WORLD BANK GENDER THEMATIC POLICY NOTES SERIES: EVIDENCE AND PRACTICE NOTE ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION: EXAMINING PROGRESS AND CONSTRAINTS RAJA BENTAOUET KATTAN, MYRA MURAD KHAN, AND MELISSA MERCHANT OVERVIEW Education is a human right for all children, yet many marginalized groups are disproportionally excluded from pursuing an education. Enrollment outcomes have increased for both girls and boys in recent decades, but learning remains a critical issue. Girls’ enrollment, attendance, and dropout rates are especially challenging in low-income countries and countries facing fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV). The sizable gender gap in female labor force participation after education also indicates that education and learning do not translate into labor market returns for women in the same way as they do for men. Schools play an important role in the fight for gender equality. Schools empower all students, serving as incubators where students can learn about their own potential and rights in the world around them. The education girls receive at schools plays a huge role in shaping their future. United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 commits to ensuring every child in the world receives a free, quality education. With the push to get every single girl in school, the potential for impact in creating gender equality through education is huge. The World Bank is the largest external financier of education worldwide. This note examines trends in girls’ education and spotlights interventions that support girls’ education. Key takeaways include the following: • It is simply not enough to get girls into school. Efforts must ensure they stay in school, learn well, and are able to translate their schooling into future gains. • Programs that focus on getting girls into school through scholarships, cash transfers, and stipends improve girls’ enrollment outcomes. • Interventions that address additional challenges that girls face while in school, such as improving conditions for menstrual health and hygiene and reducing gender-based violence (GBV), make girls feel safe and included in schools. • Teaching and learning-focused programs for girls, such as combating stereotypical gender norms in pedagogy, textbooks, and curriculum, help reduce gender-bias in schools and empower them to reach their full potential. • It is important to strengthen the role of schools for adolescent girls’ empowerment and for shifting mindsets and norms by engaging girls and boys on issues pertaining to gender equality including on GBV, Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR), and women’s economic participation. • There are wide regional disparities in enrollment and participation in technical and vocational education and skills training programs for young women, and in labor market participation. • Boys also face a myriad of challenges in their education, especially academic underachievement and dropout at the secondary education level which is related to a higher likelihood of entering the labor market early. • Women transitioning out of school and into labor markets face barriers related to cultural norms, values, safety, childcare, and gender roles. These keep women from fully realizing labor market gains and societies from achieving meaningful gender equality. OCTOBER 2023 TABLE OF CONTENTS BACKGROUND, TRENDS, AND BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION 1 EVIDENCE AND OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE 14 Intervention Area 1: Getting and Keeping Girls in School by Removing Barriers to School Access 16 Intervention Area 2: Creating Safe and Inclusive Schools 18 Intervention Area 3: Making Sure Girls are Learning Well by Improving the Quality of Education 21 Intervention Area 4: Supporting Girls and Young Women in the Transition to the Labor Market 22 CONCLUSIONS 27 REFERENCES 28 This thematic policy note is part of a series that provides an analytical foundation for the World Bank Gender Strategy (2024–30). This series seeks to give a broad overview of the latest research and findings on gender equality outcomes and summarizes key thematic issues, evidence on promising solutions, operational good practices, and key areas for future engagement on promoting gender equality and empowerment. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work are entirely those of the author(s). They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank or its Board of Directors. This paper was written by Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Myra Murad Khan and Melissa Merchant. The team thanks Halsey Rogers, Venkatesh Sundararaman, Laura McDonald, Tihtina Zenebe Gebre, and Laura Gregory for their peer-review comments. We thank Jaime Saavedra for overall direction and review. We also thank Shobhana Sosale, Laura Rawlings, Sundas Liaqat, Diana Jimena Arango, and Ariana Maria Del Mar Grossi for support and thoughtful suggestions. BACKGROUND, TRENDS AND BARRIERS TO GIRLS’ EDUCATION It is a human right for all girls and young women and adapt to a changing world, have voice and agency to to receive a quality education, and a strategic global make informed decisions about their own lives, and fully priority for the World Bank is to ensure this right is contribute to their communities and the world. fulfilled. Achieving gender equality is central to the World Bank’s twin goals of ending extreme poverty and Girls’ education is estimated to have large impacts on boosting shared prosperity. The World Bank ensures that their own individual outcomes, as well as larger impacts all of its education projects are gender-sensitive, and on their communities and countries. A landmark World works to support countries to overcome barriers that are Bank paper published in 1992 indicated that investments preventing girls and boys from equally benefiting from in girls’ education could give the highest return on countries’ investments in education. investment in many countries, given the social impacts of girls’ education (Summers 1992). Research has continued to The World Bank is the largest external financier of document the high returns that girls’ education provides, education globally, and the largest investor in girls’ with one additional year of schooling increasing women’s education. Bank programming on girls’ education goes returns to education by 12 percent (Patrinos 2019). A recent beyond getting girls into school. It is also about ensuring report by Plan International also showed a $2.80 return in that girls are able to learn and feel safe while in school, investment for every $1 invested in girls’ education (Plan have the opportunity to complete all levels of education, International 2020). Returns on education for women tend acquire knowledge and skills to enter the labor market, to be higher than for men. An additional year of school gain socio-emotional and life skills necessary to navigate increases men’s returns to education by 10 percent (see Figure 1).1 This trend is seen in all economies and countries, even in lower income countries.2 1 P  rivate returns to education for women are measured by the wage increase each additional year of schooling. More details on the full calculation in Montenegro and Patrinos, 2014 and a summary in Kattan et. al, 2021. 2 The gap in low-income countries is 9.2 vs. 8.4 for women and men, respectively (Patrinos and Psacharopoulos, 2020).  1 Data show that more education for women also has a range While these impacts on girls and women are individual, of impacts on other health, social, and economic outcomes. there are wider impacts on their households, communities, For example, more educational attainment for women is and countries, which in turn can promote poverty reduction, linked to improved health outcomes both for them and for economic growth, and productivity. A 2018 World Bank their children, as data from several studies show.3 Educated study estimated that limited educational opportunities for women tend to be more informed about nutrition and girls, and barriers to completing 12 years of education, cost health care, have fewer children, and marry at a later age, countries between $15 trillion and $30 trillion in lost lifetime and their children are usually healthier, should they choose productivity and earnings (Wodon et. al. 2018). to become mothers. There is an inverse correlation between the number of years of schooling women receive and the Education for girls is a cornerstone to reducing poverty number of children they have.4 Additional schooling for and improving global development outcomes. In recent women is associated with a 16 percent reduction in number decades, there has been steady and significant improvement of children, and a 26 percent reduction in child mortality in education outcomes, for girls and young women globally. (Kaffenberger and Pritchett 2021). These results also show a More girls are now in school than ever before. Girls are now greater impact when the difference between schooling and learning at similar levels, if not higher, than boys. Trends in learning is examined. When literacy and schooling are studied key outcome areas include the following. as a combined measure, child mortality drops even further, than if just examining the impact of a mother’s schooling 1. Enrollment and Completion Outcomes (Kaffenberger and Pritchett 2021). UNESCO estimates that if Gender parity has largely been reached with more girls all girls completed primary education, child marriage would now enrolled in school than ever before, especially at the drop by 14 percent and if all completed secondary education, primary level. The net primary school enrollment rate for it would drop by 64 percent (Psaki 2014). girls is 88 percent and 91 percent for boys (see Figure 2).5 3 D  ata from multiple studies, including more recent ones such as Nepal (Brauner-Otto et al. 2019), Uganda (Nankinga et al. 2019), Indonesia (Kunto & Bras 2018) all find similar impacts that education improves a myriad of outcomes for women in their own health and nutrition outcomes, as well as their families. 