LOST AT SEA: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) in collaboration with: © 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 2043 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpre- tations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Design: Sarah Jene Hollis, World Bank Group CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV ACRONYMS V GLOSSARY VII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY IX 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. SOLUTIONS ACROSS THE FISHING GEAR LIFE CYCLE 5 Design and Production Stage 8 Designing fishing gear to prevent ALDFG 8 Designing fishing gear to mitigate harmful effects of ALDFG 9 Designing fishing gear to aid in the remediation/retrieval of ALDFG 10 Usage Stage 11 Preventing ALDFG at the usage stage 11 Mitigating ALDFG at the usage stage 14 Remediating ALDFG at the usage stage 15 End-of-Life Stage 15 Preventing ALDFG at the EOL stage 18 Mitigating ALDFG at the EOL stage 18 Remediating ALDFG at the EOL stage 18 3. EXISTING INITIATIVES AND POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITIES 21 4. KEY CONSIDERATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ILBI 27 Key considerations 27 Harmonization 27 Collaboration 28 Regulatory measures 28 Standards development 28 Circularity 29 Financing 29 Implications of the international legally binding instrument in addressing ALDFG 30 FURTHER READING 32 REFERENCES 34 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Causes (in black) and drivers (in blue) of abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear 6 Figure 2. Pathway to ALDFG management solutions 7 Figure 3. Waste management hierarchy for EOL fishing gear 16 Figure 4. Timeline of global agreements, conventions, and resolutions related to marine plastic pollution and ALDFG 22 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Actions to prevent, mitigate, and remediate harmful effects of ALDFG at each stage of the fishing gear life cycle x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was led by a World Bank team, including Anjali Acharya, Joan Drinkwin, Catalina Asian, Milagros Aime, and Jiyoun Christina Chang. The team extends its gratitude to the following contributors: Axel Borchmann (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection of Germany), Gabriela Catharina Ylva Kossmann (Norweigian Agency for Development Cooperation), Amparo Perez Roda, Kelsey Richardson (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Janaka De Silva, Lynn Sorrentino (IUCN), Dr. Andrea Stolte, Emeline Pluchon, Stefania Campogianni, Nadia Balducci (World Wild Fund for Nature), Sebastian Mathew (International Collective in Support of Fishworkers), Felipe Victoria, Joel Baziuk, Ingrid Giskes, Hannah Pragnell-Raasch (Ocean Conservancy’s Global Ghost Gear Initiative), Henrique Pacini, David Vivas Eugui, Glen Wilson (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). The team is also grateful to Milen F. Dyoulgerov, Joseph Ese Akpokodje, Özgül Calicioglu, and Hanna Prag- nell-Raasch for providing valuable feedback. The report was carried out under the guidance of Valerie Hickey (Global Director), Christian Peter (Practice Manager), and Genevieve Connors (Practice Manager). Funding for this report was provided by PROBLUE, an umbrella multi-donor trust fund, administered by the World Bank that supports the sustainable and integrated development of marine and coastal resources in healthy oceans. iv Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) ACRONYMS ALDFG Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear BMUV Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection COBSEA Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia EOL End-of-Life EPR Extended Producer Responsibility FAD Fish aggregating device FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FCDO Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (UK) GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection GGGI Global Ghost Gear Initiative HDPE High-Density Polyethylene ICFA International Coalition of Fisheries Association ICSF International Collective in Support of Fishworkers IFQ Individual fishing quota IGO Intergovernmental organization ILBI International Legally Binding Instrument IMO International Maritime Organization INC Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee IPHC International Pacific Halibut Commission IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IUU Illegal, unreported and unregulated (fishing) KMFRI Kenyan Marine and Fisheries Research Institute LC/LP London Convention/Protocol LDC Less Developed Country MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships MEPC Marine Environment Protection Committee of IMO NGO Non-governmental organization NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation PA Polyamide PE Polyethylene PET Polyester Acronyms v PP Polypropylene PU Polyurethane RFID Radio frequency identification RFMO Regional Fishery Management Organization SIDS Small Island Developing States SMEP Sustainable Manufacturing and Environmental Pollution UN Trade and United Nations Trade and Development Development UNEA United Nations Environment Assembly UNEP United Nations Environment Programme VGMFG Voluntary Guidelines on the Marking Fishing Gear WWF World Wide Fund for Nature vi Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) GLOSSARY “Fishing gear” means ‘any physical device, part thereof, or combination of items that may be placed on or in the water or on the sea-bed with the intended purpose of capturing—or controlling for subsequent capture or harvesting—marine or freshwater organisms’ (IMO, 2019). “Abandoned fishing gear” means fishing gear over which the operator/owner has control and that could be retrieved by owner/operator but is deliberately left at sea due to force majeure or other unforeseen reasons (FAO, 2018a). “Lost fishing gear” means fishing gear over which the owner/operator has accidentally lost control and that cannot be located and/or retrieved by the owner/operator (FAO, 2018a). “Discarded fishing gear” means fishing gear released at sea without any attempt for further control or recovery by the owner/operator (FAO, 2018a). “End of life (EOL) fishing gear” means fishing gear (and its separate components) that can no longer fulfill their designated function or are at the end of their useful life (Stolte et al., 2019). “Retrieved or encountered ALDFG” means ALDFG that is removed from the marine environment either through targeted retrieval operations or is removed from the marine environment after it has been encountered incidentally during fishing operations (such as when a trawler pulls up a lost shellfish trap in a haul). “Biodegradable” means non-synthetic materials1 and/or bio-based alternatives that are consistent with international standards2 for materials that are biodegradable in marine environments. The components resulting from the degradation of these materials should not be damaging to the marine and coastal ecosystems or include heavy metals or plastics in their composition (IATTC, 2023; WCPFC-TCC, 2022). 1 For example, plant-based materials such as cotton, jute, manila hemp (abaca), bamboo, natural rubber, or animal-based such as leather, wool, lard. 2 International standards such as ASTM D6691. Glossary vii iStock/AndyworksLost viii Photo: At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Global policies and regional frameworks exist to prevent and reduce the occurrence of Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) within larger contexts of pollution prevention and fisheries waste management, but these are not always coordinated. There are significant gaps between authorities as well as approaches, resulting in a fragmented landscape that does not address ALDFG holistically across the full life cycle of plastic fishing gear. Rather, the usage life cycle is generally addressed through fisheries management and EOL fishing-gear management is generally addressed through waste management. The design and production stages of fishing gear are generally not addressed by those authorities focused on ALDFG, and approaches to innovative fishing-gear design and the production cycle remain uncoordinated. While alternatives to bioplastics and other alternatives to plastics in fishing gear are promising, the absence of global standards and comprehensive research on impacts and effectiveness stymies progress. Global efforts to tackle marine plastic pollution has surged since the UNEA-5/14 Resolution in 2022. An Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) was established to develop a potential International Legally Binding Instrument (ILBI) on plastic pollution. The first PROBLUE Global Engagement Forum, Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear, was held alongside the INC-2 in Paris in May 2023, in collaboration with: the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Trade and Development, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Ocean Conservancy, Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI), International Coalition of Fisheries Association (ICFA), and the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF). A subsequent event, Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear, was held in conjunction with the INC-3 in Nairobi in November 2023. The event included discussions on actions needed to address ALDFG throughout the life cycle of plastic fishing gear. This paper, a product of the Forum, summarizes actions that can be taken to manage ALDFG in the context of the three life-cycle stages of fishing gear: design and production, usage, and EOL. While it is helpful to discuss the various ALDFG management actions in terms of these life-cycle stages, it is equally important to view the problem with a wider lens, recognizing that actions at each stage interact and therefore must complement each other for management strategies to be effective. Governments can make significant progress reducing harmful effects of ALDFG by taking a holistic approach, recognizing that prevention, mitigation, and remediation at all life-cycle stages are required. Table 1 Summarizes various actions that can be taken to prevent, mitigate, and remediate ALDFG at each stage in the fishing gear life cycle. Executive Summary ix Table 1. Actions to prevent, mitigate, and remediate harmful effects of ALDFG at each stage of the fishing gear life cycle Design and Production Usage End-of-Life Prevention Design gear with higher Implement fisheries Provide feasible and visibility and with marking management measures to affordable waste and tracking capability to address ALDFG, including: management options for reduce loss. • gear restrictions, all EOL fishing gear and • catch limits, retrieved ALDFG. Design for recovery, • vessel traffic controls, reusability, and recyclability Create markets for EOL (identify polymers, minimize • spatial/temporal fishing gear and retrieve separation of fisheries mixed materials, eliminate ALDFG through circular and gear types toxic materials, ensure easy business models. • fishing gear marking and disassembly). identification. Reduce and eliminate • limited soak times. particularly harmful fishing Exercise best fishing gear designs. practices. Support education, awareness, and training. Provide appropriate disposal options for EOL fishing gear and retrieved ALDFG. Mitigation Use biodegradable/ Establish a reporting Provide feasible and compostable/ natural fiber process for lost gear. affordable waste materials in gear design management options for Use disabling mechanisms to reduce the impacts of biodegradable and natural to reduce ghost fishing and ghost fishing gear if lost. fiber fishing gear. reduce habitat damage. Eliminate the use of toxic materials (e.g., lead) including unnecessary and avoidable plastics. Remediation Ensure gear includes highly Mandate attempted Provide feasible, en- reflective components. recovery of lost fishing gear vironmentally sound, at the time of loss (when and affordable waste Design gear to include safe). management options for electronic and/or ownership retrieved ALDFG. identification tag to Retrieve encountered facilitate return of gears ALDFG and dispose of it after retrieved. appropriately. Conduct targeted projects to retrieve ALDFG. x Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Participants at both events noted key cross-cutting The ILBI could: considerations for plastic fishing/aquaculture gear to prevent, mitigate, and remediate ALDFG. These • Help improve coherence around ALDFG considerations can be integrated into the ILBI and management between the multiple sectors include: required to holistically address the issue by aligning and integrating international regulations • Harmonization of management and policy and policies at the national and regional levels, authorities to prevent, mitigate, and remediate and facilitating coordination and expansion of ALDFG. successful existing initiatives. • Collaboration between stakeholders across the • Advocate the use of safe and recyclable materials entire plastic fishing-gear life cycle—including in fishing gear through plastics reduction, policymakers, fishers, fisheries managers, research and use of alternative materials such as fishing-gear designers and manufacturers, port biodegradable/compostable and natural-fiber authorities and port-facility operators, and waste components, elimination of toxic components, managers and recyclers. and reduction and elimination of particularly harmful fishing gear designs and uses and • The importance of regulatory measures. non-recyclable components. • The need for standards development for the • Promote effective ALDFG prevention measures designs, materials, and components used such as appropriate fishing-gear marking, to construct fishing gear and associated traceability, and the reporting of lost fishing gear gear components, including standards for linked to national registries. Marking fishing gear biodegradability. for visibility and ownership at the usage stage is key to prevent loss. Marking