still improve waste effective recovery of resources (e.g., through material management outcomes. Such solutions should or feedstock recycling). Key solutions in this stage always be determined by the uptake potential include bins and containers to encourage separation, of the further waste management infrastructure. a materials recovery facility (MRF) to store and sort • An MRF is usually the destination for collected waste and a baler to ease logistics and handling. waste before further management is undertaken. • Bins and containers are the core component Waste is stored, sorted and forwarded to different of any collection infrastructure and are usually treatment facilities (see Figure 12). It may include placed in the vicinity of the waste generators/ a baler, a compactor, a shredder and vehicles waste occurrence to allow for easy use and access. for ease of logistics, as well as conveyor belts Ideally, these bins and containers encourage to help sort incoming waste. Usually, separate separation at source by households or by the areas within an MRF are dedicated to specific informal sector (as an intermediary), allowing waste fractions that are stored before being Figure 11. BINS ON TIOMAN ISLAND, MALAYSIA Source: Lasaju Figure 12. MRF IN KOSRAE, FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA Source: Kosrae State Government, Solid Waste Management Strategy 2018-2027 30 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 13. for further machines and equipment. Automated EXAMPLE OF A BALER treatment machinery (e.g., for recycling) is often designed to take up full bales. 3.2.2 Material Recycling/Mechanical Recycling Material recycling (or mechanical recycling) applies to processes that leave the plastic polymers intact, requiring the least additional energy compared to other types of recycling. The recycled material is transformed—melted by heat or shaped by pressure— into new products with similar attributes. The main advantage for this kind of recycling is a low energy input, significantly lower than the energy input required for producing plastic from virgin materials, as shown in Source: Bramidan Figure 14. This safeguards the energy that has already been used to crack the virgin material into monomers and form it into the plastic product. transported to the mainland or treatment site. Generally, the most relevant plastic fraction It should provide adequate space, an adequate in municipal waste streams associated with level of environmental and health protection, as plastic pollution derives from packaging waste, well as the right machinery for different steps of which several key plastic resins are suitable within a functional waste management system. for material recycling. Commonly used materials In order to minimize transport costs and efforts, for plastic packaging are called thermoplastics, which the MRF may be located in close vicinity of the will melt when heated and harden when cooled in a treatment facilities (e.g., a landfill). reversible manner. Due to these attributes, they are • A baler is used for pressing specific, homogenous generally well suited for material recycling processes. waste fractions into bales to allow for more efficient The thermoplastics most widely used for packaging handling and transport (see Figure 13). Available are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene baler technologies cover different scales, with the (PE; widely used in the form of either “high density” smallest ones designed for manually lifting and = HDPE or “low density” = LDPE), polyvinyl chloride moving the bales, ultimately limiting the need (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), (for more Figure 14. COMPARISON OF REQUIRED ENERGY FOR PRODUCTION OF PLASTIC FROM RECYCLED AND VIRGIN PLASTIC Production Local transport Export transport Recycled plastic Virgin plastic 0 20 40 60 80 100 Energy use (MJ/kg) Source: Wong, C., 2009 Chapter 3: Technologies to Manage Plastic Waste | 31 characteristics see Appendix B). Relevant for islands loop. The input material is identical to the output is an additional thermoplastic material nylon or, more material (i.e., PE waste can be recycled into PE specifically, ‘Nylon 6’ (polycaprolactam). Nylon is granules, PP waste into PP granules, and so on), as commonly used for textiles as well as fishing gear. shown in Figure 15. As it is impossible to achieve A more detailed description on ALDFG is given in virgin material’s purity from post-consumer waste, Appendix A. the granules are usually of lower quality, limiting The level of similarity between recycled plastic their application for food grade material. and virgin plastic depends on the material • Injection molding/pressing: Plastic granules are composition and purity fed into the recycling used as an input material and can be derived process. Generally, homogenous plastic waste fractions from an initial extrusion recycling process as a with little contamination are transformed into recyclates substitution to virgin materials. The particles are with similar attributes. However, if a mixture of different inserted into a cylinder where the material is fully plastic fractions or items is combined in one process, melted, homogenized and filtered for impurities. the output lacks a single fraction’s specific charac- The plastic is then either molded or pressed teristics. Most material recycling processes are also under pressure into a form which hardens as it highly specific to one material (sub)fraction. Rigid cools. Depending on the quality of the input packaging can be separated from other waste streams material and the applied pressure, a range of and fed into material recycling processes relatively applications can be served with products from easily whereas flexible packaging is more difficult to injection molding/pressing. These include pallets, extract and often contains multilayers of different plastic pots for planting, barriers for agriculture or car types, and thus is rarely used for material recycling. bumpers (see Figure 16). Plastic extracted from post-consumer waste usually • Intrusion: The melted plastic material is inserted consists of a mixture of fractions and is contaminated in forms and cools until it becomes hard. The with other materials like organic waste. The resulting resulting products include poles, boards, pillars recyclates’ versatility is therefore limited when compared for street signs, park benches, etc. (see Figure 17). to virgin material. To achieve quality levels required by Intrusion requires lower purity levels, enabling a specific application, the recyclates are often blended the processing of mixed or contaminated plastics with virgin materials or other additives. commonly found in post-consumer waste streams. The most common processes covered under material The products are usually of lower specific value recycling include: and their characteristics are less versatile than • Extrusion: Plastic waste items are shredded, injection molding. Therefore, extracting a relatively washed and processed via melting and filtering lower part of the input material value is a form into granules that can be used to produce new of “downcycling.” plastic items, theoretically closing the recycling Figure 15. PLASTIC RECYCLER IN JORDAN; RE-GRANULES FROM POLYOLEFIN RECYCLING IN MALAYSIA Source: cyclos 32 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 16. PRODUCTS MADE BY INJECTION MOLDING PROCESS USING RECYCLATES TO A CERTAIN CONTENT Source: Kenpoly Ltd. 2021; Hornbach/Flora Self 2021 Figure 17. PRODUCTS MADE WITH INTRUSION PROCESS USING RECYCLATES TO A CERTAIN CONTENT Source: cyclos) • Sintering: A wide array of mixed and contaminated well as specific input fractions of plastic, demanding plastic waste can be used (e.g., melted and poured adequate collection and separation of the relevant into square molds). It then goes through a heating plastic types. process of several steps, pre-heating, melting From a perspective of resource efficiency, material and cooling. During the process, the pressure recycling is by far the preferred option to treat is continuously increased. The end product is a plastic waste if the required scale, level of board with a thickness of up to 60 mm, which can separation and purity can be achieved. Waste be used as construction material or for furniture management systems are ideally designed to prioritize (see Figure 18) material recycling against all other treatment options. Certain low-value processes (namely intrusion and Certain material recycling processes may be sintering) can be operated relatively agnostic concerning applied at a micro-scale as “artisanal recycling.” the contained plastic fraction, but still require a Extrusion processes can generally be replicated on a certain maximum level of contamination with other small scale. Any subsequent injection molding would materials. The more specific the expected attributes, usually require high pressures that need industri- the more specific the required input material. Pure al-grade equipment. Small scale injection molding material fractions from PE and PP allow a relatively processes are possible but apply lower pressure, high level of recycling (e.g., extrusion—either fed which limits the output material quality. The market into an existing material market or supplemented by for artisanal recycling is generally limited to souvenirs injection molding). The same goes for specific PET and would likely require a certain level of tourism as from PET bottles. Other common fractions like PET Chapter 3: Technologies to Manage Plastic Waste | 33 Figure 18. EXAMPLE BOARDS MADE FROM SINTERING Source: cyclos/ AHK E.A., 2021 blends (commonly used in applications other than PET The complexity of a petrochemical production facility bottles), PVC and Nylon generally are recyclable but requires a highly controlled environment, with a need to be strictly separated from all other fractions. number of the plastic feedstock recycling processes In the case of PVC, the contained chlorine can lead only theoretically able to operate outside such a to significant pollutants that require a sophisticated controlled, large-scale facility. Common feedstock technical setup. Non-thermoplastic materials like recycling processes include: rubber are unsuitable for material recycling. • Pyrolysis: Input material is anaerobically heated to 400 °C to 800 °C resulting in the materials ther- 3.2.3 Feedstock Recycling/Chemical Recycling mo-chemically dissolving to their simpler material Feedstock recycling/chemical recycling reverses fractions. End products consist of gas that can be the original process of producing plastics, breaking used as a fuel—if captured during the process—as up the chemical polymer structure of the plastic well as the pyrolysis oil. For example, out of a waste into simpler structures and, ultimately, mixture of PE, PP and PS in the ratio 3:1:1, a portion into monomers. To induce this process of de-polym- of 40 to 60 percent gas is produced (Methane, erization, energy is required. The chemically simpler Ethane, Ethylene, Propane) and up to 50 percent output materials can then be used for a process of pyrolysis oil—a mixture of light petrol and hard coal re-polymerization, starting over in the process of tar. These materials are commonly used as base forming plastics. This follows the same principle as or intermediate materials within petrochemical plastics production from primary/virgin hydrocarbons processes and can, in theory, be converted for a like crude oil. More common than the re-polymer- range of applications including the production of ization is the use of the output product for other new plastics. Nevertheless, the energy footprint of derivates of crude oil, mainly as fuel. In line with material the newly produced plastics is significantly higher recycling processes, feedstock recycling depends on than for virgin plastics, negatively affecting the the homogeneity of the input material. The more mixed economics of a pyrolysis process (Lechleitner et the input fractions, the more variation of the output al., 2019). Globally, pyrolysis used on either an product characteristics. While feedstock recycling may, industrial scale or a small scale, such as on islands, in some instances, be able to process a wider range is only being piloted as a solution to manage of plastic materials than material recycling processes, specific plastic waste fractions (see Figure 19). this requires an additional process step like refining Small-scale solutions in particular are more limited in order to achieve a standardized product quality. in the fractions that can be included. 34 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 19. EXAMPLE OF A SMALL-SCALE PYROLYSIS PROCESSING LINE Source: Microengineer Ltd. • Hydration/Steam Reforming: This involves a material represents a generic product that can be reduction of a chemical element with hydrogen. The used for a wide range of applications as a substitute processes use temperatures of around 500 °C and to other fuels, building on existing infrastructure pressure of around 300 bars. With the combined (Lechleitner et al., 2019). However, the high level of application of pressure, heat and the admixture of process control necessary (coupled with levels of hydrogen, it is generally possible to convert any contamination equivalently low, as required by material hydrocarbon—including plastic from waste—into recycling) requires a relatively high level of capital smaller elements and, ultimately, monomers that expenditure. Most feedstock recycling processes only can be used for a variety of chemical processes. work if integrated into larger petrochemical facilities, Due to its heat and pressure requirements, this and cannot be applied in an isolated context. Feedstock process requires operations at an industrial scale recycling processes are highly scale-dependent with rather than a small-scale for islands. their operationalization being challenging on smaller scales. • Solvolysis: This process resembles the hydration process, but with negligible direct heat input. Feedstock recycling uses resources less efficiently Solvolysis involves admixing a solvent media into than material recycling, requiring significant the plastic waste. A pilot project designated as energy input and, in some cases, being used “Creasolv” was set up by Fraunhofer and Unilever simply as a fuel to be burned. By nature, feedstock or chemical recycling processes reduce the complexity in Indonesia in 2019 (Kunststoffe International, of the input material’s molecular structure so that the 05/2020; Fraunhofer IVV 2021). Viability of the energy resources that have been used to create complex process and the economics are currently limited chemical structures during the process of polymerization through the heavy degradation of the solvent, will be lost entirely. Feedstock recycling processes rely which, under operational conditions, proves to on high external energy input. Feedstock recycling is be unsuitable for being fed back into the process. most commonly used to produce a fuel rather than Solvolysis for plastic recycling can therefore be new plastics, meaning that the process remains quite deemed experimental. linear rather than moving towards circularity. Although feedstock recycling has a higher Feedstock recycling processes are at the focus versatility for input materials, it also requires of many research and trial activities worldwide, a higher level of process control and generally a but this study has not identified any that are larger scale than material recycling. Feedstock a functioning part of a waste management (chemical) recycling allows for some additional resource system. Applications are currently limited to pilots recovery from those plastic fractions that are unsuitable or experiments at any stage. Their proof of suitability for material (mechanical) recycling (e.g., rubber as to recycle plastics derived from post-consumer waste a non-thermoforming plastic fraction). The output has not yet been achieved, particularly on a small scale. Chapter 3: Technologies to Manage Plastic Waste | 35 3.2.4 Incineration the fan, there is no additional technical installation Incineration can range from basic “open burning” for exhaust cleaning, temperature control, etc. Due disposal processes to sophisticated recovery to this simple process with a very limited level of technologies that are operated at scale with control, the majority of the input material should complex emissions management, producing consist of bio waste, paper or wastes with low large quantities of energy. The combustion or impurities (e.g., plastics). As there is no external incineration of waste generally serves the purpose fuel expected, the input material should also be of