4 Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/womens-educational-attainment-vs-fertility 5  Most recent data available globally is from UNESCO UIS from 2018 at World Bank Open Data (Database), World Bank: https:/ /data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRR.FE and https:/ /data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR.MA 2 Primary school completion rates are also largely at parity The transition rates from primary education to lower between boys and girls (90 percent for boys, 89 percent secondary education are similar for boys and girls globally for girls). These averages, however, hide huge gaps in many (66 percent enrollment rate at the secondary school level for countries. The largest gaps that disadvantage girls are in both boys and girls),7 but the gap widens in lower-income low-income countries and countries in fragile, conflict, and countries. Lower secondary school completion rates for violent (FCV) settings, such as Chad (with 38 percent boys boys and girls are much lower in lower-income countries completing primary and only 29 percent girls), Afghanistan overall, and there are even sharper gender differences (67 percent boys completing and 40 percent girls), Mali (52 (see Figure 3). In these countries, 36 percent of girls and 44 percent boys and 44 percent girls), and Guinea (52 percent percent of boys complete secondary education.8 boys and 39 percent girls).6 6 UNESCO Indicators (Database). https:/  /www.education-inequalities.org/indicators/comp_prim_v2 , most data is from DHS 2018 surveys 7  orld Bank Open Data (Database), World Bank. Boys: https:/ W /data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.NENR.MA, and girls: https:/ /data. worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.ENRR.FE 8 Ibid. Girls: https:/  /data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.CMPT.LO.FE.ZS and Boys: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.CMPT.LO.MA.ZS 3 In many low and middle- income countries, proportions statistical modeling, there are 244 million children out of of girls in school decrease through higher levels of school at the primary and secondary education levels, with education. In Pakistan, for example, the out-of-school rate9 the problem concentrated in certain regions (Antoninis and for girls at the primary education level is 0.24, meaning Montoya 2022). UNESCO data also shows that 119 million roughly 76 out of 100 girls at the primary school age are in girls are estimated to be out of school worldwide, and the school. At the lower secondary education level, the out of majority of these are concentrated in two regions: Sub- school rate increases to 0.41, meaning that roughly 59 out Saharan Africa and Central and South Asia.10 of 100 lower-secondary school age girls are in school. At the upper secondary level of education, the out of school 2. Years of Schooling rate jumps to 0.65, meaning only 35 out of every 100 girls at The average number of completed years of schooling the upper secondary level of education are in school. These has increased for both boys and girls over the past few trends are commonly observed in many other countries, decades. A study by the World Bank’s Human Capital and are often more pronounced for female students. Project shows that most countries examined had higher Although enrollment rates have increased, the figures expected years of schooling in 2020 than 2010 (see Figure mask the enormity of the number of children out of school. 4) (World Bank 2020). According to the most recent UNESCO estimates from 9 O  ut of school rate is defined as the “proportion of children and young people in the official age range for the given level of education who are not enrolled in pre-primary, primary, secondary or higher levels of education.” (See UIS and GEM 2022) 10 UNESCO Visualizing Indicators of Education for the World (Database). https:/  /www.education-estimates.org/ 4 Another comprehensive analysis of schooling trends in 126 While girls have, on average, lower learning poverty rates countries showed that in 1960, adult women across the world by 4 percentage points compared to boys, the rates still had an average of 2.6 years of education, and by 2010, that remain very high for both groups. The average rate of number had nearly tripled to 7.7 years of education (Evans et. learning poverty in low and middle-income countries is 55 al 2019). The study also notes that in every region of the world, percent for girls and 59 percent for boys. This shows that women are still more likely to have no schooling than men. girls, like boys, are not being given a chance to learn the skills they need for life. Moreover, in the lowest-income 3. Learning Outcomes countries, there is virtually no gap. Learning poverty rates Schooling is not always focused on quality learning, and are as high as 93 percent for both boys and girls (World learning levels are still low in many countries. The World Bank et. al. 2021). Bank’s Learning Poverty indicator measures the share of The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), children who are not able to read and understand a simple conducted mainly in high and middle-income countries, text by age 10 (World Bank 2022b). Globally, as a result of shows similar trends. Learning levels are far below what the pandemic, learning poverty levels are estimated to children and youth need and below curricular standards, have risen as high as 70 percent in low and middle-income but girls do somewhat better than boys. In the 2018 PISA, countries (World Bank 2022a). In other words, 70 percent for example, girls outperformed boys in reading by almost of children aged 10 in low- and middle-income countries 30 points (or about one year’s worth of learning).11 The may not be able to read or understand a simple text. Even results from PISA for Development, however, show a less prior to the pandemic, this number was already as high as pronounced gap than in OECD countries, with the largest 57 percent, reflecting a global learning crisis. gap in Cambodia (17 score points) (Ward 2018). 11  ISA uses estimates from students currently enrolled in school only, unlike other estimates mentioned on learning, such as learning P poverty, which also includes out-of-school children. There could be potential for selection bias where girls that are in school perform better, as they have overcome several barriers already to enter school. However, PISA results are usually calculated from statistics in OECD countries, not low or lower-middle-income countries. (OECD 2020) 5 The case is different in mathematics and science, where The issue is not just access to tertiary education overall, the gaps are smaller. In the PISA math assessment, boys but also representation in specific fields of study that outperformed girls, only by 5 points, and in science, lead to higher-earning opportunities. Female students girls outperformed boys by 2 points (OECD 2020). The represent only 35 percent of all students enrolled in PISA for Development also showed a gender gap in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)- favor of boys in mathematics in most countries, and as related fields of study at the higher education level globally high as 20 score points in Ecuador and Honduras. In the (UNESCO 2017). A recent study by UNESCO that examined TIMSS 2019 assessment, fourth grade boys had higher women’s fields of study in 776 universities globally finds average achievement than girls in close to half of the a humanities bias, with women more likely to enroll in 58 participating countries, however, the difference was humanities degrees than in STEM subjects (UNESCO 2022). statistically significant in only 27 of these countries.12 Evidence also shows that women enrolled in STEM courses are more likely to switch out of their fields, and that the 4. Higher Education and TVET dropout rate in STEM-related tertiary education programs is higher for women than men (Delaney and Devereux 2021). Higher education trends by gender vary significantly by region. In East Asia and the Pacific and Europe and Central There are large gender disparities for enrollment in Asia regions, the gender parity index for gross tertiary technical and vocational education and training (TVET) enrollment favors women. In East Asia and the Pacific, programs. A recent World Bank report on TVET systems there are 1.14 women for each man enrolled, and in Europe highlights that out of 104 low and middle-income countries and Central Asia, 1.13. However, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the for which there is data, 87 percent had a higher share of ratio is 0.78,13 and in low-income countries, it is 0.76— men enrolled than women (Levin et. al. 2023). This trend meaning that far fewer women are benefiting from tertiary varies by region. Figure 5 shows that young women are education. The lowest ratios are in Chad and Afghanistan, less likely to enroll in TVET education, as opposed to other where gender ratios at the tertiary level are just 0.29 and forms of education. The disparity is most pronounced in 0.39, respectively. South Asia. 12 In 27 countries, the gaps were closed, and in four countries, girls scored higher. (Mullis et. al. 2020). 