Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Careers in An Overview of Stepping Up Infrastructure Women’s STEM Promising Approaches © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW | Washington DC 20433 202-473-1000 | www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank, with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Exec- utive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory, or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Cover image: ©iStockPhoto. Back image: ©Getty Images, Inc. Used with permission. Further permission required for reuse. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission from the source, unless otherwise indicated. STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE AN OVERVIEW OF PROMISING APPROACHES STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE ii ©iStockPhoto TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................................ ix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS.................................................................................................. xii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................................................... 1 1. LAYING THE FOUNDATION.............................................................................................................. 9 Why Promote Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure?........................................................ 10 What Do the Data Tell Us?.......................................................................................................... 10 What is the Business Case for Gender Equality?....................................................................... 13 Purpose and Framework.................................................................................................................. 15 Organization of this Report............................................................................................................... 19 2. BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY................................................................................................ 21 Attraction.......................................................................................................................................... 22 Gender Stereotypes and Biases................................................................................................. 23 Self-Efficacy, Interest, and Aspirations........................................................................................ 27 The Role of Educators................................................................................................................ 28 Curricula, Teaching Materials, and Educational Environment..................................................... 29 Recruitment...................................................................................................................................... 30 Legal Barriers to the Nature and Type of Work........................................................................... 30 Gender Biases in the Hiring Process.......................................................................................... 30 Retention.......................................................................................................................................... 31 Lack of Flexible Work Arrangements........................................................................................... 31 Care Responsibilities.................................................................................................................. 32 Gender Wage Gaps.................................................................................................................... 32 Workplace Biases, and Hostile Working Environments.............................................................. 33 Sexual Harassment in the Workplace......................................................................................... 34 Failure to Address the Needs of Female Workers....................................................................... 35 iii STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Advancement..................................................................................................................................... 35 Lack of Mentors and Sponsors for Women................................................................................. 36 Limited Professional Networks.................................................................................................... 37 Few Opportunities for Effective Training..................................................................................... 37 Exclusion from Opportunities for Advancement and Leadership ����������������������������������������������� 37 3. LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT.............................................................................. 41 Attraction............................................................................................................................................ 41 Removing Gender Biases in Educational Materials, Strengthening STEM Curricula, and Improving Teaching Practices.............................................................................................. 41 Facilitating Early Exposure to STEM for Girls............................................................................. 44 Improving Access to Career Information, and Addressing Information Asymmetries................. 44 Connecting Students to Female Role Models and Mentors........................................................ 45 Experimenting with University Admissions Criteria and Pedagogy �������������������������������������������� 47 Improving Women’s Self-Efficacy and Professional Role Confidence in STEM ������������������������ 48 Recruitment........................................................................................................................................ 49 Removing Legal Restrictions to Women’s Employment.............................................................. 49 Promoting Inclusive Policies and Targets for Women in STEM Infrastructure Jobs....................50 Addessing Gender Biases in Hiring............................................................................................ 51 Creating Scholarships, and Internship and Apprenticeship Programs ��������������������������������������� 53 Developing Job Matching and Placement Programs.................................................................. 53 Profiling Female Role Models During Recruitment..................................................................... 56 Reducing Gender Bias among Managers and Staff.................................................................... 56 Retention............................................................................................................................................ 58 Creating Parental Leave Benefits and Flexible Work Policies.................................................... 58 Implementing Flexible Work Arrangements................................................................................. 59 Promoting the Public and Private Provision of Childcare Services �������������������������������������������� 60 Closing Gender Wage Gaps....................................................................................................... 61 Addressing Sexual Harassment in the Workplace...................................................................... 62 Adapting Workplace Facilities to Address Women’s Occupational Safety and Health Needs............................................................................................................ 62 Engaging Trade Unions in Collective Bargaining Agreements.................................................... 67 Advancement..................................................................................................................................... 68 Designing Mentoring Programs in the Workplace, or at the Industry Level ������������������������������� 68 Developing Sponsorship Programs in the Workplace, or at the Industry Level ������������������������� 71 Facilitating Access to Professional Networks.............................................................................. 73 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Providing Technical and Leadership Skills Training.................................................................... 78 Countering Biases During the Promotion Process...................................................................... 79 A Focus on Women’s Entrepreneurship: Promoting Diveristy and Inclusion in Procurement............................................................................................................. 81 4. TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD....................................................................................... 83 Starting a Dialogue on Staffing, and Building Leadership Buy-In..................................................... 83 Assessing Women’s Employment and Inclusion in the Workplace �������������������������������������������� 84 Consider Hiring Experts.............................................................................................................. 84 Use Secondary Data Sources to Better Understand Gender Equality Issues ��������������������������� 84 Examine National Development Strategies................................................................................. 87 Collect Institutional Data to Understand Women’s Participation Within the Organization...........87 Developing a Strategy, and a Corresponding Action Plan................................................................ 90 Setting Specific Goals and Targets............................................................................................. 92 Designating Champions at All Levels of the Organization, and Engaging Men ������������������������� 92 Creating Strategic Messaging that Explains How an Inclusive Workforce is Good for Business...................................................................................................................92 Capturing Results through Reporting Mechanisms..................................................................... 94 Mobilizing Financial and Human Resources.................................................................................... 95 Linking Strategies with the Resources to Support the Implementation of Goals and Targets..........................................................................................95 Anticipating Challenges to Implementation...................................................................................... 95 REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................... 99 Appendix A. Professional Networks for Women in Infrastructure................................................... 121 v STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES Table 1: Women’s Percentage Share in the Infrastructure Workforce, by Industry ���������������������������� 12 Table 2: Indicative STEM and Related Occupations in the Infrastructure Sectors ������������������������������ 17 Table 3: Barriers to Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure along the Career Pathway ......... 22 Table 4: Interventions to Overcome Barriers to Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure, by Career Stage......................................................................................................... 42 Table 5: Sample Framework for Setting Targets to Improve Women’s Representation in STEM Jobs............................................................................................................... 93 Table 6: Indicative Time Allocation for Selected Activities..................................................................... 96 Figure 1: Women’s Representation in Selected Infrastructure Industries, in 14 African Countries.......................................................................................................................... 12 Figure 2: Women’s Share of Leadership Positions in the Power and Utility Industry by Region, 2019...................................................................................................... 13 Figure 3: Women’s Share of Job Family, by Country........................................................................... 13 Figure 4: Framework to Address Barriers to Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure Sectors................................................................................................... 15 Figure 5: Percentage of Female Graduates from STEM Programs in Tertiary Education, 2012-18............................................................................................................... 24 Figure 6: Distribution of Male and Female Students Enrolled in Higher Education by Field of Study....................................................................................................... 26 Figure 7: Tackling Stereotypes Through Corporate Recruitment Images �������������������������������������������� 57 Box 1: ESMAP’s Gender and Energy Program.................................................................................... 16 Box 2: Case Studies on Promoting Women’s STEM Employment Along the Career Pathway............18 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Box 3: Technovation Girls: Working to Build the Pipeline of Women in Technology ���������������������������� 45 Box 4: Building the Pipeline in North Macedonia’s Energy Utility......................................................... 47 Box 5: Countering Negative Gender Stereotypes through Targeted Mentoring ���������������������������������� 48 Box 6: Modifying Language in Job Descriptions to Avoid Reinforcing Gender Stereotypes.................... 52 Box 7: Lao People’s Democratic Republic: Bridging the School-to-Work Transition through Targeted Scholarships in the Water Sector........................................................................................... 54 Box 8: SEAP: Facilitating Apprenticeships in Tanzania........................................................................ 55 Box 9: Flexible Work Arrangement Options.......................................................................................... 61 Box 10: Gender Equality Certifications................................................................................................. 63 Box 11: Solomon Islands: Addressing Domestic Violence in the Workplace to Improve Business Outcomes.............................................................................................................................. 64 Box 12: Recommendations from the World Bank Group’s Resources on Addressing Gender-Based Violence (GBV)............................................................................................................. 66 Box 13: ILO’s Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190) and Recommendation (No. 206).................................................................................................................. 67 Box 14: Steps Facilities Can Take to Accommodate Female Workers’ Needs ������������������������������������ 68 Box 15: Advancing Women’s Employment in Ethiopia’s Energy Sector— A Comprehensive Approach.................................................................................................................. 69 Box 16: Tips for Developing Mentoring Programs at the Organizational Level ����������������������������������� 71 Box 17: TechWomen: Empowering Women Globally to Lead Local Change �������������������������������������� 72 Box 18: Leadership Development for Women in Male-Dominated, Public Sector Agencies in Panama....................................................................................................... 74 Box 19: Lessons for Establishing and Supporting Women’s Networks at the Organizational Level.............................................................................................................................. 77 Box 20: Advancing Women: Driving the Transformation of South Africa’s Power Sector..................... 79 Box 21: Suggestions for Eliciting Buy-In from Senior Management..................................................... 85 Box 22: Helpful Secondary Data Sources............................................................................................ 86 Box 23: Focus Group Discussions and Consultations on Women in STEM ���������������������������������������� 88 Box 24: Sample Questions for Human-Resource Policies Review...................................................... 91 Box 25: Global Reporting Initiatives and Tools..................................................................................... 94 vii STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE viii ©iStockPhoto ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The preparation of this report was led by Inka Janik, Oni Lusk-Stover, Rudaba Nasir, and Maria Schomer, Lead, Gender and Energy Program, Beatriz Orlando of the World Bank Group. Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), and Alicia Hammond, Gender Special- Several colleagues provided extensive contri- ist and Lead on Innovation & Technology, Gender butions that facilitated the development of the Group of the World Bank Group. The project was country case studies. For the Lao People’s initially developed as a product of the Gender Democratic Republic, Phomma Veoravanh, Group, and was moved forward by ESMAP. Ministry of Public Works and Transport, Lao Ursula Casabonne, Senior Gender Consultant, PDR, as well as Sonomi Tanaka and Anupma provided substantial technical and editorial con- Jain from the Asian Development Bank (ADB); tributions. The report was developed with input for Solomon Islands, Shabnam Hameed and from Value for Women Ltd., led by Luis Marquez Emmanouela Markoglou from the International and Shelley Martin, along with Rebecca Fries, Finance Corporation (IFC); for Panama, Viv- Stephanie Finigan, Daniela Moctezuma, and ian Roza, Inter-American Development Bank Celia Santillan. Mame Fatou Niasse, Operations (IADB), and Hugo Wood, Panama Ministry of Analyst, Gender Group, was a member of the Foreign Affairs; for North Macedonia, Aneta core team, and provided critical coordination and Petrovska-Rusomaroski (EVN Macedonia), procurement support. David Young, External as well as Corinne Hart and Amanda Valenta, Affairs Officer, External and Corporate Relations, United States Agency for International Develop- provided invaluable communications guidance ment (USAID); and for Ethiopia, Inka Schomer, and insights. Special thanks to Rohit Khanna, Lara Born, and Meskerem Mulatu Legesse of Practice Manager, ESMAP, for his guidance and the World Bank Group. feedback throughout the process of preparing Many other colleagues from the World Bank this report. Group shared valuable insights and expertise: The team is grateful for the thoughtful feedback among them, Niki Angelou, Rosemary Atabug, provided by the following colleagues: Diana Ezgi Canpolat, Sherry Goldberg, Gunjam Gau- Arango, Pamela Baldinger, Adriana Eftimi, tam, Katherine C. Heller, Jelena Lukic, Jennifer Kwawu Mensan Gaba, Rahul Kitchlu, Elisabeth Scott, Yukari Shibuya, Ellen Maynes, and Nadia Maier, Alexandria Valerio, and Maheen Zehra. Taobane. The report also benefited from guidance pro- The team also wishes to thank the external vided by a Technical Working Group: Sanola partners who contributed to this report, including Daley, Karla Dominguez Gonzalez, Rebecca Comunidad Mujer; Corporación Nacional del Gilsdorf, Nato Kurshitashvili, Vanessa Lopes Cobre de Chile (Codelco); Dalberg Global Advi- ix STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE sors; the Global Women’s Network for Energy The team is grateful to Melina Rose Yingling Transition; the International Center for Research for designing the report and Jonathan Davidar, on Women; the International Labour Organiza- Heather Austin, and Fernando Di Laudo for the tion (ILO); the International Union for the Conser- publications support. vation of Nature; Investing in Women; Newmont Mining Corporation; the United Nations Devel- ESMAP is a global knowledge and technical opment Programme (UNDP); the United Nations assistance program administered by the World Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Bank. It provides analytical and advisory services the Pacific; the United Nations Educational, to low- and middle-income countries to increase Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); their know-how and institutional capacity to the UN Global Compact; the United Nations achieve environmentally sustainable energy solu- Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment tions for poverty reduction and economic growth. of Women; the U.S. State Department’s Institute ESMAP is funded by Australia, Austria, Canada, of International Education (IIE); and the Wilson the ClimateWorks Foundation, Denmark, the Center. European Commission, Finland, France, Ger- many, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Luxem- Special thanks also to Janet Hulstrand, Norma bourg, the Netherlands, Norway, the Rockefeller Adams, Sirisha Tumuluri, and George Williams Foundation, Sweden, Switzerland, the United for editorial support, as well as Ailsa Bristow and Kingdom, and the World Bank. Sarah Turton from Weight Creative Communica- tions Agency. x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE xii ©Inka Schomer / World Bank 2017 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB Asian Development Bank AGI Adolescent Girls Initiative ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BWASA Businesswomen’s Association of South Africa CSR Corporate Social Responsibility DECTech Discover, Encourage, Create Technology (Colorado School of Mines) DWS Department of Water Supply EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development EDF Électricité de France EDGE Economic Dividends for Gender Equality EEU Ethiopian Electric Utility ELEAP Ethiopia Electrification Program ERB Engineers Registration Board ERG Employee Resource Group ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program EU European Union EVN Energieversorgung Niederösterreich EWL Emerging Women Leaders GBV Gender-Based Violence GDCF Gender and Development Cooperation Fund GDP Gross Domestic Product GEM Gender Equity Model GES Gender Equality Seal GRI Global Reporting Initiative GWNET Global Women’s Network for the Energy Transition ICT Information and Communication Technology xiii STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE IDB Inter-American Development Bank IEEE Institute of Engineering and Technology IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labour Organization IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature IWA International Water Association KPLC Kenya Power and Lighting Company LAC Latin America and the Caribbean Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic MDB Multilateral Development Bank MoSHE Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Ethiopia) NARUC National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PETRONAS Petroliam Nasional Berhad (State-Owned Enterprise in Malaysia) PISA Programme for International Student Assessment PNP Provincial Nam Papa Water Utilities PPP Public-Private Partnership PROLEAD Program for the Support of Women’s Leadership and Representation SAA South African Airways SAGE South Asia Gender and Energy (World Bank initiative) SDG Sustainable Development Goal SEAP Structured Engineers Apprenticeship Program (NORAD-supported initiative in Tanzania) SICCI Solomon Islands Chamber of Commerce and Industry SIWA Solomon Islands Water Authority SOE State-Owned Enterprise STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study xiv ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization USAID United States Agency for International Development UTE Administración Nacional de Usinas y Trasmisiones Eléctricas (National Administration of Power Plants and Electrical Transmissions), Uruguay VAWG Violence Against Women and Girls WBD Women Board Directors WCYAD Women, Children and Youth Affairs Directorate WEF World Economic Forum WHO World Health Organization WIE Women in Engineering xv STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE xvi ©iStockPhoto EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Stepping Up Women’s STEM Careers in Infrastructure: An Overview of Promising Approaches describes a variety of ways to level the pathway for women entering into and progressing in science, technology, engi- neering, and mathematics (STEM) employment within the infrastructure sectors—energy and extractives; water; transport; and digital develop- ment. The report distills the findings from an extensive WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES literature review, a global stocktaking exercise, key informant interviews, and five case studies OF PROMOTING WOMEN’S in order to provide World Bank Group project STEM EMPLOYMENT IN teams with insights that they can use to support INFRASTRUCTURE? women’s STEM careers in infrastructure at each stage of their careers—from initial attraction Increasing the employment and advancement of to the sectors and job recruitment, to retention women in infrastructure organizations is a win- within organizations, and advancement to mana- win proposition. For women, these sectors offer gerial and leadership roles. the potential to generate substantial income; the opportunity to design the infrastructure that The expectation is that World Bank teams, and spurs countries’ socioeconomic development; their public sector clients and partners, will and the opportunity to serve as role models for continue to test and refine these approaches, future generations of young women who are thereby deepening the knowledge of what is interested in STEM-related careers. Equally effective, especially in low- and middle-income important, infrastructure organizations that are countries. The report also is intended to under- committed to increasing the employment of pin and expand the existing knowledge on women in STEM jobs helps to expand the talent gender equality issues, under the World Bank’s pool, and potentially strengthens their organiza- Energy Sector Management Assistance Program tional performance metrics. (ESMAP). 1 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Recent global studies indicate that women are ondary and tertiary education, girls’ interest and underrepresented in the infrastructure sectors, confidence in STEM subjects is often shaped particularly in STEM jobs. For example, a 2019 by social and gender norms that come into play World Bank study that surveyed 64 water and when learning these subjects, as well as when sanitation utilities in 28 economies found that they are choosing their careers. women comprise an average of only 18 percent of the water utility workforce, and a USAID During the school-to-work transition, informa- study of electric power distribution companies tion asymmetries and legal barriers may limit in 14 countries found that women comprised the share of young women who enter infra- an average of just 13 percent of the workforce, structure industries, or occupy certain types of ranging from 1 percent in Pakistan to 30 percent roles. Biases among employers also present in Ukraine. And in the European Union (EU), barricades. Employers often hold biases about women account for an estimated 17.5 percent of “masculine” and “feminine” work roles, as the workforce in urban public transport, but they evidenced in prejudicial interview questions, or hold less than 10 percent of the technical and expectations about women’s future childcare or operational jobs. care responsibilities; this too may keep qualified women from being hired for STEM jobs. Available data, mostly from middle- and high-in- come countries, suggest that women are also Even when they are hired, women are likely to underrepresented at the senior management face additional challenges that may cause them level of infrastructure industries. to leave the sector. These challenges include time-intensive work pressures with limited flexibility; unwelcoming work environments; the WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS? biases of coworkers; and the risks of gender wage gaps, unaccommodating workplace facili- A metaphor frequently used to explain the fact ties, and sexual harassment. that women are underrepresented in STEM careers is the “leaky pipeline.” Although girls Finally, as they progress in their STEM careers, often perform as well as or better than boys in in addition to facing discrimination, additional math and science at the primary and second- institutional barriers—such as a lack of mentors, ary levels, they are underrepresented in some sponsors, professional networks, and quality STEM subjects, particularly engineering and training—can also limit the advancement of computer science, at the tertiary level. women. Many girls who opt to study these subjects do not end up entering into related careers. Those WHAT HELPS TO LEVEL THE who do often leave these careers due to dissat- PATHWAY? isfaction with the workplace culture, the lack of advancement opportunities, or the challenges Leveling the pathway for women in infrastructure presented by work-life balance and other issues. sectors requires changes at all levels of engage- ment—in national policies, within the educational Multiple overlapping dimensions that interact in system, at the sector and industry levels, and complex ways also have an influence on wom- within workplaces. Multisector efforts and coop- en’s education, employment, and progression in eration are therefore needed in order to spotlight STEM careers. Gender stereotypes and biases the structural and systemic constraints that are are present at all levels—across societies, in embedded both withinin the sector and in society classrooms, and among families. Starting in overall, and that are steering women away from primary school, and continuing through sec- STEM and related technical fields. 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Start with Education asked questions about careers in engineering, aimed at secondary school girls. Informing Removing gender biases in learning materials, young women about salaries for STEM jobs in and strengthening STEM curricula are critically infrastructure can also help influence their career important in attracting more women to STEM choices. careers, particularly at the primary and second- ary levels of education. In tertiary education and technical schools, institutions can change their traditional practices Curriculum designers should create content in order to create more equitable outcomes. and resources that are suited to the learning For example, they might make introductory styles and preferences of girls as well as boys: STEM classes more accessible and engaging for example, the research suggests that STEM for women by emphasizing the broad utility curricula are more appealing to girls when they of engineering skills and knowledge, and by are clearly relevant to real world situations. incorporating hands-on practical learning into the curriculum by having young women work at a Building interest and confidence in STEM building site. subjects among young girls is also of key importance. Interactive, hands-on experiences, Public and private sector entities can be more design-based learning, and extracurricular proactive in engaging potential STEM talent STEM activities specifically for girls offer prom- by providing scholarships, internships, and ise. Schools and infrastructure organizations apprenticeships. In the Lao People’s Democratic can collaborate to help expose younger girls to Republic (Lao PDR), an Asian Development science, and capture their attention in diverse Bank (ADB) project with the provincial water and creative ways. For example, the German utilities is providing scholarships for young utility E.ON engages children and youth from women to study water-related STEM careers, ages 5 to 18 in STEM-oriented thinking through and providing them with job opportunities when its Energise Anything! Program, which offers they graduate. And in Tanzania, the Structured inspiring interactive workshops. Engineers Apprenticeship Program (SEAP) has supported 300 women in engineering appren- Such programs can also provide an opportunity ticeships by covering their living expenses and for students to interact with female role mod- providing them with training and mentorship els. Female role models are especially salient opportunities. in STEM, helping to build the aspirations and self-efficacy of young girls. For example, in New These connections can also facilitate young Zealand, the Ultimit Women in Infrastructure women’s access to information and career Network runs an annual Girls With Hi-Vis pro- opportunities through job matching and place- gram to expose girls to women who are excelling ment programs. In the Republic of North Mace- in nontraditional roles. donia, Energieversorgung Niederösterreich (EVN) provides a range of opportunities, includ- As young women start to think about their career ing internships and energineering scholarships, choices, it is important to also address common to help young women gain professional experi- misperceptions among girls about their abili- ence, and eventually to join the company. ties for STEM employment, and provide them with information about STEM career paths. For example, WomEng, a nonprofit organization in South Africa, has developed booklets with infor- mation about engineering programs and schol- arship opportunities, and answers to frequently 3 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Remove Roadblocks als. For example, telecommuting options and to Recruitment mobile work may be difficult if not impossible for employees engaged in construction work During the recruitment process, eliminating legal or utilities. However, even when organizations barriers that may be preventing women from cannot offer such options, they can offer a working in specific sectors and occupations variety of other flexible working arrangements, can help advance women’s employment. In such as staggered working hours, compressed recent years, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, work schedules, or breaks to allow for extended Kiribati, and Tajikistan have all moved to reform learning and training. their labor laws in order to eliminate some of the restrictions on women’s employment: for exam- Paid family leave and childcare solutions further ple, in jobs deemed arduous or hazardous, support the retention of women, and have such as underground work. demonstrated positive benefits for businesses. In Brazil, childcare provided by the public sector Inclusive policies such as quotas and targets increased maternal employment by 10 percent- can also be effective, and can help to change age points. And in rural Mozambique, the avail- the numbers quickly. When hiring, ensuring that ability of preschool enabled caregivers (primarily merit as well as inclusion goals are considered women) to save 15 hours per week on their care in tandem can help to avoid backlash, stigma- responsibilities. tization, and tokenism. However, opportunities to upskill should also be taken into account to Addressing sexual harassment in the workplace help workplaces become more equitable. Steps by developing complaint and redress mecha- taken to counter gender discrimination and bias nisms, antiharassment and nondiscrimination during the hiring process are also helpful. For policies, and sanctions for those who breach example, decision aids such as technical and them, is of critical importance. The Solomon cognitive tests, as well as structured interviews Islands Water Authority (SIWA) (referred to also during which every candidate is asked the same as Solomon Water), provides one good-practice questions in the same order, can help to stem example. With guidance from IFC, this utility has implicit biases. developed policies to prevent and counteract bullying and sexual harassment in the work- place, as well as to address cases of domestic Design Policies and Workplaces violence among their employees. These policies that Encourage Retention also ensure that employees are provided with Globally, women remain the primary caregivers helpful information, and referrals to community in the home: therefore, flexible work and part- support services. time employment options may help to reduce Simple measures like providing appropriate facil- attrition, and increase the number of women ities for women can foster a more inclusive work who enter and remain in the workforce over the environment. Infrastructure organizations should long term. However, although such arrange- consider women’s preferences and needs when ments may help to retain women in the work- designing work and living spaces for women force, those who take advantage of them may in the field: this includes ensuring that there is also be overlooked for promotion, a situation adequate lighting, separate toilets, uniforms that that calls for increased attention. are appropriate for women, and on-site health Because of the nature of the work, practices facilities. that seek to address issues of work-life balance Infrastructure entities can work with trade unions may be limited for infrastructure profession- to develop gender equality strategies, and to 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY enhance the participation of women in STEM, Male mentors could also play an important role including in leadership roles. Électricité de in women’s career advancement. Women in France (EDF) and ENGIE have established col- male-dominated industries such as engineering lective agreements on gender-equality targeting can benefit from having a senior male mentor: by balancing the number of women and men in those who have had such mentors report a management and technical positions; enhancing higher level of satisfaction with the progression women’s empowerment and agency; combating of their careers, and were more likely to be part- stereotypes and sexism in the workplace; and ners or senior executives than male employees highlighting gender-equality achievements. And with senior male mentors. Male mentors play an at the Ethiopian Electric Utility (EEU), the labor important role in the Emerging Women Lead- union offers protection for women’s rights in the ers (EWL) program in Panama. This program workplace, particularly concerning maternity actively shapes the mentor-mentee relationships leave. with the use of a guide that illuminates issues of gender and power dynamics, and works to Support Women as They Climb the mitigate the risks of sexual harassment. Many Ladder senior managers, and even vice-ministers, have participated in this program as mentors. Mentoring and sponsorship programs are promising professional development strategies Another key strategy is facilitating access to for women in STEM, and they can be supported professional networks: here, sector-specific, at the workplace level as well as across indus- international networks can help guide women tries. A variety of infrastructure sector mentoring in STEM, as well as infrastructure entities that programs are focused on empowering and pro- are seeking to retain, support, and advance moting women. For example, the Global Wom- women’s careers. Despite the increasing use en’s Network for Energy Transition (GWNET) of women’s networks within organizations designed and implements a well-structured, and companies, there has been relatively little 12-month mentoring program especially targeted research to examine their potential impact on at emerging leaders in the Middle East and women’s career advancement, and the available North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa Regions, research is mixed. In fact, one study found that as well as in China, the Americas, and Europe. a women’s network in a Fortune 500 company This program connects young energy profes- failed because it simply replicated the organiza- sionals in the renewable energy sector with tion’s patriarchal culture—the very culture that experienced senior leaders who provide them was already hindering the career advancement with advice and guidance through one-on-one of women. remote working sessions. Make the Transition from Insights Sponsorship—which involves the active support to Implementation of someone who has considerable influence on decision-making processes or structures—is Stepping up women’s careers in the infrastruc- even more effective than mentoring. Research ture sectors requires a wide range of practical by the Center for Talent Innovation found that actions within organizations. The first crucial men and women with sponsors are more likely steps in beginning the change process by to ask for pay raises (and get them), as well initiating dialogue and building buy-in within the as more likely to request to join high-visibility organizational leadership. Leaders who demon- teams, and to experience greater career satis- strate a genuine understanding of the impor- faction. tance of women’s participation in the workforce can encourage others to take the goal of gender 5 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE equality seriously. Transformational leaders can a baseline assessment; designing mentorship articulate clear and meaningful goals; encour- programs; earmarking funds for STEM schol- age employees to rise above their self-interest arships; building or installing new facilities; and to support collective goals; and communicate purchasing additional gear for women, among this vision to a broad set of stakeholders. It is other measures. Capturing the results achieved, important to engage other decision makers with a particular focus on the effect on wom- and champions too, since while senior leaders en’s employment, promotes accountability and can make institutional commitments, it is in the should be considered. departments and among employees that day-to- day change will actually happen. STEPPING UP TO THE The next steps are to gather sex-disaggre- CHALLENGE gated data, conduct analyses, and develop an evidence base. These data will provide insight Around the world, infrastructure organizations into the areas of challenge, as well as those that are engaged in opening up opportunities for areas best suited for intervention. Hiring gender women in STEM jobs and leadership positions experts, reviewing secondary data sources on are making a commitment to transforming their gender equality, gathering sex-disaggregated overall policies, and adopting comprehensive institutional data on women’s participation at all measures to fundamentally change their struc- job levels, and digging deeper with the use of ture and culture. qualitative interviews are all strategies that infra- These changes can create better and more fair structure organizations can use to help advance working conditions for both women and men, women’s employment. An important next step and can have broad positive effects on perfor- is using this information to shape an action plan mance—enabling women and men in infrastruc- with specific objectives and targets. ture employment to finally compete on an equal Closing large employment gender gaps takes footing—bringing about widespread benefits for time, and requires resources. The costs employers, employees, and society overall as include hiring experts or consultants to deliver well. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE 8 © World Bank / Davasha Photography 2019 LAYING THE FOUNDATION CHAPTER 1 LAYING THE FOUNDATION Infrastructure provides the vital support needed they are more likely to work in administrative and for the socioeconomic development of countries: support departments like customer service and indeed, it is the very backbone of development. human resources. This often results in women Roads and railways give people a way to travel holding jobs that pay less, and that offer fewer to work, go to school, and access health ser- benefits, and opportunities for advancement. vices. Electricity allows people to power, heat, Indeed, the data show that while women often and cool their homes; the water infrastructure have higher levels of education than men, they provides access to safe sanitation; and telecom- tend to earn less on average (Das and Kotikula munications infrastructures give them access to 2019). the Internet. Developing, operating, and upgrad- ing infrastructure can increase economic activity Employment in skilled jobs in the infrastructure in many ways, including job creation. And once sectors typically offers competitive salaries, in place, a functioning infrastructure supports benefits, and a discernible career path. These economic productivity by enabling the efficient jobs are generally higher-paying, with lower exchange of goods and services. unemployment rates than other jobs that require a similar level of education; and they are more Increasingly, infrastructure entities are recogniz- widely distributed geographically. Creating a ing that promoting greater gender equality in the better balance in the labor market by reducing workplace can result in multiple benefits for their occupational sex segregation can create a “vir- businesses, including improvements in financial tuous cycle,” in which increased levels of female performance, innovative capacity, operating participation in male-dominated sectors can efficiency, and community relations. expand women’s networks and shift institutional norms. Getting more women in the door can also And yet, the workforce in the infrastructure change societal gender norms about the kinds industries remains highly male-dominated. of careers that are “appropriate” for women, Occupational sex segregation contributes to and those in which women can excel (Das and gaps in economic opportunities between women Kotikula 2019). and men. Women are overrepresented in fields This section reviews the data, and the business like health and education, and underrepresented case for advancing women’s STEM employment in fields such as science, engineering, technol- in infrastructure, and presents the analytical ogy, manufacturing, and construction. They are framework for this study. also underrepresented in senior management: 9 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE WHY PROMOTE WOMEN’S current trends continue, investment in global infrastructure is projected to reach US$3.8 trillion STEM EMPLOYMENT IN by 2040 (Global Infrastructure Hub 2018). An INFRASTRUCTURE? International Finance Corporation (IFC) analy- sis found that 6.6 percent of the labor force in The infrastructure sectors employ many people low- and middle-income countries is employed both directly and indirectly. Investment in infra- in transport and communications, while approx- structure represents approximately 3 percent of imately 1.1 percent is in electricity and water the global gross domestic product (GDP), driven (IFC 2012). mainly by spending on electricity and roads. If What Do the Data Tell Us? Global studies indicate that women are underrepresented in the infrastructure sectors, particularly in STEM occupations. Studies in the water, energy, transport, and mining sectors have shed light on the share of women’s workforce participation in infrastructure industries, as follows: Water. An International Water Association (IWA) study on water utilities in 15 low- and middle-income countries found that, on average, only 17 percent of staff in the water sector is female (IWA 2014). Similarly, a 2019 World Bank study that surveyed 64 water and sanitation utilities in 28 economies found that women comprise an average of only 18 percent of the workforce in water utilities (World Bank 2019c). In addition, 2015 data of the International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utili- ties, which includes 222 water utilities, show that only 24.5 percent of the workforce is women. Energy distribution. An energy distribution study conducted by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which covered 14 utilities, found that women comprise an average of just 13 percent of the workforce, ranging from 1 per- cent in Pakistan to 30 percent in Ukraine (USAID 2016a). Renewable energy. An online survey of wind, solar, and wave-power companies conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) found that for the nearly 90 respondent companies from more than 40 countries, women represent 32 percent of the workforce (IRENA 2016). Urban public transport. In the European Union (EU), women account for an esti- mated 17.5 percent of the workforce in urban public transport; however, they hold less than 10 percent of the technical and operational jobs (Women Employment in Urban Public Transport Sector 2012). Airlines. Although their participation rate varies, women tend to be underrepresented in STEM jobs in the airline industry (pilots, technicians, engineers). For state-owned airlines in Singapore, South Africa, and Ethiopia, women’s workforce participation is 52 percent, 50 percent, and 30 percent, respectively (Singapore Airways 2018; South African Airways 2017; Ethiopian Airlines 2017). Data for the United Kingdom and the United States indicate that just over 4 percent of airline pilots are women; this share is growing, but quite slowly. According to the International Society of Women 10 LAYING THE FOUNDATION Airline Pilots, the three largest airline companies in the U.S. have the highest number of women pilots, while India’s low-cost carrier IndiGo has the highest proportion (13.9 percent) (Centre for Aviation 2018). However, consistent global data on women airline pilots do not exist. And as of 2014, women comprised only 25 percent of aerospace engineers (Marcus 2014). Maritime sector. The gender gaps are even more pronounced in the maritime sector, where women comprise just 2 percent of the global workforce (International Transport Workers Federation n.d.). Oil and gas. A recent global study covering 38 companies with a collective revenue of US$1.9 trillion found that only 22 percent of jobs in the oil and gas industry are held by women, even though the overall rates of female labor force participation in the coun- tries studied far exceeded this percentage (Rick, Marten, and Von Lonski 2017). In the United States, women hold 30 percent of STEM degrees, but constitute only 14.5 percent of the labor force in oil and gas (DePillis 2017). Mining and extractives. Recent studies show that women are underrepresented in the mining and extractives sector as well, at just 17.9 percent for Canada (in 2018), 14.3 percent for Australia (in 2015), and 13.8 percent for the United States (in 2018) (Cata- lyst 2019; The Advocates for Human Rights 2019). Available data, mostly from middle- and high-in- cent), and the lowest share in heavy industry (9 come countries, suggest that women are also percent); in fact, in middle-management roles, underrepresented at the senior management women had zero percent representation in heavy level of infrastructure industries. In middle- and industry (WEF 2016) (Figure 1). high-income economies, women account for about 35 percent of staff roles across all sectors, In the power and utility industry, women’s repre- with the highest share working in transport. The sentation in leadership positions has improved transport sector also has the highest share of in recent years, but the amount of improve- women working in senior roles (13 percent), and ment varies from region to region. The Index of as chief executive officers (CEOs) (9 percent); Women in Power and Utilities, which is based on however, these figures also show that women’s a survey of the top 100 power and utility com- advancement in the transport sector remains a panies by revenue, found that the percentage of challenge. Information and Communication Tech- women in senior management teams rose from 3 nology (ICT) has the highest share of women percent in 2009 to 15 percent in 2014 (EY Global working in junior roles (32 percent), while energy 2019); yet across regions, women were still has a relatively high share of female board mem- underrepresented (Figure 2). bers (32 percent). although there were no female Overall, women hold fewer technical STEM jobs CEOs represented in the sample (Table 1). in large economies; but they may outnumber Women’s representation in leadership positions men in certain countries or sectors. In Brazil, varies by region as well as by industry. Across China, and India, the data show that women are 14 African countries, women account for the disadvantaged when it comes to jobs in engi- highest share of senior managers in telecom- neering and research and development. In infor- munications, media, and technology (33 per- mation technology, they are also disadvantaged 11 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Table 1  Women’s Percentage Share in the Infrastructure Workforce, by Industry Board Senior Mid-Level Junior Line Staff Industry Group CEO Member Role Role Role Role Role Basic and Infrastructurea 2 35 9 13 22 14 20 Energyb 0 32 11 19 24 19 22 ICTc 5 19 11 21 32 23 33 Mobilityd 9 17 13 21 28 25 34 Industries Overall 9 28 15 24 33 30 35 Source: World Economic Forum 2016. Note: The dataset is from a 2015 survey with chief human resource officers of 371 companies representing more than 13 million employees in 15 middle- and high-income economies. The countries and regions covered in-depth included the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Australia, Brazil, China, France, Germany, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. a. Refers to Chemicals, Mining and Metals, Infrastructure, and Urban Development. b. Refers to Energy Utilities and Technology, Oil and Gas, and Renewable Energy. c. ICT = Information and Communication Technology. d. Refers to Aviation and Travel, Automotive, and Supply Chain and Transportation. Figure 1 Women’s Representation in Selected Infrastructure Industries in 14 African Countries 62% 47% 40% 33% 32% 29% 28% 29% 29% 24% 22% 22% 19% 9% 0% Telecoms, Media, Transportation, Heavy Global Energy Average Technology Logistics, Tourism Industry and Materials (All Industries) Non-Management Middle Management Senior Management Source: Moodley et al 2016. Note: Heavy industry refers to construction, heavy equipment, and automotive manufacturing. 12 LAYING THE FOUNDATION in Brazil and China; but they vastly outnumber mative social, economic, and financial benefits. men in India, according to the Mercer data sam- Economies are more likely to grow when women ple (Figure 3). and men fully participate as employees, entre- preneurs, consumers, caregivers, and leaders What is the Business Case for (World Bank 2015b). A 2018 report covering 141 Gender Equality? countries found that the loss in human capital wealth due to gender inequality was approxi- Mounting evidence suggests that removing mately US$160.2 trillion, assuming that women constraints to better jobs for women has transfor- would earn as much as men (Wodon and de la Figure 2 Women’s Share of Leadership Positions in the Power and Utility Industry by Region, 2019 26% 25% 22% 19% 15% 13% 13% 11% 10% 9% 9% 7% 7% 5% 4% Africa and the Asia-Pacific Europe Latin America North America Middle East and the Caribbean Board Executive Board Non-Executive Senior Management Source: EY Global 2019. Figure 3 Women’s Share of Job Family, by Country 30% 30.2% 20% 17.2% 15.1% 10% 10.9% 5.9% 3.9% 4.3% 4.4% 2.7% 2.2% 1.4% 3.4% 0.8% 0.1% 1.8% 1.6% 0.9% 0% Brazil China India Brazil China India Brazil China India Engineering Research, Development Information Technology Women Men Source: Levin et al 2017. 13 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Brière 2018). Studies have also shown that with control over their resources, whether household greater female participation in the workforce, resources or their own earnings, helps improve GDP increases. The McKinsey Global Institute outcomes for the next generation through spend- has calculated that if women’s participation in the ing that benefits children (World Bank 2012b). economy were on par with that of men, annual GDP would increase by 26 percent in 2025 as A growing body of literature strongly supports the compared to a 2015 baseline (McKinsey Global business case for gender equality in the work- Institute 2015). Furthermore, enhancing women’s place. There are many benefits to companies and institutions, including the following: Better financial performance. Firms with more women in leadership roles often demon- strate better performance, especially during periods of economic volatility; they also show a greater ability to minimize high-risk transactions and serve markets dominated by women. A 2011 study of Fortune 500 firms found that in terms of return on sales, compa- nies with a sustained high level of representation of women board directors outperformed those that had sustained low representation, by 84 percent; they also outperformed 60 percent for return on invested capital; and 46 percent for return on equity (Wagner 2011).1 A McKinsey & Company study of 345 firms across six countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) found that firms with one or more women on the executive committee had 44 percent higher returns on equity than those without women (McKinsey & Com- pany 2013). A study of 14 African countries found that companies with at least 25 percent women board directors had an earnings before interest and taxes margin—a key indicator of profitability—that was 20 percent higher on average (Moodley et al 2016). And in the energy sector, utilities with a larger share of women board directors have a higher return on equity than those with less diversity (Ernst and Young 2016). Greater innovation. A study of 4,277 companies in Spain found that companies with more women were more likely to introduce innovations in the market over a two-year period (Díaz-García, González-Moreno, and Sáez-Martínez 2013). The research also suggests that women score as well or better than men on key innovation capacities, including in taking initiative; inspiring and motivating others; and championing change (Folkman 2015). Improved employee retention. McKinsey & Company found that among companies that invested in attracting, retaining, and developing female talent, 64 percent reported increased employee productivity and retention, and 57 percent reported a greater ability to attract talent (McKinsey & Company 2010). And because recruiting and training new employees is costly for companies, a lower rate of employee turnover can lead to both savings and improved productivity. Improved service delivery. A study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on the public sectors of 26 EU countries found that workforce diver- sity can improve public-service quality and efficiency gains; increase policy effectiveness; enhance social mobility; and contribute to advancing the reform agenda (OECD 2009). Safer operating environment. Studies have demonstrated that female employees are often more likely to follow safety protocols, treat equipment responsibly, and safely oper- ate equipment (IFC 2013). 1. Firms with with three or more women board directors in at least four out of five years. 14 LAYING THE FOUNDATION Better outcomes for sustainability and compliance. Companies with more gen- der-balanced senior leadership— particularly women-owned businesses—often rank higher on key environmental, social, and governance risk management indicators (OECD 2016a). Companies with more gender-balanced senior management also tend to have greater public accountability and compliance with international conventions or national legislation (IFC 2018). Improved community relations. Gender equality in the workforce is correlated with improved community relations (Di Miceli and Donaggio 2018). A Catalyst and Harvard Business School study of Fortune 500 boardrooms found that companies with gen- der-inclusive teams contributed more charitable funds, on average, than companies without such teams (Soares, Marquis, and Lee 2011). approaches are organized into four stages along PURPOSE AND FRAMEWORK the career pathway: (i) attracting candidates to the sectors; (ii) recruiting the best possible This report provides the World Bank Group’s talent; (iii) ensuring employee retention; and (iv) operational staff, clients, and partners with providing female employees with opportunities a global review of a variety of promising for career advancement (Figure 4). approaches that are currently being used to advance women’s employment in STEM The report casts a wide net in order to learn occupations in the infrastructure sectors. The from good practices being used in a variety of Figure 4 Framework to Address Barriers to Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure Sectors Attraction Recruitment Retention Advancement 15 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE infrastructure sectors that share common orga- A large proportion of the workforce in these nizational, institutional, and operational charac- sectors consists of engineering and other teristics. Led by the Energy Sector Management STEM-based jobs (Table 2). Given that these Assistance Program (ESMAP) (Box 1), the report occupations are highly male-dominated, the does not limit its analysis to the energy sector barriers to attracting, recruiting, and retain- alone. Rather, it explores a range of infrastruc- ing talented women in the full range of roles ture sectors that fulfill basic human needs—for at all levels share some elements across the example, drinking water, communication, and infrastructure sectors, and thus require similar transport—and that are classified as services approaches. provided or mandated by public authorities, of municipalities, or of the state. These services This report is not intended to serve as an are characterized by a high degree of regulation, operational guidance note; rather, it sets the which is often the dominant role of the public stage for World Bank project teams and country sector. counterparts to test, refine, and evaluate the BOX 1 ESMAP’s Gender and Energy Program The ESMAP Gender and Energy Program is helping to strengthen women’s roles as consumers, employees, and entrepreneurs in the energy sector. Aligned with the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy, ESMAP works with countries to design interventions and generate crucial knowledge of the actions needed to close gen- der gaps in the energy sector, and improve development outcomes. Six regional programs have been established to enable the World Bank to better respond to the specific gender equality challenges and opportunities of each region. A focus on gender equality has also been integrated across ESMAP’s other work areas, including geother- mal energy; mini-grids; energy efficiency and behavior change; clean cooking; and battery storage. To achieve such results, ESMAP combines global knowledge work with support for country activities such as: • Collecting and generating data on key gender gaps, in order to strengthen the analysis and design of actions and indicators (for example, energy-access rates by household heads, and rates of labor force participation). • Testing innovative approaches, and providing technical support for the advancement of women’s employment, and the productive use of energy. • Designing approaches for closing gender gaps through World Bank policy dialogue and lending. • Capturing and disseminating lessons learned from the knowledge work, to improve the design of future energy projects. • Building a network of strong partnerships across sectors and external stakeholders, to enhance the impact of work on gender equality. 16 LAYING THE FOUNDATION Table 2 Indicative STEM and Related Occupations in the Infrastructure Sectors Infrastructure Sector Occupations that Use Science Related Occupations and Engineering Skills General Technicians: Chemical Technicians: Process and Physical Sciences; Controllers; Life Scientists; Metal Civil, Electrical, Electronics, Production Process Controllers; Mechanical, Mining and Safety, Health, and Quality Metallurgy, and Industrial and Inspectors Production Engineering ICT Technicians: Operations, User Support, Computer Network and Systems Other ICT Specialists: Systems Analysis, Software Development, Web and Multimedia Development, Applications Programming, Database Design and Administration, Computer Programming Other Disciplines: Physics; Chemistry; Mathematics, Actuarial Science and Statistics; Biology, Botany, and Zoology; Farming, Forestry, and Fisheries; Other Sciences Management Managers: Research and Senior Government Officials, Development (R&D), Agricultural Managing Directors, Chief and Forestry Production, Mining, Executives ICT Services, Engineering Energy & Extractivies Professions: Renewable Operators: Power Production, Energy Engineering, Material Petroleum and Natural Gas Sciences R&D, Modeling, Refining Plants, Control Rooms, Physics, Geology, Geophysics Geographical Information Systems Transport Professions: Engineering, Operators: Railroads, Ports Ship Engineering, Aircraft Piloting, Air Traffic Control, Air Traffic Safety, Electronics, Telecommunications, Ship and Aircraft Control Water Professions: Drafting, Water Operators: Incinerator and Quality, Hydrology Water Treatment Plants Source: Draws from ILO 2012. Note: This list of occupations is not exhaustive. 17 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE approaches presented here. The report gar- when available. In cases where the academic ners insights from the low- and middle-income literature is lacking, we have used reports and countries that fall within the World Bank Group’s studies to fill the gaps. The overall goal of this operational purview, and focuses on public sec- report is to provide a springboard for building a tor entities, which are often World Bank clients; more rigorous evidence base moving forward. these entities include state-owned enterprises (SOEs), utilities, and road authorities, as well Our global stocktaking exercise mapped more as ministries of public works, communications, than 150 initiatives and organizations. Interviews transport, urban development, energy, the were conducted with 28 global experts, and staff environment, and water, among others. In cases from international development organizations. where public sector insights are lacking, the Finally, a set of five case studies provides report describes experiences from the private detailed accounts of some of the initiatives that sector. Similarly, approaches from high-income infrastructure entities have undertaken in order to countries have been included when examples address key barriers to women’s STEM employ- from low- and middle-income countries are ment (Box 2). limited. Globally speaking, it is clear that few systematic We have drawn on a wide range of sources, measures are being undertaken to close the including a comprehensive literature review; a gender gaps explored in this report. Many of the stocktaking exercise of initiatives by a diverse case studies featured in this report are only at set of organizations; interviews with field experts; the pilot stage, or are still under implementation. and detailed case studies. Our extensive desk With only preliminary results in, it is difficult to review included more than 300 documents and predict what the effectiveness of these early ini- papers. Peer-reviewed articles were included tiatives will be when brought to scale. However, Box 2 Case Studies on Promoting Women’s STEM Employment Along the Career Pathway Attraction, Recruitment, Retention, and Advancement: Energizing Equity in Talent: The Case of Equal Opportunities in EVN Macedonia, A Partner of Engendering Utilities, USAID (See Box 4) Recruitment: Bridging the Skills Gap in the Water Sector: Women’s Scholarship Pilot in Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Department of Water Supply (See Box 7) Retention: Addressing Domestic Violence in the Workplace to Improve Business Out- comes: The Case of Solomon Water, Member of the IFC–led Waka Mere Commitment to Action (See Box 11) Recruitment, Retention, and Advancement: Institutionalizing Gender Equality in Proj- ect Design: The Case of the Ethiopian Electric Utility (See Box 15) Advancement: Investing in Women’s Leadership in Male-Dominated Sectors: Panama’s Emerging Women Leaders Program, IDB–supported PROLEAD network (See Box 18) 18 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS this report, which describes both the challenges cusses the main barriers and bottlenecks that encountered, and promising practices being dis- women in infrastructure sectors face at each covered, including ways to mobilize resources, stage of their career pathways. Section 3 pres- can help to establish the foundation for more ents some of the promising interventions and rigorous future research. approaches for overcoming these barriers. And Section 4 offers practical guidance for infra- structure organizations and World Bank project ORGANIZATION OF THIS teams who are seeking to advance women’s REPORT STEM employment in the infrastructure sectors. This report is divided into four sections. Drawing on our extensive literature review, Section 2 dis- 19 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE 20 ©iStockPhoto BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY CHAPTER 2 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY The pathway to women’s employment in STEM sented in some STEM subjects, particularly in careers within the infrastructure sectors includes engineering and computer science. Many who four main stages: attraction, recruitment, reten- opt to study these subjects do not ultimately work tion, and advancement. in these fields. And those who do sometimes leave their careers due to dissatisfaction with • Attraction refers to the early-stage pro- the workplace culture, the lack of advancement cesses that help to build women’s interest, opportunities, or work-life balance issues, among aspirations, and self-efficacy in developing others. STEM skills. The quality of girls’ educational experiences are critical for encouraging their Multiple overlapping dimensions that interact participation in STEM careers and jobs in the in complex ways influence women’s education, infrastructure sectors later on. employment, and their progression in STEM careers. These factors can be broadly divided • Recruitment refers to both the formal and into three levels: individual; institutional; and informal procedures used by an organization societal. to find and hire employees and firm contrac- tors with the desired qualifications. Individual-level factors encompass psycho- logical factors like self-efficacy, interest, and • Retention refers to the ability of an organiza- aspirations; human capital barriers (life and tion or sector to keep its female recruits, and professional skills); socioeconomic dimensions help them thrive. (parental levels of education and occupations); and social factors (for example, peer influences). • Advancement refers to the progression from jobs to careers—and often into mean- Institutional-level factors pertain to the formal ingful leadership roles—and to the ability of structures within which individuals operate, such employees to realize their full potential within as learning environments, including curricula and an organization. teaching strategies; formal workplace policies; and the gender biases and norms within organi- A metaphor frequently used to describe the fact zations. that women are underrepresented in STEM careers is the “leaky pipeline.” Although girls Societal-level barriers include laws and often perform as well as or better than boys in policies, as well as broader social and gender math and science at the primary and secondary norms, such as attitudes and gender stereo- levels, by the tertiary level they are underrepre- types. 21 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE These three types of factors often overlap and ATTRACTION interact with, influence, and reinforce each other, producing cumulative effects. Since the 1990s, the world has made good This section discusses the main barriers and progress in closing gender gaps in education. bottlenecks that women face at each stage of At the primary level, girls and boys now com- the STEM career pathway in the infrastructure plete school at about the same rate, with similar sectors (Table 3). Table 3 Barriers to Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure along the Career Pathway Type of Barrier Societal Institutional Individual Gender stereotypes and biases, Attraction including among educators and in X X educational materials Lack of self-efficacy, interest, and X aspirations Legal barriers to the nature and type of Recruitment X work Gender biases in the hiring process X Retention Lack of flexible work arrangements X X Care responsibilities X X Gender wage gaps X X Biases in the workplace X Sexual harassment risks X X Workplace facilities unfit for meeting the needs and occupational safety of female X workers Advancement Lack of sponsors and mentors X Limited professional networks X Few opportunities for effective training X Exclusion from opportunities for X advancement and leadership Note: These barriers are not comprehensive, and can vary by country, sector, industry, and infrastructure organization. 22 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY trends at the secondary level.2 At the tertiary productivity, labor market inclusion, and support level, women actually outnumber men, with gross for the school-to-work transition, the success of enrollment rates of 40.6 percent for females, these programs varies widely. Evidence from the compared to 35.6 percent for males (World Africa region shows that challenges related to Development Indicators, 2018 figures). quality, lack of practical training, outdated tech- nology, and limited labor market demand remain Yet, despite this progress, women are still under- (Arias et al 2019). represented in some STEM subjects. Data col- lected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics for Unfortunately, efforts to close gender gaps in 115 countries and dependent territories revealed education and to increase girls’ enrollment as that only 30 percent of female students in higher STEM majors have not yet translated into higher education were choosing STEM-related subjects labor force participation by women in STEM (UNESCO 2017). However, these global aggre- infrastructure fields. One study in the United gates mask country differences (Figure 5). States found that women comprise 20 percent of engineering graduates but account for only Overall, educational streaming is evident, with 11 percent of the engineering workforce (Fouad women overrepresented in health and educa- and Singh 2011). Similarly, in Canada less than tion, and men dominating in the engineering and half of women graduates with a STEM degree technology fields. In the subfield of engineering, go on to work in STEM-intensive occupations manufacturing, and construction, female student (Council of Canadian Academies 2015). enrollment is just 7 percent, compared to 22 percent for men. In information and communica- For this report we have summarized the barriers tion technology, these figures stand at 3 percent to attracting women to STEM fields in three main for women versus 8 percent for men (UNESCO areas: (i) gender stereotypes and biases; (ii) 2017) (Figure 6). self-efficacy, aspirations, and interests (which are often influenced by gender stereotypes); and Although technical and vocational education and (iii) educational system and school-level factors training (TVET) is largely outside the scope of (teachers, teaching strategies and practices, and this study, it should be noted that young women curricula and learning materials). are sometimes underrepresented in these training programs. Available data suggest that Gender Stereotypes and Biases the South Asia and Middle East and North Africa regions have the largest gender gaps, with Gender stereotypes and biases are strongly young women representing 22 percent and 41 associated with the gender gap in STEM percent of students, respectively.3 careers. While individual differences in the pref- erence for certain types of work certainly play There is also occupational segregation within a role in career decisions, gender norms also TVET fields, with men dominating higher-paying affect peoples’ opinions about which jobs are fields like mechanics, construction, and electron- appropriate and suitable for women. Gender ste- ics, and women participating at higher rates in reotypes often perpetuate the notion that infra- tailoring, business studies, and food services. structure work is unsuitable for women, or that Despite the promise TVET offers for improving 2. Primary level completion rates: 89.3 percent for girls, and 89.9 percent for boys. Lower secondary completion rates: 76.0 percent for females; 75.3 percent for males. World Development Indicators. 