reducing the waste’s quantity and volume. In its suitable to be ignited easily (i.e., low moisture simplest and still widely applied form, incineration content). A mobile incineration unit without a is undertaken by lighting mixed waste fractions on technical setup does not meet any emission the street or within a courtyard. By comparison, most standards. sophisticated incineration technologies are operated • Technical incineration: A technical incinerator at scale with thousands of tons of hourly throughput provides a degree of process control including on and usage of the excess heat to produce energy. If a smaller scale, particularly in terms of operating the calorific value of the waste is exploited in this temperature and continuous combustion. The plant way and used for other processes—like electricity resembles a furnace supplemented by equipment production, process heat or room heat—the term that may include a monitoring and control panel, “energy recovery” is applied. In this case, treatment a blower or similar means of introducing oxygen through incineration is considered as a recovery process, into the process, and some waste gas treatment but not as a recycling process. The usage of primary steps. Due to the small capacity and small-scale resources can be reduced. Any incineration process design, sophisticated exhaust gas treatment that either requires external energy input or lacks is not technically feasible. energy recovery is considered a disposal process. Key • Controlled incineration: Controlled incineration incineration technology categories include: describes a process that tends to work without • Mobile incineration: Basic small-scale technical the addition of external fuels and where a suitably equipment provides a more continuous and slightly high temperature can be achieved. Controlled more controlled process than open burning, with a incineration units tend to include an exhaust gas fan that slightly increases the temperature. Beyond treatment system. Photo: Shutterstock / Lano Lan. 36 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands The incineration process results in both air Safe small-scale solutions with energy recovery emissions and solid remnants (usually in the form from plastic incineration have not been identified. of ash), which can include carcinogens, heavy The minimum scale for any process usage of energy is metals and other pollutants. The air emissions estimated in the range of around 200 kWth energy output. released are likely to include carcinogens such as Such an operation would require the input of around 15 polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins and furans, kg plastic waste per hour and a continuous operation among others. If plastics containing chlorine, such over several hours, given the plastic is moderately as PVC, are involved, acidic hydrogen chloride will contaminated. This number can be understood as also be discharged. A basic incineration setup breaks the absolute minimum based on market-available down volatile compounds, resulting in the emission biomass incineration technology (Interview with SEEGER of dense black smoke as well as an unpleasant odor Engineering, 2021). This is likely due to the technical and harmful air emissions. It also results in aesthetic complexity involved, the relatively high level of energy degradation—particularly relevant for places that rely loss for low waste volumes, the complex technical on tourism. Some plastics (e.g., from electronics) may requirements to bring exhaust gas emissions to an contain additional fractions like flame retardants that acceptable level and the need for safe disposal of could further distort the process or result in other any solid remnants. non-tolerable exhaust emissions. Related emissions are particularly harmful for the operating personnel 3.2.5 Landfilling of the incinerator and the people in close proximity. A sanitary landfill represents a simple, cheap and The incineration process not only generates gaseous final version of waste disposal without aiming emissions but also other solid remnants, usually in the at recovering deposited materials. The main form of ash, which can contain high levels of heavy objective of sanitary landfilling is the safe disposal metals and other pollutants. of waste. This is done by ensuring that negative Safe operation of incinerators means minimum effects on the environment (e.g., from leachates, requirements related to temperature, cleaning effluents of contaminated wastewater, discharge of of exhaust gas and disposal of solid remnants. air pollutants and excessive emission of greenhouse Temperatures for a process considered adequately safe gases) are minimized. Supportive technologies aim at range from 600° to 650° C as an absolute minimum. minimizing the required space and related emissions. In addition to the incinerator’s design, maintaining From a perspective of resource efficiency, landfilling these temperature ranges requires the right input is a less preferred option to any recovery process. material. A mixture of plastic fractions most common Yet, the related direct operating costs are low as are for packaging—PET, PP, HDPE and/or LDPE—generally the requirements on the waste management system. meets the requirements of a technically simple setup. Landfilling is still the preferred option for waste On the contrary, if the input consists of a mixture of fractions that cannot be treated otherwise. This organic fractions or liquids, the energetic value may be may apply to certain substances that are considered lowered excessively, distorting the process. To maintain dangerous and for which any alternative way of treatment at least basic environmental and health standards, (e.g., incineration) is not technically feasible. This simple incinerators require some sort of pre-treatment also included remnants from incineration processes (i.e., sorting) to achieve a relatively homogenous input like ashes, dust and slag. Depending on the level stream. In addition to high temperatures aiming for of sanitary operations of the landfill, and the social around 800°, exhaust gas treatment holding back and environmental context, landfilling is generally pollutants that cannot be dissolved (e.g., volatilized considered as the environmentally preferred option heavy metals) are required. Adequate exhaust cleaning against other disposal practices such as open burning is the basic pre-requirement for any form of controlled or unsafe technical incineration. plastic incineration. Any incineration process setup also needs to consider the subsequent disposal of ashes, dust and slags, commonly on a suitably designed sanitary landfill. Chapter 3: Technologies to Manage Plastic Waste | 37 Photo: Shutterstock / ImagineStock. 3.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY Any technological option for recovering value from UPTAKE plastic waste can only operate if synchronized with the collection system. In general, the higher From a perspective of resource efficiency— the value of the recyclate as output material, the higher extracting the highest value out of the plastic the requirements on the input material. To enable waste— material recycling is the most favorable economically viable recycling processes, a narrow option, followed by feedstock recycling and energy range of input parameters is required, necessitating recovery. The most relevant portion of plastic waste’s waste management practices that feed certain waste value is derived from the energy that has been invested fractions into the recycling process. The assessment to transform it from a raw material, commonly crude oil, on a suitable treatment technology must consider into plastic. Following the waste hierarchy, preventing the characteristics of the potential input material. (plastic) waste from being caused results in the least Even considering the limitations of technology pressure on any waste management system. Once applications outlined in the sections above, including an item has become waste and cannot be fed back the requirement of a certain scale, recovering some into a useful state (preparation for reuse), material value from plastic waste remains a possibility. In order (mechanical) recycling safeguards the biggest portion to maximize this, steps previous to waste treatment of this energy input. Feedstock (chemical) recycling like pre-treatment, efficient collection and separation reverses this process and makes no use of this portion need to be taken into consideration. These processes of a material’s value. Energy recovery processes are form part of an integrated solid waste management more agnostic concerning the input material, but the system that should be designed individually as per resource yield is also the lowest among all recovery the microsystem’s characteristics and requirement. processes. All options for recycling, recovery or Based on the above considerations, certain key findings safe disposal of plastic waste may play a role in a need to be taken into consideration when assessing well-designed waste management system. 38 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands the suitability for any technology to manage plastic • Minimum critical scale: All recycling processes waste on small and remote islands: are highly scale dependent (i.e., they need to • Dependence on available input material: be operated with a minimum input in order to Whichever technology is applied should depend have potential income exceeding the operational on the nature of the input material (i.e., the waste costs). This, again, refers to the access of the composition). The better the segregation, the correct input material and a more sophisticated more possibilities for subsequent treatment steps. mode of recycling. Therefore, technologies directly rely on adequate • Island limitations: Any technology solution on an practices of collection and separation. island will be more difficult and more expensive to • Pre-treatment requirements: Both for material and install, operate and maintain afar from mainland feedstock recycling, the input material requirements infrastructure. As an additional factors, technical can only be fulfilled through pre-treatment expertise might not always be available on a processes. Due to the usual variety of waste small and remote island. Thus, islands are not composition, including a variety of different plastic necessarily the best test locations for non-proven fractions, certain treatment and pre-treatment steps technologies that might require frequent repairs need to be combined to realize an operationally or adjustments, particularly those with safety and economically feasible model. Other than concerns, such as small-scale incineration. controlled incineration—which, due to the high Given the above outlined challenges concerning required temperatures, comes with a specific level technology uptake for plastic waste in island contexts, of process control—there is no one-size-fits-all any action to mitigate the adverse effects of plastic treatment solution for plastic waste. waste requires concerted action across the waste value chain, beyond just technologies alone. Chapter 3: Technologies to Manage Plastic Waste | 39 CHAPTER 4: TOPIC TOOLBOX TO IDENTIFY OPTIONS FOR MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE T he Technology Options for Plastic waste in Island Contexts (TOPIC) Toolbox has been developed to inform users about available solutions and technologies for plastic waste management in small and remote islands. Based on a defined set of user-entered criteria on the island’s plastic waste metrics and market access for recyclables, the TOPIC Toolbox identifies potential solutions and technologies, and outlines key considerations for feasibility assessment and implementation. Beyond these user-entered criteria, there are qualitative factors relating to the wider solid waste management system that should be considered when identifying solutions and technologies for plastic waste. These factors include any existing solid waste management infrastructure, stakeholder awareness of solid waste management practices and financing aspects, including potential additional funding sources. A limitation of the TOPIC Toolbox is that it cannot incorporate these qualitative factors. To address this limitation, this chapter of the report outlines a broader framework that should be considered in tandem with the TOPIC Toolbox when determining relevant solutions and technologies for plastic waste management in small and remote islands. The final part of the chapter introduces the TOPIC Toolbox to assist users in applying it to their island context. 4.1 UNDERSTANDING A FRAMEWORK FOR THE STATUS OF PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT ON AN ISLAND There are various factors that need to be considered when identifying options, including technologies, for managing plastic waste. There are no standard criteria for the selection of any technological component of a plastic waste management system specific to an island’s microsystem—these should be adapted based on conditions of each location. Given the remoteness and limited infrastructure, a sustainable technology should be low cost (investment and operation costs) and technically and legally feasible, ensuring pollution treatment efficiency and community acceptability (Eunomia, 2016). The decision related to a potential option for managing plastic waste should consider, amongst others, the local context, particularly the broader waste management system, waste volume and composition, available logistics, available technology, infrastructure, skills and financial resources, as well as main economic activity, intensity of tourism, stakeholder involvement, institutional framework and policy/ regulations. A framework can be applied to understand the status of a (plastic) waste management system on an island and help to inform potential options for managing plastic waste. This framework covers five key areas with particular relevance to plastic waste management. • Assess and evaluate relevant (plastic) waste metrics—answering the question, “What is the general understanding of the situation and scale of the issue?” 40 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands • Assess existing solid waste management 4.1.1 Relevant (Plastic) Waste Metrics infrastructure—answering the question, “Which An understanding of the plastic waste potential is activities have already been undertaken in order to needed to identify relevant options for managing mitigate adverse effects from waste management?” plastic waste. This needs to be built on reliable data • Assess potential market access for recyclables— including the quantity of collected or collectable plastic answering the question, “Is there already a system waste and its composition. In general, a small island in place for export of recyclables to other markets? is a limited space where the waste balance can be Or is there potential for such a system?” measured relatively well (see Figure 20). • Evaluate awareness of solid waste management Allocation. Where does waste occur/who generates practices, especially plastic waste—answering waste (e.g., household, commercial, tourism, river/ the question, “Are stakeholders aware of their beach cleaning)? (potential) role in waste management practices Usually, sources of waste generation on islands and willing to partake in it?” can be easily identified. Figure 20 shows that plastic • Explore financing aspects, including current waste occurrence on small and remote islands derives expenditure for waste management practices and from anthropogenic use of consumption goods from potential additional financing sources—answering households and commercial/tourist establishments. the question, “Which expenditure is required These waste generators on small islands can be easily for a functional waste management system and allocated (e.g., through assessing consumption patterns how can associated funds be made available/ as well as analyzing waste volumes). Islands whose accessed?