gear for traceability • The promotion of a circular economy for plastic and to identify its components is also important fishing gear to facilitate greater reusability, for disposal and recycling of EOL fishing gear, repairability, recyclability, and disposal of plastic and can occur at the design and production stage fishing gear. or at the usage stage. • Financing solutions to facilitate adoption of • Utilize environmentally sound disposal options alternative fishing gears and waste management for EOL fishing gear and for retrieved ALDFG processes including financial needs of small-scale by strengthening provisions on environmentally fishers. sound waste management and port reception facilities. Fishing gear is often comprised partially or nearly entirely of plastic materials and when lost, abandoned, In short, by aligning and integrating the disparate or discarded into the marine environment causes ALDFG management approaches, the ILBI could harmful impacts that are disproportionate to those provide a more comprehensive and harmonized of other plastics entering the marine environment, global approach that addresses all phases of the either from land or sea (Wilcox et al., 2016). Therefore, plastic fishing-gear life cycle. This would include a holistic approach that covers the full life cycle of incorporation and complementarity of longer and plastic fishing gear is essential and requires specific well-established mechanisms and frameworks, and directives, both voluntary and mandatory, at the existing regulatory instruments such as MARPOL local, regional, national, and international levels to Annex V, with mechanisms still under development effectively prevent, mitigate, and remediate the and which are just beginning to show results, such occurrence of ALDFG and its associated adverse as EPR schemes. impacts. Executive Summary xi Photo: iStock/ Francesco Ricciardi 1 INTRODUCTION Capture fishing is a critical industry globally, providing food, nutrition, and employment to millions of people worldwide. In 2020, capture fisheries produced 78.8 million tons from marine waters. This production provides a significant source of protein for millions of people and, in some countries, is the major source of animal protein (FAO, 2022a). Unfortunately, even in the best managed fishery, unintentional fishing gear loss or abandonment resulting in ALDFG occurs due to multiple causes, such as, inter alia, severe weather, mechanical failure, or force majeure. ALDFG originates from all types of capture fishing—from small-scale artisanal fishing to large-scale industrial fishing—with an unknown but possibly significant amount originating from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing (GESAMP, 2021). This paper is a product from the first PROBLUE Global Engagement Forum, Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear, convened by the World Bank via the PROBLUE Trust Fund in May 2023, in collaboration with: the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Trade and Development, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Ocean Conservancy, Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI), International Coalition of Fisheries Association (ICFA), and the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF).3 The Forum concluded with an agreement to draft this paper to provide a resource for countries, negotiators, and observers to support the INC process in developing the ILBI. A subsequent event Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear, was held in conjunction with the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-3) in Nairobi, Kenya in November 2023. The event showcased the initial draft of this paper on ALDFG and many new works from key partners. The event also included a facilitated discussion amongst interested delegations on actions needed to address ALDFG across the full life cycle of plastic fishing gear, from production to use to EOL stages. The key considerations reported herein were reaffirmed by participants at the Lost At Sea event and at INC-3. This paper discusses ALDFG globally as a distinct form of marine plastic pollution and provides an overview of effective management approaches to prevent, mitigate, and remediate the impacts of ALDFG across the 3 These organizations represent the collaborating partners: World Bank, UNEP, FAO, UN Trade and Development, IUCN, WWF, Ocean Conservancy, GGGI, ICFA, and ICSF. Introduction 1 three stages of the fishing gear lifecycle: design and He et al., 2021), and are often composed of plastic production, usage, and EOL. Suggestions, insights, materials. FADs can be anchored to the seafloor or and key considerations identified during the Forum free-floating and are an important consideration to integrate various ALDFG management approaches when addressing ALDFG. into a cohesive framework across the plastic fishing gear life cycle are provided. Summaries of the causes The lack of firm estimates of the quantity of ALDFG and detrimental impacts of ALDFG and an overview entering or present in the ocean is a recognized data of the current governance structures, management gap (GESAMP, 2021), but the growth of capture fishing authorities, and multi-sector efforts in place to address worldwide (FAO, 2022a) suggests a commensurate the problem—including examples of effective ALDFG growth in the production of ALDFG. A UNEP management approaches are also discussed, along publication reported that ALDFG accounts for 70 with resources for further reading. percent by volume of all macroplastic marine litter in the five major ocean gyres (Eriksen et al., 2014; The FAO definition of ALDFG (FAO, 2018) is used UNEP, 2016a). Richardson et al. (2022) estimate that throughout the paper: 2 percent of all fishing gear used every year becomes ALDFG. They estimated that this includes 2,963 km2 • “Abandoned fishing gear” means fishing gear of gillnets, 75,049 km2 of purse seine nets, 218 km2 over which the operator/owner has control and of trawl nets, 739,583 km of longline mainlines, and that could be retrieved by owner/operator but is more than 25 million pots and traps. These numbers deliberately left at sea due to force majeure or play out at regional scales with annual estimates of other unforeseen reasons. 38,535 tons of fishing lost in South Korea, 10,000 gillnets lost in the Baltic Sea, and more than 12,000 • “Lost fishing gear” means fishing gear over which crab pots lost annually in the U.S. Salish Sea (Antonelis the owner/operator has accidentally lost control et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2014; Szulc et al., 2015). In the and that cannot be located and/or retrieved by Western and Central Pacific Ocean, estimates of the owner/operator. number of drifting FADs washing up (beaching) onto nearshore habitats, abandoned, every year ranges • “Discarded fishing gear” means fishing gear from 9,254 to 13,436 (Banks and Zaharia, 2020). released at sea without any attempt for further control or recovery by the owner/operator. When fishing gear is lost, abandoned, or discarded into the ocean it causes significant environmental Fishing gear is defined in Annex V of the International and economic harm, and has been characterized as Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships the most damaging category of marine plastic litter (MARPOL): (MPL) (Wilcox et al., 2016). ALDFG can catch and injure or kill target and non-target species through a process known as ghost fishing4 (Matsuoka, 2005; Fishing gear means any physical device or part NOAA, 2015); damage habitats (GESAMP, 2021; NOAA thereof or combination of items that may be MDP, 2016); and pose navigation risks (Hong et al., placed on or in the water or on the seabed with 2017). It can also cause economic losses to fisheries the intended purpose of capturing, or controlling and other marine-dependent industries across the for subsequent capture or harvesting, marine globe. The inadvertent catch of target species by or freshwater organisms. ALDFG can significantly impact the economics of a fishery, with up to 30 percent loss of harvest from This paper also discusses some auxiliary gear as ghost fishing documented in some fisheries (Antonelis defined in He et al. (2021). In particular, it includes fish aggregating devices (FADs), which are objects deployed in water to attract and aggregate fish to 4 Ghost fishing is the ability of fishing gear to continue to catch and ensnare target and non-target species after its abandon- improve catch efficiency of other fishing gear, such ment, loss, or discard, or when it is no longer under the control as purse seine or troll gear (NOAA Fisheries, 2022a; of the fisher. 2 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) The ILBI is an unprecedented opportunity to knit the disparate authorities and policies aimed at ALDFG into a cohesive framework, with all parts working together toward the common goal of reducing the harmful effects of this pervasive form of plastic pollution. et al., 2011; DelBene et al., 2019; Humborstad et al., A wide selection of plastic materials is used in different 2003). In the artisanal trammel net fishery in Cypress, types of fishing gear. The main types of plastics used costs from ALDFG make up 2 percent of fishers’ total are polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyamide fishing costs (Savels et al., 2022). In other fisheries (PA or nylon) and polyester (PET). Trawl gear in South Asia, the cost of gear that becomes ALDFG components can be made from PP and PE (netting can reach 54 percent of total gear value (World Bank, and rope) and high-density Polyethylene (HDPE). 2023). Other harmful effects of ALDFG are less well Floats commonly used are made from Polystyrene or documented and understood, including the transfer Polyurethane (PU) (OSPAR Commission, 2020). By of toxins, production of microplastics, and transport weight, fishing gear can be dominated by non-plastic of aquatic invasive species (Gilman et al., 2023). materials like rubber, wood, and steel (He et al., 2021), but it is the plastic components that cause While ALDFG originates from capture fishing as well the most damage (e.g., netting) and persist in the as aquaculture systems, its effects are also felt in other marine environment (GESAMP, 2016; Lusher et al., sectors, such as transportation and tourism. Because 2017; Montarsolo et al., 1990). Once plastic fishing ALDFG can be transported long distances by ocean gear becomes ALDFG, exposure to UV radiation, currents, ALDFG from one fishery can affect another waves, and other forces can cause fragmentation fishery in the same location or some distance away and degradation, producing much smaller pieces from its source fishery (Baske et al., 2019; Lebreton defined as secondary microplastics (1 µm to 5mm) et al., 2022, 2018; Manville, 1990; McCoy et al., 2022). (Cera et al., 2020) which are also a consideration in the ILBI negotiations. Because most fishing gear has significant plastic components, the negative impacts from ALDFG also Plastic fishing gear entering the environment and include less direct but longer-term impacts associated becoming ALDFG is a significant contributor to with other plastic pollution and microplastics including the growing mass of plastics entering the marine negative effects on biota, water quality, and even environment every year, warranting the consideration human health (Carbery et al., 2018; Cera et al., 2020; of dedicated provisions for its management in the GESAMP, 2016, 2015). The use of synthetic fibers ILBI. ALDFG is a multisectoral, trans-boundary, and (i.e., plastics) in fishing gear design began in the trans-jurisdictional problem. Therefore, solving this 1950s. When they were first introduced, synthetic problem will require a collaborative, cooperative, and fibers offered greater strength and durability than coordinated approach at multiple levels of government natural fiber ropes and they also decreased the overall and civil society. The ILBI is an unprecedented weight of fishing gear (Valdemarsen, 2001). These opportunity to knit the disparate authorities and stronger and more durable fibers also increased the policies aimed at ALDFG into a cohesive framework, catch efficiency of many gear types and have been with all parts working together toward the common a major factor in the evolution of fishing practices goal of reducing the harmful effects of this pervasive worldwide (Brandt, 1974; Valdemarsen, 2001). form of plastic pollution. Introduction 3 Lost 4iStock/ Placebo365 Photo: At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) 2 SOLUTIONS ACROSS THE FISHING GEAR LIFE CYCLE Like all plastic products, fishing gear has a life cycle that includes design and production, usage, and EOL stages. Solutions to ALDFG can occur at each of these stages. Measures to address ALDFG fall into three categories: prevention, mitigation, and remediation (GGGI, 2021a; Gilman et al., 2022; G. Macfadyen et al., 2009). • “Prevention” means preventing or avoiding the production of ALDFG or preventing the loss, abandonment, or discard of fishing gear into the ocean. • “Mitigation” means reducing the harm caused by ALDFG, usually through reducing its ability to ghostfish or to damage habitats. • “Remediation” means eliminating the harm caused by ALDFG by removing it from the ocean. Each type of measure is necessary in most fisheries with the general acceptance that prevention is favored, and often more cost effective, in reducing ALDFG debris and its impact (Macfadyen et al., 2009). Measures that prevent ALDFG are the first priority, followed by measures that reduce harm from plastic fishing gear that is abandoned, lost or discarded (e.g., biodegradable escape mechanisms for lost shellfish traps). Retrieval of ALDFG is also critical in many fisheries, especially where gear loss is high, where gear design precludes reduction in ghost fishing or adverse habitat impacts, and where ALDFG threatens navigational safety. Fishing gear will be unavoidably lost even in the best managed fisheries. Therefore, having systematic approaches