2018 figures. 3. Percentage of Students In Upper Secondary Vocational Education Who Are Female. 2017 figures. East Asia and the Pacific (43 percent); Europe and Central Asia (45 percent); Latin America and the Caribbean (50 percent); Sub-Saha- ran Africa (43 percent). World Bank Gender Data Portal. https://datatopics.worldbank.org/gender/ 23 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Figure 5 Percentage of Female Graduates from STEM Programs in Tertiary Education, 2015-2018 Oman Tunisia Brunei Darussalam Algeria Mauritania Sudan India Malaysia Peru Singapore United Arab Emirates Korea, Dem. People's Rep. Eritrea Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Serbia Romania Greece Germany Benin Portugal Philippines Morocco Estonia United Kingdom Bermuda Bosnia and Herzegovina Cameroon Croatia Qatar Italy North Macedonia Sweden Georgia Belarus Vietnam Poland Albania Thailand Mauritius Kazakhstan Saudi Arabia Azerbaijan France Slovenia Mexico Korea, Rep. Mongolia Austria Ireland Czech Republic Colombia Ukraine Madagascar South Africa New Zealand Lao PDR 10 20 30 40 24 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY Denmark Spain Finland Indonesia Lithuania Moldova Bulgaria Uruguay Hungary Rwanda Slovak Republic Belize Canada Switzerland West Bank and Gaza Kyrgyz Republic Kenya Congo, Dem. Rep. Norway Puerto Rico Brazil Bahrain United States Cyprus Burundi Panama Latvia Australia Armenia Burkina Faso Angola San Marino Luxembourg El Salvador Honduras Netherlands Malta Bangladesh Grenada Costa Rica Ecuador Cabo Verde Ghana Seychelles Egypt, Arab Rep. Congo, Rep. Belgium Sint Maarten Dominican Republic Chile Lesotho Cuba Cambodia Niger Mozambique Guatemala Andorra Macao SAR, China Aruba Maldives 10 20 30 40 Source: World Bank Gender Data Portal 25 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Figure 6 Distribution of Male and Female Students Enrolled in Higher Education by Field of Study STEM-Related Fields Information and Communication Natural Sciences, Mathematics and Statistics Engineering, Manufacturing and Construction Health and Well-being 5 10 15 20 25 Percent Other Fields Agriculture, Foresty, Fishery and Veterinary Services Social Sciences, Journalism and Information Arts and Humanities Education Business, Administration and Law 5 10 15 20 25 Percent Men Women Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics data for 2014–16 (UNESCO 2017). Note: 110 countries and dependent territories. they are incapable of performing well in it; and and science at the secondary level (Nosek, the nature of the work in infrastructure-heavy Smyth et al 2009). industries is often perceived as too dirty or too dangerous for women. These designations have Parents also contribute to gender stereotyping. been assigned, in part, by the presumed roles For example, data on parents’ attitudes and and abilities of women and men; and these perceptions from a variety of countries, including associations tend to affirm stereotypes con- Chile, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Korea, cerning the roles of women and men in society Mexico, and Portugal reveal that in all of these (Akerlof and Kranton 2010). economies, parents were more likely to expect their sons rather than their daughters to work in These stereotypes are evident across societies. a STEM field (OECD 2015).4 Half a million Implicit Association Tests taken by individuals at an average age of 27 across The dearth of female role models in STEM 34 countries showed that 70 percent of the test occupations can reinforce gender stereotypes, takers demonstrated a tendency to associate and further reduce young women’s interest in “male” with science and “female” with liberal pursuing STEM careers. This is particularly arts: and in countries where this stereotype was pronounced in technical infrastructure occupa- prevalent, boys tended to perform better in math tions, which are filled by very few women overall 4. Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 figures. 26 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY (Jalal 2014; Turnbull 2013). And without early sented in fields whose practitioners believe that support focused on STEM subjects from female innate talent is the main requirement for suc- teachers, female role models, and the broader cess, because many women do not believe they learning environment, secondary-age girls are possess such talent (Leslie et al 2015). unlikely to choose nontraditional educational pathways, or occupations that are perceived as Some researchers have found that male engi- conflicting with family life (OECD 2015). At the neers have higher measures of self-efficacy than tertiary level, the absence of female faculty and women (Vogt, Hocevar, and Hagedorn 2007). researchers may also influence young women’s However, this is not always the case: other interest and educational outcomes in STEM findings have identified no statistically significant (UNESCO 2017). difference between female and male engineers in this regard (Concannon and Barrow 2009). Exposure to female experts can have a posi- tive impact on women’s attitudes toward STEM A sense of belonging also influences self-ef- careers (Stout et al 2011). In a global survey ficacy. One study that focused on the repre- of 500 members of the Information Systems sentation of women in mathematics found that Audit and Control Association, 48 percent of the a lack of feeling a sense of membership and women identified an absence of female men- acceptance in this field acts as a critical driver of tors as the main reason for a lack of women in the gender gap (Ellis, Fosdick, and Rasmussen technology jobs (ISACA 2016). Yet male role 2016). models can often play an important role as well, While not all young girls are deterred or influ- by encouraging women to enter and stay in enced by these challenges, those who inter- male-dominated sectors thereby enabling higher nalize widely-held stereotypes may have lower earnings (Campos et al 2014; Alibhai et al 2017). levels of confidence in their science and math abilities than boys, and may feel out of place Self-Efficacy, Interest, and in STEM subjects (UNESCO 2017). Not sur- Aspirations prisingly, when classrooms have roughly equal numbers of women and men, or more women The internalization of stereotypes can also influ- than men, female engineering students have ence self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s higher levels of self-efficacy (Dasgupta, McMa- judgment of one’s ability to accomplish a specific nus Scircle, and Hunsinger 2015). task (Bong and Skaalvik 2003; Dasgupta et al 2015). This can play an important role in educa- The classroom environment can also convey a tional and career choices. sense of inclusion; girls reported higher levels of interest in enrolling in computer science classes While the data overwhelmingly show that gender when the academic environment did not rein- differences in math and science performance force gender stereotypes. In one experiment, have converged, or even closed, women and a “stereotypical” classroom included Star Wars girls still often underestimate their capabilities and Star Trek items, computer parts, and video due, in part, to internalized perceptions about games, while the “non-stereotypical” classroom their competence in these subjects (Brown included pictures of nature and art (Master, 2010). At the tertiary level of education, women Sapna, and Meltzoff 2016). have been found to underestimate their com- petence in math and, as a result, to opt out of Studies have shown that beliefs about individ- quantitative majors (Correll 2001). And a study ual capabilities are formed at an early age and of American academics across the spectrum of continue into adulthood, and that they shape disciplines found that women are underrepre- women’s perceptions of their abilities in science, 27 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE math, economics, and physics (Nissen and Women sometimes choose not to enter STEM Shemwell 2016). A small-scale longitudinal study fields even when they perform well in science in Sweden found that the career aspirations and math. A large international study found of youth were largely formed by age 13: this that in two-thirds of the countries with data, confirms the results of other research showing adolescent girls performed as well as or better that it is progressively more difficult to engage than boys in science and math. Yet, in nearly students in science, or alter their perceptions all of the countries studied, among girls who of self-efficacy in specific subject areas as they appeared capable of college-level STEM study, grow older (Ardies and Gijbels 2015; Bandura et few enrolled in it, opting instead for other tracks al 2001; Lindahl 2007). (Stoet and Geary 2018). Interestingly, the coun- tries that are less gender-equal—as measured Both families and peers play an important role by the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender in shaping girls’ interest in STEM subjects, and Gap Index—had relatively higher shares of this later influences the subjects they choose to female graduates in STEM programs than those study, as well as their career plans. A meta-anal- with greater gender equality (Stoet and Geary ysis of gender differences in occupational 2018). The authors hypothesize that in countries interests that synthesized more than 40 years where economic pressures are more pervasive, of evidence shows that consistently, over time girls are motivated to pursue relatively high-pay- and across age groups, men prefer working with ing STEM occupations as a source of greater things and women prefer working with people economic security. However, some researchers (Su, Rounds, and Armstrong 2009). Girls’ inter- have challenged the findings of the study–the est in STEM fields is heavily influenced by their debate remains unresolved. parents’ expectations as well as those of their female peers. For example, in some contexts, Within science-related fields, the career aspira- parents have lower expectations of girls’ abilities tions of girls and boys are different. A 2015 PISA in mathematics, and place less value on their study for OECD countries found that at age 15, participation in science and mathematics (Stoet 24 percent of girls and 25 percent of boys antici- et al 2016; Tenenbaum and Leaper 2003). The pated a career in science (OECD 2018). How- presence of family members with STEM careers ever, in a related study girls were three times has also been shown to influence girls’ pursuit of more likely than boys to see themselves working STEM studies (Tan et al 2013). Parents who are as health professionals, while boys were twice involved in STEM fields are likely to familiarize as likely as girls to aspire to careers as engi- girls with STEM careers in ways that other role neers, scientists, or architects (OECD 2017). models cannot, and to debunk the perception that STEM occupations are difficult to combine The Role of Educators with family life (Tenenbaum and Leaper 2003). At the primary and secondary levels of edu- Peer relationships also affect children’s beliefs, cation, the quality of teachers is considered to behaviors, academic achievements, and motiva- be the single most important in-school factor tion, especially during adolescence. Studies have in determining students’ overall academic shown that the attitudes of girls’ peers can signifi- achievement (OECD 2005). In a meta-analysis cantly predict their own interest and confidence of research in the United States, higher achieve- in both mathematics and science (Dasgupta and ment in science and math was found to be Stout 2014; Robnett 2013). Similarly, they might correlated with teachers who had more teaching be discouraged from taking STEM subjects if experience, more confidence in teaching these their peers view these subjects as inappropriate subjects, and higher overall career satisfaction for girls (Robnett and Leaper 2013). (Mullis et al 2012). 28 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY Teachers sometimes hold gender biases that Curricula, Teaching Materials, and manifest in a variety of ways (Lavy and Mega- Educational Environment lokonomou 2019; Terrier 2015; Lavy and Sand 2018; Brown 2010; Mutekwe and Modiba 2012). Curricula and teaching materials are central to Even in primary school, where science and the educational process. A curriculum that has a mathematics are part of the core curriculum strong conceptual framework, and that features for both girls and boys, gender stereotyping is real-world problems can enhance girls’ interest frequently reinforced (Maltese and Tai 2010). in science (Hazari et al 2010; Kelly and Knowles Findings also suggest that gender biases are 2016). Unfortunately, educational materials often found among both male and female teachers. perpetuate gender stereotypes and biases. For For example, one experiment showed that when example, there may be many more pictures professors were asked to rate the competence of men than women in educational materials, and suitability of candidates for a laboratory job, sending a message that they are more suited to female applicants were rated lower than their these professions (Kerkhoven et al 2016). Men male counterparts, even when the application and women are also often portrayed as playing materials were identical (Moss-Racusin 2012). stereotypical roles within the household and at the workplace. A recent review by UNESCO of Female teachers can positively influence more than 110 national curriculum frameworks the quality of girls’ STEM education by dis- for primary and secondary education in 78 coun- pelling myths about sex-based, innate abilities tries found that many mathematics and science among boys, and by acting as role models textbooks and learning materials were convey- for girls (Baker 2013; Carrel 2009; Betz and ing gender biases (Benavot 2016). Sekaquaptewa 2012). In some cases, girls were more likely to declare, and graduate with, Others have argued that the environment in the a STEM major when they had had female math college classroom is not the same for men and and science teachers in high school (Bottia 2015). women. Sandler and Hall coined the term “chilly climate”5 to describe the differential treatment Effective teaching practices, as well as the of women in the classroom. This treatment can availability of equipment and materials, can cul- range from overt behaviors, such as encourag- tivate a learning environment that motivates and ing women to switch majors or discrediting their engages girls in STEM classes (Jensen et al intellectual abilities, to less overt ones, such as 2016; Spearman and Watt 2013). A 2015 OECD interrupting them when they speak, or calling on study found that where teachers used “cogni- men more often than on women (Sandler and tive-activation” strategies in teaching mathemat- Hall 1982). Despite decreases in overt sexism ics—encouraging students to think and reflect; over the past few decades, women continue use their own procedures to solve problems; to be subjected to subtler forms of gender explore multiple solutions; learn from mistakes; biases (Jensen and Deemer 2019). Male peers ask for explanations; and apply learning in dif- also often demonstrate biases against female ferent contexts—performance improved (OECD students (Moss-Racusin et al 2012; Grunspan, 2015; Baker 2013). Access to resources for Eddy and Brownell 2016). scientific experiments has also been associated with a higher level of achievement in science, and interest in science subjects among girls (Simpkins et al 2015). 5. The term “chilly climate” is used by various researchers to refer to unwelcoming social factors for women in male-dominated engineering and other STEM fields. 29 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE These factors are all likely to negatively influ- three quarters of the rights of men. In fact, only ence women’s sense of belonging in STEM eight countries currently have no legal differ- fields (Ayre et al 2013; Faulkner 2009). ences between men and women: Belgium, Research shows that even among first-year Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Latvia, engineering students, women are less likely to Luxembourg, and Sweden (World Bank 2020). perceive engineering as the right career for them Women face the greatest inequality when it (Cech, Rubineau et al 2011). This is important, comes to having children, with a great deal of because a sense of belonging in a particular variation in the policies for paid maternity leave, setting or broader field is associated with a vari- paternity and parental leave, and the treatment ety of positive outcomes for individuals (Walton, of pregnant workers (Hyland, Djankov, and Gold- Cohen et al 2012; Walton and Cohen 2007). For berg 2020). example, a brief intervention aimed at increas- ing first-year college students’ sense of social While legal barriers to women’s employment belonging was found to positively affect the have decreased globally in recent years, many grade point averages (GPAs) of participants, as explicit industry-specific barriers remain embed- well as self-reported general health and well-be- ded in legal codes. Discriminatory restrictions ing (Walton and Cohen 2011). Even more rele- are still imposed on such industries as mining (in vant, in one intervention, women who learned 60 countries), manufacturing (48 countries), con- that adversities and worries about belonging in struction (35 countries), energy (26 countries), the field were common for all engineering stu- agriculture (21 countries), water (23 countries), dents raised their engineering GPAs, improved and transportation (16 countries). And even their academic attitudes, and viewed their daily though more than 80 percent of the world’s adversities as more manageable (Walton 2014).6 countries now prohibit gender discrimination in employment, only 46 percent of them mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value RECRUITMENT (World Bank 2020). Recruitment refers to both the formal and Gender Biases in the Hiring informal procedures used by an organization in Process seeking and hiring employees or firm contrac- One of the main challenges that women face tors. The process of recruitment involves a wide in acquiring STEM jobs is encountering gender range of issues, including legal barriers that bias during the hiring process. Infrastructure can limit women’s participation in certain roles, jobs are often thought of as being dirty, physi- as well as recruitment practices that may have cally demanding, or dangerous (Orlando et al embedded gender biases. 2018; World Bank 2019c). As a result, potential employers may doubt that women have the Legal Barriers to the Nature and ability to work effectively in them. For example, Type of Work private sector employers in the West Bank and There has been meaningful progress in address- Gaza who were interviewed said they feared ing gender-related legal barriers in the last fifty that maternity might interrupt women’s ability to years, but the progress has been uneven. work; they also had doubts about the reliabil- Today, globally women have on average only ity, productivity, and commitment of women in 6. This section draws on a comprehensive literature review focused on women and girls in STEM: Hammond, Alicia; Rubiano Matulevich, Eliana Carolina; Kumaraswamy, Sai Krishna. 2020. Breaking Bias: Addressing Barriers to the Participation of Women and Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. Washington, D.C. : World Bank. For more information consult Hammond, A. 30 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY the workplace, given their competing demands ing workplace environment; and/or insufficient at home (World Bank 2017). Experimental flexibility of working arrangements, which can research has also shown that for jobs requiring make it difficult for women to reconcile their arithmetic tasks, despite both sexes performing work and family lives (Project Wise 2009; Shah equally well, male candidates are twice as likely et al 2007). as female candidates to get hired (Reuben, Sapienza, and Zingales 2014). Women’s concerns commonly include the absence of basic amenities like separate toilets, In male-dominated industries, job postings often changing rooms, and sanitary facilities, and use words that imply stereotypically “masculine” insufficient attention paid to matters of employee strengths and skill sets, for example, “dom- health, well-being, safety, and security (Turnbull inant” and “competitive” (See Box 6) (Gau- 2013). In addition, the heavy dominance of men cher, Friesen, and Kay 2011). In addition, the in certain roles can cause women to feel isolated interview process may reflect both implicit and in the workplace, particularly if they experience explicit biases, for example by including ques- sexist attitudes there (EC 2016). tions about physical strength for jobs that do not require such abilities. The risks of violence against women and sexual harassment are among the most critical factors Without sufficient social and professional that limit women’s attraction to infrastructure capital, which is often acquired through unpaid jobs in the first place, as well as retention of internship experiences or costly certifications, those who are employed in these sectors. qualified female engineers may also struggle to Unequal pay, and unequal access to premium secure an entry point, or “foot in the door.” In the wage rates are also concerns: for example, it is United Kingdom, an assessment of more than often difficult for women to reconcile overtime or 90,000 work experience placements for upper weekend work with their family commitments. secondary school found that girls comprised only 5 percent of the placements in mechanical, Lack of Flexible Work construction, and engineering internships (Fran- Arrangements cis et al 2005). It also found that 36 percent of girls would have opted for a nontraditional The evidence suggests that because women placement, but only 15 percent of girls and boys take on the majority of domestic and care in the sample reported receiving information responsibilities for children, aging parents, and about such placements (Francis et al 2005). other family members, the lack of work-life And while postacademic apprenticeships may balance in infrastructure-sector jobs makes it be offered to qualified women and men in many difficult to retain them as employees. Multiple countries, women often have greater domestic studies have found that the main reason for responsibilities and fewer options for financial women leaving their infrastructure jobs, particu- support during unpaid training periods (World larly in engineering, is inflexible working hours, Bank 2014). or a “culture of overwork” that makes it difficult to balance work and family obligations (Corbett and Hill 2015; Fouad and Singh 2011; Fouad RETENTION et al 2017). An International Labour Organiza- tion (ILO) study of 149,000 men and women in Retention refers to the ability of an organization 142 countries found that both men and women or sector to keep its female recruits, and help perceive work-home-life balance as the top chal- them thrive. A low level of retention is likely lenge facing working women in their countries linked to poor working conditions; an unwelcom- (Gallup and ILO 2017). 31 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE However, the nature of infrastructure work flexible arrangements in which they work fewer makes the establishment of policies that sup- hours on average than men. This puts them at port work-life balance challenging (Eurofound risk of being channeled into lower-level jobs, and ILO 2017). For example, telecommuting and limits their potential for upward mobility. options and mobile work may be more limited for employees in construction or utilities organi- For example, in Pakistan women who work zations. However, even when they cannot offer in the energy sector mostly hold non-STEM such options, employers can offer a variety of jobs; plant operations and maintenance other flexible working arrangements, including activities are an exclusively male domain, staggered working hours, compressed work leaving women to fill primarily administrative schedules, or scheduled breaks for extended positions (Barnabas, Anbarasu, and Clifford learning and training. 2009). These challenges are exacerbated by the fact that much of the STEM and technical Flexible working arrangements can increase work in infrastructure organizations takes place worker safety and productivity and lower oper- in remote rural regions with poor educational ating costs, while also attracting and retaining systems, few or no job opportunities for work- a more diverse and talented workforce. Even ing spouses, and a lower quality of life than in when they are in place, however, staff do not major cities. These are not easy challenges always feel comfortable using them. Fear of to overcome for anyone, but especially for stigma, confusion about how to use them, or women, who still are expected to put their resistance by supervisors, can keep employ- family’s needs first. ees from availing themselves of the options for workplace flexibility that are available to them Gender Wage Gaps (UNECE 2019). It is important for managers to engage in meaningful dialogue with their The ILO estimates that globally, women are employees in order to understand what flexible paid 20 percent less than men, with large vari- working arrangements mean to them, and find ations across countries (ILO 2019). Identifying ways to use them to the benefit of both employ- unexplained wage gaps by sex is a complex ees and employers (UNECE 2019; Abele and issue. Many factors determine wages, includ- Volmer 2011). ing age, experience, and education. Therefore, determining the role one’s sex plays in the Care Responsibilities level of pay requires careful analysis at the organizational or firm level. A Mercer study of Care duties may prevent women from being gender pay gaps in 11 countries7 found that based at remote sites for long periods of time, even after controlling for employee attributes or from taking higher paying jobs that require (age, tenure, experience, and performance), relocating. This can negatively affect their gender gaps remained, albeit to a lesser career prospects over time. In addition, cultural degree. These gaps ranged from 3.8 percent expectations that women should shoulder a in India to 12.2 percent in Japan (Levine et al disproportionate share of unpaid care work may 2017). lead employers to prejudge their capacities and/ or level of commitment to work (World Bank While evidence from the infrastructure sectors 2012b). As a result of their care-related role is scant, some recent studies do point to gen- expectations, women may be more likely to seek der wage gaps in STEM jobs. A global survey 7. The Mercer study, which drew on detailed data for 2.5 million employees from 5,451 companies, included mainly OECD countries, as well as Brazil, India, and China. 32 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY of 371 chief human resource officers found that (Sandler, Silverberg, and Hall 1996; Stephen respondents in the consumer goods and infra- 2015). structure-related industries were some of the most likely to report wage gaps between women Such challenges, if they occur early in wom- and men performing the same role, with 39 per- en’s careers, can lead to the loss of valuable cent of respondents in the mobility sector, and employees. A survey of more than 3,700 female 31 percent in the energy sector reporting such engineers in the United States found that gaps (WEF 2016). Global data also suggest that workplace climate and culture were among the women face a median pay gap of 21 percent in most common factors for women leaving the information and technology jobs (ILO 2019). field (Fouad and Singh 2011). Similarly, a study of women in STEM fields found that 32 percent In the United States, a study using 2003 and of women in the United States, 30 percent in 2010 data from the National Survey of College China, 22 percent in Brazil, and 20 percent in Graduates found that the higher exit rate of India are likely to quit within the first year of women from engineering jobs relative to other being hired. And the Center for Talent and Inno- fields was explained by women’s dissatisfaction vation found that a third of women with STEM with pay and promotion opportunities in the credentials who are working in the private sector workplace (Hunt 2016). Yet when compared to reported having experienced isolating dynam- other fields, STEM careers are often considered ics in their workplaces (Hewlett et al 2014).8 more financially secure (Stoet and Geary 2018). The research also points to organizations that are implicitly, yet distinctly, male-centered, and Workplace Biases, and Hostile that have practices that are unfavorable for Working Environments women; for example, they may be slow to grant women access to prestigious positions, or they When women feel undervalued in male-dom- may expect their employees to rely on “spousal inated workplaces, they may feel the need to ‘backstage’ support” for career advancement expend energy trying to “fit in,” undermining their (Sassler et al 2017). confidence in the process (Faulkner 2009). An unwelcoming workplace environment, where Despite these challenges, the strong desire and women are treated in a condescending, patron- commitment of women to enter STEM fields izing, or discourteous manner by supervisors, presents a momentous opportunity for infrastruc- senior managers, or coworkers can negatively ture entities to retain and develop high-potential affect their job satisfaction, and thus the ability to talent by addressing the barriers women face retain them as employees. once employed. Though they often feel stalled in their jobs, many women in STEM fields remain “Micro-inequities” are the small, everyday ways dedicated to their professions (Hewlett et al in which individuals are treated differently and 2014). In India, China, Brazil, and the United marginalized because of their gender, race, age, States, the vast majority of women in STEM or other “outsider” status (Rowe and Giral- fields report that they “love their work” (at 93 do-Kerr 2017). Over time, these behaviors can percent, 90 percent, 87 percent, and 80 percent, have a damaging cumulative effect, creating an respectively) (Hewlett et al 2014). environment that dampens women’s self-es- teem, confidence, and aspirations, and keeps them from fully participating in the workplace 8. The research consists of four surveys (one U.S. survey, and three company surveys); 28 focus groups; and numer- ous one-on-one interviews. The survey encompassed a total of 4,349 female employees in science, engineering, and technology. 33 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Sexual Harassment in the promotion, or even continued employment is Workplace contingent on their “acceding to demands to engage in some form of sexual behavior” (ILO Sexual harassment encompasses more than n.d.). Women who endure such harassment physical and sexual abuse. For example, it also are subjected to power dynamics that limit their includes verbal and nonverbal harassment; and potential to advance and thrive in their careers studies suggest that it is particularly pervasive in (IFC 2016). STEM and other male-dominated fields (Shaw, Hegewisch, and Hess 2018). One study of Another form of sexual harassment involves women with STEM degrees working in the pri- hostile working environments, in which the vate sector found that 63 percent of those who conduct of coworkers or supervisors creates were in engineering had experienced sexual conditions that are intimidating or humiliating for harassment (Corbett and Hill 2015). women, and that prevent their full participation in the endeavor (ILO n.d.). A high prevalence of sexual harassment has high costs. For the individual, it can cause The actual levels of sexual harassment and physical and mental harm, as well as possi- violence in the workplace are likely higher than ble damage to career advancement. For the reported: research by the Australian Human company, it can mean lower productivity, higher Rights Commission found that although nearly absenteeism, and increased employee turnover half of workplace offenses stop after a com- (Shaw, Hegewisch, and Hess 2018). plaint is made, only an estimated 20 percent of survivors file a formal report (Australian Human National statistics on the prevalence of sexual Rights Commission 2008). harassment in the workplace sheds light on the pervasiveness of this problem. In Australia, 20 Underreporting occurs in situations where percent of employees reported that they had women think it is easier to resign from their jobs experienced sexual harassment in the work- than face humiliation; or they may fear losing place in the past five years. In Nepal, 53 percent their jobs, or simply dread facing an uncom- of female workers reported sexual harassment fortable confrontation. They might also lack in the workplace. In South Africa, 77 percent of confidence in the available redress or response women reported that they had experienced mechanisms. Women may be intimidated into sexual harassment at some point in their work- silence; they may be afraid they won’t be able to ing lives (IFC 2016). In the EU, 40–50 percent substantiate their claims with evidence; or they of women reported unwanted sexual advances, may simply not realize that a particular behavior physical contact, or other forms of sexual is a form of sexual harassment, and that their harassment (WHO 2012). And in Ethiopia, a rights have been breached (IFC 2016). nationwide assessment on the prevalence of The lack of legal and policy mechanisms for violence against women found that 49.6 percent addressing sexual harassment in the workplace of female employees working in the public or enables it to flourish: and out of 190 economies, private sectors had experienced at least one 50 have no laws at all that address this problem. type of violence in their workplace (Ministry of Thirty-five countries have no laws addressing Women, Children and Youth Affairs 2013). domestic violence, or aggravated penalties for Though men can experience sexual harass- violence at home; 18 of these are in Sub-Sa- ment in the workplace, it is most often experi- haran Africa, and 10 are in the Middle East and enced by women. They may experience sexual North Africa (World Bank 2020). harassment when they are told that a benefit, 34 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY Women in male-dominated fields like infrastruc- Recognizing gender differences in the work- ture are put at heightened risk when there are force is essential in order to ensure the safety no systems established to prevent and respond and health of both male and female workers: to cases of sexual harassment, physical abuse, these differences should be considered when or compounding issues like alcoholism and drug developing policies for addressing occupational abuse. The threat is even more pervasive in safety and health hazards in the workplace remote locations, where supervision and (EU-OSHA 2014; ILO 2013). In the past, the feedback mechanisms are limited. It is therefore effects of occupational safety and health haz- unsurprising that many women who work in the ards on women were underestimated, because infrastructure sector are unwilling to move to the standards and exposure limits to hazardous areas they deem unsafe, even if the job is well substances were based on male populations paid. Until and unless there are security policies and laboratory tests (Forastieri 2010). Today that consider women’s needs by establishing there is growing recognition of sex differences in reporting mechanisms for harrassment, whis- terms of occupational safety and health haz- tleblower protections, and punitive measures ards in the workplace: for example, the impact for aggressors, working conditions will remain on women’s reproductive health from exposure unsafe for women, and they will continue to be to chemicals or biological agents; the physical reluctant to join infrastructure sectors altogether demands of heavy work; the ergonomic design (Ceci and Williams 2011). of workplaces; and the length of the working day when domestic duties are also considered are Failure to Address the Needs all being given more scrutiny (Forastieri 2000; of Female Workers Peters and Demers 2009; Sorrentino et al 2016). Another effect of the male-dominated infrastruc- A safe, accessible, and affordable transport ture culture is that too often work facilities, ame- infrastructure is also essential in order for nities, equipment, and transportation fail to meet women to be able to access jobs and other women’s needs, and thus may discourage them economic opportunities. According to the ILO, from employment. Separate sanitation facilities a lack of safe and accessible transportation is for men and women; provisions for proper men- the greatest obstacle to women’s labor force strual hygiene management (including locks on participation in low- and middle-income coun- restroom doors, disposal bins, and handwashing tries, reducing their participation probability by facilities); separate housing facilities for women 16.5 percentage points (ILO 2017b). And since at project sites; and personal protective gear large-scale infrastructure projects are often designed for women can all help women feel implemented in remote areas, frequent travel more comfortable in the workplace (Orlando et and relocation may be required, especially for al 2018; UNECE 2019). projects focused on rural electrification, water infrastructure, and rural road construction. Occupational safety is another concern for women who are considering jobs in infrastruc- ture: in this regard, regulations and environmen- ADVANCEMENT tal guidelines at construction sites; appropriate healthcare provisions; and prevention and Advancement refers to the progression from response mechanisms to prevent and appro- jobs to careers—often into meaningful leader- priately deal with sexual harassment are all ship roles—as well as to employees realizing important. their full potential within an organization. 