BUILDING REGULATION FOR RESILIENCE A Global Assessment of Building Codes CURRENT STATUS AND EVOLVING NEEDS TO PROMOTE RESILIENT, GREEN AND INCLUSIVE BUILDINGS BUILDING REGULATION FOR RESILIENCE A Global Assessment of Building Codes CURRENT STATUS AND EVOLVING NEEDS TO PROMOTE RESILIENT, GREEN AND INCLUSIVE BUILDINGS © 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Website: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), with external contributions. The findings, analyses and conclusions expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of any individual partner organization of The World Bank, its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent. 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A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES iv Table of Contents Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Acronyms and Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Purpose and Scope of the Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi Key Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Key Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi 1.  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Benefits of Building Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Risk to the Built Environment is Increasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3 Overview of Building Regulatory Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Building Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2. Considerations for Building Code Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.1 Transition to Comprehensive Building Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2 Building Code Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2.1 Approaches for building code development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2.2 Adopting model building codes and standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2.3 Code development process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3. Methodology for the Country Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.1 Key Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.2 Country Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.3 Framework for Assessing the Building Codes and Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.4 Framework for Assessing the Code Implementation Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.5 Statements for the Assessment of Code Contents and Code Implementation Topic Areas . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.6 Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4. Structural Safety and Resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 4.1 Assessment of Structural Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 4.1.1 Regulatory structure, organization, and accessibility of structural design codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 4.1.2 General structural design provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.1.3 Summary of findings: general structural design provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4.2 Priorities for Further Development of Provisions to Enhance Structural Safety and Resilience. . . . . . . . 38 4.2.1 Simplified provisions for common types of small-scale buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Table of contents A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES v 4.2.2 Enhanced building performance objectives to improve resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 4.2.3 Introducing provisions to support reliable building utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4.2.4 Expanded provisions for the assessment, modification, rehabilitation and retrofit of existing buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.2.5 Enhanced coordination and harmonization of code provisions across topic areas and hazards. . 43 5. Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5.1 Assessment of Seismic Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5.1.1 Seismic design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5.1.2 Seismic analysis methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5.1.3 Seismic design and detailing provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.2 Summary of Findings: Seismic Design Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.3 Priorities for Further Development of Seismic Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.3.1 Improving seismic hazard maps in building codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.3.2 Addressing the seismic safety of small-scale vernacular and other non-engineered buildings. . . 59 5.3.3 Addressing seismic assessment and retrofitting provisions for existing buildings . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6. Wind Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 6.1 Wind Design Provision Topics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.2 Summary of Findings: Wind Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.3 Priorities for Further Development of Wind Design Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 6.3.1 Up-to-date country-specific wind maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 6.3.2 Improved code provisions and related guidance for wind resilience of small-scale housing. . . 69 6.3.3 Performance-based design approaches for the wind resilience of structural and nonstructural components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7. Flood Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 7.1 Flood Design Provision Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.2 Summary of Findings: Flood Design Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.3 Priorities for Flood Design Provisions in Building Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 8. Design for Wildfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 8.1 Emerging Provisions for Design for Wildfire in Building Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 9. Green Building Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 9.1 Assessment of Green Building Code Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 9.1.1 Regulatory structure, organization, and accessibility of green building codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 9.1.2 Green building technical provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 9.1.3 Summary of findings: green building provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 9.2 Priorities for Code Provisions to Reduce Carbon Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 9.2.1 Increase mandatory requirements related to energy efficiency and low-carbon design . . . . . . . 88 9.2.2 Regulations to support the use of lower-carbon building materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 9.2.3 Code coverage of emerging construction technologies for more efficient design and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 9.2.4 A greater focus on regulations and code provisions for adaptive reuse of existing buildings . . 91 9.3 Priorities for Code Provisions to Address Climate Change Adaptation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Table of contents A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES vi 9.3.1 Building code provisions to adapt to extreme heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 9.3.2 Building code provisions to adapt to water scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 9.4 Priorities for Code Provisions to Improve Indoor Air Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 10. Universal Accessibility Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 10.1 Assessment of Universal Accessibility Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 10.1.1 Regulatory structure, organization, and accessibility of universal accessibility provisions in building codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 10.1.2 Topic areas for universal accessibility design provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 10.1.3 Summary of findings: universal accessibility provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 10.2 Priorities for Further Development of Universal Accessibility Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 10.2.1 Improving universal accessibility for existing buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 10.2.2 Comprehensive consideration of different user needs in universal accessibility provisions. . . . 99 10.2.3 Tailoring universal accessibility provisions for the cultural context and practices . . . . . . . . . . . 100 10.2.4 Improved universal accessibility provisions for emergency response and evacuation . . . . . . . 100 11. Code Implementation Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 11.1 Building Regulatory Approaches for Code Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 11.1.1 Building control process: approvals and enforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 11.1.2 Capacity requirements for code implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 11.1.3 Other enabling factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 11.2 Assessment of the Code Implementation Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 11.2.1 Findings of the code implementation assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 11.3 Code Implementation: Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 12. Key Findings and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 12.1 Overall Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 12.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 12.3 The Way Forward – Enhancing Building Codes for a Safer, Greener, and More Inclusive Buildings. . . 125 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Annex A: Country Profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Annex C: Code Influences Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Annex D: Assessment Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Annex E: Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Table of contents A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES vii Figures Figure E.S.1 (a) Summary of code coverage for structural and resilience provisions, green building provisions and universal accessibility provisions; and (b) Code implementation environment evaluation . . . xix Figure E.S.2 Priority topic areas for building code development based on the findings in the study countries. . xx Figure 1.1 Key components and actors in the building regulatory framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 1.2 A sample building regulatory structure, based on the New Zealand building regulatory framework . . . . 6 Figure 1.3 Examples of different options for the organization of code documents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 2.1 Timeline of selected early building codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Figure 2.2 Common code development approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure B2.1 Map of countries that have adopted model codes or standards or were influenced by international codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 2.3 Overview of the code development process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 3.1 Main topic areas and subtopics for the building code review: (i) structural safety and resilience; (ii) green building; and (iii) universal accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Figure 3.2 Main topic areas for the building control regulations and enabling environment review . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 4.1 Assessment results for importance and/or risk classification of buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 4.2 Assessment results for geotechnical and substructure design topics in the building code. . . . . . 30 Figure 4.3 Assessment results for structural design provisions for different materials and technologies. . . 32 Figure 4.4 Assessment results for provisions for fire resistance of structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 4.5 Rescue efforts after the collapse of the Enrique Rebsamen School, Mexico City in the 2017 Puebla earthquake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 4.6 Assessment results for code provisions related to the modification and structural assessment of existing buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Figure 4.7 Assessment results for simplified design provisions for small-scale buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 4.8 Percentage of urban population living in informal settlements in the 22 countries considered in this study, identifying those with simplified design and construction provisions for small-scale buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 FIgure 4.9 Informal construction on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains, Morocco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Figure 4.10 Summary of assessment of general structural design provisions for the 22 countries . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure B4.2 Seismic design provisions for non-engineered masonry buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Figure 4.11 Seismic design approach for buildings adopted in Japan since the 1981 Building Standard Law. . . 39 Figure 5.1 Assessment results for code provisions related to seismic design criteria topic areas . . . . . . . . . 46 Figure 5.2 Assessment results for code provisions related to seismic analysis procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Figure 5.3 Example of a reinforced concrete frame building with a soft story irregularity in the bottom two floors in Türkiye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 5.4 Assessment results for ductile seismic detailing code provisions for different structural systems . . . 51 Figure 5.5 The collapse of this reinforced concrete building in Kathmandu, Nepal during the 2015 Gorkha earthquake can be attributed to substandard quality of concrete construction, and a lack of ductile detailing of transverse reinforcement in reinforced concrete columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 5.6 Assessment results for provisions related to the seismic design of diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figure 5.7 (a) Building collapse in the 2008 Wenchuan, China earthquake due to a lack of connection between the floor, diagram (hollow core precast concrete slabs) and walls, (b) diagram illustrating the failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 5.8 Structural and nonstructural components in a building (FEMA, 1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 5.9 Assessment results for seismic design provisions related to nonstructural components and out-of-plane earthquake actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Figure 5.10 Nonstructural URM exterior walls expe-rienced damage or collapse in mid- and high-rise RC buildings due to the February 2023 Türkiye earthquake sequence, which can be attributed to inadequate connections between the intersecting walls and their anchorage to floor system . . . 54 Table of contents A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES viii Figure 5.11 Collapse of exterior walls in an older URM building in Türkiye due to out-of-plane seismic actions in the February 2023 earthquake sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Figure 5.12 School in Defne, Hatay, Türkiye, which experienced minor damage after the February 2023 Türkiye-Syria earthquake sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 5.13 Summary of assessment of seismic design provisions for the 22 countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure B5.1 Level of damage to wooden houses caused by the 1995 Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake, showing improved performance of newer construction due to revisions to building regulations over time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Figure 6.1 Wind damage to roof cladding caused by Typhoon Haiyan in Boracay, Philippines in 2013. . . . . . 66 Figure B6.1 Details from a simplified guidance manual for timber housing seismic and wind retrofits in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 6.2 Summary of assessment of wind design provisions for the 22 countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Figure 6.3 Examples of simple illustrations of approaches to improve the performance of housing in strong winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Figure 7.1 Summary of assessment of flood design provisions for the 22 countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Figure 7.2 Types of measures that can be addressed in building code provisions to mitigate the risk of flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 7.3 Temporary flood gates being installed at the Kurashiki Central Hospital in Japan as part of a dry flood-proofing strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 8.1 Types of measures that can be addressed in building code provisions to mitigate the risk of wildfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Figure 8.2 Bushfire Attack Levels in Australian Standard AS 3959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Figure 9.1 Summary of assessment of green building provisions for the 22 countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figure B9.1 Life cycle stages according to BS EN 15978:2011: Sustainability of construction works - assessment of environmental performance of buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Figure 9.2 Construction of modular mass timber building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Figure 10.1 Countries that address different types of needs in the universal accessibility provisions of their building codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Figure 10.2 Summary of the assessment of universal accessibility provisions for the 22 countries . . . . . . . 98 Figure 11.1 Building control process throughout the construction life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Figure 11.2 Summary of code implementation environment assessment for the 22 countries . . . . . . . . . . 108 Figure 11.3 Construction workers casting concrete on site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Figure 11.4 Common challenges in code implementation and related strategies to improve compliance. . . 110 Figure 12.1 (a) Summary of code coverage for structural and resilience provisions, green building provisions and universal accessibility provisions; and (b) Code implementation environment evaluation . . 115 Figure 12.2 Summary of coverage of structural and resilience provisions (a) general structural provisions, (b) seismic design provisions, (c) wind design provisions, and (d) flood design provisions . . . . . 116 Figure 12.3 Priority topic areas for building code development based on the findings in the study countries . . 116 Figure 12.4 Sample action plan for Country Type A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Figure 12.5 Sample action plan Country Type B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Tables Table 1.1 Distinctions between codes and reference standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Table 2.2 Key steps and related considerations for the code development process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Table 4.1 Topic areas for geotechnical and substructure design provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Table 4.2 Topic areas for material-specific structural design provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Table 5.1 Topic areas for seismic design criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Table 5.2 Topic areas for seismic analysis methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Table 5.3 Topic areas for seismic design and detailing provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Table of contents A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES ix Table 5.4 Age of code documents containing country-specific seismic hazard maps, by date of publication. . . . . 58 Table 6.1 Topic areas for wind design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Table 7.1 Topic areas for flood design provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Table 9.1 Topic areas for green building provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Table 9.2 Examples of demand-side and supply-side measures to reduce energy consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Table 10.1 Universal accessibility topic areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Table 11.1 Topic areas for the building code implementation environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Table D.1 General Structural Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Table D.2 Seismic Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Table D.3 Wind Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Table D.4 Flood Design Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Table D.5 Green Building Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Table D.6 Universal Accessibility Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Table D.7 Code Implementation Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Boxes Box 2.1 Influence of international and model building codes around the world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Box 2.2 Examples of model codes and standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Box 2.4 Code conceptualization in Zanzibar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Box 2.5 Prescriptive versus performance-based design approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Box 4.1 Evolution of Chile’s building code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Box 4.2 Simplified guidelines for non-engineered low-rise buildings in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Box 4.3 Christchurch, New Zealand’s long-term recovery challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Box 4.4 Improvements to informal housing settlements in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Box 4.5 Trade-offs in code provisions: fire safety and green building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Box 5.1 Deterministic versus probabilistic seismic hazard estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Box 5.2 Seismic resilience of hospitals in Türkiye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Box 5.3 An integrated approach to improving the seismic safety of traditional wooden houses in Japan  . . 60 Box 5.4 Pragmatic approaches to the seismic retrofit of buildings in Mexico City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Box 6.1 Design of roof cladding for wind actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Box 7.1 Protecting critical equipment and services from flooding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74  Box 9.1 Tailoring green building provisions to climatic conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Box 9.2 Code provisions related to embodied carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Box 9.3 Mandatory green roof requirements in Basel, Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Box 9.4 Heat adaptation measures in the Ghana building code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Box 10.1 Universal accessibility provisions for people with cognitive impairment and neurodiversity. . . . . . . 99 Box 11.1 Ways to increase private-sector responsibility for code implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Box 11.2 Dispute resolution mechanisms in Victoria, Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Box 11.3 Capacity building to enhance code compliance in Dominica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Box 11.4 Rwanda's Building Permit Management System (BPMIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Box 11.5 The urban curators: privatization of the building permit review process in Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Maps Map E.1 The 22 countries selected for review of building codes and implementation mechanisms . . . . . . . xvii Map 3.1 The 22 countries selected for review of building codes and implementation mechanisms . . . . . . . . 21 A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES x Foreword Society rightly expects buildings to provide safe, comfortable, and healthy spaces for people to live and work. At the same time, the built environment must adapt to changing demographics, accelerating urbanization, and growing impacts of disasters and climate hazards. This transformation is fueling a surge in new construction, particularly in regions such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America where populations are expanding rapidly. Elsewhere, the risk lies in managing and maintaining aging infrastructure. There is a growing global imperative to improve the sustainability of buildings, and ensure they are universally accessible to meet the needs of people of all ages and abilities. In the next few decades, as cities grow and populations age, these challenges will only intensify. Thus, investment in modernizing building codes and enforcement mechanisms is urgent. Otherwise, the world risks locking in a costly and unsustainable cycle of reacting to shocks and stresses rather than preventing them through proactive, high-quality construction. Building codes and effective code compliance mechanisms are among the most powerful tools to improve the safety and resilience of the built environment. They help reduce disaster risks that are increasing in frequency and severity, including storms, extreme heat, flooding, and wildfires. In addition, having effective codes in place can drive sound design and construction practices across the entire building lifecycle, reducing the risk of collapse, ensuring the safety of existing buildings, and guiding safe structural modifications. Even in countries where non-en- gineered or vernacular construction is common, simplified building code provisions for small-scale structures can still drive safer construction practices. This publication —developed in collaboration with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and made possible with support from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) and the government of Japan, through the Japan-World Bank Program for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in Developing Countries— assesses building codes and compliance environments across selected countries from around the world. It offers practical case studies showing how countries are progressing on this journey and recommendations to help enhance building codes and the wider regulatory and enabling environment for code compliance. Strengthening these systems is critical to protecting people, economies, and the quality of the built environment for generations to come. We hope this publication serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, practitioners, and development partners working to build a safer, greener and more inclusive future. Niels Holm-Nielsen, Practice Manager Juan Pablo Bonilla, Manager, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction Climate Change and Sustainable and Recovery (GFDRR) Development Sector World Bank Inter-American Development Bank A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xi Acknowledgments The report was developed by the team led by Keiko Sakoda (Senior Disaster Risk Management Specialist, World Bank); Ana Campos Garcia (Lead Disaster Risk Management Specialist, World Bank); Yasuhiro Kawasoe (Disaster Risk Management Specialist, World Bank) and Dixi Mae Mengote Quah (Disaster Risk Management Specialist, World Bank), comprised of Katherine Coates (Consultant, World Bank) as the lead author, Rebecca Laberenne (Consultant, World Bank) as a co-author, Svetlana Brzev (Consultant, World Bank) as a co-author, Antoine Hanzen (Consultant, World Bank), Vasudevan Kadalayil (Consultant, World Bank), Andrés Balcazar de la Cruz (Consultant, World Bank), Julia Ratcliffe (Consultant, World Bank), Rosie Goldrick (Consultant, World Bank), and Zahraa Nazim Saiyed (Consultant, World Bank). The technical experts contributing the data for 22 countries were Sergio M. Alcocer (Consultant, World Bank), Mohamed Abed (Consultant, World Bank), Dayu Apoji (Consultant, World Bank), Edmond Asis (Director, Arup), Alexandra Neves (Consultant, World Bank), Dev Kumar Maharjan (Chief Executive Officer, Earthquake Safety Solutions), Jitendra Bothara (Consultant, World Bank), Jan Wium (Consultant, World Bank), Marat Abdybaliev (Consultant, World Bank), Ulugbek T. Begaliev (Consultant, World Bank), Shamil Khahimov (Consultant, World Bank), Suat Yildirim (Consultant, World Bank), Gokhan Umarogullari (Consultant, World Bank), Youssef Elouardy (Consultant, World Bank), Darika Sulaimanova (Consultant, World Bank), Tsoggerel Tsamba (Consultant, World Bank), Maral Munkhuu (Consultant, World Bank), Carlien Bou-Chedid (Consultant, World Bank), and Fernando Branco (Consultant, World Bank). Thomas Murat (Consultant, World Bank) and Carmen Rosa Zena Acosta (Consultant, World Bank) provided assistance for data analysis and visualization. We would also like to thank the Global Earthquake Model (https://www.globalquakemodel.org) for sharing data on global average annual loss by country from their 2023 global seismic risk model to support the country selection process. This assessment received support from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery and the Ministry of Finance, Japan, through the Japan-World Bank Program for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in Developing Countries. This report was developed as a collaborative effort with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) led by Gines Suarez Vazquez (Disaster Risk Management Senior Specialist, IDB), Maria Alejandra Escovar Bernal (Disaster Risk Management Senior Specialist, IDB) and Ana Milena Avendaño (Consultant, IDB). A team comprised of Francisca Pedrasa (President, AICE Chile), Antonio Espinoza (Built Environment Leader, EBP Chile), Monserrat Bobadilla (Resilient Infrastructure Leader, EBP Chile), Daniela López (Architect, EBP Chile), and Johana Infante (Architect, EBP Chile) collected the data for selected countries in Latin American and the Caribbean region. The team gratefully acknowledges the contribution and valuable guidance of peer reviewers, both internal and exter- nal: Artessa Saldivar-Sali (Senior Infrastructure Specialist, World Bank); Jayashree Srinivasan (Regulatory Specialist, World Bank); Ommid Saberi (Principal Industry Specialist, International Finance Corporation); and Salih Buğra Erdurmuş (Senior Disaster Risk Management Specialist, World Bank); Abbie B. Liel (Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder); Brian Meacham (Consultant, World Bank); Andrew Charleson (Adjunct Professor at Victoria University of Wellington); Tatsuo Narafu (Technical Advisor, Japan International Cooperation Agency); Amit Kumar (Coordinator for Safe and Resilient Infrastructure, Aga Khan Agency for Habitat); Chris Cerino (Engineering Technical Director, STV); Hayley Gryc (Associate Director, Arup); Judy Zakreski, (Senior Vice President, Global Operations & Solutions, International Code Council), Ryan Colker (Vice President, Innovation, International Code Council); and Dr. Yuji Ishiyama (Professor Emeritus, Hokkaido University). For editorial assistance, we thank World Bank Global Corporate Solutions, including the Cartography Program, as well as Erika Vargas (Senior Communications Specialist, World Bank), and Liliana Serrano (Senior Communications Consultant, World Bank), and Bárbara Mínguez García (Consultant, World Bank). We thank Ultra Designs, Inc. for graphic design. A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xii Acronyms and Abbreviations AAL Average Annual Loss AALR Average Annual Loss Ratio ACI American Concrete Institute AISC American Institute of Steel Construction ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials BIM Building Information Modeling BRCA Building Regulatory Capacity Assessment BRR Building Regulation for Resilience BREEAM Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology CBD Central Business District CEN Comité Européen de Normalisation (European Committee for Standardization) CP Collapse Prevention CSC Concrete Sustainability Council CTN Complementary Technical Norm CUBiC Caribbean Uniform Building Code DRM Disaster Risk Management EAC East African Community EAP East Asia & Pacific ECA Europe & Central Asia EDGE Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies EFTA European Free Trade Association EUI Energy Use Intensity EPBD Energy Performance of Buildings Directive EU European Union FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FRP Fiber-Reinforced Polymer ACRONYMS A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xiii GEM Global Earthquake Model GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GHG Green House Gas GPS Global Positioning System HEPA High-efficiency Particulate Air HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning IAEE International Association for Earthquake Engineering IBC International Building Code ICC International Code Council ICT Information and Communication Technology IECC International Energy Conservation Code ISO International Organization for Standardization JRC Joint Research Centre LAC Latin America & Caribbean LCA Life-cycle Assessment LS Life Safety LED Light Emitting Diode LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design MENA Middle East & North Africa MEP Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing services MMC Modern Methods of Construction NBC Nepal Building Code NDC National Determined Contribution NFPA National Fire Protection Association NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology NSCP National Structural Code of the Philippines OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECS Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States PBSD Performance-based Seismic Design PGA Peak Ground Acceleration PSHA Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis PV Photovoltaic RC Reinforced Concrete ACRONYMS A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xiv SA South Asia SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SABS South African Bureau of Standards SHM Seismic Hazard Model SNIP Stroitelnye Normy i Pravila (Russian Construction Codes and Regulations) SRI Solar Reflectance Index TMS The Masonry Society UBC Uniform Building Code UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization URM Unreinforced masonry WC Water Closet (e.g., toilet) WHO World Health Organization WUI Wildland-Urban Interface WWR Window-to-Wall Ratio Executive Summary Rooftops in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Photo credit: Cesar Okada | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xvi Executive Summary The quality of the built environment is fundamental to the functioning, health, and sustainability of societies and economies. Rapid population growth and urbanization are expected to increase the proportion of people living in cities to nearly 70 percent by 2050. This means that a significant portion of global building stock that will exist in 2050 is yet to be constructed (UN, 2019). Much of this growth will occur in African, Asian, and Latin American cities, presenting both opportunities and challenges. Enhanced building codes and compliance mechanisms are essential tools to address the impacts of natural disasters, urbanization, and the need for accessible buildings. Modern build- ing codes, finely tuned to local contexts, can create vibrant and resilient urban landscapes that stand the test of time. Additionally, the increasing frequency and severity of tropical cyclones, floods, extreme heat and other cli- mate-related events, demand comprehensive design provisions in building codes to mitigate damage and ensure habitability. Improved building codes can reduce risks for new construction and play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and adaptive reuse of existing structures. This approach enhances the resilience of the built environment and ensures that cities are safe, healthy, and sustainable for future generations. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE ASSESSMENT This report has two main objectives: » Provide a snapshot of the status of building codes in selected countries globally to identify potential areas for improvement in code provisions and the wider code implementation environment. » Formulate recommendations on how to enhance building codes to improve the structural safety and resil- ience, sustainability and universal accessibility of buildings given the increasing impacts of natural hazards and climate risk. This report assesses the technical content of building codes for selected countries and related code imple- mentation mechanisms. It considers three priority areas: structural safety and resilience, green buildings, and universal accessibility. It aims to support a wide range of actors involved in building regulatory policy and code development, including policy makers, government agencies at national and local level, technical professionals, academics, and development partners. The assessment is limited to provisions related to buildings and does not cover other types of construction such as energy, water, communications or transport infrastructure. Although selected building control regula- tions and related processes were assessed, the study did not cover planning regulations. This report builds upon the work of previous regional studies on the status of building codes carried out in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 2023c), Latin America and the Caribbean (IDB, 2023), and Pacific Island countries (PRIF, 2021), as well as the flag- ship report: Building Regulation for Resilience: Managing Risks for Safer Cities (World Bank, 2016). METHODOLOGY This review examined the content, organization, and accessibility of building codes and related control mech- anisms in 22 countries across six geographic regions. Countries were prioritized based on expected losses from seismic and cyclonic wind events, regional distribution, and status of their building code. See Map E.1. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xvii Map E.1 // The 22 countries selected for review of building codes and implementation mechanisms ECA Tajikistan Türkiye Uzbekistan MENA Algeria Morocco EAP Indonesia Mongolia SA Philippines Bhutan Samoa LAC Nepal Tonga Chile Vanuatu Colombia El Salvador Mexico SSA Peru SSA Ghana Ghana Mozambique Mozambique Rwanda Rwanda South Africa South Africa EAP East Asia & Pacific ECA Europe & Central Asia LAC Latin America & Caribbean MENA Middle East & North Africa SA South Asia SSA Sub-Saharan Africa The assessment framework covered three main topic areas: structural safety and resilience, green building, and universal accessibility. Each main topic area had evaluation statements for selected subtopics based on con- tents covered in global building codes and expert opinion to check for coverage by topic area. In addition, the study assessed regulatory jurisdictions, regulatory structure, types of buildings covered, and accessibility of regulations. Data were collected using standardized forms completed by local technical experts, in combination with desktop review. The country data were then validated by a team of global specialists and structured into a database for analysis and visualization. This assessment provided a high-level evaluation of the contents and implementation environments of building codes across the selected countries. It is important to note that the assessment did not evaluate the quality and comprehensiveness of the code provisions in detail. KEY FINDINGS Based on the study findings, some broad areas for improvement were identified: » Code Development Processes: Government agencies leading code development often lack clearly defined processes, roles and responsibilities, and underestimate the resources needed, leading to a lengthy code development process. The triggers for initiating code updates are often not specified. » Code Tailoring for Country Context: Codes can be better tailored to local contexts, considering factors like development patterns, hazards, climatic conditions, and construction practices. Simplified provisions for small-scale buildings are often not in place. » Completeness and Consistency of Code Provisions: Some codes contain incomplete procedures, inconsis- tent references, and incompatible provisions across different topic areas. Effective compliance is challeng- ing when code provisions contain inconsistencies and contradictions, or when a code is not aligned with its associated regulations and standards. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xviii » Provisions for Existing Buildings: Limited provisions are contained in the codes to address the safety, resil- ience, and accessibility of existing buildings in most countries, including provisions for vulnerability assess- ment, rehabilitation, and retrofit. » Seismic and Wind Design Provisions:  Some countries have out-of-date and/or incomplete seismic and wind design provisions. For instance, some lack up-to-date hazard design criteria and comprehensive design and detailing requirements for structural and nonstructural elements to limit damage and protect building occupants. Few countries incorporate approaches for the design of buildings to minimize disruption during and after disaster events, through setting more stringent prescriptive requirements or targeting higher per- formance objectives with performance-based design methods. » Climate Change Adaptation: Codes in the study countries rarely address climate-related hazards like extreme heat, flooding, and wildfires. » Green Building and Universal Accessibility Requirements: Adoption of green building provisions, particu- larly for energy efficiency and low-carbon design, is insufficient. Many provisions related to green buildings and universal accessibility are voluntary and a more intensive effort is needed to transition to more manda- tory requirements. » Access to Building Regulations: Many countries lack free, online access to all building code documents in official languages, hindering effective implementation. » Code Implementation:  Building control can benefit from more efficient and transparent processes as well as targeting resources toward higher-importance buildings to better support compliance. Capacity building in both public and private sectors is needed. The assessment provides insights into which areas to prioritize in further code development and where addi- tional investment in aspects of the code implementation environment could improve code compliance in the study countries. Some countries have advanced the development of their building codes in the three main areas assessed and already have in place most of the key elements needed for a robust code implementation environ- ment like Chile, Colombia, and Mexico. Other countries, such as Ghana or Samoa, have made progress in code development but more investment is needed to refine code provisions and build capacity and complementary mechanisms for effective code implementation. Finally, countries such as Mozambique have less comprehensive and up-to-date building regulatory environments overall—in terms of building code coverage of key topics and code implementation environment. The remaining countries are at an intermediate level of maturity (codes and implementation environment). See Figure E.S.1 for a high-level summary of results by country and Figure E.S.2 for key results by topic area for selected high priority topics. Refer to the Country Profiles in Annex A for more detailed findings for each of the 22 study countries. A glossary of key terms is provided in Annex E. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xix Figure E.S.1 // (a) Summary of code coverage for structural and resilience provisions, green building provisions and universal accessibility provisions; and (b) Code implementation environment evaluation (a) Structural and Resilience Green Building Provisions Universal Accessibility (b) Code Implementation Provisions Provisions Environment Colombia Mexico Algeria Chile 6 1P Mexico Peru Chile Colombia 6 1P Türkiye Rwanda Colombia El Salvador 6 1P Chile Indonesia El Salvador Mexico 6 1P Samoa Chile Ghana Mongolia 6 1P Ghana Colombia Mexico Morocco 6 1P Morocco Samoa Mongolia Peru 6 1P Philippines Bhutan Morocco Philippines 6 1P El Salvador Ghana Peru South Africa 6 1P Tajikistan Morocco Philippines Indonesia 5 2P South Africa Türkiye Rwanda Nepal 5 2P Algeria Philippines Samoa Rwanda 5 2P Peru South Africa South Africa Türkiye 4 2P Indonesia Algeria Tajikistan Bhutan 3 3P Tonga El Salvador Tonga Tonga 3 3P Vanuatu Tajikistan Türkiye Uzbekistan 3 3P Rwanda Tonga Uzbekistan Algeria 3 2P Uzbekistan Uzbekistan Vanuatu Mozambique 2 4P Mongolia Vanuatu Bhutan Tajikistan 2 3P Nepal Nepal Mozambique Ghana 1 4P Bhutan Mozambique Indonesia Vanuatu 3P Mozambique Mongolia Nepal Samoa 2P 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Number of topics satisfied (see Note 1) Note: 1. For the code implementation environment review, numbers in blue bars indicated number of topic areas which satisfied the evaluation statement. Numbers in light blue bars indicate number of topic areas where the evaluation statement was partially satisfied. Based on the assessment of code contents, Figure E.S.2 below lists priority areas for code improvements linked to the percentage of countries which covered them. The assessment did not evaluate the comprehen- siveness or quality of the provisions in detail, so countries with some coverage can also often benefit from code improvements in the topic areas. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xx Figure E.S.2 // Priority topic areas for building code development based on the findings in the study countries General structural provisions Seismic design provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Up-to-date country-specific seismic Importance/risk classification of hazard maps using the latest data 59% 82% buildings and methodologies3 Non-linear analysis procedures 32% Geotechnical and substructure 72% design1 Seismic detailing for common types Design of common types of of structural systems in the country 73% construction in the country or 46% or jurisdiction4 jurisdiction2 Design of advanced seismic Simplified provisions for common systems (e.g., seismic isolation) 32% 50% types of small-scale buildings Seismic design of diaphragms 82% Existing buildings: change of use 46% and building additions Seismic design of nonstructural elements and design to account for 55% 0% 50% 100% out-of-place seismic action 0% 50% 100% Notes: 1. Countries with coverage in all geotechnical and substructure topic areas. Notes: 2. Countries with design provisions for confined masonry construction. In Indonesia and 3. Countries with seismic code documents ≤10 years old. the Philippines, for example, confined masonry is prevalent, but the code does not 4. Countries with design provisions for common types of reinforced concrete and address it. steel systems. Wind design provisions Flood design provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Up-to-date country-specific wind Better integration of building speed maps using the latest data 41% code provisions with flood and methodologies5 mitigation through planning regulations Lack of integration was noted in some countries (e.g., how users can find out design –for example, in the Rwanda building code Wind importance factors 46% flood levels for a site) Structural provisions to reduce flood Wind design procedures for tall risk –load procedures, consideration of buildings and other complex 73% material durability, design to equalize 27% structures6 flood pressures7 Design of roof overhangs, cladding Architectural provisions to reduce flood and appendages to limit wind risk –performance of non- 50% structural materials, detailing and 18% damage (including water intrusion) in strong wind events location of critical services, occupied zones, evacuation areas, etc.8 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Notes: Notes: 5. Countries with code documents with wind design provisions ≤10 years old. 7. Countries with any structural provisions related to flood loading. 6. Countries with wind design provisions for roof and wall cladding. 8. Countries with any architectural provisions related to flooding. Green building provisions Universal accessibility provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Passive measures to improve energy efficiency and occupant wellbeing 55% as appropriate for the climatic Universal accessibility regulations 64% conditions in the jurisdiction9 are available online and for free Active measures to improve energy 55% efficiency (for HVAC, lighting) Provisions related to accessible evacuation and safe egress for 82% Inclusive of renewable energy 59% people of all ages and abilities technologies Water-efficiency measures –for Provisions to address a wider water efficient fixtures and fittings, 50% range of needs beyond people 23% and water collection and reuse with mobility challenges11 Low-carbon design approaches including using recycled and 23% recyclable materials10 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Note: buildings and other complex 73% material durability, design to equalize 27% structures6 flood pressures7 Design of roof overhangs, cladding Architectural provisions to reduce flood and appendages to limit wind risk –performance of non- 50% structural materials, detailing and 18% damage (including water intrusion) in strong wind events location of critical services, Executive Summary occupied zones, evacuation A GLOBAL etc.8 areas,ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xxi 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Notes: Notes: 5. Countries with code documents with wind design provisions ≤10 years old. 7. Countries with any structural provisions related to flood loading. 6. Countries with wind design provisions for roof and wall cladding. 8. Countries with any architectural provisions related to flooding. Figure E.S.2 // Priority topic areas for building code development based on the findings in the study countries (cont.) Green building provisions Universal accessibility provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Passive measures to improve energy efficiency and occupant wellbeing 55% as appropriate for the climatic Universal accessibility regulations 64% conditions in the jurisdiction9 are available online and for free Active measures to improve energy 55% efficiency (for HVAC, lighting) Provisions related to accessible evacuation and safe egress for 82% Inclusive of renewable energy 59% people of all ages and abilities technologies Water-efficiency measures –for Provisions to address a wider water efficient fixtures and fittings, 50% range of needs beyond people 23% and water collection and reuse with mobility challenges11 Low-carbon design approaches including using recycled and 23% recyclable materials10 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Notes: Note: 9. Countries with some types of provisions for passive measures in addition to provisions 11. Countries with provisions to address the needs of people with cognitive difficulties. for natural ventilation and daylighting. 10. Countries with provisions for low carbon design and the use of recycled materials. KEY RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the study, the following key recommendations have been identified. Although the study was high-level, the recommendations can be useful as a starting point ahead of more detailed analysis to inform prioritized actions for specific countries. Topic 1 Recommendations: Building Code Development R1.1 Set clear processes for code development with defined roles and For further information: responsibilities, stakeholders, activities, data requirements, and timelines, Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3 & Table supported by adequate resources. 2.2 Developing building codes is an intensive exercise which requires clearly defined processes, roles, responsibilities, and resource allocation, with Key Stakeholders: wide stakeholder participation and a rigorous validation process. Those National government and/or local government, bodies leading code leading code development should consider setting the criteria that trig- development ger code updates and whether sharing resources and knowledge through regional code development activities would be beneficial. R1.2 Ensure that building codes are well-tailored to the country context. For further information: Building codes need to be well-tailored to the local context, including local Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2 & Table development patterns, hazards, climatic conditions, social and cultural 2.2 factors, common construction practices, and construction sector capac- ity. Adapting model codes or another country’s code to a new country Key Stakeholders: or jurisdiction can be more efficient than developing new codes from Bodies leading code development, disaster risk management (DRM) scratch, but it still requires substantial effort. For example, country-spe- agencies, code development cific design criteria for hazards are generally needed, and modifications technical committees, wider code to the code may be needed to align with local capacity and common con- development stakeholders struction practices. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xxii R1.3 Ensure that building code provisions are complete and consistent. For further information: During code development, it must be verified that compliance procedures Chapter 2 & Table 2.2 for design and construction are complete, and code documents have consistent and compatible provisions, including when other codes and/or Key Stakeholders: international standards are referenced. Code development technical com- mittees, standards development organizations R1.4 Harmonize code provisions across different topic areas. For further information: Code provisions are typically developed by expert specialists in a siloed Chapter 2, Table 2.2, Chapter 4, manner, whereas a multidisciplinary approach would better balance risks Section 4.2.5 and benefits and achieve harmonization of provisions across topic areas. For example, fire risk must be considered when introducing green building Key Stakeholders: measures. Code development technical com- mittees, wider code development stakeholders Topic 2 Recommendations: Code Provisions for Small-Scale Buildings R2.1 Include simplified provisions for common types of small-scale For further information: buildings. Chapter 4, Sections 4.1.2.7 & 4.2.1, Including simplified provisions, communicated in a straightforward man- Chapter 6, Section 6.3.2 ner for common types of small-scale buildings, can increase code com- pliance and promote safe construction. This approach better tailors the Key Stakeholders: provisions to local capacity and the types of buildings commonly con- Bodies leading code development, code development technical com- structed by communities, often without input from design and construc- mittees, wider code development tion professionals. stakeholders, community- and self- builders, insurance industry R2.2 Incorporate code provisions for vernacular construction that are For further information: adapted for local hazards. Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2.4 & Including code provisions for local vernacular construction types that are Chapter 5, Section 5.3.2 adapted for local hazards has the benefit of promoting safe construction practices for local materials and techniques. Key Stakeholders: See R 2.1, also DRM agencies Topic 3 Recommendations: Code Provisions for Existing Buildings R3.1 Include code requirements for modifications and/or change of use of For further information: existing buildings. Chapter 4, Sections 4.1.2.6 & Building codes predominantly address the design and construction of new 4.2.4, Chapter 5, Section 5.1.3, buildings. However, to address risks to existing buildings and provide clear Chapter 9, Section 9.2.4, Chapter guidance on adaptive re-use of buildings to improve sustainability, code 10, Section 10.2.1 provisions should also cover existing buildings. Key Stakeholders: Bodies leading code develop- R3.2 Include code provisions for building assessment, rehabilitation and retrofit. ment, code development tech- Incorporating existing building provisions allows for the proactive assess- nical committees, wider code ment and retrofitting of buildings. This can improve safety and reduce dam- development stakeholders, DRM age from disaster events, protecting lives and leading to faster recovery agencies times. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xxiii Topic 4 Recommendations: Code Provisions for Seismic Design R4.1 Review and periodically update country-specific seismic hazard maps. For further information: Countries can benefit from improving the quality and resolution of seismic Chapter 5, Sections 5.1.1 & 5.3.1 hazard maps in the building codes, to more accurately reflect the best available information, using up-to-date methodologies to inform building Key Stakeholders: design criteria. Bodies leading code development, code development technical com- mittees, wider code development stakeholders, DRM agencies R4.2 Improve critical elements of seismic design code requirements, such For further information: as geotechnical provisions, ductile detailing provisions, and diaphragm Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2.3, Chapter design provisions. 5, Section 5.1.3 Geotechnical and foundation design provisions are particularly critical in seismic regions, to ensure that foundations can withstand seismic actions. Key Stakeholders: Diaphragms are a critical component to effectively transfer lateral loads See R 4.1 to the buildings’ main lateral system. Ductile detailing provisions for struc- tural elements are essential to ensure they can absorb and dissipate earth- quake-induced energy through deformations—as opposed to failing in an undesirable, brittle manner, which may lead to partial or total building collapse. R4.3 Improve code provisions for the design of nonstructural components to For further information: protect occupants and limit service disruption after major earthquakes. Chapter 5, Section 5.1.3 To enhance the seismic performance of nonstructural components, codes can limit building lateral displacements and include design/detail- Key Stakeholders: ing requirements for verifying seismic safety of nonstructural elements See R 4.1 and their connections. Preventing damage to nonstructural components will reduce harm to occupants and assets within buildings and ensure that services can be restored more quickly after an earthquake. R4.4 Consider the inclusion of seismic design provisions to limit damage For further information: and service disruption after an earthquake, especially for selected Chapter 2, Box 2.5, Chapter 4, types of higher importance/critical buildings. Section 4.2.2, Chapter 5, Section Recent earthquakes have shown that buildings designed for Life Safety 5.1.3 performance may be uneconomical to repair. It can be desirable to include code provisions intended to achieve enhanced performance, including Key Stakeholders: See R 4.1 functional recovery objectives, and as a result limit damage in the struc- tural and nonstructural building systems through more stringent prescrip- tive requirements, performance-based design approaches and nonlinear seismic analysis procedures, and/or application of advanced seismic sys- tems (such as base isolation devices and dampers). Topic 5 Recommendations: Code Provisions for Wind Design R5.1 Review and periodically update country-specific wind design maps. For further information: Codes in some countries can benefit from including up-to-date wind- Chapter 6, Section 6.1 & 6.3.1 design maps, developed using a probabilistic methodology, to ensure the safety of occupants and limit damage and disruption caused by strong Key Stakeholders: wind events. Bodies leading code development, code development technical com- mittees, wider code development stakeholders, DRM agencies Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xxiv R5.2 Improve wind design provisions for roofs, cladding, and other non- For further information: structural components to increase the resilience of buildings to strong Chapter 6, Sections 6.1, 6.2 & wind events. 6.3.2 Provisions related to the design of roof overhangs, roof cladding, wall cladding and other appendages to resist wind loading can reduce damage Key Stakeholders: to building components from wind loads—leading to faster recovery times See R 5.1 after strong wind events. Depending on the in-country capacity, consider the inclusion of R5.3 For further information: performance-based design approaches in the code provisions for wind Chapter 2, Box 2.5, Chapter 4, design of tall buildings and other complex structures. Section 4.2.2, Chapter 6, Sections Codes can prescribe special design and analysis procedures to capture 6.1 & 6.3.3 dynamic behavior under wind loading to ensure the safety of tall build- ings and other complex structures, including performance-based design Key Stakeholders: See R 5.1 approaches. Topic 6 Recommendations: Code Provisions to Address Climate Hazards R6.1 Incorporate green building measures to mitigate the impacts of ex- For further information: treme heat. Chapter 9, Sections 9.1.2 & 9.3.1 Codes should consider including provisions to reduce the risks of extreme heat for building occupants such as for natural ventilation, green and/or Key Stakeholders: ‘cool’ roofs, and external solar shading. Codes can also combine green Bodies leading code development, building measures with other strategies related to the wider site such as planning authorities, code devel- opment technical committees, requirements for external planting to provide shade and specifications for wider code development stake- the solar reflectivity of site hardscaping. holders, DRM agencies R6.2 Incorporate provisions to mitigate the impacts of flooding. For further information: Flood risks are predominantly managed through planning regulations that Chapter 7, Sections 7.1, 7.2 & 7.3 prohibit construction on flood-prone sites and help determine appropri- ate locations to construct buildings. As flood risk is increasing due to the Key Stakeholders: impacts of climate change and pressure on land for development, there See R 6.1 is a need for building codes to address flooding, with provisions to limit building damage and disruption and designate safe areas for evacuation if a building is flooded. R6.3 Incorporate provisions for buildings and their surrounding sites to reduce For further information: the risk of wildfires. Chapter 8, Section 8.1 Although the study did not evaluate building code provisions to reduce the risk of wildfires (still very rarely included in building codes), wildfires Key Stakeholders: are becoming a growing problem due to the impacts of climate change. Bodies leading code development, Measures to reduce the risk of wildfire include using fire-resistant materi- planning and land management authorities, code development tech- als, detailing to prevent ignition from wind-blown embers, and site-related nical committees, wider code devel- measures such as controlling flammable vegetation. opment stakeholders, DRM agencies Topic 7 Recommendations: Green Building and Universal Accessibility Provisions R7.1 Increase the adoption of green building provisions related to energy For further information: efficiency. Chapter 9, Sections 9.1, 9.2, & 9.3.2 Code provisions to improve energy efficiency are needed to make build- ing operations more affordable and support global sustainability goals. Key Stakeholders: At present, these provisions are often voluntary, or mandatory only for National and/or local government, certain types of buildings. Also see R 7.4. bodies leading code development, code development technical com- mittees, wider code development R7.2 Increase the adoption of green building provisions related to water stakeholders efficiency, collection, and reuse. Water efficiency measures are often relatively easy to implement and can help to address the problem of water scarcity, which is increasingly com- mon due to the impacts of climate change. Executive Summary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES xxv R7.3 Incorporate provisions for low-carbon design. For further information: The building sector accounts for 37 percent of total greenhouse gas Chapter 9, Sections 9.1, 9.2, & 9.3.2 (GHG) emissions worldwide, with around one quarter of those emissions associated with embodied carbon (GlobalABC, 2024). Building codes can Key Stakeholders: promote low- carbon design through additional requirements related to See R7.1 the use of lower-carbon materials, consideration of life-cycle approaches (for example, recycling and recyclable materials), and expanding existing building provisions to enable adaptive reuse of existing buildings. R7.4 Introduce mandatory provisions to advance green buildings and For further information: universal accessibility where appropriate. Chapter 9, Chapter 10 Green building provisions and universal accessibility provisions are often voluntary. Countries can support the transition to stricter requirements Key Stakeholders: for buildings by mandating green building and universal accessibility See R7.1 requirements for public buildings, while supporting market-driven mech- anisms such as green building certification systems and financial incen- tives for privately-owned buildings. In addition, these provisions should be expanded to address retrofits to existing buildings. Topic 8 Recommendations: Building Code Implementation R8.1 Ensure that efficient and transparent building control processes are in For further information: place, with streamlined processes and information available online. Chapter 11 Transparent and streamlined building control processes are needed to facilitate compliance. More efficient processes, including digitized sys- Key Stakeholders: tems, can also reduce the time and resources needed within building National and/or local government, control. bodies leading building regu- lations development, building control departments, design and R8.2 Target building control resources toward buildings of higher importance. construction professionals, pro- Optimized processes with requirements linked to a categorization based fessional organizations, insurance on project risk level and/or importance of the building can ensure that industry building control requirements are proportionate, and less onerous for typ- ical buildings. Benefits include a more effective use of resources for build- ing control and reduced barriers for compliance. R8.3 Leverage the engagement of the private sector paired with mechanisms to monitor the performance of the private sector. If building control resources are limited, countries can consider supple- menting building control capacity with private-sector participation. To ensure quality control and avoid conflicts of interest, mechanisms are required to ensure the use of qualified personnel and systems to monitor the performance of private- sector engagement. R8.4 Where appropriate, consider incentives for compliance. If resources are available, it can be useful to introduce incentives to facilitate investment in the safety, resilience, sustainability and univer- sal accessibility of buildings, for both existing and new private buildings. Incentives can be financial such as grants, subsidies, tax breaks, govern- ment-backed low-interest loans, or take the form of expedited or relaxed building control processes, or recognition, promoted through certification or awards. R8.5 Invest in capacity building to support code compliance. Continuous investment in capacity building is essential to support code compliance. Capacity building can take the form of guidance and train- ing for public- and private-sector stakeholders, including formal routes to professional licensing and/or certification. In addition, public communica- tion campaigns and community engagement can raise awareness of the benefits of code compliance and gather valuable feedback on how best to implement building codes in practice. 1. Introduction Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Photo credit: dutourdumonde | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 2 1. Introduction The built environment is under pressure as disasters and extreme events become increasingly frequent. To limit damage and disruption from recurring events, buildings must be more resilient to both sudden-onset and chronic hazards and risks, while also meeting minimum standards for structural safety, accessibility, and com- fort (Harle et al., 2024; Al-Humaiqani and Al-Ghamdi, 2022). The devastating earthquakes in Türkiye and Syria in February 2023 served as a reminder of the scale of destruction inflicted by disasters on the built environment and communities. The earthquakes resulted in the deaths of 56,683 people in Türkiye and Syria, affected an area of 350,000 km² (similar to the size of Germany), and led to the destruction or severe damage of more than 300,000 buildings, according to UN estimates (DEC, 2024). Although chronic hazards, such as frequent and more intensive heat or water scarcity, receive less attention than less frequent disaster events such as earthquakes or severe flooding, their ongoing impacts can be of a similar magnitude or even exceed the most severe disaster losses. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that heat-related mortality in the WHO European region has increased by 30 percent over the past 20 years, with more than 175,000 heat-related deaths occurring in the region every year on average (WHO, 2024). Investing in a more resilient and sustainable built environment as urbanization is increasing is one of the most effective ways to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Climate change impacts are a major driver of risk to the built environment, with storms and other strong wind events, floods, and heat waves occurring with increasing frequency and severity. At the same time, the construction sector was estimated to generate 37 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions in 2021 (GlobalABC, 2024), with the sector expected to grow on average at six percent per year over the 2023–2037 period (Oxford Economics, 2023). It is also increasingly recognized that people of all ages and abilities should be able to fully participate in soci- ety and access essential services. For example, the World Health Organization’s Global report on health equity for persons with disabilities (WHO, 2022), estimated that 16 percent of the world’s population, around 1.3 billion people, live with some form of disability. Due to global trends such as aging populations, and the impacts of disasters and climate change, the number of persons with disabilities is expected to increase (World Bank, 2022). Therefore, there is a strong need to integrate the principles of universal accessibility or ‘barrier free’ design into the built environment. Effective building regulations are essential to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change, frequent disasters, and the growing societal expectation for buildings to be accessible to users of all ages and abilities. These regulations ensure that buildings are not only safe and sustainable but also resilient and inclu- sive. As a critical component of building regulatory frameworks, building codes establish a comprehensive set of requirements for the design and construction of buildings. Promulgated by local or national governments, these codes provide a structured approach to ensure that all construction activities meet specific safety, sustainability, and accessibility standards. Building codes often refer to or incorporate other standards, such as material design standards, testing standards, and other topic-specific guidelines. By doing so, they make these standards legal requirements that must be adhered to in all design and construction work within the building code’s jurisdiction. They not only protect lives but also prevent economic disruption and property damage (World Bank, 2023c). 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 3 1.1 BENEFITS OF BUILDING CODES Context-appropriate building codes and code compliance mechanisms can be a cost-effective way to reduce risk and improve resilience. A comprehensive cost-benefit study in the USA showed that every US dollar invested in adopting and implementing model building codes such as the ICC International Building Code1 would avoid US$ 11 in losses, and every dollar invested in further code improvements for building resilience would avoid an additional US$ 4 in losses (Multi-Hazard Mitigation Council, 2019). A follow-up study by the US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) found that the proportion of building stock in the country that was constructed in accordance with post-2000 model hazard-resistant ICC codes would realize an estimated US$ 1.6 billion in avoided average annual losses (AAL). Given a projection in which 70 percent of US buildings are constructed in compliance with model building codes (for example, I-Codes),2 the avoided AAL is estimated to total US$ 132 billion by 2040 (FEMA, 2020b). Building codes, when effectively implemented and enforced, are an essential tool for promoting public safety, as well as providing comfortable, sustainable and accessible spaces for communities. A well-regulated building sector can protect the public from unsafe buildings, poor construction practices and environmental risks by set- ting minimum standards of practice. Many societies, particularly in urban areas, have moved away from self- or community-built construction (also referred to as ‘non-engineered’ or ‘vernacular’), which relied on local traditions and construction practices, to buildings designed and constructed with the input of professional engineers or architects. At the same time, there is a global trend, particularly in urban and suburban areas, toward application of modern construction technologies such as reinforced concrete, which require imported or manufactured mate- rials, advanced design and construction skills, and specialized equipment. As a result, building owners—and their occupants—can be unfamiliar with key aspects of safety and construction quality (WHE and EERI, 2008). In that context, building code adoption and effective implementation can help ensure that minimum design and construc- tion standards are met and support more informed choices about design tradeoffs, reflecting society’s priorities for safety, health, and comfort (World Bank, 2023c). Building codes and compliance mechanisms that are clear, up-to-date, transparent and well-tailored to the country context and local capacity can support economic growth and increase investor confidence. They do so by improving the safety and reliability of buildings while reducing the likelihood of errors in design and execution of building development projects by private-sector professionals and building control authorities, while also mini- mizing unnecessary delays, disputes, and uncertainty (World Bank, 2024a). They also set consistent and verifiable minimum standards for building performance for private-sector investors and insurers looking to protect their investments and generate returns. Building codes can also support wider societal efforts to advance broader agendas for safer, more sustain- able, and more inclusive urban development. For example, universal accessibility requirements are incorporated in building codes to ensure that people of all ages and abilities can use buildings, especially facilities that house essential public services (Terashima and Clark, 2021). Requirements for improved ventilation and indoor air quality can improve productivity and reduce airborne disease transmission (Saeedi et al., 2023). Building codes offer a mechanism for setting requirements for all new construction and alterations of the build- ings they cover, providing a powerful tool to operationalize national or local priorities for the life of a building. This is particularly important in developing economies where extensive construction is anticipated in the next few decades. Buildings constructed today are likely to last generations, so buildings that do not align with long-term 1 The codes considered in this study were post-2000 model building codes developed by the International Code Council (ICC); a US based non-profit organization. These International Codes (I-Codes) are a coordinated set of 15 building safety codes, including the International Building Code (IBC) (ICC, 2024b). 2 The I-Codes are a set of model USA building codes which include the International Building Code (IBC) and others. Refer to https:// codes.iccsafe.org/i-codes/. 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 4 priorities may become burdensome to government and building owners, may require expensive retrofitting or fail to protect residents from increasing risks. 1.2 RISK TO THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS INCREASING Disaster losses are intensifying as a result of climate change impacts and increased risk linked to rapid urban development and population growth in regions exposed to hazards. In 2023 alone, 86,473 deaths were reported as a direct consequence of disasters globally, alongside economic losses estimated at US$ 202.7 billion (CRED, 2023). One study found that the number of major disasters increased by 175 percent from 2000 to 2019 com- pared to the previous 20-year period (1980–1999); this corresponded to an increase in economic losses of 182 percent. Over the same periods, climate-related disasters increased by 183 percent, predominantly storms and floods (CRED and UNDRR, 2021). The true scale of disaster losses is likely to be underestimated, due to persistent challenges in obtaining reliable disaster data. Data gaps for disaster losses are prevalent in lower-income coun- tries, and for slower onset events like drought, epidemics and extreme temperature events (Jones et al., 2022). Urban development patterns are influencing the level of risk. Between 1985 and 2022, for example, 76,400 km² of land that was transformed through urbanization faced estimated inundation depths of at least 0.5 meters during severe flooding (Rentschler et al., 2022). In this evolving risk landscape, effective building regulations must consider a wider range and variety of haz- ards and risks, alongside the increasingly complex interactions among them. Most current building codes focus on provisions for building safety and stability under gravity, wind and earthquake loads, where building damage is deemed acceptable for more infrequent, extreme events, provided that the damage does not cause loss of life or injury. There is a need to expand building codes to address other hazards such as floods, wildfires, and extreme temperatures, to which buildings are being exposed with increasing severity and frequency around the world. For example, in response to increasing losses from wildfires, Australia developed and adopted a building design stan- dard3 to reduce the risk of damage and losses from bushfire. The standard includes building design provisions to prevent fire ignition from embers, radiant heat, and direct contact with flames from wildfires. In addition, design criteria in building codes must consider predictions of future trends related to the magnitude and frequency of hazard events due to climate change and other human-induced impacts. For example, Canada is in the process of updating its National Building Code to account for future climate change effects on wind patterns, precipitation, severe weather events, and temperature changes (Government of Canada, 2024). A shift is needed from current code approaches that address individual hazards separately to a more coor- dinated set of code provisions that consider the design tradeoffs for buildings subjected to multiple hazards over their design life. Buildings are often exposed to multiple and evolving hazards, which need to be considered— despite the increased design complexity demanded—not least because design solutions for one hazard might inadvertently increase vulnerability to another. For example, buildings that use timber structural systems can be more sustainable and perform better in earthquakes but may be more vulnerable to strong winds and flooding (de Ruiter, 2021). Another key example is the need to better address fire safety considerations in provisions and requirements for using green building technologies (Meacham and McNamee, 2020). Thus, codes should aim to address performance requirements holistically to optimize safety and improve resilience to hazards in combina- tion with sustainability, as these goals are interdependent. 1.3 OVERVIEW OF BUILDING REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS A building regulatory framework is the set of laws, regulatory documents, compliance mechanisms, education and training requirements, product testing and certification, professional qualifications, and licensing schemes 3 Australian Standard 3959-2018: Construction of buildings in bushfire-prone areas (Standards Australia, 2018). 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 5 that support a safe and sustainable built environment (see Figure 1.1. below). It is composed of three core com- ponents: (i) legislation and building regulations that comprise a building regulatory system, including legislative acts that reference the planning regulations, building design codes and construction standards, and building con- trol regulations; (ii) control and compliance mechanisms and capacity such as building control processes, includ- ing construction quality assurance; and (iii) the wider enabling environment to support implementation of building regulations, including professional licensing and insurance mechanisms (World Bank, 2023c). Figure 1.1 // Key components and actors in the building regulatory framework Key Components Key Actors • Building Acts Legislation, • National government • Building Code or regulations regulations/ (or relevant jurisdiction) • Guidance, information, etc. codes • Professional bodies • Building Control Process • Construction monitoring & inspection • Local governments • Material testing & quality control Control & • Dedicated authorities • Building department management compliance (capacity, finance) • Professional registration & • Professional bodies accreditation/licensing Enablers • Private sector • Insurance Regulatory instruments in this framework fall into five main categories: ➊ Building acts: the overarching laws passed by a legislative body (such as a national or state government) that establish the legal framework for building design, construction and safety and mandate the creation and enforcement of building codes. ➋ Building policies: refers to a set of overarching principles, guidelines, and regulations established by local, regional, or national governments to govern the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of build- ings. Building policies, while not legally binding like acts, provide guidance and direction for implementing building codes. They can set targets, priorities, and incentives to encourage compliance with the codes. ❸ Planning regulations and related land use and development plans: these prescribe where development is permitted, and for which types of buildings and occupancies. These regulations can include considerations such as either prohibiting development at higher-risk sites or requiring site mitigations as a condition of development. ➍ Building codes (also referred to as building design and construction regulations): these set minimum requirements related to building performance, covering such areas as structural safety, fire safety, heating, cooling, ventilation, indoor air quality, plumbing, sanitary facilities, lighting, green building (including energy and water efficiency), and universal accessibility requirements. 