to mitigate the harmful effects of ALDFG and retrieve/recover a significant proportion of lost ALDFG are important components of an effective ALDFG management program. Remediation efforts are of particular importance in areas that are disproportionately affected by accumulated ALDFG that is transported by ocean currents from distant fisheries, such as Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Less Developed Countries (LDCs). To identify appropriate measures to prevent, mitigate, or remediate ALDFG, it is important to identify the causes and drivers of ALDFG in the first place. The causes of ALDFG have been reported in many studies globally and are well understood. A review of 127 studies documenting causes of fishing gear loss, abandonment, and discard identified 20 causes falling loosely into the categories of environmental, operational, management, and other (MEPC, 2020). The FAO Global Survey on ALDFG identifies 16 causes of fishing gear loss, abandonment, or discard (FAO, 2022b). Gilman et al (2015) identifies 36 causes. These causes of Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 5 loss, such as bad weather, may result from pressures discard EOL fishing gear into the ocean (Matthews and drivers that influence a fisher’s behavior. For and Glazer, 2009; MEPC, 2020). As for all causes example, market forces, fisheries management, or of ALDFG, the degree to which illegal dumping is competition may motivate or drive a fisher to fish occurring should be assessed at the fishery level to during bad weather. While these causes are identified determine how big a problem it is. on a global scale, it is important to understand which applies in a specific location to identify effective Figure 1 provides a summary list of overarching causes prevention, mitigation, or remediation measures at of ALDFG and potential underlying drivers. Some of each stage of the fishing gear life cycle (Gilman et these causes can be addressed at the usage stage al., 2022; Richardson et al., 2018). of the fishing gear life cycle by effective fisheries management and responsible fishing practices, but Deliberate fishing gear discharge into the sea is more these alone are not sufficient to address ALDFG often associated with IUU fishing than legal fishing holistically. Abandonment, for example, can be operations (GESAMP, 2021; Huntington and Drinkwin, prevented in some cases by increased fisheries 2023) and is extremely difficult to quantify as a result. enforcement of regulations around fishing gear limits, The percentage of ALDFG that enters the ocean as etc. Prevention of lost gear can be accomplished at illegal discard is unknown on a global scale. Some the usage stage by, among other actions, avoiding studies suggest that for fishers operating legally, adverse conditions (though this is not always intentional discard is a smaller percentage of ALDFG possible). than fishing gear that is lost or abandoned (Daniel and Thomas, 2022; Matthews and Glazer, 2009; MEPC, Loss prevention can also be addressed at the design 2020; Richardson et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2003). and production stage, for example, by marking gear However, in some regions, discard during legal fishing for visibility and traceability. Appropriate management operations due to force majeure or abandonment at the EOL stage can help prevent discards due to from IUU fishing is a significant component of ALDFG lack of feasible and affordable waste disposal options. (Aceves-Bueno et al., 2023; Strietman, 2021). In some Remediation of ALDFG can also be facilitated at fisheries, fishers have confirmed that lack of affordable the EOL stage by providing disposal options for and convenient disposal facilities has driven them to retrieved ALDFG. Figure 1. Causes (in black) and drivers (in blue) of abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear DRIVER/MOTIVATION TYPE (definition from FAO VGMFG) IUU fishing Abandoned Enforcement pressure Fishing gear over which that operator still has control and that Illegal gear could be retrieved by operator, but that is deliberately left at Too much gear for time sea due to force majeure or other unforeseen reasons Operational pressure Too much gear for space Discarded Chosen over onshore disposal Fishing gear that is released at sea without any attempt for Economic pressure further control or recovery by the owner/operator Damaged gear Spatial pressure Gear conflict Lost Misplaced gear Fishing gear over which the owner/operator has accidentally Poor ground lost control and that cannot be located and/or retrieved by the Extreme weather owner/operator Source: Huntington and Drinkwin, 2023 6 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) The identification of appropriate ALDFG management Fisheries management is an important part of the measures should follow from an understanding of solution to addressing ALDFG. However, many fishing these underlying causes and drivers for production nations do not possess the necessary financial or of ALDFG in a fishery. Also important is a general personnel resources to implement and enforce robust understanding of the ecological, economic, and social fisheries management practices. Ergo, the ILBI could impacts from ALDFG to best scale the management provide a pathway for nations to strengthen and response. For example, the IUCN recently published support overarching policies affecting plastic fishing a thorough assessments of costs and cost savings gear management as well as measures in place at to fishers of various ALDFG management options in the fisheries management level. the Cypress trammel net fishery and in Samoa and Antigua and Barbuda (Raes, 2023; Savels et al., 2022). Figure 2 illustrates the pathway to implementing effective solutions. Figure 2. Pathway to ALDFG management solutions Identify Identify Solutions Advance Build Underlying Specific to Adoption of Execute Evidence Causes Causes Solutions Solutions Baseline studies, Fisher surveys, Risk assessment for Market drivers, Fisheries hotspot analyses, fisheries, gear marking, ecolabel management, reporting system, management gap fisheries certification, direct improved disposal field data, fisher analyses, port management, advocacy, options, reporting interviews, research, reception facilities reporting systems, awareness raising and retrieval, solutions evaluation assessment recovery programs, monitor and improvements to manage adaptively waste reception recycling systems Source: Ocean Conservancy et al., 2020 The ILBI could provide a pathway for nations to strengthen and support overarching policies affecting plastic fishing gear management as well as measures in place at the fisheries management level. Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 7 DESIGN AND PRODUCTION STAGE fishing gear can be designed to last longer and be more durable while reducing/eliminating the use of This stage of the fishing gear lifecycle includes unnecessary/avoidable plastic materials/components. the design, manufacture, and assembly of gear. Design and labeling standards could be established These different activities are often accomplished for fishing gear designers, manufacturers, and separately. Oftentimes fishing gear is constructed retailers to implement based on international best and/or assembled by fishers themselves, with different practices and on the latest technology available components obtained separately. Unique, site-specific promoting circularity and fostering greater reusability, designs are common. repairability, recyclability, and disposal of fishing and aquaculture gear. These standards could include the To effectively address ALDFG at the design and phasing out and/or reduced supply of, demand for, production stage of the fishing gear lifecycle, it and use of primary plastic polymers and the banning, is important to consider both the usage and EOL phasing out and/or reduced use of problematic and stages. Currently, fishing gear is manufactured and avoidable plastic products in fishing/aquaculture gear. assembled, for the most part, without adequate planning for its eventual disposal at EOL stage. Fishing To help avoid loss of fishing gear from vessel conflicts gear is designed with multiple components containing or conflicts with other fishers, fishing gear can be many different polymers and is often difficult to designed with higher visibility and with marking disassemble. Some fishing gear includes hazardous and tracking capabilities built into its components, substances, such lead weights, that further complicate including identification of gear ownership to the disposal and recycling, and cause harmful effects if vessel and/or fisher. the fishing gear is lost, abandoned, or discarded in the marine environment. To help avoid loss of gear during bad weather or when gear is left unattended, fishing gear can include There are approaches to the design and production of position tracking devices such as satellite buoys fishing gear, however, that can help to reduce harmful attached to drifting FADs, which can help fishers effects of ALDFG. Fishing gear can be designed to keep track of and monitor their gear. Fishing gear prevent, mitigate, and to remediate ALDFG. designs and construction that include ‘smart buoys’ or other position tracking devices are being tested in Designing fishing gear to several fisheries globally. The testing of on-demand prevent ALDFG gear designed to avoid whale entanglements in static gear, which includes position tracking capabilities, To increase reusability and recyclability, enable is also ongoing in the United States and Canada. gear repair, and avoid wear, damage and breakage, On-demand gear is designed to delay the deployment Photo: iStock/JordiRamisa 8 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) of vertical lines in the water until the fisher is ready to biodegradable materials as a solution to plastic fishing haul the fishing gear onto the vessel (NOAA Fisheries, gear pollution must be approached with caution. 2022). Tracking and traceability of fishing gear and its components can be built into the design and Fishing gear design, manufacture, and assembly production stage of fishing gear and integrated with can play an outsized role in mitigating harmful fisheries management and regulatory enforcement. effects of ALDFG. Fishing gear can be designed and constructed to minimize ghost fishing, for instance Other gear designs can reduce the likelihood of loss. through the inclusion of natural materials, such as When targeting demersal fish, gear can be designed wood and bamboo, and/or bio-based alternatives to fish just above the seafloor, reducing potential snag that are biodegradable in marine environments to hazards. Trawl nets can be designed with weak links the degree that the components resulting from on the chain that drags along the seabed in front the degradation are not damaging to the marine of the net (tickler chain) or down the center of the and coastal ecosystems (see Glossary definition of net so that if the net becomes snagged, the gear biodegradable) (Bilkovic et al., 2012; ISSF, 2019; will split and still be capable of hauling, rather than Winger et al., 2015). For example, many fisheries becoming completely snagged on the obstruction management authorities require trap fishing gear to (NOAA Fisheries, 2022b). Similarly, breakaway include an escape mechanism that is secured with biodegradable material (usually cotton twine) or in lead lines on gillnets allow the gear to separate if some other way is designed to allow the escape of it becomes snagged, rather than becoming fully captured animals if the trap is lost during fishing ensnared on an obstruction. (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2021; ODFW, 2022). The exact design of such an escape To avoid intentional discard of gear because of mechanism and the design of the traps to allow high costs of disposal or lack of suitable disposal maximum escapement can be improved through options, fishing gear can be designed for ease of fishery and gear specific research (Antonelis et al., disposal, including designing for recyclability by 2023; Flower et al., 2021). clearly identifying the plastic polymers and other materials comprising a gear and/or gear components Biodegradable materials can also be incorporated at the design stage, minimizing mixed materials and in other gear types to reduce ghost fishing, such designing for ease of deconstruction/disassembly. as into gillnets to deactivate the catch-capacity of the net panel following loss. Employing fishing gear Designing fishing gear to mitigate harmful that biodegrades in the marine environment after effects of ALDFG it becomes ALDFG is a promising new direction, especially for fisheries with high loss rates and low In recent years there have also been attempts to retrieval opportunities (e.g., deep water fisheries) promote solutions such as bio-based plastics or (Deroiné et al., 2019; Gilman, 2016; Legault et al., biodegradable fishing gear or components, but in 2023). But employment of any new gear components, the absence of global standards and comprehensive such as biodegradable nets or trap components, research on impacts and effectiveness, progress will require a collaborative approach for successful on circular design and alternative materials is adoption by fishers. This is especially true for new still fragmented. While there are some standards materials and designs that may result in reduced used to determine marine biodegradability (ASTM catch efficiency (Deroiné et al., 2019; Grimaldo et al., D6691), they reference laboratory-based tests. 