13 Gender parity index for gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education is the ratio of women to men enrolled at tertiary level in public  and private schools. World Bank Open Data (Database), World Bank. https:/ /data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.TERT.FM.ZS 6 For TVET programs, gender disparities in enrollment are also 5. Labor Market Outcomes more pronounced in certain fields of study. The report highlights While more schooling and learning should lead to that Nigeria had a 4 to 1 overall male-female enrollment ratio better labor markets outcomes, in reality, there are large in technical colleges, with particularly wide gender gaps in gender gaps in the labor market. The female labor force architecture, information and communications technology participation rate is only 53 percent. Moreover, this rate (ICT), accommodation or food services, and mechanics (World has dropped a few percentage points since 2000, pointing Bank 2015b). In Bangladesh, women made up 86 percent of to a reversal of previous progress.14 The rate for men is at the student body for formal short-term training courses in 80 percent.15 This large gap is even worse in regions with sewing but less than 10 percent in specializations like electricity, already significant education challenges. South Asia has welding, and auto mechanics (World Bank 2015a). This is likely one of the lowest female labor force participation rates at due to a combination of several socio-cultural factors, including 25 percent, and it has continued to trend negatively in the perceptions that can stem from a young age about girls’ learning last 20 years. The rate in Middle East and North Africa is 21 ability in certain subjects. These can persist through higher levels percent (see Figure 6). of education, even in many highly developed countries of the world, where there are perceptions about which career paths are available to and suitable for women. 14 World Bank Open Data (Database), World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.ACTI.FE.ZS, using 2019 ILO data 15 World Bank Open Data (Database), World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.ACTI.MA.ZS 7 There is still a myriad of barriers that girls, young women, and adult women face in society, contributing to the trend of low female labor force participation. These barriers—many heightened by the COVID-19 pandemic—hamper their empowerment, independence, ambition, and ability to participate in the transition from school into the labor market and to fully participate in many aspects of public life (see Box 1). BOX 1. THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION OUTCOMES The COVID-19 pandemic and related school closures have significantly impacted both boys and girls. Emerging evidence of COVID-19-driven learning losses across countries has not consistently shown large gender gaps. However, children from poorer and less educated households suffered greater learning losses, and in some settings, data show that girls lost more learning than boys. In addition, pressures on households may have increased the risk of early marriage and school dropout for adolescent girls. Some findings in the early evidence include the following: • Bigger learning losses for girls were found in studies in South Africa, Pakistan, and Mexico, while no differential impact was found in Ethiopia. A study of a small private school sample in Pakistan showed bigger losses for boys (World Bank et. al. 2021). A World Bank study examining seven countries showed that gender gaps in educational attainment and learning loss during school closures were small and not statistically significant (De Paz Nieves et. al. 2021). • Higher rates of dropout were found for grade 10 and 12 girls in Uganda, and for adolescent girls in Kenya (Kwauk et. al. 2021; Zulaika et. al. 2022). In Ghana, 60 percent of dropouts were girls. In Pakistan, however, a World Bank study finds that adolescent boys dropped out more than girls (World Bank 2022d). • In a recent report by the World Bank Human Development team on the human capital cost of the COVID-19 pandemic, change in enrollment rates was observed in countries with available data (Ethiopia and Pakistan), but no consistent patterns of dropout based on gender (Schady et. al. 2023). 8 Barriers to Girls’ Education they travel long distances to schools. This is more common in more rural and poor settings, where there may be more The constraints to schooling and learning that girls and primary schools closer by, but fewer secondary schools.16 young women face include cost and distance barriers, low Additionally, there may be information asymmetry about quality of education, lack of safety, and hindering norms returns to education for girls. Families may hold incorrect and perceptions. Some constraints affect boys and girls assumptions that returns to education are lower for girls, alike, and others affect one gender more than the other. which may limit girls’ education. Harmful social norms and For example, studies in some countries show that parents preconceptions about girls and women also directly affect with limited resources traditionally prefer to send boys their schooling, often limiting their participation in education. to school over girls. Even when governments institute policies and laws for free schooling, costs to education A lack of safe and inclusive schools for girls. In many 2.  remain. Evidence shows that boys from poor families are countries, women and girls face gender-based violence more likely to succeed in the education and labor markets (GBV), often in and around school (UNESCO 2016). Corporal than girls as they are more likely to be sent to school when punishment is still legal and common in many settings resources are sparse (Sperling et. al. 2016, chapter 4). around the world (Wodon et. al. 2022). School safety is often a key factor in parents’ decisions to send their girls to school. These barriers interact with one another to make it harder Parents may perceive schools (and even the journey to for girls to enter and stay in school. The World Bank school) as unsafe. A study of parents in Malawi found that classifies the barriers to girls’ education in the following there were negative perceptions about schools as an unsafe four areas (see Figure 7). environment for several reasons (Grant 2012). Despite their desire to send their children to school, their perception  arriers to enrolling girls in schools, including cost and 1.B of these risks reduced their motivation to encourage their distance. Households may lack resources to pay for schooling daughters to stay in school. Many schools around the world and associated costs (textbooks, uniforms, school supplies, are still not equipped with basic water, sanitation and health transport) and parents living in poverty may choose to send (WASH) facilities, which is an obstacle for adolescent girls and boys to school instead of girls. Sometimes, both schools their menstrual hygiene management (Sivakami et. al. 2019). and transport to school can be unsafe for girls, especially if Girls miss school due to their periods (Lusk-Stover et. al. 2016). 16 F  or example, in the province of Sindh in Pakistan, 90 percent of educational institutions are primary schools, 10 percent are secondary schools, and 1 percent are tertiary education institutes. This mean traveling farther distances as the levels of education get higher. More information at: http://www.sindheducation.gov.pk/pages.jsp?page=StatisticsProfile2016-2017 9 Low quality of education. Low schooling quality can also 3.  Limited opportunities for girls after education. Labor 4.  drive dropout and low school completion rates for girls.17 market trends after completing schooling do not favor Many studies show that parent perceptions of schooling women, who still enter the labor market with less formal quality are important in their decision to send their work and lower pay. Some do not enter the labor market children to school.18 There is also a lack of gender-sensitive at all. Culture, norms, stereotypes, and biases across teaching methods and materials, although this is changing. classrooms, the home, and workplace also influence gender Textbooks, other school materials, and even pedagogical gaps in STEM fields, which pay the highest.19 Additional practices that have gender biases can impede girls’ support is needed in the transition from education to the educational success, as they impact girls’ self-perception, labor market for many young women. empowerment, and ambition (UNESCO 2020a). Challenges that girls and young women face are 3 percent of girls in non-crisis countries. This worsens compounded in FCV contexts. Concerns about safety as girls age, with 52 percent of adolescent girls of upper and significant increases in GBV in these settings act as secondary school age in crisis-affected countries out of additional barriers to girls’ schooling. At the secondary school, compared with 46 percent of boys and 29 percent school level, girls are 2.5 times more likely to be out of of girls living in non-crisis contexts (UNICEF 2021). Out of school than boys in these settings (UNICEF 2017). the 40 countries with the lowest primary completion rate, 60 percent are in fragile and conflict-affected situations In 2019, approximately 20 percent of primary school- (FCV) (see Figure 8).20 age girls in crisis-affected countries were out of school, compared to 16 percent of primary school-age boys and 17  RISE paper found that for girls, a one standard deviation higher math score at age 8 is associated with a 49 percent reduction in the A odds of dropping out by age 12 (Kaffenberger et. al. 2021). 