35 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Various forms of segregation can limit wom- Many women in STEM-related fields in infra- en’s progression in their careers. For example, structure lack female sponsors and mentors to their careers might never “get off the ground” guide them along their career path. However, because their jobs are confined to feminized they can still benefit from male sponsors and roles, with limited training or career opportu- mentors in order to learn from senior profession- nities. And even when they secure entry into als and have their accomplishments made more male-dominated sectors and occupations, visible by individuals who have ample experi- women are typically excluded from tasks that ence and influence in the workplace. are considered to be “too masculine” for them; this is often technical, or physically dangerous, One study in the United States found that 84–88 work. This type of exclusion, which can stall, or percent of women in STEM-related jobs lacked even curtail, women’s prospects for promotion, sponsors, or someone of influence to advocate is called horizonal segregation (Turnbull 2013). for them within their organization; nearly half lacked mentors; and 25–40 percent had no role Horizontal segregation is often compounded models within their institutions (Hewlett et al by vertical segregation, sometimes called the 2008). McKinsey research has also found that “glass ceiling,” where there are few opportu- fewer than one in four female employees has a nities for women to progress due to range of sponsor (McKinsey & Company 2018b). factors, including biases in the workplace, lack of training and skills development opportunities, The combination of a dearth of female col- and limited numbers of female role models or leagues; unwelcoming work cultures; and other mentors—both male and female—who are will- corporate constraints for female talent has been ing to support them in the advancement of their linked to one-third of U.S. women in STEM-re- careers. lated, private sector jobs feeling isolated at work. This isolation is both a cause and a conse- quence of the lack of female sponsors, men- Lack of Mentors and Sponsors for tors, and role models; because it degrades job Women satisfaction and creates a “flight risk” for female Mentoring is important for leadership devel- STEM professionals (Hewlett et al 2008). opment, but it is not enough to help women to Even in professional contexts where women advance to the highest levels; recent research do have sponsors, the “sponsor effect” may not suggests that they also need sponsorship. be as strong for women as it is for men. One Sponsorship refers to the active support of large-scale study in the U.S. found that women someone who is appropriately placed within the in STEM-related, private sector jobs who had organization; who has substantial influence over sponsors reaped fewer benefits and job satis- decision making; and who advocates, protects, faction than their male counterparts did. Men and will even fight for the career advancement with sponsors were 32 percent more satisfied of an individual (Ibarra, Carter, and Silva 2010). with their career progression than men without A McKinsey study found that employees with sponsors, while women with sponsors were only sponsors are 1.4 times more likely to say they 22 percent more satisfied. These differentials have had a meaningful interaction with a senior were even greater in Brazil and China. In China, leader, and 1.5 times more likely to aspire to men with sponsors were 58 percent more satis- become a top executive—and this is especially fied with their career progression, compared to true for women (McKinsey & Company 2018b). 21 percent for women; while the corresponding figures for Brazil were 42 percent for men and 19 percent for women (Hewlett et al 2014). 36 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY Limited Professional Networks Few Opportunities for Effective Training Women also tend to lack access to both formal and informal professional networks, and con- Despite evidence pointing to the importance of tacts that can help them develop their careers. training in helping workers upgrade their skills Some of the literature suggests that the existing and keep abreast of new technologies, the litera- social networks and mentorship structures in ture suggests that, for a host of reasons, women engineering are dominated by powerful men, receive fewer training opportunities. Research and that without access to these connections, conducted among 5,500 female engineers women face barriers in advancing in their found that one of the main reasons they cited for careers (Corbett and Hill 2015). And they do leaving their work was the lack of training and have difficulty gaining access to these networks, development opportunities to help them advance since the networks are both homogenous and in their careers (Corbett and Hill 2015). longstanding; and women are often uncomfort- able networking in the social context of these In some cases, women may be deliberately settings (Davies-Netzley 1998; Broughton and excluded from training; for example, when Miller 2009; Durbin 2011). employers do not offer them certain opportuni- ties, assuming that they might have to interrupt A series of studies suggests that women have their careers for childbearing or other care less access to influential individuals, and that responsibilities (Turnbull 2013). In other cases, they tend to build their networks with individuals the exclusion may be unintentional, such as who have a lower status than those in men’s when training is scheduled at times or locations networks (Brass 1984; Burke et al 1995; Dre- that are inconvenient for women who have care her and Cox 1996; Linehan and Scullion 2008; responsibilities (ILO 2019). Wang 2009). For example, one study of male and female managers in three large organiza- Exclusion from Opportunities for tions found that women had more women, and Advancement and Leadership men had more men, in their networks (Burke et al 1995). Some studies suggest that women in the infra- structure sectors are consistently excluded from Given that typically more men than women hold leadership positions because of complex factors higher-level managerial roles (Ragins et al 1998; that are rooted in stereotypes and gender Schein 2007), networks composed of women norms. Stereotypes about leadership are often only are less likely to be able to provide the embedded in people’s mindsets, and translate same kind of access to opportunities for career into the systematic disadvantaging of potential advancement as those that include men. There female leaders. are other difficulties associated with professional networking also: one study of U.S. workers Studies have also shown that the qualities found a positive relationship for men—but not for implicitly associated with leadership are often women—between engagement in professional also associated with men: for example, asser- activities and career outcomes. The authors of tiveness, aggression, and ambition (Eagly and this study suggest that women’s disproportionate Carli 2007; Elmuti, Jia, and Davis 2009; Ibarra, share of household and family responsibilities Ely, and Kolb 2013). By contrast, women are made them more likely to find these activities more often associated with being helpful, nurtur- burdensome (Forret and Dougherty 2004). ing, or modest. These are considered attractive 37 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE traits in women, but ineffective traits for leader- Similar results were found in a self-reported ship (Eagly and Carli 2007). survey of 9,000 leaders and managers in the U.S., which showed that women exercise the These prevailing stereotypes create a kind leadership skills of talent development, role of double bind. It often means that women modeling, inspiration, and participative deci- who exhibit the leadership styles traditionally sion-making more often than men do (McKinsey attributed to men are seen in a negative light, 2008). This more democratic approach is a or are disliked by their peers; while women who growing trend within businesses, and is charac- exhibit the traits traditionally attributed to women terized by a transformational9 leadership style, in are not considered assertive enough to be which leaders encourage, inspire, and motivate considered for promotion. This also means that employees to innovate, and to create change female leaders often deal with more resistance that will help grow and shape the future success from their peers and supervisees than men do of the company. (Eagly and Carli 2007; Groysberg and Connolly 2013). This type of leadership is increasingly import- ant in industries that require adapting to rapidly However, the research shows that as more changing technologies, in order to stay ahead women are promoted to leadership positions of the curve and to remain competitive. And, in engineering and other technical fields, more as illustrated in the meta-analysis of Eagly and women move into them. One study found that an Carli, women are more likely to exhibit transfor- increase in the share of top female managers in mational leadership than men are (Eagly and an organization was associated with subsequent Carli 2003). In a 2018 study that surveyed more increases in that organization’s share of women than 5,000 workers across the United States in in mid-level management positions (Kurtulus a range of industries and organizations, 72 per- and Tomaskovic-Devey 2012). cent of respondents said they believed that lead- Recent studies have also shown that leader- ership needs to be redefined for today’s world. ship norms are changing; and that workers are They also said that leaders should balance recognizing that management styles character- “hard” and “soft power” traits (Deloitte 2018). ized by empathy, effective communication, and Today, the soft power traits of being communica- a generally more democratic, or team-style work tive, flexible, and patient—traits that have been environment, are also needed for success. And traditionally considered as “feminine”—have women are often cited as exercising more dem- emerged as three of the five most important ocratic and inspirational styles of leadership, as values for a good leader to have, along with compared to the autocratic, task-oriented, and the hard power traits of being hardworking and transactional tendencies of male leaders (Eagly confident (Deloitte 2018). and Carli 2003). 9. In the business environment, there are two main types of leadership. Transactional leadership recognizes good work through pay increases and career advancement; and punishes poor performance (Bass et al 2003). In other words, it exchanges rewards for better performance, and recognizes achievement. Transformational leadership offers employees a shared vision and a sense of mission; helps to instill pride in a common goal; and works to gain employees’ respect and trust (Bass 1990). 38 BARRIERS ALONG THE PATHWAY 39 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE 40 ©iStockPhoto LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT CHAPTER 3 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT Increasing the employment and advancement of ATTRACTION women in infrastructure organizations is a win- win proposition. For women, the infrastructure Removing Gender Biases in Edu- sectors offer the potential for generating sub- cational Materials, Strengthening stantial income, and designing the infrastructure STEM Curricula, and Improving that will spur socioeconomic development. These Teaching Practices women also serve as role models for future generations of young women who are interested In order to attract more women to STEM careers, in STEM-related careers. Equally important, removing gender biases in learning materials infrastructure organizations that foster women’s and strengthening STEM curricula are of key STEM employment help to expand the talent importance, particularly at the primary and pool, while also potentially strengthening their secondary levels of education. Mexico has organizational performance metrics. undertaken an analysis of the textbooks they use in primary education; developed a manual Leveling the employment pathway for women in to incorporate gender equality in curricular and infrastructure requires changes at all levels of teaching materials; and revised both the text and engagement—in national policies, within the edu- illustrations in its educational materials, in order cational system, at the sector and industry levels, to make it clear to students that men and women and within the workplace. Multisector efforts are have similar capacities in STEM skills, and equal needed in order to spotlight the structural and opportunities for STEM careers (Mexico Ministry systemic constraints at all levels that are contrib- of Public Education 2012). uting to persistent gender gaps in STEM roles, and in other technical fields. Curriculum designers can also create resources that are suited to the learning styles and prefer- This section describes the types of interven- ences of girls as well as boys. Research sug- tions, and some of the promising practices that gests that STEM curricula are more appealing to can help women overcome the key barriers and girls if they are relevant to real world situations bottlenecks that they face at each stage of their (Baker 2013; IRIS 2012; Hulleman and Harac- careers (Table 4). Not all of these approaches kiewicz 2009). They are also more likely to are specific to STEM: many of them—particularly interest girls if they integrate social and scientific those focused on the labor market—are import- issues, and provide opportunities for experimen- ant for women’s employment more broadly. tation, practice, and reflection (Lysons 2006). 41 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Table 4 Interventions to Overcome Barriers to Women’s STEM Employment in Infrastructure, by Career Stage Interventions Level of Engagement Policy/Legal Sectoral Institutional Remove gender stereotypes and biases in Attraction educational materials, strengthen STEM X X X curricula, and improve teaching practices. Facilitate early exposure to STEM careers X X for girls. Improve access to career information, and X X address information asymmetries. Connect students with female role models X X and mentors. Experiment with university admissions X X criteria and pedagogy. Improve women’s self-efficacy and X professional role confidence in STEM. Remove legal restrictions on women’s Recruitment X employment. Promote inclusive policies and targets for X X X women in STEM infrastructure jobs. Address gender biases in hiring. X Create scholarships, and internship and X X apprenticeship programs. Develop job matching and placement X X programs. Reduce gender bias among managers X and staff. Create public parental leave benefits and Retention X X flexible work policies. Implement flexible work arrangements X within organizations. Promote the public and private provision X X of care services. Close gender wage gaps. X X Address sexual harassment in the X X workplace. 42 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT Interventions Level of Engagement Policy/Legal Sectoral Institutional Adapt workplace facilities to address Retention differential needs in occupational safety X and health. Engage trade unions in collective X X bargaining agreements. Design mentoring and sponsorship Advancement programs in the workplace, and/or at the X X industry-wide level. Facilitate women’s access to professional X X networks. Provide technical and leadership skills X X training. Counteract biases in the promotion X X processes. Overall, such improvements in the educational Improving teaching practices can also help to system have been shown to positively impact promote girls’ motivation and engagement in the quality of STEM education for both girls and STEM subjects. One meta-analysis identified boys (Mullis et al 2016). five types of educational strategies that improve students’ achievement, attitudes, and interest Curricula that integrate growth mindset theory in STEM subjects and careers—context-based; is another possible strategy for supporting girls’ inquiry-based; information and communication interest and persistence in STEM subjects. technology (ICT)-enriched; collaborative; and This theory holds that intelligence is malleable; strategies that include the use of extracurricular and that effort, practice, and persistence can activities (Savelsbergh et al 2016). enhance abilities over time (Dweck 2006, 2007). Studies have shown that young people with These general strategies can be combined with “growth mindsets” versus fixed ones have higher more targeted ones that have been found to academic performance and completion rates in work best for girls, such as building a “science challenging math courses (Blackwell et al 2007; identity” among girls by conveying messages Yeager and Carol 2012). In one small experi- that science is for everyone; using gender-neu- ment in the United States, when boys and girls tral language; showcasing success stories of received messages about cultivating a growth women in STEM; and facilitating direct interac- mindset from their teachers, their math test tions with them where possible (UNESCO 2017). scores increased; but the effect was more pro- nounced for girls (Good et al 2003). And a recent Other promising approaches include interactive, meta-analysis of 129 studies that explored the hands-on laboratory experience, and design- link between mindset and academic achievement based learning, as well as extracurricular STEM found that 37 percent of effect sizes showed a activities. Group learning that incorporates positive association; however, the average cor- individual accountability, proactive support and relation was weak (Sisk et al 2018). praise of other group members, has proved especially beneficial for girls’ performance in mathematics (Hossain and Rohani 2012). 43 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Facilitating Early Exposure world’s largest technology entrepreneurship pro- gram for girls aged 10-18 years (Box 3). Broader to STEM for Girls initiatives, such as the Bring-Your-Daughter- Increasing girls’ exposure to STEM subjects, to-Work-Day can also be leveraged as a way especially in practical ways that connect them to of boosting girls’ interest in STEM-related work real-life phenomena, helps to increase their inter- (USAID 2016b). est and confidence in STEM skills (Sikora and Pokropek 2012). These might include structured Improving Access to Career activities like competitions and clubs, as well Information, and Addressing as unstructured activities, such as encouraging Information Asymmetries them to tinker with objects or develop personal science-related hobbies (Dabney, Tai, and Schools can also facilitate access to career Almarode 2012). Safe spaces where girls are counseling for girls in STEM fields by addressing able to see how science can help solve every- common perceptions among girls about a mis- day problems, and gain hands-on exposure are match between their abilities and interests, and especially important (Riedinger and Taylor 2016; STEM career paths (Broadley 2015). For exam- Watermeyer 2012; Lou et al 2011; Peterman et ple, WomEng, a nonprofit organization in South al 2016). Africa, has developed booklets aimed at second- ary school girls with information about educa- Hands-on opportunities in science for girls in tional institutions that offer engineering programs primary and secondary school offered through and scholarship opportunities, and answers to partnerships with tertiary educational institutions frequently asked questions about careers in and technical schools can also help. For exam- engineering.11 UNESCO has also produced a ple, the Women in Engineering program at the training module on STEM career guidance and University of Maryland, College Park offers a counseling for teacher trainers,12 education and STEM outreach program to girls in grades 4–12 career advisors, and teachers (UNESCO 2007). during the academic year as well as the summer (Chatlani 2018). Working in collaboration with local schools, infrastructure organizations can also help expose We want to show you in an interesting younger students to science, and capture their way what your parents do every day, attention in diverse and creative ways. For so by the end of the day, maybe you’ll example, the German utility E.ON engages chil- have new ideas of what you want to dren and youth from ages 5 to 18 in STEM-ori- be when you grow up. ented thinking through its Energise Anything! – Harald Dammerer, Managing Director, Program,10 which offers inspiring interactive EVN Electricity Distribution workshops. Another program designed to build interest in STEM is Technovation Girls—the 10. Detailed information is available at https://www.eon.com/en.html. 11. Women in Engineering. The GirlEng Guide to Becoming an Engineer. http://www.womeng.org/ (Accessed March 2020.) 12. This module covers training and support for teachers, career guidance activities, and science and mathematics teacher training. It aims to help countries promote a positive image of women in science careers; provide girls with clear information about science careers; counter gender stereotypes; and ensure that teachers and career advisors have the tools required to meet the needs of female learners. 44 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT BOX 3 Technovation Girls: Working to Build the Pipeline of Women in Technology Technovation Girls is the world’s largest technology entrepreneurship program for girls aged 10-18 years. It operates in more than 100 countries, and is supported by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Peace Corps, and UN Women. Through Technovation, girls work with women mentors to identify a problem in their community that could be addressed with technology; develop a mobile app; and launch a start-up to address the problem. Developed in 2010 in response to the decrease in the number of women entering the field of computer science over the past 30 years, Technovation supports girls in learning how to create technological solutions to local problems. In the first nine years of the program, about 23,000 girls in countries around the world have developed mobile apps and start-ups to solve diverse global challenges, including food waste, nutrition, and women’s safety issues. After participating in the program, 78 percent of the girls reported being more interested in computer science; 70 percent were more interested in entrepreneurship; and 67 percent were more interested in business leadership. And 58 percent of the alumnae subsequently enrolled in computer science courses. Source: https://technovationchallenge.org; Technovation. 2016. A Retrospective Survey of Five Technovation Cohorts (2010-2014). https://iridescentlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/TechnovationLookbackReport.pdf Schools and skills training programs can make about the potential for earning higher wages in information on the labor market returns of STEM male-dominated occupations were more likely careers available to girls and young women, to enroll in programs for male-dominated trades; which can influence their choices concerning this also led to an increase in their hourly wage STEM infrastructure careers. In Mexico, when earnings (Hicks et al 2011). girls were provided with information on labor market returns they showed a tendency to switch In the Republic of North Macedonia, Energiever- their study track to male-dominated fields, includ- sorgung Niederösterreich (EVN) takes a com- ing toward STEM careers (Szekely, Bustelo, and prehensive approach to building the pipeline. Piras 2017). This company actively works to expose girls to STEM careers, and provides a range of oppor- Addressing information asymmetries about tunities for young women to gain professional career paths and potential earnings is another experience, and eventually to join the company promising approach for vocational training (Box 4). programs. In one experiment in Kenya, participants in a youth training program were Connecting Students to Female invited to informational sessions where posters Role Models and Mentors displayed the benefits of vocational education for women and men engaged in various fields of Female role models and mentors can help work. Young women who received information mitigate negative stereotypes about sex-based 45 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 4 Building the Pipeline in North Macedonia’s Energy Utility SPOTLIGHT ON GOOD PRACTICES Privatized in 2006, with 10 percent of the company still under state ownership, in 2016-17, EVN Macedonia employed nearly 2,000 people and served 812,000 customers. Among its employees, women account for nearly 20 percent of the workforce, and 22.7 percent of top and mid-level management jobs. Recognizing the need to increase women’s inclusion at various levels of the organization, the company engaged the technical assistance of the USAID–supported Engendering Utilities program to build their female talent pipeline. WHAT WAS DONE • Exposure to STEM among younger girls. EVN Macedonia promotes girls’ inter- est in studying STEM subjects by hosting Bring-Your-Daughter-to-Work-Day events, where primary and secondary school students have the opportunity to learn about the energy sector through observing their parent’s workplace, and engaging in hands-on experiments. Positive feedback from these events has led EVN to plan additional ones across its 19 branches and 3 headquarter locations. • Work-based learning opportunities for students in technical and vocational education. Electrical fitters install, test, maintain, and repair electrical installations and wiring; and fit, assemble, install, test, commission, maintain, and repair electrical sys- tems and equipment. Although electrical fitters represent more than 40 percent of the EVN Macedonia workforce, in 2018 only two of them were women. Through semiregu- lar meetings with the leaders of technical high schools, EVN discovered that virtually no women were studying to become electrical fitters. In response, they launched Project 20-20-20, which provides work-based learning opportunities for students from technical high schools who are enrolled in electricity programs, during their final two years of study. This program offers young women the opportunity for on-the-job training, as well as a pathway to employment. • Internships: EVN Macedonia has a one-month paid internship program that now attracts nearly equal numbers of women and men. Shortly after its launch, 44 per- cent of the internship students were women: during the course of the program, it has increased to more than 60 percent. • Engineering scholarships: EVN Macedonia’s goal is to reach 40 percent female engi- neers, compared to their current 20 percent. Since 2010, the company has partnered with university engineering faculties to award scholarships to those students who have the highest grade point average in electrical engineering, the majority of whom are female. The number of scholarships for women increased from 44 percent during the years 2010-2014 to 76 percent in the period 2015-2018. Note: For detailed information on EVN’s actions and resource mobilization efforts to increase equality and inclusion, along with lessons learned, see the case study Energizing Equity in Talent: The Case of Equal Opportunities in EVN Macedonia https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/docu- mentdetail/442381594311389657/an-overview-of-promising-approaches-case-studies. 46 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT abilities; enhance girls’ self-perception, and et al 2004; Dubois and Karcher 2005). Female attitudes toward STEM; and motivate them to mentors can support women and girls, and help pursue STEM careers (Hill and St. Rose 2010; them become leaders in academia, research, Liu, Lou, and Shih 2014; Stout et al 2011). These and business. A 2017 study showed that women role models and mentors are critically import- who were assigned a female mentor felt a ant at both the secondary and tertiary levels of greater sense of belonging in the field; were education. more motivated and confident; performed better in engineering and other sciences; and had In the United States, female students at the higher career aspirations than women assigned Colorado School of Mines form a connection with a male mentor, or none at all (Dennehy 2017). girls who wish to attend the school through an When girls have the opportunity to observe and outreach program called Discover, Encourage, interact with people of diverse backgrounds Create Technology (DECTech), which includes engaged in creating STEM solutions, they hands-on sessions and the sharing of experi- develop their own STEM identities at an early ences (Berman 2016). age (The Women Foundation of Colorado 2017). In Ghana, the Soronko Foundation’s Tech Needs Organizations can also engage young women Girls program focuses on the importance of through mentorship programs offered in camps, mentorship in encouraging girls to lead and inno- high schools, and universities. For example, in vate in the field of technology: this program has Kenya, the Safaricom Women in Technology trained 4,500 girls by matching them with 200 (WIT) program leads a campus outreach initiative mentors and role models in computer science to inspire university women who are studying and engineering.13 engineering or information and communication In New Zealand, the Ultimit Women in Infra- technology (ICT) through coaching and men- structure Network runs an annual Girls With torship. Through this program, WIT “champions” Hi-Vis program to expose girls to women who visit campuses to encourage female students to are excelling in nontraditional roles (Connexis stay informed, networked, and ready for roles 2018). This initiative encourages infrastructure as professionals and leaders in the ICT sector. entities to inspire young women to join the sector At these sessions, students learn about Safar- by welcoming them to their worksites so they can icom’s services and systems, and visit its power, explore firsthand what working there entails. transmission, and data centers. Academic, social, and professional development support is And in Chile, Catholic University launched their also provided to female engineering students; Women in Engineering program to increase this includes helping them with developing their women’s enrollment in engineering programs curriculum vitae, and preparing for interviews; through events that spotlight female role models, and offering guidance in online branding (Box 5). as well as through peer mentoring and network- ing opportunities such as “after office and after Experimenting with University college” events, through which students meet Admissions Criteria and female engineering alumni now in the workforce. Pedagogy (Pontifica Universidad Catolica de Chile 2017). Tertiary institutions and technical schools with Mentoring has been shown to produce a wide STEM tracks can shift their practices to cre- range of positive outcomes for young people, ate more equitable outcomes for women, and including career and income satisfaction (Allen increase their opportunities to participate in 13. Tech Needs Girls, Soronko Foundation, http://www.soronkosolutions.com/tng.html (accessed on March 2020). 47 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE STEM careers. An analysis by the Brookings Other Dartmouth programs are directed specif- Institution, using data from over 4,000 U.S. uni- ically at female students; for example, through versities, identified a variety of both explicit and its Women in Science Project, freshman women implicit tactics that have been used to increase get the chance to work for professors in labs, an women’s participation in STEM (Berman 2016). opportunity seldom afforded to first-year students at most other colleges (Berman 2016). The schools studied find ways to make their introductory classes more accessible. Included Improving Women’s Self-Efficacy in the study was Dartmouth University, where women comprise nearly 40 percent of engi- and Professional Role Confidence neering students. Dartmouth reduced the entry in STEM barrier for its introductory engineering course by Emerging research suggests that professional only requiring a basic math course as a prereq- role confidence developed during university uisite. Instead, the initial focus in the Dartmouth studies is associated with persistence in an curriculum is on tackling societal issues like engineering career (Buse et al 2013; Cech et energy efficiency, or quality of life for seniors. al 2011). This can be divided into two discrete By integrating currently relevant problem-solv- concepts: expertise confidence, that is, confi- ing topics that affect society into the curriculum, dence that one possesses the requisite skills female students become more motivated to and knowledge to be a professional in a chosen develop the quantification skills needed to solve field; and career-fit confidence, meaning confi- those problems. dence that a field is consistent with one’s own personal interests, values, and identity (Corbett and Hill 2015). BOX 5 Countering Negative Gender Stereotypes through Targeted Mentoring Scientific Camps of Excellence for Mentoring Girls in STEM—organized by UNESCO’s Nairobi Office, in partnership with Safaricom’s Women in Technology (WIT); Kenya’s National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation; Kenya’s Ministry of Education; and local universities—was designed to reduce the STEM gender gap by guid- ing girls toward scientific careers. Since the program began in 2014, 971 girls in secondary school, from 32 of Kenya’s 47 counties, have participated. Through this program, students are mentored by specialists in mathematics, physics, agricultural sciences, and marine sciences, as well as in electronics, telecommunications, geospatial and aeronautical science, and space technology engineering. Through talks and laboratory demonstrations, mentors show students how scientific subjects are linked to STEM careers that have contemporary relevance. They are also exposed to related courses at TVET institutions, and empowered to consider solutions to various problems that Kenya is facing from scientific and engineering perspectives. Source: “Scientific Camp of Excellence for Mentoring Girls in Science Technology,Engineering and Mathe- matics in Kenya.” Accessed May 2020 at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technolo- gy/basic-sciences/single-view-basic/news/scientific_camp_of_excellence_for_mentoring_girls_in_science/ 48 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT There are a number of steps STEM programs RECRUITMENT can take to help increase professional role con- fidence among female students. First of all, they Removing Legal Restrictions to can emphasize the breadth of the skillset needed to succeed as an engineer: an overly narrow Women’s Employment focus on math and science can obscure the Laws that prohibit gender discrimination in other areas of expertise needed, such as writing, employment, and ensure equal wages and communicating, organizing, and managing skills. benefits for men and women, can help protect women from being disadvantaged when applying Highlighting the communal aspects of STEM is for certain jobs. But legislation must go beyond also important, along with providing opportunities enabling women to simply be hired fairly. It for female undergraduates to do actual engineer- must protect women’s full range of needs—from ing and design work early on. This enables them extending maternity leave, to including pater- to understand the differences between textbook nity and family leave, to stipulating the specific problems, and the creativity and critical thinking requirements for accessible restroom facilities, needed for actual engineering problem solving. childcare options, and reporting mechanisms for Recognizing that these areas of expertise are sexual harassment. critical to engineering can also help shift the image of who is a good fit for engineering, and Laws can influence women’s economic par- change attitudes toward competencies that are ticipation; in fact, the existence of more gen- considered “female.” der-equal laws is positively associated with women’s labor force participation, as well as Early contact between students and profession- women’s entrepreneurship, and narrower wage als can also be transformational. Meaningful con- gaps between men and women (World Bank tact with engineers in the field provides students 2018; World Bank 2020). with helpful role models and mentors, and can also help them understand the breadth of skills Governments can also eliminate legal barriers they will need to be successful in the field. It also that prevent women from working in specific helps them build professional role confidence sectors and occupations. In recent years, through interactions with professionals with Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kiribati, and whom they can identify. Tajikistan, have all moved to reform their labor laws in order to eliminate certain restrictions Finally, programs can clearly communicate the on women’s employment, for example, in jobs fact that engineering and technical skills and that are deemed arduous or hazardous, such competencies are learned, not innate. The as underwater work. In Bulgaria, all restrictions beliefs that some people’s brains are “hardwired” on women’s employment have been removed, to do engineering work, and that men are better while Tajikistan has abolished a restriction on at math and science than women are contribute women working at night (World Bank 2018). to a lack of professional role confidence, espe- cially among women, by perpetuating the stereo- Even more recently, Jordan has removed type that some people are “natural” engineers, restrictions on women’s ability to work at night, while others are a poor fit for engineering (Cech Nepal has prohibited gender discrimination et al 2011; Corbett and Hill 2015).14 in employment, and Niger has removed legal 14. This section draws on a comprehensive literature review focused on women and girls in STEM: Hammond, Alicia; Rubiano Matulevich, Eliana Carolina; Kumaraswamy, Sai Krishna. 