PATHWAYS TO ELECTRIC MOBILITY IN THE SAHEL Two and three-wheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou PATHWAYS TO ELECTRIC MOBILITY IN THE SAHEL Two and three-wheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou © 2021 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because the World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution is given to this work. Attribution - Please cite the work as follows: “Fatima Arroyo-Arroyo, Vincent Vesin. 2021. Pathways to Electric Mobility in the Sahel. Two and three-wheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou. Washington, DC: The World Bank.” All queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202- 522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This work was led by Fatima Arroyo-Arroyo (Senior Urban Transport Specialist, World Bank) and Vincent Vesin (Senior Transport Specialist, World Bank) under the guidance of Soukeyna Kane (Country Director),Aurelio Menendez (Practice Manager), Kofi Nouve (Operations Manager) and Pierre Xavier Bonneau (Program Leader). The research and writing team included Antonino Tripodi, Raffaele Alfonsi, Nathalie Chiavassa, and Mamadou Diallo from UNeed.IT,and Alessandro Lidozzi from Roma Tre University. The team is grateful for the valuable comments provided by Farhad Ahmed, Arturo Ardila, Dominic Patella, Ashok Sarkar, and Yao Zhao. The team is grateful for the administrative support provided by Lisa Warouw The team also thanks a large set of stakeholders and urban practitioners in Bamako and Ouagadougou who provided support, insight, and guidance. The report was edited by Charlie DeWitt. The report was co-funded by the Mobility and Logistics Multi-donor Trust Fund (MOLO)´s eMobility Window, managed by the World Bank Group and supported by the Governments of Poland (Ministry of Climate), Switzerland (SECO), Germany (BMZ), and Austria (BMF). All errors are the responsibility of the authors. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank. The authors are solely responsible for them. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AFD French Development Agency ICE Internal Combustion Engine ANASER National Road Safety Agency of Mali IEDES Institute for Economic and Social Development Studies ANEREE National Agency for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency of Burkina Faso INSD National Institute of Statistics and Demography of Burkina Faso API Investment Promotion Agency of Mali INSTAT National Institute of Statistics of Mali 9 / 200 8 / 200 AQI Air Quality Index LCA Life-Cycle Analysis ASCOMA Association of Consumers of Mali LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas CCVA Control Center on Véhicles of Burkina Faso MEEVCC Ministry of Environment, Green Economy and Climate Change - Burkina Faso CEDEAO Economic Community of West African States MIE Ministry of Infrastructure and Equipment CFPRZ Reference Professional Training Center of Ziniarein Burkina Faso MTMUSR Ministry of Transport and Urban Mobility and Road Safety DALY Disability-Adjusted Life Years NMVOC Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds DGD Directorate General of Customs of Burkina Faso ODUO Observatory of Urban Movements in Ouagadougou DGESS Directorate General of Studies and Sectorial Statistics of Burkina Faso OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer DGPE Directorate General for Environment Preservation of Burkina Faso OICA International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers DGTTM Directorate General of Land and Maritime Transport of Burkina Faso OMVS Organization for the Development of the Senegal River DNTTMF National Directorate of Land, Maritime and River Transport - Ministry of Transport of Mali ONT National Transport Office of Mali DRCTU Direction for Traffic and Transport Regulation of Bamako SONABEL National Electric Company of Burkina Faso EASI Conceptual framework: Enable, Avoid, Shift, Improve SONABHY National Hydrocarbon Company of Burkina Faso EB Electric Bicycle SSATP Africa Transport Policy Programme –www.ssatp.org ECF Energy Savings Fund TCO Total Cost of Ownership EDM-SA Energie du Mali SA TOE Tonnes of Oil Equivalent FAFPA Support Fund for Vocational Training and Apprenticeship of Burkina Faso TTW Tank-To-Wheel FAIJ Support Fund for Youth Initiatives in Burkina Faso UNEP United Nations Environment Programme FASI Support Fund for the Informal Sector of Burkina Faso WB World Bank GDP Gross Domestic Product WTT Well-To-Tank GLOSSARY Electric tricycle for freight transport A three-wheeled electric vehicle, used to transport goods. [E-3W Cargo] This terminology is used to indicate vehicles with an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). For example, the report mentions “ICE two-wheel” which means two-wheelers ICE vehicle (motorbikes or scooters) with internal combustion engines. Similarly, “ ICE three- wheel “ means three-wheelers (tricycles) with internal combustion engines. An Air Quality Index (AQI) is a measure of air quality that synthesizes different data ICE motorcycle A two-wheeled ICE vehicle, used to transport people. In this report, it is considered into a single value. [C-2W Moto] with a power greater than 50 cm3. In this study, the AQI is calculated by considering five major air pollutants: ground-level ozone, particulate matter (also known as particulate matter), carbon A two-wheeled ICE vehicle, used to transport people. In this report, it is considered Air quality index monoxide, sulphur dioxide and sulphur dioxide. ICE scooter [C-2W Mobi] with a power of 50 cm3. The more polluted the air, the higher the AQI, and the greater the proportion of the population is likely to feel the negative effects of pollution. It is measured in 10 / 200 11 / 200 four quality levels: 0-20 (low pollution), 21-50 (moderate pollution), 51-100 (high ICE tricycle for passenger A three-wheeled ICE vehicle, used to transport people. pollution), over 100 (very high pollution). transport [C-3W tuk-tuk] An electric vehicle uses one or more electric motors exclusively as its means of ICE tricycle for freight A three-wheeled ICE vehicle, used to transport goods. propulsion. It draws its energy from on-board resources such as an electric battery. transport [C-3W Cargo] Electric vehicle For this study, the following electric vehicles are considered: electric: electric bicycle, electric scooter, electric motorcycle, electric tricycle. Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardized evaluation method (ISO 14040 and 14044) that allows for a multi-criteria and multi-stage environmental assessment An electric bicycle is a bicycle equipped with pedals and an auxiliary electric motor of a system (product, service, company, or process) over its entire life cycle. that carries a power source, usually a rechargeable battery. Life-cycle assessment Its purpose is to know and compare the environmental impacts of a system Two main types of e-bike can be identified: throughout its life cycle, from the extraction of the raw materials that are Electric bicycle Bicycle with pedals and an electric motor that cannot operate on its own (this is a necessary for its manufacture to its treatment at the end of its life (landfill, [e-Bike] pedal-assist cycle). recycling, etc.), including its use, maintenance, and transport phases. Bicycle with pedals and an electric auxiliary motor that can operate on its own (usually with an accelerator). The “Tank-to-Wheel” (TTW) assessment considers the energy expended and Tank-To-Wheel associated greenhouse gases emitted during the operation of a vehicle. A two-wheeled electric vehicle, used to transport people. In this study the Electric motorcycle equivalent non-electric motorcycle is associated with a vehicle with a power The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is a financial estimate of the direct and indirect [E-2W Moto] greater than 50 cm3. costs of a product or service. It considers all costs associated with the purchase, Total cost of ownership operation, and maintenance of vehicles over their lifetime. Electric scooter A two-wheeled electric vehicle, used to transport people. In this study, the equivalent In this study, the TCO is used as a decision-making tool to identify the drivers and [E-2W Mobi] non-electric scooter is associated with a vehicle having a power of 50 cm3. barriers to electric transition and to design appropriate interventions. Electric tricycle for The “Well-to-Tank” (WTT) assessment considers the energy expended and passenger transport A three-wheeled electric vehicle, used to transport people. Well-To-Tank associated greenhouse gases emitted during the steps required to deliver the [E-3W tuk-tuk] finished fuel to a vehicle’s tank. 5. Development scenarios for electric mobility of two- and three-wheelers 75 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5.1. Total Cost of Ownership 76 5.2. User views on electric mobility 81 5.3. Life Cycle Analysis 84 5.3.1. Environmental impacts 87 5.3.2. Impacts on energy consumption 93 5.4. Potential energy impacts in the use phase 95 5.4.1. Short-term scenario 95 5.4.2. Medium/long term scenario 95 6. Potentials for development 101 Acknowledgemnts 7 KE1: Performance comparable to existing ICE vehicles 102 12 / 200 13 / 200 KE2: TCO parity 103 List of abbreviations and acronyms 8 KE3: Affordable initial cost and ease of purchase 104 Glossary 10 KE4: Availability of financing 104 KE5: Availability of charging infrastructure/battery services 105 Executive summary 21 KE6: Energy supply 106 Current situation in Bamako and Ouagadougou 22 KE7: Policy issues 106 Local market for electric two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou and Bamako 24 Summary of strengths and weaknesses 107 Potential for adoption of electric vehicles and early use cases based on the local market 32 Investment concepts for uptake of e-mobility 34 7. Investment concepts 109 Strategic recommendations for the development of e-mobility 37 7.1. Electric mototaxis in Bamako 111 7.2. Electric bicycles for students and employees in Ouagadougou 119 1. Introduction 41 7.3. Electric scooters for mail and newspaper delivery services in Bamako and Ouagadougou 128 2. The current situation in Ouagadougou 47 7.4. Electric scooters for employees in Bamako and Ouagadougou 135 2.1. Mobility conditions in Ouagadougou 48 8. Recommendations for the development of electric mobility 143 2.2. The energy sector in Ouagadougou 52 2.3. Environmental quality in Ouagadougou 55 References 151 2.4.Public transport policies in Ouagadougou 58 Annexes 157 3. The current situation in Bamako 61 Annex 1: International practices 158 3.1. Mobility conditions in Bamako 62 Annex 2: Examples of two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou and Bamako 164 3.2. The energy sector in Bamako 64 Annex 3: Details of Total Cost of Ownership analysis 167 3.3. Environmental quality in Bamako 66 Annex 4: Users’ opinions on electric mobility 173 3.4. Public transport policies in Bamako 68 Annex 5: Main assumptions for the Life Cycle Assessment 177 Annex 6: Assessment of energy aspects for two- and three-wheelers 182 4. Types of two- and three-wheelers used in Ouagadougou and Bamako 71 Annex 7: Examples of pilot projects in Europe 189 4.1. The supply chain 72 Annex 8: Estimation of emissions by pollutant 192 Figure 5.1 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - baseline scenario 78 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 5.2 TCO differential in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 78 Figure 5.3 TCO by category in Bamako - baseline scenario 79 Figure 5.4 TCO by category in Ouagadougou - baseline scenario 79 Figure 5.5 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario a 80 Figure 5.6 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario c 81 Figure 5.7 Life Cycle Assessment 86 Figure 5.8 Main LCA phases 86 Figure 5.9 Schema of life cycle of a vehicle 86 Figure I. Types of two- and three-wheelers used in Bamako and Ouagadougou 23 Figure 5.10 Comparison of total CO2 equivalent emissions 88 Figure II. TCO in Bamako (left) and in Ouagadougou (right) 25 Figure 5.11 Tank-to-wheel energy requirements by vehicle type 88 Figure III. TCO by category in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 25 Figure 5.12 Equivalent CO2 Emissions by Life Cycle Phase in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 88 Figure IV. Cost differential between electric and ICE vehicles in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 25 14 / 200 15 / 200 Figure 5.13 Relative impacts by component in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 91 Figure V. TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Bamako 27 Figure 5.14 Equivalent CO2 emission by percentage of renewable sources in Bamako and Ouagadougou 92 Figure VI. TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Ouagadougou 27 Figure 5.15 Energy consumption by life cycle phase in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 94 Figure VII. Comparison of total CO2 equivalent emissions 29 Figure 5.16 Energy consumption in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 94 Figure VIII. Equivalent CO2 Emissions by Life Cycle Phase in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 29 Figure 5.17 Electricity consumption per year by vehicle type 95 Figure IX. Energy consumption of the “fuel” and “vehicle” cycles in Bamako (left) and in Ouagadougou (right) 29 Figure 5.18 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou Left: slow penetration; Right: fast penetration 97 Figure X. Investment concepts 35 Figure 5.19 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheelers in Bamako Left: slow penetration; Right: fast penetration 97 Figure 1.1 Trend of registered vehicles in Burkina Faso 42 Figure 7.1 Investment concepts 110 Figure 1.2 Trends in motorcycle ownership in Mali 43 Figure 7.2 Development timeline - Bamako investment concept #1 118 Figure 1.3 Success and failure factors for electric mobility 44 Figure 7.3 Development timeline – Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 127 Figure 7.4 Two-wheelers for mail services in Ouagadougou 129 Figure 2.1 Evolution of registered two-wheelers in the Center region from 2010 to 2019 49 Figure 2.2. Three-wheelers 49 Figure 7.5 Two-wheelers mail services à Bamako 129 Figure 7.6 Development timeline – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 134 Figure 2.3 Share of vehicles in traffic by type 50 Figure 7.7 Development timeline - Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 141 Figure 2.4 Distribution of two-wheeler use by age 51 Figure 2.5 Average travel time by mode 52 Figure 8.1 Areas contributing to electric mobility 144 Figure 2.6 Evolution of electricity production and imports between 2009 and 2018 53 Figure 2.7 CO2 emissions per capita (left) and per GDP (right) in Ouagadougou between 2007 and 2016 56 Figure 3A.1TCO per km in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - baseline scenario 168 Figure 2.8 Average PM10 concentration in different areas of Ouagadougou in 2018 56 Figure 3A.2 Percentage of TCOs by category in Bamako - baseline scenario 168 Figure 2.9 Evolution of the AQI in Ouagadougou from October 2020 to March 2021 56 Figure 3A.3 Percentage of TCOs by category in Ouagadougou - baseline scenario 168 Figure 2.10 Comparison of Annual Average AQI 57 Figure 3A.4 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario a 169 Figure 2.11 Evolution of national GHG emissions by vehicle type between 2007 and 2015 57 Figure 3A.5 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario b 169 Figure 3A.6 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario c 170 Figure 3.1 Distribution of travel modes in Bamako in 2013 63 Figure 3A.7 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario d 170 Figure 3.2 Energy mix for power generation of electricity in 2017 in Mali 65 Figure 3A.8 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - scenario e 171 Figure 3.3 CO2 emissions per capita (left) and per GDP (right) in Bamako between 2007 and 2016 67 Figure 3A.9 TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Bamako 172 Figure 3.4 Evolution of the AQI in Bamako from October 2020 to March 2021 67 Figure 3A.10 TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Ouagadougou 172 Figure 3.5 Comparison of annual average AQI 68 Figure 4A.1 Perception of more polluting modes of transport 173 Figure 4A.2 Perceived ease of battery charging (left) and battery life (right) 174 LIST OF TABLES Figure 4A.3 Perceived ease of purchase (left) and similarity of purchase cost (right) 174 Figure 4A.4 Opinions on the mode of transport to start electric mobility 175 Figure 4A.5 Ease of use of an electric vehicle by mode of transport 175 Figure 4A.6 Ease of use of an electric vehicle 176 Table I. Strengths and weaknesses for potential adoption of each type of electric vehicle 33 Figure 4A.7 Ease of use of an electric vehicle by distance travelled (left) and gender (right) 176 Table 2.1 Electricity generation and consumption in Burkina Faso in 2016 53 Figure 4A.8 Average distance travelled under 20 km by gender 176 Table 2.2 CO2 emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou 55 Table 3.1 Energy consumption sectors in 2014 in Mali 65 Figure 5A.1 Detailed diagram of the electric drive train 179 Table 3.2 CO2 emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako 66 Figure 5A.2 Schematic diagram of the powertrain for two- and three-wheelers 179 Table 5.1 Summary of user’s views about eMobility in Bamako and Ouagadougou. 82 Figure 5A.3 Properties of lithium 180 Table 6.1 Strengths and weaknesses for potential adoption of each type of electric vehicle 107 Figure 5A.4 Average composition of a Lithium-based battery. 180 Table 7.1 Stakeholders and their roles - Bamako Investment Concept #1 114 Figure 5A.5 Electric motor composition and detailed view of a HUB motor. 181 Table 7.2 KPIs - Bamako Investment Concept #1 115 16 / 200 17 / 200 Figure 5A.6 Material composition of the controller. PWB: Printed Wiring Board. 181 Table 7.3 Development costs - Bamako investment concept #1 116 Table 7.4 Risk analysis and mitigation strategies - Bamako investment concept #1 117 Figure 6A.1 Methodological scheme for energy consumption analysis 182 Table 7.5 Electric bicycle model 1 121 Figure 6A.2 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different trips under normal drivingconditions in Ouagadougou: (top) slow penetration scenario; (bottom) fast penetration scenario 185 Table 7.6 Electric bicycle model 2 121 Figure 6A.3 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different trips under normal Table 7.7 Stakeholders and their roles - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 123 driving conditions in Bamako: (top) slow penetration scenario; (bottom) fast penetration scenario 185 Table 7.8 KPIs - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 124 Figure 6A.4 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different driving styles Table 7.9 Development costs - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 125 in a slow penetration scenario in Ouagadougou: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; (bottom) route 3 186 Table 7.10 Risk analysis and mitigation strategies - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 126 Figure 6A.5 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different driving styles Table 7.11 Electric scooter 130 in a fast penetration scenario in Ouagadougou: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; (bottom) route 3 186 Table 7.12 Stakeholders and their roles – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 131 Figure 6A.6 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different driving styles in a slow penetration scenario in Bamako: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; (bottom) route 3 187 Table 7.13 KPIs – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 132 Figure 6A.7 Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different driving styles Table 7.14 Development costs – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 132 in a fast penetration scenario in Bamako: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; (bottom) route 3 187 Table 7.15 Risk analysis and mitigation strategies – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 133 Figure 6A.8 Total energy consumption of two- and three-wheel electric vehicles in Ouagadougou: Table 7.16 Example of electric scooter 136 (top) slow penetration; (bottom) fast penetration 188 Table 7.17 Stakeholders and their roles – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 138 Figure 6A.9 Total energy consumption of two- and three-wheel electric vehicles in Bamako: Table 7.18 KPIs – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 138 (top) slow penetration; (bottom) fast penetration 188 Table 7.19 Development costs – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 139 Table 7.20 Risk analysis and mitigation strategies – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 140 Figure 7A.1 L1e-A electric bicycle 189 Table 8.1 Recommendations for the development of electric mobility on two- and three-wheelers 145 Figure 7A.2 Electric bicycle 190 Table 2A.1 Examples of two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou and Bamako 164 Figure 7A.3 Scooter 190 Table 3A.1 Two- and three-wheeler characteristics and assumptions for TCO in Bamako and Ouagadougou 167 Figure 7A.4 Electric car 190 Table 5A.1 Main characteristics of electric bicycles 177 Table 5A.2 Main characteristics of electric scooters and electric motorcycles 177 Table 5A.3 Main characteristics of electric tricycles 178 Table 6A.1 Number of EVs for different two- and three-wheeled models in the slow penetration scenario and the fast penetration scenario 183 Table 6A.2 Number of EVs circulating for different routes in the slow penetration scenario 184 Table 6A.3 Number of EVs circulating for different routes in the fast penetration scenario 184 LIST OF MAPS Map 7.1: Campus of University Joseph Ki-Zerbo 120 Map 6A.1: Example of Daily Trips in Ouagadougou 183 Map 6A.2: Examples of daily trips in Bamako 183 LIST OF BOXES 19 / 200 18 / 200 Box 2.1: Key factors in the transport system of Ouagadougou 48 Box 3.1: Key facts about transport in Bamako 62 Box 4.1: Key facts about two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou 72 Box 5.1: Key facts about total cost of ownership 76 Box 5.2: Key facts about the life cycle of electric vehicles 84 Box 5.3: Key facts about energy impacts in the use-phase 95 Box 6.1: Key facts about key enableers for teh development of electic mobility 102 Box 6.2: Tricycle ambulance in Bamako 103 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY air pollutants emitted by motorized traffic in both them; they are assembled practically at the time of cities. These pollutants include carbon monoxide purchase. According to dealers, buying an electric (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), non-methane volatile two- or three-wheeler would not be difficult organic compounds (NMVOC), and particulate because electric two- and three-wheelers can be This study analyzes the potential for electrification share of total mobility in Sahelian cities. The shift matter (PM2.5). At the national level, WHO ordered using the same supply channels as the ICE of two- and three-wheelers in Sahelian cities, using from internal combustion engines to electric two- estimated that ambient (outdoor) air pollution was ones. Currently, the only two- and three- wheelers Bamako and Ouagadougou as case studies. The and three-wheelers has the potential to reduce responsible in 2016 for the loss of 357,039 years of immediately available on the market are pedal- electrification of urban mobility in the Sahel has the local air pollution and CO2 emissions as well as ‘healthy’ life in Burkina Faso and another 396,308 assist bicycles found exclusively in Ouagadougou potential to address pressing development issues noise pollution. Globally, 25 percent of two and years of ‘healthy’ life in Mali.1 where the supply chain is similar to the other two- such as reducing local air pollution, decarbonizing three-wheelers are now electric, and in 2020 most and three-wheelers. the transport sector, reducing vulnerability to of the electric-mobility-generated GHG savings In Ouagadougou, two-wheelers are used mostly petrol imports, and creating new jobs. (50 Mt CO2-eqworldwide) were achieved thanks for private vehicle use. In Bamako, they are used Mali and Burkina Faso present distinctive energy to electric two- and three- wheelers in China [IEA, for private travel as well as commercial passenger mixes. In 2016, Burkina Faso recorded an electricity The technological transition toward electric 2021]. In China, the boom in electric two-wheelers travel as mototaxis and freight transport (Figure I). production of about 1,620 GWh. The country’s vehicles is framed within the ”Improve” pillar of was partly due to their low price and the ban of Three-wheelers are used predominantly for freight energy mix is heavily oriented towards thermal a broader decarbonization framework of Avoid, internal combustion engine motorcycles in many transport in both cities. The motorcycles and sources (oil, natural gas, coal) while only 16 percent Shift, Improve and Resilience (ASIR). The ASIR cities. India and several countries in Southeast scooters used in Bamako and Ouagadougou have of the national production comes from renewable framework aims at (i) avoiding or reducing travel Asia have also initiated programs to promote four-stroke petrol engines with power ranging from sources (mainly hydroelectric and solar). In 2017, or the need to travel, (ii) shifting to more energy the electrification of small vehicles. Interesting 110 cc to 250 cc. Tricycles have four-stroke diesel Mali’s electricity production was 1,923 GWh. Mali’s efficient modes such as non-motorized transport developments are also taking place in Africa, engines with 150 cc power. Practically all two- and energy mix is generally oriented towards the use of and public transport, (iii) improving efficiency 22 / 200 23 / 200 supported by both sustainable mobility policies three-wheelers are imported and assembled locally renewable sources; about 47 percent of electricity through vehicle technology, and (iv) enhancing and by private investments (e.g., trials of electric with spare parts imported from China. Currently, is generated from hydroelectric sources. resilience. mototaxi with battery exchange programs in vehicles can be purchased without having to order The study has a particular focus on the electrification Rwanda). of two- and three- wheelers due to their dominant Figure I. Types of two- and three-wheelers used in Bamako and Ouagadougou CURRENT SITUATION IN BAMAKO AND OUAGADOUGOU Bamako and Ouagadougou’s economic and Bamako, it is estimated that two-wheelers account demographic growth over the last 20 years has for 66 percent of vehicle in traffic. In comparison, been accompanied by an exponential increase in three-wheelers account for only 1 percent of motorization dominated by two-wheelers, while vehicle traffic and the use of bicycles is negligible. Bicycles Scooters/Motorcycles Tricycles three-wheelers are gaining in importance in recent No electric two and three- wheelers have been years. The annual population growth of these capital identified in Bamako during this study. cities is around 5 percent. Demographic growth has In both Ouagadougou and Bamako, ICE two- and been accompanied by rising household income Bicycles Scooters/Motorcycles Tricycles three-wheelers are responsible for a significant and an exponential increase in motorization, portion of air pollution and greenhouse gas especially internal combustion engine (ICE) two- emissions. According to this study’s estimate, CO2 wheelers, and more recently ICE three-wheelers. emissions from ICE two and three wheelers could The proliferation of motorized two-wheelers range between 54 percent and 60 percent of total started in the 2000s. In the case of Ouagadougou vehicle emissions in the city of Ouagadougou. from 2003 to 2013, the number of motorized two- In the case of Bamako, this value ranges from wheelers multiplied by a factor of nearly nine. In 52 percent to 58 percent. In addition, the CO2 Bamako and Ouaga Ouagadougou Ouagadougou Bamako Bamako and Ouaga Ouagadougou today, ICE two-wheelers account Private travel, emissions per capita increased at a worrisome rate Freight Private travel Private travel Freight for 71 percent of vehicles in traffic, while ICE person & freight of 64 percent in Burkina Faso between 2007 and three-wheelers account for 1 percent of vehicles 2016 while increasing by 86 percent in Bamako and bicycles account for 9 percent of vehicles. during the same period. It is also estimated that ICE Some electric bicycles are beginning to be used in two- and three-wheelers could be responsible for Ouagadougou, especially by school-age youth. In a major share (typically 60-75 percent) of harmful 1 DALYs - Disability-Adjusted Life Years, calculated by WHO as the years of life lost due to premature mortality plus the years of healthy life lost due to disability LOCAL MARKET FOR ELECTRIC TWO- AND THREE- Figure II. WHEELERS IN OUAGADOUGOU AND BAMAKO TCO in Bamako (left) and in Ouagadougou (right). E-3W cargo 5335 E-3W cargo 4929 For the time being, potential users, policymakers, alternative in purchasing decisions because of the C-3W cargo G 8027 C-3W cargo G 9020 and transport service providers (operators) relatively simple and mature technology achieved C-3W cargo 9312 C-3W cargo 9299 lack significant experience and knowledge of by this type of vehicle. E-3W tuk-tuk 5754 E-3W tuk-tuk 5569 electric mobility (e-mobility) in both Bamako and For three-wheelers, it is more difficult to find C-3W tuk-tuk 5700 C-3W tuk-tuk 5829 Ouagadougou. models that are fully comparable to ICE vehicles. A E-2W (Moto) 2402 E-2W (Moto) 1993 Analyses of the current mobility situation in key factor will be the willingness of consumers to C-2W (Moto) 2362 C-2W (Moto) 2130 Bamako and Ouagadougou as well as estimates accept the trade-off between vehicle load capacity E-2W (Mobi) 1790 E-2W (Mobi) 1529 of the impacts of the electric transition of two- and maximum vehicle speed. This may be relevant C-2W (Mobi) 1898 C-2W (Mobi) 1707 and three-wheelers show significant potential in both cities given that this type of vehicle is used for e- mobility development in those cities. mainly for freight transport. e-Bike 794 e-Bike 750 This assessment considered key enablers for 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 consumers to start considering electric vehicles 2. FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE - DO ELECTRIC in their purchasing decisions and creating niche TWO AND THREE-WHEELERS OFFER, IN THE Figure III. markets. Other enablers under consideration LONG RUN, BETTER VALUE THAN ICE? TCO by category in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right). involved government options to pursue e-mobility 24 / 200 25 / 200 as a policy priority. Another consideration in this The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) analysis helps E-3W cargo E-3W cargo assessment is a more mature market phase that to inform a purchase decision by determining C-3W cargo G C-3W cargo G allows the market to scale up. The fact that Bamako the differences between the purchase price and C-3W cargo C-3W cargo and Ouagadougou are relatively flat cities favors the long-term cost (TCO) that includes purchase, E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk the penetration of electric vehicles as a dominant operation, and maintenance of vehicles over their C-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk means of transportation. Other key enablers for lifetime. E-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) the development of e-mobility include: Electric two- and three-wheelers generally E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) Technical performance offer either similar or better value in the long C-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Mobi) Financial performance run compared to ICE two- and three-wheelers e-Bike e-Bike in Bamako and Ouagadougou (Figure II and USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 Environmental performance Figure IV). In Bamako, the TCO of the electric Initial investment motorcycle and the electric tricycle for passenger Purchase cost Insurance Taxes Energy/Fuel Battery replacement Maintenance Availability of financing transport (tuk-tuk) are almost the same as those of the corresponding ICE models (considering five Availability of charging network for vehicles Figure IV. years of use and an average of 25 km per day). On Electricity supply the other hand, the TCO of electric scooters and Cost differential between electric and ICE vehicles in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right). Policy support. tricycles for freight transport is lower than those of the corresponding TCO for ICE scooters and 3R cargo G -34% 3R cargo G -45% tricycles. In Ouagadougou, all electric vehicles 1. TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE OF VEHICLES show lower TCO than ICE vehicles. It is estimated - IS THE PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC that in the two cities, the TCO of electric freight 3R cargo -43% 3R cargo -47% VEHICLES COMPARABLE TO EXISTING ICE three-wheelers is 34-47 percent lower than that 3R tuk-tuk 1% 3R tuk-tuk -4% VEHICLES? of the ICE models, while the TCO for electric The issue of technical performance concerns the scooters is estimated to be 6-10 percent lower 2R (Moto) 2% 2R (Moto) -6% possibility of using electric vehicles to carry out than that of the corresponding ICE models. The routine trips and activities with the same degree electric motorcycle TCO is 1 percent higher than 2R (Mobi) -6% 2R (Mobi) -10% of technical reliability, efficiency, and overall ICE models in Bamako while it is 6 percent lower comfort as ICE vehicles. The electric two-wheelers in Ouagadougou. Similarly, the electric tuk-tuk -50% -40% -30% -20% -10% 0 10% -50% -40% -30% -20% -10% 0 that dealers in Bamako and Ouagadougou might shows a TCO that is 1 percent higher in Bamako offer have similar technical characteristics to and 4 percent lower in Ouagadougou than its Source: Authors ICE vehicles, thus representing an appropriate corresponding ICE vehicle. Finally, electric bicycles are a very competitive year, whereas a more “oscillating” pattern can be alternative to scooters and motorcycles in terms found in Bamako where electric motorcycles are of TCO. slightly profitable for mileage ranges of 15,000- 20,000 km and 33,000-55,000 km per year. The purchase cost2 remains significantly higher This difference in profitable ranges between for electric vehicles, while the cost of fuel and Ouagadougou and Bamako is explained by the maintenance is significantly higher for ICE relatively higher cost of electricity in Bamako vehicles. This indicates that the expected reduction compared to gasoline3 which undermines the of purchase cost of electric vehicles in the coming potential gains to be made from using electric years will make electric two- and three-wheelers vehicles more efficiently than ICE vehicles. even more cost-competitive. The breakdown of As the cheapest mode of electric transportation, TCO (Figure III) data shows that the most important electric bicycles could compete directly with cost category for electric vehicles is purchase cost, ICE scooters rather than being merely an while for ICE vehicles the most important cost alternative to non-electric bicycles, especially category is fuel consumption. in the lower mileage ranges. As the TCO analysis has shown in Bamako and A sensitivity analysis shows the use of electric Ouagadougou, electric vehicles are competitive vehicles is penalized in both cities due to a with ICE models although competitiveness varies reduction in the life span caused by the higher Figure V. purchase cost over the period of use and the by vehicle type and depends on the total distance corresponding decrease in economic benefits TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Bamako travelled by the vehicle. 26 / 200 27 / 200 in terms of energy consumption. An increase in The most cost-effective type of electric vehicle maintenance cost for electric vehicles does not 80% (in terms of TCO per km) relative to its ICE significantly change the TCO. An increase in 70% counterpart is the three-wheeler for freight energy consumption of electric vehicles does not 60% transport. Nevertheless, the profitability of such have a significant impact on the TCO of e-scooters 50% 40% a change for vehicles with an annual mileage and freight e-three-wheelers. For more details on 30% equal to or greater than 20,000 km per year is the sensitivity analysis, see Annex 3. 20% conditioned by the availability of an appropriate A sensitivity analysis of distance travelled shows 10% battery charging or exchange system. that the electric transition could be profitable 0 Electric scooters are the second most cost- for all vehicles used for private and professional -10% 0 5.000 9.125 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000 55.000 effective category for all categories of mileage, purposes with a few exceptions concerning sharing many of the same characteristics of electric motorcycles and three-wheelers for passenger three-wheelers used for freight (availability of a transport for specific annual mileages (see KM charging or battery exchange system) with respect Figure V and VI and Annex 3). With increasing to mileages above 21,000 km/year. annual mileage, the TCO decreases and electric E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Moto) E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W cargo E-3W cargo G scooters and three-wheelers for freight transport Three-wheeled electric vehicles for passenger become progressively more attractive than ICE transport are the third most cost-effective vehicles. For other types of vehicles, there are Figure VI. mode for all mileage in Ouagadougou and for differences between the two cities that should mileage of 10,000 km/year or more in Bamako; be noted. This can be observed in Figure V for TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Ouagadougou nevertheless, this mode is used only marginally Bamako and Figure VI for Ouagadougou, where as an alternative in both cities. data shows that the TCO of the electric vehicle is 80% Electric motorcycles are profitable in lower than that of the ICE vehicle.4 In Bamako, 70% Ouagadougou for mileage above 5,000 km per electric motorcycles achieve cost parity with 60% 50% 40% 30% 2 In addition to the purchase cost, this study considers a residual resale value at the end of the technical life of the vehicle 20% (considered as equal to the period of ownership). This assumed residual resale value is10 percent of the purchase cost for 3 ICE vehicles (due to the existence of a secondary market for spare parts) and 0 percent for electric vehicles. 