18  For example, from Tanzania (Zuilkowski et. al. 2018), Pakistan (Carneiro et. al. 2022), and Nepal (Joshi 2014) 19 Masterson, 2021 summarizes World Economic Forum data on which careers pay the highest 20  World Bank FY23 FCV Classification is available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/fragilityconflictviolence/brief/harmonized- list-of-fragile-situations 10 The effects of climate change also adversely impact engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Society, education outcomes and risk worsening inequalities family and peers, schools, and learners would have direct that girls and young women already face. Fostering influence and motivation for changing norms to encourage gender equity and equality is smart economics and girls and women to select STEM education and careers. can help countries tackle some of the toughest issues, including climate change and the green transition (Brixi By 2025, climate change could prevent an estimated 12.5 et. al. 2023). From a demand perspective, green jobs will million girls from completing their education (Malala play an important role in green transition to reduce and Fund 2021). Engaging girls and young women is also key limit energy and raw materials consumptions, greenhouse to sustainable climate action. Girls’ and young women’s gas (GHG) emissions, and waste and pollution, protect education and empowerment, in conjunction with and restore ecosystems, and enable adaptation to interventions like family planning, reproductive and sexual climate change. Girls and women can play pivotal roles in health and reduced child marriage, can aid the transition addressing climate change in different domains, including to low-carbon economies, help improve resource use, in their households, communities and in the labor and assist in lowering environmental damage and land market, both formal and informal. These contributions fragmentation, as well as increase resilience of economies can be accelerated by ensuring women have access to (World Bank 2022c). education and career opportunities in science, technology, 11 BOX 2. AN EMERGING CHALLENGE: BOYS’ EDUCATION A growing body of evidence highlights educational underachievement among boys and men.21 Boys face a unique set of challenges that prevent them from accessing their full potential through education. In outcomes of learning, school enrollment, and school completion, boys fare worse than girls in many countries (Saavedra et. al. 2022). In many countries fewer young men than young women complete their secondary and higher education degrees, even though there is gender parity in both enrollment and completion at the primary education level. A recent report published by the World Bank that examines boys and men’s educational underachievement suggests that the problem is rare among the lowest-income countries and more common among middle and high-income countries (Welmond and Gregory 2021). A similar pattern is seen in secondary school completion rates and tertiary enrollment and completion rates. Three main factors drive boys’ educational underachievement. Labor market incentives draw boys and men away from educational institutions. As boys approach secondary 1.  school age, there are fewer barriers for them to enter the labor market, and more incentives to do so to earn a wage. Boys who are already struggling in classrooms may join the labor market earlier. The opportunity cost also becomes greater. Social norms reinforce negative stereotypes about the importance of education for young men. For example, 2.  boys can face pressure to take on the role of household provider and earn income for their families. Much research on the effect of social norms has focused on the concept of hegemonic masculinity, which encompasses a set of social norms (e.g., emphasizing sexuality, physical strength, and social dominance) that can be at odds with those that are conducive to academic success. Among the theories on how family affects social norms, much has been written about fatherless households, which tend to hurt boys’ educational achievement more than girls’ educational performance. Characteristics of the education process. Many education systems around the world do not focus on meeting the 3.  specific needs of each student. They do not create an inclusive environment free of gender stereotyping, such as pressure to study certain topics, or follow certain career paths. Attention needs to be paid to those specific issues and contexts in educational settings that affect and can mitigate the underachievement of boys and men. Together, these factors contribute to the lost potential of boys within the educational system, which leads to lower levels of productivity that accumulate over time. The following table compiles data from the World Bank’s Human Capital Index (HCI)22 to demonstrate that, globally, if boys received the same learning- adjusted years of schooling as girls, maintained over 10 years, overall production would increase by nearly 14 percent (Welmond and Gregory 2021, p.3). 21  iterature and evidence on boys’ underachievement is emerging as is the World Bank operational response. This section and L recommendations are largely adapted from the new World Bank report (Welmond and Gregory 2021). 22 Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/human-capital 12 BOX 2. AN EMERGING CHALLENGE: BOYS’ EDUCATION cont. Change in HCI if boys’ underachievement is eradicated. HCI 2020 Alternative HCI* Increase Increase in total in annual production over productivity (%) 10 years (%) Middle East and North Africa 0.57 0.58 3.0 33.9 East Asia and Pacific 0.59 0.60 1.8 19.4 Europe and Central Asia 0.69 0.70 1.1 11.4 Latin America and Carribeean 0.56 0.56 1.3 13.9 North America 0.75 0.75 0.7 7.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 0.40 0.40 0.5 4.9 South Asia 0.48 0.48 0.4 3.7 World 0.56 0.57 1.3 13.9 Source: Calculations based on World Bank 2021 Note: *The alternative HCI is calculated based on the assumption that boys’ learning-adjusted years of schooling are raised to the level of girls’. Welmond and Gregory 2021 13 EVIDENCE AND OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE With such complex and interrelated barriers to education includes codes of conduct, teacher training, and channels for all children, the World Bank focuses on solutions for resolving sexual exploitation and abuse and harassment, that are multi-dimensional, localized, and priority areas among others. the provision of WASH facilities and to address. Several global and regional strategies guide menstrual hygiene management for adolescent girls is also the World Bank’s work on gender and, specifically, on a critical component. addressing gender inequities in education.23 For girls’ 3.  Improving the quality of education for both boys and education, context-specific solutions are applied to tackle girls. The WB is focused on eliminating learning poverty the barriers girls face throughout the lifecycle (see Figure 9). and promoting foundational learning (Herbert et. al. 2021). Bank projects target multiple areas to remove barriers that Country programs are investing in teacher professional girls face to accessing and completing an education. The development for gender-sensitive teaching practices and Bank’s four intervention areas mirror four types of barriers: pedagogy, working to eliminate gender biases in curriculum 1.  Removing barriers to getting girls into school. This includes and textbooks, and introducing extra-curricular activities, interventions focused on removing the cost and distance such as girls’ clubs. barriers, such as providing support for scholarships,  eveloping skills for life and labor market success. 4. D stipends, conditional cash transfers, transportation, and At higher levels of education, WB projects promote girls’ expanding school access through infrastructure. It also empowerment and teach a variety of life skills essential includes working with parents, schools, and communities for young women. A variety of skills development on interventions to reduce information gaps on returns on programs support young women through the schools-to- girls’ education, facilitate advocacy and communication jobs transition so they can join the labor market. These campaigns, and garner community support. projects include initiatives such as outreach programs 2.  Promoting safe and inclusive schools for girls. The WB has to girls enrolled in secondary school on post-secondary a number of interventions that focus on creating a safe and education and training opportunities, scholarships for them inclusive learning environment for girls, including increasing to continue their education and training, and mentorship security at schools and creating safer infrastructure and programs that encourage them in STEM fields, as well as in programs that aim to prevent violence, including GBV. This careers in both traditional and non-traditional sectors. 23 Including the WBG Gender Strategy FY16-23, SAR Regional Gender Action Plan, West and Central Africa Education Strategy, and more. 14 Evidence is strong on the negative impacts of the barriers To follow is an examination of the four broad support areas, and biases that girls and young women face in education, across 11 specific types of interventions, and activities for but it is more limited on the impact of interventions. In girls’ education that are common in the World Bank’s many areas where a broad base of evidence is lacking, the education project portfolio, together with evidence on World Bank supports research through impact evaluations, program effectiveness. household surveys, and other methods to determine what is most impactful and to improve project design. Table 1 rates the evidence available on the direct impact of an intervention addressing a barrier, not the level of importance of that particular barrier. TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE ON INTERVENTION EFFECTIVENESS Broad Area of Specific Invention Evidence of Intervention Impact Rating Barriers to Access Improve transportation and reduce time to reach school 1.  A 2. Scholarships and Cash Transfers A dvocacy Campaigns and Changing Social Norms 3. A C Safe Schools Creating Safer and More Inclusive Schools for Girls 4.  C Ending GBV and Sexual Assault and Harassment 5.  B Menstrual Health and Hygiene 6.  