2020. Breaking Bias: Addressing Barriers to the Participation of Women and Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. Washington, D.C. : World Bank. For more information consult Hammond, A. 49 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE barriers to women’s employment in the mining, in the energy workforce (The Cadmus Group construction, and manufacturing sectors (World 2018). For example, regulatory commissions Bank 2020). can use their unique role as aggregators of information and policymaking to collect sex-dis- Promoting Inclusive Policies aggregated data, which can then be used to and Targets for Women in STEM benchmark women’s participation in various Infrastructure Jobs roles within infrastructure entities, and to link the energy sector to national gender equality poli- National policies focused on infrastructure, or cies and regulations (The Cadmus Group 2018). on STEM, typically do not take issues of gender National policies and action plans that promote equality into account. An analysis of 192 national gender equality can also include specific clauses energy frameworks reported by the International to promote women’s participation in STEM jobs Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) within the infrastructure sectors. showed that only 10 percent of them recognize the need to increase women’s participation in Governments, the private sector, and nonprofit the energy sector (IUCN 2017).15 Interestingly, organizations have implemented demand-side16 most of the frameworks studied (93 percent) that actions such as equal opportunity strategies, do address gaps between women and men are as well as the setting of gender targets and in low- and middle-income countries, particularly quotas for women’s participation at all levels in Sub-Saharan Africa, where 56 percent of the (Klettner, Clarke, and Boersma 2014; Meier frameworks considered this issue (IUCN 2017). and Lombardo 2013; Pande and Ford 2011). Other approaches include reporting require- However, even when gender equality is intro- ments that involve disclosing the breakdown duced into energy policy frameworks, it typically of senior leadership roles by sex in annual pertains to women as clients of utility companies. reports where relevant (for example, for SOEs, Thus, there is a profound gap in the commitment publicly listed companies, and political parties) to addressing women’s technical employment in (Sojo et al 2016). In some cases, organizations utilities, as well as in the equivalent policy doc- are also required to describe the strategies uments in the water, transport, and ICT sectors they have in place to increase women’s repre- (IUCN 2017). Without such higher-level policy sentation within their leadership. In addition, commitment, infrastructure entities such as in many countries, reporting requirements for ministries, utilities, and state-owned enterprises gender equality have been introduced in order (SOEs) lack the institutional direction needed to incentivize organizations to increase female to effectively address gaps in women’s STEM participation and representation in the workforce employment within these sectors. (Quota Project 2015). A recent report by the National Association of Of course targets only set goals for the expected Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC) percentage or number of women to occupy financed by USAID provides guidance for or be nominated for leadership positions; but energy regulators on strategies for promoting with minimal or no enforcement mechanisms the equitable participation of women and men or sanctions, organizations may fail to achieve 15. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, energy frameworks are policies, plans, or strat- egies that outline plans of action to address national energy objectives, including access to and availability of energy resources; community participation strategies; and innovation and technology in energy. 16. Unlike demand-side strategies, supply-side strategies include mentoring, targeted development, and networking, among other things designed to increase the supply of women who are qualified or job-ready for senior leadership roles (Bobocel et al 1998; Gilbert and Stead 1999). 50 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT these goals (Whelan and Wood 2012). Quotas, Addessing Gender Biases in Hiring on the other hand, are required government or industry-mandated percentages for the numbers A range of evidence-based inclusive measures of each sex in leadership positions, paired with can help infrastructure organizations counter clear enforcement mechanisms—for example, gender discrimination and bias during the hiring close monitoring, or financial or operational pen- process. alties for businesses or political parties who fail First of all, it is important to understand that to comply with them. language matters; therefore, removing lan- Various studies have found that both quotas guage in job postings that perpetuates gender and targets can help to increase the share of stereotyping is key (Box 6). For example, when women in leadership positions. Using annual all-female coding bootcamps in Mexico and Peru data of female representation on the boards used counter-stereotypical language in their of Fortune 500 companies over a period of 18 recruitment messages, and emphasized the years (from 1996 to 2015), one study found that capacity of women to succeed in STEM careers, regulatory actions that set clear goals (either their application rates doubled (Del Carpio and targets or quotas) are more effective at increas- Guadeloupe 2019). ing female representation on boards of directors Another approach is to evaluate candidates than mere reporting requirements (Sojo et al jointly, or in groups, rather than individually. In 2016). one experiment, when candidates were evalu- Not surprisingly, countries that have set higher ated individually, employers tended to choose targets have also achieved an increased repre- men over equally qualified women; but in joint sentation of women on boards (Sojo et al 2016). evaluations, their implicit bias was attenuated, In Norway, the introduction of a 40 percent and decisions were made based on the data target of women on corporate boards in 2003 (Bohnet, Van Geen, and Bazerman 2016). did not achieve the expected results until after When evaluating candidates individually, deci- 2005, when the target was converted to a quota, sion aids such as technical and cognitive tests, through the introduction of stronger enforcement as well as structured interviews during which mechanisms (Teigen 2011). In Sweden, major each candidate is asked the same questions increases in the percentages of female directors in the same order, can help stem implicit bias. occurred with the introduction of target goals; Developing a standardized scoring system, and but it has been argued that the increase actually deciding on the appropriate weighting for each resulted from the threat of stronger penalties if of the interview questions is also helpful. During companies did not make efforts to achieve the interviews, each member of the hiring com- targets (European Parliament 2012). mittee should assign a score to each question While approaches such as quotas and targets immediately, without discussing the scores with can be effective, and can change the numbers the other members. Following the interviews, quickly, using a two-step method—selecting a comparing the candidates’ answers one question pool of candidates based on merit and also con- at a time, and submitting the scores to a lead sidering diversity and inclusion goals—may help evaluator can also help (Bohnet 2016). to prevent backlash and stigmatization (Bohnet The use of anonymous application materials 2016). However, opportunities to upskill should that do not include demographic information also be taken into account to help workplaces can help to mitigate implicit bias; however, more become more equitable. research is needed in this area, as there is also 51 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 6 Modifying Language in Job Descriptions to Avoid Reinforcing Gender Stereotype One study found that when a job was posted using more “masculine” language, with words like “competitive” or “dominant,” it was perceived by both women and men as being male-dominated. Although the wording did not affect women’s assessment of their ability to do the job, they rated the job as less appealing, and were less likely to believe they belonged in the role. While ads that used “masculine” language often left women feeling that they would not belong in the position, when men viewed ads with “feminine,” or more inclusive, wording (such as “support” or “interpersonal”), they expressed no difference in their perception of belonging. These findings suggest that “masculine” language used in a job posting can deter women from applying for the job; but more inclusive language does not deter men from applying for jobs. Comparison of “Masculine” and Inclusive Language Used in Job Ads Masculine ads tend Inclusive ads tend to use more inclusive wording to use more forceful and references to company policies, as follows: words. Examples • Use of neutral pronouns (s/he, they, you) or balance include the following: between masculine and feminine language • Assert • Explicit mention of women being encouraged to apply • Champion • Statement on family leave, flextime, and childcare • Drive subsidies or benefits • Force • Statement on company’s commitment to a diverse • Persistent and inclusive workplace • Outspoken • Reference to inclusive company values or resources • Superior (e.g., networks or employee resource groups) Drawing on this research, in order to attract more female candidates and reduce gender stereo- typing, organizations can use more inclusive language in their job postings and communications materials. In Uruguay, for example, as part of the Gender Equality Seal (GES) launched in 2009, the National Administration of Power Plants and Electrical Transmissions, known as UTE, has a specific resolution to use inclusive language and nonstereotypical images in its advertising and internal communications. UTE is also committed to showcasing both men and women in all of its newsletters (Administración Nacional de Usinas y Trasmisiones Eléctricas n.d.). It is also important to ensure the use of gender-neutral job titles. For example, “flight attendant” rather than stewardess or steward; “police officer” instead of policeman; and “firefighter” rather than fireman. Limiting the number of qualifications in a job description is another important way to mitigate gender bias in job listings. Only the skills that are absolutely necessary for the role should be listed. Women tend to only apply for a job if they meet all or almost all of the listed requirements, while men tend to have a lower threshold for applying (Bohnet 2016). Note: A full list of “masculine” and “feminine-coded” words is available at http://gender-decoder.katmatfield.com/ 52 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT the risk that this might disadvantage traditionally Developing Job Matching and marginalized groups (Behaghel, Crépon, and Le Placement Programs Barbanchon 2015). Job matching and placement programs that link Creating Scholarships, and job seekers with employers, and disseminate Internship and Apprenticeship information about employment opportunities can help connect women to jobs, especially in Programs traditionally male-dominated sectors, where they Organizations can also attract female talent by have fewer contacts and networks. providing scholarships for STEM study, and by Data from emerging markets, though scant, show engaging students in internship and appren- that job-matching services and online job-match- ticeship programs. SENTECH, a state-owned ing platforms have proven helpful to women by enterprise (SOE) responsible for providing facilitating links between potential applicants and broadcasting-signal distribution services in South companies, and by providing essential knowl- Africa, has created strategic partnerships with edge on a variety of topics, ranging from better the University of the Witwatersrand, the Uni- working conditions (for example, family-friendly versity of Pretoria, and the University of Cape policies) to appropriate wages (ADB 2015). A Town to provide students from disadvantaged study of unemployment in France found that backgrounds, including young Black women, job-matching services increased the likelihood with scholarships. These scholarships provide of employment by five percentage points when tertiary-level education and offer mentoring in the compared to personal job-search methods field of electronics and information technology (Fougère, Pradel, and Roger 2005). (IT) engineering, both of which are aligned with SENTECH’s future workforce needs. Providing technical skills training along with job placements in nontraditional sectors can In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao also help women access job opportunities in PDR), an Asian Development Bank (ADB) the infrastructure sectors. In Nigeria, an impact project with the provincial water utilities provides evaluation of a World Bank project that provided scholarships for women to study water-related ICT training to female university graduates found STEM careers, and provides job opportunities to impressive results: participants were 26 percent the women when they graduate (Box 7). more likely to work in the ICT sector after the In Tanzania, the Structured Engineers Appren- training (Croke et al 2018). This suggests the ticeship Program (SEAP) has supported 300 potential for training to support the development women in engineering apprenticeships by cover- of emerging sectors, and employment for women ing their living expenses and providing them with within these sectors, even if they have an initial training and mentorship opportunities (Box 8). lack of sector-relevant skills. Interestingly, the program’s impact was strongest for women who There is some evidence that these kinds of initially held implicit biases about women occupy- financial incentives, particularly loan repayment ing such roles. These women were more likely to assistance, have had a positive effect on the switch into the ICT sector after the program than retention and completion of engineering degrees women who did not initially hold these biases. for female students (Yang and Grauer 2016). This seems to suggest that even without explic- However, the evidence base is small, and more itly encouraging participants to defy social norms, research across a variety of contexts is needed. training programs can help them overcome self-defeating biases (Croke et al 2018). 53 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 7 Lao People’s Democratic Republic: Bridging the School-to- Work Transition through Targeted Scholarships in the Water Sector SPOTLIGHT ON GOOD PRACTICES In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), women’s participation in the Department of Water Supply (DWS) within the Ministry of Public Works and Transport has been historically low, partic- ularly in technical positions. In 2016, women represented just 11.7 percent of the DWS workforce. Recognizing the shortage of female technical staff in the water and sanitation sector, DWS, with a US$500,000 grant from the Asian Development Bank (ADB)–supported Gender and Develop- ment Cooperation Fund (GDCF), developed a subcomponent under ADB’s Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, to improve female high-school graduates’ access to educa- tional opportunities in water supply and sanitation engineering. Through this program, the project achieved a 10 percent increase in the number of qualified women in technical and leadership positions in public water utilities, known as PNPs (provincial nam papas). WHAT WAS DONE • Scholarships. In 2011, a committee was established to build a strong cohort of scholars for a pilot program. Since the goal was to recruit women who could return to work in the provincial water utilities, the opportunity was announced through loudspeakers in 16 provinces, as well as in local PNP offices. The committee screened and interviewed applicants using predeter- mined criteria that included high-school graduation with a minimum grade of 70 percent, or successful completion of university entrance exams. Applicants were required to be from pro- vincial areas, with priority given to those from minority ethnic groups. The program awarded 26 female students four-year scholarships to complete an undergraduate degree related to water-supply work in civil engineering, environmental engineering, or environmental science at the National University of Laos, or the Vocational Institution of Technology in Vientiane. • Mentorship. After the first year, the project team realized that additional support would increase the students’ likelihood of success. A counselor was hired to coach and support them, with weekly meetings scheduled to ensure that each student remained on track. The team also engaged women in leadership positions at the Ministry of Public Works and Trans- port, or other water-related enterprises, to facilitate discussions and monitor the students’ academic and personal development. • Job placement: About half of the graduates were hired within three months by PNPs or by related companies; the other half had difficulty finding jobs. To help this group of graduates identify and apply for positions, a targeted strategy was developed, including a concerted effort to link them with PNPs. The PNPs hired the graduates on a three-to-six-month trial basis, after which all stayed on as permanent hires. This very successful approach was suggested to the PNPs, who were apprehensive about hiring the graduates right away as full- time employees, by the project team. As a result, one year after graduation, more than 90 percent of the program participants had found jobs in PNPs, while the rest were hired to fill water-related positions in the private sector. Note: For detailed information on DWS’s actions and resource mobilization efforts to increase gender equality, along with lessons learned, see the case study Bridging the Skills Gap in the Water Sector: Women’s Schol- arship Pilot in Lao PDR https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentde- tail/442381594311389657/an-overview-of-promising-approaches-case-studies. 54 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT BOX 8 SEAP: Facilitating Apprenticeships in Tanzania In 2009, Tanzania’s historically male-dominated engineering field had only 96 registered women engineers. An assessment by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) revealed that economic barriers were among the most difficult barriers for women in the pipeline to overcome. Female students often lacked the financial resources needed to complete the requisite unpaid apprenticeship; and without completing the apprenticeship, students who have completed their academic work are still ineligible for the professional registration that allows them to be employed. Furthermore, the apprenticeship, and the process of professional registration must be completed within three years, which presents additional challenges for promising female graduates, who could provide valuable talent for high-demand STEM positions. With support from the Royal Norwegian Embassy and the government of Tanzania, NORAD’s 2010–16 Structured Engineers Apprenticeship Program (SEAP) aimed to strengthen the capacity of 300 women in engineering programs, enabling them to fully register as professional engineers for engineering, construction, and related public-sector organizations. A simultaneous goal was to build the gender capacity of Tanzania’s Engineers Registration Board (ERB), which managed the program. SEAP provided subsistence allow- ances and additional training so that women could complete their required apprenticeships. Importantly, mentors were also trained in how to supervise the apprentices at their places of assignment, and follow up with them after they had achieved professional registration. While several participants were unable to complete the process within the three-year period, ERB records show that female apprentices with SEAP funding and support had a much higher completion rate (86 percent) than those who were self-supported (20 percent). SEAP also strengthened the connection between professional associations and apprentices by ensuring that all of the women who earned their registration joined the Institution of Engi- neers, Tanzania Women’s Chapter, as well as by conducting sensitization workshops for the institution, and supporting an annual conference for the Women’s Chapter. With technical skills, practical knowledge, certification, and support networks in place, women participating in programs like SEAP are better equipped to respond to the engineer- ing demands in countries where such professionals are in short supply. Source: Moen and Vevatne 2015. 55 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Similarly, in Nepal, a World Bank-supported neers, load controllers, flight dispatchers, oper- pilot project provided nontraditional technical ations controllers, or ramp agents. They also skills training to young women across a wide used the occasion as a public-relations oppor- range of trades including carpentry, tailoring, tunity to highlight progress on the number of welding, and masonry. The providers of the female technicians working for the airline, which training also receive a higher outcome-based had grown from just 4 in 1994 to 114 in 2016; as payment when trainees become employed in well as a corporate record of 70 women pilots at “gainful” employment (defined as earning a the time of the flight (SAA 2016). minimum of NPR 3,000 (US$40 per month) in nontraditional sectors. An impact evaluation Ethiopian Airlines also ran an all-female flight in of the pilot project found that the project had 2017, to celebrate women in the industry. And positive impacts on labor market outcomes General Electric’s public relations campaign that are both statistically and economically (“What if ______ were treated like a celebrity?”) significant: that is, on employment rates; finding examines the social status of prominent female employment related to the skills in which youth scientists, and suggests what the world might were trained; earnings; and the proportion of look like if they were celebrated and renowned in youth earning more than NPR 3,000 (US$40) the same way as media and entertainment stars. per month (World Bank 2015a). This campaign is aligned with General Electric’s goal of having 20,000 women in technology roles by 2020 (Annunziata and Chase 2017). Profiling Female Role Models During Recruitment Organizations of all varieties are increasingly recognizing the competitive edge that can be Inclusive communications materials and public realized by positioning themselves as diverse relations campaigns can help send the mes- and progressive workplaces. This not only sage that employers are committed to gender improves the reputation of their brand; it also equality. This approach also helps to profile attracts the best talent, through forward-thinking female role models, and showcase real-life policies and practices that benefit both men and examples of women in infrastructure jobs that women. can help counter stereotypes. Public sector entities are increasingly devel- Reducing Gender Bias among oping recruitment and other communications Managers and Staff materials that showcase their commitment to gender equality and their desire to brand them- Testing mechanisms to address unconscious selves as a diverse workforce. For example, bias17 among managers and staff can help on its career website, South African Airways expand the evidence base. Training programs (SAA) makes an explicit effort to showcase designed to make people aware of their implicit women, and to use inclusive language (for biases can help provide the tools needed to example, “qualified senior instructors like adjust automatic patterns of thinking, and seek him or her”) (Figure 7). SAA also hosted an to eliminate discriminatory behaviors (Fiarman all-female flight from Johannesburg to Accra 2016). in August 2016 to commemorate the country’s According to a meta-analysis of 17 unconscious Women’s Month, and to encourage women to bias interventions, counter-stereotype training join the airline industry as pilots, ground engi- is the most effective way to reduce unconscious 17. The International Labour Organization defines unconscious gender bias as “unintentional and automatic mental asso- ciations based on gender, stemming from traditions, norms, values, culture and/or experience.” (ILO 2017a). 56 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT Figure 7 Tackling Stereotypes Through Corporate Recruitment Images Source: South African Airways. https://www.flysaa.com/about-us/leading-carrier/saa-technical/training. Accessed May 13, 2020. bias (Lai 2014). Another meta-analysis of 260 more stereotypical behaviors and discrimination studies of such training programs found small after training (Macrae et al 1994). changes in behavior and attitudes (Bezrukova, Spell, and Perry 2016). Another study found One often-cited study found that individuals that the positive effects of diversity training were who had taken counterstereotyping training greater when training was complemented by expressed more stereotypes than those who other diversity initiatives; targeted to both aware- received no training (Duguid and Thomas-Hunt ness and skills development; and conducted 2015). Another study found that business over an extended period of time (Bezrukova, students who participated in a diversity training Spell, and Perry 2016). program that required them to watch a video that instructed them to suppress negative stereo- However, some studies have found that diversity types about the elderly subsequently evaluated training may have unintended consequences for older job applicants more negatively than they the participants, the potential beneficiaries, and had before they had seen the video (Kulik, the organizations that sponsor them (Dobbin Perru, and Bourhis 2000). and Kalev 2016). For example, some trainees may resent being selected for diversity training, Diversity training can also create the illusion and may view it as punishment for insensitive that an organization has no problems of inequal- behavior; this can result in backlash (Sanchez ity. One study found that white male partici- and Medkik 2004). And in some cases, attempts pants who were told that diversity training to increase awareness may even reinforce ste- had occurred within their organization said reotype norms, with participants enacting even that they felt that women were treated more fairly than men in the organization, even when 57 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE faced with evidence to the contrary (Kaiser et al pay transparency. However, more research is 2013). needed to determine the most effective mea- sures in this area. Some argue that in order to create a more inclusive workplace, the focus should be on Some infrastructure organizations have started reforming organizational processes and struc- implementing unconscious bias training as tures—reviewing hiring practices, skills-based part of their gender equality action plans. For assessments, and mentoring and sponsorship example, Ooredoo, a Qatar-based telecommu- programs—rather than on changing minds nications company, has launched unconscious through unconscious bias and diversity training bias and inclusive leadership training for their (Colon 2018). One way of doing this is to focus leaders and board executives, as well as internal on the impact of such biases rather than on the communication exercises designed to raise biases themselves, through data collection mea- awareness and promote gender equality among sures that show women’s representation at all their employees (IFC 2016). levels of the organization, as well as instituting RETENTION Creating Parental Leave Benefits TAPPING INTO WOMEN’S and Flexible Work Policies NETWORKS TO SPREAD THE WORD ABOUT JOB Laws and policies play an important role in wom- en’s ability to enter and stay in the labor market, OPPORTUNITIES particularly after starting a family. The ILO’s Tapping into existing women’s networks to Maternity Protection Convention recommends share information about job opportunities a minimum of 14 weeks of paid maternity leave, can increase the number of applicants with at least two-thirds of wages paid, ideally reached during recruitment. Structural through public funding or compulsory social gender biases affect how and to whom insurance. Globally, the average time for paid information is transmitted; and dissemination maternity leave aligns with the Convention, with through “word of mouth” tactics tend to 25–100 percent of wages being paid. Only seven favor men disproportionately. For example, economies lack paid maternity leave: the Feder- a study in Malawi found that both men ated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and women tend to refer male candidates Palau, Papua New Guinea , Suriname, Tonga, for jobs when asked (Beaman, Keleher, and the United States (World Bank 2020). and Magruder 2018). By diversifying When governments cover the costs of maternity the channels used to recruit new hires, leave, it limits the private-sector disincentive and sharing job opportunities through against hiring women, especially when the dis- multiple platforms, including social media parity between maternity and paternity leave is and women’s professional networks, large. In 97 economies, governments administer infrastructure entities stand a greater chance 100 percent of maternity benefits (World Bank of reaching a more diverse talent pool, 2020). Paternity-leave policies can also help to including highly-qualified female candidates. support women’s participation in the labor force While this is a promising approach, more and career growth by facilitating the redistribution research is needed. of care work within households (OECD 2017). In addition to the direct impacts of family-leave pol- 58 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT icies on women’s careers, paid maternity leave Implementing Flexible Work can also increase the length of breastfeeding, Arrangements which numerous studies link to improved infant health (ADB 2015). Since globally, women remain the primary caregivers in the home, flexible work options Some countries are shifting toward parental and part-time employment options may help leave, to further redistribute this form of unpaid to increase the number of women entering work more equitably between parents. A 2017 and remaining in the workforce for the long study found that the optimal length of paid leave term. Using job satisfaction as one measure of to ensure child well-being and health is one year, retention, literature from high-income countries split equally between the parents (Schulte et al indicates that women have higher levels of job 2017). Some countries are testing incentives to satisfaction when they work part-time (Booth and encourage fathers to take parental leave. In Por- van Ours 2013). tugal, parents who share the initial 120 days of parental leave receive an extra 30 days of leave. Other evidence points to countries like the Neth- In Sweden, of the 480 days of total paid parental erlands, where allowing new mothers to remain leave, 90 are reserved for each parent. And in in their same work roles, but shift to part-time Japan, parents receive an additional two months work, has reduced disruptions in women’s career of leave if they share the initial 12 months (World growth while increasing their overall participation Bank 2018). in the workforce (Booth and van Ours 2013). An apparent positive association has also been Investing in paid family leave supports the identified between women working a lower retention of women in the workforce, and has average number of hours per week, and the positive benefits for businesses as well. Grow- female employment rate, suggesting that working ing evidence points to the myriad benefits for reduced hours, or part-time, enables mothers to businesses that invest in paid family leave better balance their work and parental responsi- options for their employees. For example, paid bilities; and that more opportunities for part-time leave for parental or other caretaker needs can work could lead to increased retention of women lead to a reduction in turnover, and thus increase in the workforce (Silim and Stirling 2014). overall retention of staff (Boushey, O’Leary, and Mitukiewicz 2013). And a 2012 survey of family At the corporate level, one major global ship- and medical leave in the United States found ping company credited a 17 percent increase in that 94 percent of employees who took paid productivity to having launched a telecommuting family leave returned to their jobs following their program at its corporate headquarters (Wlek- absence (Boushey, O’Leary, and Mitukiewicz linski and Jennings 2013). And when Google 2013). expanded its fully paid maternity leave from three to five months, company attrition decreased by Laws that promote flexible work policies also half (IFC 2016). help parents balance work and family respon- sibilities. These can take many forms, including However, there are remaining evidence gaps variable working hours (flextime); telecommuting; related to possible negative consequences of and working reduced hours. However, of the flexible or part-time work options for women. economies covered by the World Bank’s Women, While flexibility can bring more women into the Business and the Law, only 33 explicitly note labor market, this may be more frequently avail- flexible work arrangements or rights in their legal able with entry-level positions. Additionally, when frameworks (World Bank 2018). promotions are allocated to the “most committed” 59 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE employees, as measured by willingness to relo- can offer, to help dual-career couples (Box 9). cate, or work the greatest number of consecutive They can also offer flexible career development hours, women tend to be overlooked, given the tracks so that their employees do not scale back care and household responsibilities that more their ambitions because they are concerned that often fall to them (Naff 1994). Further research is a high-profile project or overseas assignment will needed to assess these, as well as other poten- not fit with their home responsibilities (Allocco et tial challenges or limitations that women who al 2018). are looking to work in a flexible arrangement are confronted with. Promoting the Public and Private The growing number of dual-career couples is Provision of Childcare Services also making employers reassess their flexible Investing in care services can generate multiple working arrangements in order to be able to benefits for individuals, communities, and recruit top talent (Center for Equity, Gender and societies. Investment in early childhood edu- Leadership 2020). There are a wide array of cation, for example, contributes to economic flexible work arrangements that organizations BOX 9 Flexible Work Arrangement Options Flexible work arrangement options can include: Geographic flexibility • Telecommuting (or “flexplace”): Work performed remotely only part of the time. Workers can spend all or part of a day, a week, or a month working at home, or at an alternate work location. • Remote working: Work performed entirely away from the office. Employees don’t have to come into the office, and can live and work from anywhere. Flexibility of working hours • Condensed work weeks: A traditional 35- to 40-hour work week is condensed into fewer than five days of work. • Customized working hours (flextime): Flexibility in arrival and departure times; typically includes a designated core-time at mid-day, during which all staff are present. Amount of time flexibility. • Part-time positions: Less than “full-time” (usually defined as less than 30 hours per week). • Job sharing: A form of regular part-time work in which two people share responsibility for one regular, full-time position (each position at an approximate 50% commitment). • Leave flexibility (or “flexleave”): The opportunity to take time off during certain parts of the year. Source: Center for Equity, Gender and Leadership. 2020. Supporting Dual Career Couples. Berkeley: Haas School of Business, University of California. 