10% 4 0 In Bamako, the average cost of electricity is US$0.237/kWh (CFAF 130/kWh) while the average cost of gasoline is US$0.143/kWh (CFAF 77/kWh). In Ouagadougou, the average cost of electricity is US$0.185/kWh (CFAF 100/kWh) while -10% 0 5.000 9.125 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000 55.000 the average cost of gasoline is US$0.134/kWh (CFAF 73/kWh). The circles on the graph show the mileages requiring the purchase of an additional battery to cover the daily distance without recharging. KM Figure VII. ICE motorcycles at around 11,000 km driven per The impact of the transport phase of electric two- year, although the differential becomes negative and three-wheelers is slightly higher than that Comparison of total CO2 equivalent emissions in the range of 25,000-30,000 km because of of ICE two- and three-wheelers. The differences the need for an additional battery. In Bamako, are due to the higher weight of electric vehicles eTricycle electric three-wheelers for passenger transport compared to their ICE counterparts. Tricycle are more economical than ICE vehicles for eMoto distances between 14,000 and 25,000 km, In the use phase of the vehicle, the environmental impact of ICE two- and three-wheelers is much Moto while for longer distances they are negatively affected by the cost of additional batteries. In higher than that of their electric counterparts, both eScooter Ouagadougou, electric motorcycles achieve cost in terms of emissions of CO2 equivalent and air Scooter parity with ICE motorcycles at around 6,000 Ouagadougou Bamako pollutants. eBike km, and electric motorcycles maintain a positive differential between 6 percent and 19 percent in In Bamako, electric scooters have 83 percent Bike comparison to ICE vehicles. For other vehicles lower CO2 emissions than ICE scooters during 0 50 100 150 200 250 in Ouagadougou, ICE vehicle types have a higher the use phase. Electric motorcycles and tricycles g CO2 eq./km TCO for all mileages. reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 67 percent Figure VIII. compared to their ICE counterparts. In addition, electric tricycles have 42 percent lower CO2 Equivalent CO2 Emissions by Life Cycle Phase in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) 3. ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE - DO emissions than ICE scooters. ELECTRIC TWO AND THREE-WHEELERS In Ouagadougou, the environmental benefits eTricycle eTricycle OFFER, IN THE LONG RUN, BETTER 29 / 200 28 / 200 of electric vehicle use are important but less Tricycle Tricycle ENVIRONMENTAL OUTCOMES THAN ICE? extensive than in Bamako. Even under these eMoto eMoto The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used to respond conditions, electric scooters have 78 percent Moto Moto to the question of better environmental outcomes. lower CO2 emissions compared to ICE scooters. LCA evaluates the environmental impact from a Electric motorcycles and tricycles reduce CO2 eScooter eScooter equivalent emissions by 57 percent compared to Scooter Scooter product during the whole life cycle. It has been their ICE counterparts. In Ouagadougou as well, used to assess both the pollutant emissions and the eBike eBike the use of electric tricycles has less of a negative energy consumption of two- and three-wheelers environmental impact than an ICE scooter with Bike Bike for the following phases of the vehicle life cycle: 24 percent lower CO2 emissions. 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 production, transport, use, maintenance, and end- g CO2 eq./km g CO2 eq./km of-life. Differences between ICE and electric vehicles during the use phase (i.e., on a Tank-to-Wheel basis) are linked to their respective energy efficiency. Production Transport Use End of life Impact on environment Moreover, electric two- and three-wheelers Electric two- and three-wheelers offer an produce zero tailpipe emissions in the use phase Figure IX. opportunity to reduce CO2 emissions during the of the vehicle. This is a significant advantage given life cycle of vehicles (Figure VII). Electric vehicles Energy consumption of the “fuel” and “vehicle” cycles in Bamako (left) and in Ouagadougou (right) the acute problem of air pollution in Bamako and always have less of an impact on global warming Ouagadougou. Velo Velo (measured as the amount of CO2 equivalent emitted per km travelled) when compared to the There is a significant difference between ICE e-Bike e-Bike same type of vehicle (e.g., ICE motorcycle versus vehicles and their electric counterparts in terms Scooter Scooter electric motorcycle). of energy requirements of each city. A major e-Scooter e-Scooter disadvantage in meeting these energy requirements In the production phase (Figure VIII), electric Moto Moto is the lower efficiency of ICE vehicles which is two- and three-wheelers generally have a higher e-Moto e-Moto partially offset by the lower average weight of ICE impact on emissions than their ICE counterparts. Tricycle Tricycle vehicles compared to electric vehicles with their For example, the production of electric scooters has heavy batteries. e-Tricycle e-Tricycle a 20 percent greater impact than the production of 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 an ICE scooter, but also has 14 percent less impact The negative environmental impact caused by than the production of an ICE motorcycle. the end-of-life phase is greater for electric two- and three-wheelers than those with internal Well-to-tank Tank-to-wheel Other Source: Authors combustion engines. This is mainly because the Impacts on energy consumption mitigated by any public incentives or by financial users and service providers are more likely to batteries of the electric vehicles have a number of programs to avoid upfront costs. Incentives are consider battery changing services. It is worth Electric two- and three-wheelers generally different metals that require a more complicated needed to make the cost of purchasing an electric noting that from a technical, regulatory, and have a lower energy consumption5 than ICE recycling process. The environmental impact vehicle affordable. economic point of view, a battery exchange service two- and three-wheelers (Figure IX). An electric increases with the size of the battery (and therefore is more feasible in Bamako and Ouagadougou scooter consumes 40 percent less energy than the size of the vehicle). 5. AVAILABILITY OF FINANCING - IS THERE than the installation of charging stations. The use an ICE scooter, while an electric motorcycle AVAILABLE OR POSSIBILITY OF NEW of solar panel installations for battery recharging As Mali and Burkina Faso are transitioning towards consumes 19- 23 percent less energy and an electric FINANCING OPTIONS? could also be worthy of consideration. a greener energy mix, a different energy mix for tricycle consumes 5-10 percent less energy than production of electricity can have an impact on the the ICE homologue. The highest gain obtained by A well-developed financial ecosystem is essential Ease of purchase of electric two- and three- amount of CO2 emissions from electric vehicles. switching from an ICE to electric vehicle comes to address the problem of upfront costs of electric wheelers is not perceived as a problem, as all the This is especially relevant for Ouagadougou where from the reduction in “Tank-to-Wheel” energy vehicles, which are generally less affordable than dealers consulted confirmed that it was easy to the electricity currently produced from renewable consumption. ICE models. Strengthening the financial ecosystem order electric vehicles through the usual supply sources is only 17 percent of the total production would also include the emergence of new business chain which also includes the availability of spare Total energy consumption, for all vehicles, is of electricity. Increasing the share of renewable models, such as vehicle subscription / rental parts. In addition, the sale of electric bicycles lower in Bamako than in Ouagadougou. In Bamako, sources in total energy production would reduce models, battery subscription / rental models, etc. appears to be an emerging trend among school-age the better energy mix for electricity production CO2 emissions in two- and three-wheelers by a Vehicle leasing could be particularly promising in youth in Ouagadougou. plays an important role in lowering the energy significant amount. In Ouagadougou, increasing Bamako and Ouagadougou, as it would also address consumption during the “Well-to-Tank” phase. the use of renewable sources to 45 percent of total the problems associated with the lack of experience 7. ELECTRICITY SUPPLY - IS THE EXISTING electricity production (up from the current 17 In the case of ICE two- and three-wheelers, the with electric vehicles, particularly in terms of ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION IN BAMAKO 30 / 200 31 / 200 percent) would reduce equivalent CO2 emissions “fuel cycle” accounts for more than 90 percent avoiding the “fear” of owning an electric vehicle AND OUAGADOUGOU ENOUGH FOR A for electric two- and three-wheelers by 7 percent of total energy consumption, while this value due to negative perceptions related to limited range TRANSITION TOWARDS ELECTRIFICATION OF for electric bicycles and 14 percent for electric is around 80 percent for electric vehicles. As a and technical failures. Green financing options TWO- AND THREE-WHEELERS? motorcycles and electric tricycles. Increasing consequence, the “vehicle cycle” has a relatively could be also explored. renewable energy to 75 percent of energy low impact on energy consumption for both types To respond to the question of adequate electricity production would reduce equivalent CO2 for of technologies. production, we have analyzed scenarios where 6. AVAILABILITY OF CHARGING NETWORK a number of electric two- and three-wheelers electric two- and three-wheelers from 15 percent While ¨Tank-to-Wheel¨ energy consumption is AND VEHICLES - IS THERE AVAILABLE of different types (e.g., bicycles, motorcycles, for electric bicycles and 29 percent for electric always lower for electric vehicles, the energy CHARGING NETWORK? ARE THERE tricycles) are introduced into the current mobility motorcycles. consumption of electric two- and three-wheelers AVAILABLE VEHICLES FOR PURCHASE? system of both cities. The energy assessment In contrast, renewable sources are currently is not always lower than that of ICE vehicles The availability of an adequate charging network also considered three conditions of driving style: responsible for 47 percent of total electricity during the “Well-to-Tank” phase. In Ouagadougou, (charging stations or battery exchange services) normal, relaxed, and stressed. Two penetration production in Bamako. As with Ouagadougou, electric motorcycle and electric tricycles consume is seen as a fundamental condition for market scenarios are analyzed here: increasing the share of renewable sources in total more energy during the “Well-to-Tank” stage than their ICE counterparts due to the city’s low use of adoption of electric vehicles bigger than two- Slow penetration of electric two and three- energy production would reduce CO2 emissions renewable sources to produce electricity. wheelers. However, there is still no consensus on wheelers. Electric two- and three-wheelers in two- and three-wheelers by a significant whether a dedicated charging network is necessary would replace 5 percent of current two- and amount. If Bamako were to increase the use of for two-wheelers. Currently, there is no such three-wheelers. renewable sources to 65 percent of the total energy 4. INITIAL INVESTMENT - IS THE HIGHER network in Bamako and Ouagadougou. It does not Fast penetration of electric two- and three- production (up from the current 47 percent), this PURCHASE COST OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES A appear to be a short-term constraint since most wheelers. Electric two- and three-wheelers would reduce the equivalent CO2 emissions by BARRIER? two-wheelers could be easily recharged in a few would replace 70 percent of current two- and 5 percent for electric bicycles and 10 percent Electric vehicles generally have higher purchase hours via a standard plug at home or at the office. three-wheelers. for electric motorcycles. Increasing the amount costs than ICE models. These high purchase But the lack of a charging network could limit the of renewable electricity to 85 percent of total The impact on the grid depends on several factors costs were reportedly the most adverse factor in large-scale penetration of electric three-wheelers electricity production would reduce equivalent such as characteristics of existing and future user decisions, and they are not offset by lower and even two-wheelers in the medium/long term, CO2 emissions 12 percent for electric bicycles and energy production, market penetration of electric operating costs. Currently, this problem is not when mobility patterns may create a new need 25 percent for electric motorcycles. vehicles, driving styles, traffic conditions, and for charging that is different from simply plugging vehicle parameters. Under the existing energy at home or the office. Stakeholders are quite 5 The energy consumption is calculated for both the “fuel cycle” and the “vehicle cycle”. Fuel cycle includes: (i) Well-to-Tank conditions, changing 5 percent of current two- divided as to what type of infrastructure would be (WTT), i.e., extraction, production, and transport of raw materials as well as refining, production and distribution of gasoline and three-wheelers to electric models in both and electricity, and (ii) Tank-to-Wheel (TTW), i.e., the gasoline or electricity used by vehicles in the use phase. Vehicle more appropriate in the two cities. While public cycle includes (i) Production (raw materials, vehicle, assembly), (ii) Transport of the vehicle from the production site to capital cities would lead to a consumption of 1.3 institutions would seem to be more oriented to the place of use, (iii) Use (maintenance of the vehicle throughout its life), and (iv) End-of-life (disposal of the vehicle and percent of Mali’s total energy production and battery). the development of public charging infrastructure, 6.9 percent of Burkina Faso’s total electricity policies, including well-defined regulations, will Table I. production. Changing 70 percent of current need to be developed from scratch in Bamako and two- and three-wheelers to electric models in Ouagadougou. According to stakeholders, transport Strengths and weaknesses for potential adoption of each type of electric vehicle both capital cities would lead to a consumption pollution in both cities is a significant problem of 19.5 percent of Mali’s total electricity and represents an opportunity to communicate production and 82 percent of Burkina Faso’s the benefits of an “electric transition.” The Vehicle type Strengths Weaknesses Potential use total electricity production. general impression is that the message would be well received by users but should be addressed Lowest TCO in both cities Higher purchase cost than non- Private use for short Overall, these results indicate that the transition electric bicycles distances (10 km per carefully, especially in relation to vehicle costs. More affordable purchase to electricity should occur in a phased manner. day - limited charging The consultants made it clear that environmental price than scooter Lack of financial incentives to Towards the medium term, the electrification reduce initial cost in both cities needs) in both cities benefits and lower operating costs could take a Electric bicycle Less demanding charging by students/workers of transport should be accompanied by a large back seat to the higher purchase costs. operations Problems with road conditions increase in electricity production at the national level. Furthermore, a significant increase in Models already in Other impacts: road safety circulation in Ouagadougou electricity demand due to the fast electrification of the vehicle fleet is likely to increase electricity There is currently no scientific evidence regarding prices. Technical performance Higher purchase cost than ICE Private use for short the impact of electric two- and three-wheelers comparable to that of ICE models to medium distances An important issue concerning the stability of on road safety. A study performed by Malaysian vehicles (20-25 km per day Lack of financial incentives to electricity provision through the grid is the fact that researchers in 2013 [99] focused on the potential Electric scooter - limited charging Availability per order reduce initial cost in both cities impact of low sound frequencies produced by needs) in both cities peak loads can cause power outages and blackouts, 32 / 200 33 / 200 Competitive TCO in both by students/workers a frequent problem in Bamako and Ouagadougou. electric vehicles but did not refer to field data. No cities Introducing a certain number of electric vehicles research was found on the impact of lower speeds to the system should therefore be managed of electric two- and three-wheelers compared to Technical performance Higher purchase cost compared Mototaxi services in attentively to avoid further deficits in electricity their ICE counterparts. comparable to that of ICE to ICE model Bamako, managed vehicles by companies able load caused by recharging of these vehicles. This Generally, there are two main aspects of electric TCO differential in Bamako Availability per order very sensitive to mileage to meet the initial means that recharging of electric vehicles should two- and three-wheelers that could influence the Electric costs, benefit from a not be concentrated during particular periods of rate of road traffic crashes: motorcycle Competitive TCO in both Lack of financial incentives to lower TCO and can the day. cities reduce initial cost in both cities set up an appropriate While electric two- and three-wheelers can recharging system Lack of charging infrastructure help decrease noise pollution in cities, the in place in both cities (e.g., battery 8. POLICY SUPPORT - IS THERE POLICY absence (or limitation) of sound could be a exchange). SUPPORT AND COULD MOMENTUM BE safety concern especially for pedestrians in GENERATED? mixed environments. Technical performance Higher purchase cost than the Marginal mode of comparable to that of ICE ICE model transport in both A cross-cutting catalyst for improved e-mobility Electric two- and three-wheelers have lower Electric three- vehicles cities maximum speed compared to their ICE wheelers for Lack of financial incentives to would be policy support. To be successful, public No market segment passenger Availability per order reduce initial cost in both cities policies could set clear scopes of work and target counterparts. According to stakeholders, transport identified dates of completion, define comprehensive and motorcycle speeding is one of the biggest road Competitive TCO in both Lack of charging infrastructure safety challenges. The fact that the maximum cities in place in both cities sustainable intervention programs, and ensure speed of electric two-wheelers is limited could their implementation. Electricity-oriented Higher availability per Limited technical comparability Private use for short help lower the risk of injury on the road. order with ICE vehicles and medium distance freight transport Competitive TCO in both Higher purchase cost than ICE cities vehicles (limited charging POTENTIAL FOR ADOPTION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES AND Electric three- Lack of financial incentives to needs) in both cities wheelers for EARLY USE CASES BASED ON THE LOCAL MARKET goods transport reduce initial cost in both cities Lack of charging infrastructure in place in both cities Analysis of the local market allows officials to identifies potential cases for early use. As indicated Possible overloads limiting identify early potential uses of different types of by several stakeholders, particular attention technical performance electric two and three-wheelers vehicles. Table I should be paid to young people as a target group, summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of each as they are more likely than other social groups to vehicle in terms of its potential for adoption and be open to innovative experiences. 34 / 200 35 / 200 INVESTMENT CONCEPTS FOR UPTAKE OF E-MOBILITY Figure X. Investment concepts Based on the early use cases presented in the previous section, this section selects and develops four investment concepts that could be implemented in the short term (e.g., within a period of one to three years) to start an uptake of e-mobility in Ouagadougou and Bamako. The following investment concepts are proposed as shown in Figure X. 1. ELECTRIC MOTOTAXIS IN BAMAKO This investment concept should be carried out according to the same franchise formula currently The objective of this investment concept is to in place for ICE mototaxis in Bamako. To ensure eBike for introduce, in the short term, several electric motorcycles to be used for mototaxi services. This that the periodic amount paid by the riders to the students and eScooter for mototaxi company does not increase, it will be employees in employees concept should be realized in close collaboration important to select electric motorcycles that are Ouagadougou with one or more official mototaxi companies relatively low-cost compared to petrol-powered already operational in Bamako. eScooter ones. Under this concept, battery charging should be for delivery The investment concept could be initiated services performed through a battery swapping system for as a pilot project with a limited number of use with specific motorcycle models. The system electric motorcycles. For example, if 20 electric would include “swapping points” for this purpose eMototaxi motorcycles (i.e., 20 riders) are involved in a to be established according to the city’s zoning in Bamako transaction, at least 50-60 batteries should be rules and the riders’ usual routes. The “ swapping available for use in the exchanges. points” could be established in garages, service stations, or similar venues. 2. ELECTRIC BICYCLES FOR STUDENTS AND The type of electric bicycle used for this pilot could delivery services and not for the commute of post challenges for people commuting from home to EMPLOYEES IN OUAGADOUGOU be the same model as the one already circulating in office staff. their office. Ouagadougou, due to its familiarity and acceptance A pilot project deploying 50 electric bicycles is By recharging at a reliable source of electricity, such Offices could be the main place to recharge among existing users as well as its low price. It may currently underway in Ouagadougou targeting as the headquarters of the companies involved, this electric scooters, as they generally have better also be preferable to use another model of electric each of the following groups: method makes it possible to recharge the batteries access to the electricity grid than private homes. bicycle for this pilot with different technical Students in higher education (secondary and/or of the scooters during non-working hours. In addition, charging during working hours would characteristics that would allow for greater comfort university level) avoid time wasted on waiting for the charging to of use given the poor state of the roads in the city. The purchase of the electric scooters could be finish. Finally, it is very likely that the travel needs Public sector employees performed by the company itself, the central Universities and schools should be able to deploy of many employees are well-suited to the mileage government, or the municipality. Operational costs Administrative staff of the Joseph Ki-Zerbo the service without incurring any costs; they provided by the electric scooter battery. (charging, maintenance, etc.) should be covered by University (Ouaga1) for travel within the should receive the electric bicycles from the the company receiving and using the vehicles. The investment concept could be implemented by campus (currently done mostly by motorcycle). central government or the municipality, and have deploying 20 electric scooters among public sector Students should be the main target group, as they are the operational costs covered by these entities. 4. ELECTRIC SCOOTERS FOR EMPLOYEES IN employees who could be selected on a voluntary most likely to use bicycles already and are probably basis or through an auction. Participants would BAMAKO AND OUAGADOUGOU unable to switch to ICE two-wheelers because they 3. ELECTRIC SCOOTERS FOR MAIL OR be considered for their usual travel patterns and a lack an operating license or enough income to NEWSPAPER DELIVERY SERVICES IN BAMAKO Deploying electric scooters among public sector rotation mechanism could be applied for all those afford these vehicles. Deploying available electric AND OUAGADOUGOU employees for their daily “home-to-work” trips involved. bicycles among this target group would increase could help replace the use of ICE vehicles for this The objectives of this investment concept are The purchase and operational costs of electric the propensity of students to use this type of purpose without any difficulties. 36 / 200 37 / 200 to introduce, in the short term, a few electric scooters should be covered by the government environmentally friendly vehicle, while reducing Given local conditions with limited accessibility scooters to be used for mail or newspaper delivery or municipality, as the main objective of the pilot their desire to switch to ICE vehicles in the near to electricity at home as well as an unstable services and to test the use of these “light” electric project is to allow users to experiment with electric future. In addition, schools should allow charging electricity supply due to weaknesses in the grid, a vehicles on targeted and fixed routes. This concept vehicles and pave the way for electric vehicles as of bicycle batteries during school hours, especially first deployment of electric scooters could impose will have to be realized in close cooperation with an alternative to traditional means of transport. since schools are expected to have a more reliable the company (public or private) in charge of the electricity supply than private homes. delivery services. Employees in the public sector (e.g., municipalities The same concept could be implemented in both or national ministries) could be another suitable Bamako and Ouagadougou, targeting the following target group, as they should be able to charge their batteries relatively easily at their workplace; public groups: STRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT buildings are supposed to have a more reliable Bamako: OF E-MOBILITY electricity supply than private homes. Postal staff of the Mali Post Office. Based on the analyses carried out during the study, recommendations were developed to achieve the Administrative staff who travel around the Joseph Distribution agents of the national daily consultations with stakeholders, and international goal of a sustainable transition to e-mobility in Ki-Zerbo University campus could also be a newspaper (L’Essor). experience in e-mobility, the following strategic Bamako and Ouagadougou (see table II): target group, as they travel with private vehicles Ouagadougou: (ICE two-wheelers or cars) and the distances are relatively short. Postal staff of the Burkina Faso Post Office. Priority Recommendations Participants in the pilot project could be chosen Liaison officers from the municipality or other public institution, if applicable. Skills and knowledge on a voluntary basis and receive the vehicle free of charge from the sponsoring institutions, or they The pilot projects in Bamako and Ouagadougou can The governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should improve specific knowledge of electric mobility, could be selected through an auction. be implemented independently of each other. particularly on electric two- and three-wheelers, and related skills at the level of the ministries. High They should focus on the potential for electric transition and design public policies to support the The pilot project could be a little different on the The investment concept foresees the deployment transition. The same applies to local governments. university campus. Here the electric bicycles could in each city of 20 electric scooters that should be be made available to staff without the need for a used for daily mail or newspaper delivery activities. National and local policies should be put in place to raise awareness of the environmental and reservation in a so-called “free floating” way. However, Each electric scooter should be provided to a single health costs of conventional mobility. this method implies that a bicycle management postman for a fixed period (e.g., 6 months), in order High Raising awareness of environmental and health issues should be a prerequisite for the service would have to be organized by the university dissemination and promotion of e-mobility on two- and three-wheelers. Indeed, the analyses to collect sufficient information on driving habits conducted in Ouagadougou and Bamako have shown that the transition to e-mobility also requires a for recharging the bicycles and for repositioning them and possible problems with the electric vehicle. cultural change that should be supported by public authorities. daily in different areas of the campus. The electric scooters should only be used for Public authorities in Burkina Faso and Mali should be active in communicating and disseminating The definition of public policies for the management of e-mobility products, especially for battery information on the technical characteristics of electric two- and three-wheelers to fill the recycling, is an issue that should be carefully addressed to prevent a lack of management from causing current knowledge gap, which prevents citizens from perceiving electric vehicles as an alternative to environmental problems. High the ICE vehicles currently in use. Medium Currently, the recycling systems in Bamako and Ouagadougou are not able to cope with the high This activity should also include training sessions for users and service providers (e.g., garages, demand for battery recycling. Policy guidelines should aim to adapt local systems, encouraging the mototaxi companies) on how to correctly manage technical problems. establishment of specialized structures and companies. The national and local governments of both countries should implement pilot projects to allow users to gain first-hand experience with electric vehicles, thus going beyond the phase of mere “perception” Local mobility management should anticipate disincentives to the use of ICE vehicles in both cities, Low High of their characteristics. such as restrictions on circulation in specific areas (e.g., central areas). The pilot projects should focus on the investment concepts described in the study for the cities of Ouagadougou and Bamako. Energy sector End-of-life management, especially of batteries, should be built into the structure of the different High The governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should improve the national energy mix, focusing on scenarios as a critical way of minimizing negative environmental impacts in the medium/long term. increasing electricity production from renewable sources to enhance the environmental benefits of The establishment of a local (public) system of periodic assessment of transport pollution is an Medium electric two- and three-wheelers. Medium The improvement of the national energy mix should focus on the development of solar power important activity to support the development of effective mobility policies. generation. Economic and financial aspects The transition to electric vehicles should be accompanied by a monitoring of charging patterns to The governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should consider the introduction of public subsidies identify peak periods which could happen at established peak periods or constitute new ones. This High 39 / 200 38 / 200 to reduce the purchase cost differential of electric two- and three-wheelers compared to their ICE should be used to assess an eventual revision/adaptation of the current hourly tariff regimes with the counterparts. objective of setting efficient hourly rates to incentivize off-peak charging. Cost of ownership analyses and consultations with stakeholders in Ouagadougou and Bamako have shown that this is a relevant issue in both cities. A higher purchase cost of electric two- and three- Infrastructures wheelers compared to the ICE equivalents currently in use could limit the attractiveness of electric Medium vehicles and slow down the transition. The development of a charging infrastructure network (charging stations and/or battery The reduction of import taxes and the easing of custom procedures could contribute to the exchange services) should be designed and implemented in both Ouagadougou and Bamako in the attractiveness of electric vehicles as well. medium term. In both cities, neither infrastructure nor services for e-mobility currently exists. This Similarly, policies that support the development of a financial ecosystem that allows for the High is not a short-term constraint for two-wheelers that would be used for limited distances and can be payment of vehicles in installments should be encouraged. Currently, vehicles are paid in cash at the easily recharged via a standard plug at home or at the office. The penetration of electric two- and time of purchase in both Ouagadougou and Bamako. The possibility of making installment payments three-wheelers on a large scale could be limited in the medium-long term, however, when mobility would attract more buyers by allowing them to split up their charges. patterns with charging needs different from merely plugging at home/office could arise. Public policies Public policies of the sectors involved in electric mobility should be interrelated so that the developments of the different sectors are consistent with each other. High If the governments of Burkina Faso and Mali develop e-mobility policies on two- and three-wheelers, these policies should be strictly coordinated with energy policies to ensure harmonious development RES. and avoid an unsustainable demand on national electricity production. REFERENCES From a normative point of view, e-mobility on two- and three-wheelers would require a revision of High transport standards. Indeed, current legislation in Burkina Faso and Mali does not include electric [IEA, 2021] vehicles in the codification of transport modes. [99] Hamzah A., Solah M.S., Ariffin A.H. (2013) “Electric Motorcycle Risks on Roads: An Overview.” Southeast Asia Safer Mobility Symposium 2013 The development of electric two- and three-wheelers should be coordinated with local public transport development plans in order to increase the overall efficiency of the transport system. Medium As the development of public transport in Ouagadougou and Bamako progresses, e-mobility on two- and three-wheelers should be progressively oriented towards integration services without competing with public transport. INTRODUCTION This study analyzes the potential for electrification and 2030 is estimated at 5.3 percent, which would respectively). The number of motorcycles on the In contrast to high-income countries, the general of two- and three-wheelers in Sahelian cities, bring the city’s population in 2030 to approximately road is increasing rapidly; there are likely more delay in electric mobility deployment in low- using Bamako and Ouagadougou as case studies. 4.8 million inhabitants. According to the report than 500,000 of them nationwide, with more than income countries is largely due to inadequate The electrification of urban mobility in the Sahel “Sustainable Mobility and Accessibility Policies a third in the capital (Figure 1.2). regulatory policies, lack of infrastructure, and has the potential to address pressing development in the Cities of Burkina Faso”[2], the population of poor performance of the electricity grid. The key The way in which two- and three-wheeled vehicles issues such as reducing localized air pollution, Ouagadougou is expected to reach about 4.4 million factors to success and failure that emerge from the are used in Burkina Faso and Mali is different. In decarbonizing the transport sector, reducing in 2030, corresponding to an average annual analysis of international practices are summarized Burkina Faso, mototaxi services for passenger vulnerability to petrol imports, and creating new growth rate of about 4.7 percent (Ouagadougou’s in Figure 1.3 (see Annex 1 for more details on transport have been banned in the two main cities local jobs. population in 2018 was about 2.53 million). international practices). (Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso). In contrast, This technological transition toward electric vehicles As a corollary to population growth, there is a mototaxi services have recently expanded in Mali. The World Bank aims to develop a dialogue with is framed within the ¨Improve¨ pillar of a broader proliferation of two- and three-wheeled vehicles ICE three-wheeler freight services are widespread the governments of the Sahel region regarding the decarbonization framework of Avoid, Shift, Improve in Burkina Faso and Mali. In Burkina Faso, for in both Ouagadougou and Bamako. transition to two- and three-wheelers in cities, and and Resilience (ASIR). The ASIR framework aims for example, the 2017 annual report of the National consequently the reduction of carbon emissions, Regarding bicycle use, counts conducted in 2019[3] (i) avoiding or reducing travel or the need to travel, Institute of Statistics and of Demographics (INSD) air pollution and dependence on fossil fuels. show a modal split of bicycles of about 9 percent in (ii) shifting to more energy efficient modes, and (iii) shows individual motorcycles increased by about Ouagadougou. In contrast, bicycle use is negligible Based on the analysis of the mobility situation in the improving efficiency through vehicle technology, 3.5 times between 2010 and 2017, while the average in Bamako. cities of Ouagadougou and Bamako, independent and (iv) enhancing resilience. annual growth rate for motor vehicles was about 10 recommendations were prepared on how to develop a percent over the same period (Figure 1.1). Electric two- and three-wheelers offer a high Sahelian cities are developing rapidly due to roadmap for transformation to e-mobility in Sahelian potential to decarbonize the urban transport sector significant population growth that is compounded For Mali, according to the National Institute cities. The study focuses on all types of two- and 42 / 200 43 / 200 in cities such as Ouagadougou and Bamako. Several by the migration of many rural inhabitants fleeing of Statistics (INSTAT), the rate of household three-wheeled vehicles, both motorized and non- international experiences show that switching poverty and insecurity. According to the report ownership of two-wheelers increased from 17 motorized. Thus, in addition to scooters, motorcycles from internal combustion engines to electric two- “Sustainable Mobility and Accessibility Policies percent in 2001 to 57 percent in 2017. Sikasso and tricycles, bicycles are also included in the study. and three-wheelers has a high potential to reduce in Malian Cities”[1], for example, the annual and Bamako are the cities where households own Similarly, the study considers two- and three-wheeled local air pollution and CO2 emissions as well as population growth rate of Bamako between 2015 the most vehicles (75 percent and 66 percent, vehicles for the transport of people and goods. noise pollution. Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Trend of registered vehicles in Burkina Faso Trends in motorcycle ownership in Mali 3,000,000 70% 2,500,000 60% Motorized two-wheeler fleet Car fleet Mali Bamako 50% 2,000,000 40% Vehicles 1,500,000 30% 1,000,000 20% 500,000 10% 0 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Source: SSATP (2019). «Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in the Cities of Burkina Faso. Diagnostic Study» Source: SSATP (2020). «Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in Urban Areas of Mali, Diagnostic Study» Figure 1.3 Success and failure factors for electric mobility Public policies supporting the electric Deployment of vehicles not adapted to the transition with clearly defined objectives use cases (e.g., electric tricycles with low and appropriate interventions (e.g., well- engine power, used for freight transport). positioned incentives and regulations). Balance of interests between different Practical experience of electric vehicles by stakeholders not ensured by policy makers. potential users to reduce the information Lack of infrastructure for electric mobility, and knowledge gap with combustion engine such as vehicle charging stations, battery vehicles. exchange services, etc. Existence of a developed financial ecosystem Poor grid performance (e.g., load shedding to support access to electric vehicles and the problems, poor coverage of the territory). establishment of financing schemes. Research and investment in cheaper energy sources to increase the cost effectiveness of 45 / 200 the transition. Initiating the transition to electric mobility by identifying specific target groups and use cases. Encouraging private investment and innovation. Development of innovative charging systems to improve operations and/or reduce vehicle costs (e.g., battery exchange services, battery leasing). Source: Authors R1. REFERENCES [1] SSATP (2020). «Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in Urban Areas of Mali, Diagnostic Study» [2] SSATP (2019). «Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in the Cities of Burkina Faso. Diagnostic Study» [3] OPTIS (2020) «Ouagadougou Public Transport Implementation Study. Rapport d’Activité 1» THE CURRENT SITUATION IN OUAGADOUGOU Figure 2.1 Evolution of registered two-wheelers in the Center region of Burkina Faso from 2010 to 2019 Box 2.1: Key factors in the transport system of Ouagadougou 1,200,000 Registered two-wheelers The transport system is dominated by two-wheelers; they account for 71 percent of vehicles in traffic. In 2019, the registered motorcycle fleet reached 1.2 million units. 900,000 The number of tricycles for freight transport is constantly increasing. 84 percent of national electricity production comes from non-renewable sources. Transportation is responsible for 80 percent of CO2 emissions and 90 percent of NMVOC emissions. 600,000 Between 2007 and 2016, CO2 emissions per capita have increased by 64 percent. ICE Two-wheelers and three-wheelers are responsible for the annual emission of about 940 Ggeq of GHG. 300,000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Currently, there are no policies or plans for the development of electric mobility in Ouagadougou, and no infrastructure dedicated to electric mobility. Source: National Institute of Statistics and Demography - INSD (2020). “Statistical Yearbook 2019” According to estimates by the National Institute of Statistics and of Demographics (INSD), the population According to INSD data, the number of ICE two- In addition, there is also a recent trend toward of Ouagadougou in 2020 was approximately 2.7 million (i.e., about 12.6 percent of the national population). wheelers registered in Ouagadougou reached about ICE tricycles which were introduced in Burkina 49 / 200 48 / 200 The city has experienced significant growth resulting from both a rising birth rate and rural-urban migration 1.2 million in 2019. These figures could be higher. Faso in the early 2000s to transport goods in areas [2]. At the same time, the city has also experienced rapid urban sprawl encompassing seven neighboring Almost all stakeholders consulted indicated that where the road infrastructure was not suitable communities, now grouped together in the “Greater Ouaga” Area. It is estimated that if the same population many of the two- and three-wheelers that are for trucks. Since then, their numbers have been density is maintained in 2025, the metropolitan area with its 3.2 million inhabitants will cover 700 km², purchased are not registered. If, for example, one steadily increasing. Nationally, the customs service compared to 400 km² in 2014. The radius of the city is currently about 10 km and could reach 15 km by 2025. imagines that three-quarters of the population of reported clearing about 100,000 ICE tricycles The city of Ouagadougou is mainly monocentric, with most of the flow-generating poles concentrated in the Ouagadougou could own a two- or three-wheeled between 2012 and 2018. 71 percent of these center of the agglomeration [3]. vehicle, this illustration could be as high as two tricycles were cleared through the Ouagadougou million units (although this does not consider customs office. Currently, tricycles are not used as vehicles that have reached the end of their life a mode of public transportation. cycle and are no longer used). 2.1. Figure 2.2 MOBILITY CONDITIONS IN OUAGADOUGOU Three-wheeler Burkina Faso is characterized by the presence of ICE two-wheeler registrations and 34,800 motor a very high number of two-wheelers. This is a vehicles in Burkina Faso. The average annual phenomenon observed throughout the country. growth rate of registrations are high: 17 percent According to the International Organization of from 2010 to 2019 for ICE two-wheelers and 10 Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA), the rate of percent for motor vehicles. motorization in Burkina Faso for vehicles with Most of the vehicle ownership in Burkina Faso is four or more wheels in 2015 was only 16 vehicles therefore made up of ICE two-wheelers, and the per 1,000 inhabitants. If motorized two-wheelers capital of Ouagadougou is no exception. According are included in this statistic, the motorization rate to data from the Directorate General of Land and rises to about 116 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants. Maritime Transports (DGTTM), the number of ICE The 2019 INSD statistical yearbook [4] notes a two-wheelers registered each year in the center motorized vehicle fleet of about 0.45 million motor region (i.e., mainly in Ouagadougou) has increased vehicles and 2.9 million ICE two-wheelers subject almost constantly between 2010 and 2019 (Figure to registration. In 2019, there were 283,800 new 2.1). Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Share of vehicles in traffic by type Distribution of two-wheeler use by age 50% 40% Motorised two-wheelers Bicycles 30% Motorised Trucks/Buses/ Cars Bicycles Tricycles Taxis two-wheelers Minibuses 20% 71% 16% 9% 2% 1% 1% 10% 0 Source: OPTIS (2020) «Ouagadougou Public Transport Implementation Study. Activity Report 1» <18 years 18-25 years 26-35 years 36-45 years 46-55 years 56-65 years 65> years Source: OPTIS data processing In 2019, according to the DGTTM, the number Several problems associated with public The modal share of ICE two-wheelers seems to According to OPTIS data, the average trip with ICE of tricycles registered in Ouagadougou was transportation in Ouagadougou have resulted in be increasing compared to 2009. While ICE two- two-wheelers is 10 km long. The average distance approximately 13,140. The number of ICE three- a system that is not very attractive in terms of wheelers represent most travel modes, a very large of a bicycle trip, on the other hand, is about 9 km 50 / 200 51 / 200 wheelers registered in Ouagadougou increased by services offered. In 2017, only eight buses were share of trips is also made on foot, especially for which is quite similar to the distance covered by about 55 percent between 2015 and 2019. operational. That year, about 800,000 passengers short-distance trips. This may be a good indicator ICE two-wheelers. were transported, a very low number and a sharp with respect to potential development of “electric The use of bicycles in Ouagadougou is not negligible. Precise data on the number of trips made per day decline compared to the year 2005. In 2018, micro-mobility” (i.e., light electric vehicles such as It is interesting to note that electric bicycles have are not available. According to the stakeholders however, efforts to strengthen public transport folding bikes, monowheels, etc.). recently begun to be extensively, especially by consulted, public sector employees make only one included the purchase by the state of a fleet of 130 school-age youth. These electric pedal-assisted Data collected during the OPTIS study show that round trip per day (i.e., about 20 km with ICE two- buses, 30 of which are operational in Ouagadougou. bicycles could represent an interesting opportunity two-wheelers (motorized and non-motorized) are wheelers), while other road users tend to make This has helped increase the number of passengers for market growth in the future. used primarily by people under 36 years of age more than one round trip per day. The same applies transported to about 150,000 per month between (Figure 2.4). to ICE three-wheeled users. On average, two- and According to a 2014 mobility survey conducted December 2018 and June 2019. The modal share of three-wheelers travel about 25 km per day. by the Urban Movements Observatory in public transport is estimated to be about 1 percent According to the information collected during the Ouagadougou (ODUO), about 66 percent of trips in of trips. In 2018 the price of a bus ticket (single OPTIS study, most trips are conducted between Information on travel costs by mode (including the the city (excluding walking) are made by ICE two- ride) was CFAF 200 (about US$0.36)[2]. the periphery and the city center, primarily for cost of fuel and maintenance) shows that the cost wheelers, while about 15 percent are made by cars commuting to work or school. This information was of a private vehicle is certainly the highest (about A 2009 study by the Institute for Studies on and about 16 percent are made by bicycles. also corroborated by the stakeholders consulted US$1.5 - or CFAF 820 - in 2009), compared to Economic and Social Development (IEDES) and for this study. Some of the trips involve freight about US$0.7 (CFAF 400) for buses (in 2018) and More recent counts, conducted in 2019 as part of the University of Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne [5] transport, which,although marginal in relation between US$0.5 (CFAF 290) and US$0.7 (CFAF a feasibility study for the implementation of an estimated the modal share of walking at 54 percent to the movement of people, still has a significant 380) for motorcycles. integrated public transport network (Ouagadougou of trips. The study also indicated a volume of about impact on urban mobility. Public Transport Implementation Study – OPTIS 4.7 million trips per day. The available data on travel costs are not very [3]), show a modal share of bicycles of about 9 On average, the duration of a trip changes by mode homogeneous or consistent for the different The OPTIS study [3] recently modelled the volume percent (Figure 2.3). This may reflect a shift from (Figure 2.5). ICE two-wheelers are on average the categories of transport. In any case, it is quite clear of travel by mode to represent current mobility bicycles to ICE two-wheelers. fastest (33 minutes per trip), while bicycles are the that the most economical and flexible mode of conditions. The following percentages indicate the slowest (43 minutes per trip). ICE tricycles do not transport remains ICE two-wheelers. The study shows about 70 percent of vehicles share of total travel per mode of transportation: differ significantly in travel time (41 minutes per used in the Ouagadougou urban area are ICE two- It is also interesting to note that, according Car: 5.8 percent trip) from bicycles (43 minutes). Indeed, several wheelers. to the OPTIS analyses, Ouagadougou has no Motorized two-wheelers: 27.7 percent stakeholders consulted indicated that tricycles are congestion problem at the city level. Vehicles ICE tricycles account for about 1 percent of vehicles often overloaded and slow which causes congestion Bus: 0.5 percent circulate relatively smoothly except for areas with counted. However, local stakeholders consulted problems. congestion on certain main roads. during this study indicated that tricycles are a Walking: 50.5 percent rapidly expanding mode of transport for freight. Figure 2.5 Table 2.1 population, while the rest use hydrocarbons, hydroelectricity, and other renewable energies Average travel time by mode Electricity generation and consumption (mainly solar). Wind energy is not ideally suited to in Burkina Faso in 2016 Burkina Faso. The average wind speeds recorded are between only 1 and 3 m/s, with faster speeds GWh Percent recorded in the northern parts of the country. The minimum wind speed required to start a wind Motorised Consumption 1,550 - Bicycle Tricycle Taxi Car turbine is about 4 m/s. two-wheeler Generation According to SONABEL data, the energy produced or imported increased to about 1,800 GWh in 2018. 43’ 41’ 38’ 37’ 33’ Renewable 156 9,6 percent Figure 2.6 confirms the strong dependence on other Hydroelectric 139 8,6 percent countries; about 46 percent of electrical energy is imported. This dependence has increased since Solar 15 0,9 percent 2009 by a factor of three (in 2009 only 17 percent Source: OPTIS (2020) «Ouagadougou Public Transport Implementation Study. Rapport d’Activité 1» Biomass and waste 2 0,1 percent of electricity came from other countries), due to limited growth in national production systems. Fossil fuel 834 51,5 percent According to the statistical yearbook of the Ministry Net imports 630 38,9 percent of Energy [35], the share of renewable energy in In the 1980s, bicycle paths were built along five import declaration (DPI) for transactions with a terms of national production was 16.9 percent in major roads in Ouagadougou to facilitate bicycling free on-board value equal or greater than US$925 Total 1,620 100 percent 52 / 200 53 / 200 2018, while the share of renewable energy in the in the city, but they are frequently invaded by (CFAF 500,000); foreign exchange authorization; total electricity supply was 9.4 percent. street vendors or other unauthorized road users. foreign exchange commitment; import certificate; Oil, natural gas, and coal accounted for about 84 export declaration from the country of origin; The energy mix used in Ouagadougou is more There are currently no electric vehicle charging percent of the electricity produced in Burkina Faso and import insurance certificate. The clearance or less the same as in the whole of Burkina stations in Ouagadougou. The only electric vehicles and other countries, while hydroelectricity and system is based on a time-consuming (taking about Faso. Indeed, when considering the energy sold, in circulation are electric bicycles, which have solar energy accounted for about 14 percent and 1.52 four days) risk management system envisioning SONABEL services are mostly concentrated in the recently been used by people of school age. percent of the electricity produced, respectively, the following outputs: green (good for release), central region (i.e., Ouagadougou), which absorbs in Burkina Faso and other countries. Solar energy In contrast to ICE vehicles, no specific regime and blue (a posteriori control), yellow (inspection of about 55 percent of its sales. systems are currently used for communication custom regulations apply to the import of electric documents) and red (full-scale physical inspection (telephone, television, etc.), lighting, refrigeration, Although Burkina Faso has strong solar energy vehicles in Ouagadougou. According to the World of the goods). Taxes on trade are based on the and water pumping. Biomass energy (firewood potential, solar energy accounted for only 1.15 Trade Organization [98], the country’s overall following types: custom duty, VAT, statistical tax, and charcoal) is used by about 90 percent of the percent of total national energy consumption in custom formalities require the following documents: and toll. Figure 2.6 2.2. Evolution of electricity production and imports between 2009 and 2018 in Burkina Faso THE ENERGY SECTOR IN OUAGADOUGOU 1000 Thermal 800 Millions of kWh The energy sector in Burkina Faso comprises the demand for electricity has increased and more Imported three main areas: electricity, hydrocarbons, and more people have access to electrical energy 600 and renewable energy. The electricity sector is [6]. National electricity generation in 2016 was managed by the National Company for Electricity about 990 GWh with a high percentage coming 400 Hydroelectric in Burkina Faso (SONABEL) and any other entity from fossil fuels (about 834 GWh) (Table 2.1). A 200 that has obtained a concession or authorization in significant portion of the power (about 39 percent) accordance with the laws in force. was imported from other countries such as Ghana 0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 (mostly hydroelectric power) and Côte d’Ivoire Increased economic activity as well as population (mostly thermal power). growth and urbanization have led the country to Source: Ministry of Environment, Green Economy and Climate Change - MEEVCC (2019) face a high demand for electricity. In recent years, “Yearbook of environmental statistics 2018”. 2016. In November 2017, the 33 MW Zagtouli solar (CFAF 102/kWh). The tariff regime provides for a 2.3. power plant near Ouagadougou was connected to two-part tariff composed of a fixed component and the grid and contributed about 5 percent of the a variable component linked to the kWh consumed. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN OUAGADOUGOU national electricity production with production There is a distinction between the following costs of US$0.06/kWh (CFAF 32/kWh) [9]. In tariff bands: “domestic use” for individuals and According to national greenhouse gas inventories [95] and their average distance travelled (derived January 2018, the Ministry of Energy announced administration; “domestic use and industrial and [13], transport is responsible for 80 percent of CO2 from OPTIS study [3]). Despite the smaller engines plans to build eight more solar parks totalling 100 agricultural driving force”; and “hourly tariffs” for emissions, 30 percent of CO emissions, more than of two-wheelers, their substantial presence in MW [10]. In addition, SONABEL has been working individuals and administration. Compared to the 90 percent of NMVOC6 emissions, and more than traffic leads to a significant percentage of total CO2 to increase generation capacity by 55MW with the population’s ability to pay, electricity tariffs are 60 percent of SO2 emissions as well as a significant emissions. expansion of one of its thermal power plants[11]. high and require public subsidies to fully cover the share of suspended particulate emissions. In Estimations of contribution of transport modes cost of service. order of importance of the volumes emitted, the According to data from the Directorate General of for other pollutants are given in Annex 8. It is greenhouse gases are CO2, CH4, CO, N2O, and NOx. Energy [8], the consumption of energy products in The details for tariff bands are as follows. estimated that ICE two- and three-wheelers could road transport was approximately 8 million Tons ICE two-wheelers in Ouagadougou represent about be responsible for a major share (typically 60 “Domestic use” is divided in two types and three 71 percent of the traffic and are responsible for a percent-75 percent) of harmful local air pollutants of Oil Equivalent (TOE) in 2003, divided almost tranches: large portion of CO2 emissions. The contribution emitted by motorized traffic such as carbon equally between gasoline and diesel. In 2002, the transport sector consumed about 4.4 percent Type A (from 1A to 3A): of transport modes used on CO2 emissions in monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), non- of energy products. More recent data are not » From 0 to 75 kWh (US$0.15/kWh). Ouagadougou has been calculated (Table 2.2) based methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), available, and it is possible that the consumption of on ranges of emission factors by type of vehicles and particulate matter (PM2.5). » From 76 to 100 kWh (US$0.23/kWh). the transport sector has changed due to the growth 54 / 200 » More than 100 kWh (US$0.25/kWh). 55 / 200 in the number of vehicles in Burkina Faso. Table 2.2 About 885,000 vehicles were registered in Burkina Type B (from 5A to 30A): Faso in 2010, while about 3.3 million were registered CO2 emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou » From 0 to 50 kWh (US$0.17/kWh). in 2019. Accounting for the same growth rate, about » From 51 to 200 kWh (US$0.18/kWh). 311,000 vehicles were registered in the country in g CO2 / km CO2 » More than 200 kWh (US$0.20/kWh). Transport Share 2003 (with a consumption of about 8 million TOE). modes in traffic Without accounting for the technological changes Low High Low High in vehicles (which today consume less than in “Domestic use and industrial and agricultural 2003), a projection of consumption would bring driving force” are divided in three tranches: Two-wheelers 71 percent 0.13 0.30 54 percent 60 percent TOE to about 87 million in 2019 for all vehicles Type C (from 10A to 30A): Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.20 0.35 1 percent 1 percent combined. Given that about 1.2 million ICE two- » From 0 to 50 kWh (US$0.17/kWh). and three-wheelers are registered in Ouagadougou, Cars/taxis 17 percent 0.40 0.70 39 percent 33 percent the consumption of these vehicles in the capital » From 51 to 200 kWh (US$0.19/kWh). Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 0.50 1.00 6 percent 6 percent can be estimated at about 30 million TOE. » More than 200 kWh (US$0.21/kWh). Source: Authors Burkina Faso lacks sufficient access to electricity “Hourly tariffs” are divided in two periods: and has one of the lowest electrification rates in the world (about 38.6 percent in 2018, according to Peak hours from 10:00 to 14:00 and from 16:00 Between 2007 and 2016, CO2 emissions per capita Air quality monitoring relates to the pollutants of Ministry of Energy data). The electrification rate is to 19:00 (US$0.30/kWh). increased by about 64 percent in Burkina Faso greatest public health concern. These pollutants much higher in Ouagadougou and reaches about 95 Full hours from 0:00 to 10:00, from 14:00 to (Figure 2.7 - left). This significant increase is partly are composed of fine particles less than or equal percent coverage. 16:00 and from 19:00 to 0:00 (US$0.16/kWh). related to the economic growth of the country. to 10 microns in size (PM10). For the city of Indeed, CO2 emissions compared to Gross Domestic Ouagadougou, the average value of PM10 (about The cost of producing electricity is one of the Based on the above tariff bands, it would be Product (GDP) also show a less significant growth 825 μg/m3) recorded at different sites in 2018 is highest in the sub-region. A study by SONABEL advisable to apply for an “hourly tariff” and to of about 31 percent in the same 10-year period well above the national standard of 300 μg/m3(7) shows that within the Economic Community of recharge electric vehicles during the “full hours” (Figure 2.7 - right). The level of CO2 emissions is and the WHO standard of 50 μg/m3. The highest West African States (ECOWAS), Burkina Faso has (i.e., avoiding peak hours that could impact rising faster than economic growth. This could be value was 1,125 μg/m3 and the lowest value was the highest average domestic kWh rate [12]. In 2017, negatively on stability of electricity grid). caused, in part, by the growth of private motorized 525 μg/m3 (Figure 2.8). The red line indicates the it was US$0.20/kWh (CFAF 112/kWh) compared According to the INSD, the average price of fuel mobility. national standard value. to US$0.11/kWh (CFAF 60/kWh) in Côte d’Ivoire. was US$1.14 per liter (CFAF 630 per liter) for The ECOWAS average is US$0.18/kWh (CFAF 103/ gasoline and US$1.00 per liter (CFAF 551 per liter) kWh). SONABEL’s average electricity tariff for 6 Non-methane volatile organic compounds for diesel in 2020. domestic use in 2018 decreased to US$0.185/kWh 7 Decree No. 2001-185 of the Council of Ministers Figure 2.7 Figure 2.10 Using the Air Quality Index (AQI), the air quality in Ouagadougou is considered poor to average CO2 emissions per capita (left) and per GDP (right) in Ouagadougou between 2007 and 2016 Comparison of Annual Average AQI (Figure 2.9). According to this index, over the past few months, the air has been very polluted Beijing 0.20 0.10 on 55 percent of the days (i.e., air quality has been kg per 2017 PPP $ of GDP Metric tonnes per capita Khartum above the WHO 24-hour exposure guidelines) 0.18 0.09 Dakar from October 2020 to March 2021. Under these 0.16 conditions, some negative health effects may Bamako 0.14 0.08 occur and people who are particularly sensitive 0.12 Ouagadougou to pollution should limit their outdoor activities. 0.07 Hanoi The below average AQI values recorded before 0.10 mid-October may be related to the rainy season, Tunis 0.8 0.06 as atmospheric precipitation lowers pollutant 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Sao Paulo concentrations. Abidjan Ouagadougou’s average annual AQI is often Source: World Bank Nairobi higher than that of other African cities and Figure 2.8 other regions of the world (Figure 2.10).8 Yaoundé Average PM10 concentration in different areas of Ouagadougou in 2018 At the national level in Burkina Faso, WHO Cape Town estimated in 2016 that ambient (outdoor) air 56 / 200 57 / 200 1200 Rome pollution has been responsible for the loss Maputo of 357,039 years of ‘healthy’ life (DALYs - 900 New York Disability-Adjusted Life Years, calculated by Average 600 WHO as the years of life lost due to premature Paris mortality plus the years of healthy life lost due 0 25 50 75 100 125 300 to disability). Source: https://plumelabs.com/fr/ The limit values of air pollutants are regulated 0 by the Decree No. 2001-185 of the Council of Roundabout Patte d’Oie Mogho Naaba Roundabout Bonheur ville Roundabout October 2nd Roundabout United Nations Charles de Gaule pediatrics Alice Residence North interchange Roundabout Kossodo Industrial zone Figure 2.11 Ministers. As far as emissions from motorcycles are concerned, the standards for four-stroke Evolution of national GHG emissions by engines are: vehicle type between 2007 and 2015 CO: 12 g/km. Source: Ministère de l’Environnement, de l’Economie Verte et du Changement Climatique - (2018) «Annuaire des statistiques de l’environnement 2017» NOx: 3.5 g/km. 1400 1200 HC: 3 g/km. Figure 2.9 1000 COV: 0.3 g/km. Evolution of the AQI in Ouagadougou from October 2020 to March 2021 800 A study conducted in 2015 by the Permanent Secretariat of the National Council for the Ggeq 600 Environment and Sustainable Development 400 [16] shows the evolution of greenhouse gases 200 (GHG) for light petrol vehicles (including ICE 0 two-wheelers) and for heavy diesel vehicles (Figure 2.11). The indicator used in this case is 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Annual average: 73 AQI a composition of the main pollutants (CO2, CH4 and NO2). Diesel vehicles Gasoline vehicles Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Days per year at this level Source: Diallo M. (2015). “Study for the development of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Measures of the road transport sector”. 4 55 110 128 51 22 8 African cities are shown in yellow (except Permanent Secretariat of the National Council for Environment Ouagadougou and Bamako) and non-African cities Source: https://plumelabs.com/ and Sustainable Development (SP/CONEDD). are shown in blue. The data show a strong increase in emissions during CO2: 921 Gg (that is to say, about 85 g/km the years 2007 to 2015 (Figure 2.11). Emissions from considering 25 km driven per vehicle per day). gasoline vehicles increased by about 125 percent, CH4: 3.7 Gg (that is to say, about 0.3 g/km R2. while emissions from diesel vehicles increased by about 128 percent. considering 25 km driven per vehicle per day). REFERENCES NO2: 15.3 Gg (that is to say, about 1.4 g/km The increase appears to be consistent with the considering 25 km driven per vehicle per day). [2] SSATP (2019). «Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in the Cities of Burkina Faso. growth of the vehicle fleet in Burkina Faso over Diagnostic Study». No data are available on noise pollution from these years. Specific data on ICE two- and three- [3] OPTIS (2020) «Ouagadougou Public Transport Implementation Study. Rapport d’Activité 1» transport in Ouagadougou. Stakeholders who wheelers are not available. In 2015, about 41 percent were consulted often mentioned, however, [4] Institut Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie - INSD (2020). «Annuaire Statistique of vehicles were registered in Ouagadougou and 2019». that this phenomenon is a common problem in contributed about 866 Ggeq9 of GHG. ICE two- Ouagadougou, linked particularly to the high [5] Boyer, F. & Delaunay, D. (2017). «Se déplacer dans Ouagadougou au quotidien, moyens, contraintes wheelers and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou et pratiques de la mobilité». Paris : IEDES – Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne (coll. presence of ICE two- and three-wheelers. A few accounted for about 71 percent of traffic, with Monographie Sud-Nord). stakeholders mentioned the lack of noise produced an estimated contribution to GHG emissions of [6] https://www.esi-africa.com/industry-sectors/generation/burkina-faso-increases-generation- by electric vehicles could lead to road safety about 610 Ggeq of GHGs. ICE two-wheelers and capacity-by-55mw/ problems and be a possible constraint to electric three-wheelers in Ouagadougou in 2019 increased [7] https://www.worldometers.info/electricity/burkina-faso-electricity/ mobility. This suggestion is mainly based on by about 54 percent compared to 2015, bringing personal experiences and impressions. It should be [8] Ministère de l’Environnement, de l’Economie Verte et du Changement Climatique - MEEVCC (2019) estimated GHG emissions to about 940 Ggeq of noted that above a certain speed, the noise caused «Annuaire des statistiques de l’environnement 2018». GHGs. by the friction of the tires on the road becomes 59 / 200 58 / 200 [9] https://www.pv-magazine.com/2017/11/28/burkina-faso-commissions-33-mw-pv-plant/ In particular, the estimated GHG emissions caused predominant over the engine noise from 50 km/h [10] https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/01/26/burkina-faso-announces-plan-to-build-eight-solar- by ICE two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou for a light vehicle. parks-totaling-100-mw/ are listed by the following types of pollutants: [11] https://www.esi-africa.com/industry-sectors/generation/burkina-faso-increases-generation- capacity-by-55mw/ [12] Ministère de l’Energie. Direction Générale des Etudes et des Statistiques Sectorielles - DGESS (2019) «Tableau de bord 2018 du Ministère de l’Energie». [13] Institut Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie - INSD (2014). «Inventaires nationaux des gaz à effet de serre» 2.4. [14] Ministère de l’Environnement, de l’Economie Verte et du Changement Climatique - (2018) PUBLIC TRANSPORT POLICIES IN OUAGADOUGOU «Annuaire des statistiques de l’environnement 2017». [15] https://plumelabs.com/fr/ Currently, there are no national or local public The main strategy currently under development [16] Diallo M. (2015). «Etude pour l’élaboration des NAMAs du secteur des transports routiers». policies focused on the development of electric concerns the modal transition to public transport Secrétariat Permanent du Conseil National pour l’Environnement et le Développement Durable mobility. This is a sector that has not yet been through the OPTIS project, which aims to create (SP/CONEDD). explored by the public authorities, who have little a new high-capacity public transport network [35] Ministère de l’Energie. Direction Générale des Etudes et des Statistiques Sectorielles - DGESS knowledge on the subject. including the creation of Bus Rapid Transit (2019) «Annuaire Statistique 2018 du Ministère de l’Energie». corridors. Urban developments are strongly oriented towards [95] EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019 strengthening public transport. Urban mobility The development of electric mobility should [98] World Trade Organization (2017). Trade Policy review. Trade Policy Review Body is at the forefront of the 2016-2021 agenda of the necessarily be focused in this sector to define Municipality of Ouagadougou, with four main services that are complementary to public development axes focused on traffic fluidity, transport needs (and certainly not competitive). improvement of road infrastructure, improvement For example, electric mobility services in support of public transport, and improvement of parking of public transport feeder lines could be envisioned infrastructure. for this purpose. 9 Giga grams equivalent THE CURRENT SITUATION IN BAMAKO Figure 3.1 institutions have initiated a process of regulation of these services, especially to frame them as Distribution of travel modes in Bamako in 2013 formal commercial services. These companies Box 3.1: Key facts about transport in Bamako provide an attractive franchise for riders, allowing them to buy the motorcycle by paying 66 percent of households in Bamako own a motorcycle. a daily fee (around US$3.6 or CFAF 2,000) In 2014, about 30 percent of trips were made by motorcycle and 26 percent were made by foot. instead of paying the full cost upfront. These Official mototaxi services have been increasing in recent years. services are positively perceived and provide The number of tricycles for transporting goods is also increasing. users with benefits (e.g., booking and paying 41 percent of electricity generation is from renewable sources (mainly hydroelectric). for the service by App). In addition, Teliman is one of at least three mototaxi companies Between 2007 and 2016, CO2 emissions per capita increased by 86 percent. using Japanese imported motorcycles, and the ICE two-wheelers and three-wheelers are responsible for annual emissions of about 2,400 kt of CO2 equivalent. company claims they are more reliable than Currently, there are no policies or plans for the development of electric mobility in Bamako, and no infrastructure Chinese ones. Teliman initiated this type of is dedicated to electric mobility. service in Bamako by CFAO Motors (Toyota’s African subsidiary) [18]. Although mototaxi services are common in Bamako (both formal and informal services), According to the projections of the National Institute of Statistics (INSTAT), the population of Bamako was the ownership structure of ICE two- and three- 2.6 million (i.e., about 12.7 percent of the national population) in 2020. The city has the endemic problems 62 / 200 63 / 200 wheelers is mainly oriented towards private typical of West African capitals: proliferation of slum neighborhoods, lack of network infrastructure (water, Buses - 5% Motorcycles - 30% ownership. ICE two-wheelers provided for hire electricity, transportation), difficulties in managing urban services, etc. [1] Walking - 26% Taxis - 6% by mototaxi companies are a small part of the The average population density in Bamako is estimated at about 8,300 inhabitants per km2 in a total area of Bicycles - 1% Minibuses 18 to total (e.g., the Teliman company had 600 riders about 26,750 hectares. The urban structure of Bamako is monocentric, resulting in a high proportion of daily Cars - 8% 22 places - 24% in 2019). travel from the residential areas on the outskirts of the city to the city center where most jobs and urban Naturally, mobility rates are related to a services are located. variety of factors including the lifestyle of the A major constraint to travel is caused by the fact that the two parts of the city are separated by the Niger River Source: Yalcouye H.B. (2014) “Operational strategy population and the structure of urban centers. vision Bamako 2030. Background file”. and connected by only three bridges. Approximately 50 percent of trips are made between the two banks Bamako has an average trip rate of 2.8 trips per of the river (40,000 to 60,000 exchanges during peak hours) [17]. Some stakeholders who were consulted person. The average distance of a trip is about mentioned that at certain times of the day, a 15-20 km trip can take 2-3 hours. 