“ economic activities are highly seasonal may experience The institutional framework and policies/regulations fluctuating waste generation (e.g., through tourism have not been explicitly addressed in the framework related activities). Certain import bottlenecks like a port, as these will vary significant depending on the island jetty or an airport are typical for small islands. These and national context. However, these aspects and how interfaces may allow easier monitoring of incoming they relate to the five key areas should be considered. goods that, after consumption, become waste. Figure 20. WASTE BALANCE ON ISLANDS Source: cyclos/ Lasaju Chapter 4: TOPIC Toolbox to Identify Options for Managing Plastic Waste | 41 A second source for plastic waste is derived from As an additional aspect within the waste hierarchy, marine litter, by and large originating outside hints for waste prevention can be generated from the island’s zone of influence. Fishing gear that is the analysis of the waste composition. recovered from the surrounding sea can be counted as Waste composition can be measured at several part of this marine litter, even though the accumulation interfaces, including at the point of generation, at point differs from waste washed ashore. the waste management facility or at the point of input Potential/ Quantity: How much (plastic) waste is or output at the treatment stage. generated? Collection rates and leakages: Which waste fractions The quantity of (plastic) waste is essential to are collected at which rate (waste collected)? informing potential options for managing plastic Given the importance of scale for viable options waste. By evaluating basic data on an island concerning to manage plastic waste, the coverage by inhabitants, tourism intensity and nature of commercial waste collection services (and therefore the and tourism activities, specific data concerning the potential for aggregation of plastic quantities) plastic waste potential (e.g., kg per inhabitant) can be is important. Organic waste may be treated on accessed. As many recycling or disposal processes are site through composting or feeding to animals (fish, adapted according to a critical (minimum) quantity, this chicken) even on a small scale, whereas some larger data informs on the potentially accessible quantity, commercial establishments like resorts may also be able allowing the maximum scale of a range for suitable to apply other treatment processes like incineration. solutions at the given point in time to be set. More Nevertheless, for common plastic fractions, these thorough evaluations take into consideration changing treatment processes are impossible (composting) consumption patterns and foresee socioeconomic or environmentally not acceptable (incineration). and demographic developments. Over time, these Therefore, a prerequisite for plastic waste to be will lead to different waste quantities and a different counted as managed is the coverage by collection assessment base. services. Collection modes include the aggregation Composition: What is the waste composition (at the of waste in buckets, bins, bags either on site of the two interfaces of waste generated and waste collected)? generator (connected households, commercial and tourism establishments) or in public spaces, and the In addition to the quantification of waste, the subsequent transport to a waste management site. Also, composition—, specifically in regard to the plastic the result from (beach) cleaning activities—forwarded content and different plastic types—is essential to a waste management site accordingly—can be to determining the uptake of potential options. considered as collected waste. Information on material composition beyond plastics is particularly relevant for all fractions that bear an Leakages are quantified based on the gap in between economic value, commonly from metals and paper, occurring waste—generated by consumption practices in addition to certain plastic items. Understanding on the island and accumulated marine litter from outside this composition allows assessment of the maximum the island—and collected waste. These leakages are value that can be extracted from the waste stream. considered mismanaged waste, usually in the form This value can either be extracted by feeding it into of open burning, burying or ultimately littering into existing (recycling) value chains or calculating a case the marine and terrestrial environment. for onsite treatment for recovery including recycling. For the assessment of options for managing plastic This value quantifies the potential to offset some waste waste, the current collection rate sets the minimum management costs. A deeper analysis beyond umbrella scale. Waste must be collected for potential options material fractions (like “plastics”) is required to allow be applied. This covers recovery including recycling for assessment of treatment solutions. For example, options or environmentally and socially sound disposal the treatment paths for different plastic fractions are options like sanitary landfill or controlled incineration. generally different. The maximum value extraction from Assessing the current collection rate allows for assessing one plastic fraction requires a specific solution that may suitable solutions given the status quo, whereas an not allow extraction of the maximum value out of a adaptation of the waste management system may different plastic fraction or may even be incompatible. result in different collection rates over time. 42 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands 4.1.2 Existing Solid Waste Management either through marketing valuable items and feeding Infrastructure them into existing value chains, or by setting up new Crucial for the assessment of the status quo of recovery facilities. Common pre-treatment processes waste management practices is the existing solid are sorting, realized within a wide range of manual waste management infrastructure and associated up to automated processes, washing, and shredding, skills/capacities to maintain and operate the as well as the preparation for transport (e.g., through infrastructure. In every waste management system, compaction or baling machines). the infrastructure needs to be synchronized with the Final treatment generated waste, characterized by the above outlined Depending on the accessible input material stream aspects (allocation, potential/quantity, composition after any pre-treatment processes, final treatment and leakages/collection rate). A functional waste could include disposal methods (for mixed waste)— management infrastructure is designed to collect and incineration or landfill—or target value extraction treat (or pre-treat for export) all waste adequately— through recovery and recycling processes (for waste the same applies for any microsystem like an island. that has been separated to some extent). Disposal Collection activities always have to be considered as a full recovery Collection determines all subsequent steps of the rate is technically not feasible. For example, any waste management system. Generally, the more that waste to energy incineration process also requires an homogenous waste streams are made accessible associated landfill available for remnants. Therefore, from the collection system (through separation) to based on the waste composition, suitable processes all following steps, the broader the possibilities to for recovery including recycling need to be taken into extract maximal value out of (plastic) waste streams. consideration jointly with disposal options. Chapter 3 Even for treatment on site, namely composting, plastic elaborates further on technology options for recovery is a contaminant that alters the decomposition process and disposal. and needs to be separated accordingly. 4.1.3 Market Access for (Plastic) Recyclables Separate collection of all possible waste fractions is One of the most important questions determining practically not possible. Not only would the complexity the most suitable solutions for small and very of such a system discourage participation, but the small islands is the question of market access. waste generator may also not be able to distinguish In other words, whether recyclables, including plastic, between different types of plastics. Simple mechanisms can be transported cost effectively to a larger island, like the separation of waste into dry and wet fractions cluster of islands or the mainland to be processed in may significantly contribute to less contamination of larger facilities. The market access is largely dependent different fractions and allow for better value extraction. on both the revenue that can be generated in those The aggregation and collection of mixed waste is markets (e.g., through mainland recycling companies) logistically easier to implement and may come with as well as the cost of bringing the recyclable material minimal collection costs. However, these advantages from the island to the market. are offset by lower value extraction potential, either through more sorting requirements or through the To assess the possibility of transport to a potential exclusion of certain recycling applications in case of market, several factors need to be taken into excessive levels of contamination, limiting treatment consideration. For example, does the regular boat/ options to disposal only. ferry connection allow for safe waste transport? As outlined above, islands usually import more material and Pre-treatment goods than they export, allowing for vacant space on Pre-treatment designates all activities that separate the connecting boats and associated cost advantages. mixed waste fractions from each other to divert Nevertheless, the available space may be unsuitable potentially valuable waste fractions into processes with for waste, due to strong odor or limited space. For the potential to recover some of the material’s value. certain items, specifically relatively high value items Any pre-treatment activity depends on established like metal or certain plastics, both volume and odor value creation potential at the treatment stage, can be minimized through correct separation at source. Chapter 4: TOPIC Toolbox to Identify Options for Managing Plastic Waste | 43 4.1.4 Stakeholder Awareness of Solid Waste 4.1.5 Sustainable Financing for (Plastic) Waste Management Management The willingness and ability of key stakeholders to Adequate (plastic) waste management, including undertake adequate (plastic) waste management the selection of suitable technological solutions, practices is essential to improving waste requires the implementation of a sustainable management. Any waste management system financing system. A market-based approach only is comprised of legal, institutional, financial and concentrates on waste fractions that bear sufficient value organizational provisions, as well as different entities to cover all associated waste management costs. To with their activities and responsibilities including local prevent littering, waste streams with insufficient value citizens, tourists, visitors and so on. The adequate must also be covered by the market. The gap in the technologies (e.g., collection infrastructure, sorting and value of the waste and the costs to collect it or remove treatment—including recycling and incineration plants) it from the environment needs to be bridged through an play a crucial role in operating a functionally designed appropriate waste management system. Understanding waste management system capable of adequately the financing of a waste management system as covering managing the plastic waste fraction. Importantly, a this balance in between occurring costs and potential functional waste management system goes beyond income opens additional opportunities to include any technological uptake and relies on its stakeholders existing informal sector structures as well as enabling to play an active role. Inadequate waste treatment new business models. See Figure 21 for a summary processes like open burning, open dumping, burying of potential waste financing sources. or littering into the marine and terrestrial environment Every functional waste management system can be associated with a lack of infrastructure and comes at a net cost. The coverage of these costs alternative options as well as a lack of awareness can derive from a number of sources, including: about the potential adverse health and environmental • Costs directly imposed on the waste generators effects. All functional waste management practices (e.g. households and commercial establishments) rely, at least partly, on the participation of every waste through regularly paid waste management fees, generator. Certain practices like littering render most commonly in the form of a “collection fee.” Using a subsequent steps practically impossible. Further, to waste management service can be made obligatory enable options that are higher up the waste hierarchy, and fees can be paid either to the municipality such as recycling, waste management systems also or to a private service provider. benefit from increasing participation levels through an increased level of separation at source or a larger • Direct budgetary allocations derived from different scale of available input material. levels of government (e.g., environmental budget from national, regional/state or local governments). Key stakeholder groups in a small or remote island context could include local government and national • Voluntary civil society engagement both government, citizens, fisherfolk, tourists (international financially (e.g., donations) or non-financially and national), the hospitality industry (mainly hotels (e.g., beach clean-ups or retrieval activities for and other accommodation providers), commerce and ALDFG). NGOs (active in environment topics). • Systems following the “polluter pays” principle, These stakeholder groups can be analyzed according commonly operationalized through EPR. In this to how they contribute to the observed plastic waste case, producers of goods (collectively) cover the management deficiencies, their potential to improve costs of the adequate management of the waste observed plastic waste management practices, how caused by these goods. Other funds from tourists they are adversely affected by current plastic waste and visitors can also be utilized to help finance management deficiencies and how they could benefit a waste management system, depending on the from improvements from the plastic waste management individual island context. system. • Extraction and marketing of valuable items found within the waste streams, recovering a part of their original value (refer to Chapter 1.1.3). 44 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 21. POTENTIAL SOURCES FOR FINANCING WASTE MANAGEMENT Source: cyclos/ Lasaju • Deposit refund systems that financially incentivize 4.2 USING THE TOPIC TOOLBOX the collection and recovery of recyclables. Based on the available technologies and Commonly, a mixture of several or all the above-men- considering the framework for (plastic) waste tioned sources are required and suitable. Therefore, management on islands, the TOPIC Toolbox was the possibility, accessibility and the actual potential developed to inform users about available solutions of a set of different finance mechanisms, including and technologies for plastic waste management their interdependencies, need to be considered for in microsystems like small and remote islands. an analysis on functionality of a waste management The TOPIC Toolbox is an Excel file that takes the user system. through a number of steps, requesting certain data to Improving financing for waste management can guide a decision on suitable solutions and technologies involve blending the higher costs of management for plastic waste management (see Figure 22). The more on islands into an overarching cost structure. quantitative determinants of an island’s plastic waste In many cases, the population residing on island characteristics—such as waste volumes, seasonality, microsystems forms a negligible part of the national collection rates and market access—can be captured total. This often remains the case even if considered by the TOPIC Toolbox. While the more qualitative at sub-national level (e.g., states). These higher waste characteristics are equally important, they cannot be management costs specific to islands may not be easily generalized and cannot be entered as data in substantial if blended into a wider national or state the TOPIC Toolbox, though they must still inform the budget. However, for countries with a high number specific judgment of any proposed technology or of islands—like Greece or Indonesia, as well as entire solution. Solutions and technologies are discussed in countries exclusively consisting of islands such as in detail to allow for a more informed decision. The TOPIC the Pacific—this option of blending the costs may Toolbox should be used in conjunction with an overall not be available. This may also be the case in some assessment of island (plastic) waste management, as jurisdictions within countries where much of the outlined in the framework. population resides on islands. Chapter 4: TOPIC Toolbox to Identify Options for Managing Plastic Waste | 45 Figure 22. TOOLBOX APPLICATION Source: cyclos/ Lasaju The TOPIC Toolbox translates input data into three The required data entries include the population of different recommendation clusters for plastic waste the island, estimated daily per capita waste generation management: and estimated share of plastic to further assess the • Suggestions to advance general waste management scale of the solution or technology. Only waste that practice based on key island data inputs. is collected can be managed, so the collection rate informs on the quantities available for treatment. Finally, • Information on the potential market access on the effect from tourist arrivals is reflected through an the mainland. optional seasonal factor from tourism. • A matrix displaying a set of technologies and Depending on the island characteristics ascertained solutions that may be suitable for the specific from the entered data, two boxes with findings and island case. These technologies and solutions recommendations are displayed. Two different outcomes are discussed in a condensed format within the are visualized in Figure 23 and Figure 24. Within the synthesis sheet and in detail in individual factsheets. TOPIC Toolbox, the orange buttons provide links to All three recommendation clusters are merged into other sheets containing additional information (as the conclusion sheet and outlined in more detail discussed in the following sub-sections). throughout this chapter. 