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 6 ➎ Building control regulations: requirements and processes for obtaining design approvals, occupancy per- mits, as well as for performing site inspections. They also define the roles and responsibilities of building control authorities, design and construction sector professionals, as well as penalties and incentives for compliance and dispute resolution mechanisms (World Bank, 2023c). For example, the structure of New Zealand’s building regulatory framework is described here and illustrated in Figure 1.2 below. All building work in New Zealand must comply with specific requirements outlined in legislation and regulations, ensuring proper execution, qualified personnel, and consumer protection. The building regulatory system promotes quality decision-making through the Building Act 2004, which governs the industry, and the Building Code, which sets minimum performance standards.4 The code is supplemented by additional regulations that detail specific controls, such as prescribed forms and definitions. This regulatory framework works in tandem with other legislation, including the Resource Management Act, laws for qualified plumbing, gas, and electrical work, the Fire and Emergency New Zealand Act 2017, and council bylaws. Figure 1.2 // A sample building regulatory structure, based on the New Zealand building regulatory framework Building Act Building Code Objective, Functional Legislation Requirements, (Mandatory) Performance Criteria Deemed to Comply Alternative Compliance Solutions Verification Acceptable pathways Demonstrate Methods Solutions compliance with Performance Criteria Cited Information Guidance issued under the Building Act Information Source: Government of New Zealand, 2024. The exact structure and organization of building regulations may vary but having clarity on the legislation that for- mally adopts the mandatory provisions in the building code and building control regulations is essential. 4 To meet the minimum standards, New Zealand’s code allows users to implement prescriptive provisions or performance-based ap- proaches—or both—and also allows the use of ‘alternative solutions’. These can be proposed by the user and are acceptable as long as they comply with required performance criteria set out by the code. Refer to Box 2.5 in Chapter 2 for more detail on prescriptive and performance-based provisions. 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 7 1.4 BUILDING CODES A building code (also referred to as building regulations in some jurisdictions) is a set of legally adopted mini- mum performance requirements for building design and construction. It is part of a broader building regulatory framework, as described in Section 1.3. Building codes can be structured in different ways. For example, comprehensive provisions for building design and construction (for example, architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP), fire safety, accessibility, energy efficiency, and so forth) can be contained in a single document; alternatively, a building code can comprise a coordinated set of documents. These regulations often refer to or incorporate other standards, such as material standards that provide technical specifications, or guidelines that are recognized as best prac- tices. Building codes typically contain design and construction provisions in the following areas (World Bank, 2023c; NIST, 2024): » Architectural design provisions: Interior and exterior environment, occupancy types, provisions for egress; » Structural design and construction provisions: Applicable loads, design of structures constructed using different materials; » Geotechnical engineering provisions: Site investigations, soil parameters for foundation design; » Fire safety provisions:5 Fire prevention, resistance to fire/fire spread, fire suppression, occupant safety, ref- uge and egress, and fire service access; » Water, sanitation and hygiene provisions: Plumbing, including water supply and wastewater, hand washing and toilet facilities; » Indoor air quality and comfort provisions: Lighting, heating, cooling and ventilation; » Green building provisions: Energy- and water-efficiency provisions, low-carbon design; and » Universal accessibility provisions: to allow use of the building by people of all ages and abilities. In some cases, building regulation documents may combine design and construction provisions with planning/ development and other building control requirements. However, while critically important, a detailed assessment of planning and building control regulations is not the focus of this report. High-level implementation consider- ations related to the development of building codes are explored in Chapter 2, Section 2.2. Although building design and construction provisions typically apply to new buildings, code provisions related to existing buildings are also important. For example, codes or regulations may include requirements for building additions, change of use, or safe building demolition. To ensure the ongoing safety and performance of existing buildings, codes can benefit from having technical provisions for building assessment, rehabilitation and/or retro- fit. Other code provisions for existing buildings can include special requirements for alterations to buildings with cultural heritage value. Building codes often refer to other technical documents (called reference standards) that contain specific design and construction provisions, material-specific design, products testing and certification, or information on other topics. Although there is no precisely agreed definition of how reference standards are distinguished from codes, some distinctions are presented in Table 1.1 below. 5 In some cases, certain types of design provisions, such as fire-safety provisions, may be covered in a separate fire code or other form of regulation. 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 8 Table 1.1 // Distinctions between codes and reference standards Topic Codes Reference standards Legal status Codes are explicitly adopted through Standards only have legal status when incorporated into codes and/ mandating legislation and promulgated or regulations but can also have status as voluntary standards and be by governments and include mandatory generally recognized as part of “good practice”. provisions for design and construction. Oversight of The code development process is Standards can be developed by the public or private sector with support Development typically led by governments although a from professional organizations and with a suitable representation wide range of stakeholders are involved, of stakeholders. This process can be led by—and the final standard including technical and industry experts. approved and published by—a Standards Developing Organization. Scope Codes typically cover a broader scope of Standards typically cover a specific topic or a more limited range of topics and issues. issues. Code documents and how they relate to reference standards can be organized in different ways, as illustrated in Figure 1.3 below. Figure 1.3 // Examples of different options for the organization of code documents: (a) International Building Code (IBC), developed in the USA where a main code document refers to various reference standards and (b) Nepal Building Code where all provisions are included in the code documents. a. Example 1: International Building Code (USA) b. Example 2: Nepal Building Code Legislative Legislation to adopt at USA Legislation to adopt at country Instrument state, country or city level level in 131 municipalities Main Code NBC 101 NBC 102 NBC 103 NBC 104 Document International Building Code materials materials occupancy wind etc. specification unit weight load load Reference 23 documents in total ASCE 7 ACI 318 AISC TMS 402 Standards loading concrete steel masonry Globally, most building codes are set at a national level, but there are some exceptions for selected countries with federal systems of government or where cities or other types of local jurisdictions have their own code requirements. In these cases, states or other territorial units have the power to set the building codes. These include India, and Nigeria, or the USA for example. Other countries, such as Indonesia, formerly gave each city or regency (district) the authority to set its building code,6 but have now moved to regulations and building control requirements set at national level. Even within a national system, in some cases cities have the authority to man- date additional building code requirements tailored to their specific needs and priorities. Codes can be developed through a variety of approaches, but such approaches should be adapted to meet country-specific requirements. Some countries develop the entirety of their code using in-country expertise and 6 In practice, the Indonesian design standards were developed at national level, but different cities and/or regencies formerly had the authority to decide whether their local jurisdictions would comply with the most up-to-date standards. 1. Introduction A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 9 through various levels of consultation with stakeholders. Others use model codes (such as the I-Codes)7 as an initial starting point but then adapt these to address local requirements or practices. Although model codes can accelerate adopting and implementing a code, significant effort is required to tailor them to the specific needs of the country and/or local jurisdictions to allow for effective implementation. This report focuses primarily on building regulations that contain design and construction provisions; these are henceforth typically referred to as building codes. 7 https://codes.iccsafe.org/codes/i-codes 2. Considerations for Building Code Development Istanbul, Türkiye. Photo credit: Ipek Morel | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 11 2. Considerations for Building Code Development Developing comprehensive building codes lays the groundwork for a built environment that is safe, resilient, and sustainable. As urbanization accelerates and the impacts of climate change become more pronounced, the need for robust and adaptive building codes is increasingly urgent. Effective codes are central to the design and construction of buildings that can withstand natural disasters, reduce environmental impact, and provide safe and accessible spaces for all. This chapter delves into the intricate process of building code development, exploring the challenges faced, the types of innovative solutions that can be implemented, and the lessons learned from various countries around the world. 2.1 TRANSITION TO COMPREHENSIVE BUILDING REGULATIONS  Before formal building regulatory frameworks were widely adopted, most common types of buildings followed vernacular or traditional forms. Vernacular construction used local materials and construction techniques devel- oped over time, and the designs were influenced by locally available materials, cultural practices, geography and environmental conditions. In some cases, vernacular building types were also well adapted to local hazards, most likely through an empirical process where construction methods for buildings that performed better prevailed. For example, traditional Vietnamese buildings in the low-lying river deltas have customarily been elevated on stilts to adapt to frequent flooding, while lightweight plant-based wall panels in these buildings can be removed to reduce damage in strong wind events (Ngo, 2010). Increasing urbanization, combined with the impacts on societies of disasters such as fires, earthquakes and strong wind events, motivated efforts to enact and strengthen building regulations. For example, after the great fire in ancient Rome in 64 AD, building regulations, including fire safety-related building requirements, were imposed by Emperor Nero (ICC, 2021a). See Figure 2.1 for other early examples of building regulation development. The development of modern building codes began in the early 1900s, and from then on, their adoption has gained pace in many cities and countries. Early 20th century building codes often focused on setting minimum standards to protect building occupants, and primarily included provisions related to public safety: structural sta- bility, public health and sanitation, and fire-safety requirements. Over time, codes have become more detailed and comprehensive, benefiting from progress in building engineering knowledge, including performance-based design approaches and lessons learned from past disasters. Many codes now also include provisions for energy efficiency, other green building measures, and universal accessibility. 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 12 Figure 2.1 // Timeline of selected early building codes Building Decree, Rome Earthquake Regulations, Costa Rica After the great fire of 64 AD, Emperor After the devastating earthquakes of 1910, the first Nero issued a decree to limit building seismic design regulations are adopted to prohibit earthen height, restrict use of timber and construction in favor of bahareque wall construction allow for roof access to fight fires Uniform Building Code, USA First USA seismic design code Wind Design, USA Code of Hammurabi, Babylon Building Regulations, South Africa Design wind pressure maps are Earliest written construction law Imposed by East India Company, adopted as part of the ASCE 7 focused on fire safety standard for the entire country ˜1750 BCE 64 1660 1914 1927 1955 ˜1000 BCE 1104 1667 1924 1933 The Bible An act for rebuilding the city of London The Field Act, California Rules on parapets, mold After the great fire of London (1666), a The act prohibits masonry construction remediation new law required all new buildings to be for schools and strengthens other of brick or stone (not wood) and limited seismic design provisions, after many to a maximum number of stories unreinforced masonry schools collapsed in the Long Beach Earthquake Yingzao Fashi, China The Japanese Building Code A legally mandated set of national After the Great Kanto earthquake construction laws, standards, and and fire (1923), the code required statutes for public buildings, addresses that buildings must resist lateral risk from strong winds and earthquakes loads from earthquakes Source: Developed by authors based on referenced materials: The Bible, Deuteronomy 22:8 and Leviticus, 14; ICC, 2021a; Ma and Li, 2023; Laubscher, 2011; Barben and Solonsky, 2017; Reitherman, 2012; Vaughan and Turner, 2013. 2.2 BUILDING CODE DEVELOPMENT This section provides an overview of various approaches to developing and organizing building codes. It explores the steps involved in the code development process and highlights key considerations that influence the effectiveness and adaptability of building codes. By understanding these approaches and considerations, stake- holders can better navigate the complexities of building code development to ensure safety, resilience, sustainabil- ity and accessibility of the built environment. 2.2.1 Approaches for building code development An important initial consideration in the code development process is to determine the overall approach and basis for the code provisions. This decision is highly dependent on the current stage of code development in a country or jurisdiction. Countries at different stages of maturity in their building codes require distinct approaches: emerging markets may focus on establishing basic code frameworks, countries with more mature building codes may focus on updating and enhancing existing provisions -- for example, by incorporating performance-based design requirements. The most common approaches include: (i) development of a new code from scratch (de novo); (ii) adoption of a model building code or another country’s code with modifications to tailor it to the jurisdic- tion’s context; (iii) further development (maintenance) of an existing code that is already in place to ensure that it reflects the latest research and current safety and performance requirements; or (iv) a combination of the above. Refer to Figure 2.2 for a summary of these approaches. Any changes to the code need to be coordinated and har- monized with wider legislative acts and regulations in the code jurisdiction. 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 13 Figure 2.2 // Common code development approaches Developing a new building Further development of a Adopting a model code (de novo) for the country’s (or jurisdiction’s) building code country or jurisdiction existing building code Model code at national Other international model Regional model code level code + + + State or other Country or other Country-specific code jurisdiction-specific jurisdiction-specific parameters code parameters code parameters Box 2.1 // Influence of international and model building codes around the world A review of global building code influences as part of this study revealed that 109 countries have adopted either model codes and standards or have been strongly influenced by codes from other countries. Refer to Annex C for a table of the country code influence data. Figure B2.1 // Map of countries that have adopted model codes or standards or were influenced by international codes Eurocode (EU) Australian codes and standards IBC (USA) Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Pre Eurocode Portuguese codes New Zealand codes and standards UBC (USA) SNIP (former USSR) Pre Eurocode Danish codes Australian and New Zealand codes IBC (USA)/pre Eurocode Indian code and standards British Standards Pre Eurocode French codes South African Standards (SABS) Antigua & Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago Turks & Caicos Islands (U.K), United States Virgin Islands (U.S.) French Polynesia (Fr.) Guam (U.S.) Cook Islands (N.Z.), Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu Sources: World Bank, 2023c; PRIF, 2023; ICC, 2024a; JRC, 2024b; Paz, 1994; IISEE, 2024; GEM, 2022. 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 14 The approach to code development depends on the structure of the current regulatory framework, scope of amendments needed, the maturity level of the existing code, and the time and resources available. Each approach has associated benefits and challenges. For example, the effort associated with initial development of a new code entirely from scratch (plus subsequent updates on a regular basis) is more time-consuming, technically demanding and resource-intensive than adoption of a model code or another international code. Developing a new code from scratch provides the opportunity to shape the code specifically for the country's needs and context but can have the disadvantage of less alignment with wider international codes and standards -- particularly where countries wish to import and export construction products and technologies. 2.2.2 Adopting model building codes and standards Model building codes can provide a jurisdiction with a starting point based on knowledge and practices accumu- lated by regional or international experts over many years. By using a model code, and modifying it to fit local or national needs, jurisdictions can save time and effort, as the original code developers have established a foundation for the provisions in key topic areas. This efficiency can extend beyond the codes themselves, as associated educa- tional and implementation resources may also exist, or can be swiftly developed to support adopters. Typically, model codes are regularly updated, presenting opportunities to capture new technologies, practices and lessons learned from prior disaster events. A few examples of model codes and standards are discussed in Box 2.2 below. Box 2.1 above also shows the influence of model codes and other international codes on selected countries around the world. Box 2.2 // Examples of model codes and standards ICC Model Codes  Eurocodes OECS/CUBiC code The International Codes (‘I-Codes’) are The Eurocodes are a set of design and The Caribbean Uniform Building Code a set of model codes for new and exist- construction standards for new and (CUBiC), was first developed in 1985 by ing buildings developed in the USA by existing buildings and other types of a team of regional experts, government the International Code Council (ICC), civil infrastructure (EC, n.d.). representatives of each Member State, a not-for-profit, non-governmental universities, and other design and organization. Development of the Eurocodes began construction sector stakeholders in in 1975 as part of a broader push to the Caribbean (Caribbean Community ICC has facilitated the development introduce common regulations within Secretariat, 1985). of 15 model codes, such as The the European Economic Community, International Energy Conservation and the first Eurocodes were published Subsequently, the Organization of Code (IECC), and the International in 1984 (EC, n.d.). Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)8 Green Construction Code (IgCC). introduced a model building code Since then, these codes have been based on CUBiC and other selected I-Codes have been adopted by most adopted by 31 EU/European Free Trade national codes from Caribbean coun- states or other local jurisdictions in Association (EFTA) countries and the tries to form a basis for updated the USA and by many other countries United Kingdom. national codes in each Member State, around the world (ICC, n.d.). with the latest version published in They have also been adopted or are in The I-Codes are updated every three the process of adoption in 22 non-EU/ 2016 (Wason, 2001; OECS, n.d.; OECS, years through a bottom-up process, EFTA countries (EC, n.d.). 2016). where a range of interested stakehold- This allows the Code to be easily ers such as industry representatives, Updates to the Eurocode are pro- posed at National level by technical amended and approved by the Minister design professionals and the wider without the requirement of parliamen- public can propose code amendments. subcommittees and coordinated and finalized by the Comité Européen tary approval. These amendments are reviewed by ICC specialist committees of stake- de Normalisation (CEN), with major The energy efficiency code for the holder experts and discussed in open updates typically taking place on a five- region (CARICOM Regional Energy public hearings. Code amendments are year cycle (EC, n.d.). Efficiency Building Code) (ICC, 2018) voted on by public hearing participants is based on the International Energy and ICC-appointed governmental rep- Conservation Code (IECC) developed resentatives before being finalized and by ICC. adopted (ICC, n.d.).  8 It has seven full member states: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. (It also has four associate member states). 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 15 When model codes are adopted by a country, significant effort is required to tailor the code to the country’s or jurisdiction’s context, including the development of country-specific code parameters. When adopting a model code, it is necessary to consider design requirements for all relevant construction types, effects of prevalent local hazards, topography and soil conditions, and climatic conditions in a specific country or jurisdiction. Assessing the local design and construction capacities and practices of the country is critical to identify appropriate code provisions and the adjustments required. The model code may also be too complex for straightforward implemen- tation in the country or jurisdiction. Another element to consider is that reference standards are relevant to the construction materials available in that country. Countries with many years of code development that already have a comprehensive and consistently enforced code often chose to develop and update it on a regular basis rather than adopt an internationally developed model code. Overall, countries must balance the need for stringent standards to ensure safety with the costs of compliance and related capacity needs. For example, in countries with resource and capacity constraints, an incremental approach to building code requirements can be effective. This involves setting minimum safety standards that are achievable and gradually increasing stringency as capacity improves. 2.2.3 Code development process Code development is an intensive and complex process; taking a strategic approach and allocating adequate time and resources is essential. This section gives a high-level overview of key steps in the code development process (see Figure 2.3 and Box 2.4 for an example of code conceptualization in Zanzibar as a first step in the code development process). Key aspects of the process include clear definition of the motivation and related objectives for creating or updating the code, understanding the context for the country or jurisdiction, setting the overall approach, compliance mechanisms, and organization of code documents. Development of the code provisions is often led by technical specialists but should also use input from wider stakeholders to take account of social and economic factors. In some cases, code development has been a top-down process with limited stakeholder engagement; this can result in lack of buy-in, reduced compliance, and unintended negative effects on communi- ties and the economy. Figure 2.3 // Overview of the code development process A B C D E F G H Define Understand Set the code Set Develop Perform a Finalize Prepare for objectives the context approach and compliance technical regulatory code legal organization mechanisms provisions impact contents adoption assessment • Identify the • Including: • Options for the • Prescriptive or • Resources and • This can • Final updates • Legislative motivation for development approach performance- expertise evaluate the should processes the code patterns and include based required is costs and consider the ahead of formal update trends, local developing provisions (or highly benefits of findings of the adoption hazards and code a combination) dependent on differnet regulatory • Identify risks, climate provisions the type of options for impact • Any further related conditions, from scratch, • Simplified provisions and code updates assessment harmonization objectives construction adapting provisions scope of the as well as be and any needed with environment another code (and/or ‘rules code update used as feedback from other laws and conditions, or standard, or of thumb’) evidence stakeholder building social and revisions to • Detailed ahead of consultations regulations • Whether technical cultural existing provisions are formal legal • Advance notice factors, provisions studies may be approvals voluntary or required to users economic mandatory factors and • Consider how • A multi- local capacity the code disciplinary documents will approach is be organized recommended Engagement with stakeholders throughout the code development process DARK BLUE 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 16 A regulatory economic impact assessment can be a useful mechanism to formally document the costs and ben- efits of proposed code modifications or updates. In addition to informing the finalization of code provisions, the results of the regulatory impact assessment can also be used as evidence during the legislative processes ahead of formal adoption. Lastly, cross-cutting issues are described, including the code update cycle, resources and time required, and setting clear roles and responsibilities for code development. Box 2.4 // Code conceptualization in Zanzibar In 2023, the World Bank provided Technical Assistance to the Government of Zanzibar, to lay the groundwork for developing a new building code. Activities included establishing consensus on the approach to development of the building code, identifying responsible government agencies and their roles and responsibilities, and providing technical support to the oversight committee for code development. The project identified that the new code needed to be tailored to the country’s monsoon climate and exposure of the built environment to the dominant hazards, including flooding, fire, strong wind events, and earthquakes. In addition, the code needed to consider the cultural heritage of historic “Stone Town”, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Key lessons from the conceptualization process—beyond the fundamental need to understand the local context—were the importance of taking an inclu- sive approach with relevant stakeholders, knowledge sharing with other countries on their experience, and the centrality of capacity building, especially at the beginning of the code implementation stage, for both the private and public sectors. Photo credit: Vita Sanderson 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 17 Table 2.2 below provides more detail on activities and consideration for each step of the code development process. Table 2.2 // Key steps and related considerations for the code development process Steps Activities and key considerations A. Define objectives The motivation for the new or updated code is identified and the related objectives that need to be met are set. B. Understand the For a code to be effective, it must be well-tailored for the country or jurisdiction’s context, hence it is critical context to understand the characteristics of the country/region/jurisdiction early in the code development process (World Bank, 2023c; World Bank, 2024a). Areas include: » Development patterns and trends: for example, the level of informal development, and demographic and urbanization trends in the country; » Local hazards and risks: an understanding of primary hazards and risks governs the types of code provisions needed to ensure public safety; » Local climatic conditions: these will inform the types of green building provisions needed; » Construction environment characteristics: for example, code provisions should address local materi- als and common construction types; » Social and cultural factors: for example, how social and cultural practices influence design, perception of risks, and the needs of vulnerable groups, if incremental construction is common; » Economic factors: for example, if code provisions could hamper innovation or affect market conditions. Other common issues occur when codes prioritize imported materials or enforce rigid requirements that drive up housing costs; » Effort to comply: The requirements for compliance should correspond to the capabilities of expected users and the building control authorities overseeing design and construction. A step-by-step approach, starting with the most important requirements and expanding as capacity increases, can ensure more sustainable implementation, particularly in lower-capacity settings; » Harmonization with wider provisions and regulations: Codes should be developed or updated such that they remain compatible with other code provisions and fit into the wider building regulatory frame- work, including related compliance mechanisms; and » Insurance and liability mechanisms: Codes should take into account what is already in place in the jurisdiction and related legal requirements. For example, housing may need to meet certain minimum code requirements for the homeowner to obtain building insurance. Designers and builders may also be required to hold insurance to practice. C. Set the code Depending on the status of the current code and scope for code development, different approaches to code approach and development can be taken, such as adopting a model code, incremental updates to an existing code or organization developing a new code from scratch (do novo). See Section 2.2.1 and in Figure 2.2. Issues to consider related to organization of code documents include structure of the code and language(s) to be used, how easy it is for users to access the various required documents, and ensuring coordination and compatibility of provisions across code documents and related reference standards. D. Determine Depending on the capacity and skills of the design and construction sector and building control authorities, compliance methods different types of acceptable methods to demonstrate code compliance may be appropriate; typically: » Prescriptive design and construction provisions for engineered buildings where the user needs to follow a set of prescribed step-by-step provisions. Refer to Box 2.5; » Performance-based design requirements where the user needs to demonstrate that the design meets a minimum level of performance, and methods to achieve this are more flexible. Refer to Box 2.5; and » Simplified (‘rules of thumb’) provisions for simple, non-engineered buildings with smaller footprints. In some cases, for example in green building provisions, some provisions may be voluntary to comply with rather than mandatory. E. Develop the The process and resources required for drafting of the code provisions will be largely contingent on the spe- technical provisions cific setting of the country or jurisdiction. The outputs and decisions made in Steps B, C and D will also be considered when developing the code provisions. For example, to develop design criteria and green building provisions, studies may be required to provide an updated characterization of the level of hazard, and climatic conditions. Technical provisions across codes and standards need to be aligned. 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 18 Table 2.2 // Key steps and related considerations for the code development process (cont.) Steps Activities and key considerations F. Perform a To evaluate options for code provisions, it is best practice for a multidisciplinary group of experts with input regulatory impact from wider stakeholders to carry out a Regulatory Impact Assessment. This assessment typically: (i) defines assessment the problem and sets the objectives for the updated code; (ii) gathers data on the contextual characteristics of the country or jurisdiction; (iii) assesses the costs, risks and benefits of each code development option against a baseline, including the impacts on diverse societal groups, different geographical contexts (for ex- ample, low-income groups, rural versus urban), and market conditions; and (iv) evaluates related compliance processes, and distributional effects (Arlani, 1988). The results of the Regulatory Impact Assessment are used by government decision-makers and other stakeholders as part of the formal process ahead of code finalization and approval. Overall, a balance must be found between the stringency and type of code require- ments (voluntary or mandatory) and factors such as cost, compliance burden, and technical feasibility. G. Finalize code Based on the outputs of the regulatory impact assessment and input from decision-makers and other key contents stakeholders, the code will be developed or updated and final revisions to the code will be carried out based on the selected method for developing the technical provisions ahead of the approval process. H. Prepare for In addition to the technical and legislative processes for formal approval, other activities in this phase may implementation include: » Harmonization with other laws and building regulations, including other code documents, and building control regulations for compliance; » Advance notification to users of the date when the code will come into force; » Ensuring that the updated code documents are accessible and affordable to users, for example, trans- lation into commonly used languages, access to the code and reference standards online or in printed form at a reasonable cost; » Plans and required resources for capacity building to improve code compliance (for example, es- tablishment/expansion/funding of enforcement entities, coordination with professional bodies, supple- mentary guidance, trainings, and so forth). Box 2.5 // Prescriptive versus performance-based design approaches It is common for building codes to have design provisions that follow a prescriptive approach. Prescriptive design sets minimum criteria and procedures that buildings need to comply with in the design and construction stages. Prescriptive approaches can also include advanced engineering procedures that, if followed, allow for compliance with an implicit performance objective. For example, a prescriptive provision could specify the spacing and type of nails in a timber stud wall assembly required to resist a certain level of shear loading. The prescriptive approach has the advantage of setting a clear procedure to demonstrate compliance which is relatively straightforward to implement. An alternative approach is performance-based design (PBD). Here, the focus is on achieving specific performance goals for a building, rather than following a set of predefined rules or methods. In PBD, designers have the flexibility to use innovative and creative solutions to meet or exceed the desired outcomes, such as safety, durability, and energy efficiency. The acceptance of the design approach is determined by the regulatory authority (in cases where the building or approach are particularly complex, the authority may rely on third parties or peer reviewers). For example, in seismic design, the concept behind PBD is to set performance objectives for a building, corresponding to an acceptable level of damage due to an earthquake with predefined seismic hazard level (ASCE, 2023c). Unlike a prescriptive design approach, where the building performance criteria are implicitly set by the code developers, PBD objectives are usually established with the active engagement of building owners and other stakeholders who would ultimately be affected by any financial losses and interrupted functionality of the building (FEMA, 2000). 2. Considerations for Building Code Development A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 19 The following cross-cutting issues are essential aspects of the code development process: » The cycle for code updates: criteria and/or a set cycle for when the code is updated can be set in the build- ing regulatory legislation. Triggers for code updates can include lessons learned from disasters, the need to address changing levels of hazard and risk, or imperatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (alongside continual innovation in the design and construction sector); » Clearly assigned roles and responsibilities for code development: these are typically set by the govern- ment, including assignment of ministries that will lead the process and their roles in supporting other gov- ernment entities and technical steering committees; » Time and resources required: Allowing adequate time and resources for technical studies and other expert inputs, stakeholder consultation, feedback—and subsequent revisions— and the legal adoption process;9 » Stakeholder engagement: The process should be transparent, clarify the potential risks and benefits of proposed code development options, and cultivate ownership of regulatory changes (Croley, 2008). Relevant stakeholders can range from government policymakers, building control officials, urban planners, design and construction industry professionals, professional bodies, building owners, insurers, research institutions, environmental groups, economists, social scientists, and local communities (Nwadike et al., 2020); and » Diverse expertise in code development. Code development is often led by technical experts from aca- demia, alongside public- or private-sector professionals with expertise in a variety of disciplines related to the built environment under the direction of government or quasi-governmental entities. In addition, input is needed from regulatory impact specialists, economists, market analysts, and sociologists—as well as com- munity stakeholders—to understand the socioeconomic impacts of the proposed building code provisions. Although it can be more challenging to engage a wider range of stakeholders, this can help ensure that the code aligns better with societal expectations, reduces the risk of regulatory capture by special interests, and can help address the needs of vulnerable groups (Tanner et al., 2020). 9 For example, in the USA, where 15 codes are updated during each cycle, the model code revisions take three years to complete and publish. Individually, jurisdictions sometimes opt to enact updates over a six-year, rather than three-year cycle (ICC, 2021a). 3. Methodology for the Country Assessments Construction site in Kigali, Rwanda. Photo credit: K Neville | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 21 3. Methodology for the Country Assessments This chapter presents the key objectives of this global assessment and the methodology underpinning it. 3.1 KEY OBJECTIVES The primary aim of the review was to understand the content, organization, and accessibility of building codes and related building control mechanisms for selected countries across six different geographic regions. The assessment of building codes focused on design and construction provisions related to structural safety and resil- ience, green building, and universal accessibility. In addition, the review assessed, at a high level, the comprehen- siveness, clarity and accessibility of building control regulations and the broader enabling environment. 3.2 COUNTRY SELECTION  Countries were selected for this study based on the level of expected losses from seismic and cyclonic wind events, regional distribution, and building code status. A total of 22 countries were chosen from the following six regions: East Asia & Pacific (EAP), Europe & Central Asia (ECA), Latin America & Caribbean (LAC), Middle East & North Africa (MENA), South Asia (SA) and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).10 Refer to Map 3.1 below. Map 3.1 // The 22 countries selected for review of building codes and implementation mechanisms ECA Tajikistan Türkiye Uzbekistan MENA Algeria Morocco EAP Indonesia Mongolia SA Philippines Bhutan Samoa LAC Nepal Tonga Chile Vanuatu Colombia El Salvador Mexico SSA Peru SSA Ghana Ghana Mozambique Mozambique Rwanda Rwanda South Africa South Africa EAP East Asia & Pacific ECA Europe & Central Asia LAC Latin America & Caribbean MENA Middle East & North Africa SA South Asia SSA Sub-Saharan Africa 10 Countries are assigned to regions in accordance with the World Bank convention. https://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/ar- chive/2017/the-world-by-region.html. 3. Methodology A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 22 Initially, countries were selected on the basis of global seismic and cyclonic wind risk rankings. The final selec- tion also considered regional representation and building code status. First, 50 countries were selected based on: (i) the highest expected ratio of average annual losses for seismic events to the total estimated replacement cost for the country's building assets (AALR) based on the seismic risk assessment from the Global Earthquake Model (Johnson et al., 2023); and (ii) the highest expected ratio of average annual losses for cyclone events to total estimated replacement cost for the country’s building assets (AALR), based on the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction Study (UNDRR, 2016).11 The final selection of 22 countries ensured proportional represen- tation within the six targeted regions, excluding countries without a legally adopted building code.12 3.3 FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE BUILDING CODES AND REGULATIONS The assessment of the building code contents focused on provisions under the following main topic areas: (i) structural safety and resilience, (ii) green building; and (iii) universal accessibility. Under each main topic, code provisions assessed were identified for different subtopics presented in Figure 3.1. These topics and subtopics, as well as evaluation statements related to each subtopic, were prioritized and formulated based on a comparative analysis of global building codes and expert opinions. They were also informed by a set of Building Code Checklists for structural resilience, green buildings, and universal accessibility developed by the World Bank/GFDRR (World Bank, 2024b; World Bank, 2023a; World Bank, 2025). Figure 3.1 // Main topic areas and subtopics for the building code review: (i) structural safety and resilience; (ii) green building; and (iii) universal accessibility STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE TOPICS • Seismic design criteria (4 subtopics) Basis of • Risk/importance building • Seismic analysis methods (3 subtopics) design classifications • Seismic drift limits • Building regularity Design for • Ductility factors & detailing (7 subtopics) Actions on • Dead and live loads seismic • Seismic design of diaphragms action structures • Load combinations • Advanced seismic systems • Seismic design of nonstructural components • Design of retaining walls • Seismic design of out-of-plane actions Geotechnical • Design of foundations • Seismic assessment and retrofit • Geotechnical site investigation • Wind design criteria (4 subtopics) Design for • Wind design for tall buildings wind • Wind design for cladding/appendages • Minimum material requirements for action (2 subtopics) Material reinforced concrete • Façade detailing (2 subtopics) Specific • Materials: reinforced concrete, precast • Doors/door mechanism designs Provisions concrete, reinforced masonry, timber, structural steel, confined masonry, earth • Load procedure for flood loading and bamboo • Flood resistant materials • Design to equalize water pressures Design for • Limitations for occupied zones flooding • Evacuation areas at higher building • Structural requirements for building elevations Existing modifications • Locating critical equipment above the Structures • Structural requirements for change of use design flood level • Structural assessment Fire • Fire resistance of structural elements resistance Simplified Provisions for Small Scale Buildings 11 Of these, approximately 70 percent were selected based on their seismic risk ranking, while the remaining 30 percent were selected based on the cyclone risk ranking. GREEN BUILDING TOPICS UNIVERSAL ACCESSIBILITY TOPICS 12 In some cases, countries were also excluded if an extensive building code update was anticipated in the short term. • Natural Ventilation External • Daylighting environment • Insulation Design for • Limitations for occupied zones flooding • Evacuation areas at higher building • Structural requirements for building elevations Existing modifications • Locating critical equipment above the Structures• Structural requirements for change of use design flood level 3. Methodology • Structural assessment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 23 Fire • Fire resistance of structural elements resistance Simplified Provisions for Small Scale Buildings Figure 3.1 // Main topic areas and subtopics for the building code review: (i) structural safety and resilience; (ii) green building; and (iii) universal accessibility (cont.) GREEN BUILDING TOPICS UNIVERSAL ACCESSIBILITY TOPICS • Natural Ventilation External • Daylighting environment • Insulation Energy • Building orientation Entrances, efficiency- • External solar shading doors and demand • Window to wall ratio (WWR) lobbies side • Reflective walls and roofs • Green walls and roofs • Energy efficient lighting Horizontal and vertical • Energy efficient HVAC circulation Note: Universal accessibility provisions Energy Building were assessed at the level of main topics only. efficiency- • Renewable energy facilities supply side Building Water • Fixtures and fittings fixtures efficiency • Water reuse/collection and fittings Evacuation Building • Low embodied energy design and safe materials • Recycled materials egress In addition to the high-level assessment of the technical contents of the codes, this study also examined the fol- lowing aspects: (i) regulatory jurisdictions – at what level regulations are set (national or state/territorial or city level); (ii) regulatory structure – how the regulations are organized; (iii) types of buildings the codes apply to; and (iv) accessibility of documents – whether the regulations are easily accessible (for example, free of charge and available online). For green buildings and universal accessibility provisions, the assessment determined DARK BLUEwhether compliance with provisions was mandatory or voluntary. 3.4 FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE CODE IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The review of building control regulations and other aspects of the wider enabling environment to support effective code implementation (also called the “enabling environment”) focused on six main topics. Refer to Figure 3.2. It also examined regulatory jurisdictions, regulatory structure and the accessibility of documents for building code implementation regulations (adhering to the same format) as for the review of building code contents. Figure 3.2 // Main topic areas for the building control regulations and enabling environment review Accessibility Professional Administration Established (e.g., online Defined building Dispute certification & of building building approval system, inspection resolution registration code framework code processes accessible framework mechanism system regulations) 3. Methodology A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 24 3.5 STATEMENTS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF CODE CONTENTS AND CODE IMPLEMENTATION TOPIC AREAS The assessment approach was designed to produce a high-level evaluation of code contents and code imple- mentation factors for the selected topics in a consistent manner across the study countries. For each topic and the related subtopics, one or more statements were developed to determine whether relevant provisions in a building code met the chosen threshold. The number of statements varied across the main topic areas: 60 related to structural safety and resilience, 15 to green buildings, and six to universal accessibility (all statements are given in Annex D). Possible answers for each statement were: ‘Yes’, when a statement was clearly supported by the rel- evant content of the code; ‘No’, when it was not; or ‘U’, when the country expert was unable to verify the statement based on their understanding of the code provisions.13 For the code implementation environment topics, ‘P’ was also used if the country’s code implementation processes and environment partially satisfied the statement. The assessment sought to determine whether or not the codes and regulations contained basic provisions in each topic area, rather than evaluating quality and comprehensiveness of the codes in detail, which was beyond the scope of this study. 3.6 DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING Data for these 22 countries were collected using standardized forms with the statements discussed in Section 3.5. Technical experts, referred to as “country experts” in the report, who were familiar with the country’s local building code and its design and construction practices, provided data for the standardized forms. The data were collected over six months (April to October 2024) and were then validated by the study team, comprising technical specialists familiar with global building codes for structural resilience, green buildings, and universal accessibility. The final data for each country were then used for data analysis and visualization purposes, in preparation of this report. 13 In some cases, code provisions referred to a section in the regulation document that was omitted, or other inconsistencies or lack of clarity in provisions existed. 4. Structural Safety and Resilience Bogota, Colombia. Photo credit: Arturo Rosenow | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 26 4. Structural Safety and Resilience A key function of building codes is to set minimum standards for the structural safety of buildings to protect the public. There is a broad expectation by the public that buildings will be safe. Unfortunately, because of poor design and construction practices, building failures, including collapses, do occur, even under normal loading. This can be a persistent problem in developing countries where rapid urbanization and lack of affordable housing can lead to risky and less well-regulated development practices. For example, in Lagos, Nigeria, between 2000 and 2021, there were 167 reported cases of spontaneous building collapse (Okunlola, 2022). In other cases, including in developing countries, the predominant factor contributing to building failures is how aging structures are managed and main- tained. For example, one study in the USA recorded 225 building failures between 1989 and 2000, many of which were caused by lack of maintenance and/or modifications to existing buildings without proper structural checks or regulatory oversight (Wardhana and Hadipriono, 2003). Beyond achieving minimum safety, there is a growing awareness of the benefits of improving the physical resilience of buildings. There are new and expanded ways that building codes can encourage improvements to the physical resilience of the built environment and the resilience of communities in the face of climate change and increased disaster risk. The concept of resilience relates to the ability of a system to absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of shocks and stresses with limited disruption to its essential functions (adapted from UNDRR, 2025). Building measures to improve resilience can include designing for more ambitious building per- formance objectives and the design of systems that ensure continuity of essential services like communications, water supply and power. This chapter presents the findings related to general structural safety and resilience, followed by a discussion of priority areas for the further development of code provisions to promote these goals. These include broader objectives beyond structural safety including limiting disruption during and after shocks and stresses (see Section 4.2.3). Assessment of structural safety and resilience provisions related to specific hazards is covered separately in Chapter 5 (seismic), Chapter 6 (wind), and Chapter 7 (flooding).14 Comprehensive risk reduction and resilience improvements require consideration of multiple hazards and risks. Considerations for harmonizing code provi- sions to achieve this are discussed in Section 4.2.5. 4.1 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROVISIONS This study looks at diverse aspects of structural design and construction codes, starting with regulatory structure, organization and accessibility of code documents (Section 4.1.1), followed by code provisions for structural safety (Section 4.1.2). 4.1.1 Regulatory structure, organization, and accessibility of structural design codes For the review of regulatory structure, organization, code updates and accessibility of documents, the findings are summarized below: 14 Chapter 8 covers considerations for wildfire design provisions in building codes. This study did not present data for the 22 countries for these provisions as they were very limited. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 27 » Regulatory jurisdictions: Across the 22 countries, this study found that all codes related to structural safety and resilience were set at national level, except for Mexico which has a federal system. In Mexico, the 31 states and the federal district of Mexico City set their own building codes. » Organization of code documents: In six countries (in Bhutan, Colombia, Ghana, Samoa, Tonga, and Vanuatu), there was one main building code document for most design provisions15. The remaining 16 countries had the provisions contained in a set of separate documents. » Code update cycle: In many of the countries assessed, there is a need to update codes, as they were last updated over a decade ago. Peru and Rwanda had structural design code documents published within the past five years. Ghana and the Philippines had code documents which had all been published in the past 10 years. The remaining 17 countries, except for Mozambique, had some regulations that were older than 10 years (though no older than 40 years).16 Mozambique’s regulations are based on old Portuguese codes dating from 1961 to 1968. » Accessibility of documents: If codes are not available online and are not free of charge, users cannot eas- ily access them. Of 22 countries, only nine made all code documents available online and free of charge.17 In Mongolia and Tajikistan, none were available online or free of charge. In Rwanda, Samoa, South Africa, Tonga, Türkiye, and Vanuatu, the codes were available online, but some required a fee. In Bhutan, Chile, El Salvador, and Morocco, some code documents were available online and free of charge, some were available online for a fee, and others were neither available online nor free of charge. Box 4.1 // Evolution of Chile’s building code Chile has been a leader in building code development in the Latin American region. Located in a region of high seismicity, Chile was the first country to incorpo- rate seismic design provisions into their code in 1935, with more comprehensive provisions in place by the 1970s (GEM, n.d.). Over the past century, Chile’s seis- mic design provisions have continued to evolve, with updates often incorporating lessons learned from major earthquakes. For example, following the Maule earth- quake in 2010, the 2011 update included improved definition of soil types, and updated seismic hazard maps for design. In 2015, a new standard for the design of nonstructural components and systems was also introduced after widespread non- structural damage observed in previous earthquake events. Santiago, Chile. Photo credit: diegograndi | iStock 15 For some of these countries, green building and universal accessibility provisions were contained in separate documents. 16 This was assessed based on the earliest year of publication for the regulations in use for each country. 17 In Algeria, Colombia, Ghana, Indonesia, Mexico, Mozambique, Nepal, Peru and Uzbekistan. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 28 Overall, based on the assessment findings, efforts are needed in many countries to update out-of-date struc- tural design codes as well as improve access to code documents for users. This highlights the need for countries to periodically update codes, particularly for design criteria related to natural hazards and climatic conditions, where knowledge is continuously evolving. In addition, to support effective implementation, countries can benefit from improving user access to code documents, ideally by making them freely available online. 4.1.2 General structural design provisions This section presents selected findings of the technical evaluation of general structural design provisions, cover- ing: (i) basis of design; (ii) actions on structures (general provisions); (iii) geotechnical/foundation design; (iv) mate- rial-specific design; (v) fire resistance of structural elements; (vi) existing buildings; and (vii) simplified provisions for common types of small-scale buildings. Technical provisions related to these topics were assessed to under- stand content and level of code provisions from various countries. The overall findings are presented in Figure 4.10. 4.1.2.1 Basis of design The basis of design within building codes establishes general principles and requirements. These can include acceptable methods to demonstrate code compliance, target design life (expressed in years), requirements for durability of materials and structures, key definitions, specification of units of measurement (for example, metric or imperial), and the importance/risk classification of buildings (World Bank, 2024b). This study focused on whether the code included a generalized framework to classify the importance and/or risk level of buildings for structural design purposes, particularly related to hazards such as seismic and wind events. The importance/risk level is typically assigned depending on the building usage category, occupancy level and/or possible hazardous con- tents. This requirement was prioritized as it can be used to link the criticality of a building or the function it serves to design provisions, where code provisions apply more rigorous requirements for buildings of higher importance. See Figure 4.1 for the findings of the assessment. Figure 4.1 // Assessment results for importance and/or risk classification of buildings STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonseia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Importance and/or risk classification of buildings U 18 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Note: 1. Items marked U could not be verified (U = unable to verify). A majority of countries (18 out of 22) included provisions related to the importance/risk classification of build- ings in their building codes. Ghana and Bhutan did have importance factors related to seismic design, but not for wind design. Mozambique did not have importance factors for seismic or wind design.18 These countries would 18 The assessment was unable to determine if Mongolia’s code contained an importance/risk classification for buildings. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 29 benefit from more stringent provisions for higher importance buildings19 and a consistent approach across differ- ent hazards. 4.1.2.2 Actions on structures Actions on structures are defined as the types of loading that should be considered for building design. These include dead load, live load, earth/soil loading parameters, wind load, seismic load, flood load, snow and/or rain loads, and accidental loads. The following items were assessed in this context: (i) whether the code included mini- mum dead load assumptions (for example, the inherent weight in a building from structural elements, architectural finishes, and so forth) and live load assumptions (movable loads such as people, furniture, and so forth); and (ii) whether the code prescribed load combinations for considering simultaneous effect of applicable loads, for exam- ple, dead and live loads, wind loads, seismic loads, and so forth. All 22 countries contained provisions for dead and live loads as well as load combinations. This finding was not unexpected as this is a basic element of building codes. Findings for provisions related to seismic, wind, and flood loads are presented in more detail in Chapters 5, 6, and 7 respectively. 4.1.2.3 Geotechnical engineering considerations and design of substructure Geotechnical provisions relate to the engineering behavior of earth materials and related parameters for struc- tures in contact with soil/earth. Key topics assessed in this study were related to the code provisions for geotech- nical site investigations, foundation design, and retaining wall design, as outlined in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 // Topic areas for geotechnical and substructure design provisions Topic Area Description Geotechnical site Site investigations are needed to understand the geology, soil properties, and site hazards, as well as investigations to specify parameters for foundation design in most projects. In some cases, soil testing results can be used to establish the soil type, which may be required for seismic design (in the context of site response factors for seismic hazard criteria). Design of foundations Adequate foundations are an essential building component, irrespective of a building’s size, impor- tance, and exposure to various hazards. Foundation types include shallow foundations, such as raft (mat) foundations and strip footings, or deep foundations such as piles. Foundations are commonly constructed using cast-in-place reinforced concrete, and/or brick or stone masonry, as is often the case for vernacular buildings. Design of retaining walls Retaining walls resist soil pressure (and water pressure, depending on the level of the water table). They are important for buildings located on sloped ground, buildings with basements, and in some cases, are used on the wider building site. Design provisions for retaining walls include checks related to their stability to sliding and overturning, as well as strength under the combined effects of gravity and lateral loads. Most countries had some provisions related to geotechnical site investigations, and design of foundations and retaining walls, except for Mozambique, where no geotechnical provisions were included (Figure 4.2). Gaps also existed for the Pacific Island countries of Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu, which did not include any provisions for site investigation or retaining wall design. In addition, no retaining wall design provisions were included in the building codes for the Philippines and Nepal. In Samoa and Nepal, the only foundation design provisions were “rules of thumb” for small-scale buildings. 19 For example, buildings with higher-level occupancy levels, buildings that provide essential services or are essential to post-disaster recovery, and buildings associated with hazardous contents. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 30 Figure 4.2 // Assessment results for geotechnical and substructure design topics in the building code STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonseia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Design of foundations note 1 note 1 21 Geotechnical site investigation 18 Design of retaining walls 16 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Note: 1. For Samoa and Nepal, some ‘rules of thumb’ for foundation design are provided rather than more generalized engineering provisions. 4.1.2.4 Material-specific structural design provisions Material-specific structural design provisions include requirements related to minimum material properties and the structural design of buildings constructed using specific materials (for example, reinforced concrete, steel, masonry), as explained in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 // Topic areas for material-specific structural design provisions Topic Area Description Minimum material Reinforced concrete is the prevalent construction material for new buildings in urban areas worldwide. Min- requirements for imum requirements related to the quality of concrete and steel materials need to be included in structural reinforced concrete design codes and implemented in the construction of reinforced concrete buildings to ensure their safety and durability. These requirements include minimum compressive strengths for concrete and minimum strength and ductility for steel reinforcing bars. Design of reinforced Reinforced concrete combines the compressive strength of concrete with the tensile resistance of steel concrete buildings reinforcement. Common reinforced concrete structural systems for buildings are beam-column frames (often with masonry infill walls) and reinforced concrete shear walls (extending continuously from the foun- dations to the roof), usually constructed in combination with frames. Floor structures in these buildings are usually in the form of reinforced concrete slabs. Design of precast Precast concrete buildings are common in some parts of the world, such as Eastern Europe and Central concrete buildings Asia. These buildings are often constructed using wall panels and floor slabs that are prefabricated offsite and subsequently transported to the construction site and erected in the final position. The fabrication and erection of precast concrete systems requires advanced skills and equipment. Design of Unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings are commonly used for housing in many countries. The structural unreinforced masonry system of masonry buildings comprises loadbearing masonry walls, made using clay bricks or blocks, buildings hollow concrete blocks, or stone. Mortar type and composition range from lime to cement-based mortars. Reinforcement is not provided in the walls. Unreinforced masonry buildings are vulnerable to earthquakes. Design of reinforced Reinforced masonry buildings have masonry walls reinforced with horizontal and vertical steel bars, usually masonry buildings embedded in grouted hollow concrete or clay blocks. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 31 Table 4.2 // Topic areas for material-specific structural design provisions (cont.) Topic Area Description Design of confined Confined masonry buildings have masonry walls enclosed by horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete masonry buildings confining elements. Walls are constructed first, and reinforced concrete tie-columns and tie-beams are cast later. Design of steel Steel buildings consist of structural steel beams and columns in frame structures. It is a common practice buildings to provide diagonal elements, known as braces, in the frames. Examples of seismically detailed braced frame systems include concentric braced frames and eccentric braced frames. Other types of seismically resistant steel structures include moment- resisting frames. Design of earthen Earthen structures are used as dwellings in many low- and middle-income countries. These buildings have buildings walls constructed using unreinforced rammed earth, adobe or stabilized mud blocks, or cob technologies. Unreinforced earthen structures are vulnerable to earthquake effects. In some cases, it is possible to pro- vide internal reinforcement in the walls or apply mesh externally to enhance the structural integrity of these buildings. Earthen buildings are also vulnerable to floods and storms as their materials can absorb moisture and are vulnerable to erosion. Design of timber Timber is a locally available material in many countries and often used in the construction of dwellings. buildings Timber buildings may be in the form of a post-and-beam system, or a wood stud wall system. Timber struc- tures are lightweight and inherently more resilient to earthquake effects, provided that they have sufficient resistance to lateral forces and the connections between structural components are adequate. They can be vulnerable to insect attacks and moisture if not properly protected and maintained. Design of bamboo In some countries, bamboo is a locally available material and is often used in the construction of vernacu- buildings lar dwellings (Kaminski et al., 2016), as well as in engineered buildings in some Latin American countries. Because bamboo structures are lightweight, they are inherently more resilient to earthquake effects, pro- vided that the connections between structural components are adequate. They can be vulnerable to insect attacks and moisture if not properly protected and maintained. This study found that building code coverage is more comprehensive for ‘engineered’ materials such as rein- forced concrete and structural steel, and that only a few countries included provisions for materials such as earth and bamboo associated with vernacular construction. Design provisions for different structural materials in building codes should consider materials that are commonly used in local construction practices. All 22 countries have design provisions related to reinforced concrete and structural steel buildings, prevalent construction materi- als used in urban areas around the world; however, design provisions related to URM, confined masonry, bamboo and earthen construction are addressed in fewer than half the study countries. Design provisions for timber and reinforced masonry structures are covered by most countries. In some countries, such as Algeria and Chile, URM is prohibited by the code as it is vulnerable to earthquakes—thus, URM design provisions are excluded (see Figure 4.3). The study findings demonstrate that gaps exist in the coverage of vernacular construction types, such as earthen construction and unreinforced masonry construction. For example, in Algeria and Mozambique, earthen construction is estimated to be used for 17 percent and 29 percent of the building stock respectively, but no provi- sions for it are contained in the country’s codes.20 When provisions for vernacular construction types are included in the codes, careful consideration is needed to adapt them for local hazard conditions. For example, Peru has developed and adopted a design code for earthen construction that includes methods and detailing to resist seismic loads (Neumann et al., 2006). It is also recom- mended that countries in seismic regions include provisions for more seismically resistant masonry construction technologies, such as reinforced masonry, confined masonry, and/or specifications to enhance existing vernac- ular masonry buildings to improve seismic resistance. It is not uncommon for countries to prohibit unreinforced masonry (URM) in their codes, as is the case in Algeria and Chile. As these countries are in regions of moderate to 20 Data for the prevalence of construction types is based on the GEM Exposure Model (Yepes-Estrada et al., 2023). 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 32 high seismicity, the use of URM is discouraged in favor of higher-performing masonry systems and/or vernacular types with enhancements such as timber or cast-in-place reinforced concrete ring-beams and through-stones (bond-stones). Figure 4.3 // Assessment results for structural design provisions for different materials and technologies STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Reinforced concrete design 22 Structural steel design 22 Timber design 19 Reinforced masonry design note 4 18 (may include hollow block masonry) Precast concrete design 17 Unreinforced masonry design 13 (e.g., brick, stone, and/or hollow block) note 1 note 1 U note 2 Confined masonry design 10 Earth structure design (e.g., adobe, soil stabilized block, 10 rammed earth) Bamboo design 6 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. In Algeria and Chile, unreinforced masonry construction is prohibited, as it is vulnerable to earthquakes. 2. For Mexico, unreinforced masonry is only allowed for certain limited applications, such as foundations for small-scale buildings. 3. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 4. For Nepal, 'rules of thumb’ for reinforced masonry design are provided rather than more generalized engineering provisions. 4.1.2.5 Fire resistance of structural elements All countries, except for Algeria, El Salvador, Mozambique and Nepal, had some provisions related to the fire resistance of structural elements.21 This study did not focus in detail on building code provisions related to fire safety. However, as part of the assessment of structural safety provisions, it was considered important to assess whether codes included provisions related to the fire resistance of structural elements. These requirements typi- cally prescribe a minimum duration (number of hours) for a structural element or assembly to withstand a certain level of exposure to fire while maintaining load-bearing capacity and structural integrity. Refer to Figure 4.4. 21 This assessment looked at building codes, standards and wider building regulations such as Building Acts and building control regu- lations, mostly set at national level. In some cases, fire-safety requirements can be set by different agencies, including at local level. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 33 Figure 4.4 // Assessment results for provisions for fire resistance of structural elements STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Fire resistance of structural 18 elements The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. 4.1.2.6 Provisions related to existing buildings It is important for building codes to address modifica- Figure 4.5 // Rescue efforts after the collapse of the tions to existing buildings and include requirements to Enrique Rebsamen School, Mexico City in the 2017 Puebla earthquake. assess their condition to ensure structural safety. For existing buildings, codes can include provisions related to building condition assessment and structural require- ments for buildings undergoing a change of usage (for example, converting an office to a residential building), horizontal or vertical building expansions (for example, adding floors), or other forms of structural modification. In some cases, building rehabilitation may be required if a building’s condition has deteriorated over time. Insufficient regulation related to modifications to existing buildings can have serious consequences for structural safety. The 2017 Puebla earthquake in Mexico predominantly impacted the country’s capital, Mexico City. One of the earthquake’s big- gest tragedies was the collapse of the Enrique Rebsamen School, where 19 children and seven adults were killed. Subsequent investigations confirmed that two additional floors had been added prior to the earthquake without per- forming proper structural safety checks and the required structural strengthening in accordance with the Mexico City code (Reuters, 2017). Photo credit: Xinhua | Alamy Code provisions related to structural assessment and modifications to existing buildings were less well covered in the study countries than provisions for new buildings. Refer to Figure 4.6. For example, six countries—Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, Morocco, and Tajikistan—have some provisions in all three existing building topic areas assessed. Countries often develop these types of provisions in response to disaster events that damage comparatively vulnerable existing buildings and demonstrate the need for assessment, rehabilitation and retrofit- ting. Refer to the discussion on seismic assessment and retrofitting of existing buildings in Chapter 5, Section 5.3.3. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 34 Figure 4.6 // Assessment results for code provisions related to the modification and structural assessment of existing buildings STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Existing buildings: structural note requirements for additions 2 note 3 12 Existing buildings: structural requirements for change of 14 occupancy/use Existing buildings: structural note 1 11 assessment The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. In Nepal, guidelines exist for assessing seismic vulnerability of existing structures but it is unclear whether they have been officially adopted. 2. For the Philippines, the code states that there are requirements for additions but the section it refers to is missing in the code document. 3. In Türkiye, there is a permit requirement for building additions but it is unclear whether any structural checks are required as part of the permit approval process. 4.1.2.7 Simplified design provisions for common types of small-scale buildings Simplified provisions for common types of small-scale buildings can be particularly beneficial in countries where smaller residential and commercial buildings are often constructed without the input of building design and construction professionals. These provisions may be contained in the building code or presented as guide- lines containing “rules of thumb” and prescriptive provisions that apply only to small-scale buildings. These types of provisions are more accessible and less complex to follow, facilitating a streamlined building control process, and resulting in safe, code-compliant, and cost-effective construction. Conversely, some countries simply exempt small-scale buildings22 from following the building code requirements. This is not a recommended practice as small-scale buildings often represent the highest proportion of building stock in low- to middle-income countries, leading to significant informal development and related risks. Of the 22 countries assessed in this study, 11 had some simplified design provisions for small-scale buildings, typically low-rise dwellings with a limited foot- print, in their building code. See Figure 4.7. Some countries have formally adopted guidelines to address the design and construction of small-scale build- ings. For example, guidelines that address the design and construction of small-scale, mostly vernacular buildings (for example, NBC 203 for masonry or NBC 204 for earthen construction) (DUDBC, 1994a, b; DUDBC, 2015a, b), were adopted as official code documents in Nepal. Other countries, such as Bhutan, have guidelines for vernacular building typologies that are not referenced in the building code but were issued by government agencies (EARRD, 2020; SATREPS, 2023). Alternatively, Peru has a design standard for earthen structures: RNE E.080 (SENCICO, 2020), that is mostly used for the construction of small scale buildings; however, it does not explicitly contain spe- cific provisions for small-scale buildings. 22 For example, buildings below a certain footprint area or number of stories. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 35 Figure 4.7 // Assessment results for simplified design provisions for small-scale buildings STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Simplified design provisions for small scale buildings U 11 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Note: 1. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). Informal development is a significant issue in many countries, where a substantial portion of the building stock has been designed and constructed not in accordance with building code or building control requirements. Refer to Figure 4.8 showing the estimated percentage of the urban population living in informal settlements and highlighting the countries in this study with simplified design and construction provisions for small-scale buildings. It can be observed that in 10 countries with significant levels of informal development (greater than 10 percent of the building stock), the building codes lack these simplified provisions. These countries could benefit from incorpo- rating simplified code provisions to facilitate higher levels of compliance and potentially reduce informality in the construction sector in conjunction with compliance support mechanisms liking training. Figure 4.8 // Percentage of urban population living in informal settlements in the 22 countries considered in this study, identifying those with simplified design and construction provisions for small-scale buildings Percentage of urban population living in informal settlements (UN-Habitat, 2024) 100 90 Percent of urban population living in 80 70 informal settlements 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Tonga Vanuatu Uzbekistan Chile Algeria Türkiye South Africa Ghana Samoa Nepal Bhutan Peru Mozambique Colombia Morocco El Salvador Tajikistan Mexico Rwanda Mongolia Indonesia Philippines Country does not have simplified provisions for small scale buildings Country has simplified provisions for small-scale buildings Notes: 1. All data for informal development are from 2022, except for Chile where data are from 2008. 2. For Mexico, the Mexico City Code was assessed; the country has a federal system with each state setting building regulatory requirements. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 36 Improved building codes linked to effective building control measures can help improve compliance and reduce informal development, but the issue is complex. The prevalence of informal development in some countries may be influenced by factors such as a lack of affordable housing, rapid urbanization without sufficient infrastructure development (transport, water, sewage, power), pressure on land for development, and lack of access to good quality construction materials. FIgure 4.9 // Informal construction on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains, Morocco Photo credit: Salvador-Aznar | iStock 4.1.3 Summary of findings: general structural design provisions Although provisions for structural design are a fundamental aspect of buildings codes, some gaps remain in the codes of the countries assessed in this study. The overall findings of the assessment for general structural provisions are presented in Figure 4.10, ranking countries by the total number of topic areas that satisfied the assessment statements. Some topic areas are context-specific and depend on the country’s construction envi- ronment and common practices. For example, certain construction materials, such as timber, bamboo, earth and confined masonry, may be used less frequently in some countries and regions. In other words, countries cannot be regarded as having less comprehensive codes if they lack provisions covering materials that are not com- monly used. Even when accounting for differences in local construction practices, however, Colombia, Mexico, and Türkiye emerge as the countries covering the most topic areas for general structural provisions. In other countries, the main gaps relate to risk/importance classification for buildings, geotechnical provisions, fire resis- tance of structural elements, and existing building provisions. Some countries, such as Chile, Mexico, Peru, and Tajikistan, have comprehensive structural design provisions, but they could benefit from the addition of simplified design rules for small-scale buildings. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 37 Figure 4.10 // Summary of assessment of general structural design provisions for the 22 countries STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE PROVISIONS Basis Actions Geotechnical/ Fire Provisions Simplified of on substructure Material specific designs provisions resis- for existing design design structures design tance buildings provisions Structural requirements for change of Fire resistance of structural elements Structural requirements for additions Provisions for small-scale buidlings Minimum material requirements for Geotechnical site investigation Importance/risk classification Unreinforced masonry design Reinforced concrete design Reinforced masonry design Confined masonry design Design of retaining walls Precast concrete design Structural assessment Structural steel design Design of foundations Earth structure design Dead and live loading reinforced concrete Load combinations Bamboo design occupancy/use Timber design COUNTRY Colombia Mexico note 5 Türkiye note 7 El Salvador U Morocco Peru Tajikistan Uzbekistan Rwanda Chile note 3 Ghana Philippines note 8 South Africa Nepal note 2 note 10 note 4 Samoa note 2 Tonga Algeria note 3 Bhutan Indonesia U Mongolia U Vanuatu Mozambique Total Countries 18 22 22 18 21 16 22 22 18 18 13 19 22 10 10 6 18 12 14 11 11 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 2. For Samoa and Nepal, some 'rules of thumb' for foundation design are provided rather than more generalized engineering provisions. 3. For Algeria and Chile, unreinforced masonry construction is prohibited in seismic regions. 4. In Nepal, guidelines exist for assessing seismic vulnerability of existing structures but it is unclear whether they have been officially adopted. 5. For Mexico, unreinforced masonry construction is only permitted for limited applications such as foundations for small-scale buildings. 6. Structural design and construction provisions in the study countries cover all types of buildings unless otherwise noted. 7. In Türkiye, there is a permit requirement for building additions but it is unclear if any structural checks are required as part of the permit approval process. 8. For the Philippines, the code states that there are requirements for additions but the section it refers to is missing from the code document. 9. For Samoa, buildings constructed with traditional materials are exempt. 10. For Nepal, 'rules of thumb’ for reinforced masonry design are provided rather than more generalized engineering provisions. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 38 4.2 PRIORITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF PROVISIONS TO ENHANCE STRUCTURAL SAFETY AND RESILIENCE This section discusses priority topics for future code development related to structural safety and resilience, that may be applicable to the countries included in the study as well as other countries. The priority topic areas presented in this section were identified based on the review of the assessment results presented in Section 4.1, further supplemented by desktop review. 4.2.1 Simplified provisions for common types of small-scale buildings To increase code compliance and ensure that building codes address the prevalence of non-engineered and/or vernacular construction in many countries, code provisions and complementary guidelines for common types of small-scale buildings can be beneficial. To develop these simplified provisions and guidelines, common types of construction for small-scale buildings, their inherent resilience to disaster risks, and any adaptations to the typol- ogies needed for safety or resilience should be considered. More specific simplified provisions related to seismic and wind design are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Box 4.2 // Simplified guidelines for non-engineered low-rise buildings in India The Indian Standards have adopted simplified, prescriptive guidelines for non-engineered and Figure B4.2 // Seismic design provisions for non- vernacular construction. India was one of the first engineered masonry buildings countries to publish dedicated design standards in 2 the form of prescriptive guidelines for small-scale, 2 1 1 low-rise vernacular construction, including IS 13827 for earthen construction (Bureau of Indian Standards, 1993a) and IS 13828 for masonry con- struction (Bureau of Indian Standards, 1993b). In 2011, it was estimated that vernacular masonry was used in the construction of approximately 60 percent of all housing units in India (NBO, 2011), 30 percent of which are exposed to high seismic 3 hazard (Jain, 2016). Much of the content of these Indian standards was drawn from widely used 1: RC lintel band guidelines, originally published by the International 2: RC roof band (for pitched roofs and under flexible roof and floor) Association for Earthquake Engineering (IAEE) in 3: Vertical reinforcing bar 1980 (reprinted by NICEE, 2004), and an updated edition published by UNESCO (Arya et al., 2014). Source: UNESCO, 2014. 4.2.2 Enhanced building performance objectives to improve resilience Although Life Safety remains the minimum performance requirement, building codes can include provisions for certain buildings that target higher performance objectives aimed at limiting disruption and expediting recovery after extreme events. Current building design approaches in many countries do not limit reparable or irreparable damage to the structures and other building components and systems in rare events such as hurri- canes or major earthquakes. However, a higher margin of safety may be prescribed for buildings linked to their level of criticality and/or occupancy by specifying Importance Factors for wind, snow, and earthquake loading that increase the design loads for the main structure. Note that these types of provisions do not address damage 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 39 control beyond Life Safety performance in nonstructural components such as cladding, nonstructural walls, or building utilities, although their damage could severely impact building functionality following a disaster event. Loss of building function can interrupt essential services and hinder rapid recovery. For example, the nonstructural damage to masonry infill walls in many high-rise reinforced concrete buildings in Türkiye from the 2023 earth- quakes led to their evacuation, protracted displacement of people from their homes, and eventual demolition of many damaged buildings (Binici et al., 2023). Some building codes have design requirements to check building performance for different levels of design earthquake as well target higher levels of performance beyond Life Safety to minimize building damage in earth- quakes. For example, since 1981, the building code of Japan stipulates that buildings must designed for two perfor- mance objectives: (1) collapse prevention in a rare, large-scale earthquake (expected once in several hundred years) as well as (2) damage-free (or operational) performance in a more frequent, moderate-level earthquake (expected once in a few decades) (World Bank, 2017). See Figure 4.11. For most buildings except very small buildings, the code requires designers to conduct a nonlinear pushover analysis in addition to a linear elastic analysis. Nonlinear pushover analysis is used to simulate and validate the performance in terms of understanding the location and sequence of nonlinear (plastic) hinges in the structure and its final collapse mechanism (Narafu, 2017). The code is supplemented by government-issued guidelines for higher-importance buildings such as hospitals and schools that specify stricter performance requirements, including requirements to limit damage in non-structural components such as ceilings and infill walls. By adhering to these procedures, buildings are designed to remain undamaged or have minor damage from medium-scale earthquakes, and to protect life and only sustain moderate damage in large-scale earthquakes. The improved performance of Japanese code-compliant buildings was demonstrated in earthquakes after the major building code updates in 1981, including 1995 Hanshin Awaji Earthquake, 2011 Great East Japan Earthquakes, and the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake (World Bank, 2017). Figure 4.11 // Seismic design approach for buildings adopted in Japan since the 1981 Building Standard Law Medium-scale earthquake Large-scale earthquake JMA intensity 5+ JMA intensity 6+ to 7 Size of force (nearly MMI VIII) (nearly MMI X or more) that acts Collapse or Failure Allowable unit Relationship between stress force working on a * Damage (deformation) remains even (maximum member and deformation after removal of force. force that a member can sustain) No damage Original (structure Condition remains intact) Range of Range of calculation of calculation of * Original condition is recovered after removal allowable unit ultimate lateral of force (i.e., after earthquake) stress strength Deformation ELASTIC AREA PLASTIC AREA Source: World Bank, 2017 (based on version in Japanese from website of Japan's Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)). Other emerging approaches to reduce damage, service disruption, and population displacement include “func- tional recovery” in the USA, “low-damage design” in New Zealand, or “recovery-based design” in some other parts of the world. The concept of functional recovery aims to reduce the time to recovery of function for a build- ing in proportion to its importance to the local community (NIST, 2015). Increasingly, performance-based design approaches are being used for critical buildings to demonstrate higher, “beyond code” performance, mostly in 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 40 high-income countries (see Box 4.3). Some countries are mandating the use of advanced technologies such as seismic isolation to prevent damage and service disruption in key buildings such as hospitals. For countries that may not be prepared to introduce performance-based design provisions, an important step toward enhancing the seismic performance of buildings beyond Life Safety is the introduction of more comprehensive, and possibly more stringent, prescriptive strength and displacement requirements for the structural and nonstructural compo- nents in building codes to reduce the likelihood of damage and improve post-disaster building functionality. Box 4.3 // Christchurch, New Zealand’s long-term recovery challenges While the 2010 to 2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence resulted in rel- atively few deaths, the earthquakes caused widespread disruption of transport, electricity, sewage and water infrastructure (Miles et al., 2014). A significant portion of build- ings in the Central Business District (CBD) of Christchurch were cordoned off for months, and in some cases, years. Approximately 60 percent of buildings in the CBD were eventu- ally demolished, following prolonged periods of building closure, even though only 19 percent of them were tagged as unsafe and unlikely to be repairable (“red”) in rapid damage Cordoned-off buildings in Christchurch, New Zealand. Photo credit: Kokkai Ng | iStock assessments (Gonzalez et al., 2022). The reasons for demolishing buildings that had potentially repairable damage were principally financial and social, without considering the technical feasibility of repair and retrofitting. The main factors were related to high insur- ance penetration, while uncertainties related to government rezoning of the CBD created disincentives for building owners to keep and rehabilitate buildings (Miles et al., 2014). Economic impacts from the earthquake sequence are estimated to be NZ$ 40 billion (approx. US$ 25 billion) (Gonzalez et al., 2021), and approximately one-fifth of the Christchurch population permanently left the city (Internet Geography, n.d.). The staggering economic and social losses from earthquakes that have relatively low fatalities have led New Zealand to develop guidance on how engineers and developers can bring a “Low Damage Design” approach to seismic design. Though this guid- ance has not yet been incorporated into the regulations, the country is preparing the groundwork by sharing knowl- edge and engaging with wider stakeholders such as the insurance industry to raise awareness of the benefits of targeting higher performance goals (Engineering New Zealand, 2021). 4.2.3 Introducing provisions to support reliable building utilities Hazard events, including severe weather, are causing more frequent and prolonged power outages and water shortages, which disrupt building operations. Hurricane Maria, which hit Puerto Rico in 2017, left 1.5 million cus- tomers of the central power grid without electricity, some of them for almost a year (EfSI, n.d.; Grid Deployment Office, 2024). In 2024, Typhoon Yagi left 830,000 households on the Chinese island of Hainan without power (Fisher, 2024). The aging power grid infrastructure, along with the pressures of urban growth, are leading to more frequent outages, particularly in Central Asia and South Africa (Pollitt, 2023). Water supply disruption is also increasingly common. Flooding and other natural hazards can damage water infrastructure or contaminate centralized water supply. Changing precipitation patterns are leading to an increased risk of drought in some places. One study indi- cates that as of 2022, about half of the global population had experienced at least temporary severe water scarcity 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 41 (Cohen, 2024). The loss of power or water, whether the result of a storm or an earthquake, can have significant impacts on building occupants and a building’s ability to maintain function. Power outages in hospitals and other health care facilities can have life-threatening impacts on patients who rely upon medical devices like ventilators. These outages can lead to dangerously high temperatures in homes and buildings that normally rely on air con- ditioning. Loss of water supply can also interfere with service provision at hospitals and other essential facilities, create significant sanitation issues in residential and other buildings, and impact the ability to fight fires. Building codes can enhance the resilience of communities by incorporating provisions for backup power and water supply in building design. While many countries are making efforts to reduce the risk of power and water outages through improvements to their centralized infrastructure systems, measures to make power and water supply more reliable, at the individual building level or building complex level, to support passive survivability, are also increasingly being integrated into building codes and standards. Some building regulations include require- ments for backup power supply for emergency power needs, including for some health-care facilities, facilities housing critical infrastructure, and high-rise residential buildings. In Europe, the EN 50171 (Central Safety Power Supply Systems) standard includes provisions for independent energy supply to essential safety equipment (British Standards Institute, 2022). While rarely compulsory for all buildings, many countries also have green building stan- dards, as well as incentivizing policies to integrate solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in buildings. These can support energy consumption goals but can also enhance passive survivability in power outages as these systems can con- tinue to supply power when the grid is down, especially if coupled with onsite energy storage systems.23, 24 Some green building codes include measures to reduce water consumption in buildings that indirectly support resilience to water shortages and drought. Typical provisions cover greywater reuse, water-efficient fixtures and fittings, and the use of drought-resistant landscaping.25 Rainwater capture can also be used to create a backup water supply in the event of a water supply outage.26 For further discussion of green building measures to reduce disruption of water and power supplies, see Chapter 9, Section 9.3. 4.2.4 Expanded provisions for the assessment, modification, rehabilitation and retrofit of existing buildings There is an urgent need for more comprehensive building regulations related to the assessment and modifica- tions to existing buildings, including incentives for rehabilitation and retrofit. As seen from the study results, cov- erage of provisions related to existing buildings is inadequate in many countries. Expanded regulatory frameworks should clearly specify how and when periodic assessments are to be carried out and ensure that any additions or changes in use are completed safely and in compliance with standards (World Bank, 2023c). As mentioned earlier, many building failures are linked to a lack of maintenance, or modifications undertaken without proper structural design checks or scrutiny from building control. Rehabilitation and retrofits to improve safety and limit disruption from hazards and risks will have net benefits, especially for higher importance buildings such as schools, health- care facilities and emergency response facilities.27 Better building code provisions and requirements for existing buildings are crucial to achieving these goals. Established approaches for promoting the rehabilitation and retrofit of existing buildings include government investment for critical public buildings combined with incentives for upgrading private buildings. Governments have stricter regulatory oversight for public-owned buildings such as health facilities, schools, and emergency response facilities. Thus, they can prioritize investment in the rehabilitation and retrofit of critical public buildings 23 Improperly implemented PV and energy storage systems increase building fire risk (Salmeron-Manzano et al. 2024). 24 The findings of this study presented in Section 9.1 indicate that of the 22 evaluated countries 12 included some provisions for onsite, renewable power generation. 25 The study findings also indicate that 12 out of 22 countries included some provisions for water-efficient fixtures and fittings. 26 Study findings indicate that 13 out of 22 countries included some provisions for water collection or reuse, including (for example, condensate recovery, rainwater harvesting, reuse of treated water for potable and non-potable uses). 27 Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5.3 for further information related to special considerations for seismic assessment and retrofit provi- sions. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 42 and require more stringent checks during design and construction of the upgrades. For privately-owned buildings, rehabilitation and retrofits can be costly and are often more difficult to mandate. Some countries, such as New Zealand, mandate the assessment and retrofitting of unreinforced masonry buildings, which are highly vulnerable to earthquakes, but require compliance to 34 percent of the level of what would be required per the current code (Murphy, 2020). Other ways to encourage investment in maintaining and improving privately-owned existing build- ings are complementary incentives such as tax breaks, matching funds, low-interest government-backed loans or preferential conditions for permits. For example, in Berkeley, California, USA, the city allows homeowners to reduce their transfer tax liability when buying a property by up to 33 percent if they seismically retrofit the property and construction is completed within 12 months (City of Berkeley, 2025). Formalization of existing buildings that were not originally built to comply with building codes requires more flexible regulatory approaches. Addressing the complexities of mitigating the risks related to informal develop- ment is beyond the scope of this report. It should be noted though that building regulations in countries where informal development is prevalent need to be responsive to a variety of factors: (i) the realities of incremental development where people’s resources are limited; (ii) the need for continuous feedback from stakeholders, includ- ing vulnerable groups, to ensure regulation is effective and equitable; and (iii) acceptance that a flexible regulatory approach is required for regularization of informal buildings (Payne and Majale, 2004). See Box 4.4 for an example of a regulatory approach to slum upgrading. Box 4.4 // Improvements to informal housing settlements in Indonesia In coordination with Indonesia’s National Slum Upgrading Program, Indonesia’s National Affordable Housing Program provided grants to homeowners for critical improvements to their existing homes. This followed a decree from the Minister of Regional Settlements and Infrastructure (403/KPTS/M/2002) on Technical Guidance for Construction of Simple Healthy Houses to improve housing quality, including structural integrity and health standards related to space, light and ventilation. The improvements were homeowner-led. Support and quality assurance were provided through hands-on training for homeowners, training programs on construction quality for local govern- Informal housing in Indonesia. Photo credit: Sony Herdiana | iStock ments and beneficiaries, and the use of checklists, photo documentation and third-party verification of outputs. Of the nearly one million households that received funds, over 75 percent met the minimum standards for the works as set by the project (World Bank, n.d.). In addition to improving structural safety and resilience, building retrofits are a key part of efforts to move toward more sustainable construction practices. To further efforts to reduce construction waste and greenhouse gas emissions, societies need to rapidly move toward lower-carbon practices including adaptive reuse of existing building stock in preference to new construction (World Bank, 2023a). Similar retrofits are needed to improve the energy efficiency of existing buildings. Refer to Chapter 9 for more detailed discussion of low-carbon and energy- efficient design provision approaches. 4 . Structural Safety and Resilience A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 43 4.2.5 Enhanced coordination and harmonization of code provisions across topic areas and hazards As buildings increasingly face various types of hazards throughout their design life, the failure of building codes to address these hazards in an integrated way can lead to siloed design approaches that increase risk. In disaster risk management, it is important to consider risk to buildings from a range of hazards for two key reasons. First, haz- ards can be compounding, creating increased risk when occurring simultaneously or sequentially, or when one trig- gers another. For example, a study of the Wayanad District in Kerala, India, which is highly susceptible to landslides, attributed an increase in deadly landslides in the district to monsoons with one-day rainfall totals that had increased by 10 percent due to climate change (Tandon et al., 2024). Second, approaches to addressing risks from individual hazards may introduce trade-offs. Measures to reduce the vulnerability of buildings to one hazard may inadvertently increase vulnerability to another. For example, a common approach for mitigating flood risk is to elevate buildings; however, this approach can increase the seismic vulnerability of a house if not implemented with seismic design considerations in mind. Beyond the established code approach to account for load combinations in the design loading combinations, this study did not identify any instructive examples of integrated, multi-hazard consider- ations in the codes for the 22 study counties. The complex and interactive nature of different topics and associated performance objectives in building design needs to be addressed by enhanced integration and harmonization of code provisions. Building codes cover many design topics, including hazard-specific design, but they most often address them independently, with separate provisions for each topic area. It is typically the responsibility of the architect and/or engineer28 to assess each area and determine what governs the design. More holistic design approaches are not yet well-integrated into building codes. Emerging areas include research to better understand multihazard risk, including cascading and interactive hazards (Stalhandske et al., 2024). Efforts are also focused on a better comparison of risk across haz- ards with differing return periods and safety indices to allow decision-makers and building designers to more easily determine planning and implementation priorities (Silva et al., 2022; Arup, 2024; Sevieri, 2020; Bruneau et al. 2017). For example, the California Building Code (CBC) (California Building Standards Commission, 2022), has anchorage requirements for foundations for both ground shaking and flood forces, while the International Existing Building Code (IEBC) (ICC, 2021b) contains guidance on the retrofit of existing buildings exposed to multiple hazards. Fire safety related to green building measures is another key area where better consideration of the risks and benefits of different design solutions is essential. See Box 4.5 below. Box 4.5 // Trade-offs in code provisions: fire safety and green building There is growing evidence that green building practices can have unin- tended consequences in terms of increased fire hazard and risks. A study by Meacham et al. (2012) identified 22 potential sources of increased fire hazard or risk associated with green building measures. Tragic events such as the 2017 Grenfell Tower fire in London, UK due to combustible exterior cladding installed as part of a renovation to improve energy efficiency have raised the profile of these risks. Areas of concern include photo-voltaic sys- tems, green façade systems, high-rise mass timber construction, energy storage systems, and use of recycled construction materials. Greater efforts are needed to better integrate fire-safety requirements into green building regulations, including setting clear fire-safety performance require- ments for green materials, technologies and features (Meacham and McNamee, 2020). These examples highlight the need to move away from a siloed approach to building regulation and design to allow building owners Grenfell Tower following the 2017 fire. Photo credit: Alex Donohue | iStock and designers to better harmonize risk and performance goals for projects. 28 For more complex projects, a multidisciplinary design team is often employed, and design issues are resolved by the team through close coordination. 5. Seismic Design Seismic retrofit of Fernando Belaunde Terry School in Lima, Peru. Photo credit: World Bank Global Program for Safer Schools A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 45 5. Seismic Design Earthquake ground shaking and other seismic hazards (for example, surface fault rupture, landslides, soil lique- faction) can damage or destroy buildings, resulting in significant human and economic losses and long recov- ery times. Seismic design provisions in building codes aim to limit damage and prevent the collapse of buildings and infrastructure during earthquakes, while protecting lives and limiting injury among the affected population. Although the focus of seismic design codes is on structural building components (usually constructed using rein- forced concrete, steel, masonry, or timber), lessons learned from past earthquakes have shown that the seismic design of nonstructural components must also be considered. For example, in the February 2010 Chile earthquake, most commercial, residential, office, and industrial buildings suffered limited structural damage. However, wide- spread nonstructural damage—observed across all types of buildings—significantly disrupted and delayed recovery (Miranda et al., 2012). Some strategies addressed in building codes can protect buildings and their contents from damage and minimize disruption of building function after a major earthquake. These include provisions to limit interstory drifts, provisions to ensure enhanced strength and ductility of the structural elements, and the use of advanced systems, such as seismic isolation. These strategies are of particular importance for buildings that must maintain functionality after an earthquake, such as hospitals or emergency response facilities. This chapter pres- ents the findings of the assessment related to seismic design provisions and discusses priority areas for further code development in this topic area. 5.1 ASSESSMENT OF SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISIONS Statements related to the code provisions in 21 key topic areas related to seismic design were evaluated for the 22 study countries. The overall findings are presented in Figure 5.13. The following subsections explore key findings in greater depth, focusing on: (i) seismic design criteria; (ii) seismic analysis methods; and (iii) seismic design and detailing provisions, including provisions for existing buildings.29 5.1.1 Seismic design criteria Seismic design criteria in building codes establish the seismic hazard parameters for the site of a proposed building and the procedures to develop seismic design loads for specific building types. The four topics related to seismic design criteria are described in Table 5.1, followed by the most relevant findings. Codes in most of the countries examined include basic provisions related to developing seismic design criteria, but a few lack fundamental elements such as a complete procedure to determine seismic loads or country-spe- cific seismic hazard maps. It is important for a building code to include basic seismic design criteria, such as a procedure to determine seismic loading, including the effects of site soil conditions and that considers the impor- tance and/or criticality of the building type. All 22 countries include provisions to develop seismic design criteria which satisfied the statements in all topic areas except for Bhutan and Mozambique. However, Ghana does not have complete provisions in this topic area as its building code includes only a procedure for reinforced concrete buildings. Bhutan and Mozambique do not have country-specific seismic hazard design criteria. All countries, except Mozambique include seismic importance factors that are used to increase the seismic design loading for structures of higher importance, such as hospitals and schools. Refer to Figure 5.1. 29 For further reading on concepts related to seismic design, FEMA P-749: Earthquake Resistance Design Concepts (FEMA, 2020a) is a good primer for nonspecialists. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 46 Table 5.1 // Topic areas for seismic design criteria Topic Area Description Procedure to develop Building codes for countries located in seismic regions need to include a procedure to determine basic seismic design design parameters for seismic design, for example, a procedure that specifies the level of seismic hazard criteria for a building site and/or a procedure to determine the design seismic forces for a building. Seismic hazard denotes earthquake ground shaking of specified severity for a given site,30 usually expressed in terms of accelerations, and is used as input for seismic design. For example, many codes have simplified seismic design procedures to develop the lateral seismic loads that are applied to a structure at each floor level. Consideration of soil The type of soil at a given building site influences the expected intensity of earthquake shaking. For ex- effects in seismic ample, it is well established that softer soil types (for example, sandy soils common in the vicinity of river- design criteria banks) may cause more intense shaking of taller buildings than stiff soils. Country-specific Seismic hazard denotes the anticipated level of earthquake ground shaking of specified severity for a giv- seismic hazard design en building site; this is used as input for seismic design and is usually presented in the form of a seismic criteria hazard map for a country. Seismic importance Seismic importance factor accounts for risk to human life, health and welfare associated with potential factors building damage. Buildings may have different importance for a society during and after an earthquake, depending on their type/usage or potentially hazardous contents. The importance factor is typically used to increase the seismic design loads and provide a greater margin of safety for buildings of higher importance. Figure 5.1 // Assessment results for code provisions related to seismic design criteria topic areas SEISMIC PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Procedure to develop seismic design criteria note 1 22 Consideration of soil effects 22 in seismic design criteria Country-specific seismic note 2 20 hazard criteria Seismic importance factors 21 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. In Ghana, only some elements of a procedure to determine seismic load criteria are provided as current provisions address only reinforced concrete structures. 2. For Mozambique, country specific seismic hazard design criteria exist for a nationally adopted school construction guideline only. 30 In more technical terms, this can be expressed as a certain level of Peak Ground Acceleration (or Spectral Acceleration, if the struc- ture’s response is considered) corresponding to a design earthquake that is expected to be exceeded over a specified time period (referred to as the return period). 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 47 It is important to update seismic hazard maps on a regular basis, based on the latest knowledge on past earth- quakes and potential sources and mechanisms of future earthquakes. For example, updated seismic hazard maps were incorporated into the Indonesian seismic code SNI 1726 (BSN, 2019) in 2002, 2012 and 2019 with another updated map currently in development. Refer to Box 5.1 below for a more detailed discussion on the differ- ent approaches to seismic hazard assessment (probabilistic versus deterministic) that can be taken when setting seismic design criteria for codes. Box 5.1 // Deterministic versus probabilistic seismic hazard estimation Seismic hazard denotes a possibility of destructive earthquake effects occurring at a specific location (Bommer, 2002). Seismic hazard is usually quantified in terms of engineering parameters such as ground accelerations, which are used for seismic design purposes and presented in the form of seismic hazard maps. According to the current state of practice, seismic hazard is estimated based on either a deterministic or a probabilistic approach (Abrahamson, 2000). The deterministic approach for seismic hazard estimation is based on an individual earth- quake scenario, which considers an earthquake of specific magnitude, distance from the site, and probability of occurrence (also referred to as the return period). An alternative approach for seismic hazard estimation, known as the Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA), uses a probabilistic time-based approach to model poten- tial earthquake events, considering magnitudes, distances from the site, and return periods across the different regions over a specified timeframe. In many countries a transition from deterministic to probabilistic seismic hazard estimation has taken place over the past 20 to 30 years, owing to seismological and geotechnical studies which have advanced our knowledge of the frequency and magnitude of earthquakes along known or recently identified faults, the effects of local soil conditions on the intensity of ground shaking, and so forth. For example, seismic hazard maps in the USA have evolved from the original, deterministic seismic zone maps, to maps which identified PGA values and corre- sponding ground velocities for specific zones within the country (1984–1994), and finally to current maps which provide spectral accelerations based on the PSHA (1997 to the present) (FEMA, 2021b). Seismic hazard is usually expressed as a Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA), or, if taking the response of the structure into account, a Peak Spectral Acceleration. 5.1.2 Seismic analysis methods Codes should include a range of seismic analysis procedures, from simplified equivalent static procedures for low-rise and/or regular buildings, to those that capture more complex dynamic and nonlinear structural behavior. Both equivalent static and dynamic analysis procedures assume elastic structural behavior and may be appropriate for the seismic design of new buildings. However, nonlinear seismic analysis procedures, such as nonlinear static (pushover) analysis, are often used for the seismic assessment of existing buildings because they enable a better understanding of their seismic behavior and failure mechanisms. The key topics for seismic analy- sis methods considered in this study are described in Table 5.2, followed by the most relevant findings. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 48 Table 5.2 // Topic areas for seismic analysis methods Topic Area Description Equivalent static Simplified static analysis (also known as equivalent static analysis) simulates earthquake effects in the analysis form of static seismic forces applied at the floor levels of a numerical model of a building. This type of analysis is elastic (in other words, inelastic behavior is not modeled explicitly) and is used in combination with global ductility factors. Dynamic analysis Dynamic analysis procedures, such as response spectrum analysis, are more advanced, as they consider possible vibration shapes of the structure, and the seismic forces are determined based on seismic haz- ard parameters which are presented in the form of an acceleration response spectrum. In some cases, nonlinear response history analysis31 is conducted to simulate the response of the building under specific earthquake ground motions while taking into account the effects of structural damage. Nonlinear static Nonlinear static (pushover) analysis is performed by applying gradually increasing lateral displacements to (pushover) analysis a numerical model of the structure until the target performance has been attained. Inelastic behavior (for example, damage) is explicitly modeled. Some of the countries in this study could benefit from introducing nonlinear analysis procedures into their codes. All countries, except Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, included simplified seismic analysis procedures (for exam- ple, equivalent static analysis) in their codes, and only two countries (Mozambique and South Africa) did not include linear dynamic analysis procedures (response spectrum analysis) in their codes. However, only seven countries (Algeria, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, and Türkiye) included the nonlinear static (push- over) analysis procedure in their codes. Because nonlinear static analysis procedure has been commonly used for the seismic assessment of existing buildings, this is consistent with the findings (see Figure 5.12) that only seven out of 22 countries included provisions related to the seismic assessment and retrofit of existing build- ings. It should be noted that seismic design codes in many countries are moving toward incorporating perfor- mance-based seismic design approaches (as described in Chapter 2, Box 2.5), which require nonlinear seismic analysis procedures (see Figure 5.2). Figure 5.2 // Assessment results for code provisions related to seismic analysis procedures SEISMIC PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Simplified analysis procedures 20 Dynamic analysis procedures 20 Non-linear static analysis procedures (pushover) U 7 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Note: 1. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 31 Also referred to as time history analysis. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 49 5.1.3 Seismic design and detailing provisions This section describes relevant seismic design and detailing provisions, including building regularity requirements, ductility factors, and related detailing requirements for ductile seismic performance, interstory drift limits, design of advanced seismic systems, design of nonstructural components, design for out-of-plane seismic actions, and specific provisions for the seismic assessment and retrofit of existing buildings. The key topic areas considered in this study are described in Table 5.3, followed by the most relevant findings. Table 5.3 // Topic areas for seismic design and detailing provisions Topic Area Description Regularity Regular buildings are characterized by a symmetrical floor plan, with similar floor heights, floor plan di- requirements for mensions and configuration (Allen et al., 2024a). Research studies and experience from past earthquakes seismic design have shown that regular buildings perform better than buildings with irregular-shaped plans, or those with significant changes in mass, stiffness, or plan dimensions at different floor levels (in other words, vertical irregularities). Seismic ductility Ductility is the ability of a structure or a structural element to deform beyond the elastic range and avoid factors sudden, brittle failures (Allen et al., 2024b). The extent of expected damage in structural elements will large- ly depend on the assumed ductility, which is usually expressed in terms of a ductility factor (also known as force modification factor or behavior factor). Global ductility factors are often used in codes to approximate the overall ductility of a building based on the design and detailing of its lateral force resisting system (for example shear wall or moment frame) in combination with simplified, linear elastic analysis methods (that is, equivalent static). Ductile detailing of Ductile detailing of structural elements in a building depends on several factors, including the type of struc- structural systems tural system (for example, frame or wall), main construction material (for example, reinforced concrete, steel, masonry, or timber), and the expected ductility level (FEMA, 2022a). Also see “seismic ductility fac- tors” (above). The importance of ductile detailing was recognized in early design codes in some countries and more widely recognized by the 1970s. Ductile detailing provisions have continued to evolve over time, incorporating performance-based design approaches to enhance the seismic resilience of buildings. Lateral interstory Seismic design provisions in most countries set limits on the maximum acceptable lateral displacements displacements (drifts) (drifts) caused by expected earthquake ground motions. These drift limits are intended to control structural and nonstructural damage due to potentially excessive lateral swaying of buildings in an earthquake. Seismic design of Diaphragms are the floors and roofs of buildings, which need to have sufficient strength to remain undam- diaphragms aged under design lateral loads and to be properly connected to structural walls and columns to allow for building stability and safety. Diaphragms or their connections to the vertical structure (for example, frames or walls) that are not adequately designed for the applied loads may experience failure leading to partial or total building collapse, as reported in past earthquakes (FEMA, 2022a). Seismic design of Advanced systems for enhancing the seismic resilience of buildings include seismic (base) isolation and advanced systems supplemental damping devices (Allen et al., 2024c). Seismic isolation is based on the concept of increasing flexibility at a specific location within a building (usually at the base—hence the term base isolation), by means of custom-made devices. This has the effect of concentrating displacements caused by earthquake ground shaking within the device’s isolation zone, while reducing displacements and accelerations in the structure above. Supplemental damping devices (also known as dampers) act like shock absorbers, re- ducing earthquake effects on the structure via increased damping. Examples include buckling restrained braces or viscous dampers. Seismic design Nonstructural components in a building include elements such as exterior cladding (façade), doors and of nonstructural windows, partition walls, building contents (furniture), mechanical and electrical equipment, and so forth components (FEMA, 2012). Nonstructural components are affected by earthquake ground shaking, and their failure may cause injuries or even fatalities and can disrupt building function. Design provisions need to include engi- neering calculations to determine loads and checks related to the nonstructural elements and their connec- tions, and/or accommodate building displacements (for example, for façades). 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 50 Table 5.3 // Topic areas for seismic design and detailing provisions (cont.) Topic Area Description Seismic design for Earthquake ground shaking induces internal forces in vertical structural elements (for example walls) that out-of-plane seismic are perpendicular to their plane (in other words, out-of-plane) (Charleson, 2022) and need to be considered action in design. Seismic assessment Seismic assessment of existing buildings aims to identify buildings at high risk of damage or collapse in and retrofit of existing future earthquakes, while seismic retrofitting involves the strengthening of existing structural and nonstruc- buildings tural elements in vulnerable buildings, ensuring that retrofitted buildings can withstand future earthquakes without risk to life or injury of occupants. It is important for building codes to include provisions related to the seismic design of buildings with irregu- larities to reduce the chance of severe building damage or collapse in earthquakes. Buildings with irregularities in plan or elevation (also respectively known as horizontal and vertical irregularities) are more prone to damage and even collapse. For example, an irregular layout of walls and stairwells at a floor level may cause torsional effects, which may lead to damage unless they are adequately accounted for in the design. Soft story irregularity is a common vertical irregularity, characterized by an open ground floor (without any walls) in a reinforced concrete frame building, and this often causes severe building damage or collapse, as observed in past earthquakes (see Figure 5.3). Most of the 22 countries—all except Mozambique—had provisions related to horizontal and vertical building irregularities. According to current seismic design philosophy, Figure 5.3 // Example of a reinforced concrete frame buildings are designed such that their structural ele- building with a soft story irregularity in the bottom ments (for example, beams, columns, walls) perform two floors in Türkiye in a ductile manner and experience limited damage in a design-level earthquake. Building codes specify global ductility factors for different types of seismi- cally designed structural systems to approximate the combined damping, ductility and overstrength of those systems in an earthquake. All 22 countries—except Mozambique—had provisions related to ductility fac- tors in their codes. Seismic design codes need to include comprehensive ductile detailing provisions that allow structures to dis- sipate energy during earthquake ground shaking while protecting the life safety of occupants. Achieving life safety performance means that although there may be sig- nificant damage to structural and nonstructural building elements, the building is nevertheless designed to avoid a sudden failure of structural elements or total building col- lapse that could injure or kill building occupants or those Photo credit: S. Brzev in the vicinity of the building. Specific detailing provisions depend on the structural system and material. For example, ductile detailing for a reinforced concrete moment frame structure is related to the spacing and size of transverse reinforcement (stirrups, ties) in columns, beams, and beam-column joints, as well as adequate anchorage of such reinforcement (for example, 135-degree hooks). Special attention is needed during the execution of these detailing requirements within the column end zones at each floor level, where structural damage can be concentrated in frame buildings. buildings. Inadequate detailing may result in damage or sudden failure in severe earthquakes (see Figure 5.5). Figure 5.4 presents countries that included ductile detailing provisions for different types of structural systems considered in this study. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 51 Figure 5.4 // Assessment results for ductile seismic detailing code provisions for different structural systems SEISMIC PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonesia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Ductile detailing of concrete moment frames 18 Ductile detailing of steel braced frame systems U 18 Ductile detailing of steel moment resisting frames U 17 Ductile detailing of RC shear wall systems 16 Ductile detailing of timber systems 12 Ductile detailing of confined masonry systems 9 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Note: 1. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). Figure 5.5 // The collapse of this reinforced concrete building in Kathmandu, Nepal during the 2015 Gorkha earthquake can be attributed to substandard quality of concrete construction, and a lack of ductile detailing of transverse reinforcement in reinforced concrete columns Photo credit: S. Brzev Seismic design and detailing provisions in some countries from this study are very limited, such as for Bhutan, Mongolia, Mozambique, Rwanda, and Tajikistan. In these countries (except for Mozambique) current code doc- uments have been published in the past ten years, but gaps remain in their ductile detailing provisions. Most countries included detailing provisions for reinforced concrete moment frame structures in their codes, except for 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 52 Mongolia, Mozambique, Rwanda, and Tajikistan. Ductile detailing requirements are also available for some of the masonry systems such as confined masonry, a common system in Latin America, Asia, and other regions. Of the ten countries with general structural design provisions for confined masonry systems (see Chapter 4, Figure 4.3), all except Tajikistan include ductile detailing provisions for confined masonry in their codes. These provisions are mostly related to the size and spacing of transverse reinforcement in the reinforced concrete confining elements, which are critical for enhancing the seismic performance of these structures. The understanding of ductile detail- ing is evolving with the latest advances in research and learnings from past earthquakes, and it is vital that such knowledge is reflected in building codes through regular updates. For example, many failures in steel moment resisting frame buildings were observed in California during the 1994 Northridge earthquake, which led to updated detailing and inspection requirements to prevent brittle failures in welded steel connections. In an earthquake, lateral displacements (or drifts) due to seismic forces need to be restricted to provide struc- tural stability and to control damage in brittle nonstructural components such as partition and masonry infill walls. Recent earthquakes, for example, the February 2023 Türkiye earthquake sequence, have revealed excessive damage to nonstructural elements in buildings due to flexible reinforced concrete frame structures. All countries— except Mozambique—included interstory drift limits for buildings during a design-level earthquake. Provisions for the seismic design of diaphragms (that is, floor or roof structures) are an essential compo- nent of comprehensive seismic design codes. These typically include procedures for calculating force transfer within diaphragms and design checks related to the strength of diaphragms and their connections for different floor systems (for example, reinforced concrete slabs, precast floors, timber-framed floors). The codes for some countries, such as Indonesia, Peru, Philippines and Vanuatu, include relatively complete design provisions for dia- phragms. For example, Indonesia’s building code classifies diaphragms into rigid and flexible depending on how they transfer load to the walls. It also provides procedures to determine design forces for diaphragm components and includes anchorage requirements. Other countries, such as El Salvador and Ghana, include general concepts and requirements related to diaphragm stiffness and force transfer but do not include explicit procedures to deter- mine seismic design forces and verify their strength. No seismic design provisions for diaphragms were identified for Bhutan, Mozambique, Nepal and Rwanda. Refer to Figure 5.6. Most countries in this study could benefit from the addition of more comprehensive procedures for diaphragm design because in their absence, critical seis- mic requirements may be overlooked in design and lead to partial or total building collapse (see Figure 5.7). Figure 5.6 // Assessment results for provisions related to the seismic design of diaphragms SEISMIC PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonseia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Seismic design of diaphragms 18 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 53 Figure 5.7 // (a) Building collapse in the 2008 Wenchuan, China earthquake due to a lack of connection between the floor, diagram (hollow core precast concrete slabs) and walls, (b) diagram illustrating the failure mechanism (a) (b) A Precast hollow core slab Section A-A A Masonry wall Failure of hollow core precast concrete slabs Photo credit: R. Laberenne Source: Serbian Association for Earthquake Engineering Although most countries in this study have some Figure 5.8 // Structural and nonstructural components in a seismic design provisions for nonstructural com- building (FEMA, 1994) ponents, these provisions often fail to cover all important types of nonstructural components. See Figure 5.8. Ideally, codes should cover com- mon types of nonstructural components such as façades/building envelope; building append- ages; nonstructural/infill walls; and/or mechani- cal, electrical, plumbing (MEP) equipment, and, in some cases, furniture and other contents. Design includes engineering calculations to determine seismic loads for nonstructural elements, as well as design checks on their structural integrity, and that of their connections and anchorage. Nonstructural exterior masonry walls are often constructed as architectural elements without adequate integrity with intersecting walls and anchorage to adjacent floors/roof (Figure 5.10 and 5.11). Unfortunately, building codes often neglect important provisions related to the interaction between masonry infill walls and the main reinforced concrete frame structure. When masonry infill walls are not iso- lated from the main structure, they can attract seismic inertial forces, which can lead to unpre- dictable behavior and damage to the reinforced Source: FEMA. concrete structure (WHE, 2006). For example, the Supplementary Technical Standard for Earthquake Design for Mexico City addresses this by requiring cladding and other architectural elements to be designed to accommodate movement of the structure during a design-level earthquake (CDMX, 2023). Bhutan, Mozambique, and Rwanda have no provisions related to seismic design of nonstructural components. Refer to Figure 5.9. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 54 Figure 5.9 // Assessment results for seismic design provisions related to nonstructural components and out-of- plane earthquake actions SEISMIC PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES Mozambique South Africa El Salvador Uzbekistan Philippines Indonseia Tajikistan Colombia Mongolia Morocco Vanuatu Rwanda Türkiye Mexico Algeria Bhutan Samoa Ghana Tonga Nepal Chile Peru Seismic design provisions related to non-structural components 19 Seismic design provisions related to out-of-plane seismic action 12 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Note: 1. This study assessed whether there were any provisions in each topic area but not whether types of nonstructural components were covered comprehensively. Refer to Annex D for evaluation statements. Figure 5.10 // Nonstructural URM exterior walls expe- Figure 5.11 // Collapse of exterior walls in an older URM rienced damage or collapse in mid- and high-rise RC building in Türkiye due to out-of-plane seismic actions buildings due to the February 2023 Türkiye earthquake in the February 2023 earthquake sequence sequence, which can be attributed to inadequate connections between the intersecting walls and their anchorage to floor system Photo credit: S. Brzev Photo credit: S. Brzev 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 55 Many codes lack provisions to address the vulnerability of structural and nonstructural elements to out-of- plane seismic effects. Past earthquakes have revealed that exterior walls in older URM buildings frequently expe- rience collapse due to out-of-plane seismic effects (see Figure 5.11). This assessment shows that the majority of seismic design codes contain provisions related to the design of structural and nonstructural elements for in-plane seismic effects; however, only 12 countries include provisions related to the design for out-of-plane seismic effects (refer to Figure 5.9). The key design provisions are related to procedures for the calculation of out-of-plane seismic loading, as well as the verification of the out-of-plane strength of nonstructural elements and their connections to supporting structural elements. Only seven countries (Algeria, Chile, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru, and Türkiye) included seismic design provisions for advanced systems in their codes. It is important to include provisions related to the seismic design of buildings equipped with advanced systems (such as base isolation devices and dampers) in building codes, because these systems are effective in protecting important facilities such as hospitals that need to remain oper- ational after an earthquake (NZSEE, 2019). Refer to Box 5.2 for an example of the performance of seismically isolated hospitals in Türkiye. Box 5.2 // Seismic resilience of hospitals in Türkiye In 2013, Türkiye’s Ministry of Health issued a reg- ulation mandating the use of seismic isolation for all new hospitals with more than 100 beds located in high seismic zones (Erdik et al., 2015). Seismic isolation technology employs devices that decou- ple a building from its foundations, allowing for relatively large horizontal movements within the devices, and significantly reduced seismic dis- placements and accelerations in the building above the zone of isolation. This is particularly important for hospitals that contain sensitive and expensive medical equipment and whose contin- ued operation immediately after an earthquake is essential for response and recovery. Since 2013, numerous new base isolated hospitals have been Seismically isolated Elbistan State Hospital in Turkiye (Qu, 2023) built in Türkiye, including five hospitals located in the region affected by the February 2023 earthquakes, which caused close to 60,000 deaths in Türkiye and Syria. Four of the five hospitals performed to targeted “Immediate Occupancy” levels, which allowed for continuous delivery of essential services and faster recovery. Ground motion sensors indicated that several of these hospitals withstood ground motions that were more than twice their design levels, highlighting the resilience of seismically isolated buildings (Qu et al., 2023). Only seven countries in this study (Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Morocco, Peru, Tajikistan, and Türkiye) have pro- visions in their building codes related to the seismic assessment and retrofit of existing buildings, highlighting a significant gap in most of the countries assessed. Many existing buildings in seismic regions have either not been designed for seismic effects at all or have been designed according to outdated codes and may be vulnerable to earthquake effects. Provisions related to the seismic assessment and retrofitting of existing buildings inform major renovations, as well as retrofitting and post-earthquake reconstruction processes. They also aim to ensure that existing buildings comply with improved safety standards but generally do not require the same performance standards as those applied to new buildings. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 56 5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISIONS The assessment shows that the countries examined are at various stages in the development of their seismic design codes. For context, all countries selected have significant levels of seismic risk, either throughout their national territory or in specific regions within a country. Countries with comparatively higher levels of seismic risk32 include El Salvador, Nepal, the Philippines, Peru, Tajikistan, Tonga and Vanuatu. Countries with significant, but rela- tively lower seismic risk include Mozambique, Mongolia, South Africa and Ghana (Johnson et al., 2023). Figure 5.13 summarizes the findings for all the topic areas assessed and ranks countries by the total number of topic areas that satisfied the assessment statements. Some items may be context-specific—in some countries, for example, confined masonry or timber construction would not be common practice. In some cases, countries may not con- tain provisions for more advanced procedures or systems of analysis (as these countries may generally lack the capacity and/or resources to carry out design of advanced systems). Mozambique has the least comprehensive seismic code provisions33 although it spans part of the East African rift zone and has seismic hazard levels ranging from low to moderate (Johnson et al., 2023). Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal, Rwanda, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan could be considered to be in the earlier stages of developing their seismic codes. By contrast, the seismic codes of Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Türkiye are the most comprehensive, with some provisions in all topic areas assessed. In the remaining countries, the main gaps are related to provisions for seismic assessment and retrofit of existing buildings and the related analysis procedures (such as nonlinear static analysis), the design of advanced systems such as seismic isolation, design of nonstructural elements, and for out-of-plane seismic actions. Figure 5.12 // School in Defne, Hatay, Türkiye, which experienced minor damage after the February 2023 Türkiye- Syria earthquake sequence Photo credit: EEFIT 32 In terms of expected average annual seismic losses (scaled by the estimated costs of building assets) or AALR. 33 Mozambique’s code is based on 1960s Portuguese codes and does not contain a seismic hazard map for the country or provisions in many critical areas. The country has adopted a guideline for school construction which contains a country-specific seismic hazard map for Mozambique. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 57 Figure 5.13 // Summary of assessment of seismic design provisions for the 22 countries SEISMIC PROVISIONS Ductile detailing of confined masonry systems Ductile detailing of concrete moment frames Procedure to develop seismic design criteria Seismic design provisions related to out-of- Seismic design - requirements for building Ductile detailing of steel moment resisting Ductile detailing of RC shear wall systems Seismic design provisions related to non- Country-specific seismic hazard criteria Provisions for seismic assessment and Consideration of soil effects in seismic Seismic design - ductility requirements Ductile detailing of steel braced frame Non-linear static analysis procedures Ductile detailing of timber systems Provisions for advanced systems Simplified analysis procedures Seismic design of diaphragms Dynamic analysis procedures Seismic importance factors retrofit of existing buildings Seismic design - drift limits structural components plane seismic action design criteria and factors (pushover) regularity systems frames COUNTRY Colombia Mexico Türkiye Algeria Chile Morocco Peru note Indonesia 4 note El Salvador 7 Philippines Samoa Vanuatu note Ghana 3 Tonga South Africa note Nepal U 8 note Uzbekistan 6 Tajikistan Mongolia U Bhutan Rwanda U U note Mozambique 5 TOTAL COUNTRIES 22 20 22 21 20 20 7 21 21 21 18 16 17 18 9 12 18 7 19 12 7 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. Provisions apply to all new buildings, unless otherwise noted. 2. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 3. In Ghana, only some elements of a procedure to determine seismic load criteria are provided as current provisions only address reinforced concrete structures. 4. For Indonesia, the code addresses seismic retrofitting with FRP but does not cover seismic assessment and retrofit in general. 5. For Mozambique, country specific seismic, hazard design criteria exists for a nationally adopted school construction guideline only. 6. For Uzbekistan, there is a requirement to strengthen existing buildings, but no detailed assessment and retrofit code exists. 7. For El Salvador, there are some requirements for assessment, but no specific provisions for seismic assessment and retrofit are in place. 8. For Nepal, detailed guidelines for seismic assessment and retrofit exist, but it is unclear if they have been officially adopted. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 58 5.3 PRIORITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISIONS This section discusses priority topics for the future development of seismic provisions that may be applicable to the countries included in the assessment as well as other countries. These priority topic areas emerged through review of the assessment results presented in Section 5.1, further supplemented by desktop review. 5.3.1 Improving seismic hazard maps in building codes Many countries have made great progress in updating seismic hazard maps in building codes, but some maps still reflect an incomplete understanding of the seismic hazard based on the quality of data and methodologies that underpin them. It was beyond the scope of this study to evaluate the quality of seismic hazard maps in the codes. In terms of updates, eight countries had updated their seismic design criteria within the past five years, and five countries within the past ten (see Table 5.4 below). The year of latest update does not necessary reflect quality; for example, although Uzbekistan updated its seismic code in 2019, the zoning map still follows older methodologies (SNIP codes dating back to the Soviet Union). Common shortcomings in out-of-date seismic haz- ard maps are: (i) maps generated from limited historical earthquake catalogs, or limited knowledge of underlying geology, fault tectonics and/or soil type characteristics;34 (ii) maps based on seismic hazard assessment models using out-of-date methodologies; and (iii) limited resolution of maps that do not account for regional or local vari- ations in ground motion, geology and soil. Up-to-date seismic hazard maps are based on current methodologies for probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (see Box 5.1). Seismic hazard maps in a building code must also accommodate the level of seismic risk people are willing to accept, balanced against the costs of design to a cer- tain level.35 Reliance on inadequate seismic hazard maps can result in the overestimation or underestimation of seismic hazard in specific areas, leading to buildings with structural systems that may be over- or under-designed. Table 5.4 // Age of code documents containing country-specific seismic hazard maps, by date of publication Countries Publication date of code seismic hazard maps Algeria, Indonesia, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, Peru, Rwanda, Uzbekistan In the last 5 years Ghana, the Philippines, South Africa, Tajikistan, Türkiye In the last 10 years Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Morocco, Samoa, Tonga, Vanuatu Older than 10 years Note: Bhutan and Mozambique did not have country-specific seismic hazard maps in their codes. Periodically updating seismic hazard maps in building codes, based on the best available scientific data and modeling techniques, is an important step toward improving the seismic performance of buildings. As earth- quake engineering is a relatively new field, many advances in the development of seismic hazard maps have been made over the past 50 years. These include better coverage and recording of earthquake ground motions with seismographic networks, improved fault mapping and modeling, and improved understanding of how earthquake motions are attenuated (based on earthquake magnitude, fault mechanism, distance to the site and soil condi- tions). Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) is generally accepted as the preferred methodology to gener- ate country-specific seismic hazard maps for seismic design in building codes. PSHA better quantifies uncertainty by using a time-based probabilistic approach, which considers all the earthquakes that can occur in the future probabilistically for each location in the region assessed within a specific timeframe. To do this, PSHA uses avail- able data on past earthquake activity and information about the geology, tectonics and soil properties to predict 34 These data can inform the return period selected for the seismic hazard map. For example, in regions where the seismicity is domi- nated by infrequent, high-magnitude events, design criteria linked to a return period of 2,475 years may be more appropriate. 35 In this respect, a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) for a country conducted purely by technical experts cannot auto- matically be converted into a seismic hazard map for code design, without consideration of levels of acceptable risk. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 59 the frequency of occurrence of earthquake events of different magnitudes and the level of hazard at specific sites. When countries lack the resources to collect seismic and geological data to develop bespoke Seismic Hazard Models (SHMs) from scratch, another option is to build upon open-source regional or global SHMs. Open-source global SHMs were developed by the Global Earthquake Model Foundation (Johnson et al., 2023) and the European Facilities for Earthquake Hazard and Risk (EFEHR, 2021), albeit these models are not sufficiently granular to form the basis of country- or region-specific code seismic hazard maps without further development. Several compre- hensive regional models, developed through international projects and initiatives, are also available, including for Europe (Danciu et al., 2024), the Middle East (Şeşetyan et al., 2018), and Central Asia (World Bank, 2023b). Seismic hazard maps in some of the study countries, such as Indonesia, Mexico and the Philippines, have been updated on a regular basis. Countries can also consider making seismic hazard data accessible online and allowing higher resolution data to be easily retrieved using the GPS coordinates of the building site. 5.3.2 Addressing the seismic safety of small-scale vernacular and other non-engineered buildings A significant source of seismic risk in many countries is related to the seismic vulnerability of "non-engineered" buildings built outside the formal building regulatory system. These include vernacular, self-built buildings, often constructed in rural and peri-urban areas using indigenous or traditional materials like unreinforced stone or brick masonry, timber, earth and bamboo. These types of construction are not commonly addressed in building codes, as highlighted in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2.4. Non-engineered buildings also include low-rise to mid-rise buildings built from construction materials like reinforced concrete or reinforced hollow block masonry without appropri- ate application of engineering knowledge, leading to significant seismic vulnerability (Arya et al., 2014). Although solving this complex problem goes beyond building code reform and input from design and construction profes- sionals,36 it can nevertheless be attributed in part to a lack of simplified design and construction provisions for small-scale buildings in many building codes. Some countries are making efforts to reduce this risk by developing and formally adopting simplified design and construction code provisions and complementary guidelines for small-scale buildings. These can address vernacular materials and techniques, and also building types constructed using industrial materials and tech- nologies such as confined and reinforced masonry. While the study results presented in Chapter 4 show that the inclusion of design provisions for vernacular construction materials such as earth and bamboo, and “rule of thumb” provisions for the construction of small-scale buildings is not widespread, there were a few exceptions in each region considered, notably in Colombia, Ghana, Nepal, and Vanuatu. These types of provisions must be paired with measures to support implementation compliance and quality control, including the training of home- owners and local builders on earthquake-resistant construction techniques. Addressing the serious risks posed by inadequately built non-engineered structures and inadequately engineered reinforced concrete structures is a broader challenge, requiring capacity development of stakeholders in the design and construction process and well designed and adequately resourced local building controls. The experience of Japan in addressing the seismic risk posed by traditional, non-engineered wooden buildings is a transferable example of a comprehensive policy-based approach (see Box 5.3). 36 While the focus of this report is on building codes, the vulnerability of non-engineered or self-built buildings to earthquakes and other natural hazards must be addressed not only by the development of simplified design and construction guidance, but also through campaigns to build public awareness of these risks and training of homeowners and builders on appropriate and cost-effective con- struction approaches to support compliance (UNESCO, 2016). 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 60 Box 5.3 // An integrated approach to improving the seismic safety of traditional wooden houses in Japan  Traditional, non-engineered wooden houses in Japan were a significant source of seismic risk prior to a multi-pronged effort by the Japanese government to improve the seismic performance of these structures by integrating them into the formal legislative framework (Imai et al, 2017; World Bank, 2017). The main areas of intervention included:  » Integration of wooden building design and construction provisions in Japan’s first building code in 1919;  » The modernization of construction methods and materials including the introduction of pre-cut wood Traditional wooden houses in Iwami Ginzan, Japan. Photo credit: Tomohiro Nagai, iStock components for enhanced efficiency at construction sites and the simplification of wood connections using metal connectors;  » The creation of a new category in the professional qualification system for architects and engineers specific to wooden structures;  » Industry-wide capacity building through mass training and lecture programs leveraging partnerships between government and the private sector; and  » Low-interest housing loans and associated technical assistance in the form of concessional housing loans offering low-interest and extended repay periods through the Government Housing Loan Corporation which required specific standards and quality control mechanisms for each house financed.  As a result of these interventions over a century, the seismic risk posed by traditional wooden houses was reduced, as evidenced by damage assessments after the 1995 Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake (see Figure B5.1).   Figure B5.1 // Level of damage to wooden houses caused by the 1995 Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake, showing improved performance of newer construction due to revisions to building regulations over time.     Before 1970 16.7 18 22.7 16 18 7.9   Construction Year *1   1971-1980 4.9 6.8 10.7 20.5 32.2 24.9 *2 *1 1970: Amendment of building Standard Law After 1981 3.5 5.3 5.3 11.3 38.7 36 *2 1981: Amendment of Seismic Provision in Building Standard Law 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Collapse Severe Moderate Slight Little No damage Source: Imai et al, 2017.  5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 61 5.3.3 Addressing seismic assessment and retrofitting provisions for existing buildings A substantial portion of the existing building stock worldwide is vulnerable to earthquakes. This vulnerability is driven by different factors. Some buildings were constructed prior to advances in seismic design codes over the past 30 to 40 years; some are old and in poor condition; some sustained damage in past events; others were designed and constructed in places where comprehensive and up-to-date seismic design codes have not been adopted and/or effectively implemented. One study estimated that less than 13 percent of the global building stock was built according to design regulations with seismic provisions, with almost half of buildings worldwide exposed to moderate to high seismic hazard (Yepes-Estrada et al., 2023). For example, an assessment of existing school buildings in Cali, Colombia, found that approximately 30 percent of these buildings were vulnerable to collapse should they be exposed to the country’s design-level earthquake per the current seismic design code (Government of Santiago de Cali, 2024). Although some countries, such as Chile and Mexico, have had basic seismic design provisions in place for more than 50 years, key improvements to the provisions were introduced over time, often following major damaging earthquakes. For example, the 1968 Tokachi Oki earthquake in Japan, the 1985 Mexico earthquake and the 1999 Türkiye earthquakes triggered significant updates to the seismic codes in those coun- tries. To compound the issue, the seismic vulnerability of existing buildings is often exacerbated over time due to deterioration of building materials, lack of maintenance, unauthorized alterations or additions to a building’s struc- ture, or damage from past hazard events. Box 5.4 // Pragmatic approaches to the seismic retrofit of buildings in Mexico City Existing buildings in Mexico City. Photo credit: pixelrgb | iStock Mexico City’s 2023 Complementary Technical Norm (CTN) for the assessment and rehabilitation of existing build- ings allows a more relaxed standard for seismic retrofits of existing buildings than for the design of new buildings. Depending on the age and vulnerability of the existing buildings, designs are permitted to comply with older ver- sions of the Mexico City Building Code, with the goal of achieving a collapse-prevention performance objective for retrofitted structures. This approach recognizes that it is rarely technically or financially feasible for existing build- ings to achieve the same level of compliance as new construction (Government of Mexico City, 2023). The CTN offers different retrofit approaches based on building typology, ranging from highly specialized engineering proce- dures for taller buildings and those with complex/irregular configurations, to less advanced procedures for simpler and regular structures. This methodology, which aims to balance risk reduction with a nuanced understanding of the technical and financial constraints of building retrofits, offers a practical model for other countries to consider. 