10 km. The average distance travelled per day is Public transport in Bamako is composed of eight- seat mini-buses (called “duruni”), 18-22 seat mini- 25 km per person. buses, and buses. These are mostly informal modes Personal mobility is also affected by an of transport. In 2014, very few companies were individual’s gender, age, and disability. In many contracted [17]. parts of the world, women are less likely to 3.1. have access to individual means of transport Private vehicle ownership (excluding ICE two- MOBILITY CONDITIONS IN BAMAKO wheelers) is quite low in Bamako. According to the such as cars or bicycles. In Bamako, 87 percent latest estimates, it is about 46 vehicles per 1,000 of women versus 57 percent of men rely on Currently, it is difficult to assess the number of 414,000 motorcycles if only one motorcycle per inhabitants. If ICE two-wheelers are also included, the walking for almost all of their trips. vehicles used in Mali and cities like Bamako. household is counted (the illustration could be According to an estimate by the Regional higher since each household probably owns more private vehicle ownership rate rises to 150 vehicles Currently, there are no electric vehicles in Directorate of Land Transports of Bamako District, than one motorcycle). per 1,000 inhabitants [1]. Bamako, and there is no infrastructure for there were about 108,000 passenger vehicles The DRCTU estimates that there are currently about recharging electric vehicles if they are to Recent information on travel patterns in Bamako is (excluding ICE two-wheelers) and heavy vehicles 9,000 cabs in Bamako, which combine different be introduced. A trial sale of electric three- not readily available. The most recent data (Figure in the capital in 2018. types of service such as on-demand, shared cabs, and wheelers was reported in Bamako, where a 3.1) appear in the report “Stratégie opérationnelle services on regular routes. These services are often retailer tried to introduce these vehicles to It is even more difficult to estimate the number vision Bamako 2030. Dossier de contexte” which unregulated and uncontrolled. the market for the transport of goods. The trial of ICE two- and three-wheelers, as they are not cites the Direction of Traffic Regulation and of was not successful and virtually no vehicles officially counted. Nevertheless, INSTAT estimates Urban Transport of Bamako (DRCTU) as the It is worth noting the formal emergence of motorcycle were sold. The reasons for the failure are not that about 66 percent of households in Bamako source [17]. taxi services in recent years. Currently, three formal clear (the dealer in question is no longer in the own a motorcycle. This would correspond to about mototaxi companies are operational in Bamako, and market), but it is likely that the high purchase cost and the tax identification of the importer. Customs Figure 3.2 Table 3.1. of electric three-wheelers was a significant barrier clearance is based on a risk management system to market entry. producing the following outcomes: green (good for Energy mix for power generation of electricity Energy consumption sectors in 2014 in Mali clearance), yellow (inspection of documents) and in 2017 in Mali In contrast to ICE vehicles, there is no specific red (physical inspection of the goods). Customs Sector Percent regime as far as customs regulations regarding the clearance takes an average of 77 hours to complete. import of electric vehicles that apply in Bamako. Residential 72.5 percent Import taxes include the following: ECOWAS According to the World Trade Organization [98], all common external tariff, statistical tax; ECOWAS Transport 13.5 percent imported goods are subject to a custom declaration community levy; community solidarity levy on (single detailed declaration), accompanied by the Industry 5.4 percent behalf of West African Economic and Monetary following documentation: a notice of intent to Union; and VAT. An excise duty is levied on a list Others 8.6 percent import; an inspection certificate; the invoice; a of imported goods including passenger vehicles. declaration of the elements of value; a certificate of Source: irena.org/publications/2019/Sep/Renewables- origin; and other documents like insurance, quality, Readiness-Assessment-Mali Energy consumption for economic purposes 3.2. is low in Mali, as shown in Table 3.1. The industrial sector represents only 5.4 percent THE ENERGY SECTOR IN BAMAKO of the total energy consumption. Although the 64 / 200 65 / 200 agricultural sector contributes significantly Mali is a member of the “West African Power country also imports electricity from neighboring to Mali’s GDP, there is a low level of energy Pool,” a specialized institution of ECOWAS whose countries. Mali’s electricity system includes a Thermal - 52.9% Hydroelectric - 47.1% consumption in this sector. About 10 percent objective is to integrate the operations of national national grid owned and operated by “Energie of the country’s GDP is generated by the gold power systems into a unified regional power block. du Mali SA” (EDM SA) that supplies 35 cities, Source: YSee4All (2019) “Investment prospectus of Mali’s industry and about 15 percent of GDP by the In addition, the country is part of the ECOWAS including Bamako. Sustainable Energy for All”. industrial ginning of cotton for export. These Regional Electricity Regulatory Authority, Sustainable Energy for All. United Nations. According to the report “Mali’s Sustainable Energy two industrial sectors account for much of the which is responsible for regulating cross-border for All Investment Prospectus” [19], biomass overall industrial energy consumption. electricity trade. Along with Guinea, Mauritania (wood energy) is the main source of energy for and Senegal, Mali is a member of the Organization The transport sector has a significant percentage households, accounting for 78 percent of total for Development of the Senegal River (OMVS). In 2017, EDM-SA’s electricity production was of energy consumption, which is probably even national energy consumption in 2014. Biomass is Within this organization, Mali participated 1,923GWh (i.e., about 50 percent more than in 2012). higher today due to its rapid growth. Considering followed by hydrocarbons for 17 percent of energy in the construction and development of the The consumption of petroleum products per year was the growth rate of ICE two- and three-wheelers production and electricity for the remaining 5 Manantali and Félou hydroelectric power plants, about 1.4 million TOE (also about 50 percent more in households (about 1.5 percent more each percent. All hydrocarbons for energy consumption completed in 2001 and 2013, respectively. These than in 2012). year for each type of vehicle), the energy are imported. hydroelectric plants have a potential to produce consumption of these vehicles alone could Electricity consumption in 2016 represented about 4.6 800 GWh per year and have over 1,500 km of 225 Mali’s energy potential has been estimated at 1,150 account for 23 percent of the nation’s total percent of the total. In 2017, EDM data showed that kV transmission lines. The Sélingué hydroelectric MW (thanks to the presence of two major rivers), energy consumption in the transport sector. energy production was distributed as follows (Figure dam has also been operational since 1980 and of which 840 MW is currently available. However, Half the national energy consumption of ICE 3.2): produces approximately 247 GWh (28 percent of it is important to note that the annual flow of two- and three-wheelers occurs in Bamako. Mali’s production in 2006) of electricity annually these rivers is rapidly decreasing due to global 41.3 percent thermal energy (24 percent produced by EDM-SA and 17.3 percent purchased) Due to the high production costs of thermal for Bamako and other cities in Mali. In addition to warming. Finally, the photovoltaic potential is also power plants and excessive technical and non- the completion of the 225 kV line between Mali and considerable with a very high solar irradiation (5 to 41.4 percent hydroelectricity (11.8 percent produced technical problems in the network, energy costs Côte d’Ivoire in 2012, other interconnections such 7 kWh/m2/day) and a sunshine duration of about by EDM-SA and 29.6 percent purchased) (all sectors combined) are particularly high. as the one between Mali and Guinea are planned to 10 hours per day. 17.3 percent of energy imported from Côte d’Ivoire Access to electricity in Mali is also low, with meet electricity demand. The Malian government has developed energy (67.2 percent from thermal sources and the rest large disparities between urban and rural areas. Given the region’s hydroelectric potential, the transition objectives that aim to reach a renewable from hydroelectric sources). In 2020, the average gasoline price in Bamako share of renewable energy in the energy mix energy capacity of 52.5 percent in 2030 (of which Bamako is part of EDM-SA’s “interconnected network” was US$1.22/L (CFAF 671/L), while the average could increase. For petroleum products, Mali is about 29 percent is solar, 21 percent hydroelectric, and therefore benefits from the diverse energy mix electricity price was US$0.237/kWh (CFAF 131/ entirely dependent on imports. The country gets and the rest wind and bioelectric). indicated above. kWh). Within ECOWAS, the average electricity firewood (wood fuel) from its natural forests. The price was US$0.18/kWh (CFAF 103/kWh) in 2017. costs that result in much higher tariffs than in Figure 3.3. urban areas (about US$48-55/kWh – CFAF 26,000- The energy tariff regime separates households and CO2 emissions per capita (left) and per GDP (right) in Bamako between 2007 and 2016 30,000/kWh). business activities and is comprised of a variable component related to kWh consumption and a The hourly tariffs are as follows: fixed component. For medium voltage electricity, 0.20 0.09 kg per 2017 PPP $ of GDP Metric tonnes per capita Peak hours from 18:00 to 24:00 (US$0.24/kWh). hourly tariffs apply. Social tariffs apply to 0.18 0.08 electricity consumption below 50 kWh per month, Full hours from 0:00 to 18:00(US$0.16/kWh). 0.16 a rare exception within the costly electric regime. 0.07 It would be advisable to recharge electric vehicles 0.14 Nevertheless, the overall tariff level does not cover during the “full hours” (i.e., avoiding peak hours 0.06 the production costs requiring public subsidies. On that could impact negatively on the stability of 0.12 the other hand, a fixed tariff regime is in place in electrical grid). 0.10 0.05 rural areas with tariffs set according to production 0.8 0.04 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 3.3. Source: World Bank ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN BAMAKO Based on the range of emission factors by type of methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), Figure 3.4. 66 / 200 67 / 200 vehicles [95], assumptions on the share of vehicles and particulate matter (PM2.5). Evolution of the AQI in Bamako from October 2020 to March 2021 in traffic, and their average distance travelled, According to World Bank data, per capita CO2 calculations were made on the contribution of emissions in Bamako increased by about 86 transport modes used on CO2 emissions in Bamako Annual average: 73 AQI percent between 2007 and 2016 (Figure 3.3 - left), (Table 3.2 CO2 emissions by type of vehicle in likely due to population growth and mobility. The Bamako). country’s GDP has grown less rapidly than CO2 Estimates of how various transport modes emissions per capita (Figure 3.3 - right). contribute to other pollutants are given in Annex According to the Air Quality Index (AQI), air 8. It is estimated that ICE two- and three-wheelers quality is rated as poor on average (Figure 3.4) [21]. could be responsible for a major share (typically Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar 60-75 percent) of harmful local air pollutants The average annual AQI of Bamako is quite high emitted by motorized traffic, including carbon compared to other African cities and other regions Source: https://plumelabs.com/ monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (Nox), non- of the world (Figure 3.5).10 Table 3.2 CO2 emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako In Bamako, the main pollutants include the emitted about 29,130 kt CO2 equivalent in 2012 g CO2 / km CO2 following (information in parenthesis are estimates (compared to a population-weighted average of Transport Share obtained from the Copernicus atmosphere 343,000 kt CO2 equivalent in the African region). modes in traffic monitoring service [22]): In 2016, CO2 emissions were about 0.18 metric tons Low High Low High PM2.5 (average 34 μg/m3 during the last year) per capita (compared to a population-weighted Two-wheelers 76 percent 0.13 0.30 52 percent 58 percent average of 3.9 metric tons per capita of CO2 in the PM10 (average 72 μg/m3 during the last year) African region). Information is neither available Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.20 0.35 1 percent 1 percent NO2 (average 4 μg/m3 during the last year) for Bamako nor Mali for emissions caused Cars/taxis 19 percent 0.40 0.70 36 percent 31 percent by transportation. The same applies to noise O3 (average 47 μg/m3 during the last year). pollution, for which no data are available. Several Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 0.50 1.00 11 percent 10 percent Official estimates of greenhouse gas (GHG) stakeholders who were consulted acknowledged Source: Authors emissions or other pollutants are not available. that the use of ICE two- and three-wheelers has a The “World Perspective” website [23] provides significant impact on air quality and noise. data from the World Bank and indicates that Mali 10 In yellow are the African cities (except Ouagadougou and Bamako) and in blue are the non African cities. Figure 3.5. Four main projects are planned for the medium in the opposite direction between 4:00 and 7:00 term, three of which concern public road transport p.m. Unfortunately, this solution does not yet seem Comparison of Annual Average AQI and the fourth being a water taxi project. to have produced significant results. 125 In order to deal with the severe congestion The Malian government has officially initiated the in Bamako, especially during peak hours, the regulation of mototaxi services given the recent 100 principle of alternating traffic was introduced creation of new companies working in this sector in 2019. Under this alternating method, the main (e.g., Teliman). The use of ICE two-wheelers for roads are one-way from 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. and again now seems unavoidable. 75 50 25 R3. REFERENCES 0 [1] SSATP (2020). «Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in Urban Areas of Mali, Dakar Beijing Khartum Bamako Ouagadougou Hanoi Tunis Sao Paulo Abidjan Nairobi Yaoundé Cape Town Rome Maputo New York Paris Diagnostic Study». [17] Yalcouye H.B. (2014) «Stratégie opérationnelles vision Bamako 2030. Dossier de contexte». [18] https://blogs.worldbank.org/psd/new-toyota-sponsored-startup-shakes-bamako-s-public-transit 69 / 200 68 / 200 Source: https://plumelabs.com/ [19] See4All (2019) «Prospectus d’investissement de l’énergie durable pour tous du Mali». Sustainable Energy for All. Nations Unis. [20] https://www.irena.org/publications/2019/Sep/Renewables-Readiness-Assessment-Mali At the national level in Mali, WHO estimated in Assuming that about 40 percent of vehicles in [21] https://plumelabs.com/ 2016 that ambient (outdoor) air pollution has Bamako are ICE two- and three-wheelers and [22] https://ads.atmosphere.copernicus.eu/cdsapp#!/home been responsible for the loss of 396,308 years of transport could be responsible for about 63 percent [23] https://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/ ‘healthy’ life (DALYs – ‘Disability-adjusted life of total CO2 emissions in the city, we can estimate years,’ calculated by WHO as the years of life that these ICE two- and three-wheelers emit about [98] World Trade Organization (2017). Trade Policy review. Trade Policy Review Body. lost due to premature mortality plus the years of 2,400 Gg of CO2 equivalent (i.e., about 160 g/km healthy life lost due to disability). considering 25 km driven per vehicle per day). 3.4. PUBLIC TRANSPORT POLICIES IN BAMAKO The vision for transport policies in Bamako is a study that dates from 2014 but does not have a summarized in the report “Stratégie opérationnelle current forecast for its ultimate realization. vision Bamako 2030. Background Paper” [17]. A working group on urban mobility was created Most urban mobility projects in the capital focus in 2019 through an initiative sponsored by the on the development of public transport and road Ministry of Transport and Urban Mobility infrastructure including the following projects: (MTMU). The group included technicians from The “SOTRAMA ring” project focused on the MTMU, the Ministry of Infrastructure and creation of a site reserved for minibuses as well Equipment (MIE), representatives of the Governor as a site reserved for buses (this project has been of the District of Bamako, the District Council of completed). Bamako, the six other cities in the district and the surrounding communities, as well as the urban The feasibility project of two tramway lines transport operators of Bamako. (image on the right), which would provide between 130,000 and 205,000 trips/day. This project is TYPES OF TWO- AND THREE-WHEELERS USED IN OUAGADOUGOU AND BAMAKO Containers are transported from the manufacturer’s consulted have limited knowledge of electric country to the dealer mainly by sea and land. vehicles and said that suppliers in China have The containers arrive primarily at the ports of models on sale that could be ordered. The supply Box 4.1: Key facts about two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou and Bamako Dakar and Abidjan. They are then transported to chain in this case would also be similar to that of Ouagadougou and Bamako by truck. This transport ICE vehicles. Delivery times to the dealer would be Two-wheelers and three-wheelers are almost all imported in parts from China. method has a negative impact on air pollution about 3-4 weeks after the order is placed, using the The ICE two- and three-wheelers have four-stroke engines with power ranging from 110 cc to 250 cc. since these are long distances -- about 1,000 km same supply chain as ICE vehicles (with delivery Some electric bicycles are used by young students in Ouagadougou. for Abidjan and 1,700 km for Dakar. as spare parts by container). Non-electric bicycles are still used in both cities but are declining. Currently, the only electric bicycles available on According to the consulted dealers, the assembly The average life span of motorized two- and three-wheelers is 5-8 years. the market are pedal-assisted bicycles (only in and maintenance of electric two- and three- The supply chain for ICE two- and three-wheelers is well structured. Ouagadougou). The supply chain for these bicycles wheelers should be similar to ICE vehicles. As is similar to that of ICE two- and three-wheelers long as the vehicles arrive in semi-detached parts, According to dealers, buying an electric vehicle would not be difficult. except that electric bicycles are not supplied with the assembly of parts or their substitution should spare parts. remain quite simple. It is worth noting that none of the consulted dealers indicated that they had Other than e-Bikes, electric two- and three- any previous experience or knowledge of electric wheelers are not yet available on the market In The ICE two- and three-wheeled vehicles used in the two cities are four-stroke petrol engine vehicles with vehicles. Bamako and Ouagadougou. Resellers who were power ranging from 110 cc to 250 cc, depending on the model. ICE three-wheelers are only used for private goods transport. Currently, there are no electric motorcycles, scooters, or tricycles in circulation. 72 / 200 73 / 200 In Ouagadougou, there are a few electrically powered bicycles that are mostly used by school-age youth (consulted stakeholders indicated this use as a “fad”). The use of non-electric bicycles exists but is declining. In Bamako, e-bikes are not yet used. The use of non-electric bicycles has declined significantly in recent years. Bicycles were used primarily for freight delivery. With the advent of alternative, faster means of travel R4. (especially motor tricycles), the bicycle delivery business is disappearing [36]. REFERENCES Examples of two- and three-wheelers currently in use in Ouagadougou and Bamako are shown in Annex 2. [36] https://benbere.org/terre-dopportunites/livraison-velo-metier-voie-disparition-bamako/ 4.1. THE SUPPLY CHAIN Currently, there is no production facility for two- and Bamako. In general, ICE two- and three- and three-wheelers in either Burkina Faso or wheelers are available in “semi-assembled” parts Mali. These vehicles are assembled locally with and vehicles are assembled at the time of purchase. components imported from China. In Ouagadougou, Consumers generally do not wait for the vehicle to there were ICE two-wheeler factories in the past be delivered; it is picked up the same day as the but they had to close mainly because of strong purchase. Dealers also provide vehicle maintenance competition from Asian vehicles. under warranty packages. If necessary, vehicle parts are changed but rarely repaired. The supply chain for two- and three-wheeled vehicles in Burkina Faso and Mali is highly The dealers have constant relations and direct structured from the purchase of the vehicles to contacts with the manufacturers of two- and the delivery of the products to the consumer. All three-wheelers, almost all Chinese. The flow of stakeholders who were consulted indicated that spare parts from China to the two countries is quite purchasing an ICE two- or three-wheeler is not constant; a large dealer, on average, transports about currently a problem. 50 containers of ICE two- and three-wheelers per year (a container has between 44 and 180 vehicles, There are several dealers ranging from large depending on the type). companies (e.g., Megamonde, Apsonic, Royal Moto, etc.) to small vendors in both Ouagadougou DEVELOPMENT SCENARIOS FOR ELECTRIC MOBILITY OF TWO- AND THREE-WHEELERS Concerning the cost per km, the sum of the costs is For ICE three-wheelers, the annual maintenance divided by the total mileage accrued during the five costs were provided in consultation with transport years of use. professionals. The costs for the electric version were assumed to be a percentage of those for the 5.1. The analysis was conducted under conservative ICE version (32 percent), in line with what was assumptions (i.e., unfavorable conditions for THE SUPPLY CHAIN electric vehicles) including the following: observed on average for two-wheelers. The purchase of electric vehicles includes the The cost of replacing the depleted battery in purchase of batteries (systems such as battery electric vehicles was also considered in the leasing, which would reduce the cost, have not analysis; battery degradation was related to years Box 5.1: Total Cost of Ownership been considered) of use, rather than km driven and charge cycles. It The absence of a secondary market and is assumed that the battery would be replaced at The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of an electric bicycle is lower than that of other electric vehicles. therefore a higher depreciation of electric the end of the third year for electric bicycles and In both Bamako and Ouagadougou, electric scooters have a lower TCO than ICE scooters. vehicles compared with ICE vehicles at the end of the fourth year for all other electric Electric motorcycles become less expensive than ICE motorcycles as their total mileage increases. The presence of the same level of taxes as ICE vehicles. In the absence of specific data, the cost of Three-wheel electric passenger vehicles have similar total cost of ownership to their ICE counterparts. vehicles. the battery was estimated to be equal to 25 percent of the purchase price of the vehicle. Three-wheelers for freight transport have a lower TCO than their ICE counterparts (but their technical The main characteristics of the two- and three- performance is not comparable with that of ICE counterparts). wheelers under analysis and the assumptions of For the analysis in Bamako, an annual insurance the analysis are summarized in Annex 3. Regarding charge of about US$37 (CFAF 20,000) and US$54 three-wheelers for freight transport, it should be (CFAF 29,300) was considered for two-wheelers noted that there is not yet perfect comparability (motorcycles and scooters) and three-wheelers 76 / 200 77 / 200 The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) analysis The TCO analysis considers the following costs: with ICE vehicles, as these electric vehicles have respectively. An annual tax of US$3 (CFAF1,600) considers all costs associated with the purchase, lower speeds and transport capacities. also exists for bicycles. Vehicle purchase cost (D) including the loss of operation, and maintenance of vehicles over value of the vehicle over the years of ownership The purchase prices are given as average values For the analysis in Ouagadougou, annual insurance their lifetime. The TCO is a useful decision tool (residual resale value). In the analysis, the years based on a market survey of available vehicles. The of about US$54 (CFAF 29,300) was considered for which can be used to identify the driving forces of ownership in relation to the technical life of depreciation of the vehicles (linear over five years three-wheelers, while no insurance is required for and barriers to electric transition and to design the vehicle were considered. of useful life) has been estimated at 90 percent for two-wheelers. Annual taxes for three-wheelers appropriate interventions. In particular, users can ICE vehicles and 100 percent for electric vehicles (including municipal tax, registration tax, technical Annual cost of vehicle insurance (AC). receive useful information on the overall cost of (assuming the users own the vehicles until the end inspections) are about US$83 (CFAF 45,000 ), owning and operating a vehicle, which enhances Annual and flat taxes (TA). of their technical life). In addition, while there while for two-wheelers (excluding e-bikes) they their ability to make the right choices. Governments Vehicle consumption (CO) (kWh or liters of fuel is a mature secondary market for ICE vehicles are about US$4 (CFAF 2,200). In addition, the flat can also use elements of this information to design consumed by vehicles). (which allows for the sale of spare parts, hence fee is US$89 (CFAF 48,300) for three-wheelers appropriate financial incentives. Finally, transport the 10 percent residual value), this is not the case (including compliance check, first technical Replacement cost of batteries exhausted during operators can assess the economic viability of their the considered life (CR). for electric vehicles. As a matter of prudence, no inspection, registration) and US$36 (CFAF 19,500) business choices with this information. residual value has been defined for these vehicles. for two-wheelers (including first technical Additional battery for better range (CB). Cost Below, a TCO analysis comparing electric and ICE inspection and registration). of additional batteries for certain daily mileage The vehicle market is essentially absent of two- and three-wheelers is presented for Bamako that cannot be driven with the limited range of financial operators, therefore no financial cost for The baseline scenario for the TCO analysis was and Ouagadougou that considers the diversity a single battery. The cost is included if drivers the purchase of vehicles has been considered in developed assuming an average daily distance of local conditions and checks how they affect intend to swap batteries instead of recharging travelled of 25 km for all vehicles, corresponding this analysis. Most of the stakeholders who were the overall results. The structure of the analysis them or use battery swapping services. In the to an annual mileage of 9,125 km (considering consulted indicated that two- and three-wheelers compares the electric and ICE versions of the latter case, the cost is considered a proxy for the are purchased without using financial credit and by 365 days). Different mileage scenarios were following two- and three-wheelers which are cost of the service. paying the full amount directly. also provided. The results of the analysis were representative of the types in use: Maintenance costs (CM) (e.g., tire changes). expressed in undiscounted values although the use As reliable data on annual maintenance costs for Bicycles. The formula used is as follows: of discounted values does not alter the results of two-wheelers are not available, these costs were the analysis. Scooters/Mopeds. considered parametrically, calculated as 3 percent 5 and 18 percent of the purchase value respectively The results of the baseline scenario (Figure 5.1) show Motorcycles. (CAt + TAt + COt +CRt + CBt + CMt) + D for electric and ICE vehicles while taking as that electric two-wheelers and three-wheelers Tricycles (transport of persons –tuk-tuk type). t=1 reference the values provided by UNEP.11 are competitive with ICE vehicles, although there Tricycles (transport of freight – gasoline and Note: t is the year of use. diesel). 11 1E-MOB two-wheeler calculator 1.3 are small differences between the two cities. same as ICE models in Bamako. Electric scooters The breakdown of the TCO shows that the most Electric bicycles are a very competitive alternative Three-wheel electric freight vehicles have lower are less expensive than ICE models in both cities. important cost category for electric vehicles is to scooters and motorcycles in terms of TCO given costs than their ICE counterparts in both cities. Among the electric vehicles, the bicycle is the purchase cost (including depreciation), while for appropriate operating conditions (e.g., not used for However, these electric models have lower speeds cheapest. ICE vehicles it is operational fuel consumption freight transport). and transport capacities. Electric three-wheelers (Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4). The comparison between electric and ICE models for passenger transport and electric motorcycles is also reported in terms of their percentage cost In these figures, the cost of the additional battery are a cheaper alternative to their ICE counterparts differential (Figure 5.2). is not shown; it is not necessary for the “baseline” in Ouagadougou. In contrast, they cost almost the because the mileage can be covered by one battery. Figure 5.1. Figure 5.3. TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - baseline scenario12 TCO by category in Bamako - baseline scenario E-3W cargo E-3W cargo 5335 E-3W cargo 4929 C-3W cargo G C-3W cargo G 8027 C-3W cargo G 9020 C-3W cargo C-3W cargo 9312 C-3W cargo 9299 79 / 200 78 / 200 E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk 5754 E-3W tuk-tuk 5569 C-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk 5700 C-3W tuk-tuk 5829 E-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) 2402 E-2W (Moto) 1993 C-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) 2362 C-2W (Moto) 2130 E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) 1790 E-2W (Mobi) 1529 C-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Mobi) 1898 C-2W (Mobi) 1707 e-Bike e-Bike 794 e-Bike 750 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 Source: Authors Purchase cost Insurance Taxes Energy/Fuel Battery replacement Maintenance Figure 5.2. TCO differential in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - baseline scenario Figure 5.4. TCO by category in Ouagadougou - baseline scenario 3R cargo G -34% 3R cargo G -45% E-3W cargo C-3W cargo G 3R cargo -43% 3R cargo -47% C-3W cargo 3R tuk-tuk 1% 3R tuk-tuk -4% E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk 2R (Moto) 2% 2R (Moto) -6% E-2W (Moto) 2R (Mobi) -6% 2R (Mobi) -10% C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Mobi) -50% -40% -30% -20% -10% 0 10% -50% -40% -30% -20% -10% 0 C-2W (Mobi) e-Bike Source: Authors USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12 Meaning of acronyms used in the figures are given in Annex 3. Source: Authors A sensitivity analysis was conducted with respect The increase in the purchase price of electric two- TCO analysis for electric vehicles also takes into ICE counterparts. The results show that electric to the baseline scenario by considering certain and three-wheelers (Scenario b) also penalizes consideration different annual mileage scenarios transition could be profitable for vehicles used key assumptions and variables. The following four their TCO compared to their ICE counterparts. that are compared to the baseline scenario of for both private and professional purposes. A few scenarios were analyzed: 9,125 km per year (25 km per day) while assuming exceptions in Bamako may include motorcycles An increase in the maintenance costs of electric Scenario a: The lifetime of the vehicle is a vehicle lifetime of 5 years. With increasing and three-wheelers used in passenger transport two- and three-wheelers (Scenario d), on the other reduced from 5 to 3 years, to consider a higher annual mileage, the TCO decreases and electric based on their specific annual mileages. Details of degradation due to operational conditions (e.g., hand, does not significantly change their TCO scooters and three-wheelers for freight transport these sensitivity analyses are provided in Annex 3. road infrastructure conditions). In this case, no compared to the baseline scenario. become progressively more attractive than their battery replacement cost is considered for two- An increase in the energy consumption per wheelers. kilometer of electric two- and three-wheelers Scenario b: The purchase price of electric (Scenario c) does not significantly change the vehicles increases by 25 percent. TCO of electric scooters which continue to be 5.2. Scenario c: The energy consumption per km of cheaper than ICE models. The same rule applies USER VIEWS ON ELECTRIC MOBILITY electric vehicles increases by 25 percent (e.g., to to electric three-wheelers for freight transport. In consider an overload of the vehicles). Ouagadougou, the TCO of electric motorbikes and Online questionnaires were used in Bamako and respondents were in the 25-44 age group, followed Scenario d: The maintenance costs of electric three-wheelers for passenger transport, compared Ouagadougou to collect opinions on electric two- by the 18-24 age group. Most reported having a vehicles increases by 25 percent. to the baseline scenario, is similar to that of ICE and three-wheelers from end users. These opinions university education. Scenario e: Taxes for electric vehicles are vehicles (Figure 5.6). have no statistical value, as the small sample of In Ouagadougou, 93 people responded to the eliminated. respondents is not necessarily representative of The elimination of the current taxes for electric questionnaire (72 men and 19 women). Most the population in each city. Nevertheless, these 80 / 200 respondents were in the 25-44 age group, followed 81 / 200 The results show that the reduction in lifetime vehicles (Scenario e) does not affect the cost- opinions are useful to get a first glimpse of the level (Scenario a) penalizes electric vehicles in both effectiveness of electric and ICE models in by the 45-64 age group. Most reported having a of knowledge people have about electric mobility cities except for three-wheelers for goods transport Ouagadougou. In Bamako, on the other hand, university education. and to get some preliminary indication of potential (Figure 5.5). This is related to the higher impact of these tax incentives make electric motorcycle and The main take-away messages from this survey interest and challenges. the purchase cost over the period of use and the electric tuk-tuk more convenient to purchase than are summarized in Table 2.1 for both cities (more concurrent lower impact of the economic benefits their ICE counterparts. In Bamako, 31 people responded to the information is provided in Annex 4). in terms of energy consumption. questionnaire (15 men and 14 women). Most Figure 5.5. Figure 5.6. TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario a TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario c e-Bike e-Bike e-Bike e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) C-2W(Mobi) C-2W(Mobi) C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo C-3W cargo C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G C-3W cargo G C-3W cargo G C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo E-3W cargo E-3W cargo E-3W cargo USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 USD 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 Baseline scenario Scenario a Baseline scenario Scenario a Baseline scenario Scenario c Baseline scenario Scenario c Source: Authors Source: Authors BAMAKO OUAGADOUGOU Table 5.1. Bicycles are the least indicated mode of transportation More than one in five people think that electric mobility to begin electric mobility, especially for men and for could start with bicycles, and this idea is more common Summary of user’s views about eMobility in Bamako and Ouagadougou. those over the age of 24. among men (21 percent) than women (17 percent). No In addition, those who indicated this preference do not one under the age of 24 and no one over the age of 65 find it easy to use the electric vehicle in Bamako. This would introduce electric mobility with bicycles. could mean that, with electric motorcycles available This may be due to the current presence of pedal-assist BAMAKO OUAGADOUGOU on the market, purchase choices could be influenced bicycles (these vehicles are somewhat familiar). About half of the users think that the most polluting Most respondents to the questionnaire believe that by this negative perception and thus move toward ICE However, three-quarters of those who selected this mode of transport is the truck. Less than 10 percent of trucks are the main cause of air pollution. Motorcycles models. vehicle as a primary initiator of electric mobility do not people think that motorcycles are the most polluting. and mopeds are also considered polluting by about 40 fully agree on its ease of use. This perception is more pronounced among young percent of people. Just under a quarter of the respondents think that Tricycles would be the mode of transport to start with people under 25 (about 62 percent think trucks are This perception of trucks is most common among tricycles should be the first choice, with a stronger for less than 10 percent of respondents, whether for more polluting and none think ICE two-wheelers are people between the ages of 25 and 44. Young people propensity towards passenger transport. transporting people or goods. polluting). under 25 and people between the ages of 45 and 65 tend to perceive motorcycles as more polluting. There are no significant differences between men and People over 65 would be especially likely to introduce More women than men think that trucks are the most women on this topic. However, no one between the electric mobility with tricycles. No women thought it polluting mode of transportation. There are no significant differences between men’s ages of 45 and 64 would introduce electric mobility would be the best mode to start with. This is a misperception considering that the information and women’s perceptions on this topic. with this mode of transportation. The ease of use of tricycles is perceived rather on pollutant emissions indicates that ICE two-wheelers Emissions data indicate that ICE two-wheelers are the This mode of transportation would be, according to the positively for passenger transport and, on the contrary, are the most polluting mode of transportation. main contributors to air pollution. 