2019; Kim et al., 2016). Challenges remain to ensure Currently, sea-based testing is limited and there the durability of biodegradable fishing gear during are not marketable biodegradable synthetic fishing and to ensure the complete biodegradation materials or bio-based plastics for use in fishing under varying ocean conditions (Araya-Schmidt and gear that biodegrade in a time scale to prevent Queirolo, 2019; Grimaldo et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2016; their environmental impacts while also retaining Murua et al., 2023). sufficient longevity for extended maritime use (such as with fishing gear). Therefore, the reference/use of Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 9 Ghost fishing can also be mitigated through reducing Designing fishing gear to aid in the the mesh size of entangling netting used in the drifting remediation/retrieval of ALDFG FADs or by eliminating netting altogether in favor of other appendages designs (ISSF, 2019; Moreno et al., To aid in the remediation/retrieval of ALDFG, fishing 2023). To mitigate persistent habitat damage from gear can also be constructed with electronic tags to ALDFG, fishing gear can also be designed without aid in electronic catch monitoring (Einarsson et al., using hazardous materials (e.g. lead in sink lines or 2023; FAO, 2018a, 2018b; P. He and Suuronen, 2018). copper coatings). These systems can also keep track of lost gear and log the position of deployed gear. Smart buoys, while designed to help fishers avoid losing their gear, can also aid in finding lost gear and retrieving it. Box 1. Testing alternative gillnet designs using biodegradable components Project lead: Catchgreen Region: Africa Fishery focus: Artisanal gillnet fisheries, seaweed farming Stakeholder Partners: Fishers, fisheries researchers, materials researchers and manufacturers, fishing gear designers The Catchgreen project is testing the feasibility of using natural fibers and a biodegradable compound, BiodolomerOcean, as alternatives to synthetic materials in the Kenyan artisanal multi-species gillnet fishery. The project is partnering with local fishers and the Kenyan Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) to test the effectiveness of these alternative gillnet designs. The first alternative was developed during a previous FAO-funded project and substitutes cotton twine for the usual synthetic twine used to hang multifilament nylon netting to the headline of the gillnet. This alternative design allows for the cotton to break down and the nets to collapse should the nets be lost, thus preventing ghost fishing. Catchgreen is building on this alternative design by also substituting the traditional HDPE head and lead lines with ropes made of BiodolomerOcean. By substituting the head and lead lines of the nets with BiodolomerOcean, which biodegrades after two years, the impact of lost nets is further reduced. The proposed benefits of this alternative design are reduction of ghost fishing if gillnets are lost, reduction of leaked toxins and microplastics into the marine environment, and reduction of harmful effects of stockpiled or discarded EOL fishing gear. Development of the BiodolmerOcean was accomplished through partnership with GAIA Biomaterials, and with support through the Sustainable Manufacturing and Environmental Pollution (SMEP) programme, established by the UK’s Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and implemented in partnership with UN Trade and Development. Photo: Mwawiwe Kombo, member of the Mikindani Beach Management Unit, Kenya, holding a modified gillnet. Catchgreen. 10 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Fishing gear designs can also include ownership a variety of outside factors that must be considered identification with tags or other means. This can for truly robust solutions to plastic fishing gear loss facilitate return of the gear if it is retrieved by someone prevention, mitigation, and remediation at this stage. else and can motivate fishers to try to retrieve their The ILBI could be an ideal instrument to advance own lost gear. In the Washington (USA) Dungeness solutions. crab fishery, tags with unique owner identification are required on every trap. If traps are later retrieved Preventing ALDFG at the usage stage during ALDFG retrieval activities, they can be returned to their original owner (Ayres, 2022). Management measures that serve to prevent the abandonment, loss or discard of fishing gear include To aid in locating ALDFG for retrieval operations, the following: fishing gear can be constructed with tags or other highly reflective components that are more ‘visible’ • Input controls such as prohibiting certain gear to sidescan sonar and other searching technologies types, limiting soak times, limiting the allowable regularly used to locate and remove ALDFG. number of vessels that can participate in a fishery, and limiting the size and number of gear types USAGE STAGE that can be used in a fishery can reduce ALDFG. Essentially, less gear in the water means fewer It is at the usage stage where fishing gear is deployed opportunities for gear to be lost. In addition, the in the ocean and can become ALDFG, so it is important sizes of certain gears (e.g., length and/or width to focus special attention here. Measures for the of gillnets and other gears) can be reduced to prevention, mitigation, and remediation of ALDFG avoid gear loss due to obstructions (e.g., benthic at this stage have been consistently identified in obstructions, snagging on a rock/reef). Imposing seminal documents, such as the GGGI’s Best Practice spatial and/or temporal restrictions can prevent Framework for the Management of Fishing Gear, the ALDFG caused by conflicts with vessel traffic and FAO Voluntary Guidelines on the Marking of Fishing conflicts with other gears operating in the same Gear and, most recently in the final report of the place. See the Usage Case Study highlighting the GESAMP Working Group 43, Sea-based Sources effectiveness of the Alaska Halibut and Sablefish of Marine Litter (FAO, 2018a; GESAMP, 2021; GGGI, IFQ catch share program. 2021a). In each, the marking of fishing gear and systematic reporting of lost fishing gear are identified • Output controls include harvest limits such as as critical components of a comprehensive approach total allowable catch, individual transferable to ALDFG management. quota, and catch share programs. These programs can translate to smaller fishing fleets Many other well-established methods for managing with longer, more flexible fishing seasons. Output fisheries also effectively minimize fishing gear loss, controls can reduce gear loss caused by gear abandonment, and discard. Input controls, for and vessel conflicts, poor weather conditions, instance, which include limits on the number of and setting of gear in risky or marginal locations gears employed or limits around fishing seasons, (GGGI, 2021a; Gilman et al., 2022). See the case may serve to reduce gear loss (e.g., by restricting study from the International Pacific Halibut the amount of gear used, thus preventing gear loss Commission. from gear conflicts). Output controls, such as catch shares, have also been shown to reduce gear loss (e.g., • Spatial/temporal separation of fisheries and by reducing competition, thus preventing fishing in gear type actions generally include restricting sub-optimal conditions where more frequent gear the timing and location of fishing through loss may occur). designating specific fishing seasons and fishing areas. Major causes of loss in many fisheries While fisheries management is a crucial element to include conflicts between types of fishing gear ALDFG management in the usage stage, there are and conflicts between gear and vessels operating Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 11 in the same location and/or at the same time of fishing areas. Other electronic marking devices, (Richardson et al., 2021; Maselko et al., 2013). such as reflective tags designed to be easily Spatial restrictions that can reduce fishing gear located underwater using sonar or echolocation, loss include separation of different fishing gear can prevent gear loss. types that could otherwise interfere with each other during operations (e.g., static/set pot • Best fishing practices such as gear tending, gear gear and active/towed trawl gear); exclusion of and vessel maintenance, and secure stowage fishing gear from navigation channels or other are basic measures to prevent ALDFG. Operator high-density vessel traffic areas; separation error, inexperience, gear and vessel malfunction, between commercial and recreational fishing and other avoidable problems are known to be activities; and exclusion of fishing activities causes of gear loss (GESAMP, 2021; GGGI, 2021a; from sensitive habitats and submerged features Richardson et al., 2022). Many of these problems (Gilman et al., 2022; GGGI, 2021). can be avoided by adopting general and/or fishery-specific best fishing practices. Fishers can • Vessel traffic controls are used to prevent practice continued maintenance of fishing gear to conflicts between fishing and vessel traffic. ensure it is operable under all possible conditions, They serve to reduce navigational hazards from without weak points such as abrasions on lines ALDFG and reduce loss of fishing gear due to or excessive corrosion on hardware that could vessels damaging or carrying away fishing gear. lead to breakage and loss. Similarly, regular Commercial fishing grounds also often overlap maintenance and upkeep of fishing vessels and with commercial shipping lanes, recreational equipment used to set and retrieve gear (e.g., fishing and boating activity, transport ferries, hydraulic systems) can reduce the possibility of cruise liners, tug and tow routes, and anchorages, failure during fishing operations that lead to gear in cases where multiple uses of such spaces loss. Regular or constant tending of static fishing occur. Voluntary and regulatory separations gear also reduces the likelihood of gear loss. If between fishing activities and concentrated areas fishers remain with or nearby their gear, they where other uses occur can reduce gear loss can monitor and address problems as they arise (Flower et al., 2020; University of Washington and reduce the occurrence of theft or vandalism, Sea Grant, 2022). which are causes of loss in some fisheries. Fishers can also ensure that fishing gear is properly • Fishing gear marking and identification — stowed and that there are containers available to especially for fixed gear such as sink or set put EOL fishing gear and cutoffs from gear repair. gillnets, pots and traps, and longlines—can increase visibility, reduce navigational risks, and • Education, awareness, and training is an avoid accidental loss of gear via vessel strikes or expansion of the best fishing practices manage- conflict with mobile fishing gear (e.g., trawl gear). ment strategy, covering everything from fishing In addition, gear marking rules that require owner crew training to boater education. Fishing crew identification can reduce intentional discarding training for operation of the vessel, fishing gear, of gear and increase fishers’ incentive to report and equipment can help prevent loss of fishing gear loss. Added technologies such as radio gear from operator error. Training of newer fishers frequency identification (RFID) tags embedded in can include sharing knowledge and experience buoys can electronically link video and positional related to the fishery and fishing grounds, such location with catch and effort data, and alert as nuances of how tidal cycles and water depths managers of theft, tampering, extended soak affect fishing operations in certain locations, and time, and possible gear loss or misplacement the location of snags or other hazardous areas (Pingguo He and Suuronen, 2018). Furthermore, to avoid. Building awareness about the effects of radio buoys configured with GPS systems provide ALDFG is also an important component of fisher fishers and regulators with real-time knowledge education. of gear locations and movement and can provide alerts of abnormal movements or movements out 12 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) • Appropriate disposal options for recovered worn EOL fishing gear may be left at sea when ALDFG and EOL fishing gear help prevent the there are no recycling/disposal options in port. intentional discard of fishing gear. Derelict fishing Intentional discards such as this can be reduced gear is often encountered and hauled onto by ensuring that port facilities have adequate fishing vessels during regular fishing operations, disposal options for large fishing gear accessible especially in bottom trawl and longline fisheries to the fishing fleet. Fishing gear-specific recycling (KIMO International, 2021). These encounters can and disposal bins placed in easily accessible damage fishing gear to various degrees, costing locations at port facilities can assist in reducing the recipients of the haul both time and money illegal discharge. in net repairs and lost fishing time. Old and Box 2. The effectiveness of catch share programs to reduce fishing gear loss Project lead: International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC) Region: Northeast Pacific Fishery focus: Commercial longline and trap fisheries Stakeholder Partners: Fisheries managers, fisher associations, fishers The implementation of catch shares in the halibut fishery reduced ALDFG. Logbook data from the IPHC from 1991 through 2019 shows a steep reduction in total halibut gear loss and loss ratio (loss per total haul) following the implementation of the Alaska Halibut and Sablefish Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQ) catch share program in 1995 (IPHC, 2022). The Pacific halibut and sablefish fisheries catch sharing programs were developed by the IPHC, Department of Fisheries and Oceans – Canada, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council, and the Pacific Fishery Management Council to address issues associated with extreme overcapitalization and the race-for-fish approach within open-access fisheries. The primary objectives for the programs included eliminating gear conflicts, reducing gear loss and associated ghost fishing, reducing discards, addressing safety concerns, and improving product quality. The Pacific halibut and sablefish commercial fisheries occur along the North American west coast, using primarily longlines, with some pot effort for sablefish. Vessels are typically less than 20 m in length and are subject to the inclement weather systems and harsh sea conditions of the eastern and north Pacific. Halibut are targeted in water depths from 50 to 275 m, while sablefish effort extends from 275 m out to 1,400 m. There are several management components of the catch share programs that vary between these regions, but in short, the programs allocate IFQs based on historical catch; holding fishers individually accountable for the harvest of their share, thus eliminating the need to race for fish. The Alaska IFQ program, which is the largest in the region, was implemented in 1995, and data from the IPHC from 1991 through 2019 show a steep reduction in total halibut gear loss and loss ratio following the implementation of this program; with annual loss rates less than 10 percent of what they were in 1994. Photo: Halibut longline fishing in Alaska. Alaska Longline Fishermen. Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 13 Mitigating ALDFG at the usage stage For example, the governments of Canada and Norway have mandatory gear loss reporting as Management measures that serve to mitigate the a condition of license in all commercial fisheries. harm caused by ALDFG include the following: • Disabling mechanisms allow wildlife to • Reporting processes for lost gear is an important escape from ALDFG and other biodegradable component of any well-managed fishery. gear options. Employing gear designs and Reporting mitigates the effects of ALDFG by mechanisms that will reduce ghost fishing and documenting gear loss, facilitating immediate reduce habitat damage can mitigate harm from retrieval of lost gear, and helping to alleviate ALDFG. Biodegradable escape mechanisms adverse effects on navigation. Reporting of lost are standard in many trap fisheries and have gear should be required as soon after loss as been shown to be very effective at reducing practical. This could be included in the catch ghost fishing (Antonelis et al., 2023; Kruse record recording, observer reports, or vessel and Kimker, 1993; Norris et al., 2012). Fishers logbook. If there are imminent harmful effects are responsible for ensuring that the escape to species and habitats or a danger to navigation mechanisms are operable when gear is deployed. safety, reporting should be immediate and tied Other biodegradable gear components options to a retrieval response (Drinkwin, 2022). The are possible, but collaboration and conversation reporting system should be tied to a national with fishers during testing and as management registry. Regular and accurate reporting of lost requirements are changed is critical to successful or abandoned fishing gear by fishers and vessels adoption of these techniques (DelBene et al., can build understanding of hotspot areas of 2021). The use of alternative materials in fishing loss and for the causes of loss, as well as inform gear, such as bioplastics, requires understanding unobserved mortality reduction strategies of the potential impacts of the materials if lost in and other fisheries management concerns. the marine environment. Photo: iStock/Khoa Nguyen 14 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Remediating ALDFG at the usage stage longliners in the case of the Hawai’i program) to collect any ALDFG encountered during fishing Management measures that remediate the harm and return it to port for disposal (Cho, 2009; caused by ALDFG include the following: KIMO International, 2021; NOAA Marine Debris Program, 2021). Having appropriate waste • Mandated attempted recovery of gear at the management facilities where retrieved ALDFG time of loss (when safe to do so) can be disposed of without additional costs are important components of these programs. In some cases, the immediate retrieval of fishing gear that is lost is possible. Fisheries authorities There are numerous programs where accumu- can require that retrieval equipment, such as lated ALDFG is retrieved after season closure grapnels, be kept on board and accessible during (sometimes years after the loss) by either fisheries fishing (Gilman et al., 2022; G. Macfadyen et management, control organizations, or by NGOs. al., 2009). It is common practice in the Pacific The VGMFG recommends identifying areas tuna purse seine fishery to abandon FADs in the most vulnerable to gear loss and prioritizing water rather than recover them (Gilman et al., retrieving ALDFG that present potential hazard 2018). Mandated retrieval of drifting FADs is an to navigation and harm to vulnerable species important requirement that can alleviate the harm and marine habitats (FAO, 2018a). Removal caused by abandoned drifting FADs globally. programs often rely on fisher reports to plan retrieval activities. Fisher-led retrieval programs • Retrieval of encountered ALDFG (including also operate in some fisheries. Ideally, ALDFG recovery out of season) retrieval programs are developed collaboratively with fishers, fisher organizations, and fisheries ALDFG retrieval is the only way to completely management and control organizations, the remediate the effects of ALDFG. Retrieval costs and benefits of the retrieval activities are includes recovery at time of loss (described linked to the fishery, and the ALDFG is disposed previously) and retrieval after loss has occurred. of responsibly, preferably reused or recycled If recovery by fishers at the time of loss is not (Drinkwin, 2022). possible, in-season retrieval of lost gear by fishers conducted with grapples and other tools END-OF-LIFE STAGE is the next most effective measure to remediate ALDFG. Fishery control officers can also be very There are two primary fishing gear waste streams: effective at removing fishing gear immediately retrieved ALDFG and EOL fishing gear that is no after a fishery closes via visual sweeps in heavily longer useful. Retrieved ALDFG is fishing gear concentrated fishing grounds. retrieved during targeted retrieval activities or encountered during active fishing. In this paper, EOL Retrieving marine litter, including ALDFG, during fishing gear is defined as fishing gear (and its separate active fishing is a widely accepted strategy to components) that can no longer fulfill their designated reduce harm from ALDFG. The logistics of various function or are at the end of their useful life, and, as programs like Fishing for Litter, Hawai’i Nets to a result, the owner intends or is required to discard Energy Program, and the South Korean buy-back or dispose of the gear. While most EOL fishing gear program all rely on fishers (generally trawlers, but does not become ALDFG, developing a system of While most EOL fishing gear does not become ALDFG, developing a system of safe, feasible, and affordable waste management options for EOL fishing gear is critical to support appropriate waste management in the fishing sector. Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 15 safe, feasible, and affordable waste management Retrieved ALDFG can also be disposed of in normal options for EOL fishing gear is critical to support waste management streams (e.g., general waste bins appropriate waste management in the fishing sector, at ports), collected for recycling, repurposed, or to prevent plastic waste from the fishing sector from stored indefinitely. It is also sometimes discharged entering the marine environment, and to provide back into the marine environment if the vessel that infrastructure so that retrieved ALDFG can also be encounters it does not have adequate space, facilities, managed effectively. or resources to store it. In many fisheries, it is illegal for one fishing vessel to carry another fishers’ gear EOL fishing gear can be disposed of in traditional onboard. This can create a disincentive to bring waste management streams (e.g., general waste ALDFG encountered during fishing operations into bins at ports), collected for recycling, repurposed, port for proper disposal (Bowling, 2016; Hodgson, stored indefinitely, or illegally discharged on land 2022; Ocean Outcomes, 2020). Marking gear to (e.g., illegal dumping sites) or into marine waters. identify ownership and adjusting management Discharge into the marine environment can be the regulations accordingly can help to avoid this situation result of either intended illegal actions or inadvertent in fisheries where such regulations exist. improper onboard storage, resulting in it being swept into the sea. EOL fishing gear that is considered The waste management hierarchy developed in the unusable for some fishers is sometimes resold to other 1970s (Ladsink’s ladder) is a helpful tool to visualize fishers for reuse or repurposing in other fisheries. As and articulate preferential waste treatments for EOL such, due to its compromised quality from damage fishing gear (Van Meel, 2023). Figure 3 illustrates and/or wear, reused or repurposed EOL fishing gear this ladder adapted for EOL fishing gear with the can be a concerning source of ALDFG. The reselling preferred treatment at the top and less preferred of EOL fishing gear can also facilitate IUU fishing in treatments below. some areas. Figure 3. Waste management hierarchy for EOL fishing gear Reduce Reuse Recycle Repurpose Dry Storage Landfill Incinerate/Waste to Energy Discharge on Dry Land Discharge into the Ocean 16 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) • Reduction, in this case, refers to the reduction • Dry storage refers to the practice of locally in waste generated or reduction in plastic waste stockpiling EOL fishing gear. This typically generated. This can be related to input controls occurs in ‘net lockers,’ yards, or on shorelines. and to gear designed to contain less plastic. It Improper dry storage of EOL fishing gear, like can also refer to increasing recycled material dry storage of usable fishing gear, can sometimes content. result in discharge into the ocean during storms or high tides. Dry storage can be preferable to • Reuse includes repair and sale of gear to other landfill disposal because it allows for the eventual fishers for use in other fisheries. Fishing gear is repurposing or recycling of the collected and not a single use item and is regularly reused many stored EOL fishing gear.5 times by fishers. Repair can sometimes generate ALDFG through, for example, the discard of net • Landfilling refers to the practice of disposing of cuttings and other pieces of repaired, unusable waste at designated terrestrial locations usually materials (Strietman, 2021) managed by local authorities. The environmental safeguards associated with landfill management Recycling includes mechanical recycling and chemical vary widely globally. or advanced recycling. Mechanical recycling is generally preferred over chemical recycling due to Incineration includes burning EOL fishing gear and overall lower resource requirements (e.g., financial retrieved ALDFG. While this is not the preferred costs and energy requirements) and wider global option, it is sometimes the only option available. access to mechanical recycling technologies. Incineration of EOL and retrieved ALDFG typically Mechanical recycling shreds plastic, then melts it takes place on small scales in many locations as down and creates plastic granules or pellets which the only convenient method to dispose of EOL can be used in plastic manufacturing processes fishing gear and retrieved ALDFG. Incineration is such as injection molding, roto-molding, and blow sometimes employed for fishing gears that are too molding to make new plastic products. Chemical or contaminated, such as with organic matter and advanced recycling is the process by which plastics sediments, to recycle mechanically and/or through are chemically transformed into their base elements other advanced technologies (e.g., chemical recycling). carbon and hydrogen and then built back up into new It is also employed when the gears cannot be separated plastics (ISO, 2013). The multi-material, including often into their constituent materials for recycling, such as multi-polymer, composition of many fishing gears for gears with mixed and incompatible polymers for is also an important consideration for disposal and recycling or highly entangled and damaged gears that recycling of EOL fishing gear and retrieved ALDFG are not possible to disassemble, clean, and separate for as is the presence of hazardous materials, such as recycling processes. Incineration can be employed on lead weights. Before recycling, fishing gears must an industrial scale to generate energy and electricity. be thoroughly cleaned (which can be an especially In these cases, incineration can be commonly referred rigorous process for highly fouled recovered ALDFG), to as “waste to energy” processes. taken apart and sorted by material types, including often homogeneous and/or complementary plastic Two additional disposal options that are not normally types, for recycling. If it is not possible to separate out presented in the traditional waste hierarchy model the various types of plastics (e.g., fibers of different have been added to Figure 3 (in dark blue): plastic types are braided together in a single line), this material cannot be mechanically recycled. • Discharge on land is an often-illegal strategy used when legal disposal is infeasible. This is different • Repurposing includes using EOL fishing gear and than dry storage where the storage of the fishing retrieved ALDFG for purposes other than fishing gear is legal. gear. Informal repurposing is common in many places, such as repurposing fishing nets for use 5 Net Your Problem has effectively recycled EOL fishing gear in agriculture. stockpiled for years at ports in Alaska, United States. Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 17 • Discharge at sea is also illegal (IMO, 2019) and Creating markets for EOL fishing gear and recovered is used by some fishers when legal disposal is ALDFG (for recycling or repurposing) through circular infeasible or to avoid the cost or inconvenience business models (Charter, 2023; OSPAR Commission, of legal disposal. 