5. Seismic Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 62 Building code provisions supporting the seismic assessment and retrofit of existing buildings, complemented by implementation policies that trigger or incentivize retrofits, can support seismic risk reduction over time. Only seven of the 22 study countries have some building code provisions for seismic assessment and retrofit of existing buildings (see Figure 5.13). One example is Mexico City, which in 2023 issued a new Complementary Technical Norm for the structural assessment and rehabilitation of existing buildings (see Box 5.4) (Government of Mexico City, 2023). Mexico City’s provisions for seismic assessment and retrofit are paired with policies whereby the alteration of a building, or change of use, will trigger a retrofit. Mexico City also offers subsidies to incentivize the seismic retrofit of existing buildings. Such policies are more common in high-income countries but could be expanded to other countries through reforms and affordable financing schemes. The development of a long-term seismic risk reduction strategy could be another effective means of driving action on seismic assessment and retrofit. Japan has been a leader in advanced approaches to the seismic retrofit of existing buildings. Since the passage of the Act on Promotion of Seismic Retrofitting of Buildings in 1995 following the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, Japan’s efforts targeting the retrofit of both public buildings and housing have led to consistent, pro- gressive seismic risk reduction in the country (Moullier and Sakoda, 2018). San Francisco, California, is another leading example, having developed a 30-year Earthquake Safety Implementation Plan (Brown, 2011), initially tar- geting wood-frame buildings of three or more stories through a mandatory retrofit program, and currently develop- ing an ordinance for the seismic retrofit of older reinforced concrete buildings. 6. Wind Design Tropical Storm Pabuk in Thailand, 2019. Photo credit: Dogora Sun | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 64 6. Wind Design In many parts of the world, changing weather patterns related to climate change are resulting in more frequent and intense strong wind events such as cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons and storms. Wind is a critical factor in building design and construction due to its significant impact on the structural integrity, safety, and longevity of buildings. Wind loading can also damage nonstructural components such as cladding, roofing, windows, and doors. Proper design for wind loading ensures that these elements remain intact and functional, preventing water ingress, debris impact, and other secondary damages that can compromise the building’s usability and safety. Recent disasters caused by hurricanes and typhoons have shown the impacts of wind damage on housing and buildings that provide critical services, causing economic losses, long-term disruption and displacement of populations. For example, in 2017, strong winds from Hurricane Irma badly damaged the roofs of numerous build- ings of the Roy Lester Schneider Hospital in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, the island’s only hospital. While the main building structure remained intact, loss of the roof cladding led to significant water intrusion into the buildings (FEMA, 2018), disrupting the delivery of health-care services for months (Chowdhury et al., 2019). Approximately one-third of Puerto Rico’s housing stock, more than 300,000 homes, were seriously damaged by strong winds, wind-driven rain and flooding in Hurricane Maria in 2017 (US-HUD, 2018). Roof and water damage was often left unrepaired for months or even years. Two years after Hurricane Maria, blue tarpaulins covering damaged roofs were still visible on thousands of homes in Puerto Rico (Florido, 2019). Thus, it is critical for building codes to include adequate wind design provisions to ensure that buildings can sustain wind loads without experiencing failure of components, excessive deformation, or building collapse, thereby protecting life safety of occupants and minimizing damage. This chapter presents the findings of the assessment related to wind design provisions and discusses priority areas for further code development in this topic area. 6.1 WIND DESIGN PROVISION TOPICS Statements related to the code provisions in 10 key topic areas related to wind design were evaluated for the 22 study countries, and the overall findings are presented in Figure 6.2. These topic areas are described in Table 6.1, followed by the study findings. The most common approach in building codes is to ensure that building structures and their nonstructural components can withstand design wind loads with little or no damage. Design provisions for wind need to ensure that various building components are adequately connected to one another. For example, roofing (for example, clay tiles or metal sheets) needs to be adequately attached to the roof structure, the roof structure must be tied to verti- cal elements such as walls or frames, and the walls need to be adequately tied to the foundations. The type of roof shape and configuration influences the magnitude and distribution of wind pressures experienced by the structure. For example, hip-shaped roofs perform better than gable-shaped roofs under wind loading. Large roof overhangs or porch roofs can be particularly vulnerable to uplift from wind. Buildings that are heavier and more robust, such as reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry wall buildings, typically have a higher capacity to resist wind pressures than lighter-weight construction such as bamboo structures, or timber stud walls with plywood sheeting. 6. Wind Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 65 Table 6.1 // Topic areas for wind design Topic Area Description Procedure to develop Codes typically provide procedures to develop wind loads for structural design. The loading calcu- design wind loading lation often begins by establishing the design wind speed or velocity at the site, and is modified by various factors such as topology, roughness of the terrain, proximity to the coast, and seasonal or directional factors (ASCE, 2021; JRC, 2002). Design wind velocities in the codes are expressed in different ways from country to country. Some use gust wind (average velocity over several seconds during the strongest wind) and others use the maximum wind velocity (usually average over several minutes). Care must be taken when comparing code requirements as different measures are used for design wind velocity. Then, the pressures on the walls and roof are determined based on the factored wind speed and parameters such as building floor elevation and building/roof shape. In addition, wind- load provisions for nonstructural elements such as cladding and building appendages are important (Stathopoulos and Alrawashdeh, 2020). Simplified wind loading For typical buildings, wind loads are usually calculated as minimum static design pressures on walls design procedures and roofs which are used in different load combinations. These simplified procedures assume that buildings are relatively stiff and regular in plan and elevation so dynamic wind effects do not need to be considered. Country-specific wind- To establish the level of wind loading at a site, country- or jurisdiction-specific wind-loading criteria loading design criteria are needed. These are most often provided in the form of wind speed maps, which are based on historic and sometimes predicted wind speeds. In countries subjected to strong wind events such as cyclones and hurricanes, the code may include both basic wind speeds and wind speed criteria for more intense, rare events. Wind design procedure for For more flexible structures, such as high-rise buildings, dynamic effects from wind need to be con- tall buildings (for example, sidered, using more sophisticated analytical approaches and, in some cases, wind tunnel testing to for dynamic effects) physically model dynamic wind effects. Wind importance factors Buildings have different levels of importance to society, depending on their occupancy (that is, func- tion). The importance factor accounts for risk to human life, as well as health and welfare associated with potential building damage related to wind events. For example, for higher importance buildings, the overall level of wind design load for the structure is increased by an importance factor greater than 1. Design provisions for Often, roof cladding (roofing) and roof structures are the most vulnerable components of a building roof cladding and roof under wind loads. Buildings with roof overhangs can be particularly vulnerable to uplift from wind. overhangs to resist wind These can trigger failure of the entire roof system. Codes may include specific provisions to check if the roof cladding is adequately designed to resist wind loads and if the roof overhangs can resist uplift. Design of wall cladding/ Other nonstructural components, such as wall cladding, and building appendages, such as canopies, nonstructural appendages awnings, parapets, equipment, signage and so forth, can also be vulnerable to wind actions. Codes to resist wind may require that these nonstructural components are adequately designed to resist wind loads. Design of façades to resist In a strong wind event, flying debris can cause damage to buildings. Some codes require building damage from wind-borne façades to be able to withstand the impact of flying debris of a certain weight and velocity. debris Façade detailing to resist Strong wind events may include heavy precipitation, and buildings can experience wind-driven rain, water ingress from wind- which most significantly affects their exterior (façade) components. If façades are not designed and borne rain detailed to resist wind-driven rain, water ingress can occur, causing moisture damage and potential longer-term problems such as mold. Such damage can lead to the disruption of building operations and hamper longer term recovery. Detailing of doors and door For buildings that need to be operational during a strong wind event, it is advisable to ensure that mechanisms to resist wind doors and door mechanisms can maintain function under anticipated levels of wind loading. 6. Wind Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 66 6.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: WIND DESIGN PROVISIONS The assessment found that wind design provisions were generally less comprehensive than seismic design provisions. All countries have some form of procedure to develop wind loads, including simplified methods that typically apply to regular, low-rise buildings. Most countries—all but Indonesia and Mozambique—have coun- try-specific wind design criteria, most often provided in the form of wind speed maps. In Indonesia, the design of the building’s lateral system (for example, frames or walls) is typically governed by seismic loads and wind is less of a dominant load case. Nevertheless, the Indonesian design standard will be improved by the inclusion of a country-specific wind map which is currently under development. For structural design provisions, common gaps are related to wind importance factors, dynamic procedures for tall buildings and specific provisions for the design of roof overhangs. For architectural provisions targeted to improve resilience, very few countries address the design of roof and wall cladding to resist wind loads, the design of façades to resist wind-borne debris, and the detailing of doors and door mechanisms to resist wind and maintain function during a strong wind event. Attention to provisions for wind design are of particular importance to countries in this study exposed to risk from cyclonic wind events. These countries include Vanuatu, Samoa, the Philippines, Mozambique, Mexico and, to a lesser extent, Colombia (in order of AALR) (UNDRR, 2016). Of these, Colombia, Mexico, Samoa and the Philippines have relatively more comprehensive coverage in wind design topic areas. This further highlights the importance for Vanuatu and Mozambique to prioritize the development and enhancement of their wind design provisions. The overall findings of the wind provisions assessment are presented in Figure 6.2 with countries ranked by the total number of topic areas that satisfied the assessment statements. Most countries cover wind loading and design of the main structure for typical buildings, but fewer building codes address the design of nonstructural components to resist wind or include architectural provisions to protect buildings from wind-borne debris or wind- driven rain. Both types of provisions are important to improve the safety and resilience of structures and reduce disruption after a strong wind event. Among the countries assessed, Colombia, Mongolia and the Philippines have the most comprehensive coverage across all wind design topics. Figure 6.1 // Wind damage to roof cladding caused by Typhoon Haiyan in Boracay, Philippines in 2013 Roof damage from Super Typhoon Haiyan, Philippines. Photo credit: WhitcombeRD | iStock 6. Wind Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 67 Box 6.1 // Design of roof cladding for wind actions Roof structures and their cladding (also known as roofing) are often the most vulnerable parts of a building in strong wind events. In addition to prescribing procedures to determine wind pressures resisted by the roof structure, codes also need to have provisions to determine design wind pressures for cladding, spans for cladding elements, and fas- tener capacity, type, location and spacing for roof cladding. Additional fasteners can be required along the eaves and roof ridges, where wind pressures can be higher. ty Checklist - Roofs 68 Structural Safety Checklist - Roofs y Checklist - Roofs 68 Structural Safety Checklist - Roofs Roofs For example, the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP-2015) has a section for the design of roof cladding and other façade components for wind effects, including load procedures for determining wind pressures oofs Roofs for a specific COVERINGS on the wind speed, building height, and roof shape. 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Comment: When the typhoon winds try to lift the roof up, straps aligned and connected verti- cally Comment: Comment: will Whenbe better When able the the typhoon holdwinds to winds typhoon the tryroof try to down to lift the liftroof on the the up,walls. roof up, straps straps aligned aligned and connected vertiverti and connected - - will be callycally better will able able be better to hold to hold the roof down the roof on the down the walls. onwalls. m, install compli- Wall-to-Rafter Wall-to-Trusses ail m, D7.11. install install compli- compli- Aligned wave sheet COMPLIANT Nails at every wave at the sheet edge Wall-to-Rafter Wall-to-Rafter Wall-to-Rafter Wall-to-Trusses Wall-to-Trusses Wall-to-Trusses D7.11. ail D7.11. COMPLIANT COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT Insufficient roof nails COMPLIANT COMPLIANT Shear Withdrawl Insufficient Insufficient roof roof nails nails Shear Shear Withdrawl Withdrawl To retrofit structure for NON-COMPLIANT for this checklist item, install compliant metal straps To retrofit To retrofit with for structure structure proper for nailing NON-COMPLIANTschedule NON-COMPLIANTforin accordance this for checklist withitem, item, this checklist Details install D7.6compliant install and D7.10. compliant metal metal straps straps proper withwith nailing proper nailing schedule schedule in accordance withwith in accordance Details Details and D7.10. D7.6D7.6 and D7.10. Insufficient roof nails Roof truss to wall connection with insufficient tying to transfer wind loads NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT NON-COMPLIANT Source: Building Change. 2015. Seismic and Wind Evaluation and Retrofit Manual for Timber Housing Construction in the Philippines. 6. Wind Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 68 Figure 6.2 // Summary of assessment of wind design provisions for the 22 countries WIND PROVISIONS Design of wall cladding/non-structural appendages to resist wind Design provisions for roof cladding/roof overhangs to resist wind Façade detailing to resist water ingress from wind-borne rain Design of façade to resist damage from wind borne debris Detailing of doors and door mechanisms to resist wind Country-specific wind loading design criteria Simplified wind loading design procedures Procedure to develop design wind loading Wind design procedures for tall buildings Wind importance factors are used COUNTRY Colombia Mongolia Philippines Chile Ghana Mexico Samoa Tajikistan Morocco South Africa Türkiye Bhutan El Salvador Nepal U U Tonga Vanuatu Algeria Indonesia Rwanda Uzbekistan Peru note Mozambique 1 TOTAL COUNTRIES 22 22 20 16 10 13 11 4 3 2 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. For Mozambique, a country specific wind map exists for a nationally adopted school construction guideline only. 2. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 6. Wind Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 69 6.3 PRIORITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF WIND DESIGN PROVISIONS This section discusses priority topics for future code development of wind design provisions that may be appli- cable to the countries included in the assessment as well as other countries. These topic areas emerged through review of the assessment results presented in Section 6.2, further supplemented by desktop review. 6.3.1 Up-to-date country-specific wind maps Overall, countries can benefit from periodically updated country-specific wind design criteria that consider climate change projections and are based on the latest meteorological data and hazard assessment methodol- ogies. Across the study countries, on average, wind codes were developed over a period of 26 years, including two update cycles during that time. In terms of updates, only Mexico, Peru, Rwanda and South Africa have code docu- ments containing country-specific wind criteria that have been published in the past five years. Considerations for developing up-to-date and comprehensive country-specific wind maps include the quality of the meteorological data that underpin that analysis to develop design wind speeds, projection of future trends such as increased fre- quency and severity of strong wind events, adequate granularity in maps (for example, avoiding maps with broad zonation that may not cover local variations), the use of more advanced, probabilistic methods to determine wind speeds and selection of appropriate return periods for wind design criteria (Lakshmanan et al., 2009; Li, 2022). For example, in Canada, building codes are regularly updated on a five-year cycle, allowing for the revision of design parameters for environmental loads, including wind, in each new edition of the building code (Government of Canada, 2020). Building codes in some countries set different performance requirements for buildings subjected to strong winds. For instance, while most countries use wind speeds with a 50-year return period for the design of structural elements such as walls and roofs, Mexico’s building code requires that some buildings be designed for wind speeds with a 200-year return period, depending on their importance and/or risk category (Pozos-Estrada et al., 2023). 6.3.2 Improved code provisions and related guidance for wind resilience of small-scale housing Some countries are supporting communities in breaking the cycle of repeated devastation by integrating more stringent wind provisions for small-scale housing into building codes, including guidance that is appropriate for light-frame and vernacular construction. Reforms to building codes are often prompted by particularly devastat- ing, or repeated, wind events. For example, in response to significant damage from the Category 5 Hurricane Iota in 2020, Colombia amended its building code to increase the design wind speeds in the Archipelago Department of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Development, 2021). Common design provisions to reduce the wind vulnerability of light frame buildings include the use of hur- ricane straps and improved connections to withstand wind loads and prevent roof damage. Following damage to approximately 90 percent of its housing stock due to Hurricane Maria in 2017, the Commonwealth of Dominica in the Caribbean updated its building regulations, including publishing a Guide to Housing Standards providing design and construction guidance for strong winds (Government of Dominica, 2018) (see Figure 6.3).37 In addition to building code reforms related to wind performance, “beyond code” standards, such as the FORTIFIED Standard in the United States developed by the Insurance Institute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS) (FORTIFIED, n.d.), can support voluntary upgrades to enhance the resilience of homes to severe winds. These types of provisions can be included in simplified provisions tailored for common types of small-scale buildings. Also refer to Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2.7. 37 As discussed for the seismic design of vernacular structures above, design and construction guidance alone is not sufficient and must be complemented by implementation and compliance support mechanisms such as homeowner engagement, builder training, and financial tools. 6. Wind Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 70 Figure 6.3 // Examples of simple illustrations of approaches to improve the performance of housing in strong winds (a) A verandah roof that is connected to the main house structure can increase the extent of damage from strong winds (b) A verandah roof that is able to fail without causing damage to the main house structure. This limits the extent of damage from strong winds Source: Adapted from Government of Dominica, 2018. 6.3.3 Performance-based design approaches for the wind resilience of structural and nonstructural components To reduce repeated economic losses from hurricanes and typhoons, building codes in some countries are introducing performance-based design approaches to control the extent of building damage and to set more stringent performance expectations for nonstructural components. Performance-based design, originally devel- oped for seismic hazards, is also being extended to wind hazards, particularly for tall buildings and critical facili- ties, to support higher-resilience performance objectives in some high-income countries. This approach involves analyzing an explicit model of the structure that captures any potential damage experienced when subjected to wind response history analysis. Thus, the dynamic response of the structure under wind events and any nonlinear response is captured directly in the analysis model. Enhanced performance corresponding to limited damage of the building envelope in strong winds is a key component of performance-based wind design approaches. Recently introduced building code provisions include enhanced performance standards for doors, wall and roof cladding, and roof equipment, and aim to mitigate the impact of wind-borne debris and water intrusion on windows and façades. These provisions also aim to ensure that the building envelope remains intact and water- and air-tight in severe storms, going beyond minimum Life Safety performance objectives. At present, these performance-based approaches for wind design are rarely included in building codes. In countries where capacity limits the applicability of performance-based design approaches, codes can embed higher performance targets for more critical and/or higher importance buildings using prescriptive provisions. These provisions can include more stringent requirements (above minimum Life safety) for structural and non- structural elements under wind loading and/or be tied to longer period return period design wind speeds. 7. Flood Design Flooding in South Bandung, Indonesia. Photo credit: Dian Nugraha | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 72 7. Flood Design As flood risk increases due to the impacts of climate change amid mounting pressure on land for develop- ment, building codes must address ways to mitigate the impact of flooding on buildings, beyond avoiding flood risk through site selection. Flood risks are predominantly managed through planning regulations that prohibit construction on flood-prone sites and help determine appropriate locations to construct buildings. In practice, many cities and regions either lack up-to-date and sufficiently detailed flood risk assessments to inform risk-based land-use planning maps, or jurisdictions fail to integrate flood risk into urban planning regulations. Furthermore, climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of floods amid the land-use pressures of urban expan- sion. One study found that while general development in settlements around the world increased by 85 percent between 1985 and 2015, development in flood-hazard areas increased by 122 percent. In 2022, it was estimated that approximately one in five people in the world are directly exposed to 1-in-100-year floods, and that 89 per- cent of those are living in low- and middle-income countries (Rentschler et al., 2022). Thus, a more comprehen- sive approach is needed to reduce flood risk. This can be achieved by imposing land-use restrictions through urban planning, flood management, and, where it is difficult to reduce flood risk through site selection, by applying flood-proofing measures to buildings. This chapter presents the findings of the assessment related to flood design provisions and discusses priority areas for further code development in this topic area. 7.1 FLOOD DESIGN PROVISION TOPICS Six key topic areas related to design for flooding, described in Table 7.1, were evaluated to identify if the building code included some of the related provisions, and the overall findings are summarized in Figure 7.1 and discussed in the following text. Table 7.1 // Topic areas for flood design provisions Topic Area Description Load procedure for Procedures to determine the loads on the structure related to flooding can include hydrostatic loads (the flood loading pressures from the static mass of water in contact with a structure), hydrodynamic loads (loads generated by water flowing against and around a structure), and wave loads caused by water waves propagating over the water surface and striking the structure. In addition, if vents, valves or other openings are not provided to equalize water pressure in flooded enclosed spaces, uplift pressures on the structure from flood waters may also need to be considered. Structural and To improve building safety and limit damage, some codes require that resistance to flood waters is consid- nonstructural ered when selecting structural and nonstructural materials. Requirements can relate to how easily water material requirements can penetrate the material, drying ability and if the material will retain its integrity and dimensions if sub- in relation to flooding jected to flooding. Requirements for To equalize hydrostatic flood pressures on both sides of a wall in enclosed spaces during a flood event, vents, valves or some codes require that vents, valves or other wall openings be incorporated in the design. This can reduce other wall openings the risk of structural collapse in a flood event. Provisions can include minimum requirements for the size, in enclosed spaces number and location of openings. below the design flood level 7. Flood Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 73 Table 7.1 // Topic areas for flood design provisions (cont.) Topic Area Description Limitations for Some codes restrict the types of occupancy below the design flood level for the building. For example, such occupied zones below spaces may only be used as entrance lobbies or for storage—residential occupancy is often prohibited. the design flood level Limited occupancy for such spaces reduces the risk to a building’s occupants. Requirements If critical equipment, such as power, communications (ICT) or heating, ventilation and air conditioning to locate critical (HVAC) equipment, is damaged by flood waters, it can endanger occupants and lead to significant building equipment and/or disruption and longer recovery times after a flood event. Therefore, some codes require that critical equip- services above the ment be located above the design flood level. design flood level 7.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: FLOOD DESIGN PROVISIONS As expected, countries were found to have limited coverage of flooding-related design provisions for buildings compared to provisions for other hazards such as seismic and wind (see Figure 7.1). Of the countries assessed, 15 have no provisions related to flooding, including some of the countries with the most advanced codes, such as Colombia, El Salvador, and Mexico. Chile, Indonesia, and Peru have some provisions tailored for tsunami but do not satisfy the evaluation statements from this study because these are focused on flood-related design more broadly. For Rwanda, although flood provisions are generally more complete, it is unclear in the code how the design flood elevation should be determined for a site. Reference is made in the provisions to local flood maps, but it could not be verified how the maps should be obtained for a specific site. Figure 7.1 // Summary of assessment of flood design provisions for the 22 countries FLOOD PROVISIONS TOTAL COUNTRIES South Africa Philippines Tajikistan Rwanda Türkiye Samoa Ghana Load procedure for flood loading 4 Structural and non-structural material requirements in relation to flooding 4 Requirements for vents, valves or other wall openings in enclosed spaces 5 below the design flood level Limitations for occupied zones below the design flood level 3 Requirements for higher level evacuation areas for building occupants(e.g., roof access, balconies) 1 Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services 3 above design flood level The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. Chile, Indonesia, and Peru had some provisions related to tsunami but none related to flood design. Thus, they did not satisfy the evaluation statements. 2. Algeria, Bhutan, Columbia, El Salvador, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, Tonga, Uzbekistan and Vanuatu had no provisions which satisfied the evaluation statements for flood design. 7. Flood Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 74 Countries with more complete provisions related to flooding include Ghana, Rwanda and Tajikistan. That said, it is still unclear if these provisions are well integrated with planning information about flood risks (for example, for designers to be able to find out the design flood level for a site). Procedures to develop flood loading, requirements for vents, valves, or other openings to equalize water pressures or requirements for improved durability under flooding for building materials (structural and nonstructural) are the most common flood resilience provisions. The codes studied rarely include architectural provisions—such as limitations on occupied zones or locating critical equipment below the design flood level, or requirements to provide safe zones at higher elevations for building occupants—that could significantly improve building safety and reduce disruption related to flood events. Protecting critical equipment and services from flooding Box 7.1 //  Design measures, such as the inclusion of flood loads in structural design and the use of flood-resistant materials, must be complemented by strategies to protect critical services from flood-induced damage and ensure contin- ued functionality during flood events. These provisions can include avoiding locating critical building services such as utilities, electrical services and outlets, water pumps, critical ICT, and emergency generators, below the design flood elevation. Other design provisions can include specifying that connections are detailed to ensure that floodwater cannot enter the building (for example, provide nonreturn valves in sewage pipes, seal gaps around pipework, and cable connections). For example, the Ghana Building Code (2018) specifies that fire pumps must remain operational during flooding, electrical substations must be located at a minimum of 15 cm above the anticipated level of flooding, generators and their connections must be installed above the level of flooding, along with ventilation intake openings, exhaust outlets and other elements of mechanical, electrical and plumbing services. 7.3 PRIORITIES FOR FLOOD DESIGN PROVISIONS IN BUILDING CODES As buildings are increasingly exposed to flood risk, more countries are introducing or improving building code provisions to mitigate damage and operational disruption due to flooding. In addition to integrating flood hazard mapping into risk sensitive planning regulations,38 countries are recognizing the importance of mitigating flood risk through building codes. Flood damage to buildings may impact the operation of building utilities and cause per- manent damage to building materials and contents, sometimes resulting in mold and long-term health concerns. Flooding may pose life safety risks for more vulnerable structures if badly damaged, or where occupants become trapped in flooded zones. Figure 7.2 below gives some areas that code provisions can potentially address includ- ing: structural design for flood loading, architectural provisions related to the design elevation of building elements, evacuation and type of occupancy, and flood proofing of structural elements, nonstructural elements and services (FEMA, 2008). Beyond building design provisions, for the wider site, permanent or temporary flood barriers, as well as nature-based or hard-engineered stormwater/drainage management measures, can also be used to reduce the site’s exposure to flooding. Some measures, called ‘dry proofing’ have the goal of preventing flood waters from reaching and/or infiltrating the building. Other measures, called ‘wet proofing’, seek to limit damage and disruption if a building is flooded. These types of measures can be used in combination, but often one or the other approach is taken depending on the criticality of the building and the cost to implement various measures (see Figure 7.3). Although these types of design strategies are often not yet codified, they are increasingly being employed in the design of new buildings, especially hospitals and residential developments, due to greater awareness of the risks that flooding poses to building function. 38 Although considerations related to incorporating better flood hazard maps into planning and development regulations are important, these lie beyond the scope of this study, where the focus is on building design regulations and related provisions. If code provisions reference a “design flood level”, the code should ensure that users are able to identify this value for a specific site, potentially by refer- ring to local planning maps or other official sources of flood risk data. 7. Flood Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 75 Figure 7.2 // Types of measures that can be addressed in building code provisions to mitigate the risk of flooding SITE AND ELEVATION • Select a site with higher elevation or raise the elevation of the building • Include storm water management as part of the site design • Install flood walls or permanent or temporary flood barriers • Allow for safe zones at higher elevation in building or on the site for evacuation • Locate critical equipment (e.g., utilities, electrical services and outlets, water pumps, critical ICT, emergency generators) above the design flood level • Limit occupancy types in zones below the design flood level FLOOD LOADING • Determine flood hazard for a site, including establishing design flood levels for a specified flood return period • Follow flood loading procedures to develop design loads for the structure, including accounting for uplift forces for dry floodproofing • Design vents, valves or other openings to equalize water pressure in case of flooding BUILDING MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS • Specify more flood-resistant structural and non-structural materials (consider water penetration, drying ability and if integrity and dimensions will be retained) • Design flood-resistant building envelope including doors and windows¹ • Detail building services to prevent water ingress (e.g., provide non-return valves in sewage pipes, seal gaps around pipework, cable connections)1 Note 1: Measures related to ‘dry proofing’ where flood waters are prevented from entering a building. Figure 7.3 // Temporary flood gates being installed at the Kurashiki Central Hospital in Japan as part of a dry flood- proofing strategy Photo credit: Kurashiki Central Hospital 8. Design for Wildfire Forest fire surrounding houses. Photo credit: baranozdemir | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 77 8. Design for Wildfire Although an assessment of broader fire safety provisions was outside the scope of this study, incorporating pro- visions to address the risk of wildfire was identified as a key topic for consideration in building codes. Wildfires pose an increasing threat to communities driven by urbanization, climate change impacts and land management practices. Wildfire provisions were deemed to be too rare within building codes globally to warrant assessment in the 22 study countries. This chapter presents an overview of current design provisions for wildfire and emerging approaches for address- ing wildfire risk through building codes. 8.1 EMERGING PROVISIONS FOR DESIGN FOR WILDFIRE IN BUILDING CODES Global wildfire risk to society is mounting as climate change exacerbates the likelihood of wildfires and urban development expands into the wildland-urban-interface (WUI). Around the world, wildfires are occurring more frequently and with greater intensity (Jones et al., 2024; MacCarthy et al., 2024). Climate change is driving this trend (Conradie et al., 2023), with increased periods of drought in many parts of the world, as is improper forest and land management. The exposure of communities and the built environment to wildfires has also significantly increased due to global development patterns, including rapid urban expansion over the past two decades into the WUI, defined as “places where homes and other man-made structures intermingle with trees and vegetation” (Bento-Goncalves et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2024). While the WUI represents only 4.7 percent of the world’s land surface, it is home to approximately half the world’s population (3.5 billion). Over the period from 2003 to 2020, approximately 400 million people lived near active wildfires, two-thirds of whom were in Africa (Schug, 2023). In recent years, wildfires have resulted in major disasters including the 2025 Los Angeles wildfires with projected losses of US$ 150 billion (ECMWF, 2025), and the Black Saturday bushfires in Australia in 2009 which killed 173 people and destroyed 3,500 buildings (National Museum of Australia, n.d.). Some countries are incorporating design and construction provisions for wildfire resilience into building codes, but many countries with increasing wildfire risk have not yet taken this step. Wildfire mitigation involves a wide range of strategies related to land and ecosystem management and community preparedness. It also includes efforts to improve the resilience of buildings and infrastructure to withstand exposure to wildfires and reduce their spread. Standards for buildings provide both site-related and construction-focused strategies. Site strategies involve creating defensible spaces or buffer zones around buildings by managing vegetation and using firebreaks such as driveways or gravel paths. Code provisions can focus on improving the resistance of buildings to burning embers, radiant heat and/or flame contact, including the use of fire-resistant roofing and façade materials and the sealing or screening of vents, chimneys and other gaps or openings to prevent ember intrusion (Commonwealth of Australia, 2021) (see Figure 8.1). Australia’s National Construction Code (2022 edition) has one of the most advanced approaches to wildfire (or bushfire) mitigation, requiring that new residential buildings, as well as schools, childcare centers, hospitals, and elderly care facilities located in designated bushfire-prone areas comply with Australian Standard AS 3959 (HIA, 2021). This standard includes six Bushfire Attack Levels with differing performance requirements, based on the likelihood of a building’s exposure to ember attack, radiant heat, and/or flame (see Figure 8.2). Following the provisions is not meant to guarantee that a building will survive exposure to a bushfire, but it is expected that the risk of ignition will be reduced (Loveridge, 2020). Building codes in several US states including California also include mandatory wildfire provisions for new buildings, drawing on principles from ICC’s International Wildland-Urban Interface Code (ICC, 2021c; ICC, 2024c). Besides these early adopters, building 8. Wildfire-related Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 78 codes in few other countries with wildfire risk have included mandatory construction provisions for areas prone to wildfire. Other countries or jurisdictions at local level provide education and optional guidance to support voluntary mitigation such as Canada’s FireSmart program (FireSmart, n.d.). Wildfire design Figure 8.1 // Types of measures that can be addressed provisions in building code provisions to mitigate the risk of wildfire BUILDING DESIGN SITE MEASURES • Understand the site's level of wildfire risk to • Limit vegetation around building perimeter, determine the level of protection and mitigation consideration of overhanging trees measures required or recommended • Prohibit or manage more flammable vegetation on • Use fire resistant building materials for roofing, the wider site exterior cladding including glazing. In some • Use fire breaks with hardscaping such as gravel cases, fire resistant shutters are an option paths, driveways • Consider the vulnerability to fire for building • Specify minimum separation distances to adjacent appendages (e.g., porches, sheds, fences) structures • Improve the resistance of buildings to wind blown • Provide emergency water supply on site embers (e.g., design of subflooring, screening of vents and other openings) • Provide adequate access provided for fire fighting crews and equipment Figure 8.2 // Bushfire Attack Levels in Australian Standard AS 3959 Source: Victoria State Government, n.d. 9. Green Building Design Solar panel installation on a roof in Cape Town, South Africa. Photo credit: nattrass | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 80 9. Green Building Design To improve the sustainability of the built environment, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change, many countries are incorporating green building provisions in their building regu- latory frameworks. The World Green Building Council defines green buildings as those “that reduce or eliminate negative impacts on the climate and natural environment (…) while also creating positive impacts and that help preserve natural resources and improve quality of life.” (UKGBC, 2020). Green building features are broad in the types of sustainable aspects they address and relate to all phases of the building life cycle—design, construction, operation, and decommissioning. They include measures to improve energy efficiency, water efficiency, use of renewable energy sources, measures to reduce pollution and waste and enable reuse and recycling, consideration of occupants’ health and comfort such as adequate daylight and good indoor air quality, the use of non-toxic, eth- ically sourced, sustainable materials, and design outcomes that anticipate the need for future adaptation (World Bank, 2023a). It is important to note that different green building strategies may be more appropriate depending on the climatic conditions of the country or region and fire safety aspects need to be considered (see Boxes 4.5 and 9.1). Improved green building codes and their effective implementation at scale are essential components to support decarbonization and a more sustainable built environment. The building sector accounts for 37 percent of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission emissions worldwide (GlobalABC, 2024). As part of the 2015 Paris Agreement, the national plans of 161 countries to reduce GHG emissions39 have actions to reduce emissions related to the building sector, including building code reforms (UN, 2023). Building emissions come from two primary sources: (i) opera- tional emissions from energy use including heating, cooling, lighting and appliances (28 percent), and (ii) embod- ied energy from construction materials and processes (nine percent) (GlobalABC, 2024). Building codes—through energy efficiency provisions, low-carbon design provisions and provisions to promote a more circular economy in construction—have been recognized as essential instruments to reduce both sources of these emissions. Building codes can also be used to address the growing problem of waste produced by the construction sector. The building sector is hugely resource intensive. It produces one-third of the world’s waste (Carpentier, 2024); in many countries, both the extractive processes needed to produce new materials and disposal of the sector’s waste contribute to environmental harm (Al-Raqeb et al., 2023). Codes can address this by improving their provisions for the rehabilitation, retrofit, and adaptation of existing buildings, thereby reducing the need for new construction. They can include simple procedures to promote low-carbon design, permit and support the use of modular con- struction techniques, and include provisions to promote the circular use of building materials (such as designing for deconstruction and encouraging the reuse and recycling of materials). The incorporation of green building provisions into codes is needed to adapt to climate change impacts, reduc- ing negative health impacts, fatalities, and disruption of essential services. Climate change impacts are result- ing in more frequent and severe extreme temperature and weather events, along with changing rainfall patterns. These, in turn, are causing knock-on effects such as power blackouts and water scarcity (Seneviratne et al., 2021). Green building code provisions—such as for natural ventilation, solar shading and green and reflective roofs—can reduce solar heat gain in buildings and help to protect occupants during heat waves. Onsite renewable energy can act as a backup source of power if the wider power grid is disrupted (also see Chapter 4, Section 4.2.3) and require- ments for water-efficiency measures in buildings can help regions experiencing water scarcity. 39 Formally called National Determined Contributions (NDCs) per the Paris Agreement. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 81 Lastly, an emerging priority in building regulations is improved indoor air quality, to reduce negative health impacts from pollution and airborne disease. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, and the recent publication of studies on the harms of indoor pollution, there is a growing awareness that further investment and regulations are needed to set minimum public health standards for indoor air. This is not unlike the public health standards introduced for clean water over the last century, as the medical and scientific establishment recognized the harms of waterborne disease. This chapter first presents the findings of the assessment related to green building design provisions. Then, priority areas for further green building code developments are discussed with reference to carbon emission reduction (Section 9.2), climate change adaptation (Section 9.3), and clean indoor air (Section 9.4). 9.1 ASSESSMENT OF GREEN BUILDING CODE PROVISIONS This study primarily focused on green building measures related to carbon emission reduction and climate adaptation. This section begins by presenting findings of the review of regulatory structure, organization, update cycle and accessibility of green building code provisions. This is followed by a discussion of the technical provi- sions associated with green building codes, and related findings . 9.1.1 Regulatory structure, organization, and accessibility of green building codes With the exception of Mongolia and Mozambique, all the countries assessed had some form of green building code or provisions (see Figure 9.1 below and subsequent text). » Regulatory jurisdictions: Of the 20 countries with green building regulations, five have these regulations set at the regional or city level (in addition to national level); the other 15 countries only set these nationally. » Organization of code documents: Nine countries consolidate all provisions into one regulation; 11 provide them in a set of separate regulation documents. » Code update cycle: Three countries (Indonesia, Rwanda and South Africa) have fairly recently updated or introduced green building regulations (in the past 5 years); another five countries (Colombia, Ghana, Nepal, Philippines, and Samoa) have done so within the past 10 years; while the remaining 12 countries are operat- ing under regulations established 10–30 years ago.40 » Accessibility of code documents: In 17 countries, all regulations are available online and are free of charge. In Tajikistan, no regulations are available online or free. In Mexico some regulations are available online and free of charge and some are not. Finally, in South Africa, regulations are available online, but for a fee. » Mandatory or voluntary provisions: Typically, green building provisions are a mix of mandatory and volun- tary provisions, sometimes combined with incentives. Some provisions would be challenging to enact as mandatory provisions, such as those relating to building orientation, which is often dependent on the con- straints of the site and surrounding buildings. Other provisions, such as those related to integrating renew- able energy, can be highly dependent on associated costs, availability of relevant technology, and connection to other energy infrastructure. In such cases, some jurisdictions provide financial incentives in the forms of grants, tax benefits or low interest loans. Some green building measures, such as passive energy efficiency measures (for example, solar shading, ventilation, and daylighting) are more universally applicable across a range of contexts. Colombia is the only country assessed where all green building provisions are voluntary. Other countries, such as Rwanda and Bhutan, lean heavily toward voluntary rather than mandatory provi- sions. It was also found that green building provisions are often mandatory only for certain types of buildings (for example, for certain usage types, or buildings that exceed a certain threshold of total plan area). 40 This was assessed based on the year of publication for the oldest regulation for each country. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 82 » Provisions for new and existing buildings: All countries, except for Mongolia and Mozambique, have some green building provisions for new buildings, while only 9 countries have some provisions related to existing buildings. In general, green building provisions have been introduced more recently than structural design codes, are more likely to be contained in one document, and often contain voluntary provisions in addition to mandatory provisions. Most green building regulations focus on new construction and are less likely to include detailed guidance or enforceable requirements for existing buildings. 9.1.2 Green building technical provisions In this study, 15 key topic areas for green building technical provisions were assessed to establish whether or not each code has provisions related to each area (see Table 9.1). Table 9.1 // Topic areas for green building provisions Topic Area Description Natural ventilation To reduce dependence on air-conditioning and thereby saving energy, design for natural ventilation in build- ings can be provided. Adequate ventilation and fresh air flow can also improve productivity and reduce the spread of airborne disease. Daylighting To save energy required for artificial lighting and increase occupant well-being, adequate daylighting is needed. Insulation Well insulated walls and roofs stop buildings from overheating during the summer and losing heat during the winter (low U-value walls). This includes the use of insulation along with structural materials, like ma- sonry (constructed using concrete or clay blocks). Building orientation To improve occupant comfort and reduce energy needs for heating and cooling, buildings can be oriented to avoid excessive heating through solar radiation in warmer months, or to let in solar radiation during cooler months. External solar shading To block out excess heat from sunlight or prevent heat from escaping from the building, fixed and operable shade devices (including automated systems) can be provided. In addition, windows with low UV coatings can be provided. Window-to-wall ratio Windows and other glazed façade systems provide light and ventilation, but in warm climates they also (WWR) bring in unwanted heat, increasing the load on air-conditioning systems and thus increasing energy use. Having the optimum window-to-wall ratio (WWR) helps balance the two opposing requirements. Reflective roofs and Reflective roofs and/or walls, constructed either using solar reflective materials or reflective coatings, ab- walls sorb less of the sun’s energy and can reduce overheating of buildings. This is a relatively low-cost and highly effective measure to help regulate building temperatures in hot climates. Green walls/roofs Green walls and roofs can cool buildings both externally and internally. Vegetation (often drought-tolerant varieties like sedums) are planted in a growing medium over a waterproofing membrane on the roof struc- ture. Such buildings must be structurally designed for the additional weight. Energy-efficient Lighting consumes about 15 to 30 percent of the total energy of a typical building. LED lamps not only use lighting less energy than incandescent bulbs—as much as 90 percent less—they also reduce internal heat gains in the buildings. Another measure to improve the efficiency of lighting is the use of daylight and occupancy sensors to automatically switch lights on and off to reduce energy consumption. Energy-efficient HVAC systems typically consume 40 to 60 percent of the total energy for a building. Therefore, specifying mechanical heating, energy-efficient HVAC equipment is a key measure to reduce energy consumption. ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 83 Table 9.1 // Topic areas for green building provisions (cont.) Topic Area Description Renewable energy Renewable energy systems can include onsite renewable energy sources such as solar or geothermal energy, which will reduce energy needed from other sources to operate buildings. Water-efficient Water-efficient fittings and fixtures for toilets, showers and sinks such as low-flow taps, push taps, infrared fixtures and fittings tap sensors, low-flow shower heads and low-flow toilets can reduce water flow by roughly 15–20 percent. Water collection/reuse Rainwater can be harvested from roofs and stored in tanks or collection ponds for irrigation purposes and/ or flushing of toilets. Greywater can also be collected and treated prior to being recycled for nonpotable purposes. Recycled building To reduce the embodied energy of the building, recycled materials can be used. For refits or existing build- materials ing upgrades, the design can try to retain or reuse existing floors, walls and roofs. In addition, recycling or salvaging of materials can be carried out during construction. Facility design can also consider how build- ing materials can be recycled at the end of the building design life. This can have the added environmental benefit of reducing construction waste. Low embodied energy The use of sustainably sourced materials with lower embodied energy will reduce the carbon footprint of design approaches the design, as will more efficient use of construction materials in building design. For example, local, sus- and materials tainably sourced timber would have a lower embodied energy than imported structural steel. Source: World Bank, 2023a. Box 9.1 // Tailoring green building provisions to climatic conditions Appropriate selection of green building strategies and approaches depends on the climatic conditions of the coun- try and/or region. The main climatic parameters that influence energy performance are solar radiation, air tempera- ture, relative humidity,41 and wind (UN-Habitat, 2014). The following green building topics require a consideration of local climatic conditions: Thermal mass In temperate climates, buildings can benefit from having a higher thermal mass, as there are larger differences between day and nighttime temperatures (diurnal fluctuations). By contrast, in climates with narrower daily temperature variations, lighter-weight materials that release heat faster can be more ap- propriate, especially when combined with adequate natural ventilation. Types of insulation In warmer climates, reflective foil insulation, especially for roofs, is an effective way to reduce solar heat gain whereas in colder climates bulk insulation can be needed to retain heat within the building in cooler weather. Performance People’s perception of what is comfortable for indoor air temperatures may vary depending on the local requirements for environment and climate conditions, the level of humidity, and the air flow experienced by building oc- indoor comfort cupants. In hotter climates, the ‘neutral temperature’ (where a person is not aware of being hot or cold), can be higher than in more temperate climates. Setting requirements for cooling without consideration of this aspect may result in less efficient buildings. Tailored strategies Depending on the climatic conditions, different strategies may be needed for controlling solar heat gain. to control solar For example, in hot arid climates, solar shading, the use of reflective roofs and walls, and high-perfor- heat gain mance glass are among the most effective strategies to reduce solar heat gain. In climates with colder winters, buildings can be oriented to receive sun in winter whereas in warmer climates, the window-to- wall ratio must carefully balance the need for light and ventilation with the need to limit solar heat gain from glazing (UN-Habitat, 2014). 41 Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the quantity of water vapor in the air, to the maximum amount that can be contained in the air just before condensation occurs. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 84 9.1.3 Summary of findings: green building provisions The development and adoption of dedicated Green Building Codes is relatively new;42 this is reflected in the study countries, where a wide range can be seen in the level of adoption of these types of provisions. Nine countries have relatively comprehensive coverage of green building provisions (see Figure 9.1),43 although cover- age in some of these countries is less complete for window-to-wall ratio provisions, green roofs and walls and low embodied energy provisions. Indonesia, South Africa, Morocco, the Philippines and Algeria can be considered to be in the process of developing their green building code provisions. Aside from Mongolia and Mozambique, where no provisions were identified, the rest of the study countries tend to satisfy some green building requirements, given that these are covered in their general architectural design provisions. Mandatory green building provisions tend to apply to buildings of a certain size and scale,44 as is the case for Peru, Colombia, Ghana, the Philippines and Indonesia. Nine countries have some mandatory requirements to incorporate green building provisions for existing buildings—most often triggered when a wider building retrofit is undertaken. Some types of provisions, which have historically been included in codes for the comfort of occupants or for public health reasons, can also improve the energy efficiency of buildings. These are passive measures,45 such as adequate provision of natural ventilation in buildings, daylighting and insulation. The most common type of green building provision contained in the codes assessed relate to adequate natural ventilation. This may in part be because of the historical inclusion of minimum ventilation requirements in building codes for public health reasons. The next most common types of provisions are for daylighting and insulation, often covered by general architectural design provisions. Provisions related to building orientation, window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and green roofs and walls are less common. These types of provisions are more common in countries with a dedicated Green Building Code and were more likely to be voluntary. For active energy-efficiency measures, where the equipment involved needs a power source, a majority of the countries have provisions for energy-efficient lighting and energy- efficient mechanical heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Most provisions are mandatory for the building types specified in the codes (see notes in Figure 9.1). In addition, most of the countries have provisions related to providing a supply of renewable energy to the building. Incorporating renewable energy sources into building projects is more likely to be voluntary. For provisions related to water efficiency, a majority of the countries have some provisions related to water-effi- cient fixtures and fittings and water collection/reuse. Provisions for water collection and/or reuse are more likely to be voluntary. For provisions related to building materials, very few countries have provisions related to using recycled materi- als in construction, and only one-third of all countries include requirements related to approaches for reducing embodied carbon and/or construction materials. Approaches to reduce the carbon footprint of buildings are more likely to be voluntary. 42 Many countries in this study had adopted Green Building Codes within the past five or 10 years. 43 It should be noted that some green building strategies are more appropriate to prioritize and implement depending on climatic condi- tions. Refer to Box 9.1. 44 Or, in some cases, their usage category. 45 Passive measures do not rely on mechanical equipment/energy. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 85 Figure 9.1 // Summary of assessment of green building provisions for the 22 countries GREEN BUILDING PROVISIONS Energy Efficiency Measures Water Building Supply Efficiency Materials Demand side side Measures buildings both externally and internally Insulation of walls, roofs and windows Daylighting to provide adequate levels Requirements for building materials of natural light for building occupants Reflective walls and roofs to reduce Energy efficient heating, ventilation, the level of direct heat from the sun Energy efficient lighting (e.g., LEDs, Orientating the building to optimize Water efficient fixtures and fittings Natural ventilation to provide fresh Renewable methods to supply the External solar shading to control Low embodied energy materials (e.g., low flow toilets, taps, etc.) air indoors and aidwith cooling Green walls/green roofs to cool Water collection/water re-use Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) to be recycled or recycable and air cooling systems building with energy light sensors, etc.) Existing Buildings solar heat gain solar heat gain New Buildings requirements COUNTRY Mexico V V V V V V V V V note Peru V V 7 note Rwanda V V V V V V V V V V V 2 Indonesia V V V V V V note 1 note note Chile V V V 4 V 5 note Colombia V V V V V V V V V V V V 1 note note Samoa V 3 3 Bhutan V V V V V V V V Morocco V V V V V V Ghana V note 1 Türkiye V V V note note Philippines V 1 1 South Africa note 3 V V V Algeria V El Salvador Tajikistan note note Tonga 6 3 Uzbekistan V Vanuatu note 6 Nepal Mongolia Mozambique Total countries 17 17 14 13 14 8 8 6 14 14 13 13 13 5 8 20 9 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. Mandatory if plan area of building exceeds a certain size depending on building usage category. 2. Applies to commercial, public offices, social, cultural and assembly, health and educational buildings only. 3. Not mandatory for traditional buildings and single unit residential buildings. 4. Mandatory for public buildings only. 5. Only mandatory for existing buildings that are being retrofitted. 6. For Tonga and Vanuatu, it was not possible to verify if requirements for water collection and reuse were voluntary or mandatory. 7. Mandatory for public buildings if the plan area of the building exceeds a certain size depending on building usage category. 8. Provisions are mandatory unless denoted as voluntary (V). 9. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 86 Box 9.2 // Code provisions related to embodied carbon According to the Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction, 37 percent of global carbon emissions are associated with the building sector—their materials, construction, operation and end of life (UNEP, 2022). Carbon emissions associated with each stage of the building life cycle can include: (i) the product stage, related to extraction, processing, manufacture, and transportation of materials; (ii) construction activities, related to trans- port of materials to the site, energy use on site or disposal of construction waste; (iii) building use, related to energy use and any repair/refurbishment; and (iv) end of life, related to decommissioning, deconstruction and transport and disposal of materials (IStructE, 2020). See Figure B9.1 for an example of a building life cycle from BS EN 15978:2011. Figure B9.1 // Life cycle stages according to BS EN 15978:2011: Sustainability of construction works - assessment of environmental performance of buildings LIFE CYCLE INFORMATION BEYOND THE LIFE CYCLE PRODUCT CONSTRUCTION END OF LIFE BENEFITS AND LOADS USE STAGE BEYOND THE SYSTEM STAGE PROCESS STAGE STAGE BOUNDARY Module: A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 C1 C2 C3 C4 D Refurbishment Recycling potential Raw Material Supply installation process Replacement Maintenance Reuse/Recovery Waste processing Manufacturing Deconstruction Construction Repair Use Demolition Transport Transport Transport B6 Operational Energy Use Disposal B7Operational Water Use Source: British Standards Institution, 2011 (Author and Publisher) Building codes and standards and related requirements in the building control process have an important role associated with reducing carbon emissions within the building life cycle. For example, codes can include require- ments and procedures to estimate embodied carbon at different stages of the building life cycle (for example, by using a life-cycle assessment (LCA)), or a disclosure about the embodied carbon for a project could be required ahead of building permit approval. For example, the National Building Code of Samoa (2017) requires that for certain types of building usage, proj- ects demonstrate that they have achieved an efficient use of materials and reduction in carbon emissions. This is demonstrated by using one of a set of specified tools including the Athena Impact Estimator (ASMI, 2025), Green Guide Calculator by BRE Global (BRE, n.d.) and others. 9.2 PRIORITIES FOR CODE PROVISIONS TO REDUCE CARBON EMISSIONS Building codes can support a reduction in carbon emissions by increasing the energy efficiency of buildings and promoting low-carbon design approaches. Findings of this study indicate that all countries with green build- ing provisions include some energy efficiency provisions in their building codes. These provisions include demand- side measures to reduce energy consumption (20 countries) and supply side-measures (13 countries) to reduce reliance on fossil fuels. See Table 9.2. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 87 Table 9.2 // Examples of demand-side and supply-side measures to reduce energy consumption Demand-side measures » Building orientation » Use of daylighting » Natural ventilation » Solar shading » Insulation » Window-to-wall ratio requirements » Green walls or roofs » Reflective walls and roofs » Energy-efficient lighting, HVAC, use of energy-efficient equipment (for example, heat pumps) Supply-side measures » Onsite electricity generation (for example, solar panels) » Connection to offsite electricity generation (for example, solar grids, wind power) » Use of geothermal energy (on or offsite) Energy-efficiency measures can be either prescriptive (for example, U-Value requirements for wall and roof assemblies or prescribed window-to-wall ratios) or performance-based (for example, specifying an Energy Use Intensity target). In addition to energy efficiency, some green building codes include requirements for low-carbon design, for example, the use of steel with recycled content or locally available construction materials to reduce embodied carbon. Many green building provisions related to reducing building carbon emissions are voluntary, or they are manda- tory for certain types of new buildings. Of the 22 countries in this study, 19 include some mandatory green build- ing requirements for buildings, but in many cases, these entail traditional ventilation and daylighting provisions that antedate more recent green building code developments focused on reducing carbon emissions. Mandatory requirements related to energy efficiency and the reduction of embodied carbon are more common for new com- mercial buildings, as well as new public and residential buildings. For example, the Ghana building code currently includes mandatory green building requirements for private office, commercial and industrial buildings of more than 5,000 m² in gross floor area, and residential buildings larger than 75 m². The requirements also apply to public buildings located only in regional and district capitals that are larger than 500 m² in gross floor area (GSA, 2018). It was less common for green building measures to be mandatory for existing buildings, including energy efficiency requirements. See Figure 9.1. Voluntary green building code provisions related to energy efficiency are often complemented by a variety of market-driven mechanisms to encourage uptake. Green building certification systems are frequently used to encourage wider adoption of voluntary green building provisions, showcasing inspiring examples for the wider market. These certification systems are most often led by the private sector, including associated third-party veri- fication systems. For example, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Certification Program, originating in the United States (USGBC, n.d.) is one of the most prevalent certification programs globally, including usage in India, Brazil and Mexico. LEED is most often used for commercial and high-rise residential projects for rea- sons beyond meeting climate mitigation goals, including attracting investors and clients, marketing and enhanced property value, and reduction of operational costs. Another global certification system is the International Finance Corporation’s EDGE (IFC, n.d.), developed to support green building practices in low- and middle-income countries. EDGE offers an affordable certification option and other services including a tool to calculate the costs and sav- ings of green measures including their payback period, and a training and accreditation mechanism to foster local green building professionals. Some other green building certification systems, like BREEAM and certification from the German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) are also well-recognized international systems, and many coun- tries also have their own certification systems. Green building certification is often paired with financial incentives for energy efficiency and other green measures. For example, in India, the national government provides tax ben- efits and low-interest loans to developers of green certified buildings. State-level incentives such as subsidies and tax exemptions also encourage the construction of green buildings in India (GBCI, 2023). Certification programs 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 88 and incentives exist not only for new construction but also existing buildings, including EDGE for existing buildings, although the market penetration is not as wide for existing buildings. Voluntary green building programs can serve to prepare the market for mandatory code-related requirements. 9.2.1 Increase mandatory requirements related to energy efficiency and low-carbon design As countries ramp up their commitments to combating the climate crisis, their building codes are moving toward mandatory requirements for reducing carbon emissions covering more types of new and existing buildings. As part of the Buildings Breakthrough announced in 2023 at COP28 in Dubai, 27 countries pledged commitment to achieving net-zero carbon emissions for new buildings by 2030 and for existing buildings by 205046 (GlobalABC, 2024). Together, these countries represent 34 percent of the global population and account for 51 percent of GHG emissions (UNEP, 2023a). Implementation actions to meet these targets issued in a 2024–2025 report include some related to building standards and certifications (GlobalABC, 2024). Despite these global efforts, the most recent Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction (UNEP, 2024) found that few countries are on track to meet net-zero targets, and that the majority of projected floor area growth by 2030 will occur in countries without green building codes or enforcement. Global advocacy efforts are urging countries with green building regulations in place to mandate tighter emissions standards for more types of buildings and enhance policies related to exist- ing building upgrades. Some high-income countries are already doing this, including France and the UK (UNEP, 2024). The European Union’s Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, agreed upon in late 2023, requires zero emission standards for new public buildings by 2028 and all new buildings by 2030. It also mandates that EU coun- tries reduce residential energy use by 2030 or 203547 focusing first on inefficient existing buildings (UNEP, 2024). In general, achieving zero emission standards will require a country’s code provisions to be tailored to minimize car- bon through adaptive reuse of existing buildings, reuse of building materials, efficient design for new buildings, and the use of low-carbon materials alongside renewables. Countries that do not currently have green building require- ments in place must urgently adopt them, with technical and financial support from the international community. 46 The Buildings Breakthrough also includes a commitment to resilient buildings (addressing future climate risks) on the same timeline (GlobalABC, 2024). 47 “Under the strengthened framework, residential and nonresidential buildings are addressed differently. As regards residential build- ings, each Member State will adopt its own national trajectory to reduce their average primary energy use by 16 percent by 2030 and by 20 to 22 percent by 2035. The national measures will have to ensure that at least 55 percent of the decrease of the average primary energy use is achieved through the renovation of the worst-performing buildings, but Member States are free to choose which buildings to target and which measures to take. As regards non-residential buildings, the revised Directive foresees the gradual introduction of Minimum Energy Performance Standards to renovate the 16 percent worst-performing buildings by 2030 and the 26 percent worst-performing buildings by 2033. Member States will have the possibility to exempt certain categories of both residential and non-residential buildings from these obligations, including historical buildings or holiday homes.” (European Commission, 2024). 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 89 Box 9.3 // Mandatory green roof requirements in Basel, Switzerland Basel, Switzerland, was one of the earliest jurisdictions in the world to enact manda- tory requirements to install green roofs (Niranjan, 2025). The motivation for the requirements was to save energy, but the regulation has also resulted in significant benefits for biodiversity and climate adap- tation (EEA, n.d.). Initially introduced as a voluntary measure with subsidized incen- tives in the mid-1990s, the mandatory green roof regulations were included in a 2002 amendment to the City of Basel’s Building and Construction Law, and are as follows: Rooftops in Basel Switzerland. Photo credit: Rafael Wiedenmeier | iStock » The growing medium should be native regional soils—the regulation recommends consulting a horticulturalist; » The growing medium should be at least 12 cm deep;48 » Mounds 30 cm high and 3 m wide should be provided as habitat for invertebrates; » Vegetation should be a mix of native plant species, characteristic to Basel; and » Green roofs on flat roofs over 1,000 m2 require consultation with the city’s green roof expert during design and construction. Basel was recorded to have 5.71 m2 of green roof per inhabitant in 2019, the greatest per capita ratio in the world. As solar panels have become more popular, the city is also promoting the design of green roofs with elevated solar panel installations, to maximize green building benefits. 9.2.2 Regulations to support the use of lower-carbon building materials Public and private policies increasingly target the use of alternative construction materials with lower embodied carbon, including locally sourced materials, necessitating an expansion of building design provisions and qual- ity control mechanisms. The production of cement and steel are together already responsible for 14–16 percent of global carbon emissions, and their consumption is projected to increase by 12–30 percent by 2050, making the need for more sustainable versions even more critical (WGBC, 2019). Efforts to drive GHG emissions reductions in concrete and steel include the creation of global certifications like the Concrete Sustainability Council (CSC) and Responsible Steel (WGBC, 2019). Standards have also been developed to evaluate the environmental impacts of building materials and buildings themselves through life-cycle assessments (eTool, n.d.). Most steel used today has at least some recycled content, in some cases as high as 90 percent (AISI, n.d.). Significant research and development is also being directed into more sustainable alternatives to traditional concrete, including the use of Portland cement substitutes like silica fume, as well as cement alternatives derived from seaweed or mycelium and Limestone Calcined Clay Cement. These alternatives are primarily restricted to smaller-scale, nonstructural applications. Widespread uptake, including structural applications, will require more development and testing to demonstrate their safety and durability. Mass timber is also gaining in popularity as an alternative to steel and concrete for large building structures because of its ability to absorb and sequester carbon from the atmosphere. Numerous design standards have been developed to support its increased use in buildings, primarily in high-in- come countries (Kurzinski et al, 2022). However, recent studies have now shown that timber is not always as sus- tainable as it is widely claimed to be (Searchinger et al., 2023). Moreover, the fire safety of buildings constructed 48 In 2015, an amendment to the law increased the minimum thickness of soil from 10 cm to 12 cm. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 90 with these alternative materials is still being researched, and measures to address fire risk may compromise sus- tainability benefits (Meacham et al. 2020). Finally, there is growing interest in and demand for the use of locally sourced, traditional materials, particularly in low-income contexts. Use of rammed earth, compressed stabilized earthen blocks, stone masonry, and bamboo reduce carbon emissions and engage local communities and econ- omies.49 As highlighted in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2.4, code provisions for vernacular materials are lacking in many countries and clear guidance is needed for the safe, economical applications of these sustainable materials. 9.2.3 Code coverage of emerging construction technologies for more efficient design and construction In addition to facilitating the use of alternative low-carbon building materials, building codes are just beginning to accommodate and regulate emerging construction technologies that support reduced carbon emissions, like offsite and modular construction.50 Offsite construction involves fabricating and assembling building ele- ments away from their final location and bringing them to site for final assembly. According to the International Code Council, modular construction used in residential and commercial buildings can speed up construction by up to 50 percent, reduce costs by up to 20 percent (ICC, n.d.), and at the same time support greater energy efficiency (Grosskopf, 2023) with improvements to insulation, airtightness, and durability. Offsite and modular construction approaches, enabled by computational modeling, for example, Building Information Modeling (BIM), are gaining in popularity due to their potential to improve building performance, reduce material use through design optimi- zation, and enhance the speed and cost effectiveness of construction. Computational modeling is also enabling more efficient building energy retrofit solutions, allowing for the prefabrication of new, higher performance façades and roofs for existing structures. New advances related to circular construction and design for deconstruction are also emerging to support the reduction of con- struction waste and associated GHG emissions Figure 9.2 // Construction of modular mass timber building (Pristerà et al., 2024). Building regulations, includ- ing building codes, are only beginning to match the pace of research and development in this sector. Regulations will need not only to enable uptake of these promising technologies, but also to regu- late their safety, quality, and effectiveness.51 The National Renewable Energy Laboratory in the US published a Guide to Energy-Efficient Design for Industrial Construction of Modular Buildings (Pless et al., 2022) to document efforts to integrate mod- ular energy efficiency strategies into offsite con- struction. The International Code Council has also published several standards for offsite construc- tion (ICC, 2023). These are only the beginnings of a wider industry revolution that will impact building codes in coming decades. Photo credit: JARAMA | iStock 49 On the other hand, there is also growing evidence that the small-scale manufacture of some traditional building materials like burnt bricks is problematic for air pollution and energy consumption. Research into nonfired brick alternatives and efforts to transform the brickmaking industry in several countries including Bangladesh are under way (World Bank, 2011; UNEP, 2021). 