82 / 200 83 / 200 respondents, quite easy to use. rather negatively for freight transport. More than 60 percent of the respondents think that the More than 60 percent of respondents think that the Almost 25 percent of respondents think that electric About 13 percent of respondents would introduce battery life of an electric two- or three-wheeler would battery life of an electric two- or three-wheeler would mototaxis should be the first mode of transport to start. electric mobility with mototaxi. not be sufficient for their trips. not be sufficient for their travel. Indeed, this seems to be consistent with the current This percentage, although quite low, is notable due to Men are more concerned about battery life than This perception is more pronounced among women (89 development (since a few years) of mototaxis. the fact that mototaxis in Ouagadougou are prohibited. women (46 percent of women think the battery would percent think that the battery would not be sufficient) However, this concerns only people under 45 years old. This may indicate a perceived need for this mode of be sufficient). than among men. No older person would start with an electric mototaxi. transport by some users. No one over the age of 44 thinks the battery would be All young people between 18 and 24 years old think that Women are more likely than men to introduce electric Women are more likely than men to introduce electric sufficient for their travel. the battery would be sufficient. mobility with this mode of transport (31 percent versus mobility through the use of this mode of transport (22 This indicates a lack of knowledge about battery This indicates a lack of knowledge about battery 13 percent of men). percent versus 10 percent of men). People over 65 life (batteries can reach 80 km for scooters and life (batteries can reach 80 km for scooters and years old are more interested in this mode of transport. About 60 percent of those who would introduce electric motorcycles). motorcycles). No young people under 24 years of age would begin mobility with this mode of transportation, however, believe it would not be easy to use. the introduction of electric mobility with the electric About 80 percent of respondents think that buying an About 80 percent of respondents believe that buying mototaxi. About half of the people oriented towards electric two- or three-wheeler is not easy in Bamako. an electric two- or three-wheeler would not be in this mode of transport believe it would be easy to use. In addition, they think that the purchase cost would not Ouagadougou and think that the purchase cost would be similar. not be similar. About half of the respondents would introduce electric About 56 percent of the respondents would introduce Half of the people between 45- and 65-years-old think The difficulty of purchase is mostly perceived by mobility with privately used two-wheelers. However, electric mobility with privately used motorcycles. that it is easy to buy an electric two- or three-wheeler people between 25- and 44-years-old, while there are about 33 percent believe that motorcycles are more However, most would start the process with mopeds. in Bamako. no differences in opinion between men and women. suitable. This could indicate a basic knowledge of the The perception of difficulty in purchasing is higher The opinion about higher purchase costs is more This is especially true for men (47 percent compared longer battery life of these vehicles (compared to among men. important among women (95 percent) and people over to 15 percent of women). All people between the ages motorcycles). More simply, it could be related to the 45-years-old (96 percent) of 45 and 64 would introduce electric mobility with the mobility conditions of the city. There are no significant differences in opinion by gender or age regarding the cost of purchase. These are not entirely correct perceptions. According motorcycle. Indeed, mopeds are also perceived to be more usable to the dealers consulted, importing and purchasing an This opinion, however, is not consistent with the than motorcycles. These are not entirely correct perceptions. According to the consulted dealers, importing and purchasing an electric vehicle is not more difficult than purchasing an motorcycle’s perceived ease of use or lack thereof. All young people under 24 years of age would electric vehicle is no more difficult than purchasing an internal combustion vehicle. Perceptions about the cost About half of the people do not fully agree on the introduce electric mobility with this mode of transport internal combustion vehicle. The perceptions on the of purchase are fairly correct, but also indicate a lack of motorcycle’s ease of use. (motorcycle or moped). There are no significant purchase cost are fairly correct, but also indicate a lack knowledge about the total cost of ownership. On the contrary, mopeds are perceived by most people differences between men and women. of knowledge on the total cost of ownership. as more usable than motorcycles. The Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) aims to answer The LCA was performed in consideration of the 5.3. questions about the environmental sustainability fact that Ouagadougou and Bamako are mainly LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS of a new strategy (e.g., the use of two- and three- flat cities, which favor the penetration of electric wheel electric vehicles). vehicles. The poor quality of the roads were also taken into consideration when calculating the The methodology used for LCA is based on the ISO higher fuel or energy consumption compared to 14040 series of standards which consists of four normal conditions and a reduced vehicle life. phases (Figure 5.8): Box 5.2: Key facts about the life cycle of electric vehicles Definition of the objective and scope In order to perform the Life Cycle Analysis, Analysis of the resources used to manufacture assumptions must be made about vehicle Electric two- and three-wheelers have a lower impact on CO2 emissions than an equal number of ICE two- and the product characteristics such as engine type, battery, vehicle three-wheelers. use, and end-of-life (vehicle and battery). The The production of electric scooters has a 20 percent greater environmental impact than the production of an ICE Evaluation of the impacts assumptions are described in Annex 5. scooter, but also 14 percent less of an environmental impact than the production of an ICE motorcycle. Interpretation of the results. In use, electric scooters have an environmental impact that is 83 percent lower in Bamako and 78 percent lower The life cycle analysis was conducted according to in Ouagadougou than ICE scooters. The scope of the LCA for this study focuses on the scheme shown in Figure 5.913, where the raw two-wheelers (bicycles, scooters, motorcycles) and recycled materials are considered the starting An electric scooter consumes 40 percent less energy than an ICE scooter. and three-wheelers (both ICE and electric) for the point in obtaining the final product. Manufacturing An electric motorcycle consumes between 19 percent and 23 percent less energy than an ICE motorcycle. mobility of people or goods. is the second phase of a vehicle’s life cycle and An electric tricycle consumes between 5 percent and 10 percent less energy than an ICE tricycle. takes into consideration the energy and water Both emissions of pollutants and energy needed for production. Assuming that the vehicles 84 / 200 85 / 200 consumption were analyzed for the following vehicle life cycle stages: production, use, (or parts) are manufactured outside the country maintenance, and recycling. where they are used (in this case Burkina Faso and Mali), the environmental impact of transporting The following two “cycles” are given consideration these vehicles to their destination (Ouagadougou in this study: and Bamako) is then analyzed. When the vehicle arrives at its destination, a phase begins in which “Fuel cycle”: the environmental impacts are analyzed in relation Well-to-Tank (WTT) (i.e., extraction, to the use of the vehicle, its degree of maintenance production, and transportation of raw materials, and the charging and discharging of the battery. as well as refining, production and distribution of gasoline and electricity). Finally, the environmental impacts caused by the end-of-life of the vehicle and the battery are Tank-to-Wheel (TTW) which is the gasoline or analyzed by estimating the amount of energy it electricity used by vehicles in the use phase. takes to recycle these materials. “Vehicle Cycle”: The life cycle analysis also considered the energy Production of raw materials and vehicle mix of the two countries, which affects the assembly (e.g., body, traction, battery, fluids). environmental impact and energy consumption Transportation of the vehicle from the caused by electric vehicles during their use. In production site to the place of use. Burkina Faso, most of the electrical energy is produced by fossil fuels (about 84 percent) and Use (maintenance of the vehicle throughout the rest is produced by renewable energy. In Mali, its life - fuel consumption is considered in the about 53 percent of electrical energy is produced TTW phase). by fossil fuels and the rest by renewable sources. End-of-life (disposal of the vehicle and battery). 13 The figure shows the life cycle of any vehicle using a car as an example. However, it is also valid for the life cycle of a two- wheeler or three-wheeler. Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Life Cycle Assessment Main LCA phases 5.3.1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS One of the main environmental impact indicators The impact of the production phase was assessed concerns a value associated with global warming using international studies as a reference [24][25] that is assigned according to a type of vehicle [26][27][28][29][30][31]. This indicator is highly depending on the amount of CO2 equivalent dependent on where the vehicle is manufactured. emitted per km driven.14 Most of the ICE two- and three-wheelers imported into Burkina Faso and Mali are manufactured in 1 Goal & Scope 2 Life Cycle Inventory 3 Impact Assessment Environmental impacts are assessed without separating the “fuel cycle” and the “vehicle cycle.” China, and electric vehicles and bicycles are also widely manufactured in China. Therefore, environmental impacts of the “fuel cycle” in the Well-to-Tank (WTT) and Tank-to- In the production phase, electrically powered Wheel (TTW) phases are not explicitly separated vehicles generally have a higher impact on between the production and transport phase and emissions than their ICE counterparts. The the use phase of the gasoline or electricity that is production of electric scooters has a 20 percent 4 consumed. higher environmental impact than the production Interpretation of an ICE scooter, but also has a 14 percent Figure 5.10 indicates the emissions from the well to lower impact than the production of an internal the wheels (WTW)15 by comparing CO2 emissions combustion motorcycle. 86 / 200 87 / 200 for various vehicles in Bamako and Ouagadougou. The global warming impact is the same in Bamako The same environmental impacts are calculated Figure 5.9 and Ouagadougou for all ICE vehicles. In the case for Bamako and for Ouagadougou since the same of electrically powered vehicles, the different vehicles and the same production sites are involved. Schema of life cycle of a vehicle energy mixes of the two cities have a significant Calculation of the transport impact first took into influence on the results. consideration that the vehicles are transported by The global warming impact when considering boat (container) to the main African port of Dakar. the same type of vehicle (e.g., ICE motorcycle vs. The containers are then transported by truck to electric motorcycle) is always lower in electric Bamako or Ouagadougou. General calculations Distribution Energy vehicles. This is not the case when comparing for trucks were based on an internal combustion consumption different types of vehicles (e.g., electric tricycles engine running on diesel with a low emission class Production have a similar environmental impact compared (i.e., very polluting). For this study, an average to ICE motorcycles and a higher environmental truck carries a container with 44 tricycles or 120 impact than scooters and electric bicycles). scooters/motorbikes or 180 bicycles. Non-electric bicycles also have an impact on global The transport phase does not show significant warming (albeit quite limited) because of their differences in environmental impact between Raw Materials Use Maintenance production, transportation from the production Bamako and Ouagadougou, although the distances site to Bamako or Ouagadougou, daily use, and end- for the trucking phase (after the containers arrive of-life. at the port of Dakar) are not the same. The environmental impact of the transport phase ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS for electric vehicles is somewhat higher than that Materials Recycling BY LIFE-CYCLE PHASES of ICE vehicles due to the heavier weight of electric Figure 5.12 illustrates the environmental impacts in vehicles compared to their ICE counterparts. Bamako and Ouagadougou, respectively, according The third aspect included in the analysis is the to the four phases of the analysis (production, environmental impact caused by the use of the transport, use, and end-of-life). vehicle which is much greater in ICE vehicles End-of-Life Energy Recovery Processing 14 It is the sum of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, N2O, CH4 and VOC) multiplied by their global warming potential. 15 The well-to-wheels phase is also indicated with the acronym WTW. Figure 5.10. compared to their electric powered counterparts. In Moreover, electric two- and three-wheelers addition, electric vehicles do not have a negligible produce zero tailpipe emissions in the use phase Comparison of total CO2 equivalent emissions impact on the environment because the energy of the vehicle, which is a significant advantage mix of both countries is derived in part from fossil given the acute problem of air pollution in Bamako eTricycle energy sources. and Ouagadougou. Emissions may be produced, Tricycle however, by the source of electrical power such as eMoto The environmental impacts during the use phase a power plant. In cities, on the other hand, there are related to the energy needs of the vehicles. Moto are generally more people exposed to tailpipe eScooter Figure 5.11 shows the energy requirements of two- emissions from ICE vehicles than to polluting Scooter wheelers and three-wheelers in the use phase also emissions from power plants. Ouagadougou Bamako known as Tank-to-Wheel.16 There are significantly eBike Given the poor road conditions in Bamako and greater energy requirements for ICE vehicles than Bike Ouagadougou and the high wear and tear that their electric counterparts. Since this analysis 0 50 100 150 200 250 vehicles face, the end-of-life impact also plays an takes into account the energy requirements during important role in this analysis. Consideration was g CO2 eq./km the use phase, the lower efficiency of ICE vehicles Source: Authors also given to the logistical and industrial difficulties accounts for much of their higher energy demand. Figure 5.11. in fully recycling the materials that comprise This disadvantage is partially offset by the lower vehicles and their batteries. average weight of ICE vehicles compared to electric Tank-to-wheel energy requirements by vehicle type vehicles and their heavy battery weight. The environmental impact caused by the end-of- life of vehicles and batteries is higher for electric 89 / 200 88 / 200 eTricycle 0,13 The use phase accounts for the greatest difference Tricycle vehicles than for ICE vehicles due to the batteries 0,23 in environmental impact between electric and that require a more complicated recycling process. eMoto 0,08 ICE vehicles and the consistently lower impact for Consideration was given in this analysis to the fact Moto 0,16 electric vehicles. that recycling of batteries is not done locally. eScooter 0.04 In Bamako, electric scooters have an impact on CO2 The environmental impact in this case increases Scooter 0,11 equivalent emissions that is 83 percent lower than with the size of the battery and therefore the eBike 0,01 ICE scooters. Electric motorcycles and tricycles vehicle. The impact is 88 percent higher for electric Bike 0,00 reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 67 percent tricycles than for ICE tricycles. The end-of-life compared to their ICE counterparts. In addition, 0 0,05 0.1 0,15 0,2 0,25 impact of electric scooters is 33 percent higher the use of electric tricycles has a 42 percent lower kWh/km than for ICE scooters. environmental impact compared to an ICE scooter Source: Authors in terms of CO2 equivalent emissions. The end-of-life impact in Bamako and Ouaga- Figure 5.12. dougou are the same. In Ouagadougou, the environmental benefits of Equivalent CO2 Emissions by Life Cycle Phase in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) electric mobility during the use phase are less Electric bicycles have three times as much significant than in Bamako. In any case, electric environmental impact than non-electric bicycles eTricycle eTricycle scooters have a 78 percent lower environmental during the production phase, nine times as much Tricycle Tricycle impact on CO2 equivalent emissions than ICE impact during the use phase, and five times as much eMoto eMoto scooters. Electric motorcycles and tricycles impact during the end-of-life phase. The impact in Moto Moto reduce emissions of CO2 equivalent by 57 the transportation phase, however, is almost the percent compared to their ICE counterparts. In same. eScooter eScooter Ouagadougou, the use of electric tricycles causes Scooter Scooter a 24 percent lower environmental impact in terms eBike eBike of CO2 equivalent emissions compared to an ICE Bike Bike scooter. 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 g CO2 eq./km g CO2 eq./km Production Transport Use End of life Source: Authors 16 The tank to wheel phase is also indicated with the acronym TTW. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS BY COMPONENTS Figure 5.13. Environmental impacts were analyzed according to to an electric scooter (resulting in a 52 percent Relative impacts by component in Bamako (top) and Ouagadougou (bottom) six major components including climate change,17 reduction in Bamako and a 48 percent reduction fossil fuel depletion, human toxicity, metal in Ouagadougou). depletion, particulate matter, and photochemical The greater positive impact on fossil fuel eTricycle oxidant formation. depletion is achieved by switching from an ICE motorcycle to an electric motorcycle (resulting Tricycle The impacts on the components under in a 56 percent reduction in Bamako and a 49 consideration are shown in Figure 5.13 as a relative percent reduction in Ouagadougou). eMoto value to the worst- case scenario. All values are normalized in relation to the 100 percent The greater positive impact on human toxicity designation represented by the vehicle with the is achieved by switching from an ICE scooter Moto greatest environmental impact for all the different to an electric scooter (resulting in a 39 percent reduction in Bamako and a 27 percent reduction eScooter components (that is to say, the ICE tricycle). in Ouagadougou). The data were divided into different chemical The greater positive impact on metal depletion Scooter components such as photochemical oxidant is obtained by switching from an ICE scooter formation potential (PFO) which includes alkanes, to an electric scooter (resulting in a 40 percent eBike halogenated hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, reduction in both Bamako and Ouagadougou). esters, ethers, olefins, acetylene, aromatics, and Although the batteries in electric vehicles are 90 / 200 91 / 200 Bike aldehydes. mainly composed of metals, the mechanical parts of electric motors are smaller than those of 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Human toxicity is calculated by compiling the ice engines. This causes less metal depletion for releases that are toxic to humans in air, water, and electric vehicles, especially for smaller batteries soil. such as those in electric scooters. Abiotic resource depletion includes the depletion eTricycle The greater positive impact on particulate of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels and matter formation is obtained by switching from metals. In Figure 5.13, this indicator is separated to an ICE motorcycle to an electric motorcycle Tricycle highlight fossil fuel depletion and metal depletion. (resulting in a 47 percent reduction in Bamako and a 39 percent reduction in Ouagadougou). eMoto Motorized two- and three-wheelers all have a lower impact on these components than their ICE The greater positive impact on photochemical oxidant formation is achieved by switching Moto counterparts. Only the non-electric bicycle has a lower (and rather negligible) impact. E-bikes also from an ICE cycle to an electric cycle (resulting in a 48 percent reduction in Bamako and a 40 eScooter have a low impact on all six components of climate percent reduction in Ouagadougou). change, fossil fuel depletion, human toxicity, metal depletion, particulate matter, and photochemical The benefits of electric vehicles relative to their Scooter oxidant formation. ICE counterparts are consistently higher in Bamako than in Ouagadougou. This is due to the eBike After comparing the same types of vehicles (e.g., energy mix for power generation in Bamako being electric scooters vs. ICE scooters), the following more oriented to the use of renewable sources Bike observations stand out: than Ouagadougou. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 The greater positive impact on climate change is achieved by switching from an ICE scooter Photochemical oxidant formation Metal depletion Fossil fuel depletion Particle formation Human toxicity Climate change 17 Climate change is defined as a sustained change in the statistical parameters of the Earth’s global climate or its various regional climates, due to external influences and human activities. Source: Authors 5.3.2. IMPACTS ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS BY ENERGY MIX To calculate the impacts of two- and three-wheelers Electric two- and three-wheelers generally A different energy mix for production of electricity equivalent CO2 for electric two- and three-wheelers on energy consumption, the “fuel cycle” and the have a lower impact on energy consumption can influence the equivalent CO2 emissions of ranging from 5 percent for electric bicycles to 10 “vehicle cycle” are taken into consideration. than ICE two- and three-wheelers. The greatest electric vehicles. A sensitivity analysis has been percent for electric motorcycles. An increase of environmental gain is obtained by switching from The “fuel cycle” concerns both the extraction, performed to estimate which benefits could be 85 percent would lead to a reduction of equivalent an ICE scooter to an electric scooter, resulting in 41 production, and transport (Well-to-Tank or WTT obtained by improving the energy mix. This is CO2 for electric two- and three-wheelers ranging percent and 42 percent less energy consumption in phase) and the use (Tank-to-Wheel or TTW especially relevant for Ouagadougou where the from 12 percent for electric bicycles to 25 percent Ouagadougou and Bamako, respectively. Compared phase) of petrol (in the case of ICE two- and three- electricity produced from renewable sources is for electric motorcycles. It should be noted that to the ICE tricycle, its electric counterpart reduces wheelers) and electricity (in the case of electric currently just 17 percent of the total electricity reduction of equivalent CO2 for electric three- energy consumption by 5 percent in Ouagadougou two- and three-wheelers). production. In Bamako, renewable sources are wheelers, in Bamako, is lower than that of electric and 10 percent in Bamako. The electric motorcycle currently used to produce 47 percent of the motorcycles. Fuel consumption during the WTT phase depends reduces energy consumption by 19 percent in electricity. on the primary energy resource (e.g., coal, liquefied Ouagadougou and 23 percent in Bamako compared In Ouagadougou, an increase in the use of renewable gasoline, and natural gas) required to produce the to its ICE counterpart. Figure 5.14 shows the changes in equivalent CO2 sources to 45 percent of total production would user end-product of gasoline or electricity, as well emissions when the percentage of renewable lead to a reduction of equivalent CO2 for electric Energy consumption (fossil and non-fossil) for all as the conversion efficiency of the primary energy sources is increased. ICE vehicles in the figure are two- and three-wheelers ranging from 7 percent vehicles is lower in Bamako than in Ouagadougou resource, the proportion of fuel consumption in identified only with one bar since their emissions for electric bicycles to 14 percent for electric due to the country’s better energy mix in terms of the various production processes, and the distance are not influenced by the energy mix. The analysis motorcycles and electric tricycles. Increasing use of renewable sources. 92 / 200 93 / 200 the primary energy is transported. This fuel shows how the use of renewable sources would the use of renewable sources to 75 percent of consumption changes depending on the energy Since the “fuel cycle” has the greatest impact affect equivalent CO2 emissions in Bamako and in electricity production would lead to a reduction mix used to produce the energy product. on energy consumption, a further analysis is Ouagadougou. of equivalent CO2 emissions for electric two- and presented in Figure 5.16 by separating the WTT three-wheelers ranging from 15 percent for electric For the TTW phase, the energy requirements for In Bamako, an increase in the use of renewable and TTW phases of the “fuel cycle” and adding the bicycles to 29 percent for electric motorcycles. two-wheel and three-wheel vehicles are shown in sources to 65 percent would lead to a reduction of phases of the “vehicle cycle” together. Figure 5.11. In the case of electrically powered two- and three- Figure 5.15 shows the energy consumption during wheelers, the WTT phase has a greater impact on the life cycle phases; the “fuel cycle” is indicated energy consumption compared to the TTW phase. Figure 5.14 by the term “energy” while the use phase during In the case of ICE vehicles, the impact on energy the “vehicle cycle” is indicated by the term Equivalent CO2 emissions by percentage of renewable sources in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) consumption of the WTT and TTW phases is more “maintenance.” balanced. In both Bamako and Ouagadougou, the “fuel cycle” In both Ouagadougou and Bamako, the TTW phase Bike Renewable 47% (current) Bike Renewable 17% (current) has the greatest impact on energy consumption. In of motorized electric two- and three-wheelers Renewable 65% Renewable 45% the case of ICE vehicles, the WTT and TTW phases Renewable 85% Renewable 75% consumes less energy than their ICE counterparts. eBike eBike account for more than 90 percent of total energy consumption. In the case of motorized two- and During the WTT stage, the energy consumption Scooter Scooter three-wheelers, the impact of the WTT and TTW of motorized electric two- and three-wheelers phases on energy consumption are less important is not always better than that of ICE vehicles. In eScooter eScooter (about 80 percent of the total). Ouagadougou, due to low use of renewable sources to produce electricity, electric motorcycle and In the case of non-electric bicycles, the Moto Moto electric tricycles consume more energy during the production phase has the greatest impact on WTT phase than their ICE counterparts. energy consumption. The total impact on energy eMoto eMoto consumption of non-electric bicycles is very small. Tricycle Tricycle eTricycle eTricycle 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 g CO2 eq./km g CO2 eq./km Source: Authors Figure 5.15. 5.4. Energy consumption by life cycle phase in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) POTENTIAL ENERGY IMPACTS IN THE USE PHASE Velo Velo e-Bike e-Bike Box 5.3: Key facts about energy impacts in the use phase Scooter Scooter Changing 5 percent of current two- and three-wheelers to electric models in Bamako and Ouagadougou would consume 1.3 percent (Mali) and 6.9 percent (Burkina Faso) of their respective country’s electricity production. e-Scooter e-Scooter Changing 70 percent of current two- and three-wheelers to electric models in Bamako and Ouagadougou would consume 19.5 percent (Mali) and 82 percent (Burkina Faso) of their respective country’s electricity production. Moto Moto A large increase in electricity production from renewable sources at the national level is needed to introduce a high number of electric vehicles. e-Moto e-Moto Tricycle Tricycle 5.4.1. 5.4.2. e-Tricycle e-Tricycle SHORT-TERM SCENARIO MEDIUM/LONG TERM SCENARIOS 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 A calculation indicating the electricity consumption In the medium/long term, the impact of electric 94 / 200 95 / 200 of electric two- and three-wheelers in the use vehicles in Ouagadougou and Bamako on energy phase (local consumption) according to a scenario consumption in the use phase may be related to Production Transport Energy Maintenance End of life with few vehicles in circulation is shown in Figure several factors such as market penetration, driving 5.17. For this calculation, 50 vehicles per type were styles, traffic conditions and vehicle parameters. Source: Authors analyzed with the assumption that they each travel The objective of this analysis is to assess the 25 km per day. This scenario could correspond to a energy requirement for scenarios in which Figure 5.16. short-term pilot project. several different types of electric two- and three- Energy consumption in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) The electricity consumption of the 200 electric wheelers (e.g., bicycles, motorcycles, tricycles) are vehicles in circulation was only about 114 MWh introduced into the current mobility system of the per year. This amounts to only about 0.06 percent two cities. Velo Velo of the annual electricity production in Mali and 0.07 percent of the annual electricity production e-Bike e-Bike in Burkina Faso. Scooter Scooter e-Scooter e-Scooter Figure 5.17 Electricity consumption per year by vehicle type Moto Moto e-Moto e-Moto Tricycle Tricycle Tricycle Motorcycle e-Tricycle e-Tricycle Scooter 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Bicycle Well-to-tank Tank-to-wheel Other 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 Source: Authors Source: Authors Two penetration scenarios are considered in the It is important to note that the scenarios under by recharging of these vehicles. This means that grid. Consequently, a revision/adaptation of the analysis for the medium/long term: analysis are hypothetical and based on model- recharging of electric vehicles should not be tariff regimes in both cities could incentivize an based vehicle type usage rates. This analysis is concentrated during specific periods of the day. energy consumption “smoothing” by means of Slow penetration (slow technological evolution and insufficient vehicle charging facilities). In useful primarily to get a preliminary indication establishing suitable hourly rates. To this end, “smart In this respect, the electric mobility market uptake this scenario, electric two- and three-wheelers of the amount of electric power that would be meters” providing real-time data to the energy should be accompanied by the monitoring of would replace 5 percent of current two- and required to operate a mobility system where the provider could be implemented within a general charging patterns by users and the estimation of the three-wheelers. number of electric vehicles is quite high (e.g., the improvement program of the electricity grid. potential impact of peak periods on the electricity slow penetration scenario in Bamako would show Fast penetration (rapid technological develop- ment and sufficient vehicle charging facilities). about 6,400 electric vehicles in use). In this scenario, electric two- and three- Electric mobility in Bamako would absorb wheelers would replace 70 percent of current between 1.3 percent and 19.5 percent of Mali’s two- and three-wheelers. total electricity production (in terms of total Figure 5.18 The methodology used to calculate the number of production in 2017), respectively, for the slow Energy consumption of two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou bicycles, scooters, motorcycles, and tricycles used and fast penetration scenarios. In Ouagadougou, Left: slow penetration; Right: fast penetration and the routes chosen are described in Annex 6. on the other hand, these slow and fast penetration scenarios would absorb between 6.9 percent and 82 50000 600000 The energy assessment also considers the influence percent of Burkina Faso’s electricity production, of driving style. Three particular driving styles are 40000 500000 respectively, in terms of total production in 2016. considered in the analysis: normal, relaxed and 400000 Under these conditions, the fast penetration 30000 stressed. These driving styles are analyzed based 96 / 200 97 / 200 kW kW 300000 on the following factors: how the energy consumed scenario in Ouagadougou would clearly be 20000 by electric vehicles can change with average speed, unsustainable without a large increase in national 200000 maximum speed, and acceleration. It should be electricity production. The country’s electricity 10000 100000 noted that the stressed driving style is considered production is increasing at a rate of 11 percent 0 0 as a kind of worst-case scenario, where the driving per year, which would allow the same amount 0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 24:00 0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 24:00 behavior is very erratic with high acceleration and of energy to be absorbed in the slow penetration maximum speed. The normal driving style was scenario in about 2040. considered to have a medium value for acceleration The situation seems simpler in Bamako because Normal Relaxed Stressed and maximum speed. The relaxed scenario results there are fewer two- and three-wheeler trips. Source: Authors in bringing the electric powertrain closer to its However, the impact on national power generation maximum efficiency for most operating conditions. is still high in the fast penetration scenario although The resulting scenarios allow for the calculation of the country’s power generation increases at a rate the energy consumed for each hour of a typical day of 10 percent per year. For example, if we aim at Figure 5.19 in Ouagadougou (Figure 5.18) and Bamako (Figure a scenario that does not exceed 1 percent of the annual electricity production of the two countries, Energy consumption of two- and three-wheelers in Bamako 5.19). According to these scenarios, the daily energy it would only be possible to use electric vehicles Left: slow penetration; Right: fast penetration consumption of electric two- and three-wheelers in the two cities would show the following results for 10000 150000 under the “normal” driving style: 0.7 percent of two- and three-wheeled trips in 8000 120000 Ouagadougou: Ouagadougou (about 4,200 trips per day); 000 kWh/day Slow penetration: about 307  And 3.5 percent of two- and three-wheeled trips 6000 90000 kW kW (about 112 GWh/year) in Bamako (about 4,500 trips per day). 4000 60000 Fast penetration: about 3  000 kWh/day 655  An important issue concerns the load impacts in (environ 1 334 GWh/ year). the electricity grid that determine the stability 2000 30000 Bamako: of electricity provision; peak loads can cause 0 0 Slow penetration: about 68 500 kWh/day (about power outages and blackouts, which are quite 0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 24:00 0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 24:00 25 GWh/ year) frequent in Bamako and Ouagadougou. Therefore, Fast penetration: about 1  029  500 kWh/day introducing a certain number of electric vehicles (about 375 GWh/ year). should be considered and managed attentively to Normal Relaxed Stressed avoid further deficits in electricity load caused Source: Authors R5. REFERENCES [24] Severengiz S., Finke S., Schelte N. and Wendt N., (2020) “Life Cycle Assessment on the Mobility Service E-Scooter Sharing” IEEE European Technology and Engineering Management Summit (E-TEMS), Dortmund, Germany, 2020, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/E-TEMS46250.2020.9111817. [25] Moreau H., de Jamblinne de Meux L., Zeller V., D’Ans P., Ruwet C., Achten W.M.J. (2020) “Dockless E-Scooter: A Green Solution for Mobility? Comparative Case Study between Dockless E-Scooters, Displaced Transport, and Personal E-Scooters” Sustainability 12, no. 5: 1803. https://doi. org/10.3390/su12051803 [26] Weiss M., Dekker P., Moro A., Scholz H., Patel M.K. (2015) “On the electrification of road transportation – A review of the environmental, economic, and social performance of electric two- wheelers,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Volume 41, 2015, Pages 348-366, ISSN 1361-9209, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.09.007 [27] Kazmaier M., Taefi T., Hettesheimer T. (2020). “Techno-Economical and Ecological Potential of Electric Scooters: A Life Cycle Analysis.” European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure 99 / 200 98 / 200 Research. 20. 233- 251. 10.18757/ejtir.2020.20.4.4912. [28] Hollingsworth J., Copeland B., Johnson J.X. (2019) “Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters,” Environmental Research Letters, Volume 14, Number 8, August 2019. [29] Mellino S., Petrillo A., Cigolotti V., Autorino C., Jannelli E., Ulgiati S. (2017) “A Life Cycle Assessment of lithium battery and hydrogen-FC powered electric bicycles: Searching for cleaner solutions to urban mobility,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 42, Issue 3. [30] Chen S., Qian F., Tie Zhu L. (2014) “Energy Consumption and Emission of Pollutants from Electric Bicycles,” Materials and Technologies for Flexible and Printed Electronics, 01 Jan 2014, Vol. 505- 506, Issue 1, pages 327 – 333. 72 [31] Winslott H.L., Svensson A. (2017). “E-bike use in Sweden – CO2 effects due to modal change and municipal promotion strategies.” Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 141, Pages 818-824, ISSN 0959- 6526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.141. POTENTIALS FOR DEVELOPMENT For three-wheelers, it is more difficult to find In these circumstances, a key factor in both cities models that are fully comparable to ICE vehicles, will be the willingness of consumers to accept this although there seems to be a trade-off between trade-off given that this type of vehicle is used Box 6.1: Key Facts about key enablers for the development of electric mobility vehicle load capacity and maximum vehicle speed. mainly for freight transport. Key enablers for the development of electric mobility include the following: The performance of electric vehicles is comparable to existing ICE vehicles. KE2: TCO PARITY The total cost of ownership of an electric vehicle is often lower than that of an ICE vehicle. As the TCO analysis has shown, electric vehicles Three-wheeled electric vehicles for passenger Incentives are needed to make the cost of purchasing an electric vehicle affordable. are competitive with ICE models in Bamako and transport are the third most cost-effective mode for Investments are needed to ensure the availability of vehicle charging infrastructure. Ouagadougou, although competitiveness varies all mileage in Ouagadougou and for total mileage of There are no significant institutional or regulatory barriers that would block the transition to electric mobility. by vehicle type and depends on the specific total 10,000 km/year or more in Bamako. Nevertheless, mileage (distance driven). this mode is only a marginally-used alternative in both cities. The most cost-effective type of electric vehicle (in terms of TCO per km) relative to its ICE Finally, electric motorcycles are profitable in Analyses of the current mobility situation in Bamako and Ouagadougou, as well as estimates of the impacts counterpart is the three-wheeler for freight Ouagadougou for mileage above 5,000 km per year, of the electric transition of two- and three-wheelers, show a fairly large potential to initiate development of transport. Nevertheless, the profitability of such a whereas a more “oscillating” pattern can be found the electric mobility sector. change for vehicles with an annual mileage equal in Bamako where electric motorcycles are slightly to or greater than 20,000 km per year (more than profitable for mileage ranges of 15,000-20,000 km 102 / 200 103 / 200 The potentials were assessed in relation to “key enablers” (KE) such as consumers starting to purchase 55 km per day) is conditioned by the availability and 33,000-55,000 km (e.g., mototaxi operations electric vehicles to create niche markets and, in a more mature market phase, allow the market to scale up. of an appropriate battery charging or exchange in Bamako are found in the latter range). For the time being, Bamako and Ouagadougou lack significant experience and knowledge of electric mobility, system that is acceptable to users in terms of both among potential users and among policymakers and transport service providers. This difference between Ouagadougou and availability (e.g., convenient times for charging Bamako is explained by the relatively higher The analysis is based on information provided by stakeholders during the consultations. This information reflects at stations, parking lots, garages, etc.). This issue cost of electricity compared to gasoline, which the knowledge and perceptions of different entities in the political and economic world (government and public could be crucial for the deployment of commercial undermines the potential gains to be made from institutions, vehicle dealers, service providers such as mototaxis, etc.) and civil society (see section 5.2). services in this sector. using electric vehicles more efficiently than ICE Electric scooters are the second most cost-effective vehicles. In Bamako, the average cost of electricity category for all assumed mileages, as they share is US$0.237/kWh (CFAF 130/kWh) while the the same considerations made for electric three- average cost of gasoline is US$0.143/kWh (CFAF KE1: PERFORMANCE COMPARABLE TO EXISTING ICE VEHICLES wheelers (availability of a charging or battery 77/kWh). In Ouagadougou, the average cost of exchange system) with respect to freight vehicles electricity is US$0.185/kWh (CFAF 100/kWh) This issue concerns the possibility of using electric expectations. Key factors can be the overall travel with mileages above 21,000 km/year. while the average cost of gasoline is US$0.134/ vehicles to carry out routine trips and activities time, influenced by the vehicle’s performance in with the same degree of technical reliability, terms of speed as well as by the battery charging efficiency, and overall comfort. As far as the time, or by the loading capacity for freight transport. technical aspect is concerned, electric two- and Finally, user comfort concerns both physical three-wheelers should not have more technical Box 6.2: Tricycle ambulance in Bamako considerations (e.g., driving comfort on rough failures than ICE vehicles. This issue is also related roads) and the overall satisfaction of using/owning A recent example which helps illustrate the to the availability of spare parts and the general an electric vehicle, including aesthetic or social market’s propensity towards three-wheeled technical competence of dealers. motorized vehicles is the purchase by a hospital in status considerations. Of course, the influence of Bamako of tricycles adapted as ambulances (see An important constraint could be related to the these issues depends on the actual availability of image on the right). These vehicles were designed range mileage of electric vehicles and the possible suitable electric vehicle models in the local market. during the emergency phase of the COVID-19 “range anxiety” of users (i.e., the fear of not being pandemic and are an attempt to meet a large deficit The electric two-wheelers that dealers in Bamako able to cover distances with the charge provided in emergency services in Mali. While there may be and Ouagadougou might offer represent an some doubts about their ability to respond quickly by the vehicle’s battery). This issue is strictly appropriate alternative in purchasing decisions to an emergency, they represent an interesting dependent on the possibility of easily and quickly example and a clear indication of the market’s due to their similar technical characteristics to recharging the vehicle. (and users’) propensity toward tricycles. ICE vehicles and the relatively simple and mature Efficiency is determined by the ability to carry technology achieved by this type of vehicle. out a trip or activity while meeting the users’ Source: Authors kWh (CFAF 73/kWh). The relative TCO of electric transport (e.g., in Ouagadougou, a trip by public bus Of course, strengthening the financial ecosystem problems associated with the lack of experience vehicles in both countries could be improved by costs about US$0.5-0.9, whereas in the baseline would also involve the emergence of new business with electric vehicles in terms of avoiding the establishing hourly rates that avoid future grid scenario of the TCO analysis, a 25 km trip by e-bike models such as vehicle subscription/rental models, “fear” of owning an electric vehicle due to negative overloads and making the electricity demand would cost US$0.36). battery subscription/rental models, etc. Vehicle perceptions related to limited range and technical smoother over the day through lower tariffs in off leasing could be particularly promising in Bamako failures. Moreover, E-bike users would be less affected by peak periods. and Ouagadougou, as it would also overcome the heat problems compared to ICE bicycle users. In addition, cheaper electric bicycles could The results for both cities must also be interpreted compete directly with ICE scooters (especially in considering the lack of any public incentives the lower range of mileage) rather than being an KE5: AVAILABILITY OF CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE/BATTERY SERVICES to encourage e-vehicle adoption. Encouraging alternative to non-electric bicycles. E-bikes could electric transition is a key policy issue that must The availability of an adequate charging network accessible to private users. On the contrary, users and also be an alternative for public transport users, as be addressed. (charging stations and/or battery exchange service providers are more likely to consider battery other vehicles may be less affordable for transit services) is a fundamental condition which fosters charging services (through dedicated workshops or users. E-bike travel may be cheaper than public the market adoption of electric vehicles bigger at service stations). It is worth noting that, from a than two-wheelers. However, there is still no technical, regulatory, and economic point of view, consensus for two-wheelers on whether a dedicated a battery exchange service currently seems to be charging network is necessary. A charging network more feasible in Bamako and Ouagadougou than the KE3: AFFORDABLE INITIAL COST AND EASE OF PURCHASE contributes to reducing the so-called “range anxiety” installation of charging stations. This is especially which impedes the adoption and more extensive use true for two-wheelers whose lighter batteries would 104 / 200 105 / 200 Electric vehicles generally have higher purchase A positive development is the potential for of electric vehicles. A widespread charging network require faster swapping operations than three- costs than ICE models. The challenge of obtaining electric vehicles from dealerships. In fact, would allow users to recharge the vehicle whenever wheelers. Nevertheless, a mixed approach with the affordability, reported by consultees as the most all the dealers consulted on the issue confirmed they want, analogously to conventional vehicles. added implementation of charging infrastructures adverse factor in user decisions, is not offset by that it was easy to order electric vehicles through could suitably serve the different mobility patterns, No charging infrastructure exists in either city, with lower operating costs. An example cited by some the usual supply chain, which also includes the especially in the medium/long term. As shown by private locations being the only potential charging stakeholders in Bamako concerns solar panels, availability of spare parts. In addition, the sale of international practices, the deployment of a charging points. It does not appear to be a short-term constraint which are rarely deployed because of their high electric bicycles appears to be an emerging trend network in a less than mature market usually requires since most two-wheelers could easily be recharged purchase cost even if the user fees are limited. among school-age youth in Ouagadougou. public subsidies to support initial investments and in a few hours via a standard plug at home or at the allow the network to expand. Currently, this problem is not mitigated by any Transport pollution in both cities is perceived by office when used for limited distances. But the lack public incentives (e.g., a reduction in VAT) or stakeholders as a significant problem. This issue of a charging network could limit the penetration The use of solar panel installations for battery by financial programs to avoid upfront costs represents an opportunity to communicate the of electric three-wheelers and even two-wheelers recharging could also be a positive factor. This (e.g., installment payments). An exception is the importance of an “electric transition” in a way that on a large scale in the medium/long term, when would further reduce the impact of electric vehicles franchise system currently used by the Teliman would be well-received by users. However, this topic mobility patterns could necessitate charging services on the environment and on energy consumption mototaxi company, which allows motorcycle should be addressed carefully, especially in relation different from plugging at home/office. In addition, (see Life-cycle Assessment) through renewable drivers to activate a lease to pay for the motorcycle to vehicle costs. The consultations made it clear that limited household access to electricity and the energy sources. An energy cost benefit could also be in periodic installments. environmental benefits and lower operating costs frequent malfunctions of the electricity grid could envisioned. could take a back seat to the purchase costs. be a problem. This is less of an issue in Ouagadougou Increased political support for electric vehicles where about 95 percent of households are connected would be a cross-cutting catalyst. To be successful, to the electricity grid. In Bamako, the percentage of public policies would set clear scopes and targets, connected households is about 88 percent. define comprehensive and sustainable intervention KE4: AVAILABILITY OF FINANCING Consulted stakeholders are quite divided as to what programs, and ensure their implementation. The financial systems in both cities are not well development of an appropriate financial ecosystem type of infrastructure would be more appropriate in Electricity-oriented policies, including the definition developed and “cash” transactions are the common would necessitate a general increase in knowledge the two cities. Public institutions seem to be more of specific regulations, will need to be developed practice among customers except for officials at of the technical characteristics of electric vehicles oriented towards the development of public charging from scratch in Bamako and Ouagadougou. some institutions who may have access to financial and greater experience in the field. In fact, these infrastructure (charging stations) that is easily loans. The presence of a developed financial factors would allow financial institutions and ecosystem is a fundamental requirement to operators to better focus on the market and identify overcome the problem of upfront costs of electric specific risk profiles and business opportunities, vehicles, which are generally less affordable thereby releasing more loans. than ICE models for potential consumers. The KE6: ENERGY SUPPLY SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES To respond to the question of energy supply, we percent of their respective country’s electricity Table 6.1 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of be paid to young people as a target group, as they are have analyzed the electricity requirements of both production. Changing 70 percent of current two- each vehicle in terms of its potential for adoption and likely to be more open to an innovative experience cities in relation to scenarios where several electric and three-wheelers to electric models in Bamako identifies potential cases for early use. As indicated than other, more conservative social groups. two- and three-wheelers of different types (e.g., and Ouagadougou would consume 19.5 percent and by several stakeholders, particular attention should bicycles, motorcycles, tricycles) are introduced to 82 percent of their respective country’s electricity the current mobility system. The energy assessment production. also considered the influence of driving style under Table 6.1. Overall, these results indicate that the transition three conditions: normal, relaxed, stressed. Two Strengths and weaknesses for potential adoption of each type of electric vehicle should occur in a phased manner. Towards the penetration scenarios are analyzed here: medium term, the electrification of transport should Slow penetration of electric two- and three- be accompanied by a large increase in electricity wheelers (electric two- and three-wheelers production at the national level. Vehicle type Strengths Weaknesses Potential use would replace 5 percent of two- and three- wheelers currently being used). An important issue is the stability of electricity Lowest TCO in both cities Higher purchase cost than non- Private use for short provision, which is impacted by peak loads that More affordable purchase electric bicycles distances (10 km per day Fast penetration of electric two- and three- price than scooter Lack of financial incentives to - limited charging needs) can cause frequent power outages and blackouts wheelers (electric two- and three-wheelers reduce initial cost in both cities in both cities by students/ in Bamako and Ouagadougou. Consideration Electric bicycle Less demanding charging would replace 70 percent of two- and three- workers operations Problems with road conditions should be given to Introducing a certain number of wheelers currently being used). 106 / 200 107 / 200 Models already in circulation electric vehicles that would be managed closely to in Ouagadougou The impact on the grid depends on several factors, avoid further deficits in electricity load caused by such as characteristics of existing and future recharging of the vehicles. This means, for instance, Technical performance Higher purchase cost than ICE Private use for short to energy production, market penetration of electric that recharging of electric vehicles should not be comparable to that of ICE models medium distances (20-25 km vehicles, driving styles, traffic conditions and vehicles Lack of financial incentives to per day - limited charging concentrated during specific periods of the day. In Electric scooter Availability per order reduce initial cost in both cities needs) in both cities by vehicle parameters. Under the existing energy this respect, energy tariff regimes suitably adapted Competitive TCO in both students and workers conditions, changing 5 percent of current two- and to incentivize off-peak charging through efficient cities three-wheelers to electric models in Bamako and hourly rates could play a significant role. Ouagadougou would consume 1.3 percent and 6.9 Technical performance Higher purchase cost compared Mototaxi services in Bamako, comparable to that of ICE to ICE model managed by companies able vehicles TCO differential in Bamako very to meet the initial costs, Electric Availability per order sensitive to mileage benefit from a lower TCO and set up of an appropriate KE7: POLICY ISSUES motorcycle Competitive TCO in both Lack of financial incentives to recharging system (e.g., cities reduce initial cost in both cities battery exchange) Various policy and regulatory issues represent an sensitive to the reduction of travel time, especially Lack of charging infrastructure in opportunity to facilitate the development of electric in Bamako. Some stakeholders in Ouagadougou have place in both cities mobility. Consultations with stakeholders did not considered the development of electric two-wheeler Technical performance Higher purchase cost than the Marginal mode of reveal any institutional or regulatory barriers. The sharing services as a way of supporting public Electric three- comparable to that of ICE ICE model transport in both cities institutional officials all stated that the development transport feeder lines. In contrast, this hypothesis wheelers for vehicles Lack of financial incentives to No market segment of electric mobility on two- and three-wheelers was not considered to be of interest in Bamako. passenger Availability per order reduce initial cost in both cities identified would be supported through the revision of standards transport Competitive TCO in both Lack of charging infrastructure in Finally, there were some concerns about road safety cities to include the existence of electric motors and other place in both cities related to the lack of noise from electric vehicles. policies. Some changes in technical standards might Stakeholders have sometimes stressed this problem Availability per order Limited technical comparability Private use for short and be necessary (e.g., Burkina Faso may need to add a Competitive TCO in both with ICE vehicles medium distance freight without pointing out the potential benefits on the regulatory category for electric motors), but this cities Higher purchase cost than ICE transport (limited charging quality of life such as less pollution and noise. would not be a significant obstacle. vehicles needs) in both cities Environmental benefits of electric two- and Electric three- It is important to note, however, that most institutions Lack of financial incentives to three-wheelers are not currently anticipated by wheelers for reduce initial cost in both cities. believe that electric transition is not a priority over goods transport stakeholders and users, as demonstrated in the life Lack of charging infrastructure in public transport development and reduction of urban cycle analysis. place in both cities congestion. Stakeholders and road users are very Possible overloads limiting technical performance INVESTMENT CONCEPTS Based on the data and information collected and Reasonable costs. Investment concepts should the analyses conducted during the first part of have relatively low implementation costs the study, investment concepts that could be (whether public or private investment). The implemented in the short term (i.e., within one to financial viability of the investment would be three years) were defined. a secondary consideration in the first approach but would be analyzed in detail during the The selection of the investment concepts implementation of the concept. considered the following parameters: Scalability and replicability. The concepts Consistency with public transportation should be relatively easy to scale up or expand policies. The investment concepts aim to and replicate in other Sahelian cities. demonstrate how to initiate a transition to electric mobility in Ouagadougou and Bamako. It is important to emphasize that the ultimate goal 7.1. However, the concepts should also be aligned of the study is to promote the transition to electric ELECTRIC MOTOTAXIS IN BAMAKO with current or planned future public policies. mobility in order to reduce the environmental impacts (including greenhouse gas emissions, local Technical feasibility. As these projects are air pollution, and dependence on fossil fuels) of 7.1.1. RATIONALE expected to be implemented in the short term, transportation systems. Reducing congestion is not it is important that they are technically feasible. the primary objective of transitioning to electric Mototaxi services in Bamako are becoming km) for a gasoline motorcycle. Considering a 110 / 200 111 / 200 Suitability for the local context. Investment mobility. For this reason, the choice of investment progressively more widespread. In recent years, total distance travelled of 150 km per day, this concepts should be of interest to the local concepts has given priority to those offering the more companies have been officially established translates into a cost of about US$7.6 (CFAF 4,200) community, i.e., meet some of its travel needs. greatest environmental benefits. and national institutions are in the process per day with an electric motorcycle, compared to These concepts should therefore target specific of registering these services to regulate them about US$8 (CFAF 4,350) per day with a gasoline- groups of two- and three-wheeler users. Based on these considerations, the following properly. powered motorcycle. chapters describe four investment concepts: one Positive impacts. The selection of investment concepts should be based on options that have specific to Ouagadougou, one specific to Bamako, For instance, the mototaxi company Teliman However, most stakeholders consulted during the positive impacts on the environment (LCA), and two others that could be implemented in employed 200 drivers based in Bamako in 2019. study emphasized that the price is the overriding on the cost of ownership (TCO), on energy both cities (Figure 7.1). Examples of relevant pilot Considering the increased presence of other factor in deciding which mode of transport to consumption, etc. projects in Europe are described in Annex 7. officially established and informal companies, purchase. Therefore, users may not be interested around 1,000 motorcycles could be used for in purchasing an electric motorcycle that is more mototaxi services in Bamako. expensive than its gasoline counterpart with a Figure 7.1. difference in purchase cost of about US$300, or Some mototaxi companies also use franchising CFAF 162,000. Investment concepts arrangements that allow independent franchised drivers to benefit from different services (e.g., Despite this challenge, some of the mototaxi online application to manage the service, including companies consulted during the study are payments, use of an official brand, call center considering the possibility of converting a portion services, staggered payment for the motorcycle, of their motorcycle fleet from gasoline to electric. etc.). Drivers pay the company a periodic fee for Using a deductible staged purchase approach, eBike for these services and for the staggered purchase of the drivers would accept the switch to an electric students and eScooter for motorcycle. motor where the difference in purchase cost employees in employees between an electric and a gasoline vehicle would The mototaxi services meet an intense demand Ouagadougou be less noticeable. for mobility in Bamako. A mototaxi driver travels eScooter about 120- 150 km per day. The service is generally From an energy and environmental impact for delivery considered profitable by drivers. perspective, the use of an electric motorcycle is services more beneficial than its gasoline counterpart. The The total cost of ownership of an electric energy requirement would decrease by about 50 eMototaxi motorcycle in Bamako is quite similar to that of in Bamako percent, while the equivalent CO2 emissions would a gasoline motorcycle. The TCO of an electric decrease by about 34 percent without changing the motorcycle is estimated at US$0.053/km (CFAF number of total km driven. 29/km) compared to US$0.051/km (CFAF 28/ incentives for the use of electric mototaxis could Fixing electricity prices for electric mototaxi 7.1.2. OBJECTIVES AND IMPLEMENTATION also help to accelerate the implementation of services (to avoid price fluctuations) during the the pilot project. These incentives would also pilot phase The objective of this investment concept is to about US$3.24 (CFAF 1,800) per day assuming a introduce several electric motorcycles for short- total mileage of 150 km per day. For this distance, a demonstrate a political commitment to the electric Subsidy for battery swapping services during term use in mototaxi services. This concept should driver would need two full batteries per day; a fully transition. Examples of these incentives could the pilot phase. be realized in close collaboration with one or more charged battery has a range of about 80 km. The include the following: It will also be important to train riders on how best official mototaxi companies already operational in cost of recharging a 2.9 kW battery would be about Subsidy for the purchase of electric motorcycles to use electric vehicles (e.g., driving styles best Bamako. US$0.7 (CFAF 390), based on current electricity suited to maximize battery life) and services for Subsidy for the purchase of batteries prices. This would bring the electricity cost to battery swapping and charging. A crucial aspect for the successful realization of this about US$1.4 (CFAF 780) per day for two batteries. Tax exemption for electric mototaxi services concept concerns the recharging of the vehicles’ Therefore, the energy cost for a driver could be batteries. The current lack of infrastructure (e.g., lower than the cost of gasoline considering the charging stations) for electric mobility in Bamako profit made by the garage for recharging and for is a problem. Unfortunately, the installation of the amortization of the purchase of the battery. 7.1.3. SCALABILITY AND REPLICABILITY OF THE CONCEPT public charging stations is not feasible in the short term for various reasons: Beyond a means of managing battery recharging The investment concept should be easily scalable in mototaxi services. The concept would be more services, this investment concept would be carried Bamako. It would involve the gradual introduction easily replicable if these services were operated High investment cost, either for public out according to the same franchise formula of more electric motorcycles and expansion of the under the same franchise formula as in Bamako. institutions or for private investors, that is currently in place for motorcycles. To ensure that network of service providers involved (e.g., garages Under this scenario, it will be necessary to establish difficult to justify in the short term (a charging station could have a cost for its installation of the periodic amount paid by the drivers to the for battery exchanges). similar conditions that allow drivers to spread the 112 / 200 113 / 200 about US$6,000 - CFAF 3.2 million) mototaxi company is not higher than the formula cost of purchasing the motorcycle. The replicability of the concept in other cities currently in place, it will be important to select will depend primarily on the presence of formal Weakness of the Bamako city electricity network, especially in the outlying areas due to electric motorcycles with a purchase price that load shedding problems. is not too high compared to motorcycles that use gasoline (e.g., a difference in purchase cost of about Recharging times that are incompatible with US$300 or CFAF 162,000). mototaxi services (drivers would not accept 7.1.4. FURTHER STUDY OR RESEARCH NEEDS staying parked for too long to recharge). The investment concept could be initiated as a The implementation of this pilot project would battery charging system. This topic could be pilot project, with a limited number of electric Alternatively, battery recharging should be require additional studies or research which could analysed during the pilot project, in order to two-wheelers being used. The final choice on performed through a battery exchange system be the subject of a preliminary design project. This use real data on the use of electric motorcycles, the number of vehicles should be made by the which would involve the use of specific motorcycle additional research and study would apply to the their autonomy, the energy needs for battery stakeholders involved in the project. Considering charging, etc. models. For this purpose, “exchange points” should following: the use of 20 electric motorcycles (thus 20 riders), be established according to a new zoning of the Identification of the administrative and for example, it would be necessary to calculate the Analysis of the user demand that could be city and the drivers’ usual routes. In addition, regulatory processes necessary to put electric availability of at least 50 to 60 batteries to be used intercepted by the electric mototaxi service. This the “exchange points” could be established in motorcycles on the road. This process would for the exchanges. study should focus on identifying the segments garages, service stations, or similar venues. For of users that would use an electric mototaxi first include vehicle approval and authorization safety reasons, the battery exchange should be The investment concept will necessitate to identify possible areas of operation for this to perform a battery exchange service. performed by mechanics trained for this activity. accompanying public relations campaigns aimed service. This analysis should be carried out by Analysis of the introduction of public The operation of “exchange points” naturally at raising awareness of the importance of electric the mototaxi company that implements the incentives for the development and use of depends on the availability of batteries. The mobility among users of mototaxi services as service. electric mobility services. This research should mechanics could buy the batteries themselves or well as sending positive messages to users of focus on identifying forms of incentives for Further definition of the service supply, rent them from the mototaxi company and charge mototaxi services about the reliability of electric particularly in relation to the specific model mototaxi companies to make it easier for them the drivers a fee for exchanging to a “full” battery motorcycles. These awareness campaigns would of motorcycle to be used, and the location of to implement the pilot project. Incentives for (i.e., the mechanics would take care of recharging be promoted by public institutions such as the battery exchange points (depending on demand users of mototaxis could also be explored to the depleted battery). National Directorate of Land, Maritime, and Inland and zoning). This research could also investigate direct their preferences towards the use of Waterways of the Ministry of Transport (DNTTMF) the possibility of developing a solar powered electric motorcycles. For the use of an electric mototaxi to be financially and the Directorate of Traffic and Urban Transport attractive to drivers, the cost of the exchange Regulation of Bamako (DRCTU). should be competitive with the cost of gasoline. In Bamako, the energy expenditure (i.e., the cost Although the investment concept would be viable of gasoline) for a gasoline-powered mototaxi is without government subsidies, government 7.1.5. RESPONSIBLE ENTITY AND STAKEHOLDERS 7.1.6. MONITORING OF RESULTS This pilot project should be managed primarily by a mototaxi company (or companies) with the proper The investment concept will need to be validated in terms of usage, service reliability, mobility, and experience in this area. In addition to the lead management entity, several stakeholders would also be environmental impacts. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) useful for monitoring results are shown in Table involved in this project. Their roles are described in Table 7.1. 7.2 which also identifies the stakeholders involved. Table 7.1. Table 7.2. Stakeholders and their roles - Bamako Investment Concept #1 KPIs - Bamako Investment Concept #1 Stakeholders Roles Sector Stakeholders KPI Trips per rider on electric and non-electric vehicles Responsible entity Reservations for services on electric and non-electric Purchase of electric motorcycles Mototaxi Mototaxi activity vehicles Purchase of batteries for exchange companies Typical trips on electric and non-electric vehicles Management of mototaxi services Mototaxi companies User interest in electric mobility 114 / 200 115 / 200 Monitoring of mototaxi activities Commercial speed Training of drivers and garages Battery life Coordination of implementation (e.g., identification of garages/service stations, agreements on prices for services, etc.) Battery changes per day Expenses related to battery swapping Joining the pilot project Duration of battery changes Riders Support for monitoring (periodic provision of information and data to the Vehicles Riders Driving styles mototaxi company) Distances travelled Purchase or rental of batteries Trips per day Recharging of depleted batteries User interest in electric mobility Garages / Service stations Battery swapping Maintenance costs Support for monitoring (periodic provision of information and data to the Battery changes per day mototaxi company) Garages/ Batteries Electrical energy expenditure service stations Possible implementation of incentives Duration of battery swapping DNTTMF Support for implementation (facilitation of administrative procedures) Estimated impacts on air pollutants Awareness-raising activities on electric mobility Environment DRCTU Estimated noise impacts Support for implementation (facilitation of administrative procedures) Crashes involving electric and non-electric motorcycles Mobility and safety DRCTU Facilitation of implementation (support to the mototaxi company to Crashes caused by lack of noise DRCTU establish agreements) Impact monitoring (environment, mobility, etc.) Source: Authors Awareness-raising activities on electric mobility Source: Authors 7.1.8. POTENTIAL RISKS Potential risks associated with the implementation of this investment concept and mitigation strategies are presented in Table 7.4. Table 7.4. Risk analysis and mitigation strategies - Bamako investment concept #1 Risks Impacts Mitigation strategies Implement awareness and communication campaign before the pilot project begins. Low user interest in electric vehicles Risk: Low (e.g., fear of unreliability). Ongoing communication about the Impact: Medium effectiveness of electric mototaxi services and the positive environmental impacts. Business model not adapted (e.g., Detailed cost analysis in the detailed design unprofitable services for drivers phase of the pilot project. and/or garages). 116 / 200 117 / 200 Risk: Medium Institutional support from DNTTMF The cost of changing batteries may and DRCTU to identify prices, facilitate be too high for drivers. Impact: High agreements between stakeholders, and set electricity price during the pilot phase. For garages the income from battery changes might be too low. Possible revision of the business model. 7.1.7. DEVELOPMENT COSTS Training for drivers on the proper use of An estimate of the costs required to implement this investment concept is summarized in Table 7.3 which electric motorcycles. Insufficient battery life for includes the stakeholders involved. This estimate does not consider possible incentives from public motorbike taxi services. Training for garages on the best ways to institutions. Risk: Medium recharge batteries. The cost to drivers could increase Impact: Medium due to a higher-than-expected Control of use patterns and advice on use Table 7.3. number of battery changes. from the mototaxi company. Development costs - Bamako investment concept #1 Possible revision of the business model. Short life span of electric Elements Stakeholders N° Cost (US$) Cost (CFAF) motorcycles in case of poor local Risk: Low Control of use patterns and advice on use road conditions and inappropriate Impact: Medium from the mototaxi company. Mototaxi company Electric motorcycles 20 12,000 6,700,000 vehicle use. DNTTMF (eventual) Mototaxi company Source: Authors Batteries Garage/service station 60 18,000 10,021,000 DNTTMF (eventual) Garage/service station Electricity 60 / day 15,000/year 8,350,000/year DNTTMF (eventual) Insurance of Mototaxi company 20 740/year 410,000/year electric motorcycles DNTTMF (eventual) Total (for one year) - - 45,740 25,481,000 Source: Authors 7.1.9. TIMELINE 7.2. ELECTRIC BICYCLES FOR STUDENTS The investment concept could be implemented according to the following preliminary timeline (Figure Figure 7.2). AND EMPLOYEES IN OUAGADOUGOU 7.2.1. RATIONALE Figure 7.2. ICE two-wheelers constitute the predominant Considering the average speed of ICE two- mode of travel in the city of Ouagadougou. wheelers in Ouagadougou (about 32 km/h)[3], the Development timeline - Bamako investment concept #1 However, there is a significant amount of travel average speed of an e-bike (25 km/h depending by bicycle and there has been a recent increase in on the model) is quite competitive. Moreover, the the use of e-bikes, especially among the younger reduced dimensions of an e-bike would also allow segments of the population. The current number of it to weave more easily through traffic and use e-bikes could range between 100 to 200 vehicles. the remaining space on the road. The possibility Memoranda of Understanding between stakeholders of having a reduced speed differential compared E-bikes can be an effective substitute for ICE Project design by stakeholders to motorized vehicles increases road safety two-wheelers when used without passengers for conditions, especially in stop-and-go situations Agreement on business models distances that can be easily covered by the battery’s including stops at traffic lights. All these elements Identification of potential funders range of about 50 km. Among motorized vehicle could encourage increased use of e-bikes. 119 / 200 118 / 200 Detailed design users, the current tendency not to use e-bikes is Months 1 to 6 strongly influenced by the lack of knowledge about While the characteristics of e-bikes are not fully their technical characteristics and performance. comparable to those of ICE two-wheelers, the In fact, many people do not know that the battery reduced total cost of ownership could prove to be capacity of the e-bike would be able to cover the a key element in closing the gap in user preference distances travelled daily. once it is understood by potential users. E-bikes could also be an effective alternative to ICE two- Purchase of vehicles At the same time, stakeholders who were wheelers, especially considering that the average Purchase of batteries consulted indicated that one of the disadvantages trip distance in Ouagadougou is about 12.5 km (25 of the bicycle is its discomfort in hot weather. This Training of stakeholders km per day on average). inconvenience would not affect a user of a pedal- Awareness campaigns assist bicycle or even a fully electric bicycle which Implementation is equipped with a gas pedal preventing any need Months 7 to 12 Launch of the service for physical effort expended in pedalling. 