60 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT competitiveness and the overall prosperity of Technology-sector companies in the United societies. Care services also enable women, who States (Akamai) and in India (Mindtree) found tend to spend more time on unpaid work than that offering childcare services enabled them to men, to participate more effectively in the labor recruit and retain highly-qualified software engi- market: without safe, reliable, accessible, and neers. And providing childcare services helped affordable care services, women may choose to a textile producer in Vietnam (Nalt Enterprise), reduce their working hours, or opt out of the labor and a car-component producer in Turkey (Mar- market altogether, which can reduce earnings tur) to reduce employee turnover by 33 percent and income. and 15 percent, respectively (IFC 2017). In Latin America, publicly-provided or subsidized Organizations can more effectively retain female daycare (for example, Estancias Infantiles in and male employees by supporting them in their Mexico, and the Hogares Comunitarios in Argen- parental roles. Research in Kenya has shown tina, Brazil, and Colombia) have contributed to that implementing inclusive workplace strate- an increase in both the formal employment of, gies, including on-site childcare facilities, not and number of hours worked by, women (World only delivers economic and social benefits for Bank 2012a). In Brazil, childcare provided by the employees; it also benefits businesses through public sector increased maternal employment improved employee loyalty and productivity, as by 10 percentage points. And in Argentina, a well as enhanced reputation and brand equity. large public preschool program increased the Savings and loan schemes for women employ- likelihood of maternal employment by up to 14 ees; on-site childcare facilities for parents; percentage points (Haddock 2019). and training in alternative income-generating activities for seasonal agricultural workers also In rural Mozambique, the availability of pre- generated both social and business impacts in school education enabled caregivers (primarily rural Kenyan agribusinesses (Capital Value for women) to save 15 hours a week on their care Women Ltd. and Root 2018). responsibilities. And in Togo, one study found that enrolling children 3–5 years of age in pre- In Egypt, the majority of working women hold school resulted in women being 37 percent more public sector jobs, which are considered to be likely to work outside the home (Haddock 2019). more compatible with women’s “reproductive role” because they allow for shorter hours, Childcare solutions can take many forms, greater access to childcare, and maternity leave including on- and off-site daycare, and subsi- (World Bank 2012b). dized childcare services. Studies in Canada and Germany found that expanding subsidized Closing Gender Wage Gaps childcare for parents with children under 4 years of age increases women’s labor force participa- Attracting and retaining an equitable workforce tion (Baker, Gruber, and Milligan 2008). requires that female job candidates are confi- dent that they will be paid equally for their work. For large infrastructure entities with thousands At the policy level, governments can mandate of employees, providing childcare services and transparency regarding pay gaps. Australia, paid leave can contribute to lower stress levels, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, and higher job satisfaction, and greater loyalty Iceland have all passed laws requiring compa- among employees, which, in turn, can translate nies of a certain size to publish pay gap infor- into lower absenteeism and workplace turnover, mation. The United States adopted a similar law as well as higher productivity (IFC 2017). This in 2016, and since 2018, the United Kingdom is relevant, since the cost of replacing a pro- has required companies with more than 250 fessional employee is in the range of 90–200 employees to publish their pay gap information percent of annual salary (Allen 2008). 61 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE (IFC 2018). Evidence from Denmark shows that Training sessions on eliminating sexual harass- their 2006 pay transparency legislation narrowed ment do not work in isolation: such training has the country’s gender wage gap by 7 percent been proven to change knowledge, but not (Bennedsen et al 2019). And in Iceland, every behaviors (Burke 2016). A broader, systematic company with 25 or more employees must gain review of violence against women has found certification from an accredited regulator proving that the most effective interventions address the that they pay their women and men employees underlying risk factors for violence, including equally across all sectors, including infrastruc- gender norms, and the attitude that violence ture sectors.18 is acceptable (Arango et al 2014). Thus, an enforced sexual harassment policy, combined At the institutional level, organizations can con- with anonymous, confidential, easy-to-use duct pay gap assessments to identify differences reporting mechanisms, is essential in order to in the ways men and women are being compen- effectively address sexual harassment, and sated for equivalent work at various job levels other forms of violence, at work. and functions. These reviews are critical in order for companies to gain insights into prevalent pay At the national level, governments can pass gaps, and to develop strategies for tackling pay legislation on sexual harassment in the work- inequities. Based on priority actions identified place. In fact, 140 out of 190 countries do in an Economic Dividends for Gender Equality have laws that address sexual harassment in (EDGE) assessment,19 the Tirana Water Utility the workplace (World Bank 2020). The World in Albania, and the Brasov Water Company in Bank Group has developed recommendations Romania decided to conduct yearly gender pay- for addressing gender-based violence (GBV), gap assessments (World Bank 2019b). including in sectors where men are overrepre- sented, such as the infrastructure sectors (Box They can also explore a wide range of gender 12). In Uruguay, for example, since 2014 the equality certifications designed to create and State Authority’s Sanitation Works has required raise awareness of gender equality and inclusion that all of its suppliers implement a policy to issues in the workplace and, most importantly, to address sexual harassment and create concrete provide a road map for action (See Box 10). policies or actions to promote equality in employ- ment opportunities for women and men. Addressing Sexual Harassment in the Workplace The ILO Convention and Recommendation to combat violence and harassment in the work- At the institutional level, it is of critical impor- place, adopted in 2019, also provides govern- tance to develop prevention and response strat- ments with guidance on measures to protect egies and accountability procedures, as well as workers, especially women, from violence and training to eliminate sexual harassment. Organi- harassment (Box 13). zations that seek to prevent sexual harassment at work must develop complaint and redress Adapting Workplace Facilities to mechanisms, antiharassment and nondiscrimi- Address Women’s Occupational nation policies, sanctions for those who breach Safety and Health Needs policies, and the will and skill to enforce them. The Solomon Water Utility provides a good-prac- Appropriate facilities for both men and women tice example (Box 11). can foster a more inclusive work environment, 18. More information is available at https://www.government.is/topics/human-rights-and-equality/equal-pay-certification/ 19. The EDGE Certification Foundation provides an international benchmark for gender equality, and enables companies to obtain global certification. Details are available at http://edge-cert.org/. 62 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT and translate into more women being retained includes providing adequate lighting and toilets, in the workforce (Box 14). Infrastructure organi- appropriate uniforms, and on-site health facilities zations should take into consideration women’s with at least one female staff member. These are preferences and needs when designing work fundamental elements of an inclusive workplace. and living spaces for women in the field; this BOX 10 Gender Equality Certifications Gender equality certification programs focus on a company’s processes for selection and hiring, professional development, training, remuneration, work-life balance, and sexual harassment in the workplace. Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) has been a pio- neering region in designing and implementing certification programs for both public and private sector companies (UNDP 2016). A study conducted by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and Economic Dividends for Gender Equality (EDGE), of companies that underwent a gender certification process—that is, an assessment methodology certifying that a company is complying with a series of gender equality standards—found that certified companies have bet- ter representation of women than those that simply report and collect sex-disaggregated data (Unguresan, Saúl, and Murphy 2018). This approach is considered to have a high potential for promoting the employment of women (Buvinic, Furst-Nichols, and Pryor 2013). However, the certifications do require an external audit process that may be too costly or onerous for smaller utilities and state-owned enterprises (SOEs). The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)-backed national certifications were developed with resource-constrained public sector entities in mind. The World Bank has also supported these efforts. The Gender Equality Seal (GES) spurs public and private organiza- tions to promote, improve, and monitor women’s positions in the workforce. It has five steps: (i) organizational public commitment to GES principles; (ii) management systems self-assess- ment; (iii) management systems independent evaluation; (iv) organizational commitment to seeking GES certification; and (v) completion of a performance audit (independent verification). GES programs have been developed by the governments of Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Uruguay (UNDP 2018). The program is now being introduced to regions beyond Latin America, and is also available to private sector companies. EDGE certification is another widely-used international certification program to promote gender equality. Launched in 2009, its standardized methodology and global certification system can be applied across industries and regions to assess and track progress in closing the corporate gender gap. While EDGE certification was originally focused on multinational corporations like Technip, and Systems, Applications & Products in Data Processing (SAP), numerous national champions in traditionally male-dominated industries (for example, the Bank of Mexico) and multilateral development organizations like IFC and the World Bank have also been certified. As of 2019, the program was working with 200 organizations in 37 countries and 24 industries across the globe. 63 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 11 Solomon Islands: Addressing Domestic Violence in the Workplace to Improve Business Outcomes SPOTLIGHT ON GOOD PRACTICES In Solomon Islands, the state-owned urban water-and-sanitation utility, Solomon Islands Water Authority (SIWA), provides water and sewerage services to a primarily urban customer base in and around the capital city of Honiara. In 2017, Solomon Water joined the International Finance Corporation (IFC)–supported Respectful Workplace Program. Anecdotal results to date include a more active support system among female staff, who now can disclose instances of domestic violence to contact team members or other colleagues. WHAT WAS DONE • Assessing workplace culture. SIWA started their program with a workplace culture assessment to help them better understand women’s and men’s organizational roles; staff perceptions and experiences of workplace behavior; existing mechanisms for promoting an atmosphere of antibullying, antiharassment, and employee well-being; and opportunities for improvement. With technical assistance from IFC, the company analyzed its policies to ensure that new policies would complement existing practices, including those that address misconduct. • Adopting antiharassment and domestic violence policies. With guidance from IFC, the utility has developed policies to prevent and counteract bullying and sexual harass- ment in the workplace as well as domestic violence. The domestic violence policy aims to create a safe environment for employees who experience domestic violence, and offers a pathway for survivors to seek support. It ensures that employees are provided with information and referrals to community support services, and offers work adjustments so that those who are suffering domestic violence can remain productively employed. It also outlines how the company intends to manage employees who may be perpetrating domestic violence. The IFC-supported policy is being implemented with the use of tools that record and monitor its application, and ensure that confidentiality is maintained. • Training line managers in the principles of establishing respectful workplaces. In a one-day workshop, 11 utility managers were trained in the antibullying and anti-sexual harassment policy to ensure they had the skills to help identify, diffuse, and end harass- ment at work sites. Subsequently, 81 staff members participated in a two-hour training session on the Respectful Workplaces philosophy, including sensitization to the new policy and its implications at the utility. • Training a domestic violence contact team. Eight staff members, including some nonmanagers, were trained as contacts for dealing with domestic violence issues. The training aimed to prepare them to: • Understand the cycle of domestic violence, and how it intersects with the workplace. • Raise awareness about domestic violence at work, and Solomon Water’s response to it. 64 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT • Appropriately respond to disclosures of domestic violence. • Assess the discloser’s immediate and longer-term safety needs, and determine how any responses provided by the company might influence these needs. • Support and coordinate access to available support at Solomon Water as well as in the community for those suffering domestic abuse. • Appropriately escalate allegations of employees who are perpetrating domestic vio- lence. • Implement Solomon Water’s model policy on domestic violence. • Establishing effective communication, and awareness raising. The contact team has sensitized staff to the human and financial costs of domestic violence by addressing both female and male staff members, their spouses, and their families, and by informing them of ways to support survivors, and refer them to appropriate services. The program has also established partnerships with the police, community support services, and counsel- ing centers, to ensure that effective external resources are available for staff who require referrals for services. • Developing complementary measures. Other initiatives at the utility have included increasing opportunities for women in jobs traditionally held by men. For example, IFC and the Solomon Islands Chamber of Commerce and Industry (SICCI) have supported participating companies that are addressing gender-based job segregation, by facilitating driver’s license training for female employees. Note: For detailed information on Solomon Water’s actions, and resource mobilization efforts to increase gen- der equality, along with lessons learned, see the case study Addressing Domestic Violence in the Workplace to Improve Business Outcomes: The Case of Solomon Water https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/docu- ments-reports/documentdetail/442381594311389657/an-overview-of-promising-approaches-case-studies. Addressing sexual harassment is one of the most important interventions in male- dominated infrastructure worksites. If you are the only woman, or like three women - that feeling of being protected, the system is in place and there’s clarity around how to report, how to identify, how to mitigate sexual harassment and gender-based violence - that is a big driver [for women’s inclusion]. And safe transport as well - so that’s linked – safety, and protecting women from violence to and from work is also key. —Rudaba Nasir, Global Lead for Tackling Childcare, Women’s Employment Specialist, International Finance Corporation 65 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 12 Recommendations from the World Bank Group’s Resources on Addressing Gender-Based Violence (GBV) The World Bank’s Violence Against Women Resource Guide and Good Practice Note On Addressing Gender Based Violence In Investment Projects Involving Major Civil Works offers recommendations for addressing GBV in multiple sectors.a, b Two key recommendations are: Establish clear codes of conduct for employees and project staff on construction sites as well as in the workplace. Having staff sign and agree to uphold these codes of conduct can be an effective strategy across a broad range of sectors. The code of conduct should clearly outline what constitutes unacceptable behavior, and the consequences for harassment or any other type of GBV. Mechanisms should also be created for the commu- nity for reporting. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee’s Codes of Conduct on Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in Humanitarian Crisisc offers general guidance that may be useful when preparing institutional codes of conduct. Build capacity on policies and recommendations in all sectors to prevent violence against women and girls (VAWG). For example, in 2010, the Vietnamese Ministry of Trans- port’s Committee for the Advancement of Women and the World Bank Group conducted workshops on gender-related issues in transport in cities across the country. At the national level, participants included decision-making staff from the ministry, and at the provincial level from the Departments of Transport. Awareness of gender and transport issues was raised through participatory workshops conducted by transport specialists, to illustrate key entry points for addressing gender inequalities. a. See https://www.vawgresourceguide.org/ b. See http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/741681582580194727/ESF-Good-Practice-Note-on-GBV-in-Major- Civil-Works-v2.pdf c. Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) is defined as any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or trust for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting mon- etarily, socially, or politically from the sexual exploitation of another. In the context of World Bank-sup- ported projects, SEA can occur against any beneficiary or member of the community. 66 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT BOX 13 ILO’s Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190) and Recommendation (No. 206) In June 2019, ILO adopted a new Convention and accompanying Recommendation on vio- lence and harassment in the world of work, at the 108th session of the International Labour Conference. The Convention provides a broad definition of what “violence and harassment in the world of work” means, and where it can take place, and says that everyone in the world of work has the right to be free from violence and harassment, including GBV. The standard covers violence and harassment that occurs in the workplace; in places where a worker is paid, takes a rest or meal break, or uses sanitary, washing, or changing facilities; during work-related trips, travel, training, events, or social activities; in work-related communications (including through ICT); in employer-provided accommodations; and when commuting to and from work. It also recognizes that violence and harassment may involve third parties. The standard aims to protect all workers and employees irrespective of their contractual status, and includes persons in training, interns and apprentices, workers whose employment has been terminated, and volunteers, as well as job seekers and job applicants. It recognizes that “individuals exercising the authority, duties or responsibilities of an employer” can also be subjected to violence and harassment. It requires governments to take measures to protect workers, especially women, from violence and harassment. The recommendation includes specific advice for how governments can go about making these changes. For more information see: https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/meeting-reports/WCMS_721160/lang--en/ index.htm Engaging Trade Unions in Collec- consider men’s and women’s job performance in tive Bargaining Agreements review assessments. Infrastructure entities can engage trade unions Examples from high-income countries include in developing strategies for promoting gen- requirements by the European Work Council that der equality, as well as in enhancing women’s mandate unions to enforce its gender strategy. participation in STEM roles and leadership (ILO Électricité de France (EDF) and ENGIE have 2016). Collective bargaining agreements aimed established collective agreements on gen- at reducing the gender gap have focused on der-equality targeting by balancing the profile of recruitment practices and contractual arrange- women and men in management and technical ments; company-specific research on equal positions; enhancing women’s empowerment opportunities; pay equity through wage increases and agency; combating stereotypes and sexism; for female workers; and job evaluations that fairly and reporting gender equality achievements (EDF 2012).20 Other examples include the 20. EDF is a French transnational company regrouping 33 subsidiaries and associate companies throughout the world. ENGIE is a private sector group comprising international branches and associate companies involved in integrated activities within the energy sector. 67 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 14 Steps Facilities Can Take to Accommodate Female Workers’ Needs • Provide separate toilets and sanitation facilities for men and women. • Ensure that toilet and sanitation facilities allow women to manage their menstrual hygiene needs safely and privately by providing sufficient lighting, handwashing facilities, and disposal bins. • Provide women with amenities such as lactation rooms and breastmilk storage. • Adopt occupational safety policies that address the needs of both men and women. • Include health and safety protocols in descriptions of job duties and responsibilities. • Provide women with equal access to personal protective equipment (PPE). • Design and provide tools and equipment, safety devices, and required clothing that is appro- priate for women. Ethiopia Electric Utility (EEU), where the labor Male mentors can also play an important role in union offers protection for women’s rights in the women’s career advancement. Female employ- workplace, especially regarding maternity leave ees in male-dominated industries such as engi- (See Box 15). As part of their effort to enhance neering can benefit from having a senior male women’s employment in STEM, the union is also mentor: they report higher satisfaction with their being engaged as part of the Gender Technical career progress, and are more likely to be part- Committee, which steers the day-to-day institu- ners or senior executives, than male employees tional commitments being made. with senior male mentors (Ramaswami 2010). Male mentors can also be helpful to female ADVANCEMENT entrepreneurs in nontraditional sectors. A recent study using the Future of Business survey in 97 Designing Mentoring Programs countries suggests that women who own busi- in the Workplace, or at the nesses in male-dominated sectors are younger, Industry Level more likely to be married, and more likely to have inherited the business than women in tradition- Mentoring and sponsorship programs are ally female sectors. Male role models, particu- promising professional development strategies larly husbands, also appear to be important in for women in STEM, and can be provided in the the decision to enter, and remain, in the sector workplace as well as across industries. Among (World Bank 2019d). the few studies conducted on the impact of men- toring in the workplace, one study in the United Another study by the Hewlett Foundation found States found that having a female peer mentor that women in the technology industry consider during the early years of college can enhance mentorship and sponsorship key factors for their positive academic experiences, and increase successful retention and advancement in the the retention of women in engineering (Dennehy field (Ashcraft and McLain 2016). Having a spon- 2017). sor or advocate within an organization can help increase the visibility of women’s professional 68 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT BOX 15 Advancing Women’s Employment in Ethiopia’s Energy Sector—A Comprehensive Approach SPOTLIGHT ON GOOD PRACTICES To support the implementation of the Ethiopian government’s broader sectoral reform program in the energy sector, the World Bank–supported Ethiopia Electrification Program (ELEAP) includes a strong focus on promoting gender equality. Targets include increasing women’s employment in the Ethiopian Electric Utility (EEU) from 20 to 30 percent by 2023, with a partic- ular focus on STEM roles. Dedicated technical assistance, with a substantial budget allocation of US$4.5 million through disbursement-linked funding, is focused on creating more equitable energy institutions. The Africa Gender and Energy Program, supported by the World Bank Group’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), and the project team, have provided research and engagement to explore the drivers of gender gaps in the energy sector. This support is ongoing. WHAT WAS DONE • Provision of childcare services. EEU is actively working to establish childcare facili- ties at its head office in Addis Ababa, and in eleven regional offices in 2020. A childcare expert has been hired to outline best practices in childcare-service provision in Ethiopia and beyond; to list laws and policies that are relevant to the provision of childcare; to conduct a needs assessment in each potential childcare-service site, including details on standards and risk factors; to undertake a cost-benefit analysis for the operationalization of childcare services; to develop a childcare-service implementation plan; and to analyze decision-maker support. To date, the challenges have included limited expertise in profes- sional caregiving, and in-country regulations. • Strengthened institutional response to sexual harassment in the workplace. The prevalence and occurrence of sexual harassment in Ethiopia’s energy sector was previ- ously unacknowledged, and therefore unaddressed. Today, the evidence has confirmed that sexual harassment can negatively impact the participation of women in leadership and decision-making roles, and helps to explain why Ethiopia’s energy-sector environment and industries remain male-dominated. With funding from a GBV grant under the State and Peacebuilding Fund, and with ELEAP preparation and implementation, an institu- tional assessment of sexual harassment was conducted in order to identify gaps to be addressed through policy formulation, the development of a legal framework, and capacity development of key EEU staff. • Identifying barriers to women’s representation. Women are underrepresented across EEU’s workforce of 18,614 staff, and are especially underrepresented in decision-making positions. At the start of 2020 women comprised just 20 percent of the overall workforce (now 22.5 percent since June 2020) and 18.5 percent of senior-level managers (this is a meaningful increase from 5.8 percent female leadership in previous years). They also account for only 14.5 percent of technical employees. Extensive in-country engagement has revealed that female staff face a host of challenges. These include, among other 69 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE things, (i) gender stereotypes and norms; (ii) explicit or implicit biases in the workplace; (iii) lack of mentors; (iv) limited networks due to the small number of women working in the sector; (v) issues related to the maintenance of work-life balance and the care burden; and (vi) concerns about sexual harassment and safety. • Designing a road map to increase the number of women employed. A road map has been designed to guide EEU’s steps toward increasing the number of women employed from 2019 to 2022. Human resources data collection has been improved, with a focus on technical staff and professional grade levels, among other things. • Establishing a partnership for increasing women’s energy-sector employment. A unique partnership has been established between EEU, the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MoSHE), and 12 Ethiopian universities that provide courses in STEM fields. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between EEU and MoSHE was signed in August 2019 by the State Minister of MoSHE and the CEO of EEU. The MoU includes the following key elements: • Every year 40 female graduate students in STEM fields will participate in internship service in EEU regions; on completing their internship service, EEU will offer these students job opportunities. • To strengthen the knowledge and skills of EEU’s current workforce, 44 women employ- ees per year will be offered full scholarship opportunities to attend university courses. In addition, 55 women per year are expected to participate in short-term, on-the-job training. • Establishing a women’s mentorship program. Recognizing the value of role models and coaches in shaping career aspirations, EEU is also developing a one-year women’s mentoring program to match mid-level managers with senior managers. Mentees will need to submit a formal application stating their motivation for participating in the program and their career goals. Partnership with the Ethiopian Women’s Legal Association and Ethio- pian Women in Energy Network is being explored. Note: For detailed information on EEU’s actions and resource mobilization efforts to increase gender equal- ity, along with lessons learned, see the case study Institutionalizing Gender Equality in Project Design: The Case of Ethiopian Electric Utility https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/docu- mentdetail/442381594311389657/an-overview-of-promising-approaches-case-studies. portfolios, their odds of advancement, and the virtual mentorship or coaching programs. retention rates of mothers (Ashcraft and McLain 2016) (Box 16). For example, the Global Women’s Network for Energy Transition (GWNET) offers a well-struc- A variety of mentoring programs across the tured, 12-month mentoring program especially infrastructure sectors focus on empowering and targeted at emerging leaders in the Middle East promoting women. Appendix A. Global Profes- and North Africa (MENA) and Sub-Saharan Africa sional Networks For Women In Infrastructure (SSA) regions, as well as in China, the Americas, provides a list of local and international women’s and Europe. This program brings together young professional networks that offer in-person or energy industry professionals and connects 70 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT them virtually with experienced senior leaders Developing Sponsorship in the renewable energy sector who advise and Programs in the Workplace, guide them through one-on-one remote working or at the Industry Level sessions. GWNET mentees benefit from the opportunity to advance their own career goals Sponsorship is the active support by someone while acquiring the skills needed to bring greater appropriately placed within an organization who momentum to the drive toward clean energy; has considerable influence on decision-making and both mentors and mentees benefit from processes or structures, and who is advocating expanded access to networking opportunities at for, protecting, and/or fighting for the career the global, regional, and country levels. advancement of an individual. Sponsors also help hire, retain, and advance more diverse The U.S. State Department’s TechWomen talent within the organization (Ibarra et al 2010; mentorship and exchange program focuses on Cao and Yang 2013). empowering the next generation of women lead- ers working in STEM from Africa, Central and South Asia, and the Middle East (Box 17). BOX 16 Tips for Developing Mentoring Programs at the Organizational Level Mentoring women in STEM careers and leadership roles is not a one-size-fits-all proposition; however, the following insights may be helpful in developing a mentorship program. Elicit buy-in from senior leadership, especially representatives of management who can allocate resources, become mentors, approve time off for women to participate in the program, and invest in women’s careers. Identify interested mentors in senior positions by clearly stating the requirements, particu- larly the time commitments involved, to avoid attrition and ensure that mentors will be able to fit the program into their schedules. Match the interests of mentees with the mentors’ positions and types of experience to facilitate the exchange of relevant information, where possible. Facilitate a training workshop for mentors and mentees on a range of issues, including how to manage professional male-female relationships with clear expectations for appropriate interactions. Monitor progress closely, to ensure that mentors are meeting with their mentees and that expectations are being met. If the match does not work, seek to redress any issues as soon as possible. Nurture peer mentoring, and plan networking sessions that create a space for women’s access to senior leaders. Source: Investing in Women’s Leadership in Male-Dominated Sectors: Panama’s Emerging Women Lead- ers Program (Box 3.3) https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentde- tail/442381594311389657/an-overview-of-promising-approaches-case-studies. 71 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Whereas mentors provide counseling, sponsors and Green 2004), it is generally agreed that in a also leverage their own influence, and seek to mentoring relationship, the onus is on mentees provide leadership opportunities that can truly to take action to advance their own careers. By empower their protégés (Helms, Arfken, and contrast, sponsors are more active in nominat- Elwell 2016). Though formal definitions of men- ing their protégés for promotion, and in seeking torship and sponsorship vary (Friday, Friday, prestigious roles for them within the institution. BOX 17 TechWomen: Empowering Women Globally to Lead Local Change TechWomen is a mentorship and exchange initiative of the United States Department of State’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Based in San Francisco, and managed by the Institute of International Education, this program provides emerging leaders from devel- oping regions access to new ideas, tools, knowledge, and networks to support high-performing women in their early 20s through their late 40s as they advance professionally, and to help them inspire women and girls in their communities of origin. Since 2011, TechWomen has focused on connecting international groups of young women leaders in a five-week residential program, and helping them gain access to mentors who can serve as professional development resources and female role models. When the program first started, mentors and mentees were matched using an algorithm that only partially succeeded in ensuring compatibility. Subsequently, the program developed a system in which participants describe their learning objectives, ideal company, and preferred work culture before being matched with a mentor at one of 80 companies in the San Francisco Bay Area. These compa- nies range from large tech corporations and well-known research groups to public utilities and niche firms. Although more labor-intensive, this process has resulted in 98 percent participant satisfaction. Another factor contributing to the program’s success is the meaningful investment it has made in mentorship training, including a robust orientation, and ongoing development of new con- tent. With many different sectors and types of careers represented, participants are challenged to expand their professional capacities and their understanding of key networks in the broader STEM field. The infrastructure sectors, in particular, are well-represented, with emerging and seasoned leaders from the oil and gas, clean technology and energy, and water treatment sectors. TechWomen measures its impact with the use of participant surveys that gauge how the pro- gram has helped young women leaders connect with other professionals in the field; sparked further interest and involvement in policy areas; and changed their perceptions of STEM careers. The program boasts impressive results, with 90–99 percent of mentees reporting that they have learned new skills to apply in their home contexts that they otherwise would not have acquired. To date, the program has involved 518 mentees, and more than 700 mentors. Note: Details are available at https://www.techwomen.org/. 72 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT WOMEN IN STEM AWARDS Recognizing women’s contributions in STEM within a company or across an industry can help inspire other women in the workforce. Beyond individual ministry and company awards, govern- ments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and professional networks can host programs to recognize eminent women leaders in the infrastructure fields. For example, the International Water Association (IWA) hosts the Women in Water Awards; the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World recognizes prestigious researchers; the Institute of Engineer- ing and Technology (IEEE) grants an annual award to the best young women engineers in the United Kingdom; the Sasol Inzalo Foundation supports the Business Woman of the Year Awards; and Western Australia’s Chamber of Minerals and Energy recognizes trailblazers with its Women in Resource Awards. When women professionals are recognized on the national or international stage, a high bar is set for aspiring young women more broadly. The Center for Talent Innovation found that men Facilitating Access to and women with sponsors are more likely to ask Professional Networks for pay raises (and get them); to join high-visibil- ity teams; and to experience greater career satis- One of the key barriers to women’s advance- faction (Hewlett et al 2008). Having a sponsor or ment within male-dominated workplaces is their advocate within an organization can help women exclusion from social networks (Faulkner 2009; increase their visibility and their odds of advance- Linehan et al 2001). The literature has identi- ment, and can help boost the retention rates of fied some of the reasons women are unable to mothers (Ashcraft and McLain 2016). Organiza- access networks of male entrepreneurs, includ- tions such as Citibank, Deutsche Bank, Unile- ing the exclusiveness of the so-called “old boys’ ver, Sodexo, and IBM Europe have established network” and the fact that fraternity contacts, and sponsorship programs to facilitate the promotion other predominantly male social organizations, of high-potential women (Ibarra et al 2010). are not available to them (Gamba and Kleiner 2001; Knouse and Webb 2001; Linehan 2001). Sponsors also realize benefits from develop- ing protégés. The data has found that overall, Women also tend to lack senior female col- sponsors are more satisfied with their careers; leagues who can serve as role models and men- more likely to advance in their own careers; and tors, and they experience heightened cultural that they even experience a slight monetary boundaries and exclusion from membership in boost compared with leaders who do not sponsor elite groups of STEM scientists (Morimoto and protégés (Hewlett et al 2014). Zajicek 2012). Their exclusion from informal, male-dominated networks also creates a situ- Further research is needed to understand the ation of unequal access to tacit knowledge, or specific kinds of mentorship that work best. More the “unwritten rules” of academia and science evidence is also needed on various approaches – knowledge that is implicitly understood only by to sponsorship, and the related impacts on “insiders” (Rankin et al 2007). women’s employment. Good practice guidance and lessons learned are provided by the Panama case study (Box 18). 