50 Other terms used for this are Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) or volumetric construction. 51 A significant concern related to offsite and modular construction is increased fire risk compared to traditional onsite construction (Meacham, 2022; FPA Media, 2024). Addressing this risk requires a concerted effort involving further research, testing, and aligned regulatory measures. 9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 91 9.2.4 A greater focus on regulations and code provisions for adaptive reuse of existing buildings To have a chance of meeting climate goals, experts warn that every country will need to target policies to drive the preservation and adaptation of existing building stock, including energy efficiency retrofits. As mentioned above, while 161 countries demonstrated building sector emission reduction commitments through NDCs, as of February 2024, only 28 countries worldwide signed on to the Buildings Breakthrough to commit to net-zero emissions for existing buildings by 2050 (UNEP, 2024). As of 2024, UNEP identified a significant deficit in progress related to the decarbonization of the world’s existing building stock relative to established targets for 2030 and 205052 (UNEP, 2024). UNEP’s Global Status Report warns that unless all new buildings and 20 percent of existing buildings are net-zero by 2030, we will fail to meet our 2050 decarbonization goal (UNEP, 2024). More widespread policies to evaluate existing building energy performance, mandate upgrades, and support compliance through financial incentives are also needed. The UK is an example of a country that is combining these approaches. Since 2009, the country has required Energy Performance Certificates for residential, public and commercial buildings. The government also announced a tax (VAT) reduction for home energy retrofits (RDA, n.d.) as well as a GBP 6 billion fund in 2023 to provide subsidies for residential and commercial energy retrofits (Baker McKenzie, 2023). In parallel, the UK has introduced standards to support retrofits, including the introduction of PAS 2035, a comprehen- sive standard for whole-home energy retrofits (Hopkins, 2024). The adaptive reuse of existing, historic buildings and the design of buildings for future uses and flexibility are other important tactics for limiting carbon emissions within the buildings sector, with potential for greater impact if backed by formal guidelines and standards. 9.3 PRIORITIES FOR CODE PROVISIONS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION Building codes have traditionally focused on setting minimum standards for safety and public health, but with a changing climate, they also support society’s adaptation to more frequent climate stresses like extreme tem- peratures, heavy rainfall, and drought.53 9.3.1 Building code provisions to adapt to extreme heat While the deadly impacts of extreme heat are becoming more widely recognized, most buildings have not been designed with heat mitigation in mind. As explained in Chapter 2, early building codes had minimum requirements for ventilation, mainly for public health reasons. In places with more tropical climates, vernacular construction often favored building materials and architectural design approaches that naturally promoted air flow and venti- lation, to keep occupants more comfortable. Traditional approaches that are well-adapted to local climates have often gone undocumented in building codes or were ignored, if countries adopted provisions from other countries. Due to global climate trends, more places are now exposed to extreme temperatures on a recurring basis (Mani et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2021). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), between 2000 and 2016, the number of people exposed to heat waves worldwide increased by around 125 million (WHO, n.d.). Current exposure, as well as projected increases in extreme heat, are concentrated in urban areas. By 2050, it is predicted that 970 cities will regularly experience summer temperature highs over 35°C (C40, n.d.; Mackres et al., 2023). Extreme heat presents a growing threat to health, increasing the severity of existing conditions and contributing to heat-related deaths, but most building codes have not yet evolved to address and mitigate these effects through measures that help regulate indoor environments. 52 The UNEP’s Global Buildings Climate Tracker indicates that “to align with the 2030 milestone, an annual increase of ten decarboniza- tion points is now required, a substantial jump from the six points anticipated per year starting in 2015.” (UNEP, 2024). 53 The Global Resiliency Dialogue, made up of building code development and research organizations in Australia (ABCB), Canada (NRC), New Zealand (MBIE) and the USA (ICC), developed Global Building Resilience Guidelines, providing principles and strategies for the incorporation of future climate risks into building codes and standards (ICC, n.d.).  9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 92 The risk of extreme heat in buildings is starting to be addressed by some building codes through provisions for natural ventilation, reflective building materials, green walls and roofs and external shading. Although extreme heat, like flooding, is increasingly recognized as being a significant concern for buildings’ inhabitants, explicit approaches for mitigating it through building codes are still scarce. Worst case scenarios for cities include a com- bination of a severe heat wave with power outages—either due to the grid being overwhelmed from the demand for cooling or another hazard event such as a hurricane. Thus, building codes must consider the need for passive sur- vivability in extreme heat events, where occupants remain safe even if power for mechanical cooling is unavailable. Provisions supporting heat mitigation tend to be integrated into green building approaches for ventilation, external solar shading, energy efficiency and green infrastructure. Ventilation requirements may be performance-based (for example, minimum ventilation rates for different occupancies) or prescriptive (for example, guidelines on opening size and placement). While performance-based requirements can sometimes only be satisfied with mechanical ventilation, some countries, including Rwanda, Indonesia, and Ghana, encourage or mandate the use of natural ventilation to reduce energy consumption and support passive survivability in the case of power loss. In some cli- mates, where buildings cool down at night, extreme heat can also be mitigated through a combination of adequate ventilation and using building materials with higher thermal mass. Also refer to Box 9.1. Use of white or reflective coatings on roofs to reduce solar energy absorption (also referred to as cool roofs) as well as building orientation and shading to reduce solar heat gain are other strategies to address extreme heat and support passive survivabil- ity in buildings. Cool roof provisions have become mandatory in many national and local building codes. Passive strategies to mitigate extreme heat are important as air conditioning not only consumes significant energy but also expels heat outdoors, intensifying urban heat conditions. Wider urban measures, such as increased planting and trees, water features, reflective hard surfaces, and provisions for shade, work hand in hand with building-focused measures to mitigate the effects of extreme heat. Ghana’s building code (GSA, 2018) includes a section on heat island mitigation (see Box 9.4), that addresses both building- specific measures and broader site measures. Box 9.4 // Heat adaptation measures in the Ghana building code  Ghana’s building code has provisions to mitigate the effects of extreme heat linked to urban heat island effects (Ghana Standards Authority, 2018). Urban heat island effects are where temperatures experienced are higher within cities due to concentrations of hardscaping and lower levels of vege- tative cover. These include:  » Provisions for providing exterior shading to buildings. This can be provided by adjacent buildings on the same plot, roof structures, and/or structures with exterior planting or trees. Elements that provide shading (including trees) must be shown on the construction Shading from trees on a street. Photo credit: Kendo Nice | iStock documents;  » Provisions that limit the area of site hardscaping to 50 percent of the total site area outside the building footprint and set a minimum solar reflectance value for hardscaping surfaces; » Provisions that require 75 percent of roof area be covered in vegetation in certain climatic zones; and » Provisions that specify requirements for solar reflectance of roofs linked to roof slope angle.  9. Green Building Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 93 9.3.2 Building code provisions to adapt to water scarcity Water conservation is becoming more critical as water scarcity grows; water efficiency, reuse and collection provisions can help address this need. It is estimated that roughly half of the world’s population is suffering from water scarcity, for at least parts of the year. Climate change is impacting the available supply of fresh water, through loss of snow cover and glaciers, sea-level rise and other effects. Weather patterns are also becoming more erratic—with more intense periods of rainfall and more intense periods of drought in many parts of the world, which puts further pressure on management of water supplies (IPCC, 2022). Green building measures such as water-ef- ficient fixtures and fittings, water reuse (in equipment systems or for grey water), water collection and drought tol- erant landscaping for wider building sites can all help conserve precious water resources, especially in regions that are suffering from water scarcity. For example, the US City of San Francisco has ordinances that require property owners to install low-flow showerheads, and water-saving faucets/taps and toilets that are triggered when other works need a building permit or ahead of a property sale (City of San Francisco, 2025). 9.4 PRIORITIES FOR CODE PROVISIONS TO IMPROVE INDOOR AIR QUALITY To improve population health and reduce economic and human losses in pandemics with airborne transmis- sion, building codes must accelerate the adoption of provisions to improve the quality of indoor air. There is growing evidence that indoor air quality is markedly worse than outdoor air quality, even in the most polluted cities. This matters because it is estimated that people spend 90 percent of their time in buildings (EPA, 2024). In developing countries, domestic cooking with wood, charcoal or other dirty fuels is still common and drives indoor air pollution. For example, it is estimated that household smoke from solid fuels causes a staggering number of premature deaths per year— almost four million (The Economist, 2024). Lessons from the global COVID-19 pan- demic demonstrated that cleaner indoor air could reduce the spread of airborne disease, saving lives and reducing the devastating social and economic disruption caused by the loss of essential services as health workers fell ill and many schools were forced to close. Code requirements for buildings to address these challenges include increased ventilation combined with air-cleaning technologies such as HEPA filtration and air-quality monitors— both for new construction and retrofits for existing buildings. These measures can significantly reduce the risk to society of future pandemics driven by airborne transmission as well as realize wider health benefits though reduced indoor pollution exposure, particularly for health facilities, schools and other building types which deliver essential services (Allan and McComber, 2022). Some countries and standards organizations are leading the way in developing building design provisions for cleaner indoor air. For example, a new Clean Air Law was introduced in 2022 in Belgium. It applies to all public spaces in buildings and requires owners and/or operators to monitor air quality and conduct risk assessments. Buildings can demonstrate that they meet one of two levels of air quality certification. For example, Reference Level A in the law corresponds to CO2 levels of 900 parts per million or a minimum ventilation and air purification rate of 40 m3 per hour per person, of which at least 25 m3 per hour per person is ventilation with outside air (WHN, 2025). Another cutting-edge standard which was recently introduced by ASHRAE in the USA is a pathogen miti- gation standard for indoor air quality and infection control. As a basis for the provisions, it used probabilistic risk approaches to set acceptable levels for air quality to prevent disease transmission (ASHRAE, 2024). 10. Universal Accessibility Design Accesible ramp. Photo credit: Natee127 | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 95 10. Universal Accessibility Design Creating inclusive spaces means removing barriers, so that everyone can fully participate and contribute, regardless of age or ability. Universal accessibility provisions for the built environment play an important role in this so that people with diverse needs can live, work, and access services without suffering disadvantages or barriers. Universal accessibility is defined as ensuring an ease of independent or assisted approach, entry, evacu- ation, or use of a building and its services and facilities by all the building’s potential users—including people of all ages and abilities—with an assurance of individual health, safety, and welfare during the course of those activities. These user groups can include, but are not limited to, people with mobility challenges, low visual capacity, hearing impairment, cognitive impairment, mental health conditions, pregnant women, children, and the elderly (World Bank, 2025).54 Generally, universal accessibility provisions in building codes most commonly address the needs of people with mobility challenges. These include handrails, ramps for minor elevation changes in buildings and at building entrances, elevators (lifts) for vertical circulation, wider doors and entrances, and adapted fittings and fixtures and more generous spaces in toilets and washrooms. Other topics related to physical and sensory disabilities that are some- times covered in universal accessibility provisions include color contrast, acoustics, thermal comfort, wayfinding/ signaling, and signage for emergency exits and evacuation routes. To achieve universal accessibility, aspects beyond the design of the physical building and its surrounding site need to be considered. These include the accessibility for users who travel to the site—via public transport or other means—and the implementation of training for staff and building users related to the use and maintenance of a building’s accessibility features to ensure their maximum benefit is realized. These issues were beyond the scope of the assessment, as it focused on building code provisions. This chapter presents the findings of the assessment related to universal accessibility design provisions and dis- cusses priority areas for further code development in this topic area. 10.1 ASSESSMENT OF UNIVERSAL ACCESSIBILITY DESIGN PROVISIONS This section presents findings of the review of regulatory structure, organization, update cycle and accessibility of universal accessibility code provisions. 10.1.1 Regulatory structure, organization, and accessibility of universal accessibility provisions in building codes All 22 countries from this study have some form of universal accessibility provisions in their building codes. Country-specific findings are presented in Figure 10.2 and discussed in the following text. » Regulatory jurisdictions: Across the 22 countries, this study found that universal accessibility regulations are set at national level for all countries, except for Mexico which has a federal system of government. Regulations assessed were for Mexico City. 54 Also refer to the World Bank Building Code Checklist for Universal Accessibility (2025) for more detail on the types of comprehensive provisions needed for universal accessibility. 10. Universal Accessibility Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 96 » Organization of code documents: In terms of the organization of universal accessibility regulations, half of the countries have one code document that contains all universal accessibility provisions, while the remain- ing countries have the provisions contained in a set of separate code documents. » Code update cycle: Two countries, Uzbekistan and Mongolia, have recently updated or introduced regula- tions (in the last 5 years); another six countries (Bhutan, El Salvador, Indonesia, Nepal, Peru, and Samoa) in the last 10 years; while the remaining 14 countries have regulations that have been in place between 10 and 25 years.55 » Accessibility of code documents: In 14 countries, all regulations are available online and are free of charge. In Mongolia and Tajikistan, no regulations are available online or free. In Ghana, Morocco, and Türkiye some regulations are available online and are free of charge, and some are not. Finally, in Colombia, Rwanda, and South Africa, regulations are available online, but for a fee. » Mandatory or voluntary provisions: Universal accessibility provisions are mandatory in all countries except for Algeria, Bhutan, and South Africa, where all provisions are voluntary. In some countries, mandatory provi- sions only apply to certain types of buildings (for example, public buildings). Refer to Figure 10.2. » Provisions for new and existing buildings: All countries have some universal accessibility provisions for new buildings and 15 countries have provisions related to existing buildings. » Types of needs addressed: Countries addressed the following types of needs: mobility challenges, impaired hearing and/or low visual capacity, elderly persons, children, and cognitive impairment. People with mobility challenges are considered in the provisions for all countries; by contrast, universal accessibility provi- sions for people with cognitive impairment and/or neurodiversity are least commonly addressed. See Figure 10.1. Figure 10.1 // Countries that address different types of needs in the universal accessibility provisions of their building codes Mobility challenges 22 Impaired hearing and/or low visual capacity 19 Elderly 19 Children 15 Cognitive impairment/neurodiversity 5 TOTAL COUNTRIES 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 10.1.2 Topic areas for universal accessibility design provisions In this study, a high-level review was performed in six main topic areas to identify countries with universal acces- sibility provisions in their building codes. These topic areas are described in Table 10.1, followed by the relevant findings. 55 This was assessed based on the year of publication for the oldest regulation for each country. 10. Universal Accessibility Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 97 Table 10.1 // Universal accessibility topic areas Topic Area Description Accessible external environment These provisions ensure that the external environment is accessible to users of all ages (approach to building entrance, and abilities, including the design of access routes, facilities, and features provided around circulation routes, and so forth) entrances to buildings, including parking, and circulation routes between buildings. Accessible entrances, doors and These provisions are provided to ensure independent access for users of all ages and lobbies abilities to enter buildings. Provisions can include measures to ensure barrier-free design of entrances, doors, lobbies, and reception areas, as well as accessible forms of pre-visitor information. Accessible horizontal and vertical These provisions ensure that horizontal and vertical circulation are clear and easy to nav- circulation within a building igate for all users. Types of provisions could include requirements for adequate space to allow all users to maneuver and pass one another, design to reduce obstacles, acciden- tal collisions and trip hazards, design of stairs, ramps, and lifts/elevators which provide essential access to floors in multistory buildings. Accessible building facilities These provisions ensure that spaces and facilities in a building are accessible and com- (including WC/toilets) fortable to use by the widest range of people, encouraging active participation by all users. These types of spaces can include WC/toilets, changing rooms, workstations and meeting rooms, refreshment facilities, quiet rooms, and seating arrangements, among others. Fixtures and fittings to assist Provisions for fixtures and fittings to help users of all ages and abilities to navigate the with orientation, wayfinding, and building, orient themselves, operate controls for lighting, temperature, and other systems, communication and find services within the building. This can include provisions for the building layout, the use of color and symbols, audible and tactile information, as well as the use of signage. Accessible evacuation and safe These types of provisions promote safe and efficient egress and evacuation for users of egress all ages and abilities as part of the building design and management. For example, these provisions should be considered in the design of wayfinding or emergency alert systems. Source: Building Code Checklist for Universal Accessibility (World Bank, 2025). 10.1.3 Summary of findings: universal accessibility provisions Due to the broad scope of the review, it was not possible to distinguish different levels of comprehensiveness for coverage in universal accessibility provisions among study countries. Figure 10.2 is a summary of results with countries ranked by the total number of topic areas that satisfied the assessment statements. It is encourag- ing that most countries have some provisions in all topic areas, as universal accessibility is a relatively new topic area for inclusion into building codes. That said, provisions mainly focus on people with mobility challenges and rather less on people with other types of needs. All countries have some provisions related to entrances, doors and lobbies, horizontal and vertical circulation and building facilities. All countries (except Nepal) have some provisions related to the external environment. Some provisions for fixtures and fittings are covered by 20 countries (excluding Indonesia and Nepal). All countries, except Bhutan, Mozambique and Nepal,56 have some provisions for evacuation and safe egress. Many countries have mandatory requirements for public buildings, and/or residential buildings, or for existing buildings undergoing modification. 56 For Indonesia, it could not be verified whether or not there are provisions in place related to accessible evacuation and safe egress. 10. Universal Accessibility Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 98 Figure 10.2 // Summary of the assessment of universal accessibility provisions for the 22 countries UNIVERSAL ACCESSIBILITY PROVISIONS Accessible horizontal and vertical Accessible external environment with orientation, wayfinding, etc. Fixtures and fittings to assist Accessible building facilities Accessible entrances, doors circulation within a building Accessible evacuation and (including WC/toilets) Existing Buildings New Buildings safe egress and lobbies COUNTRY Algeria V V note note Chile 1 5 note Colombia 6 El Salvador note note Ghana 1 1 note Mexico 2 note note Mongolia 4 2 Morocco note note Peru 3 3 note Philippines 2 Rwanda Samoa South Africa V V note note Tajikistan 7 7 Tonga Türkiye Uzbekistan note 7 note 7 Vanuatu Bhutan V V Mozambique note 1 note 1 Indonesia U Nepal TOTAL COUNTRIES 21 22 22 22 20 18 22 15 The country’s code provisions satisfied the assessment for the topic area. The country’s code provisions did not satisfy the assessment for the topic area. Notes: 1. Mandatory for public buildings only. 2. Mandatory for existing buildings undergoing renovations, repairs or having a change of occupancy. 3. For public buildings and common spaces in residential building only. 4. Mandatory for public, residential and factory buildings only. 5. Mandatory for existing public buildings undergoing renovations, repairs or having a change of occupancy. 6. For existing public buildings, access ramps and lifts are required. No other provisions are specified. 7. Mandatory for public and residential buildings only. 8. Provisions are mandatory unless denoted as voluntary (V). 9. Items marked U could not be verified (U=Unable to verify). 10. Universal Accessibility Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 99 Box 10.1 // Universal accessibility provisions for people with cognitive impairment and neurodiversity Design codes and designers often neglect to consider the needs of people with cognitive impairments or neu- rodiversity, such as people with learning disabilities, dementia or autism (Tuckett et al., 2004). Some aspects to consider include avoiding high contrast flooring, as dark and light areas may be perceived as being at different elevations, using symbology on signs as well as words, provision of adequately lit spaces, and consideration of sensory overload for people with autism (for example, providing quiet spaces, limiting distracting noises from equipment, and so forth). Colombia, the Philippines, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu state in their universal accessibil- ity regulations that people with cognitive impairment need to be considered. However, provisions related to accom- modating neurodiversity or learning difficulties are also important. Overall, in these countries, only a few specific provisions explicitly addressed these needs, and the codes could benefit from a more comprehensive approach. 10.2 PRIORITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF UNIVERSAL ACCESSIBILITY PROVISIONS This section discusses priority topics for future code development for universal accessibility provisions, that may be applicable to the countries included in the assessment as well as other countries. The priority topic areas pre- sented in this section were identified through review of the assessment results presented in Section 10.1, further supplemented by desktop review. 10.2.1 Improving universal accessibility for existing buildings Mandatory provisions and/or incentives to improve the accessibility of existing buildings, including for build- ings that provide essential services such as schools or health facilities and social housing, should be expanded. Code provisions for universal accessibility have been relatively recently introduced; eight countries in this study had these types of provisions introduced in the last decade. Existing buildings are less often addressed by universal accessibility provisions. In Ghana, the 2006 Persons with Disabilities Act (Act 715) mandated that all people are entitled to equal access to public transit and public buildings. However, the Act allowed a 10-year moratorium for public buildings to be made accessible. Although this moratorium expired in 2016, universal accessibility has not yet been achieved in most public buildings in Ghana, including health care facilities and government buildings (Avevor, 2017; Ngnenbe, 2022). Many countries can benefit from code provisions to address retrofitting existing buildings to improve their accessibility, often in combination with incentives. For example, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a government program called Moradia e Acesso provides financial support and technical assistance to promote improved accessibility for disabled children and youth living in low-income housing (World Bank, 2025). Other countries (such as in some jurisdictions in the USA) have used expedited building permitting as an incentive or included accessibility in broader building rating systems that recognize design quality and support resale value (for example, Germany, Netherlands, Japan) (World Bank, 2025). 10.2.2 Comprehensive consideration of different user needs in universal accessibility provisions Universal accessibility design provisions in building codes are widening to accommodate a greater diversity of users. The International Standard ISO 21542:2021 Building construction – Accessibility and usability of the built environment (ISO, 2021), a leading international accessibility standard, covers a range of disabilities, including physical, sensory, cognitive, and temporary impairments. Provisions related to cognitive disabilities include clear and intuitive signage and wayfinding approaches, use of color-coding and other visual cues, and guidance on minimizing sensory overload such as noise and bright lights. An example of an approach to address physical dis- abilities, sometimes temporary (for example, pregnancy or injury), is the provision of rest areas at regular intervals along walkways or corridors. 10. Universal Accessibility Design A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 100 These types of interventions are not only important for improving equity and establishing basic human rights: they can also benefit the economy. Few studies evaluate the economic benefits of universal accessibility and design in buildings, but research related to accessible transport (Casullo, 2017) and disability inclusion in the work- force (Graves, 2023) suggests that removing barriers to accessing services or resources reduces health and social care costs, strengthens labor markets, and improves productivity. 10.2.3 Tailoring universal accessibility provisions for the cultural context and practices Universal accessibility design provisions are being customized locally or regionally to address specific cultural needs and practices. International standards such as ISO 21542:2021 provide broad coverage of types of provi- sions to promote universal accessibility, but they may need to be adapted for local cultural practices, depending on the country or jurisdiction of application. For example, a universal accessibility standard that was originally devel- oped for use in Saudi Arabia (Prince Salman Center for Disability Research, 2010) fills gaps in the ISO Standard, including provisions for squat toilets and ablution areas, reflecting local culture and practices. Provisions from this standard have served as a reference for the Dubai Building Code (Government of Dubai, 2021) and accessibility guidelines in other Muslim countries. 10.2.4 Improved universal accessibility provisions for emergency response and evacuation A wider range of planning and design approaches for emergency response and evacuation are being developed to accommodate diverse needs in emergency situations. Universal accessibility provisions are predominantly focused on fire safety and evacuation, including the dimensions of evacuation routes, audible and visual alarm systems, and clear and tactile signage. Efforts are emerging to better integrate disaster risk management with universal design, although these are often more focused on emergency planning rather than the building design stage (CIL, n.d.). One approach is to broaden the scope of disability risk assessments for facilities to identify addi- tional accessibility risks related to emergency situations. For example, in a flood emergency where roof evacuation is provided, physical accessibility must be considered. For power outages and disruption to mechanical cooling, emergency lighting, easily operable windows, and accessible alternatives to elevators can be provided. In relation to heat waves, Dubai and Abu Dhabi have included building code provisions for minimum percentages of shaded areas in public spaces to support users who might be more sensitive to heat and sun exposure. 11. Code Implementation Environment Photo credit: mixetto | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 102 11. Code Implementation Environment In addition to analyzing the ease of access, organization and technical contents of the building codes, the review also explored key aspects of code implementation, and the broader enabling environment in each country. Without effective implementation regulations and processes, the benefits of building codes cannot be realized. 11.1 BUILDING REGULATORY APPROACHES FOR CODE IMPLEMENTATION A well-implemented regulatory framework can protect people by achieving minimum health and safety stan- dards for buildings, boost markets’ competitiveness and operational efficiency, and protect compliant actors from being undercut by inferior actors. This section presents an overview of the building control process for implementing building codes, as well as the required capacity and enabling factors to create the ecosystem of a well-functioning building regulatory framework. As part of this, building control processes supported by digital platforms have the potential to improve efficiency and reduce uncertainties and human errors throughout the construction life cycle. Additionally, other enabling factors such as professional accreditation and licensing/regis- tration mechanisms, and insurance for building professionals comprise the rest of the key elements for an enabling environment to support effective implementation of building regulations. 11.1.1 Building control process: approvals and enforcement Building control processes differ from country to country. A typical building control process includes approvals (permit stage) and enforcement (at different stages of the construction life cycle), as illustrated in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 // Building control process throughout the construction life cycle APPROVALS ENFORCEMENT PERMITS STAGE CONSTRUCTION STAGE POST-CONSTRUCTION STAGE DEMOLITION/ PLANNING BUILDING INSPECTION OCCUPANCY INSPECTION & RENOVATION PERMIT PERMIT CERTIFICATE TESTING PERMIT Feasibility, Design, Procurement Construction Use Renovate/Dispose CONSTRUCTION LIFECYCLE Source: Adapted from World Bank, 2024a Most commonly, the building control processes are managed by local governments’ building departments. In some cases, the private sector may also provide support in functions such as building design checks prior to build- ing permit approvals and/or in carrying out site inspections. 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 103 Effective, transparent and efficient building control mechanisms integrate aspects such as: » Simple and clearly defined processes and requirements (for example, clarity in the requirements for docu- ment submission for plan checks and other technical reviews, inspection requirements and timing); » Transparent and efficient processes (for example, accessibility of regulations and other guidance, online and digital systems for users and authorities); » Optimized approval processes with requirements linked to the building size, occupancy type, complexity and other factors to target resources and requirements toward higher risk projects; » A balanced approach which combines proportionate penalties for noncompliance with incentives that ben- efit those who comply; and » User support, two-way communication and dispute resolution mechanisms. The investment needed for effective building control processes can seem high, yet the cost of ensuring compli- ance is far outweighed by the benefits of a safe, resilient, sustainable built environment and competitive construc- tion sector. 11.1.2 Capacity requirements for code implementation Effective code implementation involves continuous investment in capacity building—in both the public and private sectors. The following sections describe the types of capacity needed and some common challenges. 11.1.2.1 Public-sector capacity Local governments typically oversee building control activities but may be constrained by lack of resources and technical capacity. Although overall building control frameworks are often set at the national level,57 it is usually the responsibility of local government building departments to implement and enforce building codes and regulations at the local level. Local authorities are therefore on the front line of building control. While the local authorities are knowledgeable about the local conditions and construction environment, common challenges observed are a lack of human and financial resources (for example, to meet the cost of visits to construction sites for inspections and access necessary equipment) and technical capacity (for example, professionals with appro- priate educational and practical backgrounds) in building departments. Where the capacity of local governments is constrained, some countries allow the private sector to take on some building control activities to bring added capacity (see Box 11.1). This model only functions well when robust safeguard mechanisms with transparency and accountability are in place for the private sector to ensure outcomes and avoid conflicts of interest. 11.1.2.2 Private-sector capacity Continuous investment in capacity building in the design and construction sector, as well as systems for pro- fessional accreditation, are necessary for effective code compliance. Clearly written and comprehensive building codes more effectively facilitate compliance with code requirements by building designers and construction profes- sionals during the design and construction processes respectively. Because the government is generally in charge of developing and updating building codes, it is beneficial for government authorities to work with relevant profes- sional authorities and associations to invest in continuous capacity building for building professionals, particularly when codes undergo major revisions. This can include trainings, certifications and issuing of guidance documents. 57 In some cases, such as in Federal countries, building regulations are set at the territorial level. For example, in Mexico, each state has the power to set its own building regulations and building control processes. 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 104 Building professionals such as architects and engineers are often registered after going through professional credentialing or licensing processes. Registration or licensure is usually also contingent on maintaining compe- tency through continuing professional development (education). However, some countries do not currently have mechanisms for licensure. Licensure, particularly when renewals are required, also allows for the monitoring of poor performers through customer or peer complaints and provides a mechanism for suspending a professional from continued work in the sector. Professional certification mechanisms to ensure technical competency of pro- fessionals who will be involved in building design and construction can reduce risk to the built environment and directly benefit people’s safety and society overall. Professional societies (for example, institutes of architects or societies of engineers) can provide an additional level of competence and assurance through training, codes of conduct and best practice development. In addition to mechanisms to ensure individual professional qualifications, countries with robust building reg- ulatory frameworks require registration of companies involved in building design and construction processes. Countries provide criteria for companies to register for qualified categories of works (for example, depending on prior experience on past projects, field of expertise, number of licensed professionals they employ, and so forth). By requiring legal registration and appropriate accreditation, governments can help protect building users and facili- tate good practices to help ensure that design and construction works meet minimum quality and safety standards set by the building codes. Higher education and technical training programs are the foundation of such professional capacity develop- ment. In some low- and middle-income countries, universities may not offer a complete range of degrees in engi- neering, architecture and planning fields, and there may be only limited availability of technical education programs or vocational training. To develop and maintain the quality and quantity of competent professionals in the con- struction industry, investing in education and technical training for engineers, architects, planners and construction trades is vital. 11.1.3 Other enabling factors Other enabling factors discussed below for the code implementation environment include insurance and liabil- ity regimes in place in the country and dispute resolution mechanisms provided within the building regulatory framework. 11.1.3.1 Insurance and liability As accredited and qualified building professionals and companies are often liable for design and construction, insurance plays a critical role to protect them from potential risks and disputes, while also protecting the final building users. However, insurance products that cover individual professionals and companies are not widely available, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. There are also behavioral hurdles to overcome. For example, a study conducted in Anambra state in Nigeria in 2021 illustrates the lack of awareness of the require- ments of the provision (namely section 64 of the National Insurance Act of 2003) requiring builder’s liability insur- ance for buildings of more than two floors. Only 45 percent of study respondents even knew of this requirement. Respondents also reported that the nonchalant attitude of construction firms toward insurance policies was the main reason why insurance was not obtained. This attitude is perpetuated by the lack of enforcement of provisions of the Insurance Act by the government (Okongwu et al., 2021). Building code compliance relies on a shared responsibility among stakeholders involved such as designers, builders, and building control authorities, yet the responsibilities of each stakeholder and accountability mech- anisms are often not clearly defined, widely understood, or implemented. When insurance mechanisms are not 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 105 in place, building professionals, construction companies and building users may be at risk, particularly if no dispute resolution mechanisms have been established. Therefore, a legal framework for insurance and liability should be in place as well as efforts to support the development of an insurance market for the construction industry. Box 11.1 // Ways to increase private-sector responsibility for code implementation The case of Japan: private sector participation in The case of increased private-sector responsibility design reviews and building inspections through liability requirements in France In 1995, the Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake caused In France, the primary mechanism to ensure the safety extensive damage to Hyōgo prefecture including Kobe and quality of construction is the requirement for city in Japan. design and construction professionals to hold liability insurance for a minimum of 10 years as set out by the Although a robust building regulatory framework was in French Civil Code. In other words, if any defect or safety place in the country, one factor identified for improve- issue emerges in the 10-year period after a building is ment was capacity in building control, particularly for constructed, it is automatically clear who is liable and plan checking and site inspections. At that time, only must remediate the problem or pay compensation. 30 percent of building projects received a final inspec- tion before occupancy. There is limited involvement by the government in building inspections; by contrast, the private sector In 1998, an amendment to the Building Standard Law conducts most checks and the insurance companies allowed private sector participation in building control play a key role in shaping standards for contracts and process for the first time. As of 2024, over 90 percent other industry requirements. of projects are certified by the private sector, and capacity to undertake building control activities has Although the law does in some cases allows for the been markedly enhanced. state to act as a facilitator to resolve disputes, most disputes are settled between insurers without going Above all, strict controls are in place for private-sec- to court. Overall, the system works well, and results tor involvement. Private-sector firms are required to related to building safety in France are comparable to demonstrate adequate staff number and qualifica- other countries in Western Europe that exercise more tions. Government building control authorities regu- direct state oversight of building control (IFC, 2013). larly conduct surveillance on private-sector firms by reviewing their outputs documents, and other relevant documentation, and based on the results of these checks, penalties for misconduct may be imposed (ERI Holdings Co., Ltd., 2014; World Bank, 2015b). 11.1.3.2 Dispute resolution mechanisms Disputes can happen during design or construction due to the dynamic and complex nature of building projects. Disputes can take various forms: between a project owner and a building control authority if a permit is refused, for example, or when specific conditions are attached to the building permit; between a building’s owner and a con- tractor when the quality of work is unsatisfactory; or between different stakeholders (project owner, designers and builders) involved in a project. In the absence of effective dispute resolution mechanisms, stakeholders may not feel motivated to comply with building regulations, and delays in the building approval process are likely to result (World Bank, 2023c, 83). Establishing a clear and efficient legal framework for dispute resolution mechanisms is the key for a suc- cessful, competitive construction sector, and consumer protection. Effective dispute resolution mechanisms: i) are supported by a clearly defined legal instrument that references a formal appeal process for building control 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 106 decisions; (ii) are independent of the building control authority; (iii) are executed by bodies with relevant technical expertise; and (iv) address all processes and stages of the building regulatory process (World Bank, 2023c). Box 11.2 // Dispute resolution mechanisms in Victoria, Australia Building construction in Melbourne, Australia. Photo credit: Elias Bitar | iStock A survey in Victoria, Australia in 2016 found that one in four residential building projects involved a dispute between the homeowner and the builder. This led to the establishment of the Domestic Building Dispute Resolution Victoria (DBDRV, n.d.) being set up in 2017 with the objective to resolve disputes as informally as possible. When agree- ment could not be reached through conciliation, DBDRV would have the legislative power to issue binding orders to resolve the dispute. Generally, the DBDRV has made it easier for builders and building owners to access an online, tailored dispute reso- lution service, which is free, fair and fast. The resolution process has three possible outcomes: (a) an agreement if the dispute is resolved, (b) a dispute resolution order if the parties either partially resolve their dispute or are unable to resolve their dispute, or (c) a certificate of conciliation if the parties are unable to resolve their dispute. Parties with unresolved disputes may make an application to the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (VCAT). From April 2017 to October 2023, DBDRV has resolved 7,484 disputes that would have cost more for both parties had they been dealt with by the VCAT, making domestic building dispute resolution more cost-effective for both the government and stakeholders. 11.2 ASSESSMENT OF THE CODE IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The assessment focused on the following topics: (i) at what level of jurisdiction the building control framework is administered; (ii) if established building control processes are in place; (iii) how accessible the information and pro- cesses is; (iv) if building control processes are optimized depending on the level of complexity and risk for projects; (v) if clear requirements and processes for site inspections are in place; (vi) if dispute resolution mechanisms are defined; and (vii) if professional certification and registration systems exist. Refer to Table 11.1 for a more detailed description of each topic area. 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 107 Table 11.1 // Topic areas for the building code implementation environment Topic Area Description Type of jurisdiction Building control laws and regulations may be administered at the national level, at a territorial or city level for administration of (local level) or through a hybrid system (a mix of national and local level administration depending on the the building control type of regulation or process). For example, some planning restrictions may be set at national level (for framework example, for protected lands), but local or city level planning regulations may also need to be followed to obtain permission to develop a site. Established building It is important for building control processes to be clearly defined in the country’s legal framework. This control processes includes the type of processes (planning and building permit, inspections, occupancy permit, and so forth), the requirements and any other relevant details. Accessibility of To ensure effective implementation, building control regulations and processes must be accessible. Two building control areas were assessed: regulations and information on » Whether there is a functional online permit system either in major cities in the country or at national processes level. A functional online permit system will allow the user to apply online, track the status of applica- tions, and pay any fees due, throughout the planning, design and construction phases. » How easy it is for the public to access information about building control regulations and processes, and how they can be accessed (either online or in print). Generally, information on building control will be available through the website of the relevant ministry or through the website of the relevant munic- ipality, reinforcing transparency of related processes. Optimized process Countries can optimize their building control processes by aligning the types of processes, levels of checks and stakeholders involved in the review of applications in different types of building categories. Defining specific processes depending on the risk or complexity of projects can simplify and accelerate the issuance process for less risky buildings, while releasing more resources for complex or more risky projects. Defined building Site inspections are a critical component of the building control process. It should be clear when site in- inspection spections by the relevant authority are required during different stages of the construction process and framework what the specific requirements are. Site inspections should be performed by registered professionals and/ or third-party inspectors, depending on the type of building, to ensure the strict and unbiased application of relevant regulations. Dispute resolution Clear and efficient processes for dispute resolution are needed as part of the building control process as mechanism they have the potential to increase compliance, trust, and accountability. Within the regulatory framework, these dispute resolution mechanisms should be defined, including appeal processes for building control authority decisions and arbitration or mediation measures to solve any conflict between involved stake- holders (public or private). Professional Certification and/or registration systems for the different professionals operating within the built environ- certification and ment sector (architects, engineers, builders and other more specialist consultants) can help to regulate registering system the work of the different professionals to increase confidence in the quality of construction sector profes- sionals. This also creates pathways to mandate continuing education as code requirements are updated, along with mechanisms to penalize companies and professionals for violations of building regulations and related procedures. 11.2.1 Findings of the code implementation assessment Gaps are observed in the effective building control regulations, processes and related aspects of the wider enabling environment for code implementation in the study countries. Even if a country has an excellent building code, if well-functioning processes and resources are not in place to ensure compliance, the fundamental aims of the code for the built environment will not be achieved. For example, in Türkiye, which was found to have one of the most comprehensive codes in this study, the February 2023 Türkiye-Syria earthquake sequence demonstrated the benefits of strict inspection requirements for buildings during construction. Despite the severity of the ground shaking, which in some places exceeded the code design levels, public buildings such as schools and hospitals generally performed well (EEFIT, 2024). Many private buildings, such as residential and commercial buildings, 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 108 Figure 11.2 // Summary of code implementation environment assessment for the 22 countries CODE IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control framework integrates inspections from the authority in charge during the construction process The building control framework integrates and details Information regarding the building control processes An online approval system is available in the country Building control processes are clearly defined in any Jurisdictional level of oversight and enforcement of categorization system to optimize existing human The building control process integrates a building The country has professional certification and resources and application requirements. regulations or government documents dispute resolution mechanisms building control regulations is accessible to the public registration mechanisms COUNTRY Chile H Colombia L El Salvador H Mexico L Mongolia N Morocco L Peru L Philippines L South Africa L Indonesia N Nepal L Rwanda H Türkiye H Bhutan L Tonga N Uzbekistan N Algeria H Mozambique L Tajikistan H Ghana L Samoa N Vanuatu N TOTAL COUNTRIES¹ 17 14 13 13 13 11 9 Yes - The country meets the requirements of the statement Partial - The country meets some aspects or contains incomplete information to fully implement No - The country does not meet the requirements of the statement N National level L Local level H Hybrid (depending on the characteristics of the project) Note 1: Total countries that fully satisfy the requirements of the statement. 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 109 where inspection requirements were limited, suffered severe damage and collapse, leading to many casualties, displacement of populations and the need for temporary shelter. The findings also show a wide range of coverage in the key areas related to the code implementation environ- ment. Refer to Figure 11.2 for the findings of the assessment for all countries. No country fully satisfies all topic areas of the assessment. Priority areas where there are gaps, even in countries with more complete coverage, include processes to ensure building inspections and optimized building control processes to target resources toward higher risk buildings. These countries include Chile, El Salvador, Mexico, with respect to inspections and the Philippines, South Africa and Indonesia with respect to optimized processes. For example, country experts observed that, in the Philippines and Indonesia, although inspection requirements exist, a lack of resources in building control authorities, in some cases, prevents inspections of common types of smaller-scale buildings from being carried out in practice. Less than half of the study countries fully satisfy the statement related to online approvals systems; such systems play a crucial role in improving efficiency, reducing errors and ensuring greater transparency for building control officials and users. Countries that satisfy the assessment in fewer topic areas, such as Ghana, Samoa and Vanuatu, have invested in code development in recent years, but could benefit from further development of building control regulations, processes and capacity development for code compliance. For effective code implementation, a combination of appropriate regulations, efficient and optimized pro- cesses, qualification requirements, adequate resources for capacity building and enforcement, and accessibil- ity of information and systems for users must be in place. Figure 11.3 // Construction workers casting concrete on site Photo credit: sorn340 | iStock 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 110 11.3 CODE IMPLEMENTATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES Although this study does not focus in detail on code implementation, an overview of the following common chal- lenges linked to possible strategies to respond to them to increase code compliance is presented in Figure 11.4. Figure 11.4 // Common challenges in code implementation and related strategies to improve compliance Public communication campaigns about benefits of compliance/ Transparent and accessible building regulations, complementary Building codes with provisions well-tailored to local construction Professional bodies involved in training, regulating professional Design and construction sector training and degree programs Digitized systems (e.g., for building control, online approvals) Optimized processes linked to a building categorization /risk Private sector participation in building control with adequate Dangerous structures reporting mechanisms/requirements Independent and effective dispute resolution mechanisms for periodic assessment of selected higher risk buildings Streamlined and efficient processes and requirements Robust inspections framework linked to permitting Professional certification and registration systems Well-functioning insurance/liability mechanisms guidance and information on related processes conduct, and technical provisions development Risk-informed planning regulations Incentives to improve compliance Code Implementation Challenges Penalties for non compliance environment and capacity risks of non-compliance safeguards in place level system Lack of awareness/access to building ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ regulations and related requirements Mis-match between local capacity and com- ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ plexity of building regulation requirements Cost of compliance is too high for some ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ groups (e.g., affordable housing) Prevalence of informal/risky development ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Lack of budgetary and/or physical resources for building control authorities ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Lack of public sector capacity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Lack of private sector capacity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Participation of unqualified people for roles in design and construction sector ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Lack of trust in building authorities ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Clear communication of building control requirements as well as capacity building are required to increase compliance. For example, barriers to accessing building control regulations and processes, can be reduced by making information easy to find online, at no charge. Awareness can be raised through training for those in the design and construction sector as well as broader public communication campaigns on the benefits of complying with building regulations. Box 11.3 gives an example of capacity building to enhance public- and private-sector compliance with the building regulations in Dominica. 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 111 Box 11.3 // Capacity building to enhance code compliance in Dominica In 2023, as part of the World Bank’s Caribbean Physical and Financial Resilience Building (CPFRB) technical assistance project, and in collaboration with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, a train-the-trainer program was delivered in Dominica. The objective was to build capacity for public- and private-sector professionals to improve com- pliance with the OECS 2015 Building Code (OECS). Modules included ‘Understanding and Applying National Building Codes, The Hazard- Housing Nexus’, ‘Risk Mitigation: The Three Cs and Risk Mitigation through Code Compliance’, and ‘Risk Communication and Stakeholder Engagement’ (World Bank, 2024d). Buildings in Dominica. Photo credit: BriBar | iStock Streamlined and efficient processes, including digitization of processes, and linking the level of requirements for building control to the risk level of the project can reduce the cost of compliance. For example, see Box 11.4 on Rwanda’s building permit management system. Effective insurance and liability mechanisms encourage com- pliance by reducing potential liabilities and assist property owners in managing residual risks. Financial incentives can also drive compliance. Box 11.4 // Rwanda's Building Permit Management System (BPMIS) The BPMIS project was designed and is being implemented by Rwanda Housing Authority in collaboration with the World Bank Group WBG/IFC and launched in May 2013. The main functionalities of the system support the administration of construction permits, including data archiving, enforcement tasks, architect registration, building proposal submission, payment evidence submission, as well as approval-related processes (extension, demolition, refurbishment) and occupancy permits. It also provides comprehensive reporting functionalities for key aspects of permit approval and allows building inspectors to pro- file ongoing construction, capturing inspection data via mobile devices. Additionally, the system allows inspec- tors to access all documents related to an inspected site or plot using QR Code scanning, detecting forged documents or permits. The system assigns building control requirements linked to five building risk cate- gories depending on the building size, occupancy level and usage type. The website hosting the BPMIS (www.bpmis.gov.rw) also allows the users to consult the legal framework for building control and view the list of registered professionals. Building construction in Kigali. Photo credit: Sloot | iStock 11. Code Implementation Environment A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 112 If building control authorities lack adequate resources, they can supplement their capacity with assistance from the private sector. This can improve the efficiency of the operations (for example, through streamlined and optimized processes and use of digital systems), improve wider capacity building of staff, and increase support from professional bodies such as architectural and engineering organizations. Box 11.5 below gives an example of effective use of the private sector to enhance building control capacity in Colombia. Box 11.5 // The urban curators: privatization of the building permit review process in Colombia In 1995, Colombia established the position of Urban Curator, defined as a person act- ing on behalf of the public administration in charge of building control, responsible for reviewing, rejecting, or approving dif- ferent types of building permits related to territorial development and urban planning in municipalities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Currently, there are 99 Urban Curators spread across 48 cities. The Urban Curators are supported by an inter- disciplinary team, including engineers, architects, lawyers, and administrative staff. Urban Curators are appointed by the Building construction in Colombia. Photo credit: Giorgio Morara | iStock mayor following a merit-based competi- tion and serve a five-year term and are autonomous in the exercise of their functions with disciplinary, fiscal, civil, and criminal responsibilities for any damages and losses caused to users, third parties, or the public administra- tion in the exercise of their public function. Nonetheless, the tasks and duties of the urban curators exclude control and verification of the works, violations of land-use regulations and visits to construction sites (Colegio Nacional de Curadores Urbanos, n.d.). The additional private capacity for building permit approvals has reduced the time needed to obtain a permit from an average 1,080 days in 1995 to 132 days in 2020 (World Bank, 2009; World Bank, 2020). Lastly, it is important to emphasize that code provisions and compliance mechanisms go hand in hand. When introducing new code provisions, the related code implementation processes and available capacity in building control and the country’s design and construction sector should be considered. In countries where resources are limited, it may be better to introduce code requirements incrementally, with a focus on simplified provisions for common types of construction and/or targeting more rigorous code requirements toward higher-risk building types, while building capacity over time. 12. Key Findings and Recommendations High-density housing in Singapore. Photo credit: undefined | iStock A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 114 12. Key Findings and Recommendations Effective building regulatory frameworks are the foundation of a safe, resilient, sustainable, and accessible built environment. In our current changing climate with evolving disaster risks, the role of building codes and broader regulatory frameworks is becoming increasingly important to manage risk and enhance the resilience and sustainability of buildings. This report provides an overview of the status of building codes and their implementation in selected countries with differing socioeconomic and hazard contexts across six different geographical regions. It represents an extension of related earlier studies providing regional analysis of building codes, including previous regional stud- ies on the status of building codes carried out in Latin America and the Caribbean (IDB, 2023), Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 2023c), and Pacific Island countries (PFI, 2021), as well as the flagship report: Building Regulation for Resilience: Managing Risks for Safer Cities. This body of work aims to identify opportunities for governments and regulators to advance the safety, resilience, sustainability and accessibility of the built environment through improvements to building codes. Other key mechanisms to improve the wider building regulatory environment include legal and regulatory reforms, building control process reforms, institutional reforms of national and local government entities involved in building regulation, capacity building of building professionals, and enhancements to the enabling environment such as professional licensing and insurance. This chapter provides key recommendations based on the findings of this report, primarily focused on building code provisions and intended for countries that are on the path to enhancing their building codes and broader regulatory frameworks. The 22 countries in the study were selected based on regional distribution, level of matu- rity of their building codes, and level of exposure to selected disaster risks. For evaluation purposes, most had rel- atively well-developed codes and standards. They are not necessarily representative of countries globally. A wider selection of countries would result in a greater diversity in maturity level—from countries without any adopted codes and standards and limited capacity to countries with highly developed buildings codes and higher capacity. Further work is required to more comprehensively assess global trends and identify appropriate reforms for spe- cific countries. Nevertheless, this report aims to provide a useful basis for dialogue in the 22 countries that may initiate beneficial regulatory reforms to make their built environment more resilient, greener, and more inclusive. 12.1 OVERALL FINDINGS The study provides insights into which areas to prioritize for code development and where further investment in aspects of the code implementation environment could improve code compliance. Figures 12.1 and 12.2 below summarize the results for each country, in each main topic area category, and as a percentage of topics covered for the code contents assessment and for the code implementation environment assessment. Countries are ranked by how comprehensive their coverage of building code topic areas is—with the caveat that this assess- ment was performed at a high level, especially for the code implementation environment aspects. In addition, refer to the Country Profiles in Annex A for a summary of results for each study country. The high-level assessment shows different levels of advancement among countries in establishing mature building regulatory environments. Some countries have advanced the development of their building codes in the 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 115 three main areas assessed to the point where they already have good coverage in their code contents of the key elements needed for a robust code implementation environment. These countries include Chile, Colombia, and Mexico. Other countries—such as Ghana and Samoa—have made progress in code development but more invest- ment is needed to build capacity and complementary mechanisms for effective code implementation. Finally, countries such as Mozambique have less comprehensive and up-to-date building regulatory environments over- all—in terms of building code coverage of key topics and code implementation environment. The rest of the study countries were at an intermediate level of maturity for their codes and implementation environment. Figure 12.1 // (a) Summary of code coverage for structural and resilience provisions, green building provisions and universal accessibility provisions; and (b) Code implementation environment evaluation (a) Structural and Resilience Green Building Provisions Universal Accessibility (b) Code Implementation Provisions Provisions Environment Colombia Mexico Algeria Chile 6 1P Mexico Peru Chile Colombia 6 1P Türkiye Rwanda Colombia El Salvador 6 1P Chile Indonesia El Salvador Mexico 6 1P Samoa Chile Ghana Mongolia 6 1P Ghana Colombia Mexico Morocco 6 1P Morocco Samoa Mongolia Peru 6 1P Philippines Bhutan Morocco Philippines 6 1P El Salvador Ghana Peru South Africa 6 1P Tajikistan Morocco Philippines Indonesia 5 2P South Africa Türkiye Rwanda Nepal 5 2P Algeria Philippines Samoa Rwanda 5 2P Peru South Africa South Africa Türkiye 4 2P Indonesia Algeria Tajikistan Bhutan 3 3P Tonga El Salvador Tonga Tonga 3 3P Vanuatu Tajikistan Türkiye Uzbekistan 3 3P Rwanda Tonga Uzbekistan Algeria 3 2P Uzbekistan Uzbekistan Vanuatu Mozambique 2 4P Mongolia Vanuatu Bhutan Tajikistan 2 3P Nepal Nepal Mozambique Ghana 1 4P Bhutan Mozambique Indonesia Vanuatu 3P Mozambique Mongolia Nepal Samoa 2P 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Number of topics satisfied (see Note 1) Note: 1. For the code implementation environment review, numbers in blue bars indicated number of topic areas which satisfied the evaluation statement. Numbers in light blue bars indicate number of topic areas where the evaluation statement was partially satisfied. In addition, different types of code provisions display varying levels of maturity and adoption in the study coun- tries. Some, such as general structural provisions, are generally more mature and have higher levels of coverage of the assessed topic areas. In contrast, provisions related to flood design or green building are still emerging and have yet to be fully incorporated into many country codes. Figure 12.3 below lists areas where gaps were more often identified in the technical provisions of the countries studied. 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 116 Figure 12.2 // Summary of coverage of structural and resilience provisions (a) general structural provisions, (b) seismic design provisions, (c) wind design provisions, and (d) flood design provisions (a) General structural (b) Seismic Design (c) Wind Design Provisions (d) Flood Design Provisions provisions Provisions Colombia Colombia Colombia Rwanda Chile Mexico Mongolia Tajikistan El Salvador Türkiye Philippines Ghana Mexico Algeria Tajikistan Samoa Türkiye Chile Chile South Africa Morocco Morocco Ghana Philippines Tajikistan Peru Mexico Türkiye Uzbekistan Indonesia Samoa Algeria Ghana El Salvador Morocco Bhutan Peru Philippines South Africa Chile Philippines Samoa Türkiye Colombia Rwanda Vanuatu Bhutan El Salvador Samoa Ghana El Salvador Indonesia South Africa Tonga Nepal Mexico Tonga South Africa Tonga Mongolia Indonesia Nepal Vanuatu Morocco Vanuatu Uzbekistan Algeria Mozambique Algeria Tajikistan Indonesia Nepal Bhutan Mongolia Rwanda Peru Mongolia Bhutan Uzbekistan Tonga Nepal Rwanda Peru Uzbekistan Mozambique Mozambique Mozambique Vanuatu 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Figure 12.3 // Priority topic areas for building code development based on the findings in the study countries General structural provisions Seismic design provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Up-to-date country-specific seismic Importance/risk classification of hazard maps using the latest data 59% 82% buildings and methodologies3 Non-linear analysis procedures 32% Geotechnical and substructure 72% design1 Seismic detailing for common types Design of common types of of structural systems in the country 73% construction in the country or 46% or jurisdiction4 jurisdiction2 Design of advanced seismic Simplified provisions for common systems (e.g., seismic isolation) 32% 50% types of small-scale buildings Seismic design of diaphragms 82% Existing buildings: change of use 46% and building additions Seismic design of nonstructural elements and design to account for 55% 0% 50% 100% out-of-place seismic action 0% 50% 100% Notes: 1. Countries with coverage in all geotechnical and substructure topic areas. Notes: 2. Countries with design provisions for confined masonry construction. In Indonesia and 3. Countries with seismic code documents ≤10 years old. the Philippines, for example, confined masonry is prevalent, but the code does not 4. Countries with design provisions for common types of reinforced concrete and address it. steel systems. Wind design provisions Flood design provisions Design of advanced seismic Simplified provisions for common systems (e.g., seismic isolation) 32% 50% types of small-scale buildings Seismic design of diaphragms 82% Existing buildings: change of use 46% and building additions Seismic design of nonstructural elements and design to account for 55% 0% 50% 100% out-of-place seismic action 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 117 0% 50% 100% Notes: 1. Countries with coverage in all geotechnical and substructure topic areas. Notes: 2. Countries with design provisions for confined masonry construction. In Indonesia and 3. Countries with seismic code documents ≤10 years old. the Philippines, for example, confined masonry is prevalent, but the code does not 4. Countries with design provisions for common types of reinforced concrete and Figure 12.3 // Priority topic areas for building code development based on the findings in the study countries address it. steel systems. Wind design provisions Flood design provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Up-to-date country-specific wind Better integration of building speed maps using the latest data 41% code provisions with flood and methodologies5 mitigation through planning regulations Lack of integration was noted in some countries (e.g., how users can find out design –for example, in the Rwanda building code Wind importance factors 46% flood levels for a site) Structural provisions to reduce flood Wind design procedures for tall risk –load procedures, consideration of buildings and other complex 73% material durability, design to equalize 27% structures6 flood pressures7 Design of roof overhangs, cladding Architectural provisions to reduce flood and appendages to limit wind risk –performance of non- 50% structural materials, detailing and 18% damage (including water intrusion) in strong wind events location of critical services, occupied zones, evacuation areas, etc.8 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Notes: Notes: 5. Countries with code documents with wind design provisions ≤10 years old. 7. Countries with any structural provisions related to flood loading. 6. Countries with wind design provisions for roof and wall cladding. 8. Countries with any architectural provisions related to flooding. Green building provisions Universal accessibility provisions Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Priority topics identified Percent coverage in 22 study countries Passive measures to improve energy efficiency and occupant wellbeing 55% as appropriate for the climatic Universal accessibility regulations 64% conditions in the jurisdiction9 are available online and for free Active measures to improve energy 55% efficiency (for HVAC, lighting) Provisions related to accessible evacuation and safe egress for 82% Inclusive of renewable energy 59% people of all ages and abilities technologies Water-efficiency measures –for Provisions to address a wider water efficient fixtures and fittings, 50% range of needs beyond people 23% and water collection and reuse with mobility challenges11 Low-carbon design approaches including using recycled and 23% recyclable materials10 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% Notes: Note: 9. Countries with some types of provisions for passive measures in addition to provisions 11. Countries with provisions to address the needs of people with cognitive difficulties. for natural ventilation and daylighting. 10. Countries with provisions for low carbon design and the use of recycled materials. Most countries have code documents that have not been updated in the last 10 years. For example, for structural and resilience provisions (including seismic, wind, and flooding-related design), only four of the 22 countries have code documents less than 10 years old. For green buildings and universal accessibility provisions, more countries have recently updated provisions, with eight countries having code documents with universal accessibility provi- sions published no later than 2014 and eight with green building provisions published no later than 2014. However, the benefits of updating codes should be weighed alongside the time and resources required to draft and approve updates, and the capacity of the design and construction industry to comply with them. Code development is a continuous process, requiring ongoing efforts and investment, with one key driver being the need to respond to a changing landscape of hazards and risks. For example, data were collected relating to how seismic and wind codes evolved over time in the study countries. It was found that, on average, seismic code provisions have been evolving over a period of 36 years and wind code provisions over 26 years. Over these 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 118 development periods, seismic code provisions have been updated on average over four cycles, and wind code provisions over two cycles. Regularly updating codes for natural hazards impacting the built environment is vital as the knowledge and understanding of these hazards rapidly evolve. Additionally, hazards such as strong wind events, flooding, and extreme heat are increasing in frequency and severity due to the impacts of climate change in many regions of the world. Based on a high-level review of the code implementation environment it was noted that even countries with mature building codes could benefit from improved building control processes and compliance support. Priorities identified for improvement from the country findings include the need for more transparent and stream- lined processes, prioritizing resources for building types of higher importance, and comprehensive mechanisms and resources for building inspections. Relatively few countries offer free, online access to all building code doc- uments. In addition, in some cases, regulation documents are not available in the official language of the country. Lack of access to building codes and building control regulations and requirements creates barriers for compliance. 12.2 RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations linked to key findings are presented for the following key topics in the report: code devel- opment, general structural provisions, seismic design provisions, wind design provisions, provisions related to climate hazards (extreme heat, flooding and wildfire), green building and universal accessibility provisions, and aspects related to the code implementation environment. Given the level of evaluation in the study, the recommen- dations are necessarily generalized but nevertheless highlight key challenges and areas for improvement in building code content and enforcement. These can serve as a starting point ahead of more detailed analysis to inform priori- tized actions for specific countries. Examples of action plans for two country profile types are provided in Figures 12.4 and 12.5 to give indicative examples of prioritized actions for sample types of countries with distinct characteristics. Topic 1: Building Code Development R1.1 Set clear processes for code development with defined roles and responsibilities, stakeholders, activities, data requirements, and timelines, supported by adequate resources. Developing building codes is an intensive exercise. It requires clearly defined processes, roles, responsibilities, and resource allocation, with wide stakeholder participation and a complex validation process that can often take from two to 10 years. Code updates can be based on set cycles or triggered by other criteria, including the need to learn from disasters, technological advances, changes in construction practices, or evolving hazards and risks. Where neighboring countries have similar challenges and/or commonalities in their construction practices, they can often benefit from sharing resources and knowledge through regional code development activities. R1.2 Ensure that building codes are well-tailored to the country context. Building codes need to be well-tailored to the local context, including local development patterns, hazards, cli- matic conditions, social and cultural factors, common construction practices, and construction sector capacity. For example, Peru and Mozambique lack simplified code provisions for small-scale buildings although they have a high proportion of informal development (UN-Habitat, 2022); such provisions could reduce the complexity and associated costs of code compliance for community- and self-builders. Adapting model codes or another coun- try’s code to a new country or jurisdiction can be more efficient than developing new codes from scratch, but it still requires substantial effort. For example, country-specific design criteria for hazards are generally needed, and modifications to the code may be needed to align with local capacity and common construction practices. For example, the Indonesian building codes, which are based on US codes and standards, do not include design provisions for confined masonry construction—although this is a common construction typology in Indonesia, especially for schools and single-family housing. 