7.2.2. OBJECTIVES AND IMPLEMENTATION Periodic data collection for monitoring Periodic reporting on activities The proposed investment concept consists of Students should be the main target group, as they a pilot project to deploy 50 electric bicycles in are likely to use bicycles already and probably Mid-term evaluation Ouagadougou for each of the following target lack a driver’s license or enough income to switch Final evaluation groups: to ICE two-wheelers. Currently, students may be Pilot project Months 13 to 24 Higher education students (secondary and/or accompanied to school by their motorized parents university level) or friends. Deployment of e-bikes among this target group would increase their propensity to Public sector employees use this type of environmentally friendly vehicle, Administrative staff of the Joseph Ki-Zerbo while reducing their desire to switch to motorized University (Ouaga 1) for travel within the campus vehicles. In addition, schools should allow charging (most campus travel today is by motorcycle). of bicycle batteries during school hours, especially since schools are expected to have a more reliable Map 7.1. energy consumption of 0.01 kWh/km. For services encouraging future use of this mode. Information electricity supply than the homes of private vehicle activated on the university campus, the average and awareness campaigns should therefore be users. Campus of University Joseph Ki-Zerbo distance travelled per day would probably be lower. organized for target groups and other citizens with the aim of imparting technical knowledge Employees in the public sector (e.g., municipalities Universities and schools should be able to deploy about e-bikes and their capabilities as well as the or ministries) might be another appropriate target the service at no cost after receiving the e-bikes anticipated environmental benefits. group, as they should be able to recharge their from the central government or municipality that batteries relatively easily and reliably at their will also be responsible for covering the vehicles’ Prior to the start of the pilot project, the target place of work as opposed to their private homes. operational costs. users should receive technical training to prepare them to use the vehicles and to react in case of It should be noted that because the battery could Information and awareness about the technical malfunction. provide more than one round trip, vehicles would capabilities of e-bikes are key factors in not need to be recharged every day at the same time. This would allow for better management of Table 7.5. the electricity supply at the site. Electric bicycle model 1 Policymakers encouraging the implementation of electric mobility services may have a preference for the public sector over the private sector as an Model already used in Ouagadougou initial target group. Nonetheless, it is recommended that this pilot program focus on students first with Make and model (example) FY ON 120 / 200 121 / 200 later participation of public sector employees Battery capacity 1,5 kWh depending on funding availability and political will. would have to be organized by the university for Administrative staff who travel around the Joseph Voltage 48V recharging the bicycles and for daily repositioning Ki-Zerbo University campus could also be a target of bicycle services in different areas of the campus. Recharge duration 4-6 h group, as their trips are made with private vehicles (ICE two-wheelers or cars) and the distances The type of electric bicycle used for this pilot could Tires 14’’ are relatively short (the shape of the campus be the same model as the one already circulating corresponds to a 1 km square property as shown in Ouagadougou, due to the partial knowledge and Max speed 30 km/h in Map 7.1). acceptance of its existing users as well as its low price. The technical characteristics of this vehicle Autonomy 50 km Participants in the student and public sector are shown in Table 7.5. The average purchase price employee pilot should be identified on a voluntary on the Ouagadougou market is US$370 (CFAF basis and should receive the vehicle free of charge 205,500) per bicycle, and maintenance costs from the sponsoring institutions or through an Table 7.6. (mainly for tires) per vehicle are estimated at about auction. To deploy an equitable service and avoid US$14 (CFAF 7,800) per year. No tax is currently complaints about not being able to participate Electric bicycle model 2 levied on these purchases, and it is assumed that in the pilot, the vehicles should be loaned on a this policy will remain in the future. rotational basis or on a random basis. A rotational Model not currently used in Ouagadougou basis would be based on the number of potential It would also be possible to use another model of users who could use the e-bike for a period of 3 electric bicycle with a different frame and technical Make and model (example) I-BIKE CITY BIKE or 6 months. A random basis could be used if the characteristics (as shown in Table 7.6) for this pilot, number of people wishing to participate is too high which would allow for greater comfort of use given Battery capacity 1,5 kWh to ensure that all of them can use an e-bike during the poor road conditions in the city. The purchase Voltage 48V the pilot. Finally, the pilot should last at least one price of this model would be about US$600 (CFAF year. 333,000). Annual maintenance costs are expected Recharge duration 4-6 h to be similar to those of the other model. The pilot could be implemented a little differently Tires 26’’ on the University campus. Here the e-bikes could The annual energy consumption for both models is be made available to staff without assignment expected to be about US$16 (CFAF 8,900), assuming Max speed 30 km/h on a so-called “free floating” basis. However, an energy cost of US$0.17/kWh (CFAF 94/kWh), an this implies that a bicycle management service average daily travel distance of 25 km, and an average Autonomy 40 km 7.2.3. SCALABILITY AND REPLICABILITY OF THE CONCEPT 7.2.5. RESPONSIBLE ENTITY AND STAKEHOLDERS The project is easily scalable and replicable in Similarly, the replicability of the concept in other The municipality of Ouagadougou should be group of public employees, the municipality of the local context, including other schools, public cities is straightforward but it will be useful to first responsible for this project, especially the provision Ouagadougou and national ministries should be the institutions, and private companies involved in verify the interest of users in cycling and presence of the vehicles and project management. Secondary main institutions to target. The stakeholders and the pilot project. The number of vehicles can of bicyclists. schools and universities are the main stakeholders their roles are described in Table 7.7. be increased without any difficulty, as there is to be included in the pilot project. For the target A future challenge may be to replicate the concept sufficient supply on the international market. in environments where bicycle mobility is not Increasing the number of vehicles in a single present or is decreasing as it is in Bamako. In these school / university / administration / company Table 7.7. cases, it will be necessary to undertake awareness should not be a problem, as the electricity demand campaigns before initiating any project. Stakeholders and their roles - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 of the vehicles is low and not all vehicles need to be charged at the same time. The degree to which the number of vehicles can be increased would need to Stakeholders Roles be assessed on a case-by-case basis, however. Responsible entity Provision of vehicles (possibly provided by central government) Identification of potential users 7.2.4. ADDITIONAL STUDIES OR RESEARCH NEEDS Management of the service 122 / 200 123 / 200 Municipality Monitoring the service The implementation of this pilot project would Further definition of the service supply, require additional studies or research with respect particularly in relation to the specific model Impact monitoring (environment, mobility, etc.) to the following: of bicycle to be used. This research could also Awareness raising and information investigate the possibility of developing a solar Analysis of the demand of users who could Training in use powered battery recharging system. This issue be involved as e-bike users. This study should could be analyzed during the pilot project to use focus on identifying potential users based on real data on the use of electric bicycles, their Provision of vehicles home-to-school or home-to-work distances and autonomy, energy needs for battery recharging, Identification of potential users current means of transportation. This analysis etc. would also identify schools, universities, and Management of the service workplaces that could be involved in the project. Ministries Monitoring the service Impact monitoring (environment, mobility, etc.) Awareness and information Training for use Identification of potential users Management of the service Secondary schools Monitoring of the service Support for monitoring (periodic provision of information and data) Identification of potential users Management of the service Universities Monitoring of the service Support for monitoring (periodic provision of information and data) 7.2.7. DEVELOPMENT COSTS Table 7.9 summarizes the investment costs for electric mobility. However, this number could the two e-bike models under consideration and potentially be reduced depending on the financial for scenarios of 50 to 100 vehicles deployed. resources available and the supply of electricity at The number of vehicles shown is considered the sites. appropriate for a preliminary experiment in Table 7.9. Development costs - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 Elements N° of vehicles Cost (US$) Cost (CFAF) Scenario A Electric bicyclemodel 1 18,700 10,390,000 Electric bicyclemodel 2 30,000 16,700,000 50 124 / 200 125 / 200 Annual maintenance 710 393,000 Annual electricity consumption 800 441,000 Total (for one year) - 50,210 27,924,000 Scenario B 7.2.6. MONITORING OF RESULTS Electric bicyclemodel 1 37,400 20,775,000 Electric bicyclemodel 2 60,000 33,335,000 Project activities should be monitored through Key the identification of possible corrective measures. 100 Performance Indicators (KPIs) to verify whether An example of monitoring indicators is presented Annual maintenance 1,420 787,000 the mobility service is working effectively and in Table 7.8. However, the number of indicators whether the objectives of the investment are being should be limited and easily measurable in order Annual electricity consumption 1,600 882,000 met. The monitoring activities will therefore allow to easily accomplish this task. Total (for one year) - 100,420 55,848,000 Table 7.8. KPIs - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 Sector Stakeholders KPI Number of users Number of trips Service All Distances travelled User satisfaction (through questionnaires) Commercial speed (as reported by users) Battery life (reported by users) Vehicles All Technical problems (reported by users) Number of vehicles charged per day Charging problems 7.2.8. POTENTIAL RISKS 7.2.9. TIMELINE Potential risks associated with the implementation of this investment concept and mitigation strategies are The following timeline should apply to the rollout of the investment concept (Figure 7.3). presented in Table 7.10. Table 7.10. Figure 7.3. Risk analysis and mitigation strategies - Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 Development timeline – Investment concept Ouagadougou #1 Risks Impacts Mitigation strategies Identification of users on a voluntary basis or through an auction Memoranda of Understanding between stakeholders Implementation of an awareness and Project design by stakeholders Low user interest in electric vehicles Risk: Low communication campaign before the pilot Agreement on forms of use (e.g., fear of unreliability) Impact: Medium project begins Identification of potential funders Detailed design Ongoing communication about the potential Months 1 to 6 of e-bikes and the positive impacts 126 / 200 127 / 200 Detailed cost analysis in the design phase of the pilot project Risk: Low Prohibitively high service costs Support from institutions (municipality, Vehicle procurement Impact: High ministries) to identify prices, facilitate agreements between stakeholders, and set Stakeholder training electricity prices during the pilot phase Awareness campaigns Launch of the service Detailed analysis of site capacity in the Implementation Insufficient availability of energy for Risk: Medium design phase of the pilot Months 7 to 12 vehicle charging at the sites Impact: High Management of recharging according to real needs (days and periods of recharging) Training for users on the proper use of Risk: Medium e-bikes Periodic data collection for monitoring Insufficient battery life for services Impact: Medium Control of the use modes and advice on use Periodic reporting on activities Possible revision of the type of user Mid-term evaluation Final evaluation Pilot project Low durability of e-bikes in relation Risk: Low Control of use patterns and advice on Months 13 to 24 to poor road conditions Impact: Medium vehicle use. DID NOT FIND THESE. Figure 7.4. Figure 7.5. Two-wheelers for mail services in Ouagadougou Two-wheelers mail services à Bamako 7.3. ELECTRIC SCOOTERS FOR MAIL AND NEWSPAPER DELIVERY SERVICES IN BAMAKO AND OUAGADOUGOU 7.3.1. RATIONALE Delivery services in both Bamako and Ouagadougou an electric delivery service could help demonstrate use motorcycles to deliver letters, parcels, and the benefits of electric vehicles. newspapers (Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5). The cost of ownership of a gasoline-powered In Bamako, the Malian postal service has had a low motorcycle in Ouagadougou is US$0.045/km 129 / 200 128 / 200 volume of activity in recent years. However, a trial (CFAF 25/km), while an electric scooter has a TCO program to revitalize the service began in March of US$0.033/km (CFAF 18/km). Considering a 2021 with a donation of 20 motorcycles. About distance travelled of 80 km per day (the maximum 7.3.2. OBJECTIVES AND IMPLEMENTATION 50 motorcycles could bed use currently for postal distance according to the range of an electric The objective of this investment concept is to letter carrier for a fixed period (e.g., 6 months) to service in Bamako. scooter), this translates into a cost of about US$2.6 introduce, in the short term, several electric collect sufficient information about driving habits (CFAF 1,500) per day with an electric scooter scooters to be used for mail and newspaper delivery and possible problems with the electric vehicle. In contrast, the distribution of the national compared to about US$3.6 (CFAF 2,000) per day services. This concept would necessarily have to be daily newspaper is very active. Every morning, The electric scooters should be used only for with a gasoline powered motorcycle. implemented in close collaboration with the public newspapers are delivered by motorcycle to delivery services and not for the mailmen’s almost all administrative centers in Bamako. This In Bamako, a gasoline scooter has a TCO of or private company in charge of delivery. commute, for example. The objective of this pilot service represents a significant volume of activity. US$0.047/km (CFAF 26/km), while an electric This same concept could be implemented in both project is to test the use of “light” electric vehicles Approximately 30 motorcycles are used for this scooter has a TCO of US$0.040/km (CFAF 22/km). Bamako and Ouagadougou, involving the following on targeted and fixed routes. In addition, this service, covering an average distance of 25 km per Considering an average distance travelled of 80 km target groups: method of use allows the batteries of the scooters day. per day, this translates into a TCO of about US$3.2 to be recharged during non-working hours. (CFAF 1,800) per day with an electric scooter Bamako: In Burkina Faso, “La Poste” uses ICE two-wheelers Recharging would take place at the headquarters compared to about US$3.8 (CFAF 2,100) per day » Postal workers of the Mali Post Office. of the companies involved, which are assumed to for the collection, processing, dispatch, and with a gasoline scooter. » Distribution agents of the national daily have a more reliable electricity supply than private distribution of urgent items. The service operates through door-to-door pickup and The relative benefit of lower greenhouse gas newspaper (L’Essor). homes. emissions due to the use of electric scooters Ouagadougou: The type of vehicle to be used for this pilot could delivery on a call-by-call basis or automatically would be quite significant in both Bamako and » Postal workers of the Burkina Faso Post have the characteristics shown in Table 7.11. The according to contractual terms. Once the mail is Ouagadougou. An electric scooter produces Office. model allows battery charging through the electrical delivered, an acknowledgement of receipt and a between 60 and 65 gCO2eq/passenger-km in grid using a normal electrical outlet. This model of message is sent to the correspondents. About 50 » Liaison officers from the municipality or Bamako and Ouagadougou, respectively. In other public institution, if applicable. scooter does not necessarily need specific charging motorcycles could be used for these services. contrast, a gasoline-powered motorcycle in stations and does not allow “battery swapping.” Ouagadougou, motorcycles are also used for Ouagadougou produces 171 gCO2eq/passenger- The pilot projects in Bamako and Ouagadougou can “courier” services by public and private companies. km and a gasoline-powered scooter in Bamako be implemented independently of each other. The purchase of the electric scooters could be Almost all companies have liaison officers for the produces 125 gCO2eq/passenger-km. Therefore, performed by the company itself, the central The investment concept foresees the deployment distribution of mail of various kinds. An estimated use of electric scooters in Bamako could reduce government, or the municipality. Operational costs in each city of 20 electric scooters that should be 100 motorcycles could be used for these services. the equivalent CO2 emissions per km by more than (charging, maintenance, etc.) should be covered by used for daily mail or newspaper delivery activities. 50 percent, while the potential for CO2 emissions the company that receives and uses the vehicles. Delivery services have potential for the Each electric scooter should be provided to a single development of electric mobility in both cities, as reduction in Ouagadougou would be 62 percent. The investment concept will necessarily have To guarantee an optimal life span of the scooters to be accompanied by awareness campaigns and batteries, it will also be important to train the 7.3.4. ADDITIONAL STUDY OR RESEARCH NEEDS (conducted by public institutions) aiming to foster distribution agents on how to use the vehicles, The implementation of this pilot project would battery recharging system. This topic could be greater understanding of the benefits of electric the most suitable driving style,18 as well as how to require further study or research with respect to analyzed during the pilot project to use real data mobility as well as to convey positive messages manage performance and possible malfunctions. the following issues: on the use of electric scooters, their autonomy, about the reliability of electric scooters. These the energy needs for battery recharging, etc. More precise definition of the service supply, communication should also include the benefits Identification of the administrative and particularly in relation to the specific model of obtained by future pilot projects on mail or regulatory processes required to put the electric scooter to be used. This research could also study newspaper delivery. the possibility of developing a solar powered scooters on the road (e.g., first vehicle approval). Table 7.11. 7.3.5. RESPONSIBLE ENTITY AND STAKEHOLDERS Electric scooter This pilot project should be handled mainly by the company that performs the delivery, which already has experience in managing these services. The stakeholders involved in this project and their roles are described Electric scooter model in Table 7.12. Motor 2000 W Table 7.12. Voltage 72 V 130 / 200 131 / 200 Stakeholders and their roles – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 Recharge duration 6-8 h Tires 16’’ Stakeholders Roles Max speed 50 km/h Responsible entity Purchase of electric scooter Autonomy 80 km Delivering company Management and coordination of the service Identification of delivery agents Monitoring the activities of the delivery agents 7.3.3. SCALABILITY AND REPLICABILITY OF THE CONCEPT Purchase of electric scooters The investment concept should be quite easily private companies (e.g., private delivery agents, Support for the implementation scalable within the same environment in Bamako the municipal police fleet, etc.) in Bamako and/or Ministries (facilitation of administrative procedures) and/or Ouagadougou. This would involve the Ouagadougou. The replicability of the concept in gradual introduction of more electric scooters other cities could be achieved if similar delivery Awareness activities on electric mobility and increasing the number of distribution agents services or fleets of two-wheelers are available. Training of distribution agents associated with the program. Electric scooters could also replace gasoline- powered four-wheelers, which would result in The same concept could also be replicated in Support for implementation (facilitation of administrative procedures) higher environmental and traffic benefits. other fleets of ICE two-wheelers for public or Impact monitoring (environment, mobility, etc.) Municipalities Awareness raising activities on electric mobility Training of distribution agents 18 The most suitable driving style should be as close to “relaxed” as possible, so that the electric powertrain will have its maximum efficiency under most operating conditions (see Life Cycle Assessment). 7.3.6. MONITORING OF RESULTS 7.3.8. POTENTIAL RISKS The investment concept will need to be verified in terms of usage, service reliability, mobility, and Potential risks associated with the implementation of this investment concept and mitigation strategies are environmental impacts. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) useful for monitoring purposes are shown in presented in Table 7.15. Table 7.13, which also indicates the stakeholders involved. Table 7.15. Table 7.13. Risk analysis and mitigation strategies – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 KPIs – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 Risks Impacts Mitigation strategies Sector Stakeholders KPI Implement awareness and communication campaign Trips by distribution agents on electric and non-electric scooters before the pilot project begins Typical trips on electric and non-electric scooters Low interest factor in Risk: Low Initial training on the use of electric scooters Duration of battery recharges electric vehicles (e.g., fear Scooter use Post Impact: Medium Driving styles of unreliability) Ongoing communication about the effectiveness of Electrical energy expenditure electric scooter delivery services and the positive Maintenance expense impacts 132 / 200 133 / 200 Commercial speed // Battery life Training for letter carriers on the proper use of Vehicles Postmen electric scooters Distance travelled // Trips per day Insufficient battery life for Risk: Medium Training on the best ways to recharge batteries Environment Municipalities Estimated impacts on air pollutants // Estimated impacts on noise postal services Impact: Medium Control of the use of the scooters and advice on their Mobility and use from the company Municipalities Crashes involving electric scooters // Crashes caused by lack of noise safety Possible revision of the distances to be covere Low durability of electric scooters in relation to Risk: Low Control of usage patterns and advice on usage from 7.3.7. DEVELOPMENT COSTS local road conditions and Impact: Medium the company An estimate of the costs required to implement this investment concept is summarized in Table 7.14 which frequent use also includes the stakeholders involved. Detailed analysis of site capacity in the design phase Insufficient availability of Risk: Medium of the pilot project Table 7.14. energy for vehicle charging at the sites Impact: High Management of recharging services according to Development costs – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 actual needs (days and periods of recharging) Elements Stakeholders N° Cost (US$) Cost (CFAF) Delivery company Electric scooters 20 12,500 6,930,000 Ministries (eventually) Electricity Delivery company 20/day 3,500/year 1,950,000/year (battery recharging) Annual maintenance Delivery company - 1,000/year 555,000 / year Total (for one year) - - 17,000 9,435,000 7.3.9. TIMELINE 7.4. ELECTRIC SCOOTERS FOR EMPLOYEES The investment concept could be implemented according to the following preliminary timeline (Figure 7.6). IN BAMAKO AND OUAGADOUGOU 7.4.1. RATIONALE Figure 7.6. Electric scooters are a competitive means of 171 gCO2eq/passenger-km and a gasoline-powered Development timeline – Investment concept Bamako #2 / Ouagadougou #2 transport compared to ICE vehicles, as they have scooter produces 125 gCO2eq/passenger-km in a lower total cost of ownership (TCO) over their both cities. technical life in Bamako and Ouagadougou.19 In addition to these decarbonization benefits, it The difference is illustrated in Bamako where an is worth mentioning that the switch to electric Memoranda of Understanding between stakeholders electric scooter has a TCO equal to US$0.040/ vehicles would avoid the local emission of several km (CFAF 22/km), while a gasoline scooter has pollutants dangerous to human health such as Project design by stakeholders a TCO equal to US$0.047/km (CFAF 26/km). In particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbons (HC), Agreement on forms of use Ouagadougou, the situation is somewhat more carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and Identification of potential funders advantageous thanks to the lower cost of electricity; other emissions resulting from the release of burnt Detailed design the TCO of the electric scooter and the ICE scooter and unburnt lubricating oils. Months 1 to 6 are US$0.033/km (CFAF 18/km) and US$0.042/ The mileage provided by the battery of an electric 134 / 200 135 / 200 km (CFAF 23/km), respectively. scooter is about 80-90 km. Although variable The difference is even more significant for ICE depending on specific driving conditions, this travel motorcycles, as the TCO of motorcycles is equal range is compatible with a large proportion of daily to US$0.051/km (CFAF 28/km) in Bamako and trips made in cities (averaging 10-13 km per trip) Vehicle procurement US$0.045/km (CFAF 25/km) in Ouagadougou. and would allow several round trips without the Stakeholder training need to recharge. Electric scooters could therefore These economic benefits are accompanied by net be considered a competitive alternative to both Awareness campaigns environmental gains. Indeed, an electric scooter mopeds and motorcycles, provided that effective has an emission of 60 and 65 gCO2eq/passenger- Launch of the service information and communication are provided to Implementation km in Bamako and Ouagadougou, respectively. In Months 7 to 12 users. contrast, a gasoline-powered motorcycle produces 7.4.2. OBJECTIVES AND IMPLEMENTATION The deployment of electric scooters among public been working “full time” for several years and Periodic data collection for monitoring sector employees for their daily “home-to-work” therefore do not go home for lunch should also be trips could replace a portion of the trips made considered. Most employees make one round trip Periodic reporting on activities by ICE vehicles without any difficulty. A rough per day (about 25 km per day). Mid-term evaluation estimate shows that more than 1,000 motorcycles Offices could be the primary location for charging Final evaluation used daily for “home-to-work” trips by public Pilot project electric scooters, as they generally have better sector employees could be replaced by electric Months 13 to 24 access to the electrical grid than private homes. In vehicles. addition, recharging during working hours would Given the limited accessibility to electricity at avoid wasting time waiting for the recharge to home as well as an unstable electricity supply be completed. Finally, public sector employees due to weaknesses in the electricity grid, an initial are more likely to include people who travel at development of electric scooters could concern mileages compatible with the range of the electric people commuting from their homes to their scooter battery. offices. The fact that public sector employees have 19 According to the TCO analysis carried out in this study and its baseline scenario. The investment concept could be implemented by The average purchase cost is equal to US$700 (CFAF barriers to the adoption of electric vehicles in the technical knowledge about electric scooters deploying 20 electric scooters among public sector 386,000), for a total investment of US$14,000 market is insufficient knowledge of their potential and their capabilities, as well as the anticipated employees who could be selected on a voluntary (CFAF 7,716,000) to deploy 20 electric scooters. and cost-effectiveness which leads to biased environmental benefits. basis or through an auction that takes into account perceptions and unjustified doubts and fears. In terms of annual operational costs for a pilot Prior to the start of the pilot, the target users should their usual travel patterns and applies a rotation project in Bamako, the energy consumption of Therefore, information and awareness receive technical training to prepare them to use mechanism. In fact, each person could receive a single vehicle is estimated to be US$110 (CFAF campaigns should be organized for target groups the vehicles properly, manage their performance, the electric scooter for a period of 3-6 months to 60,630) assuming 25 km per day travelled, while and other citizens with the aim of imparting and respond to malfunctions. allow for equitable access to the service, as well insurance and taxes amount to US$42 (CFAF as testing of the mobility habits of different users, 23,150) and maintenance amounts to US$22 (CFAF their driving behavior, and their experience. 12,125). The resulting operational cost for the 7.4.3. SCALABILITY AND REPLICABILITY OF THE CONCEPT The pilot project should have a duration of at least entire fleet of 20 electric scooters would therefore 12 months. The recommendation to deploy the be US$3,480/year (CFAF 1,918,000/year). These The pilot project can be scaled up and extended With respect to the costs of purchasing and pilot in the public sector is strictly based on an estimates assume that taxes and insurance would locally to accommodate more participants from operating electric scooters, the availability of immediate and clear identification of the target be the same as for ICE vehicles. both the public and private sectors. public resources should be assessed. If necessary, groups and a rather easy management/control additional resources could be provided by sponsors. In Ouagadougou, the annual operational costs of The increase in the number of vehicles delivered of the potential users. Nevertheless, there is no Designing new incentives for users could also be the pilot project are estimated as follows: US$79 to a single institution should not create challenges concern about possibly involving private sector considered. (CFAF 43,540) in energy consumption for each in terms of recharging. Attention should be paid, employees in the future. however, to the management of recharging periods The replicability and scalability of the investment vehicle (assuming 25 km travelled per day), US$40 to avoid any problems related to weaknesses in the concept to other cities is possible if they have 136 / 200 137 / 200 The electric scooters should be given to the users (CFAF 22,050) in taxes, and US$22 (CFAF 12,125) free of charge, as the main objective of the pilot in maintenance. The overall operational cost of the energy supply. similar mobility patterns (i.e., short- and medium- project is to allow them to experiment with electric fleet of 20 electric scooters would be US$2,820/ distance commuting, less than 25 km per day). vehicles and to pave the way for their use as an year (CFAF 1,554,000/year). As for Bamako, it is alternative to traditional means of transportation. assumed that taxes would be the same as for ICE In this regard, the local government or municipality vehicles (currently insurance is not mandatory). should cover the purchase and operational costs of 7.4.4. ADDITIONAL STUDY OR RESEARCH NEEDS Disseminating information and building awareness the vehicles. of the technical characteristics and capabilities, as The implementation of this pilot project would Further definition of the service supply, An example of an electric scooter model is shown well as the cost of ownership of electric scooters, particularly in relation to the specific model of require additional studies or research with respect in Table 7.16 in which the technical characteristics are key variables in introducing these modes of scooter to be used. This research could also study to the following issues: of the vehicle are summarized. transportation to citizens. In fact, one of the main the possibility of developing a system of battery Analysis of the demand of users who could recharging by solar energy. This issue could be be involved as users of electric scooters. This analyzed during the pilot project in order to study should primarily identify potential use real data on the use of electric scooters, on Table 7.16. users based on commuting distances and their autonomy, on the energy needs for battery Example of electric scooter current means of transportation. This recharging, etc. analysis would also identify the workplaces that could be involved in the project. Identification of the administrative and Electric scooter regulatory processes required to put the electric scooters on the road. KAINING Make and model KN-JIAYUE Motor 1 500 W Voltage 72 V 7.4.5. RESPONSIBLE ENTITY AND STAKEHOLDERS Recharge duration 6-8 h The responsible entity for this pilot project municipalities of Bamako and Ouagadougou and Tires 16’’ should be the municipalities of Bamako and/or the national ministries are the main target groups Ouagadougou, which have the capability to provide for the investment concept, according to the roles Max speed 45 km/h the vehicles and management the project. The described in Table 7.17. Autonomy 90 km Table 7.17. 7.4.7. DEVELOPMENT COSTS Stakeholders and their roles – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 Table 7.19 summarizes the costs of the investment concepts in Bamako and Ouagadougou. The differences in costs between the two cities are explained by different energy costs, taxation levels, and regulatory Stakeholders Municipalities Ministries frameworks. The proposed number of vehicles may be reconsidered depending on the availability of public funding and the actual power supply conditions of the selected sites. Responsible entity Purchase and provision of vehicles Table 7.19. Supply of electric scooters (possibly Identification of potential users provided by the central government) Development costs – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 Management of the service Identification of potential users Monitoring the service Elements N° of vehicles Cost (US$) Cost (CFAF) Management of the service Roles Impact monitoring Monitoring the service (environment, mobility, etc.) Bamako Monitoring of impacts (environment, Information, awareness, training of Purchase of electric scooters 20 14,000 7,716,000 mobility, etc.) users Annual electricity consumption 20 2,200 1,212,600 Information, awareness, training of Insurance and taxes 20 840 463,000 users Annual maintenance 20 440 242,500 139 / 200 138 / 200 Total (for one year) - 17,480 9,634,100 7.4.6. MONITORING OF RESULTS Ouagadougou The activities of the pilot project should be of possible corrective measures. An example of Purchase of electric scooters 20 14,000 7,716,000 monitored through Key Performance Indicators monitoring indicators is presented in Table 7.18. Annual electricity consumption 20 1,580 870,800 (KPIs) in order to verify whether the mobility The number of indicators should be limited and service is working effectively and the objectives measurable, in order to accomplish this task more Insurance and taxes 20 800 441,000 of the investment are being met. The monitoring easily. Annual maintenance 20 440 242,500 activities will therefore allow for the identification Total (for one year) - 16,780 9,270,300 Table 7.18. KPIs – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 Sector Stakeholders KPI Number of users Number of trips Service All Km travelled User satisfaction (compiled through questionnaires) Commercial speed according to users Battery life reported by users Vehicles All Technical problems reported by users Number of vehicles charged per day Charging problems 7.4.8. POTENTIAL RISKS 7.4.9. TIMELINE Potential risks associated with the implementation of this investment concept and mitigation strategies are The following timeline should apply to the deployment of the investment concept (Figure 7.7). presented in Table 7.20. Table 7.20. Figure 7.7. Risk analysis and mitigation strategies – Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 Development timeline - Investment concept Bamako #3 / Ouagadougou #3 Risks Impacts Mitigation strategies Memoranda of Understanding between stakeholders Identification of users on a voluntary basis or through an auction Project design by stakeholders Low user interest in Risk: Low Agreement on forms of use Implementation of an awareness and communication Detailed design electric vehicles (e.g., fear Impact: Medium campaign before the pilot project begins Months 1 to 6 Identification of potential funders of unreliability). Ongoing communication about the potential of electric scooters and their positive impacts 140 / 200 141 / 200 Detailed cost analysis in the design phase of the pilot project Vehicle procurement Prohibitively high service Risk: Low Support from institutions (municipalities, ministries) costs Stakeholder training Impact: High to identify prices, facilitate agreements between stakeholders, and set electricity prices during the pilot Awareness campaigns Implementation phase Months 7 to 12 Launch of the service Detailed analysis of site capacity in the design phase Insufficient availability of Risk: Medium of the pilot energy for vehicle charging at the sites Impact: High Management of recharging according to real needs (days and periods of recharging) Training of users on the proper use of electric Periodic data collection for monitoring Risk: Medium scooters Periodic reporting on activities Insufficient battery life for services Impact: Medium Control of the modes of use and advice on the use Mid-term evaluation Pilot project Possible revision of the type of user Months 13 to 24 Final evaluation Low durability of electric Risk: Low scooters in relation to local Control of use patterns and advice on use road conditions and use Impact: Medium R7. REFERENCES [3] OPTIS (2020) «Ouagadougou Public Transport Implementation Study. Rapport d’Activité 1» RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC MOBILITY The development of electric mobility would be study, the consultations with stakeholders, and the Table 8.1. facilitated by the definition of a national strategic international experiences of participants in the plan for electric mobility by the governments electric mobility sector. Recommendations for the development of electric mobility on two- and three-wheelers of Burkina Faso and Mali that would provide As shown in Figure 8.1, the recommendations a framework for the transition process, the Priority Recommendations touch on several areas that can all contribute to objectives, the strategies to be put in place, the changing the paradigm of two- and three-wheeled key actors, and the necessary resources. The plan Skills and knowledge mobility to reduce carbon emissions, air pollution should consider a set of medium- and long-term and dependence on fossil fuels in the long term. strategic recommendations for decision- makers, The governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should improve specific knowledge of electric mobility The recommendations are described in Table 8.1 (particularly on electric two- and three-wheelers) and related skills at the level of the ministries to especially for the promotion of electric two- and better focus on the potential of the electric transition and consequently to design public policies to three-wheelers. according to a set of categories and a priority level High support the transition. The same applies to local governments. for their implementation. Strategic recommendations can be formulated In this respect, ministries in charge of public transport policies should organize capacity building based on the analyses carried out during the activities for technicians and decision-makers with the support of multilateral and international organizations. This will enable effective management of policies and interventions. National and local policies should be put in place to raise citizens’ awareness of the environmental and health costs of conventional mobility. In fact, citizens of both Ouagadougou and Bamako do not seem to have a clear understanding of the Figure 8.1. causes of mobility-related pollution, and show limited awareness of the real consequences of their Areas contributing to electric mobility High mobility-related behavior. 