4.2.2 Market Access 4.2.1 Island Data Inputs/Waste Characteristics Within the TOPIC Toolbox, the sheet “Market Access” The quantity of collected or collectable plastic waste (shown in Figure 25) allows for a simple calculation on and its composition needs to be assessed to identify the viability of transporting recyclable waste off the any solutions. These numbers need to be as precise island. Data entry includes market price for various as possible to identify potential solutions. Within the recyclables as well as the composition of recyclables TOPIC Toolbox, the sheet “Island Inputs” provides and estimated cost and capacity for transport. Based an interface for data entry (see Figure 23). on the data entry, a summary box displays relevant findings (identified by a yellow box in Figure 25). 46 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 23. TOOLBOX SHEET ‘ISLAND INPUTS’ (EXAMPLE A) Source: cyclos/ Lasaju Figure 24. TOOLBOX SHEET “ASSESSMENT OF RELEVANT WASTE CHARACTERISTICS” (EXAMPLE B) Source: cyclos/ Lasaju Chapter 4: TOPIC Toolbox to Identify Options for Managing Plastic Waste | 47 Figure 25. TOOLBOX SHEET “MARKET ACCESS” Source: cyclos/ Lasaju 4.2.3 Suggested Technologies and Solutions box indicates that this technology/solution fails to Matrix contribute to effective plastic waste management. The “Matrix” sheet (shown in Figure 26) visualizes All displayed solutions are further analyzed and technologies and solutions for managing plastic described in individual sheets that can be accessed waste on islands based on the maximum available from the matrix. Using the details in the individual sheets, plastic waste volume per day. The TOPIC Toolbox decision-makers—as experts for their islands—can only identifies the maximum available plastic determine whether or not a specific type of technology waste volume requiring treatment. The actual is appropriate. Examples of technologies and solutions volume of plastic waste available for different are provided. The objective is that decision-makers solutions is highly context-specific depending on are empowered to know what type of technology is the level of sorting, the level of contamination, the appropriate for their islands and which specific criteria different plastic types available and the extent they want to prioritize. to which these plastic types can be treated by Synthesis any particular solution. A detailed study should be completed to determine the feasibility of The “Synthesis” sheet provides an overview of the implementing any particular solution based on available options to manage plastic waste. Here, the specific island context. The potential solutions the key features of the technologies and solutions in range of the island’s waste characteristics are applicable for the island are outlined, allowing for a marked by a blue bar. All displayed technologies quick overview and comparison of key elements. Figure and solutions are ranked according to their potential 27 provides a simplified version of the “Synthesis” sheet to contribute to a functional waste management to show how different technologies and solutions are system. A green box indicates that this technology/ categorized according to five key criteria: operational solution can cause a significantly positive impact on complexity, economic viability, environmental effects, plastic waste management. A yellow box indicates social effects and its potential to contribute to better that this technology/solution can cause a marginally plastic waste management. The results are color positive impact on plastic waste management. A red coded: green signals a positive assessment for the 48 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands specific criteria; yellow signals a marginally positive 4.2.4 Conclusion assessment; and red signals a negative assessment. The “Conclusion” sheet summarizes the results of A conclusion is given to outline the support needed the previous sheets (see Figure 28). Findings and for uptake of the respective technology or solution. recommendations are displayed here for an easily Based on the island waste characteristics, a blue frame accessible overview. The given format is also optimized identifies potential solutions or technologies on the for printing. “Synthesis” sheet of the TOPIC Toolbox (not shown on the simplified version in Figure 27). Figure 26. TOOLBOX SHEET “MATRIX” Source: cyclos/ Lasaju Figure 27. SIMPLIFIED VISUALIZATION OF THE ‘SYNTHESIS’ WORKSHEET AS USED IN THE ISLAND CASE STUDIES Source: cyclos/ Lasaju Chapter 4: TOPIC Toolbox to Identify Options for Managing Plastic Waste | 49 Figure 28. TOOLBOX SHEET ‘CONCLUSION’ Source: cyclos/ Lasaju 50 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Photo: Shutterstock / Alen Thien. Chapter 4: TOPIC Toolbox to Identify Options for Managing Plastic Waste | 51 CHAPTER 5: APPLICATION OF THE TOPIC TOOLBOX TO MALAYSIA T he TOPIC Toolbox was applied to five case study islands in Malaysia to identify potential suitable solutions and technologies for management of plastic waste. This chapter outlines the island context in Malaysia and summarizes the results from the five case study islands, including key conclusions. Further detail on the solid waste management system on each case study island is provided in Appendix C. 5.1 ISLAND CONTEXT IN MALAYSIA Malaysia has around 130 inhabited islands, with the small and very small islands least able to effectively manage their (plastic) waste. The larger islands often have a more advanced waste management infrastructure—to which about 80 percent of the total Malaysian island’s population has access—that allows them to deal with plastic waste more effectively and at scale. While these islands naturally face a range of waste management challenges, the focus of this study is largely on small and very small islands (see Figure 29), that are often remote with the least ability to address plastic waste problems. In defining the terms “small” and “remote” for islands in this study it is necessary to take the specific context into consideration, as it varies in between countries and regions. Within the Malaysian context, the definition of “small” considered island population and geographic size. A four-part categorization of islands, namely Large and Extra Large, Medium, Small and Very Small, was developed (Figure 29). When defining “remote,” the importance of context for different islands made a fully quantifiable definition difficult. Instead, a combination of factors was used in addition to the factor “distance to mainland,” which does not sufficiently incorporate other elements. A qualitative, case-by-case approach was taken, including distance from the nearest major population center with a high degree of connectivity (including an airport with regular scheduled flights), effort needed to reach the island (including availability and frequency of passenger and non-passenger connections from the mainland) and time needed to reach the island. These small and remote islands in Malaysia face significant challenges in dealing with the solid waste generated by the local population, visitors and tourists. Due to a frequent lack of adequate waste management practices, plastic waste is dumped in unsanitary landfills/dumpsites or remains uncollected and is consequently littered into the marine and terrestrial environment. This adversely affects the viability of businesses and livelihoods relying on the functionality of these ecosystems. Financing waste management systems can also be a significant challenge and the Malaysian Government is exploring options to address this (see Box 2). 52 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 29. OVERVIEW OF MALAYSIAN ISLANDS BY GEOGRAPHIC SIZE AND NUMBER OF INHABITANTS Source: Lasaju BOX 2: EPR FOR PACKAGING IN MALAYSIA Support for the waste management system can come from Malaysia Plan has mentioned EPR as a policy approach producers and importers putting packed goods on the to support the recovery of post-consumer packaging Malaysian market through, for example, an EPR scheme. waste. Moving towards a mandatory EPR scheme by 2026, In this case, EPR could represent a solution to cover most the Malaysian Government will be formulating an EPR of the plastic packaging management costs within islands. framework that complements the Malaysian economy, A 2020 WWF study outlines a possible EPR scheme for aiming to ensure integrated and sustainable management packaging waste in Malaysia (WWF 2020) and includes of plastic waste. In general, EPR represents an important detailed proposals on functional waste management systems factor to sustainably finance plastic waste management in Malaysia. The Malaysian Government in its Twelfth alongside other income sources. 5.2 CASE STUDY ISLANDS IN MALAYSIA 672 States4 and non-Act States5; and (3) because they cover regions with very different market access. This Five case study islands off the east coast of Peninsular section summarizes the results for each island and Malaysia and in Semporna District, Sabah were analyzed Appendix C outlines the waste management system using the framework and the TOPIC Toolbox. These for each case study island in more detail. Conclusions islands were chosen: (1) based on their classification from applying the framework and Toolbox to case as small or very small islands; (2) to cover both Act study islands in Malaysia are outlined in section 5.3. 4 The Federal Government maintains responsibility for waste management, contributes financially to well-functioning waste collection and disposal infrastructure, and appoints a waste management concessionaire. 5 The waste management responsibility remains with the local level governments who often have limited funding, so the waste management systems are often underdeveloped. Chapter 5: Application of the TOPIC Toolbox to Malaysia | 53 5.2.1 Peninsular Islands TIOMAN ISLAND Rompin District, State of Pahang; Act 672 State Population: 3,000 Tioman Island is one of the three largest tourism islands at the East coast of Peninsular Malaysia, located within the Rompin District, Pahang and is accessible by ferry from both Rompin (Pahang) and Mersing (Johor). Figure 30. MAP OF TIOMAN ISLAND Source: Google Maps, Lasaju Table 2. SUMMARY OF TOOLBOX ASSESSMENT OF TIOMAN ISLAND Waste Characteristics Solid waste: 2,610 kg per day Plastic waste: 313 kg per day Collected plastic waste: 282 kg per day—well segregated Market Access • Local recycler/mixed junkyard in Mersing (mainland city servicing Tioman). • Regular cargo boat with empty back haul available. • Compaction of recyclables is required to make this a cost-effective solution. • Dry storage area for cardboard is also required. Technologies/Solutions • Plastic waste volumes only support artisanal recycling or eco-bricks. • Micro-pyrolysis is possible but not economically viable. Improved storage and compaction needed for export of recyclables. • Controlled incineration could be used for residuals. • The existing incinerator should be assessed to ensure it meets health and environmental standards. Conclusion • Artisanal and eco-brick recycling for a small fraction of the waste. Improved handling and logistics would allow more recyclable materials to be sent to the mainland recycling market to be mechanically recycled in commer- cial-scale facilities. 54 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 31. COLLECTION EXAMPLES IN TIOMAN FOR MIXED WASTE AND RECYCLING COLLECTION Source: Lasaju Figure 32. GLASS RECYCLING Source: Rumah Hijau, Lasaju Figure 33. OCC COLLECTED AND STORED IN DEPOT Source: Lasaju Chapter 5: Application of the TOPIC Toolbox to Malaysia | 55 PERHENTIAN ISLAND Besut District, State of Terengganu; non-Act State Population: 2,000 Perhentian Island is also one of the three largest tourism islands at the East coast of Peninsular Malaysia and attracts local and international tourists. The island is located at Kuala Besut, Besut District, Terengganu, which is near to the Terengganu State and Kelantan State border. Figure 34. MAP OF PERHENTIAN ISLANDS Source: Google Maps, Lasaju Table 3. SUMMARY OF TOOLBOX ASSESSMENT OF PERHENTIAN ISLAND Waste Characteristics Solid waste: 1,740 kg per day Plastic waste: 244 kg per day Collected plastic waste: unknown—minimal segregation Market Access • Recycling can be sold in Besut. • Transport cost needs to be lowered to achieve market access—compaction into bales and regular use of the empty backhaul to lower the cost. Technologies/ Solutions • Plastic waste volumes only support artisanal recycling or eco-bricks. • Micro-pyrolysis is possible but not economically viable. • Improved storage and compaction needed for export of recyclables. • Sanitary landfill could be considered in place of exporting all waste. Conclusion • Artisanal and eco-brick recycling for a small fraction of the waste. • Improved handling and logistics would allow more recyclable materials to be sent to the mainland recycling market to be mechanically recycled in commercial-scale facilities. 