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 119 R1.3 Ensure that building code provisions are complete and consistent. This study did not evaluate the quality or comprehensiveness of code provisions in detail. Nevertheless, areas where building codes could be improved were noted. For example: (i) some countries have design provisions that lack clear compliance procedures—for instance, in seismic design, the absence of a complete procedure for calcu- lating country-specific seismic-design loads; and (ii) some codes contain inconsistent or incompatible provisions, possibly due to referencing outdated or conflicting international standards. R1.4 Harmonize code provisions across different topic areas. In most cases, code provisions are developed by expert specialists in a siloed manner, whereas a multidisciplinary approach would better balance risks and benefits and achieve harmonization of provisions across topic areas: for example, consideration of fire risk in green building measures, incorporation of universal accessibility provisions in evacuation requirements, or integration of low- carbon design approaches into structural design provisions. Topic 2: Code Provisions for Small-Scale Buildings R2.1 Include simplified provisions for common types of small-scale buildings. Only half of the study countries have simplified provisions for small-scale buildings. Including simplified provisions, communicated in a straightforward manner for common types of small-scale buildings, can increase code compli- ance and promote safe construction. This approach better tailors the provisions to local capacity and the types of buildings commonly constructed by communities, often without input from design and construction professionals. R2.2 Incorporate code provisions for vernacular construction that are adapted for local hazards. Some of the study countries have made efforts to include code provisions related to vernacular construction types that are adapted for local hazards. This approach recognizes the benefits of promoting safe construction practices for local materials and techniques. For example, in Bhutan, the government has formally adopted construction guidelines for improving the seismic resistance of new vernacular stone masonry buildings through seismically detailed connections, provision of timber ring beams, and through-stones in the walls. Topic 3: Code Provisions for Existing Buildings R3.1 Include code requirements for modifications and/or change of use of existing buildings. Building codes predominantly address the design and construction of new buildings. However, to address risks to existing buildings and provide clear guidance on adaptive reuse of existing buildings to improve sustainability, code provisions should also cover existing buildings. This study found that only 10 out of 22 countries have provisions for existing buildings that cover additions or alterations and change of building usage. R3.2 Include code provisions for building assessment, rehabilitation and retrofit. Half of the study countries have some provisions related to the assessment of the structural condition of exist- ing buildings, and only seven have provisions related to the seismic assessment and retrofit of these buildings. Proactive assessment and retrofitting of buildings can improve safety and reduce damage from disaster events, protecting lives and leading to faster recovery times. Topic 4: Code Provisions for Seismic Design R4.1 Review and periodically update country-specific seismic hazard maps. Although the study did not evaluate the quality of seismic hazard maps in detail, it was noted that Bhutan and Mozambique do not have country-specific seismic hazard criteria, and 7 out of 22 countries have seismic hazard maps that have not been updated in over 10 years. Countries can benefit from improving the quality and resolution of seismic hazard maps in the building codes to more accurately reflect the best available information, using up-to- date methodologies to inform building design criteria. 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 120 R4.2 Improve critical elements of seismic design code requirements, such as geotechnical provisions, duc- tile detailing provisions, and diaphragm design provisions. While most study countries have made significant advances in incorporating geotechnical provisions into their building codes, six countries have no provisions for design of retaining walls, and four have no provisions for geotechnical site investigations. These types of provisions are particularly critical in seismic regions, to ensure that foundations can withstand seismic actions and reduce the likelihood of excessive settlement or tilting of entire buildings. Of the 22 countries, 18 have some provisions for the seismic design of floor and roof diaphragms. Diaphragms are a critical component to effectively transfer lateral loads to the buildings’ main lateral system. Ductile detailing provisions for structural elements are essential to ensure they can absorb and dissipate earth- quake-induced energy through deformations—as opposed to failing in an undesirable, brittle manner, which may lead to partial or total building collapse. The study found that the codes in Mongolia, Mozambique, Rwanda, and Tajikistan do not contain ductile detailing provisions. R4.3 Improve code provisions for the design of nonstructural components to protect occupants and limit service disruption after major earthquakes. Although 19 out of 22 countries have some provisions related to the seismic design of nonstructural components, it was noted that many countries lack comprehensive provisions in this topic area. These include provisions to limit building’s lateral displacements, and design/detailing requirements for verifying seismic safety of nonstructural elements and their connections, such as masonry infills and partition walls, facades, parapets, and equipment. Preventing damage to nonstructural components will reduce harm to occupants and assets within buildings and ensure that services can be restored more quickly after an earthquake. R4.4 Consider the inclusion of seismic design provisions to limit damage and service disruption after an earthquake, especially for selected types of higher importance/critical buildings. While all study countries include some seismic design provisions, they focus primarily on limiting loss of life and ensuring the structural integrity of the buildings for a design-level earthquake; this is commonly referred to as Life Safety (LS) performance. Recent earthquakes have shown that buildings designed for LS performance are often uneconomical to repair. It is possible to incorporate code provisions intended to achieve enhanced performance, including functional recovery objectives, and as a result limit damage in the structural and nonstructural building systems though more stringent prescriptive requirements, performance-based design approaches and nonlinear seismic analysis procedures, and/or application of advanced seismic systems (such as base isolation devices and dampers). The appropriate performance level targeted for a specific building can depend on its occupancy level, and its importance in a post-disaster situation (for example, whether the building has been designated to provide critical services for emergency response). Topic 5: Code Provisions for Wind Design R5.1 Review and periodically update country-specific wind design maps. While the study did not evaluate the quality of wind design maps in detail, it was noted that 11 out of 22 countries have code documents with wind design provisions that have not been updated in more than 10 years. In addition, Indonesia and Mozambique lack country-specific design wind-design maps. Codes in some countries can benefit from including up-to-date wind design maps, developed using a probabilistic methodology, to ensure the safety of occupants and limit damage and disruption caused by strong wind events. R5.2 Improve wind design provisions for roofs, cladding, and other nonstructural components to increase the resilience of buildings to strong wind events. Only 11 study countries have some provisions related to the design of roof overhangs, roof cladding, wall clad- ding and other appendages to resist wind loading. Through relatively low-cost improvements, damage to building components from wind loads and water ingress can be reduced, leading to faster recovery times after strong wind events. R5.3 Depending on the in-country capacity, consider the inclusion of performance-based design approaches in the code provisions for wind design of tall buildings and other complex structures. Procedures and special provisions for the wind design of more complex structures, such as tall buildings, are included in the codes of 16 countries. Codes often prescribe special design and analysis procedures to capture dynamic behavior under wind loading, hence performance-based design approaches can be included to ensure the safety of tall buildings and other complex structures. 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 121 Topic 6: Code Provisions to Address Climate Hazards R6.1 Incorporate green building measures to mitigate the impacts of extreme heat. Provisions to reduce the risks of extreme heat for building occupants were not directly assessed in this study, because only a few countries include them. For example, Ghana has code provisions that explicitly address build- ing adaptation to extreme heat events. Types of provisions to mitigate the impact of extreme heat include passive measures such as natural ventilation, green and/or ‘cool’ roofs, and external solar shading. Codes can also com- bine green building measures with other strategies related to the wider site: Ghana’s building code, for example included requirements for external planting to provide shade, and specifications for the solar reflectivity of site hardscaping. See also the recommendations in Topic 7. R6.2 Incorporate provisions to mitigate the impacts of flooding. Flood risks are predominantly managed through planning regulations that prohibit construction on flood-prone sites and help determine appropriate locations for construction. As flood risk is increasing due to the impacts of climate change and pressure on land for development, there is a need for building codes to address flooding. These can include structural provisions to design for flood loading and architectural provisions to limit any disruption to building services from flooding. Only seven of the 22 study countries have any building design provisions related to flooding. Some countries with flooding-related provisions, such as Ghana, link these to the level of risk of flooding for the site (such as by setting a design flood level), but it is unclear how to obtain this information from local flood hazard maps for specific sites. R6.3 Incorporate provisions for buildings and their surrounding sites to reduce the risk of wildfires. Although the study did not evaluate building code provisions to reduce the risk of wildfires (still very rarely included in building codes), wildfires are becoming a growing problem due to the impacts of climate change. Chapter 8 presents a high-level overview of different building code approaches to reduce the risk of wildfire. These include measures such as fire-resistant materials, detailing to prevent ignition from wind-blown embers, and site-related measures such as controlling flammable vegetation. Topic 7: Green Building and Universal Accessibility Provisions R7.1 Increase the adoption of green building provisions related to energy efficiency. The study found that 17 of the 22 countries include some green building provisions to improve energy efficiency in their building codes, while 12 have more comprehensive coverage of green building provisions. Many provisions are mandatory for buildings of a certain size or usage type. This is a common approach for countries transition- ing to stricter energy efficiency requirements for buildings; it has the benefit of making building operations more affordable while supporting global sustainability goals. Also see R 7.4. R7.2 Increase the adoption of green building provisions related to water efficiency, collection, and reuse. The study found that 13 countries have some building code provisions related to water-efficient fixtures and fit- tings, but only five countries have provisions related to water collection and reuse. Such measures are often rela- tively easy to implement and can help to address the problem of water scarcity, which is increasingly common due to the impacts of climate change. R7.3 Incorporate provisions for low-carbon design. The building sector accounts for 37 percent of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide, with around one quarter of those emissions associated with embodied carbon (GlobalABC, 2024). Only eight countries studied have some limited provisions related to achieving lower-carbon buildings, and in six of these countries, the provisions are voluntary. Building codes can promote low-carbon design through additional requirements related to the use of lower-carbon materials, consideration of life-cycle approaches (such as recycling and recyclable materials), and expanding existing building provisions to enable adaptive reuse of existing buildings. R7.4 Introduce mandatory provisions to advance green buildings and universal accessibility where appropriate. The study found that green building provisions and universal accessibility provisions are often voluntary. For exam- ple, Colombia’s green building provisions are entirely voluntary, and other countries have a mix of mandatory and voluntary provisions. For universal accessibility provisions, three countries have entirely voluntary provisions and seven have mandatory provisions for selected building types for new construction. Countries can support the 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 122 transition to stricter requirements for buildings by mandating green building and universal accessibility require- ments for public buildings, while supporting market-driven mechanisms such as green building certification sys- tems and financial incentives for privately-owned buildings. In addition, these provisions should be expanded to address retrofits to existing buildings. Topic 8: Building Code Implementation R8.1 Ensure that efficient and transparent building control processes are in place, with streamlined pro- cesses and information available online. A lack of transparency and overly complex processes can discourage compliance. Less efficient processes can also increase the time and resources needed within building control. The study found that 13 countries have clearly defined building control processes where information is easily accessible to the public, while an online approval process is available in nine countries. R8.2 Target building control resources toward buildings of higher importance. Optimized building control processes were seen in 11 study countries, with the level of review and inspection requirements linked to a categorization based on project risk level and/or importance of the building. Such opti- mized processes can ensure that building control requirements are proportionate, and less onerous for typical build- ings. Benefits include a more effective use of resources for building control and reduced barriers for compliance. R8.3 Leverage the engagement of the private sector paired with mechanisms to monitor the performance of the private sector. Selected case studies revealed the benefits of supplementing building control capacity with private-sector partici- pation, such as the creation of the “Urban Curator” role to assist with permitting in Colombia. To ensure quality con- trol and avoid conflicts of interest, mechanisms are required to ensure that personnel are appropriately qualified, alongside systems to monitor the performance of private-sector engagement more generally. R8.4 Where appropriate, consider incentives for compliance. Many of the countries studied have some code requirements that are voluntary. For example, 14 countries have universal accessibility provisions which are entirely voluntary or only mandatory for certain types of buildings, while all but two countries have some voluntary green building provisions. Depending on the resources available, it can be useful to introduce incentives to facilitate investment in the safety, resilience, sustainability and universal accessibility of buildings, for both existing and new private buildings. Incentives can be financial—such as grants, subsidies, tax breaks, or government-backed low-interest loans—or involve expedited or relaxed building control processes, or recognition through certification or awards (World Bank, 2025). R8.5 Invest in capacity building to support code compliance. A detailed assessment of the code implementation environment in each country was beyond the scope of this study. Nevertheless, previous country-specific assessments58 have demonstrated that continuous investment in capacity building is essential to support code compliance. Capacity building can take the form of guidance and training for public- and private-sector stakeholders, including formal routes to professional licensing and/or certifi- cation (this is in place in 13 of the study countries). In addition, public communication campaigns and community engagement can raise awareness of the benefits of code compliance and gather valuable feedback on how best to implement building codes in practice. Investment in capacity building is particularly important when new regula- tions, guidance, or building control systems are introduced. 58 World Bank, 2025. Building Regulation for Resilience, “Country Reports”. https://www.gfdrr.org/en/building-regulation-for-resilience 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 123 Figure 12.4 // Sample action plan for Country Type A Characteristics • High risk (earthquakes, strong winds, flooding) COUNTRY • Rapid urbanization and population growth TYPE A • High levels of housing informality and a prevalence of vernacular construction in housing • Building code is outdated with significant gaps in structural provisions, limited provisions for green building, and basic provisions for universal acces- sibility • Limited resources available for building control Priority actions may include: Improve hazard data Review existing earthquake and wind hazard criteria in building codes and leverage the best available A hazard data from national and/or international institutions to improve the accuracy and granularity of in design codes the criteria. Improve use of Develop flood hazard maps using the best available hazard data from national and/or international B hazard data in planning institutions and accounting for the effects of climate change. Integrate flood and other hazard data into planning and development to avoid new construction in high-risk areas prone to flooding and soil instability. Adopt guidelines for Develop simplified guidelines with easy-to-follow Consider ways of integrating simple C common small-scale graphics for common small-scale construction types measures for enhancing community building types including housing to improve their structural safety and resilience and adapting to climate change such as solar PV panels, rainwater resilience to earthquakes, strong winds and localized collection, and solar shading. flooding. Focus on guidance to improve existing local construction practices with local materials and skills, Consider developing rehabilitation and including improvements for health and habitability retrofit guidelines for existing small-scale related to space, light and ventilation. buildings and housing to improve structural safety, health and accessibility. Address critical Conduct a review of the existing building code to identify and prioritize critical gaps to address in code D gaps in code updates. Areas of focus might include: provisions related • Incorporating best available country-specific hazard data for earthquakes, strong winds and flooding. to life safety and • Ensuring that procedures for calculating actions and designing structures are simplified, complete, and accessibility usable by practitioners to demonstrate compliance, instead of being expressed as general performance goals. • Improving prescriptive seismic design and detailing requirements for structural components critical to life safety such as ductile detailing provisions for reinforced concrete frames and reinforced and confined masonry systems, and design provisions for floor and roof diaphragms. • Improving requirements for the design of light-frame construction to resist strong winds including roof and foundation tie-downs. • Expanding mandatory universal accessibility requirements for public buildings and spaces. Pilot more advanced Drive improvements to the local building sector’s capacity by piloting more advanced resilience and E approaches on public green design approaches on larger buildings, including critical public facilities like schools and and private buildings hospitals in conjunction with capacity building. Incentivize the private sector to adopt comparable strategies for residential and commercial buildings in ways that build national and local capacity. Invest in local training Implement risk awareness and training programs for local government authorities responsible for F and capacity building planning and building control as well as local building professionals and contractors to support to support compliance risk-informed planning and compliant construction practices. Integrate training on hazards and construction practices into community-driven development programs. Optimize local Focus building control • Ensure that all building codes, reference standards and guidelines are G building control reforms on high impact easy to access online and available in local languages. measures that • Adopt a transparent and risk-based approach that allocates more acknowledge resource government resources for approvals and enforcement to higher risk limitations: projects (on the basis of building size, occupancy type, and so forth). Similarly, streamline permitting and inspection processes with simplified procedures for lower-risk buildings. Photo credit: aroundtheworld.photography 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 124 Figure 12.5 // Sample action plan Country Type B Characteristics • High risk (earthquakes, strong winds, flooding) • Lower population growth and more limited COUNTRY urbanization TYPE B • Building code is outdated with some gaps in structural provisions; a green building code exists but is not widely implemented;  provisions for universal accessibility are available • Unauthorized building alterations are common • Limited resources available for building control and enforcement mechanisms are weak Priority actions may include: Improve hazard data used in planning Where deficiencies are identified in the quality of earthquake, wind and flood hazard data, A and design invest in research and partnerships to generate and/or incorporate the best available data into planning instruments and building codes, including accounting for the effects of climate change. Put in place a system to enable periodic Incorporate mandatory criteria to trigger regular building code updates and establish B building code updates to address gaps institutional structures such as government-appointed, multidisciplinary steering committees and incorporate new information or advisory councils to guide code development and reforms. Address identified gaps related Conduct a review of the building code to identify and prioritize critical gaps to address in C to life safety performance code updates (such as geotechnical provisions or ductile detailing provisions). Expand mandatory accessibility and green Develop a phased approach for introducing mandatory requirements to more buildings based D building requirements for new buildings on building size and occupancy type. Incorporate new provisions for improved • Architectural and structural provisions related to flood loading and design. E resilience (to reduce damage and • Provisions related to strong winds and wind-driven rain, including requirements for downtime) components and cladding and for advanced analysis for tall buildings. • Provisions related to the seismic performance of nonstructural components such as infill walls. • Performance-based design approaches,  nonlinear seismic analysis procedures, and/or application of advanced seismic systems. Invest in local training and capacity • Select realistic performance requirements for retrofits, recognizing technical and financial F constraints. building to support compliance • Identify efficient ways of integrating resilience, green design and accessibility upgrades into retrofit approaches. G Adopt regulations and policies to guide • Consider mandatory retrofit requirements for cases of change of occupancy or ongoing retrofits and improvements of significant building modifications to improve safety, sustainability and accessibility. existing buildings • Consider phased requirements based on building typology or use. • Consider incentivizing policies to encourage voluntary retrofits including subsidies, tax deductions, insurance-related mechanisms or preferential treatment with respect to regulatory processes H Drive innovation through pilot projects Leverage the private sector and academia to integrate new research and innovation related to more harmonized approaches for resilient and green design into priority projects that can serve as pilots for learning and development. I Improve building control capacity • Ensure building codes and guidelines are easily accessible online and in local languages. • Use a  risk-based approach: allocate more resources to higher-risk projects and streamline processes for lower-risk ones. • Strengthen government oversight capacity for site inspections during construction and for building modifications. • Leverage the private sector to supplement capacity while maintaining oversight and transparency. • Evaluate the need to strengthen certification requirements for building professionals. Photo credit: iboter 12. Key Findings and Recommendations A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 125 12.3 THE WAY FORWARD – ENHANCING BUILDING CODES FOR A SAFER, GREENER, AND MORE INCLUSIVE BUILDINGS Building codes and broader building regulatory frameworks play a critical role in promoting safer, healthier and higher-quality built environments. They have the potential to address critical issues related to disaster resil- ience and climate change adaptation and mitigation, and to promote more inclusive societies. This study, albeit broad in scope and from a high-level perspective, can provide a starting point for countries seeking to enhance their building codes and code implementation mechanisms. To establish specific actions and priorities tailored for individual countries, more detailed assessment and collaboration between government and wider stakeholders is needed. Successful implementation will require long-term commitment, adequate resources, and technical capacity development at multiple levels. To advance the building regulatory agenda and implement the recommendations on a broader scale, part- nerships and knowledge sharing are key. Many good examples and models already exist, and learnings from emerging practices and initiatives can be used to improve existing practices. Knowledge accumulated in interna- tional code development bodies, such as the European Commission and the International Code Council (ICC), and from international standards bodies, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and ASTM International (ASTM) can be useful. In addition, knowledge developed in some regions, including in the Caribbean (such as OECS building code for Eastern Caribbean states) and Africa (such as EAC’s Standards for construction and building materials), can provide valuable insights. To promote safe, green, and inclusive built environments, the World Bank and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) initiated a global line of work titled Building Regulation for Resilience (BRR) in 2016. This report is one resource among several other knowledge products developed by the BRR team. The BRR team offers support for countries through analytical work and advisory services including: » Building Regulatory Capacity Assessment (BRCA): This tool can be applied to understand existing build- ing regulatory frameworks and develop targeted and actionable recommendations for priority reforms and investments. The BRR’s Building Regulatory Capacity Assessment methodology 2.0 (BRCA 2.0) can also be extended to include a review of current building control processes to identify potential reforms and explore digitalization opportunities, and to develop a basis for updating building control processes for enhanced efficiency and transparency. » Building Code Checklists: If a country is developing a building code or updating its existing building code, a suite of Building Code Checklists covering structural resilience, fire safety, green buildings, and universal accessibility can be a useful resource to assess the coverage and scope of provisions in a systematic man- ner. The checklists were developed based on a review of key elements in global building codes by subject matter experts. » Capacity Building: The BRR team also supports governments in developing training activities and materials to enhance the capacity of the public or private sector, including government officials involved in building control processes as well as private-sector engineers and architects required to comply with codes and regulations in the design of buildings. The BRR team leverages partnerships with an international network of experts and professional organizations to offer appropriate support in specific country or regional contexts. 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Indoor thermal responses and their influential factors— impacts of local climate and contextual environment: A literature review, Journal of Thermal Biology, Vol. 113. Zhao, Q., et al. 2021. Global, regional, and national burden of mortality associated with non-optimal ambient temperatures from 2000 to 2019: a three-stage modelling study. The Lancet Planetary Health, Volume 5, Issue 7, pp 415-425. https://doi. org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00081-4 Annex A: Country Profiles Annex A contains Country Profiles presenting key data for each country based on the study results. Each Country Profile includes an overview of the results of the assess- ment of building code contents related to structural safety and resilience, green build- ing, and universal accessibility as well as the assessment of the code implementation environment. Key statistics are also provided for each country.1, 2, 3, 4 The tables in the profiles indicate which evaluation statements were satisfied in the assessment of the country's building code or code implementation environment. A checkmark (3) in the table indicates that the building code and/or code implementa- tion environment satisfied the statement. Note that the assessment did not evaluate the quality and comprehensiveness of the code provisions in detail. An (7) in the table indicates that the statement was not satisfied. 1 Total Population data source: World Bank, 2024. “Total population, based on the United Nations Population Divi- sion’s World Urbanization Prospects: 2024 Revision.” World Bank Databank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SP.POP.TOTL 2 Capital city population data source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Di- vision, 2023. Demographic Yearbook 2023. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/ dyb_2023/. For capital city population, population is for the 'city proper' except for Mexico City, Mexico, Ankara, Turkiye and Nuku'alofa, Tonga where the population for the capital city urban agglomeration is given. 3 Population in urban areas data source: World Bank, 2024. “Urban population (% of total population), based on Unit- ed Nations Population Division. World Urbanization Prospects: 2018 Revision.” World Bank Databank. https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS 4 Average urban growth data source: World Bank, 2024. “Urban population growth (annual %), based on the United Nations Population Division’s World Urbanization Prospects: 2018 Revision.” World Bank Databank. https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.GROW  142 Algeria 46.2m 2.7m 75% 2.6% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Technical regulations in Algeria include dedicated codes for the struc- Wind provisions were first introduced in the country’s regulations in tural and seismic design of buildings. The general rules governing 1999 with updates in 2013. The code addresses the design for build- development, town planning and construction are set out in Executive ings up to 200 meters in height, and it contains country-specific wind Decree 91-175. The seismic design code has evolved significantly design criteria for four different regions in the country. However, it does not contain design provisions for nonstructural components of since its first edition in 1981, through subsequent updates in 1988, buildings subjected to the effects of strong winds and floods. 1999, 2003, and 2024. Algerian codes contain provisions for the struc- tural design of reinforced concrete, reinforced masonry, steel, and tim- Green building regulations are included in a few national standards, ber structures. The design of unreinforced masonry (URM) structures including DTR C3T on building thermal regulation (published in 2011). is not addressed by the structural design codes as URM construction These standards do not include key provisions related to energy effi- is prohibited. ciency, water efficiency, or building materials. The 2024 seismic design code provisions are relatively comprehen- Universal accessibility provisions are included in Algerian Standard sive and include a country-specific seismic hazard map. The code 16227 (2009), based on Decree 06-455 (2005). The application of this standard is currently not mandatory, but the government encourages permits application of various seismic analysis procedures, including its application for the design of public buildings. nonlinear static analysis. Although the seismic code includes ductile detailing provisions, it does not define or provide requirements for Algeria’s building control legal framework defines general processes; structures of different ductility levels. The code does not contain pro- however, it is not easily accessible, and there is no online permitting visions related to the structural and seismic evaluation and retrofitting system. Processes for dispute resolution and requirements for profes- of existing buildings. sional registration are defined within the law. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete ✓ Dead and live loads specified ✓ Structural steel ✓ Load combinations ✓ Reinforced masonry ✓ Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions ✓ Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) ✗ Wind loading ✓ ✓ 7 Timber ✓ Seismic loading ✓ ✓ 3 Earth ✗ Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo ✗ Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements ✓ Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy ✗ Design of foundations ✓ Existing buildings - additions (extensions) ✗ Design of retaining walls ✓ Seismic assessment and retrofit ✗ (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  143 Algeria (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors ✓ Concrete moment frames ✓ Drift limits ✓ Concrete shear walls ✓ Requirements related to building regularity ✓ Steel moment resisting frames ✓ Diaphragm design ✓ Steel braced frames ✓ Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) ✓ Timber lateral resisting systems ✓ Design of nonstructural components ✓ Confined masonry systems ✓ Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures ✓ Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials ✗ Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding ✗ Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level ✗ Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds ✗ above design flood level ✗ Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- ✗ in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to ✗ borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting ✗ External environment ✓ Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and ✗ reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation ✓ Entrances, doors, and lobbies ✓ Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting ✗ Horizontal and vertical circulation ✓ Renewable energy ✗ Building facilities (sanitary or other) ✓ Green walls and roofs ✗ Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use ✓ and/or collection ✗ Evacuation and safe egress ✓ Low carbon and/or recycled building materials ✗ ENVIRONMENT** BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT categorization The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control H system of building buildingsto categories fordetermine the ease of application optimizing existing human requirements ✓ ✓ regulations* regulations resources and and allocate application human requirements resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the from Clearly defined building control regulations ✓ ✓ P authority in charge the authority during in charge the construction during process the construction process Information regarding The information the building regarding control the building processes control is is processes The building control framework includes dispute a and integrates resolution details a ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ accessible to the public mechanism dispute resolution mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country ✗ ✗ P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  144 Bhutan XXm 0.79m XXm 0.12m X% 44% X% 2.6% Population Capital city populationliving total population Total living Average urban growth (2023) population in urban areas (2023) (2014–23) (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Bhutan’s current building code, published in 2018, is the first in its his- procedure, and has been used in Bhutan since 1997. Design provi- tory. This code (BCB 2018) references Indian codes and standards for sions for nonstructural components for the effects of strong winds the structural design of reinforced concrete and steel buildings since are currently not in place, and the code does not address the design of 1997. BCB 2018 does not address the structural design of load-bear- building components for the effects of fire or flooding. ing masonry buildings, a common construction typology in Bhutan. Design provisions for timber buildings are outdated and do not fully Green building design provisions are included in BCB 2018, which reflect features of local timber construction typologies. refers to Bhutan Green Design Guidelines 2013; however, window-to- A seismic hazard map for Bhutan is not available; however, seismic wall ratio and energy efficient HVAC systems are not addressed. hazard parameters for design purposes are assigned based on the Indian seismic hazard map, and the highest seismic zone V has been Universal accessibility provisions are addressed by BCB 2018 and assigned for the entire country. That Indian map (from India’s IS 1893 Guidelines for Differently Abled Friendly Construction 2017. The standard) was developed on a deterministic basis and does not take provisions do not address evacuation and safe egress of building into account all relevant earthquake sources for Bhutan. In terms occupants. of seismic design and detailing, there are no specific provisions for “ordinary” structural systems with lower ductility levels, nor provisions related to the seismic design of walls for out-of-plane seismic effects, The building control legal framework of Bhutan establishes clear nonstructural elements, or floor/roof diaphragms. Although the code procedures. Related documents, including details of different pro- does not contain provisions related to existing buildings, some seis- cesses, are available online through the webpage of the Ministry of mic design considerations for building extensions are contained in Infrastructure and Transport. There is still no online permitting system, Bhutan Building Regulations 2023. The design of vernacular stone although some attempts have been made to remedy this. Bhutan does masonry buildings is addressed by government guidelines. not optimize its building control processes based on building categori- The design of building structures for wind is addressed by Indian zation, and inadequate staffing constrains the efficiency of the inspec- design standard IS 875 (Part 3), which contains a detailed design tion framework. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 7 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 7 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 7 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify). IBRD 48760 |  145 Bhutan (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 7 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 7 Diaphragm design 7 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 7 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 7 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution 3 P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  146 Colombia 52.3m 7.9m 82% 1.7% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Colombian regulations for structural design and resilience have evolved NSR-10 is that it does not consider structural or nonstructural design over time, influenced by historical seismic events. The Colombian provisions for floods or tsunamis, despite the fact that the country has Seismic Resistant Construction Regulation (NSR-10) is the current a large coastal area. regulatory base, reflecting a comprehensive and modern approach enriched by various areas of governmental and private research. The Green building regulations in Colombia established in Resolution #549 code began with basic standards in the 1970s and 1980s, evolving to of 2015 define mandatory energy and water savings requirements for NSR-98 and finally NSR-10, adopting principles from ASCE 7 and other new buildings according to building typology (such as housing, commer- international standards. cial, or education). Financial incentives at municipal level such as Cali and Bogotá were also introduced in 2023 to encourage green building. NSR-10 provides detailed data on seismic hazards, with seismic hazard maps dividing the country into seismic zones based on seismic activity National standards (NTC 6002, 6047 and 4595) include mandatory and defining base design parameters for buildings including maximum provisions for the design of new residential, public and educational ground acceleration and spectral response. Other defined parameters buildings, including requirements for people with mobility, visual and include site coefficients, importance factors, dissipation capacity of hearing impairments, among others. structural materials, and degree of building irregularity. Colombian reg- ulations also include a detailed procedure for the analysis and design of Colombia has a complete legal framework defining building control certain new buildings to a higher seismic performance standard. They requirements. While the legal framework is easily accessible through also include provisions for the seismic assessment, rehabilitation and the webpage of the ministry in charge, the online permitting system is seismic retrofit of existing buildings reflecting the regulatory require- not available throughout the country. Supervision of construction is ments applicable at the time the building was originally constructed. the responsibility of the owner as inspections by government author- ities are limited. Colombia requires academic training and profes- For wind design, the regulations include wind-speed maps and expo- sional experience to obtain professional registration for architects sure classifications based on local conditions. A shortcoming of and engineers. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 3 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  147 Colombia (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 3 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 3 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country P 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  148 Chile 19.7m 0.54m 88% 1.1% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Chile has developed a robust regulatory framework for structural and structural analysis methods ensure that buildings can withstand design and seismic resilience, influenced by historical experience of significant wind loads. Chile has standards for the elevation and pro- devastating earthquakes. Current Chilean regulations are based on the tection of structures in areas exposed to tsunamis, including efficient Chilean Standard for Seismic Design of Buildings (NCh433) and other drainage and flood control systems, but no flood design provisions. complementary regulations. The code’s evolution began in the 1930s, with major revisions following significant earthquakes and the adop- Green building provisions in Chile are regulated by the Ordenanza tion of principles from international standards, such as ACI and ASCE. General de Urbanismo y Construcciones (OGUC), which focuses on pub- lic and residential construction. These provisions relate to the thermal NCh433 provides detailed data on seismic hazard, including seismic performance of the building envelope. National certification for green zoning maps that divide the country by intensity level with design accel- building will soon be mandatory for public and residential construction. erations based on probabilities of exceedance. Chile uses dynamic and static analysis for seismic design, also considering seismic protection Chile’s universal accessibility regulations are largely mandatory for systems such as energy dissipators and base isolators. Seismic provi- public buildings or buildings intended for public use. They are cur- sions also include limits on lateral drifts and the use of high ductility rently voluntary for private residences. materials. Chilean regulations include special requirements for essential structures but no specific designs for hospitals, schools, and so forth. Chile has a complete and clear building control framework, and most The Ministry of Health incorporated seismic isolation requirements for major municipalities within the country use an online permit system to hospitals, but they are not part of the regulations. The structural rehabili- ensure compliance and issue building permits. The legal framework is tation and seismic retrofit of existing buildings is not fully detailed in the accessible online through dedicated webpages. Optimized processes codes. Single family homes are regulated by municipalities; modifica- with different requirements and timelines for different building classi- tions to homes are generally not carried out by professionals. The code fications are defined within the regulations, as is the use of an alter- includes some provisions for the seismic design of heritage structures. native dispute resolution mechanism. Registration with the Ministry of Housing and Urbanism is mandatory for design professionals. For wind, the standards consider basic design speeds and exposure factors, adjusting to specific regional conditions. Pressure coefficients TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  149 Chile (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 3 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 3 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control H building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  150 El Salvador 6.3m 0.20m 75% 1.3% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The design of buildings in El Salvador is governed by the Regulation for and include reference wind speeds and importance factors based the Structural Safety of Constructions of 1996. The regulation provides upon building type; however, they lack detailed regionalization. No pro- minimum requirements to ensure the integrity and safety of buildings visions related to the design of nonstructural components for strong during seismic and wind events. Salvadoran regulations include design, winds are included. Furthermore, there are no provisions related to construction, and inspection criteria for reinforced concrete, steel, flooding, tsunami or the fire resistance of structural elements. wood, and confined and reinforced masonry structures, incorporating international regulations while adapting them to the local context. National regulations related to green building in El Salvador include only mandatory provisions for energy-efficient equipment for commercial Seismic regulations have evolved over time, especially in the after- buildings. Regulations covering the metropolitan area of San Salvador math of earthquakes in El Salvador in 1965, 1989, and 1996. Updates include some mandatory provisions for natural lighting and ventilation. to the code are currently under development. Current seismic regula- tions, based on seismic response spectra and structural behavior fac- El Salvador has strong universal accessibility policies with compre- tors, define seismic zones and classify soils to calculate fundamental hensive mandatory provisions for publicly accessible buildings based periods. Detailed seismic design requirements are provided relating upon NTS 11.69.01:14. to ductility and the detailing of reinforcement. However, the current code does not cover provisions related to the nonlinear performance The regulatory framework in El Salvador thoroughly defines building of structures, or for the analysis and design of structures with base control processes, which involve a categorization system that defines isolation devices and supplemental damping systems. The code does specific requirements for each project category. Additionally, the plan- not address the seismic retrofit of existing buildings. ning office of the capital city San Salvador has a dedicated online system allowing users to consult all laws and regulations. The legal Before 1996, El Salvador depended mainly on international regulations framework integrates the use of an Alternative Dispute Resolution and common practices for wind design. Current regulations for wind Mechanism and mandatory registration of professionals with the design establish basic criteria for structural resistance to wind loads Ministry of Housing. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) U Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  151 El Salvador (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control H building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  152 Ghana 33.8m 1.6m 59% 3.3% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The 2018 Ghana Building Code (GhBC), based on the 2018 International There are no provisions for flood loading in the current code, although Building Code and International Green Building Code, is the first legally it refers to requirements for buildings in flood hazard zones including adopted code in the country. Earlier draft building codes in Ghana ref- requirements to elevate or dry-proof buildings. erenced British Standards and included seismic provisions as far back as 1988. The GhBC includes extensive seismic and wind design provi- The GhBC includes green building requirements for larger private sions based on US standards for most common reinforced concrete commercial, public, and residential buildings related to solar shading, structural systems. Few design provisions for steel, masonry or timber green or cool roofs, water efficiency, water re-use, energy efficient structural systems are provided in the code, and users are referred lighting and HVAC, and solar PV systems. to US standards that are often not easily accessible. The code also includes occasional references to British Standards and Eurocodes; Comprehensive universal accessibility provisions are incorporated this lack of a harmonized approach can create inconsistency. into the GhBC and are mandatory for all public buildings, including existing buildings, based on Disability Act 715 (2006). However, the The seismic hazard map in the code is based on a seismic hazard assessment using a deterministic approach. The GhBC has limited Act allowed a moratorium on this mandate through 2016, and to date provisions for the seismic design of nonstructural components. It also few buildings have incorporated these requirements. has no provisions for additions to existing buildings or for the seismic assessment and retrofit of existing buildings. Building control regulations exist in Ghana, albeit with a lack of clarity in many cases. There is no online permitting system, and legal docu- Wind-speed maps have remained mostly unchanged from past draft ments are not easy to access. Ghana does not use a system of build- codes, and their basis is unclear. The GhBC includes provisions for the ing classification to improve the efficiency of building permitting. The design of structural and nonstructural components for strong winds. inspection framework is defined within the building code. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 7 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 3 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  153 Ghana (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 7 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 3 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 3 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 3 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 3 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements 7 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations P 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution P P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  154 Indonesia 281m 10.6m 59% 2.1% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Current Indonesian building regulations and design standards consist seismic design of infill walls. A seismic assessment and retrofit stan- of mandatory government regulations (for example, ministerial regula- dard is currently in development although a standard related to retrofit tions) and SNI (Standar Nasional Indonesia) at national level. The SNI with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) has already been adopted. standards related to buildings are mostly developed under the coor- dination of the Ministry of Public Works and Housing and are issued Indonesia’s wind provisions use a single basic wind-speed value for all by the National Standardization Agency (BSN). The SNI standards regions including inland and coastal areas, although wind-speed maps include provisions related to building classification and risk levels, are currently under development. Indonesia’s SNI standards include structural design, building services design (mechanical, electrical, and selected provisions to address tsunami risk but do not address plumbing), fire safety, accessibility, and energy efficiency. Structural flooding. design provisions are primarily based on recent US standards. Green building provisions cover most key topic areas, except for provi- The country’s seismic design standards have evolved over the past 50 sions for green walls and roofs. years, with the most current standard issued in 2019. It includes an updated seismic hazard map, developed in 2017 for a 2,475-year return In terms of universal accessibility, there are limited provisions for fix- period earthquake, and updated design provisions to address les- tures and fittings and for egress. sons learned from past earthquakes internationally and in Indonesia. Although the standards are modeled on well-regarded and up-to-date Building control processes are clearly defined within the regulations international building design codes, improvements are still needed to and are accessible through an electronic platform. The building tailor the standards for the Indonesian context. For example, some inspection framework is well defined, and dispute resolution mecha- common forms of construction in Indonesia are not covered in the nisms as well as certification and registration mechanisms for profes- current seismic design standards, including confined masonry and the sionals are defined within the existing legal framework. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 7 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 7 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  155 Indonesia (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 3 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 7 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 3 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 3 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 7 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress U Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control N building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country P 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  156 Mexico 130m 22m 82% 1.3% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Mexico is a federal republic with a political, administrative, and legal facilities are also included in the design standards. Standards for structure that provides flexibility and autonomy to its regions while pro- flood design have not been developed even though areas of Mexico moting national unity. Mexico City is governed by the Federal District City are exposed to a high risk of flooding during extreme rain events. Building Code, first issued in the 1920s and last updated in 2021. It promotes the safety, accessibility, and sustainability of buildings, cov- Mexico has mandatory and voluntary standards for green building at ering architectural design, materials, fire safety, and structural and the federal level focused on energy efficiency and renewable energy, nonstructural design for seismic and wind loads. Mexico City's reg- including lighting, thermal envelope, mechanical systems, and cooling ulations reflect the country's commitment to developing and staying systems. NMX-AA-164-SCFI-2013 is a national voluntary standard for current with the latest design methodologies. Design standards exist sustainable building, applicable to all types of buildings in all sectors, for concrete, steel, masonry, wood, and foundations. new and existing. It includes provisions for site management, energy consumption and water savings. The Complementary Technical Norm for Seismic Design in Mexico City, last updated in 2023, ensures structural safety against earth- Mexico has a law at the federal level mandating universal accessibil- quakes. It considers seismic microzoning and new methodologies ity; however, specific provisions are given at the state level, including for structural analysis and design, including requirements for seismic the Complementary Technical Norm for Architectural Projects of the damping and isolation systems. Recent earthquakes have pushed the Mexico City Building Code, which includes robust and comprehen- country to improve seismic assessments and rehabilitation norms sive considerations for public buildings, public spaces, and transport to repair buildings following seismic events, positioning Mexico as a infrastructure. leader in Latin America in reflecting the latest advancements in seis- mic design and engineering in its code. States and municipalities within Mexico each define their own build- ing control processes in their regulations. Most states have developed Similarly, the Complementary Technical Norm for Wind Design in online permitting systems and make related laws and regulations Mexico City, last updated in 2023, determines wind loads based on available online. Mexico City uses a project classification system to speed and topography, considering turbulence and pressure effects. define specific requirements relating to the hiring of professionals for It includes formulas for calculating forces, requirements for nonstruc- plan review and the supervision of works. Additionally, all building pro- tural components, and guidelines for building stability and safety. fessionals must be registered by the responsible Ministry. Seismic and wind resilience requirements for school and health care TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 3 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  157 Mexico (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 3 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 3 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 3 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  158 Mongolia 3.5m 1.7m 69% 2.0% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Dedicated national codes are in place in Mongolia for the structural Some provisions related to the design of structural and nonstructural design of reinforced concrete structures, as well as reinforced and elements for the effects of strong winds have been addressed by the unreinforced masonry, timber and steel structures. relevant codes. A dedicated code addresses the design of building components for fire resistance. The national seismic design code, BNbD 22-01-21, issued in 2022, is based on the 2018 Russian Seismic Design Code and includes a coun- Green building design provisions are not included in the current codes try-specific seismic hazard map for design earthquakes with return in Mongolia. periods of 500 and 2,500 years. Seismic intensity ranges from V to X on the MSK-64 scale, depending on the site location. The code provi- Universal accessibility provisions are addressed by a dedicated sions address various seismic analysis and design aspects. The code national code published in 2022. The code is mandatory for new build- does not include provisions for the seismic design and ductile detailing ings, including residential buildings, public buildings, and factories. of reinforced concrete, steel, timber and masonry structures. It also The provisions address accessibility needs for a variety of disabilities. lacks provisions for the seismic design of walls, for out-of-plane seis- mic effects, and for the design of existing buildings or small buildings. Mongolia’s regulations related to building control are relatively com- prehensive and available online to users. Mongolia has an online per- The design of structures for wind loads is addressed by a dedicated mitting system that was developed in 2019. Specific requirements of national code, BNbD 20-04-17, issued in 2017 based on a Soviet code. the building control process are based on a project categorization sys- Country-specific wind design criteria for different regions of the coun- tem. Inspection tasks are undertaken by municipalities, specific state try are included in the climate and geophysics code, BNbD 23-01-09. agencies or certified private firms depending on a project’s scale. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings U Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  159 Mongolia (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 7 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 7 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 7 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 7 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) U Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 7 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control N building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution 3 P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  160 Morocco 37.7m 0.54m 65% 2.0% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The codes and standards specified for the structural design of public Eurocode 1 is also used in practice, and a Moroccan version of it is in buildings in Morocco are a variety of independent standards, most of development. Wind standards have limited provisions for the design which are derived from French standards. In France, meanwhile, many of nonstructural components in strong winds. Moroccan regulations of those French reference standards have been superseded by the have no provisions for the design of buildings in flood hazard areas. Eurocode, leading to a lack of clarity in approach for Moroccan engi- neers, particularly for reinforced concrete and steel structural design. Considerable efforts have been made to improve the energy efficiency Even though Moroccan law requires private buildings to be designed of buildings in Morocco, including a 2014 decree specifying both pre- by an accredited structural firm for permitting, it does not impose spe- scriptive and performance-based energy-efficiency requirements for cific design codes or standards. new residential and tertiary buildings as well as actions to support the implementation of the energy-efficiency measures through communi- The first seismic design standards were published in 1960 following cation, awareness-raising and training. the Agadir earthquake. Current Seismic Construction Regulations (RPS2000), based upon French standards, were last updated in 2011 Morocco has adopted a law on accessibility and decrees to imple- and are currently being updated. RPS2000 applies both to new build- ment it with the ISO standard for universal accessibility (Moroccan ings and changes to existing buildings. It includes two seismic haz- version NM) addressing all major topic areas, as well as a technical ard maps with five zones. To facilitate implementation of the seismic guide for applying the accessibility rules. The rules are mandatory for code, the Moroccan government issued a practical guide to using the most types of public buildings including collective housing and trans- code in 2023. It contains basic guidance on change of use and exten- port infrastructure. sions to existing buildings, including seismic assessment and retrofit. A separate standard published in 2013 covers seismic regulations for The country has a complete building control legal framework, and earthen construction. online permitting systems are available in most of the major provinces of the country. Legislation is available through dedicated webpages. Wind-loading calculations are based on a Moroccan wind-speed map With the exception of engineers designing private buildings, building in a specifications document (CPC) issued by the Ministry of Water professionals must be registered and certified to work in the country. and Equipment that indirectly references the French standard NV65. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 7 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  161 Morocco (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 3 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 3 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  162 Mozambique 33.6m 1.1m 39% 4.4% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Mozambique’s legally adopted building design codes are based on For universal accessibility, a 2008 regulation includes some basic pro- former Portuguese codes from the colonial period and lack coun- visions for new buildings and the adaptation of existing buildings for try-specific design provisions. These codes offer limited and outdated improved access. provisions, particularly for structural design. More recent design guid- ance has been adopted for schools, including some country-specific Although a building permit process is defined for the municipality of recommendations for design to resist seismic and wind loads. There Maputo, there is no online approval system available in Mozambique, are no provisions related to flooding or the design of nonstructural and information on building control processes is very limited (and components for strong wind events. difficult to access due to internet constraints). Inspection-related pro- cesses are insufficient, and no building categorization system is avail- Mozambique does not have any green building regulation at present able to improve building control efficiency. although this could be developed in the future to support climate action as part of Mozambique’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Roadmap 2020–2025. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 7 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 7 Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 7 7 Timber 7 Seismic loading 3 7 7 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 7 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 7 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 7 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  163 Mozambique (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 7 Concrete moment frames 7 Drift limits 7 Concrete shear walls 7 Requirements related to building regularity 7 Steel moment resisting frames 7 Diaphragm design 7 Steel braced frames 7 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 7 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 7 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 7 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 7 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution P 3 accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  164 Nepal 29.7m XXm 0.86m XXm 22% X% 2.8% X% Population Capital city populationliving Totalpopulation total living Average urban growth (2023) population in urban areas (2023) (2014–2023) (2014–23) COUNTRY SUMMARY Dedicated codes for the architectural, structural, and seismic design criteria for specific sites, but the country has been divided into two of buildings are in place in Nepal, but current codes related to the zones based on wind speed. The codes do not address the design of structural design of reinforced concrete, steel, and timber are based building components for the effects of fire or flooding. on the corresponding Indian codes. Although masonry construction is common in Nepal, the design of modern masonry structures, for Limited green building provisions are included in NBC 206:2015, which example, reinforced masonry with hollow concrete blocks and con- outlines architectural design requirements and prescribes mandatory fined masonry, is not addressed by the codes. daylighting and natural ventilation requirements. Nepal’s first seismic design code was published in 1994 and updated Universal accessibility provisions, addressed by NBC 206:2015, are in 2020. Seismic design provisions address relevant aspects and mandatory for all buildings; however, the buildings are classified as include a country-specific seismic hazard map. In terms of seismic partially or fully accessible. Most buildings, with the exception of design and detailing, the code does not contain specific provisions hospitals and large public buildings, are required to be only partially for limited ductility reinforced concrete systems which are common accessible, which does not enable adequate access. These provisions in local construction practice. Provisions related to the seismic design are also limited to persons with motor disabilities. of walls for out-of-plane seismic effects, and floor/roof diaphragms are also missing. Although the codes do not contain provisions for Nepal’s building control framework is defined at municipal level in spe- existing buildings, a separate guideline for vulnerability assessments cific by-laws. It is not easily accessible to users despite the existence of private and public buildings is used for seismic assessment pur- of building permit systems for different municipalities throughout the poses in practice. Provisions related to the design of small buildings country, including Kathmandu. Specific processes for building permit are addressed by dedicated standards containing prescriptive rules issuance and inspection are defined for different types of buildings. related to nonengineered masonry and reinforced concrete buildings. Professional registration is required for architects, engineers and con- tractors, and specific related processes are also available online. The design of structures for wind loads has been addressed by a dedicated code since 1994. The code does not contain wind design TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Confined masonry Natural hazard actions 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 3 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 7 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  165 Nepal (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 7 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding U Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services U 7 resist strong winds above design flood level Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 7 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 7 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 7 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution P P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  166 Peru 33.8m 11.3m 79% 1.5% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Although Peruvian construction regulations date back to the 1940s, evacuation in the event of tsunamis, there are no comprehensive pro- development of its seismic codes formally began around 1970. Peru visions related to the risk of tsunamis, nor any flood-related loading regularly updates its building regulations through a permanent com- and design provisions. mittee to ensure continuity of efforts and the integration of best prac- tices in the sector and region. In recent decades, seismic and wind Green building design in Peru has a solid national basis in the provisions have improved with each update, incorporating data devel- Technical Code for Sustainable Construction (CTCS), created in 2015 oped by national institutes and associations, both private and public. and updated in 2021, including mandatory provisions for public build- Peruvian regulations are based on international standards including ings and voluntary provisions for residential buildings. The main scope ACI and ASCE. of CTCS includes the building envelope, water savings, daylighting and indoor environmental quality. Peru also has regulatory incentives at Peru has incorporated some regulations for seismic resilience, including the district level for sustainable construction. seismic base isolation requirements for hospitals and other health care facilities. The country has established building standards for traditional Peru has robust and comprehensive universal accessibility policies, materials such as reinforced earth and bamboo to support the safe con- based on laws complemented by national plans for 2030 that are struction of homes. Specific requirements for the seismic assessment technically regulated by NT A.120 requiring that public and residential and retrofit of existing buildings are not included in the code, but a US buildings integrate universal accessibility in their design. guideline for incremental retrofit is referenced (FEMA P-420). Building control processes are well defined within regulations, and Although Peru has simplified wind-loading design procedures, it has laws and regulations are available online through the webpage of the no dynamic procedures or provisions for the design of components ministry in charge. However, the use of an online permit system varies and cladding in strong winds, mainly because wind events have been across municipalities and is not yet universally applied. The general less damaging historically than earthquakes. Although regulatory process integrates a project categorization system and the participa- efforts have been initiated related to providing facilities for vertical tion of third parties for inspection-related tasks. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 3 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  167 Peru (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 3 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 7 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 3 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country P 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  168 Philippines 115m 1.8m 48% 1.7% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The Philippines has a well-established building regulatory framework The green building code has mandatory requirements for buildings that contains building design codes addressing key aspects related above a certain total plan area (10,000 m2 for most building types). to structural safety, green building and accessibility as well as build- It has some gaps in provisions, including for green roofs, building ing control regulations for implementation. The building design code orientation, renewables, use of recycled materials and low embodied was last updated in 2015 with complete procedures to develop coun- energy design. try-specific wind and seismic design criteria based on country-spe- cific maps. The code provisions are based on US codes and standards For universal accessibility, the code covers most key topics, and provi- (UBC 1997, IBC 2009, ASCE 7-10 and other referenced US material sions are mandatory for public buildings and spaces of public use as standards). Areas where the structural design provisions could be well as for changes of occupancy to existing public buildings. strengthened include additional provisions for the design of retain- ing walls, provisions for the design of seismic isolation systems, and The Philippines’ building control framework establishes clearly inclusion of design provisions for confined masonry buildings and ver- defined processes, aided by an online permit system available in var- nacular timber building types. In addition, the code lacks simplified ious municipalities and easy online access to legal documents. The structural design provisions for the design and construction of com- inspection framework is well defined and integrates the participation mon, small-scale building types. For existing buildings, there is a need of various stakeholders such as fire services. An appeal process and to develop provisions for assessment and retrofit as well as to clarify dispute resolution mechanism are in place to address conflicts. requirements for building modifications and changes of occupancy. Further advancements in the regulations could be made for provisions to address resilience to strong wind events and flooding. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 3  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 7 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  169 Philippines (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 3 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 3 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  170 Rwanda 14.0m 0.86m 18% 2.8% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The 2019 Rwanda Building Code (RBC) has been updated every two RBC does not specifically cover strong winds except to say that build- to five years since its origin in 2006. It includes many reference stan- ings should be reinforced accordingly. It is generally advised not to dards, available for a fee, where the detailed design requirements build in flood-prone areas, but where this is unavoidable, flood design are typically provided. Some of these are Rwanda Standards which loading and the effects of scour on foundations are included in the are largely based on Eurocodes while others reference ISO codes. RBC. For timber and unreinforced masonry, there are some simple provi- sions within the code; however, detailed design codes have not been The Green Building Minimum Compliance System is an Annex to the referenced. RBC. It is applicable to various nonresidential building types and com- prises five focus areas with indicators, some of which are mandatory, Rwanda’s seismic provisions were created in 2015, when a single Peak targeting energy efficiency, water efficiency, environmental protection, Ground Acceleration (PGA) for seismic design was established for the indoor environmental quality, innovation and other green features. entire country. In 2023, seismic hazard was divided into three PGA values assigned by district. There is evidence to suggest this is still Mandatory requirements for universal accessibility can be found in somewhat conservative and could be further refined. The code refer- referenced standard RS 115 covering mostly physical and sensory ences ISO 3010 for seismic design, which includes high-level princi- disabilities and varying between basic and detailed coverage on dif- ples. It has limited provisions for detailed seismic design for buildings ferent areas. of different importance, materials, ductilities, ground conditions, and so on. This lack of specificity leaves decisions to the market and could Rwanda possesses a complete and sound legal framework regard- result in wide-ranging variations in building safety and resilience. The ing building control, accessible through the webpage of the Rwanda code does not include provisions for the seismic retrofit of existing Housing Authority. An online permit system has existed since 2013, buildings. was updated in 2017, and is now available in six secondary cities. Regulations are also in place to frame and define the roles and respon- Wind design is covered in RS 114-2, which largely uses a Eurocode sibilities of professionals in the construction sector. methodology. It includes a wind map and typical wind pressures. The TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 7 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 3  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 3 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  171 Rwanda (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 7 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 7 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames U Diaphragm design 7 Steel braced frames U Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 7 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 7 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 3 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 3 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 3 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 3 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 3 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 3 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control H building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution 3 P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  172 Samoa 0.22m 0.036m 18% -0.1% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The island nation’s current building regulation is the 2017 National state. Inconsistencies between NBC and AS/NZS reference standards Building Code (NBC) of Samoa, a performance-based code that ref- related to wind speed and importance factors create ambiguity in how erences Australian, New Zealand and joint Australian/New Zealand to determine wind loads. It includes a few basic provisions for the standards (AS/NZS) as “deemed to satisfy”. These international stan- design of nonstructural components in strong winds. The NBC does dards define loading and design provisions for reinforced concrete, not restrict building in flood hazard areas, and it includes some provi- steel, timber and other common structures. The NBC has no explicit sions for flood loading on buildings, and material and design require- provisions for the design of foundations and retaining walls. Design ments for building below the design flood level. provisions for traditional small buildings indigenous to Samoa, includ- ing those constructed from biomass materials, are not covered by The NBC includes mandatory green building requirements for some the NBC; however, some guidance on these types of buildings may be types of buildings as well as voluntary provisions related to energy effi- available independently of the NBC. ciency, renewable energy, water efficiency and low embodied energy building materials. The NBC covers all main categories of provisions For seismic loading, the NBC refers to a superseded NZ standard for universal accessibility at a basic level, including both voluntary and with the seismic zone factor adjusted to 1.05 for all of Samoa. mandatory provisions, focusing on larger facilities and those serving Incompatibility between the superseded NZ standard and currently essential disaster and community functions. enforced joint AS/NZS loading standards creates confusion in the seismic provisions. While the NBC is applicable to alterations and The legal framework for building control in Samoa is outdated and extensions of existing buildings, it has no provisions for the seismic lacks detailed regulations, requirements and related information. assessment and retrofit of buildings. Legal documents are not easily accessible, and there is no online per- mit system in the country. Regulations related to site inspection tasks For wind loading, the NBC refers to a joint AS/NZS with the basic as well as professional registration processes and requirements are wind speed amended to 70 m/sec across Samoa for ultimate limit insufficiently detailed. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 3  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 7 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 7 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  173 Samoa (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 3 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 3 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 3 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control N building categories to determine application requirements 7 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 7 7 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution 7 P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  174 South Africa 63.2m 0.74m 69% 2.2% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY South Africa has a well-established set of national level building stan- The country has energy and water efficiency regulations which contain dards for structural design, first enacted in 1989 with the latest major a mix of mandatory and voluntary provisions. Areas where green build- revision in 2020/2021. The standards are predominantly based on ing provisions could be enhanced include additional provisions for British Standards (as in use in the UK before Eurocodes took effect). passive measures to improve energy efficiency and comfort such as The structural provisions are well developed and comprehensive but daylighting, natural ventilation, cool and green roofs, and requirements could benefit from the addition of advanced analytical procedures for focused on reducing the embodied carbon footprint of buildings. seismic and wind analyses (such as nonlinear procedures for seismic Universal accessibility regulations could be strengthened. The code design and procedures for considering the dynamic effects of wind). has some basic provisions in place for key topics, but provisions are The standards also lack provisions addressing the seismic assess- voluntary, lack detail, and focus predominantly on motor disabilities. ment and retrofit of existing buildings. Another area for improvement would be to develop and formally adopt simplified structural design South Africa has high-quality practices for building control, including provisions (or ‘rules of thumb’) for small-scale structures to reduce a complete and easily accessible legal framework, and public online the cost and complexity of code implementation for common types of approval systems. Additionally, the legal framework integrates profes- buildings. Structural and architectural provisions relating to resilience sional certification and registration as well as specific processes for to flooding and strong wind events could be expanded and improved. building inspections at different stages of construction. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 3 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 3  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  175 South Africa (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 7 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 3 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 7 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 3 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control L building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 3 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  176 Tajikistan 10.4m XXm XXm 0.82m X% 28% X% 2.9% Population Capital city total population Total living populationliving Average urban growth (2023) population in urban areas (2023) (2014–2023) (2014–23) COUNTRY SUMMARY Dedicated national codes, based on codes from the Soviet Union and design criteria for different regions. The design of structural and the Russian Federation, address the structural design of reinforced nonstructural elements for the effects of strong winds and floods and precast concrete structures, reinforced and confined masonry, is addressed by relevant codes and standards. Some flood-related and steel structures. The design of timber structures is not addressed. design provisions exist but do not address flood loading on structures. A dedicated code on the structural design of high-rise buildings was A dedicated code addresses the design of building components for issued in 2021. fire resistance. The first national seismic design code in Tajikistan was issued in Some green building design provisions are included in dedicated stan- 2000, and was subsequently updated in 2007, 2013, 2015, and 2019. dards, but they do not fully address relevant aspects of energy effi- Code provisions address various seismic analysis and design aspects ciency, water efficiency, or building materials. and include a country-specific deterministic seismic hazard map. The basic seismic analysis procedure is response spectrum method; Universal accessibility provisions are addressed by a dedicated however, response history analysis is required for buildings taller than national code, published in 2013, based on the corresponding code 50 meters, new structural systems, and buildings equipped with seis- from the Russian Federation. The code is mandatory for new and mic isolation and/or supplemental damping systems. The code does existing buildings, and the provisions to some extent address accessi- not include relevant provisions for the design and detailing of ductile bility needs for different types of disabilities. As the concept of univer- reinforced concrete, steel, and masonry structures. Prescriptive pro- sal accessibility is new in Tajikistan, it is expected that the provisions visions are included for the seismic design of nonstructural elements will evolve in future versions of the code. and out-of-plane seismic effects. Provisions related to existing build- ings are included, but simplified procedures for the design of small- Basic building control processes are defined within the legal frame- scale buildings is not addressed by the codes. work; however, elements are scattered throughout different docu- ments, limiting their effective application. There is no online permitting The design of structures for wind loads is addressed by a dedicated system in the country and no certification and registration system for national code, issued in 2016, which contains country-specific wind building professionals. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 7 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  177 Tajikistan (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 7 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 7 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 7 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 7 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 3 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 3 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 3 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 3 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 7 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control H building categories to determine application requirements 3 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations P 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution P P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 7 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  178 Tonga 0.10m 0.034m 23% -0.3% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY According to the 2016 Building Control and Standards Act, Tonga’s Inconsistencies between NZ and AS/NZS reference standards related governing building regulation is the 2007 National Building Code to wind speed and importance factors create ambiguity in determin- (NBC) of the Kingdom of Tonga, a performance-based code refer- ing wind loads. The code has no explicit provisions for the design of encing Australian, New Zealand and joint Australian/New Zealand nonstructural components in strong winds. It also lacks provisions for standards (AS/NZS) as “deemed to satisfy”. Many standards cited flood loading or for the design of buildings in flood hazard areas. in the 2007 code have been replaced by newer standards, creating incompatibilities. The standards define loading and design provisions The NBC includes some requirements for daylighting and ventilation for reinforced concrete, steel, and other common structures. The NBC and some provisions for rainwater capture, but no specific provisions has no explicit provisions for foundation or retaining wall design but related to energy efficiency or use of low-carbon materials. allows the use of any code or standard as required. Design provisions for small-scale buildings indigenous to Tonga are not covered, but ref- The NBC, by reference to a NZ accessibility standard, covers all main erence is made to a New Zealand standard for small-scale buildings. categories of provisions for universal accessibility at a basic level for new buildings. Seismic loading and design provisions may be satisfied either by the Australian earthquake standard, which includes detailing approaches Although Tonga’s legal framework for building control is available intended for low-seismicity areas, or by the California Building Code, through the website of the Ministry of Infrastructure, it lacks specific with a seismic zone factor adjusted to 0.4. It has no structural provi- regulations detailing the required processes for building permitting. sions for building extensions or for the seismic assessment and ret- The permit process does not depend upon the categorization of a proj- rofit of buildings. ect, but inspection processes and the possibility to appeal are defined within the law. For wind loading, the NBC refers to a joint AS/NZS with the basic wind speed amended to 70 m/sec across Tonga for ultimate limit state. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 7 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 3 Design of retaining walls 7 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  179 Tonga (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 3 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control N building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations P 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  180 Türkiye 85.3m 5.8m 77% 1.8% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY The primary regulations related to structural safety and resilience for provisions for the design of some nonstructural components in strong new and existing building design in Türkiye are the Turkish Buildings winds. Türkiye's regulations include limited, basic provisions related to Earthquake Code (TBDY 2018) and TS500:2000, a standard covering the design of buildings in flood hazard areas. the design of reinforced concrete structures. Both regulations have been partly adapted from US standards including ASCE 7 and ACI 318. There is no mandatory green building regulation in Türkiye, but it Many other independent standards exist for defining actions on struc- has a Green Certificate System (YeS-TR) for new and existing build- tures and designing other structural systems and their foundations. ings covering many common provisions related to energy efficiency, water efficiency and low-carbon building materials. An Energy Identity The seismic provisions in Türkiye are comprehensive. TBDY 2018 Certificate (EIC) is mandatory for buildings based on Energy Efficiency includes an interactive seismic hazard map for all locations and soil Law No. 5627. types in the country. While seismic assessment and retrofit are cov- ered in Türkiye's standards, these standards require retrofitted build- Following the adoption of the “Accessibility Monitoring and Control ings to conform to the performance requirements of new buildings, Regulation” in 2018, all new buildings and all existing public build- limiting the practicality of implementation. The standards also have ings must conform to the requirements of TS 9111, a comprehensive gaps in structural considerations related to additions to existing Turkish accessibility standard. buildings. Building control processes are defined within the law and easily avail- Wind loads are defined by a general loading standard published in able to the public online. Site inspections are conducted by Certified 2021 and a wind standard published in 2007, both directly based Building Companies (BCC). Nonetheless, while a professional certifi- on Eurocode wind provisions, with wind speeds provided for differ- cation system exists, the requirements to obtain certification are low, ent regions in Türkiye. The wind standards have some very basic and professional insurance is not mandatory. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 3 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  181 Türkiye (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 3 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 3 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 3 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 3 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 3 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control H building categories to determine application requirements 7 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution accessible to the public 3 mechanism 3 The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country P P mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  182 Uzbekistan 35.7m 3.0m 51% 1.7% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Current structural design codes in Uzbekistan are based on Soviet The design of structures for wind loads is addressed by a dedicated codes; however, important modifications and updates have been code issued in 1996, which contains country-specific wind design cri- introduced since the 1990s. A national code exists for the structural teria for different regions and is partially based on the 1985 Soviet design of reinforced and precast concrete structures, but the struc- code. There are no provisions for the design of nonstructural com- tural design of masonry, steel and timber structures is performed ponents subjected to strong winds or for flood design. A dedicated according to Russian codes. code is in place to address the design of building components for fire resistance. The first seismic design code in Uzbekistan was published in 1996 and updated in 2019. The code provisions address various seismic analysis Some green building design provisions are included in dedicated and design aspects and include a country-specific seismic hazard map. national codes and are mandatory for all buildings except industrial The basic seismic analysis procedure is the spectral method; however, facilities. dynamic analysis is required for buildings taller than 40 meters, and for major construction projects. The code does not contain design and Universal accessibility provisions, addressed by a dedicated national detailing provisions for ductile reinforced concrete shear walls or for code published in 2022, are mandatory in the design of residential frame structures at different levels of ductility. There are no provisions buildings and public areas and consider the needs of persons with for the seismic design of tall buildings or for structural elements under disabilities and the elderly. out-of-plane seismic effects. The current codes contain provisions related to the change of occupancy of existing buildings. Provisions While a building control process is defined within regulations, its com- related to seismic evaluation and retrofitting of existing buildings are ponent elements are not easily accessible, and only the follow-up of not currently in place but will be addressed by a code in development the permitting process is available online for users. (ShNK 2.01.21-22). Provisions related to the design of small buildings constructed using low-strength masonry are included. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 3 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 3 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 3 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 3 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 3 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 3 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  183 Uzbekistan (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 7 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 7 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 3 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 7 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 7 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 3 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 3 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 7 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control N building categories to determine application requirements P regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations 3 3 authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution 7 P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country P 3 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level.  184 Vanuatu 0.32m 0.049m 26% 2.8% Population Capital city Total population living Average urban growth population in urban areas (2014–2023) COUNTRY SUMMARY Published in 2000, the National Building Code (NBC) for Vanuatu For wind loading, the NBC refers to a joint AS/NZS with the basic wind was enacted in 2013. It is a performance-based code referencing speed amended to 70 m/sec across Vanuatu for ultimate limit state. Australian, New Zealand and joint Australian/New Zealand standards Inconsistencies between superseded NZ and AS/NZS reference stan- (AS/NZS). Many standards cited in the code have been replaced by dards related to wind speed and importance factors create ambiguity newer standards, creating a lack of clarity about which standards to in determining wind loads. The code has no explicit provisions for the apply. The international standards define loading and design provi- design of nonstructural components in strong winds. It has no provi- sions for reinforced concrete, steel, and other common structures. sions for flood loading or the design of buildings in flood hazard areas. The NBC has no explicit provisions for foundation design but gener- ally allows the use of US or British codes as necessary to fill gaps in The NBC includes some requirements for daylighting and ventilation Australian and New Zealand standards. Design provisions for small and some provisions for rainwater capture, but no specific provisions buildings indigenous to Vanuatu are not covered, but a home building related to energy, water efficiency, or use of low-carbon materials. manual has been published separately. By reference to a NZ accessibility standard, the NBC covers all main A 1992 New Zealand earthquake standard that has since been super- categories of provisions for universal accessibility at a basic level for seded is referenced for seismic loading and design provisions, with new buildings. the seismic zone factor being replaced by 0.7 or 0.8. It has no struc- tural provisions for building extensions or for the seismic assessment Vanuatu does not have a clear legal framework for building control, and retrofit of buildings but permits reference to Australian or New and related processes are not well-defined. Online access to legal doc- Zealand standards. uments is difficult as they are not centralized in one place. Processes for inspections and appeals also lack detail. No professional registra- tion or certification systems exist in Vanuatu. TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE Structural Design: Actions on Structures Structural Design: Construction Materials Importance or risk classification of buildings 3 Reinforced concrete 3 Dead and live loads specified 3 Structural steel 3 Load combinations 3 Reinforced masonry 3 Load Country Specific Importance Natural hazard actions Confined masonry 7 Procedure Criteria Factor Unreinforced masonry (URM) 7 Wind loading 3 3 7 Timber 3 Seismic loading 3 3 3 Earth 7 Flood loading 7  Not assessed  Not assessed Bamboo 7 Geotechnical Design Structural Design: Existing Buildings Site investigation requirements 7 Existing buildings - change of use or occupancy 7 Design of foundations 3 Existing buildings - additions (extensions) 7 Design of retaining walls 7 Seismic assessment and retrofit 7 (3) = The country's code satisfied the assessment statement for the topic area. = The country's code did not satisfy the assessment statement for the topic area. (7) (U) = Items marked U were unable to be verified (U = unable to verify).  185 Vanuatu (cont.) TECHNICAL PROVISIONS IN THE BUILDING CODE (cont.) Seismic Design Seismic Detailing Ductility requirements and factors 3 Concrete moment frames 3 Drift limits 3 Concrete shear walls 3 Requirements related to building regularity 3 Steel moment resisting frames 3 Diaphragm design 3 Steel braced frames 3 Design of advanced systems (base isolation, dampers) 7 Timber lateral resisting systems 3 Design of nonstructural components 3 Confined masonry systems 7 Wind Design Flood Design Wind design for tall buildings/dynamic procedures 3 Flood resistant structural and non-structural materials 7 Design of roof overhangs/roof cladding 7 Limitations on occupied zones below the design flood level 7 Requirements to design façade cladding and appendages to Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services resist strong winds 7 above design flood level 7 Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- 3 in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to 7 borne debris equalize lateral water pressures Universal Accessibility Green Building Energy efficiency - natural ventilation and daylighting 3 External environment 3 Energy efficiency - window-to-wall ratio, solar shading and 7 reflective roofs or walls Energy efficiency - insulation 7 Entrances, doors, and lobbies 3 Energy efficiency - HVAC systems and lighting 7 Horizontal and vertical circulation 3 Renewable energy 7 Building facilities (sanitary or other) 3 Green walls and roofs 7 Building fixtures and fittings Water efficiency - fixtures and fittings and/or water re-use 3 and/or collection 3 Evacuation and safe egress 3 Low carbon and/or recycled building materials 7 BUILDING CONTROL PROCESSES AND IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT The building control process integrates a tiered system of Type of jurisdiction for administration of building control N building categories to determine application requirements 7 regulations and allocate human resources The building control framework integrates inspections by the Clearly defined building control regulations P P authority in charge during the construction process Information regarding the building control processes is The building control framework includes a dispute resolution 7 P accessible to the public mechanism The country has professional certification and registration An online approval system is available in the country 7 7 mechanisms (P) = For code implementation environment topic areas, a rating of P indicates that the country partially satisfies the evaluation statement. (N, L, H) = For the jurisdiction administering building control regulations, N = national level, L = local level, H = hybrid approach with some aspects administered at national level and some at local level. Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed The following documents (predominantly regulations and standards) were reviewed for this global assessment. For each of the 22 countries, the documents are listed in order of topic: structural and resilience provisions; green building; universal accessibil- ity; and, finally, building control. English translations are given for all titles originally in other languages. A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 187 Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Algeria  D.T.R. B.C. 2-48 Algerian Seismic Rules RPA 2024 (D.T.R. B.C.2-48 Règles Parasismiques 2024 Algériennes RPA 2024) D.T.R. B.C. 2-41 Rules for Design and Calculation of Reinforced Concrete Structures 1993  C.B.A.93 (D.T.R. B.C. 2-41 Règles de Conception et de Calcul des Structures en Béton Armé C.B.A.93) D.T.R. B.C. 2.2 Permanent loads and live loads (DTR B.C. 2.2 Charges Permanentes et 1988  Charges d’Exploitation) D.T.R. C2-4.7 Snow and Wind Rules “R.N.V. 1999” (D.T.R. C 2-4.7 Règlement Neige et Vent 1999  “R.N.V. 1999”) DTR B.C.2.1 General principles for checking the safety of structures (DTR B.C.2.1 Principes 1988  Généraux pour vérifier la sécurité des Ouvrages) DTR B.C.2-44 Rules for Design and Calculation of Metal Structures CCM 97 (DTR B.C.2-44 n.d.  Règles de Conception et de Calcul des Structures en Acier CCM 97) DTR C2.4.6 Rules for design and calculation of timber structures (DTR C2.4.6 Règles de 2009  Conception et de Calcul des Structures en Bois) D.T.R. C 3-2 Thermal regulations for residential buildings. Thermal loss evaluation. (D.T.R. 1998  C 3-2 Réglementation thermique des bâtiments d’habitation. Règles de calcul des déper- ditions calorifiques)  D.T.R. C 3-4 Air conditioning. Rules for calculating the heat input of buildings (D.T.R. C 3-4 n.d.  Climatisation. Règles de calcul des apports)  D.T.R. C 3.31 Natural ventilation for residential buildings (D.T.R. C 3.31 Ventilation 2006  Naturelle. Locaux à usage d’habitation)  Algerian Standard 16227 : 2009 Accessibility for Disabled People to the Built Environment 2009  and Facilities Open to the Public (Norme Algérienne (NA) 16227 : 2009 Accessibilité des Personnes Handicapées à l’Environnement Bâti et aux Equipements Ouverts au Public) Executive Decree 06-455 of 11 December 2006 establishing the Accessibility of the Physi- 2006  cal, Social, Economic and Cultural Environment for Persons with Disabilities (Décret exécu- tif nº 06-455 du 11 Décembre 2006 fixant les Modalités d’Accessibilité des Personnes Handicapées à l’Environnement Physique, Social, Economique et Culturel) Law No. 90-29 of December 1, 1990 relating to planning and urban development (Loi n°90- 1990 29 du 1er décembre 1990 relative à l’aménagement et l’urbanisme) Executive Decree No. 15-19 of January 25, 2015 establishing the procedures for the 2015 instruction and issuance of urban planning documents (Décret exécutif n° 15-19 du 25 janvier 2015 fixant les modalités d’instruction et de délivrance des actes d’urbanisme) Executive Decree No. 20-342 of November 22, 2020 amending and supplementing Exec- 2020 utive Decree No. 15-19 of January 25, 2015 setting out the procedures for the instruction and issuance of urban planning documents (Décret exécutif n° 20-342 du 22 novembre 2020 modifiant et complétant le décret exécutif n°15-19 du 25 janvier 2015 fixant les modalités d’instruction et de délivrance des actes d’urbanisme) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 188 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Algeria (cont.) Executive Decree No. 06-55 of January 30, 2006 establishing the conditions and proce- 2006 dures for designating authorized agents to investigate and record violations of legislation and regulations relating to planning and urban development, as well as control procedures (Décret exécutif n°06-55 du 30 janvier 2006 fixant les conditions et les modalités de désig- nation des agents habilités à rechercher et à constater les infractions à la législation et à la réglementation en matière d’aménagement et d’urbanisme ainsi que les procédures de contrôle) Code of Civil and Administrative Procedure. (Code de Procédure civile et administrative) 2008 Legislative Decree No. 94-07 of May 18, 1994, amended by Law No. 04-06 of August 14, 2004 2004, relating to the conditions of architectural production and the exercise of the pro- fession of architect (Décret législatif n°94-07 du 18 mai 1994 modifié par la loi n°04-06 du 14 août 2004 relatif aux conditions de la production architecturale et à l’exercice de la profession d’architecte) Code of Architects Professional Duties. (Code des devoirs professionnels des architectes) 2010 Order of July 11, 2002 approving the nomenclature of engineering activities and special- 2002 ties in the construction sector subject to approval (Arrêté du 11 juillet 2002 portant appro- bation de la nomenclature des activités et spécialités d’ingénierie du secteur du bâtiment soumises à agrément) Law No. 08-15 of 17 Rajab 1429 corresponding to July 20, 2008, establishing the rules for 2008 compliance of constructions and their completion (Loi n° 08-15 du 17 Rajab 1429 corre- spondant au 20 juillet 2008 fixant les règles de mise en conformité des constructions et leur achèvement) Algerian Civil Code. (Code Civil Algérien) 1975 Law No. 11-10 of 20 Rajab 1432 corresponding to June 22, 2011 relating to the municipality. 2011 (Loi n° 11-10 du 20 Rajab 1432 correspondant au 22 juin 2011 relative à la commune) Bhutan  Building Code of Bhutan 2018  2018  IS:875 (Part 1) 1987 Indian Standard Code of Practice for design loads (other than earth- 1987 quakes) for buildings and structures, Part 1  (reaffirmed 2018)  IS:875 (Part 2) 1987 Indian Standard Code of Practice for design loads (other than earth- 1987 quakes) for buildings and structures – Part 2 Imposed Loads  (reaffirmed 2018)  IS:875 (Part 3) 2015 Indian Standard Design loads (other than earthquakes) for buildings 2015 and structures - Code of Practice – Part 3 Wind Loads (reaffirmed 2020)  IS:875 (Part 4) 2021 Indian Standard Design loads (other than earthquakes) for buildings 2021  and structures - Code of Practice – Part 4 Snow Loads  IS:875 (Part 5) 1987 Indian Standard Code of Practice for design loads (other than earth- 1987 quakes) for buildings and structures – Part 5 Special loads and combinations  (reaffirmed 2018)  IS:1893 (Part 1) 2016: Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Struc- 2016  tures – Part 1 General Provisions and Buildings  IS:4326-2013 Indian Standard Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings 2013 - Code of Practice  (reaffirmed 2018)  IS:13920-2016 Indian Standard Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structures sub- 2016 jected to seismic forces - Code of Practice  (reaffirmed 2021)  IS:456-2000: Indian Standard Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice  2000 (reaffirmed 2021)  IS:800-2007: General Construction in Steel - Code of Practice  2007 (reaffirmed 2017)  Earthquake Resilient Stone Masonry Construction, EARRD-A001/2020  2020  IS:1904-2021 Indian Standard General Requirements Design and Construction of Founda- 2021  tions in Soils - Code of Practice  NUDC/007/1985 - Royal Government of Bhutan - Timber Roof Trusses  1985  NUDC/002/1985 - Royal Government of Bhutan - Manual for Timber Engineering Design  1985  Bhutan Building Regulation 2023  2023  Design and Construction of Stone Masonry Retaining Walls – A Quick Guide  n.d.  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 189 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Bhutan (cont.) Bhutan Green Building Design Guidelines 2013  Guidelines for Differently-Abled Friendly Construction  n.d.  Guidelines for building drawing approval process 2021 2021 Spatial Planning Standards 2017 The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan 2008 Local Government Act of Bhutan 2007 Timphu Tromde (TT) Development Control Regulations 2017 Consumer Protection Act of Bhutan 2012 2012 Consumer Protection Rules and Regulations of 2015 2015 Procurement Rules and Regulations 2019 2019 Mediation Handbook for consumer disputes 2022 Chile   NCh 427/1 Construction — Steel structures — Part 1: Specification for Structural Steel 2016  Buildings (NCh 427/1 Construcción — Estructuras de acero — Parte 1: Requisitos para el cálculo de estructuras de acero para edificio)  NCh 428. Of57. Structural steel in building construction (Norma Chilena Oficial - NCh428. 1957 Of57 Ejecución de construcciones de acero)  (reprinted 2000)  NCh 430. Of2008 Reinforced  concrete - Design and calculation requirements (Norma 2008  Chilena Oficial - NCh430. Of2008 Hormigón armado - Requisitos de diseño y cálculo)  Decree No.60 Approval of the Regulation establishing the design and calculation require- 2011  ments for reinforced concrete and Repeal of Decree No.118, of 2010 (Decreto nº 60 Apro- bación del Reglamento que fija los requisitos de diseño y cálculo para el hormigón armado y derogación del decreto Nº 118, de 2010)  NCh 431. Of77 Construction - Snow loads (Norma Chilena Oficial - NCh 431. Of77 Con- 1977 strucción - Sobrecarga de nieves) (reprinted in 1999)  NCh 432-2010 Structural design - Wind loads (Norma Chilena - NCh 432-2010 Diseño 2010  estructural - Cargas de viento) NCh 433.Of1996 Modified in 2009 – Earthquake-resistant design of buildings (Norma 1996 Chilena Oficial - NCh 433. Of1996 Modificada en 2009 - Diseño sísmico de edificios) (modified in 2009)  Decree No.61 Approval of the Regulation establishing earthquake design of buildings and 2011  Repeal of Decree No.117 of 2021 (Decreto Nº 61 Aprobación del Reglamento que fija el diseño sísmico de edificios y deroga el D.S. Nº117, de 2010 NCh 1198 Wood – Wood construction – Calculation (Norma Chilena - NCh 1198 Madera - 2014  Construcciones en madera - Cálculo) NCh 1537-2009 Structural Design - Dead and Live Loads (Norma Chilena - NCh 1537-2009 2009  Diseño estructural - Cargas permanentes y cargas de uso NCh 1928.Of1993 Modified 2003 Reinforced masonry - Requirements for structural design 1993 (Norma Chilena Oficial - NCh 1928.Of1993 Modificada en 2003 Albañilería armada - Req- (modified in 2003)  uisitos para el diseño y cálculo) NCh 2369.Of2003 Earthquake-resistant design of industrial structures and facilities 2003  (Norma Chilena Oficial - NCh 2369.Of2003 Diseño sísmico de estructuras e instalaciones industriales) NCh 3363 Structural design - Buildings in risk areas of flooding due to tsunami or seiche 2015  (Norma Chilena - NCh 3363 Diseño estructural - Edificaciones en áreas de riesgo de inun- dación por tsunami o seiche) Proposal for actualization of NCh. NCh 3171: Structural design - general ordinances and 2016  combinations of load (Propuesta de actualización Norma Chilena - NCh 3171 Diseño estructural - Disposiciones generales y combinaciones de cargas) NCh 2123Of.1997 Modified 2003 Confined masonry - Requirements for structural design 2003  (Norma Chilena Oficial - NCh 2123Of.1997 Modificada en 2003 Albañilería confinada - Requisitos de diseño y cálculo) NCh 3357 Seismic design of nonstructural components and systems (Norma Chilena - 2015  NCh 3357 Diseño sísmico de componentes y sistemas no estructurales) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 190 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Chile (cont.) prNCh2745 Analysis and design of buildings with seismic isolation (prNCh2745 Análisis y 2013  diseño de edificios con aislación sísmica) Standardized Terms of Reference with Energy Efficiency and Environmental Comfort 2016  Parameters, for Design and Construction Tenders of the Architecture Directorate, Accord- ing to Geographical Areas of the Country and According to Building Typologies (Términos de Referencia Estandarizados con Parámetros de Eficiencia Energética y Confort Ambi- ental, para Licitaciones de Diseño y Obra de la Dirección de Arquitectura, Según Zonas Geográficas del País y Según Tipologías de Edificios)  Sustainable Building Certification – CES – Evaluation and Qualification Manual (Certifi- 2022  cación Edificio Sustentable – CES – Manual de Evaluación y Calificación)  Decree 7. Establishment of the Atmospheric Decontamination Plan for the City of Coyhai- 2018  que and its Surrounding Area (Decreto 7. Establecimiento del Plan de Descontaminación Atmosférica para la Ciudad de Coyhaique y su Zona Circundante)  Law 21.305 on Energy Efficiency (Ley 21.305 Sobre Eficiencia Energética) 2021  Law 20.422 Establishment of Rules on Equal Opportunities and Social Inclusion of Per- 2010 sons with Disabilities (Ley 20.422 Establecimiento de Normas sobre Igualdad de Oportuni- (modified in 2023)  dades e Inclusión Social de Personas con Discapacidad) Decree No.50 of 2015 Modification of the Supreme Decree No. 47 of 1992, General Ordi- 2015  nance on Urban Planning and Construction, in order to update its regulations to the provi- sions of Law No. 20.422, on equal opportunities and social inclusion of people with disabil- ities (Decreto nº 50 de 2015. Modificación del decreto supremo nº 47 de 1992, Ordenanza General de Urbanismo y Construcciones,  en el sentido de actualizar sus normas a las disposiciones de la ley nº 20.422, sobre igualdad de oportunidades e inclusión social de personas con discapacidad)  Guidelines on Accessible Solutions for Public Spaces and Housing (Guía de Soluciones 2018  Accesibles para espacios públicos y viviendas) General Law on Urban Planning and Construction (Ley General de Urbanismo y Construc- 1975 ciones) General Ordinance of the General Law on Urban Planning and Construction (Ordenanza 1992 General de la Ley General de Urbanismo y Construcciones) Law 19799 on Electronic Documents, Electronic Signature and Certification Services for 2002 that Signature (Ley 19799 sobre documentos Electrónico, Firma Electrónica y Servicios de Certificación de dicha Firma) Law 20.703 creates and regulates the national registries of Technical Inspectors of 2013 Works (ITO) and of reviewers of Structural Calculation projects, modifies legal norms to guarantee the quality of constructions and expedite applications to the Municipal Works Departments (Ley 20.703 crea y regula los registros nacionales de Inspectores Técnicos de Obras (ITO) y de revisores de proyectos de Cálculos Estructurales, modifica normas legales para garantizar la calidad de las construcciones y agilizar las solicitudes ante las direcciones de Obras Municipales) Law 20285 on Access to Public Information (Ley 20285 sobre Acceso a la Información 2008 Pública) Code of Civil Procedure (Código de Procedimiento Civil) 1902 Decree 75 – Regulations for Public Works Contracts (Decreto 75 – Reglamento para Con- 2004 tratos de Obras Públicas) Decree 127 – Approves New Regulations for the National Registry of Contractors of the 1977 Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (Decreto 127 – Aprueba Nuevo Reglamento del registro Nacional de Contratistas del Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo) Law 7211 creates the College of Architects; determines the composition of the General 1942 Council, and establishes its functions and powers (Ley 7211 crea el Colegio de Arquitec- tos; determina composición del Consejo General, y le fija funciones y atribuciones) Decree 1214 – Regulation of Law No. 7211 on the College of Architects of Chile (Decreto 1943 1214 – Reglamento de la Ley numero 7211 sobre Colegio de Arquitectos de Chile) Law 12851 Creates the College of Engineers and the College of Technicians (Ley 12851 1980 crea el Colegio de Ingenieros y el Colegio de Técnicos) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 191 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Colombia  Colombian Regulation for Earthquake Resistant Construction NSR-10 (Reglamento Colom- 2010  biano de Construcción Sismo Resistente NSR-10)     Decision No. 0549 to regulate Chapter 1 of Title 7 of Part 2, Book 2 of Decree 1077 of 2015, 2015     regarding the parameters and guidelines for sustainable construction, and to adopt the Guide for saving water and energy in buildings (Resolución nº 0549 Por la cual se reglam-    enta el Capitulo 1 del Título 7 de la parte 2, del Libro 2 del Decreto 1077 de 2015, en cuanto a los parámetros y lineamientos de construcción sostenible y se adopta la Guia para el    ahorro de agua y energía en edificaciones)     Decree 582 of 2023 - Eco-urbanism and Sustainable Construction Manual (Decreto 582 de 2023  2023 - Manual de Ecourbanismo y Construcción Sostenible)     Agreement 0574 of 2023 to adopt the Sustainable construction Manual for the special, 2023  sports, cultural, tourist, business and service district of Santiago de Cali (Acuerdo 0574 de 2023 por el que se adopta el Manual de construcción sostenible para el distrito especial, deportivo, cultural, turístico, empresarial y de servicio de Santiago de Cali) CONPES 3919 of 2018. National Policy for the promotion of sustainable building construc- 2018 tion (CONPES 3919 de 2018. Política Nacional para el fomento de la construcción de edi- ficaciones sostenibles) NTC 4145 Accessibility to built environment. Buildings and urban and rural spaces. Stairs 2012  (Norma Técnica Colombiana - NTC 4145 Accesibilidad de las personas al medio físico. Edificios y Espacios Urbanos y Rurales. Escaleras)  NTC 6047 Accessibility to Physical Environment. Citizen Service Spaces in Public Adminis- 2013  tration. Requirements (Normativa Técnica Colombiana - NTC 6047 Accesibilidad al Medio Físico. Espacios de Servicio al Ciudadano en la Administración Pública. Requisitos)  NTC 4595 Civil Engineering and Architecture. Planning and Design of School Facilities 1999  and Environments (Norma Técnica Colombiana - NTC 4595 Ingeniería Civil y Arquitectura. Planeamiento y Diseño de Instalaciones y Ambientes Escolares)  Decree 1077 of 2015, which issues the Single Regulatory Decree for the Housing, City and 2015 Territory Sector (Decreto 1077 del 2015 por medio del cual se expide el Decreto Único Reglamentario del Sector Vivienda, Ciudad y Territorio) Law 1712 of 2014, which creates the Law of Transparency and Right of Access to National 2014 Public Information and dictates other provisions (Ley 1712 del 2014 por medio de la cual se crea la Ley de Transparencia y del Derecho de Acceso a la Información Pública Nacio- nal y se dictan otras disposiciones) Decree 1078 of 2015 Information and Communications Technology Sector 2015 (Decreto 1078 del 2015 Sector de Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones) Law 1801 of 2016, which issues the National Code of Security and Citizen Coexistence 2016 (Ley 1801 del 2016 por la cual se expide el Código Nacional de Seguridad y Convivencia Ciudadana) Law 435 of 1998, which regulates the practice of the profession of Architecture and its 1998 auxiliary professions, creates the National Professional Council of Architecture and its auxiliary professions, dictates the Code of Professional Ethics, establishes the Disciplinary Regime for these professions, restructures the National Professional Council of Engineer- ing and Architecture into the National Professional Council of Engineering and its auxiliary professions and other provisions (Ley 435 de 1998 por la cual se reglamenta el ejercicio de la profesión de Arquitectura y sus profesiones auxiliares, se crea el Consejo Profesional Nacional de Arquitectura y sus profesiones auxiliares, se dicta el Código de Ética Profe- sional, se establece el Régimen Disciplinario para estas profesiones, se reestructura el Consejo Profesional Nacional de Ingeniería y Arquitectura en Consejo Profesional Nacio- nal de Ingeniería y sus profesiones auxiliares y otras disposiciones) Law 842 of 2003, which modifies the regulations for the practice of engineering, its related 2003 professions and its auxiliary professions, adopts the Code of Professional Ethics and establishes other provisions (Ley 842 de 2003 por la cual se modifica la reglamentación del ejercicio de la ingeniería, de sus profesiones afines y de sus profesiones auxiliares, se adopta el Código de Ética Profesional y se dictan otras disposiciones) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 192 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Colombia (cont.) Decree 1898 - Statute of Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms (Decreto 1898 - 1998 Estatuto de los Mecanismos Alternativos de Solución de Conflictos) Decree 1469 - Regulating the provisions relating to urban planning licenses, building 2010 inspections, the public functions performed by officials in charge of building permits, and issuing other provisions (Decreto 1469 - Por el cual se reglamentan las disposiciones rela- tivas a las licencias urbanísticas; al reconocimiento de edificaciones; a la función pública que desempeñan los curadores urbanos y se expiden otras disposiciones) El Salvador  Decree No. 105 - Regulation for the Structural Safety of Construction (Decreto Nº 105 - 1996  Reglamento para la Seguridad Estructural de las Construcciones)  Technical regulation for earthquake design and its comments (Norma Técnica para diseño 1997  por sismo y sus comentarios)  Technical regulation for wind design and its comments (Norma Técnica para diseño por 1997  viento y sus comentarios)  Special regulation for housing design and construction (Norma especial para diseño y 1997  construcción de viviendas)  Regulation for design and construction of hospitals and health facilities (Norma para n.d.  diseño y construcción de hospitales y establecimientos de salud)  Modernization of the provisions governing seismic design (Modernización de las provi- 2021  siones que rigen el diseño sísmico)  Technical standard for structural design and construction of masonry (Norma técnica 1994  para diseño y construcción estructural de mampostería)  Technical standard for foundation design and slope stability (Norma Técnica para diseño 1997  de cimentaciones y estabilidad de taludes)  Technical standard for design and construction of steel structures (Norma Técnica para 1994  diseño y construcción de estructuras de acero)  Technical standard for design and construction of concrete structures (Norma Técnica 1994  para diseño y construcción de estructuras de concreto)  Technical standard for design and construction of wooden structures (Norma Técnica 1994  para diseño y construcción de estructuras de madera)  Technical standard for quality control of structural materials (Norma Técnica para control 1997  de calidad de los materiales estructurales)  Flood Disaster Risk Profile for El Salvador (Perfil de Riesgo de Desastres por Inundaciones 2014  para El Salvador)  Decree No. 70: Regulations to the Urban Planning and Construction Law regarding subdi- 1991  visions and residential developments (Decreto Nº 70: Reglamento a la Ley de Urbanismo y Construcción en lo relativo a parcelaciones y urbanizaciones habitacionales)  ​​ Law on the Development and Territorial Planning of the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador 1994 and the Surrounding Municipalities (Ley de Desarrollo y Ordenamiento Territorial del Área (updated 2023)  Metropolitana de San Salvador (AMSS) y de los Municipios Aledaños)  Regulations to the Law on the Development and Territorial Planning of the Metropolitan 1994 San Salvador and the Surrounding Municipalities (Reglamento a la Ley de Desar- Area of ​​ (updated 2023) rollo y Ordenamiento Territorial del Area Metropolitana de San Salvador (AMSS) y de los Municipios Aledaños) RTS 29.02.01:21 Electrical Products. Luminaires (lighting fixtures). Energy Efficiency 2021  Specifications (Reglamento Técnico Salvadoreño - RTS 29.02.01:21 Productos Eléctricos. Luminarias. Especificaciones de Eficiencia Energética)  Sustainable El Salvador Plan (Plan El Salvador Sustentable)  2018  RTS 23.01.01:15 Energy Efficiency. Central, Packaged or Split Air Conditioners. Limits, Test 2015  Methods and Labeling (Reglamento Técnico Salvadoreño - RTS 23.01.01:15 Eficiencia Energética. Acondicionadores de Aire Tipo Central, Paquete o Dividido. Límites, Métodos de Prueba y Etiquetado) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 193 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  El Salvador (cont.) NTS 11.69.01:14 Accessibility to the built environment. Urban planning and architecture. 2014  Requirements (Norma Técnica Salvadoreña - NTS 11.69.01:14 Accesibilidad al medio físico. Urbanismo y Arquitectura. Requisitos)  Technical Standard for Urban and Architectural Accessibility for Transport and Commu- n.d.  nications (Norma Técnica de Accesibilidad Urbanística y Arquitectonica de Transporte y Comunicaciones)  Decree No. 672 Special Law for the Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities (Decreto Nº 672 2021  Ley Especial de Inclusión de las Personas con Discapacidad)  Law on Urban Planning and Construction. (Ley de Urbanismo y Construcción) 1951 Regulations of the Law on Urban Planning and Construction regarding Subdivisions and 1991 Housing Developments. (Reglamento de la Ley de Urbanismo y Construcción en lo relativo a Parcelaciones y Urbanizaciones Habitacionales) Law on Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration (Ley de Mediación, Conciliación y Arbitraje) 2002 General Regulations of the Law on Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration. (Reglamento 2003 General de la Ley de Mediación, Conciliación y Arbitraje) General Law for Digital Modernization (Ley General para la Modernización Digital) 2023 Law on access to public information (Ley de acceso a la información pública) 2011 Ghana  GS 1207:2018 Ghana Building Code (GhBC). Building and Construction 2018  L.I. 2465 Building Regulations, 2022  2022  Local Governance Act no. 936 2016 Land Use and Spatial Planning Act no.925 2016 Land Use and Spatial Planning Regulations 2019 Guidelines on Development Permitting in Ghana n.d. Right to Information Act (Act 989) 2019 Accra Metropolitan Assembly (Building / Physical Development) Bye-Law, 2017 2017 Alternative Dispute Resolution Act 2010 Ghana Institution of Engineers Act 1969 Architects Act 1969 1969 Indonesia  SNI 1726-2019 Earthquake Resistance Design Procedures for Building and Non-Building 2019  Structures (SNI 1726-2019 Tata cara perencanaan ketahanan gempa untuk struktur ban- gunan gedung dan nongedung)  SNI 1727-2020 Minimum Design Loads and Related Criteria for Buildings and Other Struc- 2020  tures (SNI 1727-2020 Beban desain minimum dan kriteria terkait untuk bangunan gedung dan struktur lain)  SNI 2847-2019 Structural Concrete Requirements for Building and Explanations (SNI 2847- 2019  2019 Persyaratan beton struktural untuk bangunan gedung dan penjelasan)  SNI 1729-2020 Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings (SNI 1729- 2020 Spesifikasi 2020  untuk bangunan gedung baja struktural)  SNI 7860-2020 Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings (SNI 7860-2020 Keten- 2020  tuan seismik untuk bangunan gedung baja struktural)  SNI 7972-2020 Prequalified Connections for Special and Intermediate Steel Moment 2020  Frames in Seismic Applications (SNI 7972-2020 Sambungan terprakualifikasi untuk rangka momen khusus dan menengah baja pada aplikasi seismik)  SNI 8460-2017 Geotechnical Design Requirements (SNI 8460-2017 Persyaratan Perancan- 2017  gan Geoteknik)  SNI 8899-2020 Procedures for Selection and Modification of Ground Motion for Earth- 2020  quake-Resistant Building Design (SNI 8899-2020 Tata cara pemilihan dan modifikasi gerak tanah permukaan untuk perencanaan gedung tahan gempa)  SNI 7973-2013 Design Specifications for Wood Construction (SNI 7973-2013 Spesifikasi 2013  desain untuk konstruksi kayu)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 194 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Indonesia (cont.) ISBN 978-602-5489-01-3 Indonesia Earthquake Source and Hazard Map 2017 (ISBN 978- 2017  602-5489-01-3 Peta Sumber dan Bahaya Gempa Indonesia Tahun 2017)  SNI 8971-2021 Design and Implementation Guide for External Fiber Reinforced Polymer 2021  Sheet Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures (SNI 8971-2021 Panduan Perancan- gan dan Pelaksanaan Sistem Lembaran Serat Berpolimer Terlekat Eksternal untuk Perkua- tan Struktur Beton)  Regulation of the Minister of Public Works and Public Housing - Number 21 of 2021 - Green 2021  Building Performance Assessment (Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum dan Perumahan Rakyat - Nomor 21 Tahun 2021 - Penilaian Kinerja Bangunan Gedung Hijau)  SNI 03-2396-2001 Procedures for designing natural lighting systems in buildings. (SNI 2001 03-2396-2001. Tata cara perancangan sistema pencahayaan alami pada bangunan gedung) SNI 6197-2020 Energy conservation in lighting systems (SNI 6197-2020 Konservasi energi 2020 pada sistem pencahayaan) SNI 6389-2020. Energy conservation of building envelopes (SNI 6389-2020 Konservasi 2020 energi selubung bangunan pada bangunan gedung) Regulation of the Minister of Public Works and Public Housing - Number 14/PRT/M/2017 2017  - Building Accessibility Requirements (Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum dan Perubahan Rakyat - Nomor 14/PRT/M/2017 - Persyaratan Kemudahan Bangunan Gedung)  PP No. 16/2021 on Implementation of Law No. 28/2002 on Buildings 2021 Law No. 11/2014 on Engineers 2014 Law No. 2/2017 on Construction Services 2017 Law No. 14/2008 on Public Information Openness 2008 Law No. 30/1999 on Arbitration and Alternative Dispute Resolutions 1999 Law No. 6/2017 on Architects 2017 Law No. 19/2016 on Amendment to Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Infor- 2016 mation and Transactions Law No. 6/2023 on Implementation of Law No. 2/2022 on Job Creation become Law 2023 Mexico  Complementary technical standard for earthquake design (Norma técnica complementa- 2023  ria para el diseño por sismo)  Complementary technical standard for wind design (Norma técnica complementaria para 2023  el diseño por viento)  Complementary technical standards for the design and construction of concrete struc- 2023  tures (Norma técnica complementaria para diseño y construcción de estructuras de con- creto)  Complementary technical standard for the design and construction of steel structures 2023  (Norma técnica complementaria para diseño y construcción de estructuras de acero)  Complementary technical standard for the design and construction of wooden and bam- 2023  boo structures (Norma técnica complementaria para diseño y construcción de estructuras de madera y bambú)  Complementary technical standard for the design and construction of foundations (Norma 2023  técnica complementaria para diseño y construcción de cimentaciones)  Complementary technical standard for the design and construction of masonry structures 2023  (Norma técnica complementaria para diseño y construcción de estructuras de mampos- tería)  Complementary technical standard on criteria and actions for the structural design of 2023  buildings (Norma técnica complementaria sobre criterios y acciones para el diseño estruc- tural de las edificaciones)  Construction Regulations for Mexico City (Reglamento de Construcciones para el Distrito 2004 Federal)  (last reform: 2021)  Complementary technical standard for evaluation and structural rehabilitation of existing 2023  buildings (Norma técnica complementaria para evaluación y rehabilitación estructural de edificios existentes)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 195 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Mexico (cont.) Complementary technical standard for the review of the structural safety of buildings 2023  (Norma técnica complementaria para la revisión de la seguridad estructural de las edi- ficaciones)  Mexican Official Standard NOM-006-SEGOB-2015. Tsunamis.- Characteristics and spec- 2017  ifications for prevention, warning, and evacuation (Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-006- SEGOB-2015. Tsunamis.- Características y especificaciones de prevención, alertamiento y evacuación)  Agreement issuing Specific Operation Guidelines to address damages triggered by dis- 2021  ruptive natural phenomena (Acuerdo por el que se emiten los Lineamientos de Operación Específicos para atender los daños desencadenados por fenómenos naturales perturba- dores)  CDMX Resilience Strategy - Adaptive, inclusive and equitable transformation (Estrategia 2016  de Resiliencia CDMX - Transformación adaptativa, incluyente y equitativa)  Special Program derived from the National Development Plan 2019 - 2024 (Programa 2022  especial derivado del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2019-2024)  Preventive Program: Rains 2024 (Programa Preventivo: Lluvias 2024)  2024  DRAFT of the Mexican Official Standard PROY-NOM-006-SEDATU-2024, Classification, 2024  characterization and delimitation of areas not suitable for human settlement in primary zoning due to presenting critical risks originating from hydrometeorological, geological and climate change threats or due to having environmental or cultural value in the instru- ments that make up the General Territorial Planning System (PROYECTO de Norma Oficial Mexicana PROY-NOM-006-SEDATU-2024, Clasificación, caracterización y delimitación de zonas no susceptibles para asentamientos humanos en la zonificación primaria por pre- sentar riesgos críticos originados por amenazas  hidrometeorológicas, geológicas y las asociadas al cambio climático o por tener valor ambiental o cultural en los instrumentos que conforman el Sistema General de Planeación Territorial)  Housing Building Code (Código de Edificación de Vivienda (CEV))  2017  International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) (Código International de Conservación de 2018  Energía (IECC)) NMX-U-125-SCFI-2016 Building industry — buildings — roof surfaces with high solar 2016  reflectance index — specifications and test method (NMX-U-125-SCFI-2016 Industria de la construcción — edificaciones — revestimientos para techo con alto índice de reflectancia solar — especificaciones y métodos de ensayo)  NMX-AA-171-SCFI-2014 Environmental performance requirements and specifications for 2014   lodging establishments (NMX-AA-171-SCFI-2014 Requisitos y especificaciones de desem- peño ambiental de establecimientos de hospedaje)  NMX-AA-164-SCFI-2013 Sustainable building - criteria and minimal environmental require- 2013  ments (NMX-AA-164-SCFI-2013 Edificación sustentable - criterios y requerimientos ambi- entales mínimos)  Mexican Official Standard NOM-020-ENER-2011, Energy efficiency in buildings. - Buildings 2011  for residential use (Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-020-ENER-2011 Eficiencia energética en edificaciones. - Envolvente de edificios para uso habitacional)  Mexican Official Standard NOM-008-ENER-2001 Energy efficiency in buildings, non-res- 2001  idential building envelope (Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-008-ENER-2001, Eficiencia energética en edificaciones, envolvente de edificios no residenciales).  Sustainable Building Certification Program (Programa de Certificación de Edificaciones 2012  Sustentables)  Sustainable Housing - Sisevive-Ecocasa - Operational Guide (Vivienda Sustentable - Sise- 2021  vive-Ecocasa - Guía Operativa)  Accessibility Law for Mexico City (Ley de la Accesibilidad para la Ciudad de México)  2017  National Program for Work and Employment for Persons with Disabilities 2014-2018 (Pro- 2014  grama Nacional de Trabajo y Empleo para Personas con Discapacidad 2014-2018)  Complementary technical standard for architectural projects (Norma técnica complemen- 2011  taria para el proyecto arquitectónico)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 196 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Mexico (cont.) Manual of Technical Standards for Accessibility (Manual de Normas Técnicas de Accesib- 2024  ilidad)  Law on Urban Development for the Federal District (Ley de Desarrollo Urbano del Distrito 2010 Federal) Construction Regulations for the Federal District (Reglamento de Construcciones para el 2004 Distrito Federal) Regulatory Law of Article 5 of the Constitution, relating to the exercise of professions in 1945 Mexico City (Ley reglamentaria del artículo 5o. constitucional, relativo al ejercicio de las profesiones en la ciudad de México) General Law on Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms (Ley General de mecanismos 2023 Alternativos de Solución de Controversias) General Law on Transparency and Access to Public Information (Ley General de Transpar- 2015 encia y Acceso a la Información Pública) Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (Constitución Política de los Estados 1917 Unidos Mexicanos) Law on Digital Citizenship of Mexico City (Ley de Ciudadanía Digital de la Ciudad de México) 2022 Federal Labor Law (Ley Federal del Trabajo) 2024 Mongolia  Loads and Actions BNbD 20-04-17 (Ачаа ба үйлчлэл БНбД 20-04-17)  2017  Seismic Building Design Code BNbD 22-01-21 (Газар хөдлөлтийн бүс нутагт барилга 2021  төлөвлөх БНбД 22-01-21)  Fire Precaution Norm of Construction Design Drawings BNbD 21-02-02 (Барилга 2002  байгууламжийн галын аюулгүй байдал БНбД 21-02-02)  Climate and Geophysical Evidence of Construction BNbD 23-01-09. (Барилгад хэрэглэх 2009  уур амьсгал ба геофизикийн үзүүлэлт БНбД 23-01-09)  Cast in situ Reinforced Concrete Structures BNbD 52-02-05 (Цутгамал бетон, төмөр 2005  бетон бүтээц. БНбД 52-02-05)  Wooden Structure Design BNbD 54-01-21 (Модон бүтээцийн төсөллөлт БНбД 54-01-21)  2021  Masonry Structure BNbD 51-02-05. (Өрөгт бүтээц БНбД 51-02-05)  2005  Masonry and Reinforced Masonry Structure BNbD 2.03.02-90 (Өрөгт ба арматурласан 1990  өрөгт бүтээц БНбД 2.03.02-90)  Steel Structures BNbD 53-03-22 (Ган бүтээц БНбД 53-03-22)  2022  Designing accessibility to buildings and facilities for people with disabilities BNbD 2022  35-01-22 (БАРИЛГА, БАЙГУУЛАМЖИД ХӨГЖЛИЙН БЭРХШЭЭЛТЭЙ ИРГЭНИЙ ХҮРТЭЭМЖИЙГ ТӨЛӨВЛӨХ БНбД 35-01-22)  Law on Construction (“Барилгын тухай хууль”) 2016 United Acceptance Standard for Building Construction Quality (“Барилгын чанарыг 2023 хүлээн авах нэгдсэн стандарт”) The Mongolian Construction Norms and Rules Varies The Law of Mongolia on Information Transparency and Right to Information 2011 Receiving and Resolving Construction Permit Requests Electronially and Providing a One- 2022 Stop Service for the Construction Industry (“Бйрилгын Үйл Ажиллагаанд Холбогдсон Зөвшөөрөл Олгох Хүсэлтийг Цахимаар Хүлээн Авч Шийдвэрлэх Болон Барилгын Салбарт Нэг Цэгийн Үйлчилгээ Үзүүлэх”) Morocco  Law No. 12-90 relating to urban planning (Loi nº 12-90 relative à l’urbanisme)  1992  The Seismic Construction Regulations - RPS 2000-2011 version (Le Règlement de Con- 2013  struction Parasismique - RPS 2000-Version 2011)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 197 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Morocco (cont.) Decree No. 2-12-666 approving the earthquake-resistance regulations for earthen con- 2013  structions and establishing the National Committee for Earthen Constructions (Décret n° 2-12-666 approuvant le règlement parasismique pour les constructions en terre et institu- ant le Comité national des constructions en terre) Rules BAEL 91 reviewed 99 - Technical rules for the design and calculation of structures 1992 and constructions in reinforced concrete using the limit states method - BAEL 91 (Règles (updated in 2000)  BAEL 91 révisées 99 - Règles techniques de conception et de calcul des ouvrages et con- structions en béton armé suivant la méthode des états limites)  Rules NV 65 - Rules defining the effects of snow and wind on buildings and annexes 2009  (Règles NV 65 - Règles définissant les effets de la neige et du vent sur les constructions et annexes)  Rules for calculating steel constructions (Règles de calcul des constructions en acier)  1976  Practical guide to using RPS 2000 seismic construction regulations «2011 version» (Guide 2013  pratique d’utilisation du règlement de construction parasismique RPS 2000 «version 2011»)  Decree No. 2-14-499 approving the general construction regulations establishing the 2014  safety rules against the risks of fire and panic in constructions and establishing the national committee for the prevention of fire and panic risks in constructions (Décret n° 2-14-499 approuvant le règlement général de construction fixant les règles de sécurité contre les risques d’incendie et de panique dans les constructions et instituant le comité national de la prévention des risques d’incendie et de panique dans les constructions) Law No. 36-15 on Water (Loi nº 36-15 relative à l’eau)  2016  Finance Law No. 40-08 for the budgetary year 2009 (Loi de finances n° 40-08 pour l’année 2009  budgetaire 2009)  Law No. 110-14 establishing a coverage system for the consequences of catastrophic 2016  events and amending and supplementing Law No. 17-99 on the Insurance Code (Loi n° 110-14 instituant un régime de couverture des conséquences d’évènements catastroph- iques et modifiant et complétant la loi n° 17-99 portant code des assurances)  Morocco National Disaster Risk Management Strategy 2020–2030 (Stratégie Nationale de 2020  Gestion des Risques des Catastrophes Naturelles 2020–2030)  Framework Law No. 99-12 establishing the National Charter for the environment and sus- 2014  tainable development (Loi-Cadre n° 99-12 portant charte nationale de l’environnement et du développement durable)  Law No. 47-09 On Energy Efficiency (Loi n° 47-09 relative à l’efficacité énergétique)  2011  Decree No. 2-13-874 approving the general construction regulations setting the rules for 2014  energy performance of buildings and establishing the national committee for energy effi- ciency in building (Décret n° 2-13-874 approuvant le règlement général de construction fixant les règles de performance énergétique des constructions et instituant le comité national de l’efficacité énergétique dans le bâtiment)  Decree No. 2-17-746 relating to the mandatory energy audit and energy audit organiza- 2019  tions (Décret n° 2-17-746 relatif à l’audit énergétique obligatoire et aux organismes d’audit énergétique)  Law No. 13-09 relating to renewable energies (Loi n° 13-09 relative aux énergies renou- 2010  velables)  Law No. 58 - 15 amending and supplementing Law No. 13-09 on renewable energies (Loi 2016  n° 58-15 modifiant et complétant la loi n° 13-09 relative aux energies renouvelables)  Draft of Moroccan Standard PNM 14.2.303 Energy labeling of electrical products and 2020  household appliances – Requirements for lamps and lighting fixtures (Projet de Norme Marocaine PNM 14.2.303 Etiquetage énergétique des produits électriques et des appar- eils électroménagers – Exigences pour les lampes et les luminaires)  Guide - Design, sizing and implementation of solar installations in collective housing. Inte- 2017  gration of solar water heaters into collective buildings (Guide - Conception, dimensionne- ment et realisation des installations solaires dans les logements collectifs. Integration des chauffe-eau solaires dans le bâtiment collectif)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 198 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Morocco (cont.) Guide for best practices in energy management - at the city and housing level (Guide des 2014  bonnes pratiques pour la maîtrise de l’énergie - à l’échelle de la ville et de l’habitat)  Professionals in the tourism sector in Morocco: Your technical guide to energy efficiency n.d.  (Professionnels du secteur touristique au Maroc: Votre guide technique en efficacité énergétique)  Technical Guide for heating, ventilation and air conditioning (Guide technique pour le n.d. chauffage, la ventilation et la climatisation)  Law No. 28-00 relating to waste management and its elimination (Loi n° 28-00 relative à la 2006  gestion des déchets et à leur élimination)  Draft of Moroccan Standard PNM EN 12665 IC 00.3.205/2023 Light and lighting – Basic 2023  terms and criteria for specifying lighting requirements (Projet de Norme Marocaine PNM EN 12665 IC 00.3.205/2023 Lumière et éclairage – Termes de base et critères pour la spécification des exigences en éclairage)  Decree of the Minister of Employment and Vocational Training No. 93-08 establishing the 2008  general and specific implementing measures relating to the principles set out in articles 281 to 291 of the labor  code (Arrêté du ministre de l’emploi et de la formation profes- sionnelle n° 93-08 fixant les mesures d’application générales et particulières relatives aux principes énoncés par les articles de 281 à 291 du code du travail)  Numerous Moroccan Standards (MN) related to water fixtures (e.g. NM 10.4.291 Mainte- 2002 – 2024 nance service activities for faucets in real estate complexes - Contribution to controlling water consumption) (NM 10.4.291 Activités de service de maintenance de robinetterie dans les ensembles immobiliers - Contribution à la maîtrise des consommations d’eau) Law No. 10-03 on accessibility (Loi n° 10-03 relative aux accessibilités)  2003  Decree No. 2-11-246 implementing Law No. 10-03 on accessibility (Décret n° 2-11-246 2011  portant application de la loi n° 10-03 relative aux accessibilités)  Joint decree of the Minister of Industry, Investment, Trade and the Digital Economy, Acting 2017  Minister of National Planning, Urban Planning, Housing and Urban Policy and the Minis- ter of the Interior No. 2306-17 establishing the technical specifications and measures of the various accessibility measures in terms of urban planning (Arrêté conjoint du ministre de l’industrie, de l’investissement, du commerce et de l’économie numérique, ministre de l’aménagement du territoire national, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de la politique de la ville par intérim et du ministre de l’intérieur n° 2306-17 fixant les spécificités techniques et les mesures des différentes accessibilités en matière d’urbanisme)  Joint Decision of the Minister of National Land Use Planning, Urban Planning, Housing and 2019  City Policy and the Minister of the Interior No. 3146.18 of February 28, 2019 specifying the technical characteristics related to architectural accessibility Guide for applying accessibility rules. Technical requirements and practical recommen- 2019  dations (city and housing). (Guide d’application des règles d’accessibilité Prescriptions techniques et recommandations pratiques (ville et logement)) Decree No. 2-18-577 of June 12, 2019 approving the general construction regulations set- 2019 ting out the form and conditions for issuing authorizations and documents required in application of the legislation relating to urban planning and subdivisions, groups of dwell- ings and divisions as well as the texts adopted for its application (Décret n° 2-18-577 du 12 juin 2019 approuvant le règlement général de construction fixant la forme et les conditions de délivrance des autorisations et des pièces exigibles en application de la législation rel- ative à l’urbanisme et aux lotissements, groupes d’habitations et morcellements ainsi que des textes pris pour son application) Joint Order of the Minister of National Regional Planning, Urban Planning, Housing and 2020 Urban Policy and the Minister of the Interior No. 337-20 of January 21, 2020 setting out the constituent documents of the files required for authorization applications in application of the legislation relating to urban planning and subdivisions, housing complexes and land parceling as well as the texts adopted for its application (Arrêté conjoint de la ministre de l’aménagement du territoire national, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de la politique de la ville et du ministre de l’intérieur n° 337-20 du 21 janvier 2020 fixant les pièces constitutives des dossiers exigibles aux demandes d’autorisation en application de la législation rela- tive à l’urbanisme et aux lotissements, groupes d’habitations et morcellements ainsi que des textes pris pour son application) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 199 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Morocco (cont.) Law 66-12 relating to the control and prosecution of violations in matters of urban plan- 2016 ning and construction (Loi 66-12 relative au contrôle et à la répression des infractions en matière d’urbanisme et de construction) Law No. 55-19 relating to the simplification of administrative procedures and formalities 2020 (Loi n° 55-19 relative à la simplification des procedures et des formalités administratives) Decree No. 2-98-984 of March 22, 1999 establishing, for the award of certain service con- 1999 tracts on behalf of the State, a system of approval of natural or legal persons carrying out studies and project management services (Décret n° 2-98-984 du 22 mars 1999 instituant, pour la passation de certains marchés de services pour le compte de l’Etat un système d’agrément des personnes physiques ou morales exécutant des prestations d’études et de maîtrise d’œuvre) Decree No. 2-94-223 of June 16, 1994 establishing, on behalf of the Ministry of Public 1994 Works, Vocational Training and Executive Training, a system of qualification and classifi- cation of construction and public works companies. (Décret n°2-94-223 du 16 juin 1994 instituant, pour le compte du Ministère des Travaux Publics de la Formation Profession- nelle et de la Formation des Cadres, un système de qualification et de classification des entreprises de bâtiment et de travaux publics) Law No. 95-17 relating to arbitration and conventional mediation (Loi n° 95-17 relative à 2022 l’arbitrage et la médiation conventionnelle) Law 31-13 relating to the right of access to information (Loi 31-13 relative au droit d’accès 2018 à l’information) Circular No. 7.22 relating to the appointment of inspectors in the field of urban planning 2022 and construction and the coordination and monitoring of inspection operations. (Joint cir- cular of the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of National Land Use Planning, Urban Planning, Housing and Urban Policy). (La circulaire n°7.22 relative à la nomination des contrôleurs dans le domaine de l’urbanisme et de la construction et la coordination et le suivi des opérations de contrôle (Circulaire conjointe du Ministère de l’Intérieur et du Ministère de l’Aménagement du territoire national, de l’Urbanisme, de l’Habitat et de la Politique de la Ville) Decree No. 1-92-7 of June 17, 1992 promulgating Law No. 25-90 relating to subdivisions, 1992 housing groups and divisions (Dahir No. 1-92-7 du 17 juin 1992 portant promulgation de la loi No. 25-90 relative aux lotissements, groupes d’habitations et morcellements) Decree No. 1-60-063 of June 25, 1960 relating to the development of rural agglomerations 1960 (Dahir No. 1-60-063 du 25 juin 1960 relatif au développement des agglomérations rurales) Decree No. 2.18.475 of June 12, 2019 establishing the measures and procedures for 2019 granting authorizations for repair, maintenance, regularization and demolition. And Decree extending the regularization deadlines by an additional 2 years: No. 2.23.103 of May 8, 2023 (Décret No. 2.18.475 du 12 juin 2019 fixant les mesures et les modalités d’octroi des autorisations de réparation d’entretien , de régularisation et de démolition. Et Décret de prolongation des délais de régularisation de 2 ans supplémentaires: No. 2.23.103 du 08 mai 2023) Decree No. 2-92-832 of October 14, 1993 issued for the application of Law No. 12-90 relat- 1993 ing to urban planning (Décret No.2-92-832 du 14 octobre 1993 pris pour l’application de la loi No. 12-90 relative à l’urbanisme) Decree No. 2-92-833 of October 12, 1993 issued for the application of Law No. 25-90 relat- 1993 ing to subdivisions, groups of dwellings and parcels of land (Décret No. 2-92-833 du 12 octobre 1993 pris pour l’application de la loi No. 25-90 relative aux lotissements, groupes d’habitations et morcellements) Decree No. 2.19.409 of October 8, 2019 relating to the methods of monitoring and prose- 2019 urban planning and construction (Décret No.2.19.409 du cution of violations in the area of ​ 08 octobre 2019 relatif aux modalités de contrôle et répression des infractions en matière de l’urbanisme et de construction) Joint Circular No. 07-17 of August 1, 2017 relating to the control and prosecution of viola- 2017 tions in the area of urban planning (Circulaire conjointe No.07-17 du 1er aout 2017 relative au contrôle et répression des infraction en matière de l’urbanisme) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 200 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Morocco (cont.) Joint Circular No. 19-09 regarding the granting of regularization permits for noncompli- 2020 ant construction. Joint Circular of the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of National Land Use Planning, Urban Development, Housing and Urban Policy (Circulaire conjointe No. 19-09 relative à l’octroi du permis de régularisation des constructions non réglemen- taires.Circulaire conjointe du Ministère de l’Intérieur et du Ministère de l’Aménagement du territoire national, de l’Urbanisme, de l’Habitat et de la Politique de la Ville) Organic Law 113-14 relating to municipalities (Loi organique 113-14 relative aux com- 2015 munes) Joint decree of the Minister of Regional Planning, Housing and Urban Policy and the Min- 2022 ister of the Interior No. 792-22 of March 7, 2022 establishing the document templates relating to the control and prosecution of violations in matters of urban planning and con- struction (Arrêté commun du ministre de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’habitat et de la politique de la ville et du ministre de l’intérieur n° 792-22 du 7 Mars 2022 fixant les modèles de documents relatifs au contrôle et à la répression des infractions en matière d’urban- isme et de construction) Joint circular of April 28, 2023 relating to the simplification of the construction authoriza- 2023 tion procedure in rural areas (Circulaire conjointe du 28 avril 2023 relative à la simplifica- tion de la procédure d’autorisation de construction dans le milieu rural) Law No. 25-90 relating to subdivisions, housing complexes and land parceling (Loi n° 1993 25-90 relative aux lotissements, groupes d’habitations et morcellements) Guide to the control and prosecution of urban planning violations - Annex to circular no. 2022 07.22 (Guide de contrôle et de répression d’infraction en matière d’urbanisme - Annexe à la circulaire n° 07.22) Mozambique  Decree No. 44 041 Approval of Code for Actions for Buildings and Bridges (Decreto nº 40 1961  041 Aprovação do Regulamento de Solicitações em Edifícios e Pontes)  Decree No. 47 723 Approval of Code for Reinforced Concrete Structures (Decreto nº 47 1967  723 Aprovação do Regulamento de Estruturas de Betão Armado)  Decree No. 46 160 Approval of Code for Steel Structures for Buildings (Decreto nº 46 160 1965  Aprovação do Regulamento de Estruturas de Aço para Edifícios)  Ministerial Decree No. 122/221 - Guidelines on Resilience to Natural Hazards, Environmen- 2021  tal and Social Safeguards for School Buildings (Diploma Ministerial nº 122/221 - Direc- trizes sobre Resiliência às Ameaças Naturais, Salvaguardas Ambientais e Sociais para as Edificações Escolares)  Decree No. 53/2008 - Regulations for the Construction and Maintenance of Technical 2008  Devices for Accessibility, Circulation and Use of Service Systems and Public Places for Persons with Physical Disabilities or Mobility Restrictions (Decreto nº 53/2008 - Regula- mento de Construção e Manutenção dos Dispositivos Técnicos de Acessibilidade, Circu- lação e Utilização dos Sistemas de Serviços e Lugares Públicos à Pessoa Portadora de Deficiência Física ou de Mobilidade Condicionada)  Decree No. 79/2022: Regulation on the Contracting of Public Works, Supply of Goods and 2022 Provision of Services to the State (Decreto n.º 79/2022: Regulamento de Contratação de Empreitada de Obras Públicas, Fornecimento de Bens e Prestação de Serviços ao Estado) Ministerial Decree No. 76/2015 Regulation of the Licensing of the Activity of Construction 2015 Consultancy (Diploma Ministerial nr. 76/2015 Regulamento do Licenciamento da Activi- dade de Consultoria de Construção Civil) Ministerial Decree No. 77/2015 Regulation of the Licensing of the Activity of Civil Con- 2015 struction Contractor (Diploma Ministerial nr. 77/2015 Regulamento do Licenciamento da Actividade de Empreiteiro de Construção Civil) Decree No. 94/2013: Regulation of the Practice of the Activity of Civil Construction Con- 2013 tractor and Consultant (Decreto n.º 94/2013: Regulamento do Exercício da Actividade de Empreiteiro e de Consultor de Construção Civil) Ministerial Decree No. 12/2017: Operating Regulations of the Commission for the Licens- 2017 ing of Civil Construction Contractors and Consultants (Diploma Ministerial n.