B Improving Learning Teacher Professional Development and Training on Gender Norms 7.  C 8. Gender-Sensitive Curriculum and Textbooks C 9. Girls’ Clubs B Transitioning from Skills Development Programs and Assisting in the Transition from 10.  B School to Jobs School to the Labor Market Increasing Participation in STEM-Focused Fields 11.  B Rating System: A. “Strong Evidence” indicates that there is more than one causal impact study demonstrating the effectiveness of the approach across contexts. B. “Evidence is beginning to emerge” refers to an approach for which there are few pieces of causal evidence OR a strong body of descriptive evidence. C. “Few studies in this area” indicates that there is little causal evidence which determines the impact of the intervention. 15 Intervention Area 1: Getting and Keeping providing bicycles to girls in rural areas (approximately Girls in School by Removing Barriers to 37,000 girls in 100 schools) reduced their commute time by at least one hour per day, reduced their absenteeism by 28 School Access percent and their likelihood of dropping out by 19 percent, 1. School Distance and Transport and also increased their test scores (IPA and WBR 2022). Long distances to school discourage school enrollment and Another study of an intervention that provided bicycles to attendance. Interventions that focus on reducing distance schoolgirls in Bihar, India found that it increased secondary between students and the schools they attend include school enrollment by 32 percent, and also showed an those that build new schools so students travel a shorter increase in the number of girls who appeared for the high distance and those that provide transportation for girls. The stakes exam and passed it (Muralidharan and Prakash 2017). farther girls have to travel to school, the greater their (and Some examples of World Bank operations working to their families’) concern for their safety (Sperling et. al. 2016). remove distance barriers include the following: Figure 10 shows data from India and Mali indicating that, for both boys and girls, the distance to school is negatively • Among a series of interventions designed to improve girls’ associated with schooling. education outcomes, the World Bank Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan) Human Capital Investment Project is building new Research shows that reducing the distances that girls schools so girls can travel shorter distances to school. have to travel to and from school dramatically increases • The World Bank’s Sahel Women’s Empowerment and the probability that they attend school.24 Providing Demographic Dividend (SWEDD) project provides bicycles to transportation to and from school also has an impact. For girls in schools in Mali, which has helped overcome distance example a randomized control trial in Zambia found that barriers, increasing attendance and reducing dropout for many girls (World Bank 2018). 24 Historical data from Afghanistan, Egypt, Indonesia, summarized in Sperling et. al. 2016, p 140. 16 • Our Girls Empowerment and Learning for All Project in Angola is girls’ enrollment rates by 10 percent (Alam et. al. 2011). A improving safe transport for girls, by providing stipends to families randomized control trial in Burkina Faso found conditional that can be used toward bicycles (Murthi and Carret 2021). cash transfers increased enrollment of marginalized girls • The Education Quality Reform in Afghanistan (EQRA) project by over 20 percent (Akresh et. al. 2013). There are numerous provided grants for female students and teachers who live beyond other examples of large gains due to cash transfers and a certain distance from school, to improve access to school. scholarships (Sperling et. al. 2016). 2. Scholarships and Cash Transfers A total of 30 WB education projects provide scholarships or cash Removing cost barriers is one of the most important transfers to promote girls’ schooling. Some examples include: interventions for increasing access to education for all students. There is a significant amount of evidence that • Stipends are offered to girls through projects in Burkina Faso, conditional cash transfers, unconditional cash transfers, Kenya, Bangladesh, and more. and scholarships have a large impact on school enrollment • The Adolescent Girls Initiative for Learning and Empowerment and attendance. Providing free school is an important first Project in Nigeria will provide scholarships to 500,000 girls from step and 99 countries around the world legally guarantee the poorest backgrounds for their retention in secondary school. 12 free years of schooling (UNESCO 2020b). Still, parents • The Girls Empowerment and Learning for All Project in Angola face a wide range of direct and indirect costs, as well as is providing scholarships to 900,000 youth, with a school opportunity costs, for sending girls to school. Scholarships registration bonus for girls. and cash transfers seek to offset these costs, including opportunity costs at times. 3. Advocacy Campaigns and Changing Social Norms Interventions can share information on the benefits A large body of evidence shows that scholarships and cash of girls’ education and combat harmful social norms transfers can significantly increase access to school for and preconceptions by targeting parents, community girls. In Cambodia, a cash transfer program increased girls’ leaders, and the media, such as TV, radio, and newspapers. school attendance by approximately 25 percentage points A randomized control trial in Zimbabwe showed that (Filmer and Schady 2011). Successful stipend programs an information campaign on girls’ education and rights include Oportunidades in Mexico, which increased primary improved school enrollment (Cotton et. al. 2020). school completion by 15 percent (Creighton and Park 2010); BRAC in Bangladesh, which increased enrollment by 55- The following World Bank project examples include work 60 percent (Schurmann 2009); and the Punjab Female with parents and communities to promote positive messages School Stipend Program in Pakistan, which increased about girls’ participation in education systems at all levels: 17 • The Improving Early Childhood Development Outcomes in to 10 times more violence that those without disabilities Rural Morocco project provides parent education sessions that (UNFPA 2018). Discrimination can start early, and result in focus on positive parenting and promotion of girls’ enrollment girls being excluded from reproductive and sexual health in and attendance at preschool. education (Koistinen et. al. 2019). • Projects in Angola and Nigeria worked with parents and community leaders through a series of activities focused on information Creating inclusive schools is imperative to ensuring that all sharing and increasing adolescent girls’ enrollment in school. feel safe and welcomed. School safety can refer to a variety of interventions related to increasing security at schools and • In Kenya, the Secondary Education Quality Improvement Project creating better infrastructure for schools. Ultimately, these conducted a targeted advocacy and social support program that involved mobilization of parents and community leaders interventions aim to have an impact on girls’ enrollment, for school enrollment. A similar program was delivered via radio attendance, and retention through the education cycle. broadcast through a project in Burkina Faso (World Bank 2021a). The Burkinabe Response to Improve Girls’ Chances to • After the COVID-19 school closures and in response to an Succeed (BRIGHT) school program in Burkina Faso focused anticipated reduction in girls’ enrollment and increases its efforts on designing girl-friendly schools. Through a variety in harmful practices, World Bank projects in Chad, Sudan, Bangladesh, Benin, Ethiopia, and Uganda all ran advocacy of infrastructure improvements and incentives these schools were able to show increases in enrollment of up to 13 percent. campaigns for girls’ re-enrollment in schools (World Bank 2023b). Improvements in test scores were also observed. (Kazianga et. al. 2013). In Uganda, results from a randomized control Intervention Area 2: Creating Safe and trial show that after a Good Schools toolkit was distributed, Inclusive Schools there was a 42 percent reduction in physical violence to 4. Safer and More Inclusive Schools primary school students (Knight et. al. 2018). Other examples Violence in and around schools has negative impacts on of World Bank projects focused on making schools safer and education outcomes for all children (Wodon et. al. 2021). more inclusive for girls include the following: Creating inclusive schools for girls focuses on ensuring • The Fostering Resilient Learning Project on the island of St that the school environment is one that is sensitive to Maarten is constructing new gender-sensitive education facilities girls’ needs, and one in which they can feel safe. Girls with to provide safe, non-violent, inclusive environments in school. disabilities often face a double-discrimination burden, and • The Girls Empowerment and Quality Education for All Project are often the most marginalized groups in many societies. in São Tomé and Príncipe has a similar approach that aims to Research has shown that girls with disabilities may face up provide safe learning spaces for all girls. 