56 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 35. COLLECTION EXAMPLES IN PERHENTIAN FOR MIXED WASTE AT COLLECTION POINT AND PUBLIC CLEANSING Source: Lasaju 5.2.2 Semporna Islands The following four islands are within the Semporna Islands cluster, owing to their relative proximity to Semporna on the south-eastern coast of Sabah, the administrative district where the islands are located, and the islands’ economic and geographical relationship to the town of Semporna. Figure 36. MAP OF THE SEMPORNA ISLANDS STUDIED Source: Google Maps, Lasaju Chapter 5: Application of the TOPIC Toolbox to Malaysia | 57 MABUL ISLAND Semporna District, State of Sabah; non-Act State Population: 3,900 Table 4. SUMMARY OF TOOLBOX ASSESSMENT OF MABUL ISLAND Waste Characteristics Solid waste: 2,340 kg per day Plastic waste: 281 kg per day Collected plastic waste: 197 kg per day—poorly segregated Market Access • Recycling offtake market in Semporna is absent. • Possible market in Tawau 1.5 hours away by road but transport would be costly. Technologies/ Solutions • Plastic waste volumes only support artisanal recycling or eco-bricks. • Micro-pyrolysis is possible but not economically viable. • Controlled incineration or controlled landfill could be considered, although space is limited and these options are available on the mainland. Conclusion • Artisanal and eco-brick recycling for a small fraction of the waste. • Bulk of the waste disposed by controlled landfill or controlled incineration on the mainland. Figure 37. Figure 38. LOCAL CARGO BOAT (JUNGKONG) AND WASTE COMMUNITY BURN PILE NEAR ONE OF THE WASHED ON SHORE IN BETWEEN TIDES VILLAGES Source: Lasaju Source: Lasaju Figure 39. Figure 40. GUNNY SACK WITH COMMUNITY WASTE, MABUL AD-HOC WASTE COLLECTION BINS, MABUL ISLAND ISLAND Source: Lasaju; Image: Mabul Island Community Source: Lasaju; Image: Mabul Island Community 58 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 41. Figure 42. WHEELIE WASTE BIN DONATED BY PACKAGING WASTE FOUND ON BORNEO DIVERS PANGLIMA REEF Source: Lasaju Source: Lasaju POM POM ISLAND Semporna District, State of Sabah; non-Act State Population: 140 Table 5. SUMMARY OF TOOLBOX ASSESSMENT OF POM POM ISLAND Waste Characteristics Solid waste: 85 kg per day Plastic waste: 10 kg per day Collected plastic waste: 9 kg per day—poorly segregated Market Access • Recycling offtake market in Semporna is absent. • Possible market in Tawau 1.5 hours away by road but transport would be costly. Technologies/ Solutions • Plastic waste volumes only support artisanal recycling or eco-bricks. • Improvements in the collection process with bins and containers would help with the overall disposal of the mixed waste to the mainland. Conclusion • Artisanal and eco-brick recycling for a small fraction of the waste. • Bulk of the waste disposed by controlled landfill or controlled incineration on the mainland. Figure 43. Figure 44. WASTE WASHED OVER A 12-HOUR PERIOD AT UNCOLLECTED WASTE WASHED IN CLOSED POM POM ISLAND RESORT BEACH FRONT PROPERTIES ON POM POM ISLAND Source: Lasaju Source: Lasaju Chapter 5: Application of the TOPIC Toolbox to Malaysia | 59 Figure 45. Figure 46. SHED MADE FROM PET AND FLEXIBLE PLASTICS SEGREGATION AT TRACC CONVERTED TO ECOBRICKS AT TRACC Source: Lasaju Source: Lasaju MATAKING/TIMBA TIMBA Semporna District, State of Sabah; non-Act State Population: 163 (just 3 on Timba Timba) Table 6. SUMMARY OF TOOLBOX ASSESSMENT OF MATAKING/TIMBA TIMBA ISLANDS Waste Characteristics Solid waste: 98 kg per day Plastic waste: 12 kg per day Collected plastic waste: 11 kg per day—poorly segregated Market Access • Recycling offtake market in Semporna is absent. • Possible market in Tawau 1.5 hours away but transport would be costly. Technologies/ Solutions • Plastic waste volumes only support artisanal recycling or eco-bricks. • Existing technical incineration on island and collection of other waste for export to mainland. Conclusion • Artisanal and eco-brick recycling for a small fraction of the waste. • Current waste management system of technical incineration on island and controlled landfill on mainland is effective but the environmental and health impacts of the technical incineration should be evaluated. Figure 47. Figure 48. SMOKELESS INCINERATOR INSTALLED WASTE READY FOR INCINERATION AT THE REEF PRIVATELY AT THE REEF DIVE RESORT DIVE RESORT Source: Lasaju Source: Lasaju 60 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Figure 49. Figure 50. COLLECTED WASTE AT PET BOTTLE CONVERTED TO CORAL PLANTER AT TIMBA TIMBA ISLAND MATAKING ISLAND Source: Lasaju Source: Lasaju 5.3 ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS FROM disposal options already available on the mainland THE CASE STUDY ISLANDS IN MALAYSIA should always be considered. The five islands studied each present challenges • In all island situations, artisanal recycling solutions in terms of overall scale of the plastic waste and/or Ecobricks would be able to process a portion volumes, level of market access and transportation of the plastic waste, but these solutions cannot costs, as well as the quality and extent of the treat all of the plastic waste volume. existing waste management infrastructure and • If there is a need to dispose of the waste locally funding sources. on the island, both private sector (e.g., hotels/ • Given the small scale of plastic waste on the islands, resorts) as well as local governments often opt available solutions were limited to transport of for technical or controlled incineration options. recyclables/waste to the mainland, artisanal Controlled incineration should be prioritized over recycling and controlled landfilling, with controlled technical incineration to ensure the exhaust gas incineration available in some cases. treatment is sufficient. The resulting incineration • The Peninsular Malaysia islands of Tioman and ash must be disposed to a suitable controlled Perhentian have reasonable access to recycling landfill. markets. The focus for these islands is to enable • The Act 672 status of an island, as well as the and improve the recycling market access through presence of active NGOs, positively affected the separation of the materials and compacting, as funding and effectiveness of the waste management well as improved logistics and handling system and, in particular, the collection and • The absence of market access is a key challenge for separation of plastic. the islands in the Semporna District. The focus is • Marine litter poses a challenge for the Semporna on disposal options such as controlled incineration district islands, particularly seasonal tides and or landfilling. winds that increase the amount of collected island • In all case studies, the distance to the mainland is waste. This further impacts the ability of existing relatively short, so in addition to finding disposal informal waste collection on the islands to manage solutions on the island itself, the option to utilize and finance the waste management system. Chapter 5: Application of the TOPIC Toolbox to Malaysia | 61 CHAPTER 6: KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL AND REMOTE ISLANDS T his chapter outlines the key takeaways from the study for island administrators for small and remote islands globally. 6.1 APPLICABILITY OF THE FRAMEWORK AND THE TOPIC TOOLBOX Only by building an individualized, context-specific understanding of an individual island’s waste management system is it possible to design effective solutions to plastic waste. Each island—in and beyond Malaysia—has specific characteristics determining the most suitable waste management solutions and technologies. This includes elements related to the organizational and financial aspects of the waste management system. Therefore, a qualitative case study is essential to accompany use of the TOPIC Toolbox. The TOPIC Toolbox allows for identification of potential technologies and solutions specific to those characteristics that can be quantitatively captured. Applying the TOPIC Toolbox to the different types of islands based on quantitative datapoints provides a very simple and intuitive list of technology solutions. For the islands that have been subject to the case studies for this assignment, the application of the TOPIC Toolbox provided a good starting point of options for the island specific case study. As expected, several solutions are already implemented to a certain extent on the case study islands. Importantly, the TOPIC Toolbox helps to rule out technologies and solutions that are not feasible. The TOPIC Toolbox provides a general recommendation as well as notes on key factors that enable and disable application of the respective option in an island context. These findings—synthesized in the respective sheet and laid out in detail in the technology factsheets—have generally proven to provide reliable guidance for the right solutions and technologies. The design of the TOPIC Toolbox was informed by the situation on small and remote islands—specifically applied in Malaysia—but its applicability extends beyond. As the TOPIC Toolbox has largely been informed by general guidelines to evaluate waste management practices (refer to Section 4.1) and an evaluation of successful practices conducted in islands throughout the world (refer to Chapter 2), its applicability to other microsystems, including remote mainland areas in and beyond Malaysia can be assumed. The main factors narrowing the geographic scope of applicability are the selected technology examples, described in detail in the factsheets on technologies and solutions (refer to the TOPIC Toolbox). These examples have largely been taken from those available on the Malaysian market, but the guiding principles of each technology and solution are applicable beyond Malaysia. Applying the TOPIC Toolbox on other islands 62 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands and microsystems in other Southeast Asian countries, 6.3 SCALE OF PLASTIC/SOLID WASTE IS for example, and complemented by the qualitative CRITICAL FOR TECHNOLOGY DECISIONS aspects of the framework, will allow the user to identify The absolute scale of the plastic waste and the relevant solutions. overall waste volume have a significant impact on The case studies conducted within Malaysia have the solutions that can be implemented on islands. generally proven the applicability of the TOPIC Toolbox. As outlined in Chapter 3 and analyzed in-depth within Based on these findings, three topics have been the TOPIC Toolbox, even incineration (i.e., the last identified as of particular relevance: collection, scale disposal option in the waste management hierarchy) and market access. These are determining factors for has certain scale requirements to ensure safe disposal establishment of a (plastic) waste management system by achieving a minimum temperature with adequate on a small and remote island (or other microsystems)— exhaust cleaning as well as a disposal concept for solid in Malaysia and beyond. remnants (ash). The same applies to a controlled landfill where a minimum scale is required to make it viable. 6.2 COMPREHENSIVE PLASTIC WASTE In addition, to implement, operate and maintain any COLLECTION AND SEPARATION responsible disposal solution on an island, a minimum waste quantity and a minimum infrastructure need to be A comprehensive waste collection and separation present. Most recycling technologies (i.e., non-artisanal system is required to cover a maximum of the material recycling and chemical recycling) that have available (plastic) waste volumes. In some cases, been identified in this study require a critical scale that mixed waste is collected, in other cases, no clear can be characterized as “industrial scale,” which small formal waste management can be identified (i.e., the islands’ waste volumes cannot generate. On the other predominant practice is burying waste or dumping/ hand, micro-recycling processes may be viable, but are littering into the terrestrial and marine environment). insufficient to cover for all plastic waste volumes and As a first step towards improved waste management, a composition regularly occurring in municipal waste. system that collects waste needs to be in place. In some regions, this is happening already, particularly in Act 672 states. Depending on the island’s context, collection 6.4 MARKET ACCESS IS KEY can be largely land-based and then transported off the Market access is one of the most important factors island from a central waste management center (e.g., determining how plastic (and other recyclable) in proximity to a jetty). In some cases, the population waste is treated on (or off) an island. If the recyclable may be better accessible through waterways, making a material can be transported to the mainland at a centralized waste management center more challenging. reasonable cost, then high value materials such as As a second step, this system needs to be adapted to rigid mono-material plastic should be mobilized and allow for better separation of different fractions—as a fed into an existing (material) recycling infrastructure, fundamental prerequisite to distinguish plastic fractions where the materials can be effectively and responsibly from all other waste. Currently, waste management processed. Even though an opportunity to create local practices on Malaysian islands barely include waste island-based value chains may not be realized in this separation. case, a full isolation of local value chains from more Valuables should be extracted from the waste integrated ones on the mainland is neither feasible streams. The extent market mechanisms can extract from a technical nor economic point of view. Malaysia’s these valuables depends on the level of access to waste management system consists of a functional, places with functioning recyclables markets. Islands market-based recycling value chain for common plastic can improve extraction of valuables by: (1) separating fractions, which should be utilized wherever possible. at source; and (2) by easing logistics and reducing Market price at the mainland collection point is transport costs, such as through a baling machine often not high enough to cover the entire cost of and related material handling equipment. A small collection, segregation and transport. Currently, baler operated by trained personnel that commissions communities and NGOs on the islands, along with the material fractions according to their market value can waste management operators, directly or indirectly significantly reduce handling and transport costs, support and subsidize this mobilization through allowing for greater cost recovery. awareness campaigns, volunteering, donations and Chapter 6: Key Takeaways for Plastic Waste Management in Small and Remote Islands | 63 transport services. As a result, the high value materials 6.6 UPSTREAM SOLUTIONS ARE are being mobilized for recycling, partly offsetting ESSENTIAL some costs associated with waste management on Sustainably managing plastic on islands requires the islands. As mentioned in Section 6.2, baling and upstream solutions to reduce the amount of plastic material handling technologies may also be able to consumed and plastic wasted. This study has focused reduce the costs for segregation and transport. on the downstream management of plastic waste and identified that there is not one technological 6.5 NO SINGLE TECHNOLOGICAL solution available to fix the challenge of plastic waste SOLUTION on islands. It is necessary to develop an integrated Recycling technologies only provide partial waste management system that ensures effective solutions for processing plastic waste and need to collection and segregation, as well as capitalizes be combined with other solutions. Every technology on market access for recyclables, where applicable. application that has been analyzed as part of this However, as identified in the case studies, it is often study requires a narrow or at least defined set of necessary to use solutions at the bottom of the waste input parameters. Therefore, these solutions must hierarchy, such as landfilling or incineration, to deal with be integrated into a broader waste management all plastic waste on islands. These solutions can have framework that incentivizes or requires pre-treatment environmental and social risks associated with them of waste. Recycling technologies cannot be used to and require significant investment to be developed treat all plastic waste and must therefore be combined and operated safely. It is essential that attention is also with other solutions. If the plastic waste cannot be given to the first step of the waste hierarchy to reduce recycled within the island’s microsystem or transported plastic waste in the first place. Upstream measures to the mainland at an acceptable net cost, but the can include policies to reduce the import and use of island has significant enough waste volumes for a specific problematic plastic items, such as the plastic local disposal solution, then a controlled landfill or bag ban introduced in Samoa in 20196 or the plastic bag controlled incineration are likely the best disposal levy in Tonga7. It is also possible to implement policies options. to reduce plastic waste from tourism, for example, all day tourists in Mabul are required to bring their • Basic controlled landfills can be constructed on plastic waste back to the mainland. Any upstream islands with adequate space to dispose of waste policies must be developed with consideration for the on site. The technologies applied usually use local context and an assessment of the institutional locally available resources like soil or dust to cover arrangements and political economy. the landfill. For mechanized solutions, a material handling machine can also be used to compact the waste to minimize space requirements and extend the landfill’s lifetime. • Any controlled incineration technology solution needs to fit the local context and be robust enough and/or equipped with the relevant pre-treatment to deal with the incoming waste composition. The incinerator should also be equipped with an acceptable level of flue gas treatment and flexible enough to deal with seasonally higher waste volumes. It is also crucial that incineration technology is combined with an effective treatment solution for the solid remnants (ash). 6 https://www.sprep.org/news/samoa-joins-the-fight-against-plastic-pollution 7 https://www.sprep.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/waste-legislation-tonga.pdf 64 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands REFERENCES Agamuthu, P., Nagendran P. 2010. “Waste Management Challenges in Sustainable Development of Islands.” Alam, M., Siwar, C., Innocent, A. “Waste Recycling in Malaysia Transition from Developing to Developed Country.” Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia (UKM), Indian Journal of Education and Information Management. October 2015. Vol 4 (1). Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI). 2022. LITTERBASE - Online Portal for Marine Litter & Microplastics and their Implications for Marine Life. 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Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2020. “The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Sustainability in Action.” Rome. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)/ United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). 2009. “Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear.” UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies 185/FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper 523. Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV. “Options for increased use of secondary plastics, study on prevention of plastic waste in production and consumption, promoting the use of secondary plastics.” GA Circular. 2019. “Full Circle. Accelerating the Circular Economy for Post-Consumer PET bottles in Southeast Asia.” https://www.gacircular.com/full-circle/. IUCN. 2020. “Plastic waste free islands.” https://www.iucn.org/theme/marine-and-polar/our-work/close- plastic-tap-programme/plastic-waste-free-islands Institut cyclos-HTP. 2019. “Verification and examination of recyclability.” J. Brandrup, M. Bittner, W. Michaeli, G. Menges (Hrsg.). “Die Wiederverwertung von Kunststoffen.” Carl Hanser Verlag, München/ Wien. 1995, ISBN 3-446-17412-5. References | 65 JPSPN. 2013. “Survey on Solid Waste Composition, Characteristics & Existing Practice of Solid Waste Recycling in Malaysia.” Landkreis Wittmund. 2020. Lebreton, L., Slat, B., Ferrari, F., Sainte-Rose, B., Aitken, J., Marthouse, R., Reisser, J. 2018. “Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is Rapidly Accumulating Plastic.” Scientific Reports. 8(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22939-w. 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Plastic Energy. 2019. https://plasticenergy.com/press-release-petronas-chemicals-signs-mou-with-plastic- energy/ Plastics Europe. 2018. “European plastic converter demand by polymer types in 2017, Plastics – The facts.” Plastics Today. 2019. “Injection Machines have key role to play in circular economy.” March 19, 2021. https://www.plasticstoday.com/injection-molding/injection-machines-have-key-role-play-circular-econ- omy. Roland Geyer, Jenna R. Jambeck and Kara Lavender. “Law, production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.” Science Advances. July 19, 2017. Vol. 3, No. 7. e1700782DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1700782. Schlummer, Martin; Fell, Tanja; Mäurer, Andreas; Altnau, Gerald. 2020. “The role of chemistry in Plastic recycling—a comparison of physical and chemical plastics recycling.” Kunstoffe International. May 2020. SEEGER Engineering. Interview with Helmut Seeger. March 4, 2021. Shamshiry, E., Nadi, B., Bin Mokhtar, M., Komoo, I., Saadiah Hashim, H., & Yahaya, N. 2011. “Integrated Models for Solid Waste Management in Tourism Regions: Langkawi Island, Malaysia.” Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 1 – 5. Susanne Kühn, Elisa L. Bravo Rebolledo, Jan A. van Franeker. 2015. “Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life.” The New York Times. May 16, 2017. “A remote island awash in trash.” March 18, 2021. https://www.nytimes. com/2017/05/16/world/australia/henderson-island-plastic-debris-south-pacific.html?_r=1. The Ocean Cleanup. 2018. Annual Report. The PEW. 2020. “Breaking the plastic wave.” Partnership with: Oxford University, University of Leads, Ellen Macarthur Foundation and Common Sea. Wassim Chaabane. 2020. “Solid waste management in tourism destination in Tunisia: diagnostic and improvement approaches.” Rostock University. 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References | 67 APPENDIX A: TREATMENT OF ABANDONED, LOST OR OTHERWISE DISCARDED FISHING GEAR (ALDFG) MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF ALDFG Fishing nets themselves are mainly made of plastic, most commonly Nylon (PA) but they can also be made of polyester (PES), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), or a mixture thereof. Additionally, a variety of plastics is also used in the production of other types of fishing gear or components of fishing equipment (e.g., PP or PET for ropes, PE for floating buoys). Non-plastics are also used in the form of wooden trawl boards, cork for buoys, as well as (ferrous) metal chains and sink weights commonly made from non-ferrous lead. In addition to the material mix of the net equipment, other substances usually contribute to heavy contamination of recovered ALDFG —increasingly so with longer duration in the sea. ALDFG may have been located in seawater for decades and might therefore be overgrown, polluted, silted up, possibly contaminated with harmful substances, as well as organic and inorganic material. These impurities not directly connected to the ALDFG’s original material composition can account for more than 20 percent of the total weight of recovered ALDFG. The mix of materials and the salinity make it difficult to treat fishing gear, particularly if accumulated over time. The treatment is technically demanding and resource and labor-intensive. Separating the different material fractions is only possible manually—any technological application comes with the additional challenge of the corrosion potential resulting from the salinity [(Stolte, Schneider, 2018, Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety and Energy Technology UMSICHT (Fraunhofer UMSICHT), 2019]. ALDFG RECYCLING The EU project MARELITT Baltic focuses on the retrieval and collection of ALDFG as well as its processing and utilization. One core objective of the project is to identify and assess feasible methods for proper treatment, including economic and environmental considerations, as one component of the broader aim to minimize harm from ALDFG. Other areas of interest include methods for preventing, tracing and retrieving ALDFG (MARELITT Baltic, 2019). Specifically, the results concerning the recycling methods can be considered generic and applied beyond the area of scope within the Baltic Sea. (WWF 2016) A recent study (Altvater, Michel 2018) on fishing gear material recycling finds that existing processes almost exclusively recycle end-of-life nets (i.e., nets that have been disposed of), but only very limitedly retrieved ALDFG. Even for the end-of-life gear that has not been recovered from the ocean directly, specifically defined disposal and recycling routes have not been identified. Market available material either consists of negligible fractions from retrieved ALDFG, like PE or PP, or recycled nylon retrieved from the ocean that is used at a rate of 1-10 percent of the end product. Recycled volumes are inflated by measuring the weight of the retrieved ALDFG including moisture contents of up to 40 percent as well as high portions of impurities. Further research within this study has shown that—despite dedicated marketing—the statements concerning actual ALDFG content of recycled materials are not disclosed, which may confirm the findings of Altvater/ Michel (2018) (e.g., for the material “Econyl” (Econyl 2021)).8 It is assumed that recyclates like “Econyl” are marketed at a premium over virgin material in order to reflect the higher production costs. 8 The authors clarify that this statement is concerning the content of ‘ALDFG’ within the respective material, not concerning the general content of recycled material. The high share of recycled material from sources other than retrieved ALDFG does still support the goals of a circular economy and is ranked accordingly high in the waste hierarchy. 68 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands The possibility of using recycled ALDFG depends primarily on the quality of the material. Significant parameters are the degree of contamination and plastic purity. Thus, the viability of any material recycling is directly dependent on the applied pre-treatment steps. MATERIAL OR MECHANICAL RECYCLING Figure A1 shows the five-stage treatment process for ALDFG developed in the MARELITT Baltic project (Fraunhofer UMSICHT 2019). At the beginning, the impurities are removed manually in order to facilitate subsequent processing steps and, in particular, to protect further machinery (shredding units) from excessive wear or clogging. Large metal parts, rocks and other bulky items are removed by hand in the pre-sorting process. In addition to removing organic and mineral impurities, the lead lines are cut out of the nets and the material is cut into smaller pieces. After shredding, a magnetic separator extracts small residual magnetic metal parts that have not been removed by pre-sorting. Note that lead is a non-ferrous material that cannot be removed magnetically. In the case of thermal disposal or landfill, the net material can be transported directly to the respective site. In order reduce the corrosion potential for incineration machinery, a reduction of the salt content may be carried out through pre-washing. On the other hand, required pre-treatment to feed in material from ALDFG into the material recycling chain requires a much more complex process setup. Figure A1. PRE-TREATMENT PROCESS FOR ALDFG WITH A VIEW TO MATERIAL RECYCLING Source: Fraunhofer UMSICHT 2019) In the case of material recycling, a density separation salt solution for the separation of heavy impurities such as stones, sand, metals and glass follows. A rewash is necessary to reduce the salt load. After density separation, the material is suitable for material recycling processes with less strict input parameters—like sintering and intrusion. A separation of PE and PP from PET and PA is not required, whereas extrusion as a prerequisite for every higher value recycling requires a more homogenous input stream and further treatment steps have to be added. This starts with swim-sink tanks that are used for density separation. In the first stage, light and heavy materials are separated from each other. Sand, stones and metals, heavy plastics (e.g., PET) all sink, while light(er) plastics such as PE, PP and Nylon float. In the second stage of density separation, the light PE and PP are separated from the heavier Nylon for further separate treatment. As the subsequent step, the shredded material is washed. The fibrous material has to be freed from remaining impurities like sand, salt and organic matter and further broken down, applying friction washers or centrifugal washers. If the aim is re-granulation through extrusion for feeding the recyclates back into the (virgin) plastic value chain, a further grinding step is applied. The processed ALDFG is used to produce a fibrous, fluffy target product at the end of the entire process, which can be fed into an extrusion process. Nylon is, in small quantities compatible with PS and PET for the extrusion process. Yet it is completely incompatible with PE and PP due to their much lower melting temperatures. PS and PET contaminations can reach up to 5 percent by weight, whereas PE and PP must only be present at marginal rates. This demonstrates that a high degree of pre-treatment does not necessarily lead to success in the targeted recycling of materials. Even after the further processing techniques such as friction or centrifugal separation are carried out, the material still contains impurities (sand) and contaminations (lead). The process trials conducted by the researchers resulted Appendix A: Treatment of Abandoned, Lost or otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) | 69 in knotted, felted and entangled material still containing different polymer types. All these material properties hinder or even prevent recycling by plastic recyclers. Feeding pre-treated ALDFG into other recycling streams (i.e., operational facilities with established input material streams) comes with a high risk of distorting the process. In conclusion, the following problems have emerged for material recycling of ALDFG: • High degree of contamination with sediments and organic matter • High level of contamination with salt, adsorbed pollutants, lead • The different plastics are difficult to separate from each other after shredding due to strong felting of the fiber material • Manual sorting of coarse contaminants is time-consuming and cost-intensive, but also needs to be carried out prior to incineration and energy recovery • The processing of ALDFG is technically cost-intensive, yet successful material recycling is by and large uncertain ALDFG recycling requires a multi-stage, cost-intensive treatment process which only makes sense if the proceeds from the recycling are very high or if economic aspects are fully taken out of the picture. According to the current state of knowledge, Fraunhofer UMSICHT (2019) does not recommend any high-value material recycling, as the technical and financial expenditure appears to be far too high and thus also ineffective in terms of energy, resources and emissions. Therefore, even applying sophisticated pre-treatment steps, material recycling possibilities for ALDFG are by and large limited to lower-value material recycling processes, including sintering and intrusion. FEEDSTOCK OR CHEMICAL RECYCLING The MARELITT Baltic researchers looked at two different feedstock recycling processes that may be used for the recycling of fishing nets, namely pyrolysis and hydration/ steam reforming. Pyrolysis is by and large ruled out due to the relatively high moisture content of the retrieved ALDFG. A respective moisture content of around 30 percent even after prolonged storage has proven to be incompatible with the process that would tolerate only about 5 percent. Additional restrictions for productive use within a pyrolysis process are related to salt loads and the contamination level, particularly with lead. Ensuring that these pollutants are separated within the process is required for the usability of the process’ products (i.e., pyrolysis oil and flue gas). The flue gas cleaning must be designed accordingly for chlorine and heavy metal loads. Toxic emissions are possible without complex post-washing or post-combustion. Hydration as a second process option has been considered, as well. Even though certain process parameters allow for a wider input range, particularly concerning the moisture content, other hindrances concerning contamination persist. Even more pronounced than the pyrolysis process, hydration is considered experimental with no setup that closely resembles ALDFG as input material being operational nor successfully trialed. INCINERATION According to internationally common standards (e.g., as stipulated in EU regulations) the unconditional prerequisite for thermal processing is the environmentally compatible disposal of pollutants. In the case of ALDFG in general, this mainly refers to the lead content. A further obstacle to incineration and cause for machine corrosion can be salt load due to ALDFG’s prolonged residence in the ocean. Even though disposal concepts like incineration rank lowest in the waste hierarchy, the MARELITT Baltic project found it a more suitable treatment solution than recycling, due to the experienced challenges and the generally unsatisfying outcome from pre-treatment processes (Fraunhofer UMSICHT 2019). 