º 12/2017: Regulamento de Funcionamento da Comissão de Licenciamento de Empreiteiros e de Consultores de Construção Civil) Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 201 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Mozambique (cont.) Law No. 16/2002: Creates the Order of Engineers of Mozambique and approves its statute 2002 (Lei nr. 16/2002: Cria a Ordem dos Engenheiros de Moçambique e aprova o seu estatuto) Decree No. 2/2004 Licensing regime for Private Works (Decreto nº2/2004 Regime de 2004 licenciamento de Obras Particulares) Decree No. 83/2018: Creates the General Inspectorate of Public Works, a Public Institute 2018 abbreviated as IGOP-IP (Decreto n.º 83/2018: Cria a Inspecção-Geral de Obras Públicas, Instituto Público abreviadamente designada por IGOP-IP) Resolution No. 54/2022: Approves the Strategy for Electronic Public Procurement (Res- 2022 olução n.º 54/2022: Aprova a Estratégia para Contratação Pública Electrónica) Law No. 3/2017: Law on Electronic Transactions (Lei n.º 3/2017: Lei de Transacções Elec- 2017 trónicas) Law No. 11/99 Governs Arbitration, Conciliation and Mediation as alternative means of 1999 conflict resolution (Lei n°11/99 Rege a Arbitragem, a Conciliação e a Mediação como meios alternativos de resolução de conflictos) Standard Contract - Public Works Contract Competition Document (Contrato Padrão - Doc- 2023 umento De Concurso Para Empreitada De Obras Públicas) Law No. 34/2014: Right to Information Act (Lei n.º 34/2014: Lei do Direito à Informação) 2014 Maputo Municipal Assembly. Resolution No. 76/AM/2017 of 19 June 2018 (Assembleia 2018 Municipal de Maputo. Resolução n.º 76/AM/2017 de 19 de Junho 2018) Nepal  NBC 000:1994 Requirements for State-of-the-Art Design – An Introduction  1994  NBC 101:1994 Materials Specification  1994  NBC 102:1994 Unit Weight of Materials  1994  NBC 103:1994 Occupancy Load (Imposed Load)  1994  NBC 104:1994 Wind Load  1994  NBC 105:2020 Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal  2020  NBC 106:1994 Snow Load  1994  NBC 107:1994 Provisional Recommendation on Fire Safety  1994  NBC 108:1994 Site Consideration for Sesimic Hazards  1994  NBC 109:1994 Masonry: Unreinforced  1994  NBC 110: 1994 Plain and Reinforced Concrete  1994  NBC 111:1994 Steel  1994  NBC 112:1994 Timber  1994  NBC 113:1994 Aluminium  1994  NBC 114:1994 Construction Safety  1994  NBC 201:1994 Mandatory Rules of Thumb - Reinforced Concrete Buildings with Masonry 1994  Infill  NBC 202:2015 Guidelines on Load Bearing Masonry  2015  NBC 203:2015 Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Building Construction: Low Strength 2015  Masonry  NBC 204:2015 Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Building Construction: Earthen Build- 2015  ing (EB)  NBC 205:2024 Ready-to-use Detailing Guideline for Low Rise Reinforced Concrete Build- 2024  ings without Masonry Infill  NBC 206:2024 Architectural Design Requirements  2024  NBC 207:2003 Electrical Design Requirement for (Public Buildings)  2003  NBC 208:2003 Sanitary and Plumbing Design Requirements  2003  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 202 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Nepal (cont.) IS 875 (Part 3) Design Loads (other than Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures - Code 2015 of Practice - Part 3 Wind Loads (reaffirmed 2020)  Seismic Vulnerability Evaluation Guideline for Private and Public Buildings  2011  The Building Act, 2055 2008 The Building Rule, 2066 2009 Building By-laws for Kathmandu Valley, 2064 2007 Kathmandu Metropolitan City, Building Construction Procedures, 2080 2008 Right to information Act 2007 The Construction Business Rules 2000 The Arbitration Act, 1999 (2055) 1999 The Mediation Act, 2011 (2068) 2011 The Engineer Council Act 1999 Reference Book on Building By-laws and Building Permit System 2023 Peru  Supreme Decree No. 011-2006-Housing - National Building Regulations— RNE (Decreto 2006  Supremo Nº 011-2006-Vivienda - Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones—RNE)  RNE - Rule E.010 Wood (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.010 Madera)  2020  RNE - Rule E.020 Loads (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.020 Cargas)  2020  RNE - Rule E.030 Earthquake-resistant Design (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - 2020  Norma E.030 Diseño Sismorresistente)  RNE - Rule E.031 Seismic Isolation (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.031 2020  Aislamiento sísmico)  RNE - Rule E.040 Glass (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.040 Vidrio)  2020  RNE - Rule E.050 Soils and foundations (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma 2020  E.050 Suelos y cimentaciones)  RNE - Rule E.060 Reinforced concrete (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma 2020  E.060 Concreto armado)  RNE - Rule E.070 Masonry (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.070 Albañil- 2020  ería)  RNE - Rule E.080 Design and construction with reinforced earth (Reglamento Nacional de 2020  Edificaciones - Norma E.080 Diseño y construcción con tierra reforzada)  RNE - Rule E.090 Metal Structures (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.090 2020  Estructuras metálicas)  RNE - Rule E.100 Bamboo (Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones - Norma E.100 Bambú)  2020  Ministerial Decision No. 219-2021-Housing - Guidelines for the design of buildings for ver- 2021  tical evacuation in the face of tsunamis (Resolución Ministerial Nº 219-2021-Vivienda - Lin- eamientos para el diseño de construcciones para evacuación vertical frente a tsunamis)  Technical Code for Sustainable Construction (Código Técnico de Construcción Sostenible)  2021  Rule EM.110 Thermal and lighting comfort with energy efficiency (Norma EM. 110 Confort 2014  térmico y lumínico con eficiencia energética)  Certification procedure for projects from “Mivivienda” program (Procedimiento de certifi- 2020  cación de proyectos del programa Mivivienda sostenible)  Ministerial Decision No. 191-2021-Housing - Modification of Technical Standard A.010, 2021  General Conditions of the Design of the National Building Regulation (Resolución Ministe- rial N° 191-2021-Vivienda - Modificación de la Norma Técnica A.010, Condiciones Genera- les de Diseño del Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 203 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Peru Ministerial Decision No. 188-2021-Housing - Modification of Technical Standard A.020 2021  “Housing” from the National Building Regulation (Resolución Ministerial N° 188-2021-Vivi- enda - Modificación de la Norma Técnica A.020 “Vivienda” del Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones)  Ordinance No. 618/MM - Ordinance that establishes, regulates and promotes conditions 2023  for sustainable buildings in the district of Miraflores (Ordenanza Nº 618/MM Ordenanza que establece, regula y promueve condiciones para edificaciones sostenibles en el distrito de Miraflores)  Ministerial Decision No. 075-2023-Housing - Modification of Technical Standard A.120 2023  “Universal Accessibility in Buildings” from the National Building Regulation (Resolución Ministerial N° 075-2023-Vivienda - Modificación de la Norma Técnica A.120 “Accesibilidad Universal en Edificaciones” del Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones)  National Multisectoral Policy on Disability for Development by 2030 (Política Nacional Mul- 2021  tisectorial en Discapacidad para el Desarrollo al 2030)  National Accessibility Plan 2018-2023 - Proposal/Working document (Plan Nacional de n.d.  Accesibilidad 2018-2023 - Propuesta/Documento de trabajo)  Technical Standard “General Design Criteria for Educational Infrastructure” (Norma 2021  Técnica “Criterios Generales de Diseño para Infraestructura Educativa”)  Law 29090 – Law for Regulation of Urban and Buildings Modifications (Ley 29090 – Ley 2017 de Regulación de Habilitaciones Urbanas y de Edificaciones) Supreme Decree 029-2019 that establishes the Regulation of Urban Modifications 2019 Licenses and Building Licenses (Decreto Supremo 029-2019 que aprueba el Reglamento de Licencias de Habilitación Urbanas y Licencias de Edificación) Supreme Decree 002-2017 that establishes the Administrative and Technical Verifica- 2017 tion Regulation (Decreto Supremo 002-2017 que aprueba el Reglamento de Verificación Administrativa y Técnica) Legislative Decree 1412 - Digital Government Law (Decreto Legislativo 1412 - Ley de Gobi- 2018 erno Digital) Law 27806 – Law on Transparency and access to public Information (Ley 27806 - Ley de 2002 Transparencia y acceso a la información pública) Technical Standard G.030 Rights and Responsibilities (Norma Técnica G.030 Derechos y 2006 Responsabilidades) Law No. 27444 - General Administrative Procedure Law (Ley n°27444 - Ley del Proced- 2017 imiento Administrativo General) Law No.26872 - Law of Conciliation (Ley n°26872 - Ley de Conciliación) 2008 Law 28966 - Law that complements the existing legal framework regarding the profes- 2007 sional practice of architects (Ley 28966 - Ley que complementa el marco legal vigente referido al ejercicio profesional del arquitecto) Regulation of Law 28858, Law that complements Law No.16053, Law that authorizes 2008 the College of Engineers of Peru, to supervise Engineering professionals of the Republic (Reglamento de la Ley 28858, Ley que complementa la Ley n°16053, Ley que autoriza al Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú, para supervisar a los profesionales de Ingeniería de la República) Law 27972 - Organic Law of Municipalities (Ley 27972 - Ley Orgánica de Municipalidades) 2003 Law 30225 – Law on State Contracts (Ley 30225 - Ley de Contrataciones del Estado) 2018 Philippines  NSCP C101-15 - National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015, Vol I - Buildings, Towers 2016  and Other Vertical Structures  Implementing Rules and Regulations of the National Building Code of the Philippines (PD 2005  1096) - 2005 Revised Edition  The Philippine Green Building Code  2015  National Law No. 344 (Accessibility Law) and its Implementing Rules and Regulations 2008  (Batas Bambansa Bilang 344)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 204 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Philippines (cont.) Ease of Doing Business and Efficient Government Service Delivery Act 2018 Alternative Dispute Resolution Act 2004 Local Government Code of the Philippines 1991 Civil Engineering Law 1956 The Architecture Act 2004 Contractors’ License Law 1965 Freedom of information Act 2016 Rwanda  Rwanda Building Code - Version 2 - 2019  2019  RS 112:2011 - Basis of Structural Design  2011  RS 114-2:2021 - Structural Design - Actions on structures - Part 2: Wind actions  2021  RS ISO 3010:2017 - Bases for design structures - Seismic actions on structures  2017  Complementary provisions to the Rwanda Building Code (2019) in relation to Peak Ground 2023  Acceleration  RS 113:2021 - Geotechnical design - General requirements 2021  RS 142:2021 - Design of concrete structures - General rules and rules for buildings - Code 2021  of practice  Technical Guidelines in Adobe Block (Rukarakara) Construction in Rwanda 2022  Rwanda Green Building Minimum Compliance System (Official Gazette no. Special of 2019  16/04/2019 - Annex 3)  RS 115:2011 - Building Construction - Design of facilities for people with disability - Code 2011  of practice  Law No. 10/2012 Governing Urban Planning and Building in Rwanda 2012 Ministerial Order No.03/CAB.M/019 of 15/04/2019 determining Urban Planning and Build- 2019 ing regulations Rwanda Building Inspection Guidelines 2012 Construction Permit Procedure Guidelines (City of Kigali) 2013 Law No.26/2012 governing the professions of architecture and engineering and establish- 2012 ing the institute of architects and the institute of engineers in Rwanda Law No.04/2013 Relating to Access to Information 2013 Ministerial Order No.02/CAB.M/019 of 15/04/2019 determining categorization of build- 2019 ings and procedures for applying for and granting building permits Law No.24/2016 Governing Information and Communication Technologies 2016 Ministerial Instructions No.01/CAB.M/017 of 28/04/2017 determining inspection of types 2017 of Buildings in Relation to their Anticipated Risks Samoa  National Building Code of Samoa  2017  AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 - Structural design actions - Part 0: General principles 2002 - incorporating amendments up to 2011  AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 - Structural design actions - Part 2: Wind actions  2011  NZS 4203:1992 - Code of Practice for General Structural Design and Design Loadings for 1992  Buildings  AS 1170.4:1993 - Minimum design loads on structures - Part 4: Earthquake loads  1993 NZS 1170.5:2004 – Structural design actions – Part 5: Earthquake actions – New Zealand 2004 – includes amendment in 2016 NZS 3101.1:2006 and NZS 3101.2:2006 - Concrete structures standard - Part 1: The design 2006  of concrete structures - Part 2: Commentary on the design of concrete structures  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 205 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Samoa (cont.) AS 3600:2001 - Concrete structures  2001  NZS 4230:2004 - Design of reinforced concrete masonry structures  2004  NZS 4229:2013 - Concrete masonry buildings not requiring specific engineering design  2013  NZS 3404.Part 1:1997 - Steel Structures Standard & NZS 3404.Part 2:1997 - Commentary 1997  to the Steel Structures Standard  AS 4100:2020 - Steel structures  2020  NASH Standard - Part Two: 2019 - Light Steel Framed Buildings  2019  BS 8004:1986 - Code of practice for Foundations  1986  AS 4678:2002 - Earth-retaining structures 2002  AS 1720.1:2010 - Timber Structures - Part 1: Design methods  2010  NZS 3603:1993 - Timber Structures Standard  1993  NZS 4210:2001 - Masonry Construction: Materials and Workmanship  2001  Planning and Urban Management Act 2004 2004 Ministry of Works Act 2002 2002 Planning and Development Guidelines for Housing 2006 Alternative Dispute Resolution Act 2007 2007 Professional Engineers (Registrations) Act 1998 1998 Companies Amendment Act 2006 2006 South Africa  SANS 10400-B:2020 – The application of the National Building Regulations – Part B: Struc- 2020  tural Design (Edition 4)  SANS 10160-1:2019 – Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial 2019  structures – Part 1: Basis of Structural Design (Edition 1.3)  SANS 10160-2:2011 – Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial 2011  structures – Part 2: Self-weight and imposed loads (Edition 1.1)  SANS 10160-3:2019 – Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial 2019  structures – Part 3: Wind actions (Edition 2.1)  SANS 10160-4:2017 – Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial 2017  structures – Part 4: Seismic actions and general requirements for buildings (Edition 2)  SANS 10160-5:2021 – Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial 2021  structures – Part 5: Basis for geotechnical design and actions (Edition 1.2)  SANS 10100-1:2000 – The structural use of concrete – Part 1: Design (Edition 2.2)  2000  SANS 10162-1:2011 – The structural use of steel – Part 1: Limit-states design of hot-rolled 2011  steelwork (Edition 2.1)  SANS 10163-1:2012 – The structural use of timber – Part 1: Limit-states design (Edition 2012  2.3)  SABS 0163-2:2001 – The structural use of timber – Part 2: Allowable stress design  2001  SABS 0164:Part 1-1980 – Code of practice – The structural use of masonry – Part 1: 1980 Unreinforced masonry walling  (amended in 1986 and 1987)  SANS 10164-2:2008 – The structural use of masonry – Part 2: Structural design and 2008  requirements for reinforced and prestressed masonry (Edition 1.2)  SANS 10162-2:2011 – The structural use of steel – Part 2: Cold-formed steel structures 2011  (Edition 2)  SABS 0162-4:1997 – Structural use of steel – Part 4: The design of cold-formed stainless 1997  steel structural members (First edition)  National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act 103 of 1977  1977  SANS 10100-2:2014 – The structural use of concrete – Part 2: Materials and execution of 2014  work (Edition 3)  National Water Act 36 of 1998  1998  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 206 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  South Africa (cont.) SANS 10400-Part P:2010 – The application of the National Building Regulations – Part P: 2010  Drainage  SANS 10400-XA:2021 – The application of the National Building Regulations – Part XA: 2021  Energy usage in buildings (Edition 2)  SANS 3088:2019 – Water Efficiency in Buildings (Edition 1)  2019  SANS 10400-S:2011 – The application of the National Building Regulations – Part S: Facil- 2011  ities for persons with disabilities (Edition 3)  Construction Regulations 2014 2014 Construction Permit Management System User Manual for Architects, Homeowners and 2022 Agents Architectural Profession Act 2000 Engineers Profession Act 2000 Construction Industry Development Board Act 38 2000 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 Promotion of Access to Information Act 2000 Local Government Municipal Systems Act 2000 Arbitration Act 42 1965 Tajikistan  SNiP RT 22-07-2018 Earthquake Engineering (Сейсмостойкое строительство)  2019  GNiP RT 20-01-2012 Loads and Influences (Нагрузки и воздействия)  2016  SNiP RT 50-01-2021 Foundations of building and structures (Основания зданий и 2022  сооружений)  GNiP RT 50-02-2015 Pile foundations (Свайные фундаменты)  2015  MKS ChT 52-02-2022 Bearing and envelope structures (Несущие и ограждающие 2022  конструкции)  GNiP RT 51-01-2013 Masonry and reinforced masonry structures (Каменные и 2016  армокаменные конструкции)  GNiP RT 52-04-2012 Steel structures (Стальные конструкции)  2016  SNiP RT 52-03-2020 Concrete and reinforced concrete structures (Бетонные и 2021  железобетонные конструкции)  SNiP RT 21-01-2018 Fire Safety of buildings and structures (Пожарная безопасность 2019  зданий и сооружений)  SNiP RT 31-18-2021 High-rise buildings and complexes (Высотные здания и комплексы)  2021  SNiP RT 31-09-2021 Healthcare institutions (Учреждения здравоохранения)  2022  SNiP 1.02.07-87 Engineering surveys for construction (Инженерные изыскания для 1988  строительства)  SNiP 2.06.15-85 Engineering protection of territories from flooding and waterlogging 1985  (Инженерная защита территории от затопления и по д топления)  GNiP RT 20-01-2012 Loads and Influences (Нагрузки и воздействия)  2012  SNiP 2.01.14-83 Determination of design hydrological characteristics (Определение 1983  расчетных гидрологических характериетик)  SNiP RT 50-01-2021 Foundation of buildings and structures (Основания зданий и 2021  сооружений)  SNiP II-26-76 Roofs (Кровли)  1976  SNiP 2.01.15-90 Engineering protection of territories, buildings and structures from dan- 1990  gerous geological processes. Basic design provisions (Инженерная защита территорий, зданий и сооружений от опасных геологических процессов. Основные положения)  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 207 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Tajikistan (cont.) SNiP RT 31-18-2021 High-rise buildings and complexes (Высотные здания и комплексы)  2021  SNiP RT 31-02-2007 Public buildings and structures (Общественные здания и 2007  комплексы)  GOST 30971-2012 Installation joints of window assemblies adjoined to wall openings. 2012  General specifications (Швы монтажные узлов примыкания оконных блоков к стеновым проемам. Общие технические условия)  SNiP RT 23-02-2021 Construction thermotechnics 2021  SNiP RT 01-41-2009 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning  2009  GNiP RT 35-01-2012 Accessibility of buildings and structures for low-mobility groups of 2012  the population  (RDS RT 11-201-2020 Composition and procedure for developing detailed designs for the 2020  construction of buildings and structures  GniP RT 30-01-2018 Urban planning. Planning and development of settlements 2018  GNiP RT 01/31/2018 Residential multi-apartment buildings 2018  SNiP RT 35-02-2019 Social institutions for disabled children  2019  SNiP RT 31-02-2007 Public buildings and structures  2007  Law of Republic of Tajikistan: “Urban planning code”, #1348 2016 Law of Republic of Tajikistan on Informatization, #7 2001 Law of Republic of Tajikistan on the Right of Access to Information, 2008 2008 The order of administrative procedures related to the implementation of urban planning 2016 activities. Resolutions of the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan from 17.11.2016, #477, updated in 02.05.2019, #234 Law of Republic of Tajikistan on the permit system, #802, updated 04.07.2020, #1703 2012 Regulation on the Agency for Construction and Architecture under the Government of the 2009 Republic of Tajikistan, dated 2.02.2009, #78, last updated 03.10.2012, #559 Rules of building in the Republic of Tajikistan 2017 GNiP RT 11-06-2006 Regulations on Architectural Supervision of Construction of Buildings 2006 and Structures The Law of RT “The Economic procedural Code of Republic of Tajikistan”, approved 2007 14.11.2007, #787 Tonga  National Building Code of the Kingdom of Tonga  2007  NZS1170.0: Structural design actions, Part 0: General principles  2002  AS/NZS1170.1: Structural design actions, Part 1: Permanent, imposed and other actions  2002  AS/NZS1170.2: Structural design actions, Part 2: Wind actions  2021  AS1170.4: Minimum design loads Structures, Part 4: Earthquake loads (Australia)  1993  California Building Code  1998  NZS3101 (Part 1 and 2): The Design of Concrete Structures (Standard and Commentary)  2006  AS3600: Concrete structures  2018  NZS3109: Concrete construction  1997  NZS4230: Design of reinforced concrete masonry structures  2004  NZS4229: Concrete masonry buildings not requiring specific engineering design  2004  AS3700: Masonry Structures  2018  NZS4210: Masonry construction: Materials and workmanship  2001  NZS3404 (Part 1 and 2): Steel Structures (Standard and Commentary)  1997  AS4100: Steel structures  2020  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 208 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Tonga (cont.) AS/NZS1664.1  1997  AS2159: Piling - Design and installation  1995  AS2870.1: Residential slabs and footings, Part 1: Construction  1988  NZS/AS1720.1:Timber Structures  2022  NZS/AS1720.2:Timber Structures, Part 2: Timber properties  1990  NZS3603: Timber Structures Standard  1993  Building Code of Australia – Volume 1  2004  Building Control and Standards Act 2004 (revised 2020)  Building Control and Standards Regulations 2005 (revised 2020) Technical Record 440: Guidelines for the testing and evaluation of products for cyclone- 1978  prone areas  New Zealand Standard NZS 4121  2001  National Spatial Planning and Development Act 2012 Business Licenses Regulations 2007 2007 Supreme Court Rules 2007 Tonga National Qualifications and Accreditation Regulations 2007 2010 Türkiye  TBDY 2018 (TBEC 2018) Turkish Buildings Earthquake Code  2018  TS500:2000 Basic Principles for Design of Reinforced Structures  1984; 2000  TS498:2021 Loads due to use and occupancy in residential and public buildings  1987; 1997; 2021  TÇY 2016 (Regulatory for design and construction of steel structures)  2016  ABTY 2024 (Code for Wooden buildings: design and construction)  2024  TKDY 2020 (Design Code for Bridges under Earthquake Effect)  2020  BYKHY (Code for fire resistance of buildings)  2021  TS EN 1991-4 Turkish Standard for Wind action on Structures  2007  Law No. 6306 on Transformation of Lands Under Risk of Disaster  2012  Regulation for Fire Resistance of Buildings  2007  Law No. 5902 on the Establishment and Duties of the Disaster and Emergency Manage- 2010  ment Directorate  Forest Law No. 5174  1995  Environmental Law No. 4363  1993  Planned Areas Reconstruction Regulation  2017  YeS-TR (Green Certificate)  2016  B.E.S.T (Ecological and Sustainable Design in Buildings)  2013  Accessibility Monitoring and Control Regulation  2016  Law on Disabled Persons No. 5378  2005  TS 9111 “The requirements of accessibility in buildings for people with disabilities and 2011  mobility constraints”  Zoning Law No. 3194 1985 Law No. 4708: Building Inspection 1985 Records of Building Contractors and Site Heads and Regulations on Certified Masters 2010 Law No. 6325 on Mediation in Civil Disputes 2012 Right to Information Act 2003 2003 Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 209 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Uzbekistan  KMK 2.01.03-19 Construction in Seismic Areas (Строительство в сейсмических 2019  районах) (Сейсмик-ҳудудларда-қўрилиш)  KMK 2.01.07-96 Loads and impacts (Нагрузки и воздействия) (Юклар ва таъсирлар)  1996  SHNK2.01.02-04 Fire safety of buildings and structures (Пожарная безопасность 2004  зданий и сооружений)(Бинолар ва иншоатларнинг ёнғин хавфсизлиги)  2.03.01-96 Concrete and reinforced concrete structures (Бетонные и железобетонные 1996 конструкции) (Бетон ва темирбетон конструкциялар)  ShNK 2.07.05-19 Residential and public buildings: Rating system for assessing the sus- 2019  tainability of the built environment  KMK 2.01.18-2018 Standards of energy consumption for heating, ventilation and air condi- 2018  tioning of buildings and structures  ShNK 2.04.14-23 Photovoltaic power stations (systems) on approval of city planning 2023  norms and rules  KMK 2.04.05-97* Heating, ventilation and air conditioning  2011  KMK 2.01.04-97* Construction thermotechniks  2012  ShNK 2.08.02-09* Design of energy-saving solutions for public buildings  2012  ShNK 2.07.02-22 Design of construction projects taking into account the needs of people 2022  with disabilities and the elderly  SanPIN 0266-09 Design and construction of residential and public buildings, residential 2009  formations used by people with disabilities and low-mobility groups of children and adults  ShNK 1.03.07-2010 Regulations on author’s and technical supervision in construction 2010 № ЗРУ-676 Law on approval of the urban planning complex 2021 Act of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan, No. 200 “On approval of 2022 unified administrative construction regulations in the field of construction” Presidential Decree No. UP-151 On measures for the effective organization of public 2023 administration in the field of construction and housing and communal services within the framework of administrative reforms ShNK 1.03.06-13 Rules for conducting the state control of pre-design and urban planning 2013 documentation Vanuatu  National Building Code for Vanuatu  2000  AS/NZS1170.2: Structural design actions, Part 2: Wind actions  2021  NZS4203: General structural design and Design Loading for Buildings  1992  NZS3101 (Part 1 and 2): The Design of Concrete Structures (Standard and Commentary)  2006  NZS3109: Concrete construction  1997  NZS3124: Specification for concrete construction for minor works  1987  NZS4230: Design of reinforced concrete masonry structures  2004  NZS4229: Concrete masonry buildings not requiring specific engineering design  2013  NZS4210: Masonry construction: Materials and workmanship  2001  NZS3404 (Part 1 and 2): Steel Structures (Standard and Commentary)  1997  AS/NZS1664.1 – Aluminum Structures: Limit State Design 1997  AS2159: Piling - Design and installation  1995  NZS/AS1720.1: Timber Structures  2022  NZS3603: Timber Structures Standard  1993  AS 2870.1: Residential slabs and footings, Part 1: Construction  1988  TR440: Guidelines for the testing and evaluation of products for cyclone prone areas  1978  Annex B: List of Documents Reviewed A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 210 Country  Name of Code or Standard  Date of Publication  Vanuatu (cont.) Home building manual for Vanuatu 1990  Building Act No. 36 of 2013  2013  New Zealand Standard NZS 4121  2001  National Land-use Planning Policy 2013 Physical Planning Act CAP 193 1986 Physical Planning (Amendment) Act 2021 2021 Right to Information Act 2016     Annex C: Code Influences Data The following table provides the data used to generate Figure B2.1 in Chapter 2 indi- cating how model codes and international codes have influenced code development in different countries. Data Sources: World Bank, 2023c; PRIF, 2023; ICC, 2024a; JRC, 2024b; Paz, 1994; IISEE, 2024; GEM, 2022. A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 212 Annex C: Code Influences Data Country name Country code influenced by: Country name Country code influenced by: Afghanistan IBC (USA) Grenada Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Algeria UBC (USA) Guam IBC (USA) Antigua and Barbuda Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Guatemala UBC (USA) Armenia SNIP (former USSR) Haiti IBC (USA) Australia Australian codes and standards Honduras UBC (USA) Austria Eurocode (EU) Hungary Eurocode (EU) Azerbaijan SNIP (former USSR) Iceland Eurocode (EU) Bangladesh IBC (USA) India Indian code Barbados Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Indonesia IBC (USA) Belarus SNIP (former USSR) Iraq IBC (USA) Belgium Eurocode (EU) Ireland Eurocode (EU) Bhutan Indian code Italy Eurocode (EU) Brazil Pre-Eurocode Portuguese codes Jamaica IBC (USA) Bulgaria Eurocode (EU) Jordan IBC (USA) Colombia UBC (USA) Kazakhstan Eurocode (EU) Cook Islands New Zealand codes and standards Korea, Rep. IBC (USA) Croatia Eurocode (EU) Kyrgyz Republic SNIP (former USSR) Cyprus Eurocode (EU) Latvia Eurocode (EU) Czechia Eurocode (EU) Lithuania Eurocode (EU) Denmark Eurocode (EU) Luxembourg Eurocode (EU) Djibouti Eurocode (EU) Malta Eurocode (EU) Dominica Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Moldova SNIP (former USSR) Dominican Republic IBC (USA) Mongolia SNIP (former USSR) Ecuador UBC (USA) Montenegro Eurocode (EU) Estonia Eurocode (EU) Morocco Pre Eurocode French codes Eswatini South African Standards (SABS) Mozambique Pre Eurocode Portuguese codes Fiji Australian and New Zealand codes and Myanmar IBC (USA) standards Namibia South African Standards (SABS) Finland Eurocode (EU) Nepal Indian code France Eurocode (EU) Netherlands Eurocode (EU) French Polynesia Pre Eurocode French codes New Zealand New Zealand codes and standards Georgia SNIP (former USSR) North Macedonia Eurocode (EU) Germany Eurocode (EU) Norway Eurocode (EU) Ghana IBC (USA) Pakistan IBC (USA) Greece Eurocode (EU) Panama IBC (USA) Greenland pre Eurocode Danish codes Papua New Guinea Australian codes and standards Annex C: Code Influences Data A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 213 Country name Country code influenced by: Country name Country code influenced by: Peru UBC (USA) Sweden Eurocode (EU) Philippines UBC (USA) Switzerland Eurocode (EU) Poland Eurocode (EU) Syrian Arab Republic UBC (USA) Portugal Eurocode (EU) Tajikistan SNIP (former USSR) Puerto Rico IBC (USA) Thailand UBC (USA) Romania Eurocode (EU) Tonga Australian and New Zealand codes and standards Russian Federation SNIP (former USSR) Trinidad and Tobago Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Rwanda Eurocode (EU) Tunisia Pre Eurocode French codes Samoa Australian and New Zealand codes and standards Türkiye Eurocode (EU) Saudi Arabia IBC (USA) Turkmenistan SNIP (former USSR) Serbia Eurocode (EU) Turks and Caicos IBC (USA) Islands Slovak Republic Eurocode (EU) Tuvalu Australian and New Zealand codes and Slovenia Eurocode (EU) standards Solomon Islands Australian and New Zealand codes and Ukraine Eurocode (EU) standards United Arab Emirates IBC (USA) South Africa Eurocode (EU) United Kingdom Eurocode (EU) Spain Eurocode (EU) United States IBC (USA) St. Kitts and Nevis Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Uzbekistan SNIP (former USSR) St. Lucia Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Vanuatu Australian and New Zealand codes and St. Vincent and the Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) standards Grenadines Venezuela, RB UBC (USA) Suriname Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) Virgin Islands (U.S.) IBC (USA) Annex D: Assessment Statements The following tables list the topics, subtopics and corresponding statements used to evaluate the structural safety and resilience, green building, and universal accessibil- ity provisions in the documents reviewed for each country. For the assessment of the code provisions, a checkmark (3) indicates that the requirements of the statement were satisfied and a cross (7) indicates that the requirements of the statement were not sat- isfied. In some cases, where there was insufficient information to determine if the state- ment was satisfied, the item is marked with a 'U' (Unable to verify). Note that beyond the country's code satisfying the statement, the assessment did not evaluate the quality and/or comprehensiveness of the provisions in detail. For the assessment of the code implementation environment, a checkmark (3) indicates the statement was satisfied, a cross (7) indicates the statement was not satisfied, and a (P) indicates that the state- ment was partially satisfied. A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 215 Annex D: Assessment Statements Table D.1 // General Structural Provisions Topic Subtopic Statement Importance or risk classification of The code contains importance and/or risk classification of buildings (some- Basis of design buildings times also called consequence classes). Fire resistance of structural ele- Some provisions related to fire resistance of the main structural elements are Fire resistance ments included in the code. Dead and live loading Provisions for determining dead loads and minimum live loads are included Actions on in the code. structures Load combinations The building regulation document contains load combinations for all applica- ble loads and materials that are covered within the document. Site investigation The codes includes provisions for performing geotechnical site investigations Geotechnical and, in some cases, the code requires site investigation to be carried out. Design of foundations Some provisions of the code relate to the design of foundations for buildings (including how to develop foundation design parameters based on soil type, soil data, and so on). Design of retaining walls Some provisions relate to the design of retaining walls for buildings (including how to develop retaining wall design parameters based on soil type, soil data, and so on). Minimum material requirements The code specifies minimum structural material requirements for reinforced Materials for concrete and reinforcing bars concrete (minimum compressive strength, minimum strength and ductility requirements for reinforcing steel). Provisions for construction mate- Some structural design provisions are in place for: rials » reinforced concrete; » precast concrete; » reinforced masonry and/or reinforced grouted hollow block masonry; » unreinforced masonry (hollow block and/or brick and/or stone); » timber; » structural steel; » confined masonry; » earth (including adobe, soil stabilized block, rammed earth, and so on); and » bamboo. Structural requirements for addi- The code includes some provisions related to structural considerations Existing buildings tions (extensions) (including seismic design where applicable) for horizontal and/or vertical building extensions (this may include addressing incremental construction practices). Structural requirements for change The code includes some provisions that would prompt consideration of the of occupancy/use existing structural system capacity (including seismic design where applica- ble) when a change of use or occupancy is made. Structural assessment The code includes provisions related to assessment of the structural condi- tion of existing buildings. Simplified design rules for small- Simplified provisions for certain types of small-scale buildings are permitted Prescriptive rules scale buildings (or “rules of thumb”) by the code and these design rules are included in the building regulation doc- ument. Annex D: Assessment Statements A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 216 Table D.2 // Seismic Design Provisions Topic Subtopic Statement Procedure for seismic design criteria The code contains a procedure to determine seismic design parameters, Actions on with at least some partial information required to perform seismic design structures for a specific building (for example, a procedure that specifies some ele- ments which may include the level of design seismic hazard for a specific site and/or a procedure to determine the design level of seismic base shear). Country specific seismic criteria The code contains country-specific seismic hazard parameters for design (for example, seismic hazard maps, seismic zonation maps or other seis- mic criteria parameters by site location or city, region, and so on). Consideration of soil effects in seis- Effect of soil conditions is considered in seismic analysis/design accord- mic design criteria ing to the code. Seismic importance factors The importance of different buildings in a post-earthquake situation is considered based on their occupancy/function (for example, importance category). Simplified seismic analysis proce- A procedure to perform Equivalent Static Seismic Analysis is included in dures (for example, equivalent static) the code. Dynamic seismic analysis proce- Procedures to perform dynamic analysis, for example, Response Spectra dures (for example, response spec- (multimodal) analysis and/or response history analysis, are included in the tra, response time history analysis) code and are required in some cases. Nonlinear static seismic analysis A procedure to perform nonlinear static seismic analysis (pushover analy- procedures (for example, pushover) sis) is included in the code. Ductility requirements and factors Seismic force modification factors are prescribed for reinforced concrete Seismic design and structural steel systems which are expected to be designed to perform at different ductility levels. Drift limits Lateral displacement limits (for example, maximum inter-story displace- ment/drift) are prescribed for different buildings depending on their impor- tance category. Requirements for building regularity Provisions regarding analysis/design of structures with horizontal (plan) (vertical and horizontal) and vertical (elevation) irregularities are included in the code. Ductile detailing of lateral resisting Seismic design provisions that ensure ductile seismic performance of dif- systems ferent structural systems (for example, the Capacity Design approach and/ or prescriptive requirements that ensure ductile behavior) are included in the code for the following structural systems: » Concrete moment resisting frames - medium and/or high ductility (also called intermediate and/or special); » Concrete shear wall - medium and/or high ductility; » Steel moment resisting frames - medium and/or high ductility (also called ordinary and/or special); » Steel braced frame systems (concentric, eccentric and/or buckling restrained brace frame); » Confined masonry systems; » Timber lateral resisting systems (nailed plywood shear walls and/or other types); » Masonry systems. Diaphragms Some provisions for seismic design of floor diaphragms are included (specify in comments the types of provisions included - for example, dia- phragm material (concrete/steel/timber), design forces, diaphragm stiff- ness considerations, collector and connection forces, anchorage of walls). Advanced systems (base isolation, Analysis and design provisions for structures equipped with base isolation added damping systems, and so on) devices and/or supplemental damping systems are included. Annex D: Assessment Statements A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 217 Table D.2 // Seismic Design Provisions (cont.) Topic Subtopic Statement Provisions related to nonstructural Some provisions for seismic design of nonstructural components are Seismic design components included in the code (please specify in the comments whether the code (cont.) does or does not cover seismic design of critical components such as façade/building envelope; parapets; nonstructural/infill walls; mechanical, electrical, plumbing—MEP—equipment). Provisions related to out-of-plane There are provisions that capture out-of-plane seismic actions for the earthquake actions design of structural and nonstructural elements in the code. Provisions for seismic assessment The code includes provisions related to seismic assessment and retrofit of Existing buildings and retrofit of existing buildings existing buildings. Table D.3 // Wind Design Provisions Topic Subtopic Statement Procedure to develop design wind The code contains a procedure to determine wind loading, with at least Actions on loading some partial information required to perform wind design for a specific structures building (for example, a procedure which includes some elements to develop the level of wind loads based on the location, exposure and so forth, and/or specifies type and level of design wind speeds for a site). Country-specific wind- loading The code contains country-specific wind design criteria for a site (for exam- design criteria ple, country, region or city specific wind speed maps). Simplified wind-loading design pro- The effect of wind (suction or pressure) is simulated as static wind pres- cedures sure for the design of structural and nonstructural elements and their con- nections. Wind importance factors Importance of different buildings based on their occupancy/function (for example, importance factor) is considered in the design for wind. Wind design procedure for tall build- Dynamic effects of wind are considered in the design of tall buildings ings according to the code-prescribed procedure. Design provisions for roof cladding Requirements to design roof cladding and roof overhangs to resist strong Design and and roof overhangs winds. These could also include provisions related to roof shape. detailing for wind Design of wall cladding and non- Requirements to design nonstructural cladding and appendages (cladding, structural appendages gutters, equipment, and so on) to resist strong winds. Design of façade Requirements to design façade to resist damage from wind- borne debris. Façade detailing Requirements to detail façade to resist water ingress during a strong wind event. Detailing of doors and door mecha- Requirements to detail doors and door mechanisms to resist strong winds. nisms Table D.4 // Flood Design Provisions Topic Subtopic Statement Load procedure for flood loading Provisions for determining loading from flooding, and/or storm surge. Design for flooding Higher level evacuation areas Requirements for higher level evacuation areas for building occupants (for example roof access, balconies) in case of a flood event. Limitations on occupied zones Provisions that limit or prohibit occupied zones below the design flood below the design flood level level. Critical equipment and services Requirements to locate critical equipment and/or services above design flood level. Structural and nonstructural materials Provisions related to structural and nonstructural material requirements in relation to flooding. Vents, valves or other wall openings Requirements for the design of vents, valves or other openings in the walls of enclosed spaces below the design flood level to equalize lateral water pressures. Annex D: Assessment Statements A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 218 Table D.5 // Green Building Provisions Topic Subtopic Statement Building orientation Orientating the building to optimize the level of direct heat from sunlight Energy Efficiency – entering the building. Demand Side The regulation includes some voluntary provisions on building orientation to control solar heat gain and/or improve natural ventilation. Daylighting Daylighting to provide adequate levels of natural light for building occupants. The regulation document specifies voluntary or mandatory provisions related to daylighting (for example, that a certain percentage of habitable building area must be adequately lit through daylight). Natural ventilation Natural ventilation to provide fresh air indoors and support cooling. The regulation document contains provisions which require a certain amount of operable window, glazing, or perforation area with respect to the room’s usable floor area. Solar shading External solar shading to control solar heat gain. The regulation document provides guidance on various types of shading implements and related design provisions (voluntary or mandatory). Insulation of walls, roofs and win- Insulation of walls, roofs and windows to stop over-heating in hot weather dows (U-value requirements) and heat loss in cold weather. The regulation documents specify mandatory U-value requirements for the walls, roofs and/or window assemblies. Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) requirements to balance the need for light and ventilation with the amount of solar heat gain from glazed areas. The regulation documents have mandatory provisions related to WWRs (and provide a formula to calculate WWR). These can include requirements for minimum or maximum WWR and/or different WWRs for differently oriented walls. Reflective walls and roofs Reflective walls and roofs to reduce solar heat gain. The regulations specify mandatory solar reflectance index (SRI) values for walls and/or roofs. Green walls and roofs Green walls or roofs to cool buildings both externally and internally. The regulations document addresses their design and construction. If the provisions are mandatory, they may include minimum standard for such roofs and walls in terms of area covered by vegetation. Energy efficient lighting Energy efficient lighting (for example, LEDs, light sensors, and so on). The regulation document specifies light power density for various types of buildings and/or a minimum level of lumens per watt for lighting fixtures and/or requirements for sensors such as daylight sensors and/or occupancy sensors to control the use of lighting depending on user needs. Energy-efficient Heating Ventilation Energy-efficient heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) mechanical and Air Conditioning (HVAC) sys- systems. tems The regulation document contains some mandatory provisions related to measures to improve energy efficiency of HVAC systems and other equip- ment. These could include requirements for pipe and duct insulation, ceiling fans, air economizers, setting a minimum coefficient of performance for air conditioning and/or heating equipment, heat recovery from return air and/or requirements for variable frequency drives. Annex D: Assessment Statements A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 219 Topic Subtopic Statement Renewable energy Renewable methods to supply the building with energy (for example, solar Energy Efficiency – panels, geothermal). Supply Side The regulation document includes some provisions related to onsite gener- ation of electricity through solar power or wind and/or connection to a grid that provides off-site renewable energy (voluntary or mandatory). Water-efficient fixtures and fittings Water-efficient fixtures and fittings (for example, low-flow toilets, taps, and so on). The regulation document includes mandatory provisions related to water-ef- ficient fixtures and fitting. For example, it may specify flow rates by type of fixture or fitting (for example, faucets, showers, toilets). Water collection/water re-use Water collection/water re-use (for example, rainwater harvesting, use of grey water for certain functions). The regulation document includes some voluntary or mandatory provisions for this (for example, condensate recovery, rainwater harvesting, re-use of treated water for potable and nonpotable uses). Recycled building materials Recycled building materials (for example, requirements for a building to use recycled materials and/or be recyclable). The regulation document specifies a mandatory percentage of building materials to be made of recycled materials. Low embodied energy materials Low embodied energy materials (for example, materials with lower carbon footprints). The regulation document encourages or prescribes the use of low embodied energy materials and/or gives guidance on how to calculate the carbon foot- print of the building materials and optimize building material used to reduce the carbon footprint. Table D.6 // Universal Accessibility Provisions Topic Subtopic Statement External Environment External environment (for example, approach to building entrance, circula- Design for tion routes, and so on). Universal Accessibility The regulation document contains some provisions on universal accessibil- ity requirements related to the external environment. Entrances, doors, and lobbies The regulation document contains some provisions related to universal accessibility requirements for entrances, doors and/or lobbies. Horizontal and vertical circulation The regulation document contains some provisions related to universal within a building accessibility requirements for horizontal and vertical circulation. Building facilities The regulation document contains some provisions related to universal accessibility requirements for building facilities, including WC/toilets. Building fixtures and fittings to assist The regulation document contains some provisions related to universal with orientation, wayfinding, and accessibility requirements for building fixtures and fittings. communication Evacuation and safe egress The regulation document contains some provisions related to universal accessibility requirements for evacuation and safe egress. Annex D: Assessment Statements A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 220 Table D.7 Code Implementation Environment CODE IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT RATING Partial (meets some aspects No Yes or contains insufficient (does not meet the Evaluation (meets the requirements information for full requirements of the Topic Statement of the statement) implementation) statement) The building control processes The country has a com- Only some of the main The country lacks a Established are clearly defined in any reg- plete and detailed frame- steps of the building defined building control building control work defining the build- control processes are process, or the process ulations or government docu- processes ing control processes. defined within the legal defined in the regula- ments. framework. tions is very general or fails to consider all the main steps (application, issuance, inspection and occupancy certificate). There is an online approval sys- There is an online The online approval sys- There is no online appro- Accessibility of tem available in the country. approval system avail- tem only allows certain val system available for building control able in the country or tasks to be undertaken the users in the country. regulations and in the main cities of the by the users or is only information on country allowing the implemented in the main processes users to apply online, city (or capital) of the and follow up their appli- country. cation (including during the inspection phase) until issuance of the occupancy certificate. The information regarding the All the needed informa- The information is mainly The information is not building control processes is tion is available online available through a cen- available online or dif- clearly available to the public through official websites tral official website, but ficult to obtain through through an official website or (at central and/or local vital aspects are still scat- official governmental level). The information is tered elsewhere among websites. websites. complete, clear and easy other official websites to obtain. The building control process There is a clear catego- There is no clear cate- There is no categoriza- Optimized process integrates a tiered system of rization system within gorization system within tion system of buildings. building categories to deter- the building control the regulations; instead, The process and require- mine application requirements regulations that intro- only performance require- ments are almost the duces clearly differenti- ments for specific types same for every building and allocate human resources. ated requirements and of buildings. subject to the building processes for different permit issuance process. categories of buildings based on parameters such as height, total size, and so forth. The building control framework Regulations have The inspection frame- There is no mandatory Defined building integrates inspections by the defined a clear inspec- work is mentioned within inspections framework inspection tions framework, setting the regulations, but no within the regulations authority in charge during the framework out who is in charge of specific processes are specifying the construc- construction process. site visits and when, with defined within the regula- tion step (phase) when responsibilities clearly tions or inspections tasks inspections must take stated. remain vague. place. The building control framework Regulations define The appeal process is The country does not Dispute resolution integrates and details a dispute clearly the appeal pro- mentioned but there is foresee in detail the mechanism cess and give a clear insufficient elucidation of appeal process and does resolution mechanism framework for an ADR the precise process. ADR not have any Alternative mechanism. mechanisms are part of Dispute Resolution (ADR) the legal framework of legally in place. the country. The country has a professional There is a clear and man- Two of three mandatory There is no registration Professional certification and registration datory registration sys- registration systems system for the main certification and tem for all professionals exist (architects, engi- stakeholders of the con- mechanism registration system in the construction indus- neers, contractors). struction industry (pro- try. A classification and fessionals and contrac- qualification system also tors). exists for contractors. Annex E: Glossary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 222 Annex E: Glossary A Act » a high-level measure passed through the law-making process of the legislative arm of a national government, such as Parliament. Distinct from case law created by courts.  Adaptive reuse » a process of renovating, retrofitting or repurposing an existing building to extend its useful life and improve functionality, safety, and/or sustainability. The term is often applied to refer to the process of converting an existing building for a new use.   Alternative solutions » procedures or methods which may differ from those set out in the building code but can nevertheless demonstrate compliance of the design with the code’s performance requirements.  Average Annual Loss (AAL) » the expected annual average economic losses from a type of disaster risk. The AAL is estimated by correlating the probable losses of multiple events and their annual probability of occurrence.  Average Annual Loss Ratio (AALR) » the average annual loss expressed as a proportion of the total value of the assets at risk. For a building, this can take account of the building contents in addition to the building itself. See Average Annual Loss (AAL).  B Beyond code » designing a building beyond (to surpass) the minimum requirements of the code to enhance performance. This may mean enhanced performance to limit structural damage, or improved recovery times after exposure to hazards, or enhance energy efficiency and other aspects of green building.  Building code » a set of requirements for the design and construction of buildings, promulgated by local or national govern- ments, which often refers to or incorporates various reference standards, thus making those standards legal requirements to be followed in all design and construction work in that building code’s jurisdiction. Also sometimes referred to as building regu- lations or building design regulations.  Building control » the process of ensuring that building construction complies with building codes and regulations. It includes mechanisms and processes for reviews and checks of design and construction information (for example, drawings, specifica- tions and material testing results), issuing construction and occupancy permits, inspecting the quality and completeness of construction activities, and enforcing regulatory framework requirements, including through incentives and penalties (adapted from World Bank, 2024a). Building interstory drift » building drift is the lateral movement of buildings caused by wind or earthquakes. Interstory drift denotes a ratio of the relative lateral displacements between the top and bottom of an individual story and the corresponding story height.  Building regulations » regulations as part of building regulatory systems, including planning regulations, building design codes and standards, and building control regulations. Also see building regulatory framework and building code.  Building regulatory framework » the set of laws, regulatory documents, compliance mechanisms, education and training requirements, product testing and certification processes, professional qualifications, and licensing schemes that support a safe and sustainable built environment. It has two core components: (i) legislation and regulations that together form building regulatory systems, including legal acts that reference the planning regulations, building design codes and standards, and build- ing control regulations; and (ii) implementation/compliance mechanisms and capacity.  C Climate change adaptation » the process of adjusting to actual or expected changes in climate and their effects. For buildings, climate adaptation refers to the process of designing, retrofitting and managing built environments to withstand and respond to the impacts of climate change. This includes measures to address rising temperatures, extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and changing precipitation patterns to enhance resilience, reduce vulnerability and ensure long-term functionality and safety.  Annex E: Glossary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 223 Compliance mechanisms » the methods and processes used to ensure that buildings meet the required codes and standards.  Cultural heritage » encompasses buildings and sites that society considers valuable across a number of dimensions: symbolic, historic, artistic, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological, and scientific (adapted from UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2009).  D Damping » a property of materials or system in which components behave in such a way as to reduce the vibrations and oscil- lations of the structure by dissipating its energy. During an earthquake, damping in a building can be due to damage or rocking of the entire structure or its components, or due to the presence of advanced systems, such as seismic isolation devices or devices with added damping.  Demand-side measures » measures in green building design that reduce a building’s consumption of energy. These include building orientation, use of daylighting, natural ventilation, solar shading, insulation and reflectivity of the building envelope, energy efficient lighting, HVAC systems and other equipment efficiencies.  Design for deconstruction (circular construction) » the design of buildings, products and components in a way that allows them to be taken apart, recovered, and reused at the end of their service life, including through such techniques as reversible connections (screws and bolts, for example, rather than glue or other chemical fixings). By considering the end of life of a build- ing during design, a greater percentage of materials can be reclaimed and reused (adapted from UKGBP, 2024).  Disaster » a serious disruption (or shock), of the functioning of a system, community, or society at any scale caused by a haz- ardous event interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability, and capacity (ability to respond and recover). This leads to human, material, economic, and/or environmental damage and impacts.  Distributional effects » the overall outcomes of a policy change in terms of the redistribution of the final gains and costs derived from the direct gains and costs. For example, a change in building code may impact different groups in society or the market in different ways, with some seeing overall benefits and some groups experiencing economic or social costs.  Ductility » Ductility is the ability of a structure or a structural element to deform beyond the elastic range and avoid sudden, brittle failures (adapted from Allen et al., n.d.).  Ductility factor » a way to approximate the effect of expected ductility, damping and overstrength (deliberate extra load resis- tance) of a structural component or an entire structural system for seismic design purposes. Examples of ductility factors (some- times called response modification factors) include R factors in the International Building Code or q factors in the Eurocodes. E Embodied energy » the energy content of all the materials used in a building and its technical installations, and energy con- sumed at the time of erection/construction and renovation of the building. Initial and recurring embodied energy are the two major components of embodied energy. Initial embodied energy is the sum of the energy required for extraction and manufac- ture of a material together with the energy required for its transportation during the initial building construction. The recurring embodied energy in buildings represents the sum total of the energy embodied in the material used due to maintenance, repair, restoration, refurbishment or replacement during the service life of the building (adapted from Building and Environment, 2017).  Energy Use Intensity (EUI) » an indicator of the energy efficiency of a building’s design and/or operations. EUI can be thought of as the miles-per-gallon rating of the building industry. It is used in different ways, including to set a target for energy performance for design purposes, to benchmark a building’s designed or operational performance against others of the same building type, or to evaluate compliance against energy code requirements. EUI varies with building type and is expressed as energy per square foot or meter per year. It is calculated by dividing the total energy consumed by the building in one year by the total gross floor area of the building (adapted from AIA California, n.d.).  Exposure » the location, attributes, and value of important community assets that are exposed to the hazard, such as people, buildings, agricultural land, and infrastructure (adapted from World Bank, 2024a). F Flood barrier (or gate) » in the context of buildings, a flood barrier or flood gate is a structure that blocks or redirects water to prevent flooding of a site, building, or complex of buildings. Flood barriers may be permanent and built into landscaping and site infrastructure, or they can be temporary (deployable), such as metal sheeting, water-filled tubes, or sandbags.  Flood design level » the highest water level that is expected to occur at a building site, often with additional buffer included (freeboard), used to inform decisions about flood risk mitigation and to design structures to withstand flooding. Annex E: Glossary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 224 Floodproofing (dry/wet) » structural and/or nonstructural measures in building design to mitigate damage from flooding. A dry floodproofing approach makes a building or site watertight to keep floodwaters out. A wet floodproofing approach allows water to enter a building in a flood event (sometimes through break-away walls) but includes measures to minimize flood damage such as using flood vents and flood-proof materials, and raising up critical equipment. Functional Recovery » to support resilience goals at the community level, there is a need to establish a link between the design, construction, and retrofit of individual buildings and lifeline infrastructure systems, and community resilience, as measured by time required to recover their function. The concept of functional recovery has been introduced to serve as this link, defined as a post-earthquake performance state in which a building or lifeline infrastructure system is maintained, or restored, to safely and adequately support the basic intended functions associated with the pre-earthquake use or occupancy of a building, or the pre-earthquake service level of a lifeline infrastructure system. A key concept for functional recovery is that basic intended func- tions are something less than full pre-earthquake functionality, but more than what would be considered the minimum sufficient for re-occupancy of buildings or temporary provision of lifeline services (FEMA, 2021). G Green building provisions » design requirements for buildings to be more sustainable and resource efficient throughout their life cycle—from siting, design, and construction to operation, maintenance, renovation and demolition. These include measures to improve the energy efficiency and water efficiency of building services and systems, as well as methods to assess and reduce the environmental footprint of building materials and construction activities. Green building provisions can also help to reduce the inequities of energy burden on households.  Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions » include the release of carbon dioxide, methane and other gases into the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture and other human activities. These emissions contribute to the greenhouse effect and climate change (UNEP, 2023b). H Hazard » a natural or anthropogenic phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation. Hazards relate to natural processes (such as floods, storms, droughts, earthquakes) and may be single, sequential, or combined in their origin and effects. They may differ in intensity or magnitude, scale, and frequency and are often classified by cause, such as hydrometeorological or geological. Anthropogenic hazards relate to hazards caused by human activity (adapted from World Bank, 2024a).  I Importance (risk, occupancy, consequence) category » Importance categories (and associated factors) are assigned to build- ings in building codes based on occupancy type to account for the consequences and risks to human life in the event of a building failure due to an extreme event like an earthquake or strong windstorm. The intent is to assign higher criteria for struc- tural/seismic design to buildings whose failure would have more significant impacts in terms of human life or the provision of essential community services necessary to cope with an emergency.  Informal construction » a structure built without obtaining formal planning or construction permission; and/or a semi-per- manent structure that does not meet building regulations. Such structures often fail to meet minimum expectations of safety, weather protection, comfort and other aspects addressed by the building code. Informal buildings are most frequently self-built, either by low-income households themselves or by landowners for rental properties (adapted from World Bank, 2024a).  Inspection framework » a structured approach to conducting inspections to verify compliance with building codes and standards.  L Land-use regulations » any type of ordinances, laws, or rules governing the development and use of land. This includes, for example, the permitted use of land; the density or intensity of use; subdivision requirements; the maximum height and size of proposed buildings; and the provisions for reservation or dedication of land for public purposes. Regulations not only control existing buildings and uses but also guide future development. Land-use maps and development plans form an essential part of land-use regulations at all territorial scales.  Life-cycle assessment (LCA) » a process of evaluating the effects that a building and delivery of related services have on the environment over the entire period of its life, with a view to increasing resource-use efficiency and decreasing liabilities. LCA helps build an understanding of the energy use and other environmental impact associated with all the phases of a building’s life cycle: procurement, construction, operation, and decommissioning. The output of an LCA can be thought of as a wide-ranging Annex E: Glossary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 225 environmental footprint of a building, including aspects such as energy use, global warming potential, habitat destruction, resource depletion, and toxic emissions (adapted from EEA, n.d., and AIA, 2023).  Life safety performance » a level of building performance where a building can sustain significant damage to both structural and nonstructural components due to extreme events, for example, a design earthquake or fire, but still retains a margin of safety against either partial or total structural collapse. This assures a low risk of loss of life, life-threatening injuries, or entrapment.  Low Damage Seismic Design » Low Damage Seismic Design (LDSD) is a design philosophy that goes beyond minimum regula- tory compliance and enhances the seismic resilience of buildings. This approach to building design provides greater confidence in a building’s performance, including the ability to continue using the building after an earthquake (adapted from MBIE, 2024). M Model building code » a set of requirements for the design and construction of buildings that are developed and maintained by a standards development organization, that can either be adopted without modification or adapted by jurisdictions to enact it as their own building code. Modular construction (offsite or volumetric construction, or Modern Methods of Construction—MMC) » a building construc- tion method in which standardized or prefabricated components or modules of a structure, or in some cases entire buildings, are produced in an offsite construction facility, and subsequently transported to the building site and erected in the final position (Journal of Building Engineering, 2021). N Nonengineered construction » buildings that have been designed and constructed with little or no input from architects or engi- neers. In some cases, modern construction materials are used, but elsewhere, construction of these buildings follows traditional building practices, using local materials. The latter type is also referred to as ‘vernacular’ construction (see definition below). Also sometimes referred to as informal construction.  Nonlinear static analysis » a seismic analysis procedure where static load is applied to the structure in an incremental fashion, and nonlinear (inelastic) structural behavior is simulated. It is typically used to obtain an advanced understanding of building performance for seismic design or retrofit purposes. This type of analysis is sometimes called a ‘pushover’ analysis.  Nonlinear response history analysis » a seismic analysis procedure where a numerical model of the structure is subjected to dynamic effects of a real or an artificially generated acceleration record of an earthquake. Nonlinear (inelastic) behavior of structural elements is simulated, and structural response (internal forces and displacements) is obtained at specific time steps corresponding to the earthquake record used as input for the analysis. This type of analysis is used for seismic design of com- plex structures, such as irregular or tall structures.  Nonstructural component (or element) » equipment and building components that are not part of the structural system of a building but can experience damage and adversely affect building performance in extreme events such as severe windstorms or earthquakes (adapted from Whittaker and Soong, 2003).  P Passive survivability » a building’s ability to maintain critical life-supporting conditions for its occupants should external ser- vices such as power, heating fuel, or public water supply be interrupted for an extended period (Sustainability Directory, 2025) Performance-based design » an engineering approach to designing elements of a building based on meeting specific perfor- mance objectives or goals, such as for energy efficiency or for a building’s structural performance in different hazard scenarios, without prescribing a method or specific design requirements by which to achieve these goals.  Performance objective (or goal) » a defined outcome or level of functionality targeted in the design and/or operation of a building. Performance objectives may be related to a variety of intended building functions or performance areas: for example, achieving a life safety performance level in structural and nonstructural systems when exposed to a 475-year return period earthquake, or meeting a specific Energy Use Intensity (EUI) target. Prescriptive design approach » in contrast to the performance-based approach, prescriptive design provisions in codes provide simplified (step-by-step) procedures which could include engineering calculations or simply “rules of thumb” for nonengineered buildings. The assumption is that if the code user follows these prescriptive rules, the code is satisfied, and users do not need to demonstrate that a structural design complies with the intended performance objectives.  Annex E: Glossary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 226 R Reference standards » technical documents, which building codes often refer to, that contain specific design and construction provisions, material-specific design requirements, products testing and certification, or other topics. They are developed by national or international standards development organizations such as the ISO or ASTM, typically through consensus-based processes to support broad acceptance.  Rehabilitation » for a building, rehabilitation aims to enhance the condition of the building’s structural and nonstructural com- ponents. Existing buildings may have suffered damage from past hazard events or may be in poor condition owing to age or lack of maintenance; hence, rehabilitation is required. In some cases, rehabilitation and repair may be combined with retrofit.  Response spectrum analysis » a widely used dynamic analysis procedure in the seismic design of buildings that involves use of a linear elastic numerical model of a structure to estimate its seismic response, including internal forces and lateral displace- ments. The model is subjected to a response spectrum that simulates a range of different earthquake scenarios relevant for the location, and the response depends on dynamic characteristics of the structure, such as its periods of vibration and the corresponding mode shapes.  Retrofit » modifications to an existing building to improve the building performance. This could include strengthening and/or other design modifications to improve its resistance and performance in the event of earthquakes and other hazards or upgrad- ing the building to improve energy efficiency or universal accessibility.  Resilience » the ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner, including through ensuring the preservation, restoration, or improvement of its essential basic structures and functions (IPCC, 2012). In the context of the built environment, resilience in buildings refers to those that are designed, built and operated to support the resilience of their occupants and the broader community, including being able to withstand exposure to a range of shocks and stresses with limited or no damage or disruption.  Regulatory impact assessment » aims to understand the short- and longer-term costs and benefits of regulatory decisions. It begins by defining a problem that the regulatory change aims to solve, then evaluates costs and benefits considering how the regulation will be implemented in practice. The process could help decision-makers to compare the costs and benefits of alter- native regulatory and nonregulatory approaches with the overall aim to select a regulatory approach that provides the greatest net public benefit (adapted from OECD, 2008).  Return period » the mean (average) time between expected occurrences of a hazard event, corresponding to a probability (chance) of exceedance for a certain hazard level (for example, a certain level of flooding or earthquake at a site). Risk » likelihood of the loss of life, injuries, damage or destruction of assets that could occur in a system, society, or community over a specific time period and can be defined through the combination of three terms: hazard, exposure, and vulnerability.  S Seismic assessment » a building study to understand and manage potential damage, life safety risks and economic losses from an earthquake. A seismic assessment informs building owners and users about building vulnerabilities and associated risks and encourages strengthening of vulnerable buildings to address these identified risks (adapted from Building Performance, 2024).  Seismic isolation » a flexible connection introduced between the ground and the structure, usually with a mechanism to dissi- pate energy through added damping. Seismic isolation systems include, among others, rubber bearings and friction pendulum devices. An isolated building has a longer period of vibration and greater effective damping, leading to significantly reduced inter- story drifts and lower accelerations in the structure above the isolation system level than a conventional, fixed-base structure. Lateral displacements and energy dissipation are concentrated within the flexible isolation zone (adapted from NZSEE, 2019).  Shocks » disruptive events whose intensity builds up instantaneously, for example, a severe flood event, hurricane, or earth- quake. Shocks, which are rapid onset events, are distinct from the other class of disruptive events and stresses (see Stresses) which exhibit slow onset. (Mentges et al., 2023).  Soft story » a type of vertical irregularity where one level in the building, referred to as “a soft story”, is more flexible and is weaker than other stories. Under earthquake loads, this often leads to a concentration of damage or collapse at the soft story level. Soil liquefaction » a phenomenon where loose saturated sands and silts act as a liquid due to earthquake ground shaking of a certain intensity and duration. During the shaking, the soil is compacted or densified and a portion of the water and soil are forced out of the saturated soil. During an earthquake, buildings founded on the liquefied soils may sink and settle dramatically, while underground structures may float like submerged rigid boxes (adapted from BSSC, 2010).  Annex E: Glossary A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING CODES 227 Stresses » disruptive processes whose intensity increases over a longer period of time, for example, deterioration of a structure due to lack of maintenance or increased frequency and intensity of extreme temperatures further to climatic changes. It should be noted that a slow-onset stress could still lead to a sudden collapse, for example, a spontaneous building collapse (adapted from Mentges et al., 2023).  Structural component (or element) » a load-bearing component necessary for the structural stability of a building (such as foundations, columns, beams and girders, load-bearing walls, structural floor systems, or lateral bracing elements).  Structural safety » the ability of a building’s structural system to withstand gravity and environmental loads while remaining sta- ble. Structural safety can be defined in terms of performance levels for different hazard scenarios such as Collapse Prevention (CP) or Life-Safety (LS). Supply-side measures » measures in green building design that reduce a building’s reliance on fossil fuels, implemented through actions intended to ensure the efficient generation, transmission and distribution of energy.  T Thermal mass » the capacity of a building material to absorb, store and then release heat (adapted from Passive House+, n.d.) Torsional effects » the behavior of a building that tends to twist as well as deflect horizontally due to lateral loads from wind or earthquakes. Torsional behavior depends on the layout and distribution of vertical elements of the building’s lateral-force-resist- ing system at a story level. These vertical elements include braced frames, moment frames, and/or loadbearing walls (adapted from BSSC, 2010).  U Universal accessibility » ease of independent approach, entry to, evacuation from, and use of a building and its services and facilities by all of the building’s potential users—including people of all ages and abilities—with an assurance of individual health, safety, and welfare during the course of those activities (adapted from World Bank, 2024b).  Universal design » the design and composition of an environment so that it can be accessed, understood and used to the great- est extent possible by all people regardless of their age, size, ability or disability (CEUD, n.d.). U-Value » a measurement of the thermal transmittance of a building enclosure defined as the coefficient of heat transmission (air to air) through a building material, component or assembly (adapted from Energy and Buildings, 2023).  V Vernacular construction » small-scale buildings designed and built using local materials and traditional construction methods passed down through tradition and community knowledge (adapted from World Bank, 2024a). Vulnerability » conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes that influence the expected extent of damages from hazards suffered by an individual, a community, a building or other assets, or infrastructure systems.  Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) » the geographical area where human development, including structures and other infrastruc- ture, meets or intermixes with undeveloped wildlands (NIST, n.d.). The world is undergoing a transformative era of rapid population growth and urbanization, with the population living in urban areas projected to rise from the current level of 55 percent to 70 percent by 2050. This means that a significant proportion of global building stock that will exist in 2050 is yet to be built. Much of this anticipated growth will occur in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. This growth and transformation opens up the opportunity to shape the future of our cities, ensuring they are safe, healthy, and sustainable. However, it also brings formidable challenges, including the impacts of natural disasters, and the complexities of urbanization. By crafting modern building codes that are finely tuned to local contexts—considering development patterns, hazards, climatic conditions, social and cultural factors, construction practices, and local capacity—we can create vibrant, resilient urban landscapes that stand the test of time. The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) is a global partnership that helps www.gfdrr.org low- and lower-middle-income countries better understand and reduce their vulnerabilities to natural hazards and adapt to climate change. GFDRR provides grant financing, technical assistance, training and knowledge sharing activities to mainstream disaster and climate risk management in national and regional policies, strategies, and investment plans. The Program Management Unit, located within the World Bank, manages grant resources to carry out GFDRR’s mission.