2020) assists in diverting this waste away from less favorable waste treatments in some fisheries. Preferential waste treatment is often site-specific. For This adds value to the gear at the end of life stage, example, in some locations, landfilling might be the creating incentives for proper gear management and only feasible option while in other areas (such as small potentially preventing fishing gear loss, abandonment, island nations where space and access to recycling and discard. This approach can include Extended infrastructure might be very limited) incineration, Producer Responsibility (EPR) programs and though not preferred, may be the only option. initiatives, which are being implemented in the European Union and explored in Canada (Charter The waste hierarchy can also be considered in the and Whitehead, 2023; MRAG Europe, 2020). context of a circular economy where waste becomes a resource and is a valuable component of the design There are several programs, including the National and production of new products, including fishing Fish and Wildlife Foundation’s Fishing for Energy gear. With the right policy framework and support, Program in the United States, Bureo NetPlus in the reuse, repurposing, and recycling of EOL fishing South America, and Fishing for Litter in Europe, gear and retrieved ALDFG fishing gear is well-suited that work collaboratively with fishers, ports, and for integration into the plastic circular economy. waste managers to provide disposal and recycling options (Drinkwin, 2022). See the EOL Case Study Preventing ALDFG at the EOL stage highlighting the effective program in place in Iceland. Providing environmentally sound waste management Mitigating ALDFG at the EOL stage options and port reception facilities for all fisheries is the most important measure to prevent ALDFG at the The mitigation of ALDFG can be accomplished EOL stage. The provision of feasible and affordable through use of alternative materials for fishing gear, disposal options for EOL fishing gear and retrieved including biodegradable components (both natural ALDFG will assist in managing this waste from the fibers and synthetic biodegradable materials) which fishing industry and remove a potential secondary links back to the design phase (and hence the need driver of the discard of fishing gear (GGGI, 2021a; for a coordinated, holistic approach). Mitigation at the Gilman et al., 2022). Providing favorable waste EOL stage can include providing adequate recycling management fee structures can promote appropriate and waste management solutions for these gear disposal. Indirect waste fees—where fishers pay a components using biodegradable materials. predetermined fee for port waste disposal that is included in the fees to use the port and do not pay Remediating ALDFG at the EOL stage additional fees when they deliver their waste—may be a favorable option in some locations (Brodbeck, Retrieving ALDFG from the marine environment is the 2016). only way to remediate the harm it causes. Retrieval of ALDFG through targeted removal projects and Providing affordable and convenient disposal options retrieval of ALDFG encountered during fishing can for recovered ALDFG can help ensure that retrieval be facilitated by providing convenient and low or programs flourish and that fishers who encounter no cost disposal options. Dedicated port reception ALDFG during fishing will bring it back to port for facilities for EOL fishing gear and recovered ALDFG disposal. Providing incentives to fishers to bring will further incentivize responsible disposal of these ALDFG to port, as in the Fishing for Litter Program gears at their EOL, including following recovery during and the South Korean ALDFG buy-back program, fishing operations. can promote proper disposal and recycling (Cho, 2009; King, 2019). 18 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Providing affordable and convenient disposal options for recovered ALDFG can help ensure that retrieval programs flourish and that fishers who encounter ALDFG during fishing will bring it back to port for disposal. Box 3. Moving toward a circular fishing gear life cycle in Iceland Project lead: Federation of Icelandic Fishing Vessel Owners (FIFVO) Region: Northeast Pacific Fishery focus: Multiple gear types including trawls Stakeholder Partners: Gear manufacturers, fisher associations, fishers, waste managers/recyclers In 2005, the FIFVO forged an agreement with the Waste Management Authority, committing the FIFVO to independently manage the recycling of synthetic materials from used fishing gear. As a result, fishing gear was exempt from a special fee imposed in 2006 on the entire industry to cover the cost of proper waste disposal. Under this agreement, the FIFVO negotiated with a third party to accept fishing gear, ensuring its proper recycling. Initially, fishers were asked to dismantle, clean, and pack the gear for transportation, receiving compensation for this extra effort upon delivery. If this initial processing was not done, individuals were required to pay. Over time, the process has evolved, and all significant types of fishing gear are now collected, and the gear manufacturers, rather than the fishers, are responsible for disassembling and packaging the fishing gear parts for shipment to relevant recycling facilities. Most fishing gear returned this way is directed towards recycling, but some material is disposed of in landfills. While some materials used in fishing gear still present challenges for recycling, fishing gear manufacturers in Iceland are directly addressing these challenges. Due to ongoing efforts, all materials used in fishing gear are expected to be recyclable within a few years. A noteworthy outcome of this program is that the largest Icelandic companies in fishing gear production are also adopting this method in neighboring countries where they operate. Photo: Multiple EOL fishing gear types prior to disassembly in Iceland. Haraldur Einarsson. Solutions Across the Fishing Gear Life Cycle 19 20 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Photo: iStock/Placebo365 3 EXISTING INITIATIVES AND POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITIES INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK Despite the global impact of ALDFG, there is currently no dedicated international instrument in place. Global policies and regional frameworks exist to prevent and reduce the occurrence of ALDFG operating within larger contexts of pollution prevention, fisheries, and waste management, but efforts are fragmented at best and they are predominantly voluntary. Additionally, existing governance structures are seldom coordinated and there are significant gaps in authorities and approaches. Figure 1 provides a timeline of global agreements, conventions, and resolutions related to marine plastic pollution and ALDFG, with some of the most relevant to ALDFG summarized below. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), first enacted in 1973, is the principal convention of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) against pollution at sea. MARPOL Annex V specifically prohibits the discharge of garbage (with some exceptions) including fishing gear and any plastics into the sea (Hodgson, 2022; IMO, 2019) and is currently the only legally binding measure to prevent the disposal of garbage from ships. MARPOL Annex V covers regulations for a garbage management program and outlines disposal procedures for ships at sea. Compliance is managed and enforced through Port State Control, garbage record books, garbage reception receipts, and audits and assessments conducted by Port State Controls. Governments are required to provide adequate port reception facilities to streamline disposal and make the disposal quick and affordable to encourage participation. The effectiveness of ships to comply with MARPOL’s safe disposal of wastes requirements depends largely upon the availability of adequate port reception facilities. The most significant advance in mandatory measures has been the announcement by the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) of IMO of a mandatory goal-based requirement for the marking of fishing gear under the revision of MARPOL Annex V. However, following this announcement, the provisions are yet to be defined and there remains uncertainty and ambiguity around it. The London Convention (The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter) and the 1996 London Protocol are also coordinated by IMO and prohibit the dumping of waste into the ocean, except for some wastes and only after a careful assessment of other disposal options and potential impacts. In 2016, the contracting parties to the convention adopted a recommendation to combat marine litter. Existing Initiatives and Potential Opportunities 21 Voluntary global frameworks are also in place to Other intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) have address ALDFG, in part. The FAO’s Code of Conduct mandates that influence fisheries management and, in for Responsible Fisheries is a voluntary instrument turn, ALDFG (Gilman, 2015; Hodgson, 2022). Regional that provides the international standards of behavior fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) play a for responsible practices with a view to ensuring major role in managing global marine fisheries and are the effective conservation, management, and of particular importance to transboundary ALDFG. development of living aquatic resources, with due respect for the ecosystem and biodiversity, including INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES development and application of technologies and methods to prevent and mitigate ALDFG (FAO, The harmful effects of ALDFG are now widely 1995). FAO’s more recent Voluntary Guidelines on recognized, with many different sectors taking action the Marking Fishing Gear (VGMFG) (FAO, 2018a) are to curb the threat. Advancing solutions to ALDFG on specifically designed to prevent and reduce ALDFG, a global scale has gained momentum with the efforts and to identify and recover lost fishing gear. Thus, of the FAO, UNEP, and the IMO through multilateral the VGMFG focuses not only on marking fishing forums as well in the IGO and NGO communities gear, but also includes sections on reporting and through the work of, inter alia, RFMOs, APEC, COBSEA recovery of ALDFG. and the GGGI, and WWF. Increasing research and publications are focused on the site-specific ALDFG causes, effects, and solutions (GGGI, 2023). Figure 4. Timeline of global agreements, conventions, and resolutions related to marine plastic pollution and ALDFG Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for UNEA Resolution the Prevention of 3/7 on Marine Pollution from Commonwealth Litter and Ships (MARPOL) Blue Charter Microplastics UN Sustainable Development Plastic Waste London UN Fish Stocks Goals (SDG14 - Amendments to the Convention Agreement Life Below Water) Basel Convention 1973 1982 1996 2014 2016 2018 2022 1972 1978 1995 2013 2015 2017 2019 International London UNEA Resolution UNEA Resolution Convention for Protocol 2/11 on Marine 5/14 to End the Prevention of Plastic Litter and Plastic Pollution: Pollution from Microplastics Towards an Ships (MARPOL) United Nations UNEA Resolution Stockholm international Convention on 1/6 on Marine Convention legally binding the Law of the Plastic Debris POPs related instrument Sea (UNCLOS) and Microplastics to plastics Source: World Bank. 2023. Tangled Seas: A Snapshot of Abandoned, Lost, or Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear in South Asia. © Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/40362 License: CC BY-NC 3.0 IGO. 22 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Photo: iStock/ Esther Fockenoy UNEP hosts the Global Partnership on Plastic The IMO is responsible for the safety and security of Pollution and Marine Litter, a voluntary partnership shipping and the prevention of marine pollution from for international agencies, governments, and private ships. The IMO is the lead organization with authority entities to coordinate action on marine debris. UNEP under MARPOL (IMO, 2019). Provision of port waste collaborated with the FAO to develop the seminal reception facilities is an important element of IMO’s report defining the problem of ALDFG in 2009 work and is recognized as critical to prevent illegal (Macfadyen et al., 2009), which set the foundation dumping of waste, including ALDFG, into the ocean. In for subsequent actions addressing ALDFG. UNEP 2021, the IMO adopted a Strategy to Address Marine also developed a toolkit for marine litter policy in Plastic Litter from Ships, which includes actions to 2016 which includes ALDFG (UNEP, 2016b). prevent and address the abandonment or discard of fishing gear (IMO, 2021). Currently the IMO is moving The FAO leads much of the work on ALDFG for the to implement its Marine Environment Protection United Nations. Since publishing their seminal report Committee (MEPC) decision to initiate goal-based in 2009 with UNEP (Macfadyen et al., 2009), they requirements for gear marking under MARPOL Annex have supported ongoing work to address the issue in 5 (IMO, 2021). fisheries worldwide. The FAO published the VGMFG to help prevent negative impacts from ALDFG in the In 2019, the FAO, IMO, and UNEP established the Joint world’s fisheries (FAO, 2018a). The FAO partnered Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine with the GGGI to hold regional workshops in Latin Environmental Protection (GESAMP) Working Group America, the Pacific, Africa, and Asia on best practices 43 to develop a report identifying extent, causes, to prevent and reduce ALDFG in global fisheries impacts, and recommended solutions to the global (FAO, 2020). FAO has since published guidelines problem of marine litter from sea-based sources, for developing gear marking risk assessments and including ALDFG. The final report consolidates most practical instructions on fishing gear marking to of what is known globally about the types, causes, identify gear ownership (He and Lansley, 2023), and