70 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands SUMMARY AND FURTHER RECOMMENDATIONS The analyses undertaken by Fraunhofer UMSICHT (2019) within the MARELITT Baltic are thorough and the methodology and its results are cohesive. Several key points are noted from Fraunhofer UMSICHT’s analysis: • Feeding recyclates back into the plastic value chain (through extrusion) is barely possible due to contamination, material mixture; intensive pre-treatment is required in any case. • Pyrolysis is an unproven technology for recycling ALDFG or relevant constituents of ALDFG. Furthermore, the moisture content commonly found in ALDFG is incompatible. • Hydrolysis (designated here as “steam reformation”) is a theoretically suitable but experimental technology for recycling ALDFG or relevant constituents of ALDFG. Furthermore, due to extremely high energy input requirements, the recycling would yield in a high net loss. • Incineration as a disposal process may be feasible but comes with challenges concerning the corrosion of the machinery as well as the high pollution potential from lead content. • The only feasible recovery path for relevant quantities of ALDFG consists of sintering or intrusion (designated as “downcycling”). • Landfilling as a disposal process is not mentioned. This study considers it feasible in a sanitary landfill context due to controllable pollution levels with limited potential for harmful emissions into the environment. This study has assumed findings from the Baltic Sea as representative for ALDFG and generally applicable to other parts of the world, including Malaysia. OPTIONS TO INCENTIVIZE RETRIEVAL OF ALDFG Financial Incentives for Retrieval Since ALDFG is, as outlined, only recyclable to a very limited extent, there is no incentive to create added value. Even a free delivery and transfer of ALDFG to the recycling facilities on the mainland may be insufficient for uptake of the material within the recycling value chain. A remuneration to fisherfolk to recover their gear may cause motivation for minimizing the loss of fishing gear. Different modalities like a deposit refund system, a specifically designed extended producer responsibility scheme or net contributions from available waste management budgets may be applied, likely a combination of them. If this recovery fee is further based on purity and material quality, additional revenue can be increased by removing any impurities from the net and cleaning it beforehand. The deposit and return system could work as follows: When a fishing net is purchased, a registration number is assigned so that the net can be attributed to its owner. The buyer pays the deposit when buying the net, which is refunded when returning the net at the end of its useable lifetime or credited to the purchase of a new net. The amount of the deposit should depend on the price and size of the net material and be within the range of 10 to 20 percent of the grid price. A deposit and return system could be implemented, similar to systems for returnable bottles, operational in many European countries as well as the Pacific states of Tuvalu, Kiribati and parts of Micronesia. When fishing equipment is purchased, an additional, tangible amount is added to the purchase price. In order to make this system viable, a lot of details like registration, regional or nationwide take-back points, fraud avoidance mechanisms and so forth need to be taken into consideration. The motivation of the existing recycling (or disposal) value chain to accept heavily polluted retrieved ALDFG may therefore have to be guaranteed by a compensation payment covering the associated (extra) costs of processing. The general mechanisms are common and viable in waste management frameworks that include extended producer responsibility (EPR) elements. Yet, EPR for fishing gear is a novel approach and requires detailed feasibility analyses and a robust conceptualization. The European Commission is currently working on a new EU directive55 to reduce marine waste. At the heart of the proposed legislation is EPR, which means that manufacturers of fishing equipment bear the costs for management of associated waste, costs Appendix A: Treatment of Abandoned, Lost or otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) | 71 for cleaning, recycling and disposal. As a farther-reaching approach, also the costs for the retrieval of ALDFG can be covered within this system. Design-for-Recycling Fishing gear equipment consists of a mixture of different plastic and non-plastic material fractions. While the net material is usually nylon (polyamide PA), lines and ropes are made from PET or PP, with adjoining equipment like floats and buoys commonly made of PE. Nevertheless, certain components may even consist of a composition of different plastic materials that cannot be separated applying mechanical or manual processes. Yet, detangling and separating these components is a prerequisite for value extraction through recycling. Additionally, specifically lead weights distort any recycling process, even reducing the viability for disposal processes if they cannot be separated from the nets themselves. In order to allow for better recycling processes, different product design may play a significant role for better waste management of ALDFG. As far as technically possible, single-plastic solutions are preferred options. Different plastics should only be used as separated and separable components of fishing equipment. Lead may be replaced by other metals or stone. 72 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands APPENDIX B: COMPARISON OF COMMON THERMOFORM PROPERTIES See Table on the following page. Appendix B: Comparison of common thermoform properties | 73 Type of Polyethylene Polyethylene Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS) plastic Terephthalate (PET) (PE) Recycling code Formula C10H8O4 C 2H 4 C 3H 6 C 8H 8 Density 1.3 g/cm³ 0.91 – 0.93 g/cm³ LD 0.9 – 0.91 g/cm³ 1.05 – 1.06 g/cm³ 0.94 – 0.97 g/cm³ HD Melting point 260 °C 105 – 135 °C 160 – 170 °C 240 – 270 °C Characteris- Positive: Similar to PP Similar to PE Positive: tics • high service Positive: Positive: • high transparency temperatures • high hardness • high chemical • high chemical • good electrical • surface gloss resistance resistance properties • high elasticity • fatigue strength Negative: • good weathering • easy to dye resistance (UV light) Negative: • brittle Negative: • outdoor yellowing Negative: • brittle at low • low chemical • Unsuitable for temperatures • hot water degradation resistance temperatures > 80 °C • low UV-resistance (> 80 °C) • stiffness • low scratch • low resistance to strong • brittle/ low tensile resistance acids, alkalis, oxidizing strength agents, alcohols (without blending/ coating) Common Mono-material: HDPE: Bottles, jars, tubes, trays, Non-expanded: application Beverage bottles, Bottles, jars, tubes, caps, caps, films/ foils, cutlery Egg trays, cups (e.g., for for SUPs non-beverage bottles, films carrier bags yoghurt), cutlery Compound (e.g., PET LDPE: Expanded (EPS): coated with PE): trays for Films/ foils, carrier bags, Shock-absorbing fruits/vegetables/ meat; waste bin bags packaging, meat dishes, bottles with acidic content, to-go-cups/plates/ trays films/ foils coating of other plastics Potential Incompatible with PE, PP for Incompatible with PET, PS Incompatible with Incompatible with PE, PP recycling material recycling for material recycling PET, PS for material/ for material / mechanical mechanical recycling recycling options Material/mechanical Material/mechanical recycling path for mono recycling path for mono Material/mechanical EPS recycling path only material PET fraction is material HDPE fraction is recycling path for mono experimental well-established established material PP fraction is Material/mechanical established Feedstock/chemical Material/mechanical recycling path for mono recycling only experimental recycling path for mono Material/mechanical material PS (i.e., not material LDPE fraction is recycling path for mixed expanded) fraction is Additional difficulties established PE/ PP is established established for PET pyrolysis due to chemical degradation of Material/mechanical Feedstock/chemical Feedstock/chemical output product through recycling path for recycling only recycling only terepthalic acid mixed PE/ PP fraction is experimental experimental established Feedstock/chemical recycling only experimental Common Recyclates for similar Recyclates for similar Recyclates for similar Recyclates for similar recycling applications as virgin applications as virgin applications as virgin applications as virgin material material material material applications Food-contact possible in No food-contact, e.g., No food-contact, e.g., No food-contact, e.g., case of high-purity input, officeware, buckets, flower officeware, buckets, officeware e.g., bottles, trays pots, etc. flower pots, etc. Usage of waste EPS, Recyclates often recycled Downcycling into products Downcycling into e.g., for insulation into yarn/ textiles like park benches, barks, products like park Reuse of shock fences, etc. benches, barks, fences, absorbing elements is etc. common Source: cyclos 74 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands APPENDIX C: MALAYSIA ISLAND CASE STUDIES PENINSULAR ISLANDS Tioman Detailed description of existing waste management system The Tioman island population consists of six villages, the largest and most populated in Kampung Tekek on the Western coast. Juara on the east coast is connected with Tekek through road and Kampong Air Batang (ABC) is connected through a small path accessible by tricycle. Other villages like Salang, Mukut and Paya and individual resorts can only be reached by boat. Since the State of Pahang has adopted Act 672, solid waste management in the State is governed by SW Corp, and solid waste management (and public cleansing) is carried out by the regional concessionaire Alam Flora Sdn Bhd, who has also been appointed to manage the solid waste on Tioman. As a result, the waste collection rate in Tioman is very high. For villages with road connection, the collection of the mixed waste is done by a small compactor truck (Tekek) or pick-up truck (Juara) in a combination of door-to-door collection and collection from communal drop-off points. For villages without road connection, the waste is transported by boat (e.g., from Kampung Salang, Paya, Mukut) and by tricycle from Kampung ABC. Being an Act 672 State, the waste management concessionaire and the residents are obliged to practice separation at source. Similar to other areas in Malaysia, separation at source is not comprehensively practiced. However, a combination of local and international NGOs have worked on different initiatives to reduce the overall use of single-use plastic, foster separation at source and maximize the recycling rate. Thus, a dual collection system has developed with the waste management concessionaire focusing on mixed waste and OCC, while the NGO and community led recycling collection focuses on mixed plastic, aluminum and glass. These collection systems demonstrate a stark difference. On the one hand, the mixed waste management is very well organized and focused on increasing the overall collection coverage. The approach is very capital intensive (i.e., being equipped with all the relevant transport options ranging from small compactor trucks, RORO-trucks, pick-up truck and tricycles as well as a well-sized depot). On the other hand, the recycling initiatives have been implemented on a shoe-string budget with creative and low-cost collection solutions combined with intensive engagement of the local communities. Simple “technologies” such as separated bins, information boards and communal collection sites help to increase the separation at source. Once the materials are separated, these initiatives try to maximize the processing of the recyclable materials on the island and for local use across all the waste streams. • Organic waste: Some composting initiatives try to reduce the amount of organic waste. In addition, multiple households still have their own chickens who are being fed some of the organic waste. • Plastic: Small artisanal injection molding is already being used on the island for suitable polyethylene feedstock (e.g., colored HDPE bottle caps) to create artisanal plastic items such as turtle shaped pendants for necklaces. These are sold to tourists and are used to create awareness for turtle and other marine live conservation. However, only a minimal amount of the island-based plastic waste can be processed locally this way. • OCC: Paper grades, especially OCC, are collected mainly in Tekek for recycling. The waste management concessionaire and local shops have developed a bi-weekly collection routine. Most of the OCC is generated on the days when the transport boat arrives and delivers new packaged goods. At the end of these days, the shops, restaurants and residents in Tekek are encouraged to place OCC next to the normal collection bin and the waste management company will operate a separate collection round with Appendix C: Malaysia Island Case Studies | 75 a RORO-truck to collect these materials. However, in other parts of the island, OCC is commonly burned with garden and other waste. • Glass: Glass bottles collected by NGOs and local communities are ground into sand that can be used as a construction material especially for reef rehabilitation. • ALDFG retrieved from the ocean is partly processed into artisanal items. However, the remaining share cannot be recycled mechanically and has to be disposed of. An informal sector does not exist because the value of the recycling materials does not cover the cost of collection and transport back to the mainland. Only in the case of aluminum cans is the inherent value high enough to cover the cost of collection, aggregation and transport. The disposal of the residual mixed household and commercial waste is managed by a separate contractor who operates the local incinerator on a three-year contract. However, the operation of the incinerator has caused significant problems over the past years, most likely due to the waste composition of the residual waste. The exact root cause of the problems is not well understood, but it was not possible to schedule an interview with the operator of the incinerator. Large scrap metal items and most of the waste from public cleansing is stored at the local Alam Flora depot to be transported off the island with a large cargo barge and to be disposed of at the mainland. Summary of results for Tioman Applying the TOPIC Toolbox, solutions and technologies that are within range for application in Tioman island include bins and containers, MRF, baler, artisanal recycling, ‘Eco-Bricks’, micro pyrolysis, controlled incineration and sanitary landfill. Tioman already has an incinerator for the disposal of the plastic waste on the island. However, based on the above analysis, improved handling and logistics would allow the island to send more recyclable materials to the mainland recycling market where it would be mechanically recycled in commercial scale facilities. This processing option ranks much higher in the waste management hierarchy and would be the recommended option based on the application of the TOPIC Toolbox for Tioman. Perhentian Detailed description of existing waste management system The Perhentian Islands are part of the Terengganu State and the islands do not fall under the regulation of Act 672. As a result, the solid waste management activities are managed by the Local Authority (i.e., the Besut District Council is responsible for waste collection and public cleansing). The Besut District Council outsources the waste management via tender to local contractors for a two-year period. The contractor has the responsibility for public cleansing at the Besut Jetty and to collect the waste from the Perhentian Islands, and is reimbursed for these services by the Besut District Council. There is no door-to-door collection on the island. In addition, the same contractor also collects solid waste from commercial entities (e.g., hotels, resorts, restaurants) on the island, who have to pay the contractor directly for these services. However, commercial customers are not obliged to use the waste management contractor and—at least in one case —a larger resort manages the waste collection and transport themselves. An informal sector does not exist. However, there are several regular volunteer programs that try to tackle plastic waste pollution such as regular beach clean-ups, communal work and educational programs at school for recycling practices. The actual collection process is done by a larger collection boat with a capacity of around 5 tonnes. This collection boat does a milk run along the island, stopping at the relevant collection points such as Coral Bay, Long Beach, Kampung Nelayan (three collection points) and various resorts. Smaller boats (sampans) transport the waste in bags to the collection boat. In addition, there are six local women employed by the contractor for public cleansing and to clean garden waste around the village. They also help to compile the household waste at the collection point before it is put onto the waste collection boat. As door-to-door collection is not practiced on the island, all locals need to send their waste to the collection points. The “Rumah Sampah’” 76 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands planned to be utilized as a collection center for the mixed waste is mainly used as storage facility for tools, while both the mixed waste and metal scraps pile up around the Rumah Sampah. Households that do not send their waste to these collection points tend to burn the waste in their backyards. The current collection method is a significant improvement compared to the previous practice of depositing the waste in a floating pontoon off the coast of the island where it would be picked up by the collection board because the pontoon had a higher risk of waste leaking into the ocean. So far, the recycling activities on the island are very limited. Most of the recycling initiatives are fostered by NGOs (e.g., Perhentian Marine Research Station (PMRS) jointly with other NGOs has carried out multiple initiatives to tackle the plastic waste pollution on the island). In 2019, PMRS started to introduce recycling activities among the local community encouraging locals to do separation at source by and providing colored plastic bags to segregate recyclables materials. The recyclable materials were collected and sent to Besut (mainland) to the local recycling