18 • The Safe Schools Program in Tanzania has a holistic approach A large part of feeling safe at school is linked to a reduction that includes school guidance and counselling services; training in GBV, which includes sexual exploitation and abuse, of teachers, school heads, school boards, and parent-teacher sexual harassment, sexual assault, and other types of GBV associations; monitoring of students at risk of dropout; and community-based mechanisms for safe passage to school. in schools. Lower educational attainment is also associated with children who have witnessed or experienced violence • The Adolescent Girls Initiative for Learning and Empowerment at home (Women and Law 2012). (AGILE) project in Nigeria is helping to make schools more inclusive for students with disabilities, by introducing ramps Global statistics show that GBV is experienced by a large at schools; conducting outreach, awareness, and sensitization portion of girls. Data from multi-country Violence Against with families and communities to remove stigmatization for Children Surveys (VACS)25 show that 15–51 percent of girls those with disabilities; conducting training for teachers on teaching with students with disabilities; and including braille under the age of 18 in Malawi, Nigeria, Zambia and Uganda had books and materials where needed. experienced sexual violence (Swedo et. al. 2019). In Uganda, 28 percent of girls reported experiencing sexual violence 5. Addressing School-Related Gender-Based Violence before the age of 18. UN Women reports that over 246 million Tackling GBV requires a multi-level and cross-cutting children are subject to GBV in or around schools every year approach, with schools playing a critical role. First, schools (UNESCO 2016) and new studies evaluating the effect of the can actively pursue strategies to reduce GBV within the COVID-19 pandemic show that school closures increased the school setting. Second, they can strengthen their capacity to risk of girls and adolescents experiencing violence (Decker et. work with households and communities in preventing GBV al. 2022) as well as high early pregnancy (Okeke et. al. 2022). out of the school, by challenging the norms and attitudes This was accentuated in fragile contexts (Guglielmi et. al. that uphold violent attitudes and practices toward women 2020). There is widespread acknowledgement that many and girls (World Bank et. al. 2015). occurrences of sexual harassment, assault, and GBV are likely not reported (Crawfurd and Hares 2020). 25  o date, 26 VACS surveys have been completed in: Botswana, Cambodia, Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, El Salvador, Eswatini, Ethiopia, T Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya, Lao PDR, Lesotho, Malawi, Moldova, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, USA, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 19 Eradicating school-related GBV requires a complex set Approximately 40 World Bank education projects are of interventions as the violence can take place both in working to end GBV in school using multiple approaches, and around school, including on the way to school, at including the following: home, in the community, and in cyberspace (see Figure 11). • The Nagaland: Enhancing Classroom Teaching and Resources Interventions include those that work to prevent GBV Project in India has created a GBV-reporting mechanism and within and out of schools and those that work to mitigate action plan. the impacts of violence on children in the short, medium and long term. The role of education is highlighted as the • The Sudan Basic Education Support Project includes activities to seventh strategy of the INSPIRE framework for Ending train schools and their surrounding communities on GBV reduction. Violence Against Children (WHO 2016). The World Bank has • The Cambodia General Education Improvement Project works also developed guidance for Operationalizing Safe School through their school-based management committees to host Policies and Practices (Saavedra et. al. 2021). Evidence from trainings and discussion on GBV and reduction of violence several countries shows that school-based interventions against children. can be effective in reducing violence occurring in school, 6. Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management and such as: a self-defense program in Malawi (Decker et. al. Improving Water, Sanitation and Health Facilities 2018), the Good Schools Toolkit in Uganda (Devries et. al. 2015), and a play-based life skills program in Pakistan Menstruation reduces girls’ attendance and participation (discussed in Crawfurd and Harris 2020). in education worldwide. A study by UNESCO finds that one in 10 girls in Sub-Saharan Africa missed school while on Training school staff to identify and respond to GBV their period (UNESCO 2014). Another study in Ethiopia finds and equip school children with knowledge and tools to that 50 percent of girls miss between one and four days of identify GBV and report it is also effective. A randomized school every month due to menstruation (Unilever et. al. controlled trial of an empowerment and self-defense 2013). In Kenya, it is estimated that girls lose an average of intervention for adolescent girls in Nairobi decreased four days of school a month, which costs them 165 learning annual sexual assault rates (from 18 percent to 11 percent) days over four years of high school (Mire 2020).26 A study in and increased sexual assault disclosure from 56 percent to India finds that as many as one in five girls reported missing 75 percent (Sarnquist et. al. 2014). school due to their period (Sivakami et. al. 2019). 26 Kenyan Ministry of Public Service, Gender and Affirmative Action: https://gender.go.ke/sanitary-towels-program/ 20 Menstrual health and hygiene management involves a project will also designate an active menstruation counselor at number of interventions that provide adolescent girls schools and have a separate room available for girls to manage their menstrual needs. with knowledge, sanitary products, and facilities to understand and manage their menstruation (World Bank • The World Bank also supports projects with similar menstrual 2022e). Data on the impact of these programs are limited, hygiene-focused interventions in Haiti, Uganda, Sri Lanka, and aside from self-reported surveys. These interventions are Togo, among others. often tied to adequate sexual and reproductive health education for adolescents, particularly programming Intervention Area 3: Making Sure Girls around puberty and menstruation. Schools in many are Learning Well by Improving the countries still face significant challenges in ensuring they Quality of Education have adequate facilities available for girls. A World Bank study on the intersection of water and gender highlights 7. Teacher Professional Development and Training on that the existence of a separate toilet is not enough to Gender Norms ensure usage by women and girls. Privacy, cleanliness, Teachers can play an important role in shaping school safety, and availability of water matter (Das 2017). environments and combating gender bias (Carvalho and Evans 2022). However, many studies show that, in A quarter of all World Bank education projects have practice, teachers often give unequal attention to boys components that address menstrual health and and girls in the classroom, due to preconceived notions hygiene management. about achievement and success among boys and girls. • For example, the Boost Primary Student Learning project in For example, educators, parents, and students themselves Tanzania focuses on improving the school environment to can hold negative stereotypes around girls’ mathematical ensure girls feel comfortable and stay in school. It is creating abilities (Figure 12). Instead of reducing negative stereotypes, more separate toilets and WASH facilities for girls and boys, education systems can often perpetuate them. increasing running water access (one handwashing facility per 100 students), and providing incinerators for disposal. The 21 A large proportion of World Bank education projects 9. Girls’ Clubs support teachers with training that includes modules Girls’ clubs are an innovative way to create safe spaces on gender-sensitivity. These modules cover topics like for girls to aquire both academic and socio-emotional pedagogical techniques to ensure girls participate more in skills. These are usually girls-only spaces organized as classrooms, acknowledging biases that teachers may have extra-curricular activities. Girls’ clubs can deliver services in classroom interactions with boys and girls, and working on a wider variety of themes, including extra reading and to ensure adequate attention is given to all students in the tutoring time, life skills training, sexual and reproductive classroom. Over 70 World Bank projects aim to address health training, and women’s rights and career counseling, gender bias in teaching methods. (Cozzolino et. al. 2022). 