and effects of ALDFG, and identifies global data a manual for the marking of fishing gear (Einarsson gaps (GESAMP, 2021). The Working Group 43 is now et al., 2023). FAO has also standardized the collection acting on new terms of references focused on two of global fisher survey data on ALDFG through work streams: the development and dissemination of an ALDFG Global Survey (FAO, 2022b), which has been used by • Work-stream 1 will support information partners to collect data from many different fisheries requests of the Scientific Groups of the London and countries including in Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Convention/Protocol (LC/LP) Parties that will Montserrat, Myanmar, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, help identify priorities for addressing LC/LP Seychelles, Thailand, the United States, and Trinidad waste streams, ship coatings, and abandoned and Tobago. vessels as sources of plastic in the ocean; and Existing Initiatives and Potential Opportunities 23 • Work-stream 2 will support information requests ALDFG, bringing together stakeholders across the of FAO to further understand ALDFG as a entire seafood supply chain including 23 governments source of plastic litter, with a particular focus on and over 140 members globally (including the fishing methodologies for remediation, monitoring and industry, private sector, academia, IGOs, and NGOs). reporting, and linkages with IUU fishing activities. GGGI has published Best Practices Frameworks for the Management of Fishing Gear in Capture Fisheries and The FAO and IMO also cooperated on the GloLitter for the Management of Aquaculture Gear, providing Partnerships Project, developing several knowledge management strategies to prevent, mitigate, and products as resources for participating countries (see remediate ALDFG directed at 10 different seafood Further Reading) and supporting the development of supply stakeholders, including fisheries managers national action plans to address sea-based sources (GGGI, 2021a, 2021b). Importantly, best practices are of marine plastic litter, including focus areas and not intended to prohibit fishing, but rather prevent, actions around ALDFG. In addition, IMO and FAO mitigate and remediate the occurrence of ALDFG. are collaboratively implementing a new Regional Litter (RegLitter) project. RegLitter is funded by Working with its members, GGGI supports the the Republic of Korea, and uses lessons learned implementation of appropriate solutions to from the global GloLitter Partnerships project to manage ALDFG locally, nationally, regionally and further develop and expand upon efforts to address globally. With 23 government members, it provides sea-based sources of marine plastic litter (SBMPL) technical guidance and expertise to support national with a focus in the Asia region. Participating countries management strategies, regional action plans and currently include India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, international policy interventions such as the ILBI, Thailand, Timor Leste and Vietnam.’ and also works closely alongside the FAO and IMO to help inform and advance governance structures COBSEA’s efforts to replicate good practices and for the effective management of ALDFG. develop tools to address plastic pollution from land and sea-based sources include pilots on integrated WWF works on international and national legislation plastic waste management in remote and island to improve fisheries management and prevent and communities in Malaysia and Indonesia. COBSEA reduce ALDFG. WWF also works with small-scale also developed an interactive toolbox on combating fishers from, inter alia, the Mediterranean, Asia, and ghost fishing gear, including case studies in the South America, to increase their awareness on the East Asian Seas region, videos, and guidance for harmful effects of ALDFG on the marine environment retrieval, management, and prevention of ALDFG, and strengthen their capacity to collect and dispose in all languages of the COBSEA region. The toolbox of their EOL fishing gear in an environmentally sound includes two good practice case studies: Net Free way. Furthermore, WWF works with researchers, Seas in Thailand, and SeaNet in Indonesia, a checklist port authorities, and fisheries managers to increase for ghost gear removal, and videos for removal, data collection on ALDFG, develop protocols for sorting, and management of ghost gear in English safe ALDFG retrieval and improve waste reception and languages of the COBSEA region. Links to this facilities. toolbox can be found in the Further Reading section. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES Many RFMOs are also implementing conservation measures addressing ALDFG, in particular issues The legal authority and tools, or framework, to around drifting FADs (Gilman, 2015; IATTC, 2023; address ALDFG exist at the national and regional level WCPFC-TCC, 2022). (Hodgson, 2022), but they are largely disparate and uncoordinated. Some authorities address ALDFG in NGOs also play a major role in amplifying the need the context of shipping and waste management (e.g., to manage ALDFG. The GGGI, housed under Ocean MARPOL Annex V) and some address ALDFG through Conservancy, is a global cross-sectoral alliance fisheries management (FAO, 2018a). Furthermore, dedicated to driving solutions to the problem of many IGOs with mandates to manage fisheries have 24 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) not adopted foundational measures to prevent the uncoordinated. While alternatives to bioplastics occurrence of ALDFG (Gilman, 2015). While some and other alternatives to plastics in fishing gear approaches to reduce ALDFG are well understood, are promising, the absence of global standards and knowledge and data gaps remain that require more comprehensive research on impacts and effectiveness research to solve this complex problem effectively. For stymies progress. example, there is a lack of information quantifying the effectiveness of management strategies to prevent, There is a need to strengthen collaboration and mitigate, and remediate ALDFG. The final report coordination for effective regional and international of the GESAMP Working Group 43 also identifies implementation. This can be achieved by promoting global data gaps including understanding popula- information exchange and fostering cooperation tion-scale effects of ALDFG (GESAMP, 2021). The among countries in the region, as well as leveraging current international framework does not address existing mechanisms such as Regional Seas the ALDFG problem holistically. Rather, the usage Programmes while avoiding duplication. The ILBI life cycle is generally addressed through fisheries could serve as an umbrella for providing international management and the EOL fishing gear management coordination to prevent, mitigate, and remediate is generally addressed through waste management. this distinct form of marine plastic pollution across The design and production stage of plastic fishing the whole life cycle of plastic fishing gear, as well as gear is generally not addressed by current authorities complement and synthesize existing initiatives and focused on ALDFG, and approaches to innovative fill existing gaps to address the problems related fishing gear design and production cycle are also to ALDFG. Photo: iStock/Ian Dyball Existing Initiatives and Potential Opportunities 25 26 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Photo: iStock/Placebo365 4 KEY CONSIDERATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ILBI KEY CONSIDERATIONS This paper summarizes actions that can be taken to manage ALDFG in the context of the three life cycle stages of fishing gear: design and production, usage, and EOL. While it is helpful to discuss the various ALDFG management actions in terms of these life cycle stages, it is equally important to view the problem with a wider lens, recognizing that actions at each stage interact and complement each other. Governments can make significant progress reducing harmful effects of ALDFG by taking a holistic approach to ALDFG management, recognizing that prevention, mitigation, and remediation at all life cycle stages of plastic fishing gear are needed for a comprehensive solution. The first PROBLUE Global Engagement Forum participants noted the following key considerations related to actions to prevent, mitigate, and remediate ALDFG. These considerations can be integrated into the ILBI as countries and negotiators pursue effective ALDFG management through the ILBI. Harmonization ALDFG requires a multi-sectoral approach for prevention and management, with a well-coordinated policy mix involving stakeholders across the entire plastic fishing gear life cycle, including all relevant authorities (fisheries, environment, shipping, ports, etc.). The management and policy authorities to prevent, mitigate, and remediate ALDFG at the usage and EOL fishing gear life cycle stages are currently fragmented between shipping, environment (including waste management), and fisheries authorities. Measures to coordinate and harmonize the different sectors should be identified and implemented through an ILBI. Where appropriate (e.g., for standards) harmonization can have a significant value. Key Considerations and Implications for ILBI 27 Collaboration Regulatory measures Multi-stakeholder engagement is critical. It will be Regulatory measures are critical to a well-managed important to address the problem of ALDFG in a fishery and, when enforced adequately, ensure that consultative and participatory manner, taking into fishers who follow the rules are rewarded while consideration the livelihood, employment, culture, fishers who engage in illegal activities are penalized. food security, and nutrition dimensions of small-scale Regulations can require gear loss avoidance measures fisheries and coastal communities. and reporting and retrieval of lost gear. Consistent enforcement of fishing regulations is often an effective Collaboration and engagement from multiple best practice to prevent ALDFG. stakeholders are critical in the usage stage. Fishers and vessel operators, fleet operators and fisheries However, regulatory measures regarding plastic organizations, fisheries managers and regulators, fishing gear and ALDFG must go beyond fisheries fisheries control agencies, and NGOs can all help to management solely. While fisheries management plays prevent, mitigate, and remediate ALDFG. Coordination an important component of effectively addressing and open communication is critical to ensure a fair ALDFG, international policies, such as the ILBI, are and just approach, which considers the needs of essential to help coordinate efforts globally in order small-scale fishers in the context of food security. to prevent, mitigate, and remediate the impacts of Improved communication and collaboration are this pervasive form of marine plastic pollution. needed between traditional knowledge systems and modern fisheries management approaches. At the usage stage, effective fisheries management strategies can help to prevent loss of fishing gear and The environmentally sound waste management of mitigate and remediate harmful impacts of ALDFG. fishing gear is especially important. While feasible While a suite of management options is available waste management solutions could be site-specific, to the fisheries management authorities, effective minimum requirements should be set for the enforcement and monitoring of any regulatory management of ALDFG, disposal facilities, and approach is critical. Reporting of lost or abandoned operations. While an ideal solution to EOL fishing gear is an important component of any fishery gear and recovered ALDFG management might management program and should be integrated include components of EPR programs, it is important into a national registry and include basic data such to recognize the varying capacity and resources as gear type, location, and fishery. available in different fishing sectors. Creating circular business models and value from EOL fishing gear Standards development and recovered ALDFG should be done collaboratively with the fishing stakeholders and designed at an Developing standards for designs, materials and appropriate scale (Charter and Whitehead, 2023). components used to construct fishing gear and associated gear components can help to reduce Designing for ease of EOL management must also the environmental impacts of ALDFG, increase be accomplished collaboratively with fishers and recovery, reusability, repairability, recyclability and adjust to the various conditions in which fishing disposal of plastic fishing gear. Such standards occurs (Charter, 2023; OSPAR Commission, 2020). and requirements will be most effective if they Challenges to effective EOL fishing gear management, are adopted globally given the global market including the creation of EPR schemes, include not for fishing gear and the transboundary nature only the use of mixed materials (some valuable and of ALDFG. The variety of fishing activities that some not valuable) as well as mixed polymers in occur worldwide and the sometimes location- a single gear component, but also the number of specific optimal construction and design of fishing actors involved in ‘producing’ fishing gear, including gear must be considered. the materials manufacturers, assemblers, retailers, and fishers themselves. 