company with a local transport boat. All the recyclable materials such as mixed waste, aluminum cans and papers were packed in jumbo bags provided by the recycling center at a one-off fee of RM20 per jumbo bag. The transportation cost ranged between RM400 to RM800 per trip without weight limit. However, the space on the boat is limited to approximately eight jumbo bags. Part of the transport cost was covered by the revenue from the recycling materials and the balance was subsidized by PMRS. However, this practice stopped due to COVID-19 and due to the need to subsidize the transport. In addition, educational recycling activities have been carried out at the school by Fuze-Ecoteers and PMRS to encourage young generations to start recycling materials at home. Lastly, some hotels also separate plastic bottles and pack them in separate and labelled plastic bags for the waste management contractor to aggregate them further. In the past, the collection boat operator used to separate and aggregate these bags. Alternatively, some of the non-sorted materials might be recovered by the informal sector and waste pickers at the landfill. The overall boat collection caters mainly for mixed household waste, which is collected at the collection point and sent via small boats to the large waste collection boats waiting at each collection points. Not all waste types are accepted, especially garden waste which is sometimes rejected as the capacity of the barge boat is limited. However, garden waste is often also burnt by the locals either at the collection points or every house. Bulky scrap metal items, construction waste and e-waste accumulate at the Rumah Sampah. The collection of these materials happens once a year depending on the volumes of the waste. The waste will pile up at the collection point over the course of the year. Some of the plastics waste on the islands, such as HDPE, PET bottle and plastic straws, were used by Fuze-Ecoteers and PMRS for their artisanal projects that turns waste into souvenirs. However, the plastic volume collected for that purpose is relatively low. On the mainland, the waste is sent to the Paya Rawa landfill in Kampung Raja (i.e., a non-sanitary landfill). Summary of results for Perhentian Applying the TOPIC Toolbox, solutions and technologies that are within range for application in Perhentian island include bins and containers, MRF, baler, artisanal recycling, ‘Eco-Bricks’, micro-pyrolysis and sanitary landfill. The plastic waste volume on Perhentian Island is too small to support any commercial scale mechanical processing solutions. Based on the TOPIC Toolbox results and the island analysis the best option seems to be the improvement of the handling and logistics to enhance market access and feed the recycling materials into the mainland recycling market. Based on the qualitative island analysis, a few prerequisites are necessary. Firstly, this approach would require a better separation at source and collection mechanism on Perhentian Island itself. Secondly, the recycling materials would need to be compacted and stored on the island until sufficient material is available for one Appendix C: Malaysia Island Case Studies | 77 boat load. Based on these two steps, the cost of transport and logistics could be reduced significantly to ensure long-term market access for the recycling materials. However, as in the Tioman case, such a solution would require upfront capital expenditures into local collection, storage and compacting solutions. SEMPORNA ISLANDS Context within Semporna District Council Semporna District Council/ Majlis Daerah Semporna has jurisdiction over the case study islands of Mabul, Pom Pom, Mataking and Timba Timba. As Sabah is a Non-Act State and Act 672 does not apply in Sabah, the district council has responsibility over the collection of municipal solid waste. This includes collection of waste that is transported from the surrounding islands to the three jetties in Semporna. In contrast to Tioman and Perhentian, which both have market access to a mainland recycling market, these islands face a different situation with very limited access to recycling markets and also limited support from the local government authority for island-based waste collection. This reduces the options available for recyclable plastic waste from the islands. According to Semporna District Council, most plastics collected as marine litter (usually from beach clean-ups as well as directly retrieved from the sea) are rigid bottles, with little ALDFG retrieved. The district council estimates a collection between 10 to 20 kg of plastics from marine litter a day. The district council currently operates an “Asher” unit of Pamarai Corp as a controlled incineration solution in managing part of the local waste. However, not all municipal waste is handled by the Asher, with a portion being sent to the municipal landfill. Waste sent to the Asher is segregated prior to disposal. There is limited off-take for recyclables, with a limited market for recyclables in the immediate Semporna area. Tawau, a town 1.5 hours to the west, is the next largest town with potential market for recyclables off-take. Figure C1. ASHER FACILITY IN SEMPORNA Source: Lasaju) While the district council charges a fee of RM70 per room per month to licensed hotel and tourism operations on the islands, the provision for municipal services related to waste management is only done from the mainland collection points onwards, and not directly on the islands. It is unclear if island waste collected by the district council is sent to the Asher or directly to the landfill. 78 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Mabul Detailed description of existing waste management system There is no waste collection concessionaire and municipal solid waste collection is the responsibility Semporna District Council, a Local Government Authority under the Ministry of Local Government and Housing, Sabah. Households on the island of Mabul do not have an effective formalized waste collection structure. The village committee requires all households to manage and dispose of their waste properly and responsibly to maintain the island’s general cleanliness. Household waste is collected communally and transported by the villages to the mainland in boats for disposal by Semporna District Council. However, it was observed that a degree of waste, including plastic waste, is disposed of into the surrounding sea or burned in communal piles. A basic collection and separation infrastructure has been put in place in a collaboration between the community and two tour operators—Scuba Junkies and Borneo Divers. Collection is done through communal collection, with bins and collection points provided in designated areas to help with segregation. Weekly village and beach cleanings are done, with more cleanings done subject to the availability of volunteers from the two tour operators. Waste collected by the two tour operators is sent to the mainland at their own cost, utilizing their tour boats on return trips or with their supply ships. Marine litter is a major source of waste collected on the island, with little being upcycled. A majority of the plastics from marine litter are PET bottles, flexibles or food packaging waste. Few fishing nets or lines have been observed. Resorts and tour operators on the island collect their waste for disposal on the mainland. Waste from resorts and operators are transported from the island using their own boats and are collected in waste bags. Waste from tourism-related activities is reported to double the amount of waste generated by households, especially during holiday seasons or travel periods. The collected waste from the island is transported to the mainland at an approximate cost of RM600 per return trip on a local cargo boat or ‘jungkong.’ Collected waste is then handled and disposed of by Semporna District Council. The islanders do not pay any form of assessment tax. However, as they deposit their waste in designated waste collection spots on the island or are assisted by the two tour operators in transporting their waste out, the Semporna District Council indirectly collects and dispose household waste together with commercial waste. Summary of results for Mabul Applying the TOPIC Toolbox, solutions and technologies that are within range for application in Mabul island include bins and containers, MRF, baler, artisanal recycling, ‘Eco-Bricks’, micro-pyrolysis, controlled incineration and sanitary landfill. The plastic waste volumes on Mabul are small compared to the requirements of commercial scale mechanical processing solutions. The current waste management system is ad-hoc in nature, with handling and logistics of waste from the island to the mainland limited. Combining the suggestions from the TOPIC Toolbox with the island observations the main solutions for the plastic waste would be artisanal and eco-brick recycling for a small fraction of the waste. The bulk of the waste would need to be disposed either by technical incineration on the island, controlled landfill on the island or the mainland, or controlled incineration on the mainland itself. Given the limited space on the island and the concerns highlighted in the TOPIC Toolbox about technical incineration, the transport of the waste to the mainland seems to be the most suitable option. On the mainland, both the existing landfill and a controlled incineration facility are available as disposal options. In the long-term it would be preferable to have a more advanced recycling industry in Sabah that can create a viable off-take market for recyclable materials. However, such a solution would require a more comprehensive analysis and policy interventions for the whole of Sabah, which is not part of the project scope. Appendix C: Malaysia Island Case Studies | 79 Pom Pom Detailed description of existing waste management system There is no waste collection concessionaire and municipal solid waste collection is the responsibility Semporna District Council, a Local Government Authority under the Ministry of Local Government and Housing, Sabah. A basic collection and separation infrastructure has been put in place in by the individual resorts and General Operations Force (GOF) battalion. Weekly beach cleanings are done by the Pom Pom Island Resort, which has the largest beach front property on the island, or by the Tropical Research and Conservation Center (TRACC), with more cleanings done subject to the availability of staff from Pom Pom Island Resort landscaping department during peak season and volunteers from TRACC. Waste collected by the resorts and TRACC is sent to the mainland at their own cost, utilizing their tour boats on return trips or with their supply ships in the case of TRACC, or by the regular supply boats returning to the mainland in the case of the resorts and GOF. Like Mabul, marine litter is a major source of waste collected on the island, with little being upcycled. A majority of the marine litter is PET bottles, flexibles or food packaging waste. Few fishing nets or lines have been observed. TRACC upcycles collected PET bottles and flexibles into ecobricks and glass bottles as “windows” in some of their facilities. Waste from tourism-related activities is reported to double during holiday seasons or travel periods. Waste from day-trip tourism activities is handled privately by tour operators, with a “nothing left behin” policy, with all waste returning to the mainland. During periods of high tides, strong winds and prevailing currents, the volume of marine litter on the beach can double, especially between September and November. The collected waste from the island is transported to the mainland at an approximate cost of RM200 per return trip for TRACC. Collected waste from the resorts, TRACC and GOF battalion is then handled and disposed of by Semporna District Council. As there is no village community on or close to the island, there is no informal sector conducting material waste picking. Summary of results for Pom Pom Applying the TOPIC Toolbox, the solutions and technologies that are within range for application in Pom Pom Island include bins and containers, artisanal recycling, “Eco-Bricks” and controlled landfill. As with Mabul, the plastic waste volumes on Pom Pom are very small compared to the requirements of commercial scale mechanical processing solutions. The current waste management system as conducted by the private properties on the island are effective at managing waste generated on the island and in collecting marine litter. Combining the output of the TOPIC Toolbox with the island analysis, the main technology options are the same as for Mabul (i.e., artisanal and eco-brick recycling could process a small fraction of the waste for awareness purposes). The bulk of the waste would need to be disposed either by technical incineration on the island, controlled landfill or controlled incineration on the mainland itself. Given the limited space on the island and the concerns highlighted in the TOPIC Toolbox about technical incineration, the transport of the waste to the mainland seems to be the most suitable option. On the mainland, both the existing landfill and a controlled incineration facility are available as disposal options. In the long-term it would be preferable to have a more advanced recycling industry in Sabah that can create a viable off-take market for recyclable materials. However, such a solution would require a more comprehensive analysis and policy interventions for the whole of Sabah, which is not part of the project scope. 80 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands Mataking & Timba-Timba Detailed description of existing waste management system There is no waste collection concessionaire and municipal solid waste collection is the responsibility Semporna District Council, a Local Government Authority under the Ministry of Local Government and Housing, Sabah. A basic collection and separation infrastructure has been put in place in by the resort, facility operator and GOF battalion. Weekly beach cleansings are done by the landscaping team of The Reef Dive Resort, which is the only property on the Mataking Island, or twice daily by the groundskeepers of Timba Timba Island. Collected waste is either sent to the mainland on scheduled cargo supply trips, sent to the on-site technical incinerator in Mataking or sent to the mainland on monthly supply rounds in the case of the Timba Timba. Like Mabul and Pom Pom, marine litter is a major source of waste collected on both islands, with little being upcycled. A majority of the marine litter is PET bottles, flexibles or food packaging waste. The Reef Dive Resort either disposes of collected waste, excluding food and organics, into their smokeless incinerator or transforms the collected PET bottles into coral planters. Waste from tourism-related activities is reported to double during holiday seasons or travel periods. Waste from day-trip tourism activities is handled privately by tour operators, with a “nothing left behind” policy, and all waste returning to the mainland. During periods of high tides, strong winds and prevailing currents, the volume of marine litter on the beach can double, especially between September and November. A portion of the marine litter collected was noted to be transboundary waste from the Philippines or Indonesia, based on the packaging details. Collected waste from Mataking and Timba Timba is handled and disposed of by Semporna District Council. As there is no village community on or close to the island, there is no informal sector conducting material waste picking. Summary of results for Mataking and Timba Timba Applying the TOPIC Toolbox, the solutions and technologies that are within range for application in Mataking and Timba Timba islands include bins and containers, artisanal recycling, “Eco-Bricks” and controlled landfill. The plastic waste volumes on both Mataking and Timba Timba are very small compared to the requirements of commercial scale mechanical processing solutions. The current waste management system as conducted by the private properties on the island are effective at managing waste generated on the island, and in collecting marine litter. The TOPIC Toolbox suggestions combined with the analysis of the island and limited market access leaves mainly controlled incineration (as opposed to technical incineration currently done on the island) or controlled landfilling (on the mainland) as the main available options. Small scale artisanal and eco-brick recycling practices could always process a fraction of the plastic materials for awareness purposes. Appendix C: Malaysia Island Case Studies | 81 APRIL 2022 82 | Technologies and Solutions to Manage Plastic Waste in Small and Remote Islands