8. Gender-Sensitive Curriculum and Textbooks Limited evidence on the impact of girls’ clubs shows an Gender stereotyping in textbooks and in other learning increase in girls’ awareness about their rights, self-esteem materials can perpetuate gender bias. Stereotypical role and self-confidence, and other characteristics associated models and names of boys and girls in certain careers and with well-being (Marcus 2017). A program to introduce professions, or in scenes depicting household work, send indirect girls’ clubs in Sierra Leone found that after the Ebola crisis messages about the roles of men and women to all students. in 2014 and 2015, girls in villages without these clubs were twice as likely to drop out of school than girls in villages Analysis cited in a special study by UNESCO’s Global Education with these clubs (Bandiera et. al. 2020). Monitoring Report in 2020 (UNESCO, 2020a) focusing on textbook bias finds drastic gender differences in role models • World Bank projects have supported the creation of girls’ and activities portrayed by men and women in textbooks in school clubs in Haiti, Ethiopia, India, São Tomé and Príncipe, India, China, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Tunisia, and more Tanzania, Malawi, and Lesotho. (Benavot and Jere 2022). An analysis of textbooks in Malaysia, Indonesia, Pakistan and Bangladesh reveals the proportion Intervention Area 4: Supporting Girls of female to male depictures in textbooks was less than half, and Young Women in the Transition to and in Pakistan just 24 percent (Islam 2018). Even in those the Labor Market depictions, women were represented in less prestigious 10. Skills Development Programs, Tackling Gender occupations and with more passivity. In Ethiopia, research Norms and Assisting in the Transition from School finds men were significantly overrepresented as role models to the Labor Market and achievers in eighth grade English textbooks (Mulugeta 2020). In Chile, fourth grade textbooks showed only two Many studies show that per year of schooling, the returns female characters for every 10 male characters (Covacevich to secondary education outweigh the returns to primary and Quintela-Dávila 2014). school (Sperling et. al. 2016; Patrinos and Psacharopoulos 2020). Secondary school completion leads to greater job Many World Bank projects promote examples of women stability for women, as well as increased wages. Upper as role models and in less stereotypical roles, including: secondary education programs are often linked directly to career paths. Yet, families and policymakers still hold • Through the Chad Improving Learning Outcomes Project, strong perceptions that educating girls (especially at the reading materials are distributed that are sensitive to gender representation. They will include positive role models for girls and secondary level) has high opportunity costs and low returns avoid gender stereotypes when representing men and women. (Sperling et. al. 2016). • In Cabo Verde, the Human Capital Project will produce In many areas of the world, female labor force participation gender-sensitive reading materials that have an explicit focus rates are still very low. In the Middle East and North Africa, on girls’ empowerment. and South Asia, these rates hover around 20 percent. Even • The Liberia Learning Foundations Project introduces textbooks among South Asians with advanced education, the female that challenge stereotypes. labor force participation rate is only 36 percent (see Figure 13). This analysis is not necessarily aligned with school • In the Central Africa Republic, project activities include a enrollment and completion rates for secondary schoolgirls, curriculum that will integrate tools to promote inclusion and meaning that in many of these countries, girls and young gender equality. women are completing higher rates of education, but do not enter the labor market despite persisting through education. 22 Many World Bank projects that finance secondary and • Liberia’s Economic Empowerment for Adolescent Girls program tertiary education address gender norms and support significantly increased participants’ economic activity and earnings, as well as their savings (potential startup capital), and the transition of girls from school to the labor market. its impacts endured after the training ended. The incorporation Through the Education Global Practice, 23 projects totaling of business skills (even in the vocational training) appeared $2.6 billion support skills development for all students. to have played a significant role in enhancing participants’ Projects also focus on adolescent girls’ empowerment prospects for self-employment—the sector where employment programs, life skills, and safe spaces. is expanding most rapidly in Liberia (World Bank 2015c). Evidence from Africa and South Asia has demonstrated • In Bangladesh, the World Bank partnered with the government on the Skills and Training Enhancement Project (STEP) (World Bank the impact of adolescent girls’ empowerment programs, as 2019b). The project worked to remove barriers that prevent more interventions can combine creating safe spaces for teens women from entering the labor force to meet its future workforce with life and vocational skills. These programs have been demands in 45 polytechnic institutes to improve female inclusion found to increase women’s earnings, reduce adolescent and deliver industry-relevant skills (Layton et. al. 2021). The project fertility, and help girls stay in school. provided stipends to over 240,000 beneficiaries (18 percent women), trained 126,000 unemployed youth (28 percent women), From 2008-2015, the World Bank supported the Adolescent and certified the skills of 31,800 informal sector workers (22 percent women). Women’s enrollment in TVET institutions increased to Girls Initiative (AGI) to help young women in eight countries over 20 percent by 2019, and women’s participation in the program make the vital transition between school and work. The enhanced their employment opportunities and empowerment. programs were piloted in eight countries - Afghanistan, Haiti, Jordan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Liberia, • The Economic Acceleration and Resilience for NEET Project in Nepal, Rwanda, and South Sudan and provided training to Bangladesh seeks to increase access to education and skills training and promote the employability of youth who are not in more than 16,000 young women (World Bank 2016). education, employment or training (NEET), especially women, by working with a Norms Specialized Agency to work with both Findings from the AGI project informed the design of the the NEET and their family members, especially their fathers regional Sahel Women’s Empowerment and Demographic and husbands who are found to have the greatest influence on Dividend (SWEDD) Project, a project that spans 9 countries (with female employment. The project also promotes equal access more coming soon). SWEDD has partnered with the World Bank’s and opportunities for other subgroups including persons with Gender Innovation Lab to test and rigorously evaluate innovative disability, transgender, and ethnic minorities. new approaches to empowering girls, such as engaging religious • The Employment Fund program in Nepal targeted women and community leaders as allies for change and shifting girls into (including women from poor and marginalized groups), resulting STEM fields. Other WB project examples include: in majority female participation. Participants significantly 23 improved employment and earnings, especially non-farm It is important to create opportunities—such as employment. Relative to a control group, participants’ overall scholarships, internships, and apprenticeships—for gain in employment was 47 percent, and average monthly women to increase enrollment in STEM studies. In Nigeria, earnings increased by 45–66 percent. Most of the participants had never worked outside of agriculture, and their vocational an impact evaluation of a World Bank project that provided training options spanned professions that were less traditional ICT training to women university graduates reveals that for women but more remunerative (World Bank 2016). participants were 26 percent more likely to work in the ICT sector after the training (Croke et. al. 2018). This suggests • The Enhancing Employability and Resilience of Youth Project in the potential for training to support the development of the Maldives aims to improve female labor force participation through tailored TVET training and entrepreneurship emerging sectors, and employment for women within development curricula, a mentoring and coaching program, as these sectors, even if they have an initial lack of sector- well as information, education and communication campaigns, relevant skills (Schomer et. al. 2020). New research from among other interventions. South Asia shows that combinations of financing subsidies and investments in STEM subjects pay rich dividends to 11. Increasing Participation in STEM-Focused Fields countries at every stage of development—especially if they There is a large gender gap in enrollment in STEM educate diverse groups, champion inclusiveness and foster programs all over the world. Women are significantly less opportunities and advancement, especially of women likely to enroll in many STEM fields, with the exception of life (Sosale et. al. 2023). sciences, largely due to social and cultural perceptions about genders and subject study (Hammond et. al. 2020). Women Another example of a successful scholarship program is from account for only 28 percent of engineering graduates and Lao PDR. Women’s participation in the Department of Water 40 percent of graduates in computer science, and in fields Supply (DWS) within the Ministry of Public Works and Transport such as artificial intelligence, only one in five professionals is had been historically low, particularly in technical positions, at 12 a woman (Barron and Kattan 2022; UNESCO 2021b). Women percent. Recognizing the shortage of women on technical staff, in low-income countries are 7 percentage points less likely DWS developed a scholarship program to help young women than men to enroll in tertiary programs in engineering, with high school diplomas access educational opportunities in manufacturing, and construction. In upper-middle-income water supply and sanitation engineering. Through this program, and high-income countries, the gaps widen to 15 and 17 the project achieved a 10 percent increase in the number of percentage points, respectively (Hammond et. al. 2020). qualified women in technical and leadership positions in public 24 water utilities (Schomer and Hammond 2020). The scholarship also often seen as the caretakers of their younger siblings.27 program included mentorship and job placements, highlighting Expanded access to childcare can relieve the burden the importance of having multiple intervention arms to support on older girl siblings. In Mozambique, for example, the the school-to-jobs transition for women. establishment of a community-based childcare program increased the likelihood of older siblings’ enrollment in • In Tanzania, the Higher Education for Economic Transformation school by 6 percent (Martinez et. al. 2013). Project