73 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 18 Leadership Development for Women in Male-Dominated, Public Sector Agencies in Panama SPOTLIGHT ON GOOD PRACTICES In October 2017, recognizing the dearth of female leadership in Panama’s public sector, the country’s vice president launched the Emerging Women Leaders (EWL) program. Developed by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), this program offers a combination of online learning; selected readings and classroom instruction; one-on-one coaching sessions; and assessment tools, as well as opportunities for mentoring, networking, and teamwork. The pro- gram’s first cohort was comprised of 30 female public servants from five ministries: the Ministry of Agricultural Development, the Ministry of Economy and Finance, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Public Security, and the Ministry of Social Development. WHAT WAS DONE • Training and leadership coaching. From its inception, the EWL project team and partners set a high standard for both the caliber of participants and the leadership training, to ensure quality and to lend the program prestige. The Center for Collaborative Women’s Leader- ship at the Costa Rica–based INCAE Business School, which had expertise in developing courses for women leaders in the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region, was con- tracted to develop training and coaching. Over a six-month period, participants were taken through three modules: two face-to-face modules of one week each; a virtual module that included readings, case studies, discussions, webinars, and networking; and group work. Participants also had individual and group coaching sessions, conducted both in person and online. Buy-in from ministers was crucial for ensuring that participants could take time off from their daily work to attend these sessions. • Engaging men as mentors. Since the ministries targeted by EWL are male-dominated in both labor force and leadership, the program team believed it was of critical importance for men to be engaged as mentors. In order to avoid amplifying power imbalances, the program took proactive steps to clearly define and shape mentor-mentee relationships. For example, a mentorship guide was developed, and discussions with mentors were held to illuminate issues of gender and power dynamics, and how to mitigate the risks of sexual harassment in order to protect both women and men from harm. Many senior managers, and even vice-ministers, participated as mentors. Participants learned about their mentors’ profes- sional experiences, and selected the ones they believed would be the best fit for them, either from within or outside of their ministries. • Engaging role models. Special events and speaking engagements provided a platform for TED Talk-style presentations by women leaders from each ministry; regional leaders from the public sector; and IDB vice presidents. The presentations were followed by conversa- tions with participants, and were video-recorded and disseminated via social media. 74 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT • Developing high-visibility capstone projects and presentations. To provide greater visibility and more opportunities for women to hone their communication skills, and make program gains sustainable, participants were required to form teams and develop capstone initiatives to present to IDB senior management, government representatives, and INCAE Business School leaders. Each initiative was required to have a social impact on the com- pany or on society. Most of the project proposals presented in 2018 focused on promoting women’s empowerment or gender equality. • Sharing lessons regionally. The EWL program is linked to IDB’s Program to Support the Leadership and Representation of Women (PROLEAD) network for women in the LAC region public sector. This network seeks to connect professional women, provide online tools, and facilitate peer mentoring. In addition to having a strong social media presence, the network offers an extensive resource library, including videos about female role models. • Building prestige for alumni through media exposure for the program. Raising the profile of alumni has been accompanied by a media strategy that is tailored to both tradi- tional and digital media, thus elevating EWL’s visibility, the status of graduates, and creating broader awareness of employment and leadership gender gaps. The social media strategy invites partners and individuals to join the conversation online. Note: For detailed information on the EWL program’s actions and resource mobilization efforts to increase equality, along with lessons learned, see the case study Investing in Women’s Leadership in Male-Dom- inated Sectors: Panama’s Emerging Women Leaders Program https://documents.worldbank.org/en/pub- lication/documents-reports/documentdetail/442381594311389657/an-overview-of-promising-approach- es-case-studies. These inequalities can accumulate over the countries. However, most international STEM-re- course of women’s careers, and contribute to lated women’s networks report a substantial differences between women and men in mate- presence of members, and even advisors, in low- rial benefits, job satisfaction, and patterns of and middle-income countries as well (Appendix inclusion. Gaining meaningful access to such A. Professional Networks for Women in Infra- networks beyond mere tokenism poses real chal- structure). lenges for women (Shaw et al 2001). Fostering networks of female employee resource A number of international networks focus on pro- groups (ERGs) can enable women’s retention moting female leadership within a specific sector and advancement in STEM roles within infra- (for example, Women in Geothermal (WING) and structure organizations. ERGs can also accel- Women Professionals in Urban Water); some of erate women’s professional development in them offer scholarships or fellowships. the workplace by providing social support and information, and fostering relationships. They Other networks are placed within wider pro- often provide essential support to staff at key exit fessional networks, and offer members the and reentry points, for example when a woman opportunity to influence the agendas of larger is completing an advanced degree or taking organizations like the International Water Associ- parental leave. Such voluntary peer associations ation and the Institute of Electrical and Electron- can provide a forum in which female colleagues ics Engineers. The membership base of some of can give and receive advice from each other these networks is predominantly in high-income when transitioning from one role to another, or 75 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE THE WOMEN IN POWER SECTOR NETWORK IN SOUTH ASIA (WEPOWER) The Women in Power Sector Network in South Asia (WePOWER) is a World Bank and ESMAP-sponsored professional network and forum in the South Asia Region (SAR) power sector. WePOWER connects and builds the capacity of women engineers, and promotes their career advancement. The network also promotes changes in attitudes about women in STEM, specifically related to the power sector. Prior to launching the initiative in 2019, a baseline study was conducted in the SAR countries— Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—to better understand the complex, multidimensional problem of the underrepresentation of women engi- neers in the power sector. The study collected first-of-its-kind employment data, disaggregated by sex and grade, including insights from 524 female and male power-sector professionals and engineering students. In February 2019, Nepal hosted the first WePOWER regional conference, which brought together more than 250 engineers and energy-sector professionals from around the region. A subsequent gathering of 80 WePOWER partners and stakeholders took place in Manila in November 2019. Building on the momentum in Manila, 21 current partners across the private sector, public entities, educational institutions and the professional networks have commited to tangible actions on wom- en’s employment in power sector. making important career decisions. Intergen- all. PETRONAS supports women’s leadership erational ERGs and professional networks can development, changes in organizational culture, also provide opportunities for younger employ- and the promotion of female role model success ees to learn from more seasoned colleagues; stories (PETRONAS 2015). for example, they may gain insights on how to avoid the “motherhood penalty,” the career lag To date, very few studies have investigated the that many women experience after becoming existence or effectiveness of ERGs in infrastruc- a parent (however, the “motherhood” penalty ture entities in low- and middle-income countries, reflects broader institutional biases therefore and more research is essential; however, lessons support from ERGs is insufficient to address learned from ERGs in large multinational compa- these challenges) (Kahn, García-Manglano,and nies can provide some insights (Box 19). Bianchi 2014). Despite the increasing use of women’s networks ERGs can also help to advance women’s within organizations and companies, relatively careers in underrepresented roles. For exam- little research has examined their potential ple, Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS), impact on women’s career advancement: the few a Malaysian oil and gas company has estab- studies that have been completed have tended lished the Leading Women Network to support to focus on best practices for creating such net- its female workforce, which is just 14 percent works (Singh et al 2006; Vinnicombe et al 2004; female in technical jobs, and 28 percent over- Catalyst 1999). 76 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT Those studies that have looked at the value of networks, including the retention of qualified such networks have had contradictory findings. women, an enhanced corporate reputation, a One study of 19 female mayors found that 11 of better-equipped workforce, and organizational the women (58 percent) reported positive bene- learning. Likewise, Catalyst (1999) reported that fits, including the fostering of a collective identity, women’s networks are associated with benefits and their feeling less isolated (Pini et al 2004). such as positive changes in workplace culture Vinnicombe et al (2004) also described some of and an increased talent pool for succession the organizational benefits accruing from these planning. BOX 19 Lessons for Establishing and Supporting Women’s Networks at the Organizational Level The following guideposts may be useful in establishing and supporting women’s networks that can become effective tools for both women and men in the workplace: Align the mission with corporate priorities. A 2011 study by Mercer surveyed 64 companies in Australia, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. As part of the study, ERG program managers in 10 of those organizations were interviewed. The study found that the programs with the highest rate of membership growth had aligned their missions with business operations such as marketing and sales, or talent acquisition. ERGs can also provide valuable feedback, and accountability for the implementation of corporate policies on diversity and inclusion. Define and communicate the group’s value proposition to both management and employees. It is important to clearly define the value proposition of the ERG by stating its specific goals, and providing measured results. When the value of such a group is communicated to senior management, additional resources may be dedicated to it, and employees too will understand its value. Nonfinancial public recognition, especially from senior management, can also be a powerful motivator for involvement in ERGs. Encourage ERGs to embrace generational and cultural changes. The 2011 Mer- cer study found a resurgence of enthusiasm for ERGs—both those organized around traditional affinities such as race and gender, and intentionally inclusive multicultural and multigenerational networks. Infrastructure entities in low- and middle-income countries may want to consider developing inclusive groups that engage people on specific issues related to women in STEM, such as creating an ERG of women and men meeting as “engineers for diversity.” Recognize that organizational and societal dynamics are context-specific. The willingness of employees to network and discuss shared interests in mixed groups may depend upon specific local, organizational, and societal dynamics. This helps to explain why the uptake of ERGs in some regions and cultural settings is still limited. Mercer has found that multinational corporations are more likely to host ERGs in their U.S. operations than in international offices. In any case, ERGs do offer one possible means for fostering diversity and growth within infrastructure workplaces. 77 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Yet some studies have reported negative out- enabling a higher level of performance. Moving comes from the use of women’s networks. And beyond generic skills training to more robust, while the majority of the female mayors studied comprehensive, and evidence-based approaches by Pini reported positive benefits, the other 42 is essential in order for employees to acquire the percent were either critical or ambivalent. Those skills they need to advance in their careers. who were ambivalent expressed concerns about the network’s lack of power, and wondered One initiative promoting such objectives is the whether working toward the greater inclusion STEM Workforce Readiness and Development of women in the mainstream, male-dominated Program, supported by ILO. Implemented in network would be a better strategy than creating Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, this a separate network. program helps those in low-skilled jobs transition to quality STEM-related employment with sus- At the organizational level, one study found that tainable career and livelihood prospects. It also a 10-member women’s network in a Fortune supports supervisors and other mid-level women 500 company failed because it replicated the in STEM fields to advance into leadership and organization’s patriarchal culture, the very cul- management positions through a combination of ture that was already hindering women’s career mentorship opportunities and skills training. The advancement (Bierema 2005). This study found program focuses on soft skills, such as problem that women had been assimilated into the orga- solving, teamwork, public speaking, managing nization’s culture, making it extremely difficult upwards, interpersonal communication, and for them to challenge that culture, and to create reaching consensus. their own identities within the male-dominated environment; and that they lacked the power to Emerging evidence highlights the promise make changes. offered by soft skills training. For example, a 2019 World Bank study found that in Togo, Similarly, Friedman (1996) reported that while training designed to encourage self-starting, such networks can enhance the social relation- future-oriented behavior and persistence helped ships of women and minorities disadvantaged to improve the sales and profits of firms led by by organizational structures and policies, they both women and men. Business management can also create a backlash by majority group training did not have nearly as great an impact: members who are excluded from the benefits profits for women-owned firms increased by 40 they offer. And O’Neil, Hopkins, and Sullivan percent after “personal initiative” training, com- (2011) found that firm leadership teams often pared to just 5 percent for traditional business do not recognize the possible positive effects of management training. Similar results were also women’s networks on their bottom line. found in Uganda, and in Ethiopia, combining personal initiative training with traditional busi- Providing Technical and ness training helped to increase the profits of Leadership Skills Training women-owned firms by 30 percent more than those of the control group (World Bank 2019e). As technologies change and companies mod- ernize, they require a skilled workforce that stays There are several promising women’s leader- abreast of the changes. Ensuring that female ship programs in public sector infrastructure employees have equal access to training oppor- agencies and networks (Appendix A. Profes- tunities in technical, communication, and man- sional Networks for Women in Infrastructure). agerial skills allows companies to maximize the These programs generally focus on the profes- knowledge and skill sets of all of their employees, sional development of women by offering them 78 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT training in key skills like negotiation; access to Countering Biases During the senior leadership through mentoring programs, Promotion Process networking events, or presentations of special projects; and by creating networks of emerging Tackling both implicit and explicit gender biases female leaders. in the promotion process can help companies move toward eliminating discrimination against While this area is still nascent in public sector women. Generally speaking, people tend to seek infrastructure entities, many holistic programs out those who share their backgrounds, group are being implemented by ministries, SOEs, memberships, or experiences, and they are and public utilities. South Africa’s Eskom serves likely to favor candidates that are like themselves as one promising example (Box 20). Online (Moreno and Flowerday 2006). These kinds of and distance learning executive leadership and biases are hard to change, especially through management courses offered by universities are traditional training methods (Chang et al 2019). another valuable resource. In male-dominated sectors, such biases may be especially detrimental to the women working there. BOX 20 Advancing Women: Driving the Transformation of South Africa’s Power Sector In 2013, Eskom, South Africa’s public sector electricity utility, established the Eskom Women’s Advancement Program (EWAP). EWAP is organized around the following key priorities, which are embedded in the company’s strategy: • Increase women’s representation in leadership positions; • Build a cadre of women to fill critical roles in Eskom’s nuclear programs; • Develop a pipeline of women to occupy technical roles, and increase their representation in these roles; • Facilitate an inclusive work environment, and influence a progressive, inclusive, and sustain- able organizational culture; • Ensure that human resource practices and policies are empowering women and supporting their professional advancement; and • Partner with other institutions to develop women as global leaders. In 2016, women accounted for 40 out of 100 of its young Black engineers and artisans, who took part in a nuclear-operator training program at the Koeberg Power Station. According to Eskom, this initiative is enabling the company “to continue to drive transformation and the advancement of women, while building a robust pipeline of local nuclear operators that will ensure sufficient local resources to service the country’s future nuclear needs.” By 2017, females still only repre- sented 33 percent of Eskom’s total staff, and the utility recognized that further efforts will need to be made to reach parity in employment. See http://www.eskom.co.za/Pages/EWAP.aspx 79 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE to apply for its technical positions, with a similar model being developed for senior managers. Nobody was born knowing how to appear Companies can also introduce performance in public. That kind of confidence in itself systems that facilitate the promotion of talented is a muscle that is trained by doing it women. United Water Supply Company of Geor- in practice. Our work is about creating gia, for instance, hired an HR firm to help them opportunities for women to lead a develop a performance system, and develop a project, empowering them to raise their hand and say, ‘I’m willing, I want to take system of incentives that would help talented that position.’ women to be promoted (Abuladze 2014). Other measures to help increase the number of women —Claudia Bock-Valotta, Vice President in leadership positions include identifying targets for Finance and Administration, Inter-American Development Bank for the inclusion of women in such positions, and creating incentives that will encourage them to aspire to a career in the organization (World Bank 2019c). Open-ended, ambigious evaluations are partic- ularly susceptible to bias. In fact, researchers Infrastructure organizations can also use succes- found that women were more likely than men to sion planning to boost gender equality in their top be given performance reviews that lack specific jobs. This begins by identifying the most promis- feedback and advice. Standardizing job perfor- ing female leaders, providing them with a clearer mance reviews and skills assessments might pathway to the top of the organization, and help reduce gender bias. For example, manag- equipping them with the skills and knowledge ers can develop a standard and detailed set of they will need to pave the way. criteria to evaluate staff more equitably, create Succession planning should start early: interns, more specific prompts that call for specific and new recruits, and younger employees should be measurable outputs and behaviors, and ensure mentored from the beginning of their careers. consistency by continually re-reading reviews to Organizations need to take a more strategic identify potential patterns of bias (MacKenzie, approach to identifying and supporting top Wehrer, and Correll 2019). female talent, or they could risk losing them. Infrastructure entities are testing new This means giving women the support they need approaches to reduce biases in promotion. In to flourish in their careers at every level; giving North Macedonia, the power utility, EVN Macedo- female job candidates the opportunity to get to nia, developed a candidate assessment process know the organization before they join it; giving that expands the responsibility for hiring from a women employees the support they need and technical hiring manager to a panel. Competen- ensuring that the organization’s approach to cy-based exercises have also been incorporated helping women progress in their careers is the into the process, with the explicit goal of attract- right one. This is an important area for further ing more of North Macedonia’s female workforce research. 80 LEVELING THE PATHWAY TO EMPLOYMENT A FOCUS ON WOMEN’S ENTREPRENEURSHIP: PROMOTING DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN PROCUREMENT Women’s access to STEM employment can also be fostered by promoting the inclusion of women-owned businesses across the supply chain; however, those that bid for public tenders face serious barriers (Harris 2017). The challenges they face include the high minimum capital required to register as a vendor; inadequate access to credit; high financing costs; fewer networking opportunities; inadequate technical and managerial skills; gender bias; limited information about upcoming tenders; and time constraints when it comes to preparing bids, due to domestic responsibilities. At the sectoral level, line ministries can establish laws, regulations, and preferential public procurement policies specifically aimed at enterprises owned by women (Harris 2017). At the industry level, measures designed to open up opportunities for female contractors may include the following (ESMAP 2019; IFC 2011): • Designing ads targeted at women-owned businesses. • Including prominently placed language on tender documents, stating that women-owned firms are encouraged to apply. • Supporting bid readiness for women-owned firms and small businesses. This can include providing general business development services (for example, training in accounting and invoicing systems); workshops on the mechanisms of finding, scoping, costing, and responding to tenders; and assistance in connecting with financial institutions that are capable of providing needed guarantees. • Hosting information sessions for women only, with advice on how the supply chain works; which goods and services are needed by companies; and how small and medium enterprises (SMEs) can register and compete for contracts. • Reviewing the bureaucratic requirements for smaller contracts (licenses, certifications, audited accounts, financial guarantees, and warrants) that may pose unnecessary barriers to businesses owned or operated by women. • Choosing times and locations for bid-related meetings that are designed to reduce bidders’ travel costs and accommodate their schedules. • Launching challenges for innovation by women or women-owned firms. • Using preferential scoring systems that award extra points to firms that can demonstrate a greater focus on gender equality. • Hiring female staff to liaise with women-owned firms, and to serve as mentors to women entrepreneurs. • Establish targets for procurement from women-owned firms, and the number of women-owned firms in the supply chain. • Using existing databases to screen and certify firms that are at least 51 percent owned or operated by women. • Increasing transparency in the supplier selection process through the use of e-procurement. 81 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE 82 © Arne Hoel / World Bank TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD CHAPTER 4 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD Studies from a broad range of primarily private STARTING A DIALOGUE ON sector companies have consistently shown that organizations that launch initiatives to attract, STAFFING, AND BUILDING recruit, retain, and advance women outperform LEADERSHIP BUY-IN those with a more homogenous workforce. So, while leveling the field for women’s STEM Before starting a conversation about the status of employment in infrastructure can be challeng- female staffing in an organization, it is important ing, the long-term benefits for companies and to ascertain whether management is interested employees are proven. in and/or open to discussing human resource (HR) needs. While managers might be generally What actions can infrastructure organizations aware of the strengths and weaknesses of their take to promote women’s employment in STEM workforce, the specific challenges that female fields? First of all, the policies, strategies, staff typically face may not be their top priority. and action plans that are developed must be designed with a strong understanding of the local A useful first step may be to start by asking context. Legal, institutional, political, social, and questions about any institutional challenges the cultural considerations vary across countries, organization is facing, and allow that to lead into and all of these affect the roles that women are a discussion of how working on staffing issues expected to play both in general, and within the might help to effectively address them. Deter- workplace. mining whether the organization has sufficient technical staff with the skills needed to ade- This section provides practical steps that infra- quately operate and maintain facilities, for exam- structure organizations can take in order to begin ple, might help managers realize that providing the change process. Needless to say, concerted opportunities for upskilling could be helpful in and sustained efforts, especially from leader- filling any gaps. Discussing ways to recruit talent, ship, are required to ensure that women are and minimize staff turnover or attrition can also given genuine opportunities to enter the sector, be part of this conversation. and supported as they progress in their STEM careers. The next step is to determine whether the orga- nization is collecting sex-disaggregated data. Sharing international experience from infrastruc- ture entities that have faced similar challenges, and explaining how they overcame them by mak- 83 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE ing their workforce more equitable while staying gender equality. Explaining the links between competitive in the market could be helpful. For skills development, or childcare services, and example, Ethiopian Electric Utility’s experience laws and policies at the national level can help has catalyzed further action in the sector, with lend credibility to these efforts. This approach Ethiopian Electric Power now moving forward on can also help build buy-in and advance the adop- building a similar program (See Box 15). Other tion of strategies designed to support women in regional World Bank energy projects, such as the workplace. Burundi Solar Energy in Local Communities, have also drawn lessons from this approach. ASSESSING WOMEN’S Buy-in by senior leadership is critical to any orga- EMPLOYMENT AND INCLU- nizational change process. Leaders who demon- SION IN THE WORKPLACE strate a genuine understanding of the importance of women’s participation in the workforce can The next steps are to gather sex-disaggregated encourage others to take the goal of gender data, conduct analyses, and develop an evi- equality seriously. Transformational leaders dence base. This data will provide helpful insight can articulate clear and meaningful goals; urge into the challenge areas, as well as the most employees to rise above their self-interest to promising areas for intervention. support collective goals; and communicate this vision to a broad set of stakeholders (Paarlberg and Lavigna 2010). Buy-in by senior manage- Consider Hiring Experts ment can also help maintain momentum and World Bank project teams may want to hire an commitment to change, and can help ensure that expert with gender analysis experience related the necessary resources will be allocated to the to female labor force participation, women’s effort (Fernandez and Rainey 2006) (See Box employment, and/or women’s employment in 21). STEM jobs, as well as rights-based approaches to focusing on disparities between women and When engaging senior leadership, it is import- men. Expertise in human resources, gender ant for the HR and change management teams audits, and program design, as well as monitor- to ensure that decision makers and potential ing and evaluation (M&E), may also be helpful. high-level champions are also engaged. Senior leaders may be able to make institutional Gender experts can support a review of the commitments, but it is the departments and evidence and the data-collection efforts, and employees who will be crucial in actually driving can help link the data to specific recommended the change process. Within the organization, the actions, targets, and relevant (M&E) indicators. leaders of HR, institutional relations, governance, training and development, and corporate social Use Secondary Data Sources to responsibility (CSR) are all needed in order to Better Understand Gender Equal- enact relevant policies and implement institu- tional changes. ity Issues Existing data and resources can help project One way of motivating an organization’s lead- teams better understand a given country’s laws, ership and stakeholders to actively support regulations, and policies. At the country level, inclusion of women in the STEM workforce is for exploring sector-specific policies and minis- the project team to point to national agendas and try-led, as well as civil society efforts to achieve international agreements that aim to advance gender equality, can be helpful (Box 22). 84 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD BOX 21 Suggestions for Eliciting Buy-In from Senior Management Human resources and change management teams aiming to elicit buy-in from senior management may want to consider adopting some of the following strategies. Leverage CEO leadership. Leadership by the chief executive officer is needed in order to drive the development and adoption of equitable policies such as flextime and parental leave. Devolve responsibility. Recommend that senior leaders assign responsibility to other entities (HR, institutional relations, governance, training and development), in order to maintain consis- tency in driving institutional changes. Institutionalize actions. To ensure sustainability, it is important to translate commitments into actions that are rooted at the institutional level. One way to do this is by spelling out the specific concrete practices or initiatives that are to be instituted, and adopting an institutional strategy that clearly defines key targets and goals. Create an implementing committee. Recommend the creation of a committee or council to help drive progress through monthly meetings, planning sessions, and roundtable discussions. Communicate the importance of women’s employment issues. Encourage senior manage- ment to communicate to staff, both in person and in writing, the importance of gender equality in STEM employment, and to repeat this message at key internal and external meetings and events. HR and change management teams can lead the way by placing this agenda on the table in key meetings with infrastructure counterparts. Enhance understanding of gender equality in the workplace. Recommend that manage- ment clearly communicates the measures that need to be taken in order to support women in STEM workplaces. Ensure that staff understand the reasons why gender equality is a priority, remembering that messages that emphasize the benefits to companies and employees are more likely to be effective. In other words, go beyond simply messaging against discrimination. Forge global partnerships. Consider ways that senior management can demonstrate its sup- port for and commitment to the employment of women in STEM, through affiliations with global partnerships and initiatives. 85 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 22 Helpful Secondary Data Sources Women, Business and the Law is a World Bank Group project that collects unique data on the laws and regulations that restrict women’s economic opportunities in 190 economies. This resource covers such topics as accessing institutions, owning property, getting a job, providing incentives to work, going to court, building credit, and protecting women from violence. The Social Institutions & Gender Index (SIGI) is an OECD-supported, cross-coun- try measure of discrimination against women in social institutions through formal and informal laws, social norms, and practices, across 180 countries. SIGI covers four major dimensions of discriminatory social institutions that affect women’s lives: (i) discrimination in the family; (ii) restricted physical integrity; (iii) restricted access to productive and finan- cial resources; and (iv) restricted civil liberties. The Global Gender Gap Report, supported by the World Economic Forum, benchmarks 153 countries on their progress toward gender parity across four dimensions: (i) eco- nomic participation and opportunity; (ii) educational attainment; (iii) health and survival; and (iv) political empowerment. The report also includes detailed country profiles and provides sex-disaggregated data across these domains. The World Bank Group’s Gender Data Portal is a comprehensive source of the latest sex-disaggregated data and gender statistics covering demography, education, health, economic opportunities, public life, decision making, and agency. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is a comprehensive resource of statistics regarding education, science, technology and innovation, and culture. The OECD Gender Data Portal includes specific indicators that shed light on gender inequalities in education, employment, entrepreneurship, health, and development, including data on female scientists and women’s STEM education. The data sets cover OECD member countries, as well as partner economies in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and South Africa. The Global Women’s Leadership Index of the Wilson Center tracks women in govern- ments around the world; describes how much power they hold; and explains how they progressed to their positions of leadership. The data is split into three pillars—pathways, positions, and power—to elucidate correlations between a variety of variables, decisions, and policies, and to show how they ultimately affect the degree of power held by women in public office. 