28 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) Designing with recyclability in mind, integrating the identification of materials comprising the gears, particularly polymer types, integrating potential traceability of components, eliminating hazardous materials, and coordinating with EOL management can facilitate movement toward a true circular economic model for fishing gear. Standards for biodegradability in the marine the fishing community to ensure feasibility and environment are needed as well. Challenges to acceptance. Additionally, waste managers must be address include the different conditions present for part of this circular solution, ensuring that fishing gear various fisheries, from deepwater ocean habitats disassembly occurs, and components are directed to estuaries. Likewise, the needs of small-scale to the most appropriate waste stream. fishers and their importance to food security must also be considered. Further research is essential Financing to understand the impacts and effectiveness of biodegradable materials as well as the progress on Financing solutions to facilitate the adoption of circular design and alternative materials. Standards alternative gears and new management approaches should be developed collaboratively with fishers and are needed. Fisheries subsidies are important tools manufacturers to ensure both their appropriateness that could be employed to assist in the testing and and their acceptance. acceptance of new fishing gear. Market drivers, such as third-party certification schemes, can also Circularity help to encourage and incentivize effective ALDFG solutions. Other options include gear deposit and Designing with recyclability in mind, integrating the refund schemes and lower taxes for less harmful identification of materials comprising the gears, materials. Financial protection to offset possible particularly polymer types, integrating potential fishing income losses from fishing gear modifications traceability of components, eliminating hazardous reducing catch efficiency, from extended closed materials, and coordinating with EOL management areas and seasons, and from the introduction of a can facilitate movement toward a true circular gear marking system may be required as well. economic model for fishing gear (Charter, 2023; FAO, 2018a). EOL disposal and recycling must be Financing new designs and new waste management considered during the design stage to ensure that processes requires investment in both the design and materials used to make gear components can be field testing. Incentives and other financial solutions to identified, disassembled, and recycled. At the same facilitate the cooperative testing of alternative gears time, EOL fishing gear waste reception programs by fishers in the field are also needed. Buyback of must recognize the need to disassemble some fishing old gear should be considered if alternative designs gear for recycling, ensuring that this extra step can are introduced or mandated. be accomplished so that gear can be recycled. Financing solutions to facilitate the appropriate To achieve circularity, it is important to work with all deconstruction/disassembly of fishing gear for the stakeholders along the plastic fishing gear supply recycling (including EOL fishing gear and recovered chain. To promote innovative design and production ALDFG) and to subsidize new management of fishing gear to prevent, mitigate, and remediate approaches are needed. The needs of small-scale ALDFG, it is critical to work with manufacturers and fishers should be considered, and new approaches exporters. Likewise, design considerations should should be phased to ensure a just transition for always include coordination and collaboration with small-scale fishers. Key Considerations and Implications for ILBI 29 A holistic approach that covers the full life cycle of plastic fishing gear is essential with specific directives, both voluntary and mandatory, at the local, regional, national, and international level to effectively prevent, mitigate, and remediate the occurrence of ALDFG and its associated adverse impacts. IMPLICATIONS OF THE stage to prevent fishing gear loss and can assist in INTERNATIONAL LEGALLY BINDING monitoring for IUU. Marking gear for traceability INSTRUMENT IN ADDRESSING ALDFG and to identify its components is also important to facilitate disposal and recycling of EOL fishing gear Fishing gear is often comprised partially or nearly and can occur at the design and production stage entirely of plastic materials and when lost, abandoned, or at the usage stage. or discarded into the marine environment causes harmful impacts that are disproportionate to those The ILBI could promote the environmentally of other plastics entering the marine environment, sound disposal of EOL fishing gear and retrieved either from land or sea (Wilcox et al., 2016). Therefore, ALDFG by strengthening provisions on environmen- a holistic approach that covers the full life cycle of tally sound waste management options and port plastic fishing gear is essential with specific directives, reception facilities. both voluntary and mandatory, at the local, regional, national, and international level to effectively prevent, By aligning and integrating the disparate ALDFG mitigate, and remediate the occurrence of ALDFG management approaches, the ILBI could provide a and its associated adverse impacts. more comprehensive and harmonized global approach that addresses all phases of the plastic fishing gear The ILBI could help improve coherence around ALDFG life cycle. This would include incorporation of longer management between the multiple sectors required and well-established mechanisms and frameworks to holistically address this issue (including the that complement existing regulatory instruments fisheries, shipping, and environment (including waste such as MARPOL Annex V, with mechanisms still management) sectors) by aligning and integrating under development and which are just beginning international regulations and policies at the national to show results, such as EPR schemes. and regional levels and facilitating coordination and expansion of successful existing initiatives. SIDS are particularly prone to ALDFG due to their heavy reliance on coastal and marine resources for The ILBI could promote the use of safe and recyclable both livelihoods and sustenance. Additionally, their materials in fishing gear through measures aimed at geographic isolation often results in them being dis- plastics reduction, use of alternative biodegradable proportionately affected by transboundary marine and natural fiber components, elimination of toxic pollution, including ALDFG from distant fisheries, components, and reduction and elimination of which accumulates on their shores. The ILBI has the particularly harmful fishing gear uses, designs, and potential to address these specific vulnerabilities non-recyclable components. through tailored strategies and international support. The ILBI could promote effective ALDFG prevention Combating ALDFG requires coordinated action measures such as appropriate fishing gear marking, across all stages of fishing gear life, from design traceability, and the reporting of lost fishing gear and production to end-of-life management. The tied to national registries. Marking fishing gear for complexity of ALDFG arises from multiple contributing visibility and ownership is a key action at the usage factors, including inadequate regulation, poor waste 30 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) management infrastructure, and insufficient alignment The development of this paper has highlighted among international efforts. By focusing on innovative several critical areas for further research and gear designs, stronger regulatory frameworks, and follow-up work. These include understanding promoting a circular economy, significant progress the socio-economic impact of ALDFG on fishing can be made in reducing the harmful impacts of communities and broader stakeholders, analyzing ALDFG on marine ecosystems. This holistic approach the roles of fisheries management, IUU fishing, and will be crucial for addressing both immediate and aquaculture in ALDFG, and assessing the impacts of long-term challenges related to marine plastic aquaculture gear. Additionally, the development of pollution and the sustainability of fisheries. global standards for biodegradable fishing gear and tailoring actions to address the unique challenges Effective change necessitates collective action faced by different countries and regions, particularly from governments, industries, and communities. SIDS and LDCs, are important. These efforts will be International and regional collaborations, such crucial in developing a comprehensive understanding as through the development of the ILBI and the and effective strategies to address the impact of harmonization of national policies, provides a ALDFG, ultimately contributing to healthier oceans. promising path forward. Additionally, enhanced awareness and education at the local level, particularly targeting fishing communities, can further ensure the adoption and maintenance of responsible practices. Key Considerations and Implications for ILBI 31 FURTHER READING The following are resources available to governments and other negotiating parties to inform implementation of the strategies and actions highlighted in this paper. Design and production of fishing gear Grimstad, S. M. F., Ottosen, L. M. O., & James, N. a. (Eds.). (2022). Marine Plastics: Innovative Solutions to Tackling Waste. Springer. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/75379 OSPAR Commission, 2020. OSPAR scoping study on best practices for the design and recycling of fishing gear as a means to reduce quantities of fishing gear found as marine litter in the North-East Atlantic. https://repository.oceanbestpractices.org/handle/11329/1399 Fishing Gear Usage Drinkwin, J. (2022). Reporting and retrieval of lost fishing gear: recommendations for developing effective programmes. Rome, FAO and IMO.; https://www.fao.org/3/cb8067en/cb8067en.pdf Einarsson, H., He, P., Lansley, J., 2023. Voluntary Guidelines  on  the  Marking of  Fishing  Gear – Manual for the marking of fishing gear. Suppl. 2. Rome. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc4251en FAO, 2018. Voluntary Guidelines for the Marking of Fishing Gear. Committee on Fisheries 33rd Session. Rome, Italy July 9-13 2018. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CA3546T/ He, P., Lansley, J., 2023. Voluntary Guidelines on the Marking of Fishing Gear – A framework for conducting a risk assessment for a system on the marking of fishing gear. Suppl 1. Rome. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc4084en End-of-Life Management Sala, A. & Richardson, K. 2023. Fishing gear recycling technologies and practices. Rome, FAO and IMO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc83173n Van Meel, G., 2023. GloLitter Knowledge Project: Guidance Document on Conducting Techno-Eco- nomic Feasibility Studies for the Establishment of Port Reception Facilities for Plastic Waste. https:// wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/PartnershipsProjects/Documents/GloLitter/Online%20 -%20GloLitter%20TEFS%20(ENG)%20-%20Guidance%20Document%20on%20Conducting%20 Techno-Economic%20Feasibility%20Studies%20for%20the%20Establishment%20of%20Port%20 Reception%20Facilities%20for%20Plastic%20Waste.pdf General examples of ALDFG management strategies GGGI. (2021). Best Practice Framework for the Management of Fishing Gear: June 2021 Update. Prepared by Huntington, T. of Poseidon Aquatic Resources Management Ltd. https://static1.squarespace.com/stat- ic/5b987b8689c172e29293593f/t/6377ce7641773258453cb834/1668796037597/GGGI+Best+Practice+- Framework+for+the+Management+of+Fishing+Gear+%28C-BPF%29+2021+Update+-+FINAL.pdf GGGI. (2021). Best Practice Framework for the Management of Aquaculture Gear. Prepared by Huntington, T. of Poseidon Aquatic Resources Management Ltd. for GGGI. 81 pp. plus appendices. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/650ded502411400532ea242f/t/651c970de6c- dee2c360d0759/1696372500735/GGGI_Best_Practice_Framework_for_the_Management_of_ Aquaculture_Gear.pdf 32 Lost At Sea: Combating Abandoned, Lost, and Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) GGGI. (2023). End Plastic Pollution: Towards an International Legally Binding Instrument the Impact of Fishing Gear as a Distinct Source of Marine Plastic Pollution. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/650ded502411400532ea242f/t/651c9d7019eb441272ab- 3f3b/1696374129325/GGGI_End_Plastic_Pollution_Towards_Legally_Binding_Instrument.pdf Giskes, I., Baziuk, J., Pragnell-Raasch, H., & Perez Roda, A. (2022). Report on good practices to prevent and reduce marine plastic litter from fishing activities. https://www.fao.org/3/cb8665en/cb8665en.pdf Ocean Conservancy, Global Ghost Gear Initiative, & WWF. (2020). 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Clean Nordic Oceans main report - a network to reduce marine litter and ghost fishing. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.6027/temanord2020-509 Tschernij, V., Press, M., Migdal, S., Stolte, A., & Lamp, J. (2019). The Baltic Sea Blueprint: A step-by-step roadmap on how to approach Derelict Fishing Gear. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58525fe86a4963931b99a5d1/t/5dd3e388c2a- f6160a093a55c/1574167495366/BSB.pdf World Bank. (2023). Tangled Seas: A Snapshot of Abandoned, Lost, or Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear in South Asia. www.worldbank.org https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6bde47ec-cbf4-4172-8f91-5edf9b- de9106/content Guidance documents Kleverlaan, E. (2023). GloLitter Knowledge Product: Guidance Document on the Country Status Assessment on Sea-Based Marine Plastic Litter. www.imo.org https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/PartnershipsProjects/Documents/GloLitter/ GUIDANCE%20DOCUMENT%20ON%20THE%20COUNTRY%20STATUS%20ASSESSMENT%20ON%20 SBMPL.pdf Kleverlaan, E. (2023). GloLitter Knowledge Project: Guidance Document on Developing a National Action Plan on Sea-Based Marine Plastic Litter. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/responsiblefishing/docs/Guidance_Document_on_ Developing_a_National_Action_Plan_on_Sea-Based_Marine_Plastic_Litter.pdf Further reading 33 REFERENCES Aceves-Bueno, E., Davids, L., Rodriguez-Valencia, J.A., Jaramil- Cera, A., Cesarini, G., Scalici, M., 2020. Microplastics in freshwater: lo-Legorreta, A.M., Nieto-Garcia, E., Cárdenas-Hinojosa, G., What is the news from the world? 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