is making a strong, multi-pronged push to promote more girls and young women in STEM subjects (World Bank Remedial Education and Second-Chance Education 2021c). The project is developing outreach programs to familiarize secondary school-age girls and communities with Programs: Remedial and second-chance education university programs, dispel misconceptions about women’s programs support students that went through a low- STEM capabilities, and introduce information about STEM quality basic education system and require additional help programs for women. It is preparing an implementation plan to catch up, re-enter education systems if they dropped to operationalize the national gender equity strategy to attract out, and acquire additional market relevant skills. These and retain women in priority degree programs and monitor progress toward targets. It is also introducing mentorship programs, which can overlap with accelerated learning programs for women, especially in STEM areas, and providing programs might be the only option for young people faced scholarships to women for a foundational STEM course. with potentially bleak labor market prospects. In Ghana, a remedial education program for students who were falling 12. Other Impactful Interventions behind significantly improved learning outcomes, with twice as large an impact on girls (Duflo et. al. 2020). The World Bank is not limited to these 11 types of interventions. To follow is a selection of additional programs Second-chance education programs are often associated and projects that target girls’ educational outcomes. with girls who become pregnant and are trying to return to schooling. A long-running second chance education Early Childhood Education and Childcare Programs: A program in Jamaica for pregnant teenagers showed a lower World Bank study estimates that 40 percent of all children rate of repeat pregnancy among participants than those below primary school age need childcare, but do not have not enrolled in the program. It also had positive effects access to it (Brixi et. al. 2022). During school years, girls are 27  tudies also show that in households where primary childcare falls on someone other than parents, daughters are less than half as S likely as brothers to complete primary school. More details in Sperling et. al 2016, page 129. 25 on girls’ enrollment at higher levels of education, both in impact on their children. Literate mothers are able to pass completing their secondary education and pursuing further on the benefits of their own educational improvements to education (Amo-Adjei et. al. 2023). A similar program was their children in multiple ways via reduced infant mortality, implemented in Sierra Leone after massive increases better childhood school attendance, improved family in adolescent pregnancy during the Ebola crisis (Mason income, higher vaccination rates, and more (Thomas et. al. 2016). Even when not targeted at girls with early pregnancy, 2020, p.40). Dozens of programs around the world target second-chance education programs can bring them back adult literacy for women, including the Aagahi Adult Literacy to the school system. A program in Ethiopia found that program in Pakistan. Since 2005, over 60,000 adults (over 90 participation in the program dramatically increased formal percent of them women) have attended the program and schooling for girls by 38 percent (Sperling et. al. 2016, p.235). improved their basic literacy and numeracy skills.28 Boarding School Programs for Girls: Establishing boarding Women Teachers as Role Models: In many countries, schools for girls, particularly at the secondary school age, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, there are far more men is often an attractive option to policymakers, as it directly teachers than women teachers (UNESCO 2021a). In 2018, tackles some of the distance and transport barriers to girls’ only 30 percent of teachers in Sub-Saharan Africa at the education that impact attendance. However, there is little secondary-school level were women. Teachers can play an comparative evidence on the impact of boarding schools important part of a girl’s education experience, particularly that target students from low-income situations versus as role models. While the impact of teachers as role models schooling without boarding. Moreover, the costs of these is less studied, a few studies show positive impacts on schools tend to be very high, as boarding and housing costs educational outcomes. Studies show that having women are in addition to costs for education. Concentrating girls math teachers, for example, improved girls’ math outcomes in this way also poses risks. There have been cases where (Evans and Nestour 2019), and that having women teachers boarding schools for girls have been targets of violence. can have a positive effect on girls without hampering boys’ learning (Muralidharan and Sheth 2016). Adult Literacy Programs for Women: Adult literacy programs for women can lead to increased economic opportunities and improved livelihoods. They can also have a positive 28 https://www.tcf.org.pk/2017/11/aagahi-empowering-women-through-literacy/ 26 CONCLUSIONS The World Bank is the largest external financier of system. Investments in programs for secondary school-age education in the world, with an active portfolio of around girls are important, as are those that link girls’ education to $23 billion encompassing 180 active education projects in their next steps for work and entering the labor market. over 90 countries. These projects cover the entire education cycle and focus on many different themes and areas of Programs that look at other aspects aside from learning intervention in education: teachers, curriculum, school at school can also help keep girls in school for longer and infrastructure, and more. Additionally, there is a strong focus prepare girls and boys for more equitable approaches on improving foundational learning (World Bank 2023a) for all to gender. These include health interventions, menstrual students and reducing learning poverty (World Bank 2019a). hygiene management, violence reduction and prevention A recent World Bank report on smart buys for education also mechanisms, life skills training and socialization on gender highlighted a cost-benefit analysis of common interventions norms and behaviors. Interventions that tackle the norms for all students (World Bank et. al. 2020). Evidence signals against girls’ education are particularly important for that programs that do not specifically target girls, still have ensuring girls stay in school longer and shielding them large impacts on girls’ education outcomes (Evans and Yuan from early marriage or pregnancy. 2019b). Many general programs have the same desirable More and better data is needed on what works in girls’ impacts on boys and girls. education. A recent meta-analysis of over 300 studies Although there is no single solution that tackles all the focusing on what works to improve education outcomes barriers that girls face, programs that include multiple shows fewer than 40 percent of studies contained gender- interventions to address multiple barriers to girls’ education disaggregated data (Evans and Yuan 2019a). This makes it can have greater impact. These programs not only focus on difficult to understand the impact of interventions on girls. getting girls into school, but also on retaining them there. Areas where more evidence and data are especially needed In recent years, more World Bank projects focused on girls’ are on the impact of social campaigns for girls’ education; education have multiple intervention arms, including offering the impact of gender-sensitive curriculum, textbooks, and scholarships, providing transport, removing textbook bias, teaching; and the impacts of school-based interventions building separate toilets for girls, and more. for girls, such as separate toilets, making schools safer for girls, and GBV reduction mechanisms. More monitoring and Policies and programs should be designed to consistently evaluation of education programs is needed, and a greater support girls throughout their education cycle—first, focus on critical gender-related indicators can reveal which getting them into school and keeping them there; then, interventions are most successful at tackling barriers. making sure they are safe in schools and learning; and finally, helping them transition from the education system More attention is also needed on addressing boys’ to the labor market. Intervention impact can be amplified if educational underachievement. This is an emerging area programs take into account the entire education cycle that of research and work for the World Bank. While many high- girls and young women must persist through in order to income countries are increasingly focusing on the issue, succeed. At any level of education, and especially through few policies or programs have been put into place. The the transition grade levels from primary to lower secondary challenge requires closer attention from policymakers, school, and from lower secondary to upper secondary, development agencies, and analysts. As argued in the there is a risk of girls not returning to school. Meaningful case of girls, it is important to start with concerted efforts improvement in girls’ education outcomes demands to improve the educational experience of all learners, multi-dimensional, long-term approaches. using methods that engage and motivate those at the lower end of achievement (predominantly boys) while Scholarships and cash transfers have sizeable impacts on also being effective for all students. More research on promoting school access, enrollment, and retention. Poverty boys’ educational underachievement is also needed. keeps many children out of school. 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