86 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD Examine National Development Strategies The other significant thing is evidence. Evaluating national development strategies If you don’t measure gaps in leadership, can also be helpful. For example, the Ethiopia pay, benefits, and evidence more widely Growth and Transformation Plan 2 contains on sexual harassment, and start a baseline information and has set targets for the discussion from the perspective of number of women that are benefitting from voca- data, you can’t do anything. What gets tional adult education programs, and the per- measured, gets done. centage of government institutions that provide —Ellen Maynes, Gender Operations childcare services.21 These elements may help Officer, IFC’s Powered by Women World Bank project teams work with relevant counterparts to push for reforms in national laws and policies, and to develop sector strategies for driving actions that will help close the gaps Of course, the scope of these activities depends between women and men in STEM employment. upon available financial and human resources. Ideally, the data should provide an overall snap- Collect Institutional Data to shot of how women are participating at various Understand Women’s Participa- levels of the organization, as well as their edu- tion Within the Organization cational backgrounds. Such data can help guide the development of interventions. In addition to secondary data, collecting both quantitative and qualitative primary data from It is also important to examine the participation within the institution can help clients better of women in various specific operational and understand the level and nature of women’s technical areas, including engineering, as well as participation across the institution. Developing an their entry and exit points throughout the pipe- evidence base can shed light on the key chal- line. And it is important to remember that while lenges the organization is facing, and establish HR databases can provide a quantitative picture a baseline against which future success can of women’s participation according to their roles be measured. Such data can provide helpful or grades, they cannot assess the perceptions, perspective on the relative participation of men needs, and challenges to career development and women within the workforce; highlight ways that women are facing within the organization. to achieve greater parity; and gather important information about perceptions and attitudes In order to gain a fuller picture of women’s expe- within the organization. riences within infrastructure entities, qualitative surveys and insights gathered during consulta- Teams can start by establishing the scope of the tions or focus group discussions with employees assessment; identifying any existing sex-disag- is needed (Box 23). Holding some consultations gregated data that is already available through for women only may help them feel more con- HR databases; and leveraging opportunities fident about speaking candidly about the chal- to incorporate relevant questions into broader lenges they face, and the opportunities they are assessment efforts, such as employee engage- seeking. These discussions can also help begin ment surveys. to build women’s networks within the institution. 21. “Ethiopia Growth and Transformation Plan II” (GTP II). https://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/national-documents/ ethiopia-growth-and-transformation-plan-ii-gtp-ii 87 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE BOX 23 Focus Group Discussions and Consultations on Women in STEM Focus group discussions and consultations can provide women with an opportunity to discuss employment issues and challenges, and share their perspectives and experiences. Before beginning any such discussions, however, the first step is to ensure that all participants understand which jobs are STEM jobs within the organization. Ideally, these kinds of discussions are guided by an experienced facilitator who can help ensure that everyone involved gets a fair chance to speak, and be heard. The teams can then draft post-session reports, summarizing the observations shared during the session, while maintain- ing confidentiality about the opinions or concerns of individual participants. Such discussions can also take place online. Follow-up one-on-one conversations can complement group discussions, and may provide the opportunity for deeper discussion; or they can be used with employees who may feel uncom- fortable sharing in a larger group. Men could also be engaged in separate conversations as needed. Discussions with outside entities may also be helpful. For example, consultations with STEM faculty at universities, or with employees who have left the organization, may provide a more complete and frank picture of the existing barriers, challenges, and opportunities than information gathered from current employees. Such discussions may include the following objectives, among others. Understanding the experiences of female staff with a background in STEM, including a focus on work culture, norms, and institutional policies. Gaining in-depth insights into institutional bottlenecks in recruitment, retention, or advance- ment that women are aware of, or may have experienced. Assessing the level of awareness among management and staff, of key institutional poli- cies and initiatives that are already in place to enhance women’s employment in STEM jobs. Gathering ideas from employees about changes the organization could make, or strate- gies it could adopt to further enhance women’s participation in STEM roles or activities. Sample Questions for Focus Groups with Women STEM Professionals: General • Do you feel there are enough women employees in your institution? What about in manage- ment? Please elaborate. • Does this institution promote a positive working environment for women? What does this mean to you? What would make it better? • Are you aware of any institutional policies that are designed to enhance women’s employment (maternity leave, prevention of sexual harassment, flexible working hours, etc.)? 88 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD • What could your organization be doing to encourage women to work in STEM jobs? What would help the most? • What type of programs could your institution introduce to address the bottlenecks to wom- en’s employment in STEM? Recruitment • Do you know what measures your institution uses to identify, attract, and recruit women? • Are you aware of any recruitment strategies in place to enhance the female talent pool? For example, does your institution offer internships or scholarships, or targeted approaches for the hiring process (mixed interview panels, or a variety of candidate-assessment methods)? • Do you feel that your institution has enough outreach to at least one educational institution with female STEM graduates? Please elaborate. Retention and Advancement • What are some of the challenges to women’s full participation in and advancement within the organization? • Are there gender stereotypes within your company’s culture, or among coworkers, that could be harmful to the organization’s ability to retain and advance women in STEM roles? Please elaborate. • Have you experienced biases in the workplace? Are these biases also reflected in the com- pany culture, or its business practices? Please elaborate. • Are you able to effectively balance your personal life and family obligations? Are there work- place policies in place to help support work-life balance? If so, are you able to use them without negative consequences? • What are the three main challenges that are affecting your career? • Are women represented sufficiently in managerial positions in the organization? If not, why not? • Which opportunities for professional development are available to you? If these are insuffi- cient, what other programs would you like to see? • Do you feel that these opportunities for professional development are available on an equi- table basis for both male and female colleagues? 89 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Assessments should include a general review of cascades down; (ii) use of data as a means of HR policies (Box 24), as well as a very careful linking the diversity and inclusion strategy to the review of recruitment and advancement prac- business growth strategy; (iii) development of tices. This can help to identify the specific ways a portfolio of initiatives that promotes a culture that gender bias may be affecting women in of inclusion, and demonstrates commitment to the workplace. Reviewing collective bargaining increased diversity; and (iv) commitment to local agreements, identifying the prevalence of sexual buy-in through strategies tailored to the business harassment,22 and examining sexual harassment area or geographic region (McKinsey & Com- policies, as well as prevention and response pany 2018a). mechanisms, should also be carried out. While empirical evidence is scant on the effec- tiveness of action plans at the ministry or local DEVELOPING A STRATEGY, level, anecdotal evidence suggests that these AND A CORRESPONDING plans can provide a helpful framework, and support for efforts to advance gender equality. A ACTION PLAN meta-evaluation of the Asian Development Bank (ADB)’s gender interventions over a period of 10 In order to ensure broad implementation of years with a focus on the infrastructure sectors institutional initatives for supporting women in found that when they were well aligned with the the STEM workforce—and continuity of those local context, gender action plans could provide initatives in the event of staff or leadership good guidance, and elicit positive outcomes.23 changes—the commitment of senior leadership Such plans included details on the gender equal- to these goals should be translated into very con- ity policies of partner governments and specified crete and specific actions that are clearly spelled targets for each of the actions, some of which out in an institutional plan or strategy. focused on aspects of women’s employment Developing a strategy that is supported by (ADB 2017). evidence helps makes the case for necessary Closing large gender gaps takes time and changes (Fernandez and Rainey 2006). A 2018 requires substantial resources. For many orga- McKinsey study that researched diversity within nizations, focusing initial efforts on moderate, the executive teams of 346 companies worldwide achievable gains that have a greater probability found that all of the companies that demonstrated of enduring over time through changes in lead- improvements in the inclusion of women over a ership may be the best strategy. For example, three-year period had done so with the support of it may be better to initially focus the review of specific diversity and inclusion strategies. HR policies on salary equity rather than trying The companies that succeeded shared these to move forward with a costly plan for on-site traits: (i) senior leadership commitment that childcare facilities. 22. Those who wish to conduct a survey of sexual harassment in the workplace should follow the ethical and safety guidelines established by the World Health Organization (WHO 2005). Poorly conducted surveys are unethical, because responding to a poorly designed survey could needlessly retraumatize respondents. The WHO guideline out- lines some of the methodological, ethical, and safety challenges of conducting research on violence against women and girls (VAWG), and describes a range of innovative techniques that have been used to sensitively, respectfully, and carefully address these challenges. 23. Across sectors and subsectors, the gender action plans funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) usually included a set of indicators that covered: (i) jobs and income generated, by project; (ii) participation of women in ADB–supported projects, and their representation in groups at the national and subnational levels; (iii) capacity building of women through livelihood training; and (iv) collection of sex-disaggregated data for project monitoring and reporting. 90 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD BOX 24 Sample Questions for Human-Resource Policies Review Does your organization have a gender nondiscrimination policy? Does your organization have a committee focused on gender equality? • Is there an assigned gender focal point? Does the focal point have decision-making authority? • What resources are allocated to this work? Do you have any recruitment policies specifically focused on women? • Do you have any quotas or targets regarding female employees in your organization? If so, what is the targeted percentage or number? • Do you have job ads targeted at women? • Do you have any outreach channels via women’s professional networks? Does your organization have recruitment relationships with any universities or trade schools? Do you have any advancement policies focused on women? • Do you have any quotas or targets for the number of women who reach management and/or leadership roles? If so, what is the targeted percentage or number? • Do you have structured planning for career growth and advancement? Do you offer any flexible working arrangements? For example: • a. Part-time employment? • b. Options for teleworking/telecommuting? • c. A gradual phased-in schedule for mothers returning from maternity leave? • d. Flexible core hours, or compressed work schedules? • e. Other (please specify)? Do you have any official policies for parental leave (both maternal and paternal)? If so, how much time is allowed? Does this differ according to whether this is the first or second child? Is parental leave paid? Do you have official policies for staff regarding paid family and medical leave? If so, how long is the maximum paid leave allowed? Do you have any rules, regulations, or policies to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace? • Do you have formal grievance procedures in place? Source: Adapted from the ESMAP-funded Women in Power Sector Network in South Asia (WePOWER), and the Africa Gender and Energy program available at https://www.esmap.org/multimedia/power-sector-questionnaire-human-re- sources-training-and-gender-practices Note: For an expanded list of detailed questions, see Tool 1.1: Gender Audit (IFC 2018). 91 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Specific local contexts must be understood, and assigned to take charge of key initiatives, such carefully taken into consideration by the World as mentorship programs (Box 26). They can also Bank project teams. For example, changes that be tasked with presenting fresh perspectives, impact union contracts or collective agreements inspiring attitudinal shifts, and supporting the may take several years to implement: this under- shift in norms needed in order for diversity and lines the need for any actions to be driven by inclusion strategies to succeed. Project teams current, on-the-ground realities. can also encourage relevant counterparts to create committees or councils to drive progress Setting Specific Goals and Targets through monthly meetings, planning sessions, and roundtables. Diversity initiatives within organizations often focus somewhat narrowly on promoting more Since men occupy the majority of STEM jobs women to leadership and professional roles, and and comprise most of the infrastructure work- tend to spend less time and thought on creating force, engaging them as partners and support- the types of programs that are needed in order ers of gender equality initiatives is needed for to attract a larger number of qualified women success. Engaging men as mentors and imple- candidates to the sector; for example, forming menters of inclusion strategies is one way to do relationships with educational institutions that this. One such example is the Emerging Women actively promote both male and female job Leaders Program of the Inter-American Develop- candidates, and making STEM scholarships ment Bank (IDB) in Panama (Box 18). However, available for tertiary education. any mentorship program should take care to mit- igate the risks of sexual harassment by carefully Creating specific goals in each job category can vetting potential mentors, and letting mentees enhance opportunities for women in roles that know about any antiharassment measures that are traditionally male-dominated. These specific are in place, as well as the mechanisms for goals can then be embedded in an organiza- reporting harassment. tion’s overall strategy to address gaps in wom- en’s STEM employment (See Table 5). Creating Strategic Messaging that The strategy should be very specific about the Explains How an Inclusive Work- steps that will be taken to achieve targets set force is Good for Business for the recruitment, retention, and advance- Highlighting the business benefits of promoting ment of women within the organization. Project gender equality to both employers and employ- teams should support the design; track progress ees can help gain broader support than tackling toward project targets and initiatives in the iden- the issue from the perspective of antidiscrimi- tified focus areas; and help organizations revise nation alone. In fact, messaging that portrays and adopt changes in policies as needed. women as victims can even backfire, further disempowering female staff. On the other hand, Designating Champions at All positive messaging that communicates some Levels of the Organization, and of the ways that inclusion can help modernize Engaging Men the organization and increase its competitive edge can help to create a more constructive and Designating champions at all levels within an welcoming workplace culture. organization can help sustain institutional com- mitment to change. Employees who are pas- Failure to articulate these benefits to both sionate about diversity, inclusion, and women’s workers and unions may derail efforts to achieve full participation in the workforce can be formally gender equality. In order to avoid alienating any 92 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD Table 5  Sample Framework for Setting Targets to Improve Women’s Representation in STEM Jobs Target Area Focus Possible Strategies for Tracking Progress Identifying evidence-based • Undertake a review of best practices that is relevant to the strategies to enhance general sector context and related policies, and share findings women in STEM within the with the organization’s leadership representatives. sector or country context Establishing a corporate- • Adopt an institutional strategy and action plan focused on level commitment to closing the gender gaps in STEM professions. gender equality in STEM • Sign up for a global reporting initiative to track performance on employment women’s employment (if resources are available). (See Box 25) • Undertake an in-depth review of institutional recruitment, retention, and advancement processes, and related policies. • Review all job description materials for potential biases, especially those for technical STEM roles. • Develop a retention strategy in response to issues identified Recruiting and retaining an during employee surveys and exit interviews, if available. equitable workforce • Embed key questions on workplace culture, parental leave, and sexual harassment in employee engagement surveys. Make sure the results of the survey are sex-disaggregated. • Ensure that basic facilities such as toilets and dorms are built and/or renovated in such a way that they can accommodate the safety and hygienic needs of both women and men. • Establish and monitor targets for women’s representation in management and other leadership roles. Advancing women’s • Provide progress reports to relevant stakeholders. representation in senior STEM positions • Increase the ratio of women to men in senior management within a specific timeline. • Increase the retention rates for midcareer women. • Embed key questions on such issues as workplace culture, Developing overall parental leave, and sexual harassment in employee approaches for enhancing engagement surveys. Make sure the results are sex- equity in infrastructure disaggregated. entities • Ensure basic facilities such as toilets and dorms can safely and comfortably accommodate both women and men. Note: World Bank project teams or infrastructure institutions can incorporate intended targets in their respective strategies and action plans based on the ideas put forward in the above framework. 93 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE particular group, or unintentionally lead to mis- announce progress toward their targets in quar- understandings, or backlash, it may be neces- terly reports and staff meetings, clearly stating sary to carefully frame internal communications, the case for gender equality in STEM employ- always keeping the focus on the benefits that ment, and outlining the steps being undertaken can be realized through a more diverse and by the organization to set and meet planned inclusive workforce. It may also be helpful to targets. design and implement “soft-incentive” schemes that formally recognize teams who successfully New M&E mechanisms may be needed in adopt gender equality, and inclusive strategies. order to capture both qualitative and quanti- tative data on the effectiveness of the various approaches, strategies, and activities that have Capturing Results through Report- been implemented. Including relevant output ing Mechanisms and outcome indicators in the project design can Reporting on changes to the representation of help ensure that these indicators are reported on women at all levels of the organization helps to during implementation. Interventions designed promote institutional transparency and account- to enhance the comprehensiveness of annual ability (Box 25). Project teams can share infor- reporting ideally would include the proportion mation about progress achieved through project of women employees overall, as well as the reports, action plans, and other mechanisms. number of female senior executives and board They should also advise infrastructure entities to members. Encouraging infrastructure entities to BOX 25 Global Reporting Initiatives and Tools Women’s Empowerment Principles (WEPs). In 2016, the United Nations Global Compact, UN Women, Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), and the Inter-Ameri- can Development Bank (IDB) launched the WEP Gender Gap Analysis Tool with support from the Coca-Cola Company, the governments of Germany and Japan, Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG), and Itaipu Binacional. Nearly 2,000 CEOs have signed a statement of support pledging to uphold the seven WEPs (see note). Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). The GRI is an independent international organization that helps businesses, governments, and other organizations report on sustainability issues, such as climate change, human rights, governance and social well-being. GRI encourages organizations to report on sex-disaggregated indicators, such as recruitment and employee turnover by sex and age; the ratio of the basic salary and remuneration of women to men for each employee category; and the average number of hours of training for employees by sex and employee category. Note: Details are available at http://weprinciples.org/Site/Companies/1.; The WEPs are: 1) Leadership: Establish high-level corporate leadership for gender equality; 2) Equality: Treat all women and men fairly at work– respect and support human rights and nondiscrimination; 3) Safety: Ensure the health, safety and well-being of all women and men workers; 4) Learning: Promote education, training and professional development for women; 5) Markets: Implement enterprise development, supply chain and marketing practices; 6) Community: Promote equality through community initiatives and advocacy; and 7) Transparency: Measure and publicly report on progress to achieve gender equality. 94 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD disaggregate their employee satisfaction survey buy-in for more costly activities (for example, by sex can help paint a clearer picture of the scholarships, or the establishment of childcare current situation as well as of any progress facilities). However, utilities and other entities being made. may have extremely limited resources in terms of the budget and staff needed to implement interventions like new outreach programs, or MOBILIZING FINANCIAL AND new data and HR tracking systems. HUMAN RESOURCES Data on the specific costs of initiatives is scant, given issues of confidentiality and the lack Linking Strategies with the of budgets specifically allocated for women’s Resources to Support the Imple- employment in international development mentation of Goals and Targets projects. However, based on our interviews, anecdotal evidence suggests that high-quality The activities outlined in this chapter require leadership programs, including the coaching substantial allocation of financial and human components, can cost about US$2,000 per resources in order for effective and sustained woman.24 Teams can also identify the costs implementation to occur. The costs incurred may of four-year STEM university programs in the include hiring consultants to deliver a baseline countries of interest in order to estimate the assessment; designing mentorship programs; level of scholarship support that may be needed. earmarking funds for STEM scholarships; build- Gender certification processes for infrastruc- ing or installing new facilities; and purchasing ture entities can cost $30,000–100,000 (and additional gear for women. upwards), and can take 1–3 months, depending Costs vary from country to country, as well on the scope and methods used for the assess- as by the type of initiative. Although there are ment (Table 6).25 variations depending on the specific context, initiatives for promoting women in STEM and ANTICIPATING CHALLENGES professional roles generally cost more per person than training programs for women in low- TO IMPLEMENTATION and medium-skills jobs (for example, training women as bus drivers, or in the use of heavy When targeting women’s STEM employment on machinery). Therefore, closing the gap between infrastructure projects, project teams can work to women and men in professional roles requires mitigate potential difficulties. A holistic approach, larger but worthwhile investments. and long-term commitment is required in order to achieve impact. This may deter short-term Estimates gathered from interviews with key projects from focusing on increasing the share of experts and partners for this report suggest that women in technical positions in STEM employ- project teams should set aside an initial annual ment. It might also lead to focusing on more budget of roughly US$50,000–100,000 to cover immediate strategies, such as enacting an HR staff time and project costs, and if possible, to policy, rather than longer-term pipeline strate- enable teams to hire a gender expert to support gies. in-country engagements. Ideally, these invest- ments can be matched or complemented by While good practices from other countries can resources that have been set aside to ensure be used as a guide for project teams to take 24. In the United States, a day-long unconscious bias training for 50 people can cost US$2,000–6,000 (Lublin 2014). 25. The scope refers to the number of focus groups, survey respondents involved, as well as the size of the organization. 95 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Table 6  Indicative Time Allocation for Selected Activities Type of Activity In-Person Overall Time Frame Audits and Certifications 4–7 days for external audit; 2–3 EDGE Gender Certification days for inputting data in the 2–3 months (minimum) assessment 10 days; 3 days for workshops; ILO Participatory Gender Audit 3 months (estimated) 2–3 days for report UNDP Gender Equality Seal 3–4 days 1–2 months (estimated) Data Collection Tools and Assessments WEP Gender Gap Analysis Tool 2–3 days for inputting data 2–3 days Training 4–10 days in-person, or combi- Women’s Leadership Training nation of in-person and virtual, 4–12 months including coaching sessions 2–day operational workshop; World Bank Sexual Harass- 0.5 days for manager induction; 2–3 months; ongoing refresher ment Prevention and Response 1–day worker induction; sessions Training 1–day refresher once/monthly Note: EDGE = Economic Dividends for Gender Equality, GBV = Gender-Based Violence, ILO = International Labour Orga- nization, UN = United Nations, UNDP = United Nations Development Programme, and WEPs = Women’s Empowerment Principles. into consideration, gender norms can be very solution that can be applied across all country context-specific: therefore, the solutions for contexts. It should also be noted that many overcoming barriers for women need to be con- promising and innovative examples of initiatives text-specific as well. Examples from ministries in for women in STEM are actually originating high-income nations like Australia or Germany in low- and middle-income countries, and are may not be replicable in low- and middle-income providing a rich source of new ideas for clients countries, where the gender norms are more to draw on. restrictive, or where specific local dynamics, such as hiring freezes, are affecting employment. Different organizations have different levels of sophistication in terms of their HR analytics; this In other words, there is no one-size-fits-all may mean that some entities are unable to make 96 TAKING ACTION: THE PATH FORWARD use of sex-disaggregated data. For example, not to report for fear of retaliation. Reported some organizations may not have the sex-disag- abuses may not be taken seriously by man- gregated indicators that are needed to establish agement, even when well-established sexual a baseline for associated actions and targets, harassment policies and processes are in place. and may consequently not be able to use such When implementing workplace interventions on data in their overall decision making. Some sexual harassment, confidentiality and access to organizations do not periodically conduct salary quality survivor-centered care are of the utmost data analysis and performance reviews; this importance in order to ensure a safe and ethical makes it harder to get a full picture of inequal- response to the problem. Finally, HR department ities at the institutional level. Furthermore, HR heads and others charged with implementing and other relevant departments may lack the organizational change should understand the motivation, or may not be held accountable, for sensitivity of undertaking corporate action with reporting consistently on the relevant data, or survivors of violence. producing annual reports. Many workplace inclusion initiatives—for exam- Lack of senior management buy-in for women’s ple, the creation of new jobs, training programs, employment initiatives can have far-reaching adaptation of workplace facilities, and child- negative impacts, including hindering the formu- care—require upfront investments. This can lation and adoption of nondiscriminatory poli- unintentionally subvert the business case for cies. It can also lead to insufficient allocation of inclusion of women in the workforce, and reduce resources, persistent tolerance of gender bias in the project team’s ability to advocate success- the workplace, and reinforcement of the percep- fully for change. In addition, introducing new tion that infrastructure institutions are places for metrics and measurement systems designed to only men to work. hold management accountable for promoting diversity could require increased spending and The most promising institutional strategies, for additional expertise. example tuition reimbursement benefits, may be hard for some women to access given their Despite these challenges, it is clear that infra- unpaid care responsibilities. Initiatives that are structure organizations around the world are not fully aligned with corporate strategy, or man- starting to recognize the importance of creating agers that are not adequately trained to have a more equal workplace that enables women appropriate career development conversations and men at all levels to thrive. They are mak- with female employees are some of the other ing commitments to gender equality and taking challenges to implementation. And even well-in- specific actions to increase the share of women tentioned initiatives can go awry: for example, in STEM roles within their ranks. 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PROFESSIONAL NETWORKS FOR WOMEN IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS APPENDIX A. PROFESSIONAL NETWORKS FOR WOMEN IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS Geographic Membership Network Services Offered Focus Base ENERGY & EXTRACTIVES Association for Women Global • Mentorship 1000+ members Geoscientists (AWG) • Networking Council on Women in Global • Career development No data Energy & Environmental • Events and networking Leadership (Division of the Association of Ener- • Online learning materials gy Engineers) GeoWomen Canada • Events and networking No data • Programs focused on recruit- ment, retention, and recogni- tion • Scholarships Global Women’s Net- Global • Events and networking 1000+ members work for Energy Transi- • Mentoring and coaching tion (GWNET) • Resources, online trainings, webinars 121 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE International Women in Global • Events and networking 10,500+ members Mining (IWiM) • Global mentoring program • Resources that share industry best practices • Training and career develop- ment resources • Women on Boards webinar program POWERful Women United • Events and networking No data (PfW) Kingdom • Career development • Mentoring and coaching Society of Women Engi- Global • Awards 40,000+ members neers (SWE) • Events and networking • Learning resources • Outreach and advocacy activities • Scholarships • Training and professional development programs The Hawthorn Club Global • Events and networking No data Women’s Energy Net- United • Events and networking 6,724 members work (WEN) States, • Job board Mexico • Mentoring program Women in Cleantech and Global • Events and networking No data Sustainability (WCS) • Mentoring program • Job board Women in Geothermal Global • Advocacy 1500 members (WING) • Awards • Networking • Research on barriers to women’s advancement in the geothermal industry; monitor- ing of trends and outcomes. 122 APPENDIX A. PROFESSIONAL NETWORKS FOR WOMEN IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS Women in Nuclear Global • Awards 35,000 members Global (WiN Global) • Mentoring programs • Networking and special events Women in Power Global • Career advancement No data • Education and training pro- grams • Events and networking • Mentoring programs • Online resources and webi- nars Young Women in Ener- Global • Awards No data gy (YWE) • Events and networking • Mentoring TRANSPORT Women in Aviation Global • Career development 15,000 members International (WAI) resources • Educational outreach pro- grams • Events and networking • Legal advisory program • Mentoring • Scholarships Women in Transport Global • Awards 6,500 members International (WTI) • Events and networking • Entrepreneurship program • Job matching • Knowledge Lab and online resources • Leadership development program • Mentoring program • Professional development workshops • Scholarships 123 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Women in Logistics and Global • Awards 3,000+ members Transport (WiLAT) • Events and networking • Training and education pro- grams • Professional development programs • Job board • Mentoring programs Scholarships Women’s International Global • Events and networking 3,000 members Shipping & Trading • Diversity and inclusion Association (WISTA resources for companies International) • Scholarships • Training WATER Women for Water Part- Global • Advocacy 28 member organi- nership (WfWP) • Coaching and training zations • Knowledge exchange and learning platform • Regional workshops and peer- to-peer support • Programs to promote women in water governance Women in Water and Global • Events and networking No data Sanitation Network • Capacity development for professional women • Mentorship • Online resources and infor- mation • Seminars and workshops Women’s International Global • Awards 600 members Network of Utility Profes- • Events and networking sionals (WiNUP) • Mentoring • Scholarships and grants 124 APPENDIX A. PROFESSIONAL NETWORKS FOR WOMEN IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS Women Professionals in Global • Awards 10,000+ members Urban Water • Events and networking • Learning opportunities • Career development and industry-specific resources DIGITAL DEVELOPMENT Anita Borg Institute Global • Scholarships 15,000 members • Networking and events • Profiling role models • Policy engagement and advo- cacy • Professional development • Resources for organizations Girls in Tech Global • Bootcamps 60,000 members • Networking and events • Professional development • Mentorship National Center for United • Coordination of alliance Community of over Women & Information States groups of organizations 1,240 universi- Technology focused on women and girls ties, companies, in STEM in schools and in the non-profits, and workplace government orga- • Free research-based nizations resources • Education and corporate pro- grams that address a range of issues, including skills build- ing, scholarships, role models, professional development, and mentoring TechWomen Global • Mentorship and exchange pro- Over 700 women gram for women in STEM have participated since its launch in 2011 125 STEPPING UP WOMEN’S STEM CAREERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE Women In Technology Global • Networking and events 188,000+ regis- International • Career fairs and coaching tered users • Job boards • Partnerships with businesses to identify role models, indus- try-specific best practices, building women’s networks and support career develop- ment • Employee recruitment, training and retention services for businesses Women Who Code Global • Professional development 200,000 members resources • Job board • Scholarships • Awards • Networking and events ACROSS INFRASTRUCTURE Association of Women United • Events and networking 2,000+ members in Water, Energy and States • Mentoring program Environment IEEE Women in Engi- Global • Awards 22,000 members neering (WIE) • Events and networking • Career advancement support • Learning network • Mentorship • Online resources • Scholarships and travel grants International Network of Global • Advocacy 250,000+ mem- Women Engineers and • Career development bers Scientists (INWES) resources • Educational and research resources • Events and networking • Mentoring 126 APPENDIX A. PROFESSIONAL NETWORKS FOR WOMEN IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS The National Associa- Canada, • Awards No data tion of Women in Con- Australia, • Career resources struction (NAWIC) New Zealand, South Africa, • Events and networking United • Mentoring Kingdom • Training and leadership devel- opment Women in the Built Envi- United • Events and networking No data ronment (WiBE) Kingdom Women’s Infrastructure Australia, • Events and networking 3,000+ members Network (WIN) Canada, • Mentoring program United Kingdom, • Professional development United States program 127 Energy Sector Management Assistance Program The World Bank 1818 H Street, N. W. Washington, DC 20433 USA esmap.org | esmap@worldbank.org