144 / 200 145 / 200 Raising awareness of environmental and health issues should be a prerequisite for the dissemination and promotion of electric mobility on two- and three-wheelers. Indeed, the analyses conducted in Ouagadougou and Bamako have shown that the transition to electric mobility also requires a cultural change that should be supported by public authorities. Public authorities in Burkina Faso and Mali should be active in communicating and disseminating information on the technical characteristics of electric two- and three- wheelers. This will address the current knowledge gap which prevents citizens from viewing electric vehicles as an alternative to the ICE vehicles currently in use. This activity should also include training sessions for users and service providers (e.g., garages, Users High mototaxi companies, etc.) regarding the correct management of technical problems. In particular, the communication should make use of the information from this study regarding the ownership costs, environmental and energy benefits, etc. of using electric two- and three- wheelers instead of internal combustion engines. Ancillary Infrastructure In particular, the municipalities of Bamako and Ouagadougou should take advantage of the analyses sectors (e.g. carried out in the two cities to develop targeted communication campaigns. garages) NATIONAL The national and local governments of both countries should implement pilot projects to allow users to gain direct experience with electric vehicles and go beyond the phase of mere “perception” of their STRATEGIC benefits and characteristics. These pilot projects should first focus on electric two-wheelers (motorbikes and scooters) in both High PLAN Ouagadougou and Bamako, due to the higher potential for the vehicles’ use in those cities and avoidance of large investments in charging infrastructure. The pilot projects should focus on the investment concepts described in the study for the cities of Ouagadougou and Bamako. Financial Electric High End-of-life management, especially of batteries, should be built into the structure of the different scenarios as a critical way of minimizing negative environmental impacts in the medium/long term. ecosystem vehicles Regulatory market The establishment of a local (public) system of periodic assessment of transport pollution is an important activity to support effective mobility policies. framework Medium In both Ouagadougou and Bamako, detailed data on noise pollution, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are currently not available. This hinders the potential for evaluating the effectiveness of sustainable mobility solutions. Priority Recommendations Priority Recommendations Economic and financial aspects The development of electric two- and three-wheelers should be coordinated with local public transport development plans to increase the overall efficiency of the transport system. The governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should consider the introduction of public subsidies to In Ouagadougou, where public transport development is receiving particular attention (e.g., reduce the purchase cost differential of electric two- and three-wheelers compared to their internal investments for BRT corridors), the sharing of electric two- and three-wheelers is seen as a potential Medium combustion engine counterparts. opportunity to complement the transport system (e.g., as support for BRT feeder lines). Cost of ownership analyses and consultations with stakeholders in Ouagadougou and Bamako have As the development of public transport in Ouagadougou and Bamako progresses, electric mobility shown that this is a relevant issue in both cities. A higher purchase cost of electric two- and three- of two- and three-wheelers should gradually be oriented towards integration services as opposed to wheelers compared to the ICE equivalents currently in use could limit the attractiveness of electric competing with public transport. vehicles and slow down the transition. Similarly, policies that support the development of a financial ecosystem that allows for the Local mobility management should envision disincentives to the use of conventional vehicles in both Low payment of vehicles in installments should be encouraged. Vehicles are currently paid in cash at the cities, including restrictions on circulation in specific areas (e.g., central areas). time of purchase in both Ouagadougou and Bamako. The possibility of making staggered purchases would be a benefit to customers. Identifying public policies for the management of electric mobility products, especially for The reduction or elimination of import taxes on electric two- and three-wheelers should also be battery recycling, should be carefully considered to ensure that a lack of management does not cause considered, as they have a significant influence on the selling price on local markets. Currently, no environmental problems. specific tax provisions are in place for electric vehicles. The possibility of setting a differentiated Medium Currently, the recycling systems in Bamako and Ouagadougou are not able to cope with the high Medium regime favoring electric vehicles would contribute to reducing or even eliminating the upfront demand for battery recycling. Policy guidelines should aim to adapt local systems to demand while cost differential with ICE vehicles. This would be particularly useful in demonstrating national encouraging the establishment of specialized structures and companies. government preference for electric mobility. At the same time, an easing of custom procedures 146 / 200 147 / 200 should be considered to make the electric vehicle supply more responsive to demand and increase the chance that the electric market will meet users’ expectations. Public industrial policies should be considered to encourage the opening of factories on national territory (possibly by international electric vehicle manufacturers), thus linking the transition to In order to further increase their convenience, users of electric two- and three-wheelers in both electric mobility to positive effects on employment and economic development. countries could be exempted from paying possession fees related to different aspects of vehicle Low Factories could, for example, focus on the production of electric two- and three-wheelers, batteries, ownerships, like registration, technical inspections, etc. These fees could at least be reduced in comparison to MCI two- and three-wheelers. Such a policy could be implemented as a short-term recharging infrastructure, recycling services, etc. As indicated in the life cycle analysis, all of these measure to expedite the market uptake of electric vehicles. Nevertheless, considering that the areas would reduce the environmental impacts caused by the transport phase of the vehicles from the reduction on tax revenues (including the fuel tax) might lead to imbalances in government finances production sites to the places of use. and eventually an underfunding of the transport sector, it is recommended that a medium- to long- term assessment of the “fine balance” of tax policy be implemented. Electric two- and three-wheelers are normally slower than their ICE counterparts. Public policies to Disincentives against the use of polluting modes of transport could also be identified (e.g., restriction Low limit the speed of ICE two- and three-wheelers could be used to limit the differences between the of access to certain areas of the city). vehicle types and could also contribute to a reduction in traffic accidents. Public policies Energy sector The interrelation of public policies of the sectors involved in electric mobility should be developed The governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should improve the national energy mix, aiming mainly to ensure consistency. at increasing electricity production from renewable sources in order to increase the environmental benefits of electric two- and three-wheelers. Any electric mobility policies on two- and three-wheelers developed by the governments of Burkina Faso and Mali should be strictly coordinated with energy policies in order to ensure harmony and Indeed, life cycle analyses of two- and three-wheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou have clearly High avoid an unsustainable impact on national electricity production. This is especially necessary in the shown that the presence of a better energy mix would further increase the capacity of electric two- case of the fast electric two- and three-wheeler penetration scenarios envisioned for the two cities, and three-wheelers to reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. High which require significant improvements to the electricity grid and an increase in domestic electricity The improvement of national energy mixes should focus on the development of solar power production from renewable sources. generation. These improvements should also aim to increase access to electricity for the citizens of Ouagadougou and Bamako so that electric two- and three-wheelers can be recharged without too many problems. In order to avoid overloading of the electricity grid, the electrical transition should be accompanied The implementation of this recommendation should be managed by a government entity designated by a monitoring of charging patterns to estimate the impact of current and newly constituted peak as the “leader” (e.g., the ministry in charge of public transport policies). Medium periods. This activity should be the basis of assessing an eventual revision/adaptation of the current hourly tariff regimes with the objective of setting efficient hourly rates to incentivize off peak charging. From a normative point of view, electric mobility of two- and three-wheelers would require a revision of transport standards. Indeed, current legislation in Burkina Faso and Mali does not include electric vehicles in the codification of transport modes. High This is a relatively simple change that concerns the inclusion of new types of vehicles. However, this revision of the standards is necessary to ensure that electric two- and three-wheelers can be registered and can circulate freely throughout these cities. Priority Recommendations Infrastructures The development of a charging infrastructure network (charging stations and/or battery exchange services) should be designed and implemented in both Ouagadougou and Bamako in the medium term. Neither the infrastructure nor the services for electric mobility exist currently in either city. While certain two-wheelers used for limited distances can be easily recharged via standard plug at home or at the office, the penetration of electric two- and three- wheelers on a large scale in the medium/long term would be limited as greater charging needs arise. The use of electric two- and three-wheelers can start on a small scale by using battery exchange services or simply by Medium charging the vehicles through a building’s electricity network. 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[75] SSATP (2018). “Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in Urban Areas of Nigeria,” Final report. [76] SSATP (2018). “Policies for Sustainable Accessibility and Mobility in Cities of Rwanda,” Final report. ANNEXES for electric two-wheelers. Industry standards of three-wheelers, which serve as commercial are being applied to achieve harmonization, ANNEX 1 specifically for electric two-wheelers and vehicles for passenger and goods transport. Two- wheelers represent 20 percent of CO2 emissions INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES batteries. These standards allowed the use of and 30 percent of particulate emissions in India. any two-wheelers with functional pedals. This Three-wheelers cater to the mobility needs of The current global market for motorized two- requirements per kilometre (km) driven, small actually incentivized the development of electric those not using private transport and not being wheelers is dominated by two regions (Asia battery size and ease of charging without the need scooters (even with limited pedal functionality), served by the existing mass transit system. Three- and Africa) that account for 95 percent of global for dedicated charging infrastructure. The future as the technical performance was just partly the wheelers are also popular for goods transport for sales. Scooters and motorcycles up to 250cc are electric two- and three-wheeler fleet will be same as the ICE scooters. The Road Transport Safety Law classified electric two-wheelers as short distances. It has been estimated that two- particularly dominant, accounting for 90 percent concentrated in China, India and the ten countries non-motorized transport, which allowed their wheelers and three-wheelers together constitute of the global market. of ASEAN. use without driving license or registration, and 83 percent of all vehicles in India. Electrification Asia accounts for 82 percent of the world market China is a leader in the adoption of electric the ability to circulate in bike lanes. of two- and three-wheelers is recognized as a low for motorized two-wheelers, while Europe and technology with a series of far-reaching policies hanging fruit for clean mobility in India, based on Policies were also developed at local level. Issues North America account for 3 percent and 1 [40]. The stock of electric two/three-wheelers in the market readiness, cost competitiveness, ease of around energy and air pollution became a great percent, respectively. The remaining 14 percent is China is now approaching 300 million vehicles. In charging, and emission reduction potential[44]. concern as cities grew quickly and the impact accounted for by other regions, including Africa. 2020, 60 percent of the two and three-wheelers of local air pollution affected public health. In The Indian government has put forward a series sold in China were electric, and it is expected this the late 1990s, cities such as Guangzhou and In 2019, more than 300 million electric motorized of measures under its FAME (Faster Adoption and value will reach 85 percent by 2030. In the same Shijiazhuang, and many other large and mid- two-wheelers were registered and used in China. Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) year 2020, most of the electric mobility GHG size cities started banning ICE two-wheelers. During the same year, nearly 152,000 units of scheme to strengthen the Indian electric vehicle 159 / 200 158 / 200 savings (50 Mt CO2-eq) were achieved thanks to This removed the competition from ICE two- electric motorcycles and scooters were sold in industry. The first phase of this scheme (FAME electric two and three-wheelers in China[97]. wheelers. India. The European market for electric scooters 1) was launched in April 2015 and ran for four and motorcycles grew in 2020; sales on the The process began with small-scale projects and However, not all Chinese cities took this attitude years. Demand incentives, which were available continent (28 countries including the UK) reached has developed into more articulated policies, towards electric two-wheelers. Beijing, for as a direct subsidy on the retail price of eligible 75,000 units, an increase of 22.6 percent over 2019. including full or partial bans on gasoline-powered instance, banned electric-two wheelers for vehicles to consumers, were the most significant motorcycles in some major cities, subsidies, several years in favor of other modes of transport. component of FAME 1. The first phase was In some parts of the world, particularly South and setting electric vehicle quotas for vehicle Guangzhou banned electric two- wheelers in 2006 designed to encourage all vehicle segments, Asia, small three-wheel motorized cabs are an manufacturers. Although the first electric two- due to safety concerns. Other cities have banned including two- and three-wheelers, four-wheelers, important part of the urban transportation system wheelers in China were introduced in the 1980s, them as well. The recycling of batteries has also light commercial vehicles, and buses. In addition, for carrying passengers. In addition to South Asia, and Shanghai was the first city to ban ICE two- created concerns about their use. it covered hybrid and electric technologies such three-wheel cabs are also common in Indonesia, wheelers in the early 1990s, the actual emergence as mild hybrid, strong hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and Thailand, coastal Kenya, Ethiopia, and increasingly Another interesting transportation sector of electric two-wheelers in China started in the late battery electric vehicles. in Tanzania, Egypt, Gambia, Cambodia, Laos, the revolution in Chinese cities in the 2010s was 1990s. The exponential growth of two-wheelers Philippines, Cuba, Guatemala, and Peru. Three- the fight for the dominance of the bike-sharing Under FAME 1, 88 models of electric two-wheelers was driven by several factors [96]: wheeled cabs go by a variety of names in different market. The over-supply of bikes and the dump of were eligible for a subsidy. Until September 2018, countries, including auto-rickshaws, tuk-tuks, Technological improvements of batteries in the non-maintained bikes in cities created concerns around 90 percent of the beneficiaries under trishaws, autos, rickshaws, autoricks, bajajs, ricks, 1990s made electric two-wheelers reach similar about the role of these shared modes. Some of the FAME 1 were lead-acid powered electric scooters. tricycles, mototaxis, Kata Katani and baby taxis. technical performance as the ICE counterparts. From October 2018, subsidies for lead-acid battery survivors of the bike-sharing war (that occurred At this time, the progress led to ranges of In recent years, the Asia-Pacific region has initially with non-electric bikes) have not vehicles were discontinued, but incentives for autonomy of 50/60 km that could more easily emerged as the largest market for electric three- transformed into electric two-wheeler providers lithium-ion battery vehicles remained. compete with ICE vehicles. wheelers. In fact, when all other vehicle segments like Hellobike that started offering shared electric- As technology developed, the cost of electric The sales of electric two-wheelers in India rose experienced slow growth in demand compared to bicycles in 2017. Some companies offered battery two-wheelers decreased as income increased. from 54 800 units in 2018 to 126 000 units in 2019. the previous year, sales of electric three-wheelers swap systems instead, rather than the plug-in-and- On the other hand, the price of oil increased in the India had an estimated fleet size of 0.6 million increased by about 21 percent during 2018-2019. wait for charging to be completed. same period. With time, electric two-wheelers electric two-wheelers in fiscal year2018-19. In According to IEA, electric two/three-wheelers became more economically competitive. India has announced an ambitious plan for a addition, India is now home to approximately 1.5 will continue to represent the lion’s share of the rapid transition to electric vehicles[43][45][46] million battery-powered electric three-wheelers The central government developed policies to total electric vehicle fleet worldwide. Indeed, incentivize the development of electric two- [48]. Motorized road transport in India has two (e-rickshaws). The e-rickshaws transport about this vehicle category is well-suited to completely wheelers including the development of national major characteristics. First, it is dominated by 60 million people per day[61]. During the last few transition from internal combustion engines electric two-wheelers standards (1999) and the two-wheelers, the preferred mode of personal years, e-rickshaws have been introduced in several to electric drives thanks to the combination Road Transportation Safety Law (2004). The transportation both in urban and rural areas. Indian cities and are allowed to operate on roads of relatively short trip distances, low energy National Standard defined the performance limit Second, there is a strong and increasing presence under certain conditions. The government approved FAME 2 with a budget Several states are providing financial incentives, In Nepal, the capital city, Kathmandu, switched two- and three-wheelers in eight countries in of approximately INR 100 billion (US$1.3 billion) duty waivers, exemptions from permit fees, from diesel three-wheelers to electric three- Africa and Asia: Ethiopia, Morocco, Kenya, for a three- year period from April 2019. FAME streamlined registration processes and supporting wheelers (Safa Tempo) in the late 1990s and Rwanda, Uganda, the Philippines, Thailand, and 2 focuses on vehicles used for public or shared infrastructure to encourage electric vehicle uptake early 2000s, illustrating an interesting example of Vietnam [49]. The activities are expected to trigger transportation (buses, rickshaws, and taxis) and and charging station deployment. While specific electric development. The factors that led to this a transition to electric two- and three-wheelers, private two-wheelers. 23 percent of the budget policy approaches vary by local context, states change include the following: which will then be replicated in other countries for demand incentives is allocated to electric two- such as Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, as a first step towards a general shift from fossil A growing concern about pollution from older wheelers while 23 percent is allocated to electric Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and West diesel vehicles fuel-based mobility to electric mobility. In three-wheelers. Regarding two-wheelers, FAME Bengal have developed state level roadmaps particular, sales of ICE two- and three-wheelers Government policies that removed import taxes up to 250 cc are planned to be phased out. The 2 encompasses strict speed, range, and energy and policy guides to aid policy consistency. In and annual fees for electric vehicles efficiency requirements. Given that only advanced some Indian states, registration tax and VAT are reason is that electric scooters and motorcycles battery chemistries (excluding lead-acid) with being reduced or exempted. The state of Tamil The use of cheaper off-peak electricity for are already a competitive alternative worldwide, incentives based on battery size are eligible under Nadu has reduced VAT for two-wheelers and charging while recharging infrastructures are becoming FAME 2, there was an immediate negative impact promoted the use of bicycle lanes. Delhi offers a A ban on diesel-powered three-wheelers. less problematic due to their relatively simple resulting in a 94 percent drop on the sales of 15 percent purchase discount, VAT exemption, and implementation from the technical point of view). Although this project was not motivated by climate electric two-wheelers in 2019. Most electric two- a 50 percent reduction in road taxes for electric change considerations, the reduction in greenhouse The following is a sampling of some of the more wheelers sold in India have lead-acid batteries vehicles. Other states have reduced various taxes. gases was significant, as Nepal’s electricity supply prominent activities that UNEP has promoted in and are low-speed and therefore not eligible for The Government of the National Capital Territory is primarily hydroelectric. Asian and African countries: incentives under the FAME 2 scheme. To provide of Delhi established an Air Ambiance Fund in 2008, 160 / 200 The Philippines is one of the first countries to pilot 161 / 200 some compensation, however, the federal budget which is funded by a tax on the sale of diesel fuel. However, the Safa Tempos had significant technical for 2019-20 announced an income tax exemption This tax is still in place and part of the revenue is flaws, including batteries that had to be replaced electric jeepneys and three-wheelers in Southeast of INR 150 000 (US$2 000) on loans for EV used to provide cash subsidies to consumers for the almost every two years. This represented a 25 Asia since 2008. As of 2020, about 4,300 electric purchases. It is premature to measure the effects purchase of electric vehicles. percent higher operating cost than traditional buses three-wheelers have been registered. The Ministry on personal EV sales from this tax measure [61]. (Vikrams). The batteries had to be replaced after of Energy has delivered 3,000 electric tricycles Identified as a “smart city” by the national only one year for high-speed vehicles. In addition to 33 local government units and four national Nevertheless, the penetration of electric two- government, Jabalpur, India is committed to to technological weaknesses, the development of government agencies with support from the Asian wheelers could reach 25-35 percent and fostering the country’s economic development electric vehicles has been hampered by insufficient Development Bank. In addition, the Land Transport electric three-wheelers 65-75 percent of their and providing affordable access to citizens by government policy to allow owners of banned Bureau and the Product Standards Bureau are respective market share by 2030. Widespread reducing carbon emissions. To that end, Jabalpur’s traditional buses to import gasoline-powered pursuing the development of regulations for two- market adoption of electric vehicles requires the transportation officials have initiated the adoption microbuses at a reduced rate. In addition, the and three-wheelers. UNEP’s pilot project also creation of an appropriate ecosystem resulting of zero-emission tuk-tuks and created a network of Federation of National Transport Entrepreneurs of supports electric freight vehicles in urban areas. from successful collaboration between OEMs solar-powered charging stations. In a pilot project Nepal, which controls transport routes throughout UNEP also aims to further support demonstration and central and state governments. Under an in Jabalpur, local authorities plan to set up nine Nepal (of which microbus owners are influential projects and establish a charging network in Pasig innovative business model, two-wheelers, three- solar- powered charging stations to be used by members), has refused to grant Safa Tempos City. wheelers, and non- air-conditioned city buses about 400 electric tuk-tuk owners in the city. The owners permits to operate certain routes. This led In Thailand, UNEP is supporting the development manufactured by automakers in India could be sold charging stations can produce 50 kW of electricity substantially to the end of Safa Tempos’ operations of standards and regulations on two- and three- without batteries, which is expected to result in a and can power up to four tuk-tuks simultaneously. in late 2000. wheelers, while also deploying a demonstration price drop of about 70 percent. Batteries can be It takes seven to eight hours to fully recharge the rented at a predetermined cost and exchanged with battery, allowing the tuk-tuks to travel 100 to 150 Nevertheless, the Nepalese government project to support electric motorcycle deliveries. recharged batteries at stations. The rapid shift to kilometres. The station’s solar panels are also inaugurated a campaign in 2018 to transition to In addition, the Energy Conservation Fund has electric two- and three-wheelers in India is linked connected to the state’s electrical grid to power electric vehicles as part of its commitment to approved a US$3.4 million grant to encourage tuk- to public sector involvement through major state the additional energy generated by net metering. the Paris climate agreement. The Kathmandu tuk owners to switch from liquefied petroleum gas and central government reforms. In 2017, Jabalpur was scheduled to operate 400 experience demonstrated the importance of (LPG) to electricity. licensed tuk-tuks. The city’s goal is to convert building favorable local conditions for electric In Vietnam, 1.35 million electric two-wheelers India’s current EV policy framework is a mix 5,000 gasoline-powered tuk-tuks operating in vehicles. have been registered (June 2020 data). UNEP of incentive-based policies accompanied the city to a cleaner, greener mode of propulsion, is supporting the development of standards and by regulatory reforms, and public-private Activities to promote electric mobility are also which could eliminate 46 tons of CO2 per day. regulations as well as demonstration projects on partnerships to encourage EV adoption, expand promoted by international organizations. For Charging the batteries at a solar station is also 30 electric two-wheelers for personal use and for charging infrastructure and support domestic EV example, the United Nations Environment percent cheaper than grid-connected electricity. urban freight transport. Private investment is and supply equipment manufacturing capacity and Programme (UNEP) is supporting public policies, battery manufacturing [61]. regulations, and pilot projects to promote electric also important. VinFast, for example, has a new 11 million m2 factory in Haiphong where it builds Recharging a battery pack usually takes a little In Côte d’Ivoire, the development of three- Among two-wheeled vehicles, an important role electric scooters, electric buses, and electric cars. over an hour. The battery swap model is based on wheeled solar cabs in the city of Jacqueville (40 can also be played by bicycles which could provide The company began offering electric motorcycles a network of low-cost swap stations. Drivers pay km from Abidjan) is replacing the dominance of an efficient and affordable sustainable mobility in late 2018 and sold 50,000 in 2019, with a target according to the amount of energy they use, just as traditional cabs, “taxi-brousse” and “woro-woro” solution for the population. An interesting example of 112,000 in sales in 2020. they would if they were buying fuel. All payments (private artisanal cabs) [39][47]. The vehicles is in Namibia, where SunCycles (a company are cashless, using cell phone payment systems are 2.7 meters long and 2 meters high, and are founded in 2014) is deploying solar-powered Electric scooters have failed to penetrate the that are widespread in Africa. covered with solar panels with six 12-volt batteries electric bicycles. Solar-powered electric bikes market due to user preconceptions of inferior providing a range of about 140 km. A private can provide access to markets as well as health performance compared to ICE scooters. Namely, The pricing model was designed to match the way entrepreneur privately developed this new means and education services while representing an these preconceptions include lower speeds, most drivers currently pay for their motorcycles of transport with the support of the municipal affordable, locally produced transportation system. reduced range, and less attractive comfort and and fuel, but with lower prices. In Rwanda, this government which was eager for the city to become The operating cost per km of a solar electric styling [38]. Perceptions need to be replaced means that motorcycles are paid off over 18 a model of an environmentally friendly city and to bicycle is about one-tenth the price per km of a by actual experience to reduce the information months on a lease-to-own basis. Riders end up reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. According taxi. In addition, the battery can be used to power gap with ICE vehicles, whose performance is paying about US$37 per week for the motorcycle. to illustrations provided by the local government, basic electrical equipment such as lighting and well known. Fiscal policy (e.g., purchase tax) is The real savings come from battery swaps, which between 500 and 1,000 people use this means of communications in off-grid areas. considered a very effective measure to promote cost at least 25 percent less than buying fuel. transport every day. electric vehicles. Ampersand also offers a service package for US$5.25 per week for maintenance, nearly half of In addition to the activities deployed by UNEP, what riders normally pay. This package includes it is worth mentioning that a joint venture was roadside assistance and a loaner motorcycle if the 162 / 200 163 / 200 created in Marrakech, Morocco between the local repair takes longer than 45 minutes. industrial operator Imperium Holding and Allianz RA1. SE to make the country the most important African The motorcycle is priced similarly to its gasoline- platform for sustainable mobility. Currently, powered counterparts. Overall, riders save about REFERENCES EMOB is deploying a large set of two- and three- US$500 per year. The company’s website states [37] https://cleantechnica.com/2020/08/19/the-waiting-list-for-rwandas-ampersand-electric- wheel electric vehicles manufactured by Yadea, that it has increased customer revenue by 50 motorcycles-is- now-at-7000/ a French company specializing in electric motors percent per day and reduced CO2 emissions by 45 [38] Asian Development Bank - ADB (2009) “Electric two-wheelers in India and Viet Nam: market and a subsidiary of the Chinese company Norinco. tons. analysis and environmental impacts” Mandaluyong City, Philippines. An initial order for 1,200 units has been submitted Uganda has over 600,00 motorcycles and that [39] BBC (2018). ‘Les taxis solaires de Jacqueville à Abidjan,’ article en ligne publié le 10/10/2018 to the manufacturer. number is growing. The challenge is to make them [40] Altenburg, T., Feng, K. and Shen, Q. (2017) Electric mobility and the quest for automotive industry In Rwanda, the company Ampersand is similarly sustainable, both in terms of driver income and air upgrading in China. In Altenburg, T., Assmann, C. (Eds.) Green Industrial Policy: Concept, Policies, testing the use of electric motorcycles used by pollution. Country Experiences. UN Environment; German Development Institute/Deutsches Institut fur mototaxi companies operating in the capital of Entwicklungspolitik (DIE), Geneva; Bonn. Electric motorcycles with solar charging and PayGo Kigali [37]. Ampersand has installed electric [43] ITDP (2017). “The development and future prospects of electric bicycles in China.” Guangzhou are the solutions implemented by Zembo (Zero motors on gasoline-powered motorcycles. The Modern BRT & Sustainable Transport Institute Emission Motorcycle Boda), Uganda. Solar PayGo motorcycles are imported in parts from several [44] Das, S., Sasidharan, C., Ray, A. (2020). Charging India’s Two- and Three-Wheeler Transport. New is a solution that has revolutionized access to suppliers and assembled in Rwanda. The battery Delhi: Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy. energy for domestic use. Zembo is translating this packs are designed and built by Ampersand itself. [45] KPMG (2020). ‘Shifting gears: the evolving electric vehicle landscape in India,’ report. model to mobility by replacing gasoline-powered The network of exchange stations also operates on motorcycles with electric ones and selling them [46] Jyoti G., Thayillam A.K. (2020). “Two-Wheeler. India market outlook.” JMK Research & Analytics a proprietary software platform. through PayGo. Zembo offers electric motorcycles [47] Le monde de l’énergie (2018). «Cote d’Ivoire : le surprenant succès des voiturettes électriques», The current generation of motorcycles has a to mototaxi drivers and charges the batteries at its article en ligne publié le 5/10/2018. top speed of 80 km/h, the same as the 125cc ICE solar stations. Fuel is replaced by lithium batteries, [48] NITI Aayog and Rocky Mountain Institute (2021). “Mobilising Finance for EVs in India: A Toolkit of motorcycles used in Rwanda. The current range and Zembo distributes the lithium batteries Solutions to Mitigate Risks and Address Market Barriers.” is 65 km per charge under real conditions (i.e., in throughout the country. In addition, purchase [49] Bert, F. (2020). ‘Trend and Prospects of e-mobility towards smart and resilient cities in Asia and the the hilly urban landscape of Kigali) with a mototaxi prices are similar to those of gasoline-powered Pacific’, Intergovernmental 13th Regional Environmentally Sustainable Transport Forum in Asia 11 carrying passengers. motorcycles. November 2020. [61] International Energy Agency (2020). “Global EV Outlook 2019. Entering the decade of electric drive?” [97] IEA (2021). “Global EV Outlook 2021. Accelerating ambitions despite the pandemic.” International Energy Agency - https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021 ANNEX 2 EXAMPLES OF TWO- AND THREE-WHEELERS IN OUAGADOUGOU AND BAMAKO Table 2A.1. Examples of two- and three-wheelers in Ouagadougou and Bamako BICYCLES SCOOTERS / MOTORCYCLES 164 / 200 165 / 200 Presence: Bamako / Ouagadougou Presence: Ouagadougou Presence: Ouagadougou Presence: Bamako (Pedal assisted; unassisted Muscular pedalling (i.e., non-electric) Electric Gasoline / Power: 110-250 cc Gasoline / Power: 110-250 cc pedalling also possible) Autonomy: Not Applicable Autonomy: 50 km Dry weight: 90-110 kg Dry weight: 90-110 kg Recharge time: Not Applicable Recharge time: 6h Loading capacity: 150 kg Loading capacity: 150 kg Weight: 14 kg Weight: 20 kg Maximum speed: 80-100 km/h Maximum speed: 90 km/h Maximum speed: 20 km/h Maximum speed: 25 km/h Fuel tank capacity: 4-5 liters Fuel tank capacity: 5.5 liters Battery capacity: Not Applicable Battery capacity: 1.5 kWh Fuel consumption: 1.8 liters / 100 km Fuel consumption: 1.8 liters / 100 km US$475 / 1,100 (CFAF US$545 / 730 (CFAF Purchase price: US$200 (CFAF 109,000) Purchase price: US$365 (CFAF 150,000) Purchase price: Purchase price: 260,000/ 600,000) 300,000/400,000) Maintenance cost: US$15 (CFAF 8,250) Maintenance cost: US$15 (CFAF 8,250) Maintenance cost: US$30 (CFAF 16,500) Maintenance cost: US$30 (CFAF 16,500) Battery recharge cost: Not Applicable Battery recharge cost: US$0.26 (CFAF 145) Cost per tank: US$5.7 (CFAF 3,105) Cost per tank: US$6.7 (CFAF 3,650) Age / average life: 3-5 years Age / average life: 3-5 years Average age/duration: 5-8 years Average age/duration: 5-8 years Private travel, Transport Usual use: freight transport Usual use: private travel Usual use: Private travel Usual use: of people and goods TRICYCLES ANNEX 3 DETAILS OF TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP ANALYSIS The main characteristics of the two- and three-wheelers analyzed and the assumptions of the analysis are shown in Table 3A.1. Table 3A.1. Two- and three-wheeler characteristics and assumptions for TCO in Bamako and Ouagadougou Average purchase Average Battery Vehicle type Acronym price (US$) consumption autonomy e-bicycle 250W e-Bike 500 0.01 kWh/km 50 km scooter 50cc (gasoline) C-2W (Mobi) 540 0.013 L/km e-scooter 2000W E-2W (Mobi) 980 0.035 kWh/km 57 km 166 / 200 167 / 200 motorcycle 110cc (gasoline) C-2W (Moto) 630 0.018 L/km e- motorcycle 2900W E-2W (Moto) 1,100 0.075 kWh/km 67 km tricycle 150cc (gasoline - passenger transport) C-3Wtuk-tuk 2,000 0.028 L/km Presence: Ouagadougou Presence: Bamako e-tricycle 3000W (passenger transport) E-3Wtuk-tuk 3,000 0.13 kWh/km 69 km Gasoil/Power: 150 cc (i.e., non-electric) Gasoil/Power: 150 cc 150 cc tricycle 125-200cc (gasoline - freight) C-3W cargo 2,100 0.080 L/km Dry weight: 530 kg Dry weight: 530 kg tricycle 125-200cc (diesel - freight) C-3W cargo G 3,600 0.056 L/km Loading capacity: 2 000 kg Loading capacity: 2 000 kg tricycle e-tricycle 1500W (freight) E-3W cargo 2,520 0.086 L/km 60 km Maximum speed: 130 km/h Maximum speed: 80 km/h Assumptions Fuel tank capacity: 12 liters Fuel tank capacity: 18 liters Vehicle lifetime 5 years Fuel consumption: 2,5 - 5,0 liters / 100 km Fuel consumption: 2,5 - 5,0 liters / 100 km Bamako Ouagadougou US$2,150 (CFAF Purchase price: US$1,320 (CFAF 725,000) Purchase price: Energy cost US$0.24/kWh (CFAF130/kWh) US$0.17/kWh (CFAF 92/kWh) 1,180,000) Maintenance cost: US$90 (CFAF49,500) Maintenance cost: US$90 (CFAF 49,500) Gasoline cost US$1.20/L (CFAF 650/L) US$1.14/L (CFAF 620/L) Cost to fill up: US$13.70 (CFAF 7,460) Cost to fill up: US$22 (CFAF 11,980) Diesel cost US$1.10/L (CFAF 600/L) US$1.00/L (CFAF 540/L) Age/average life: 5-8 years Age/average life: 5-8 years Depreciation 90 percent for ICE vehicles and 100 percent for electric vehicles Transport of people and Electric vehicles (3 percent of purchase value) Typical use: Transport of goods Typical use: goods Maintenance cost ICE vehicles (18 percent of purchase value) Figure 3A.1 shows the TCO per km in the baseline scenario in Bamako and Ouagadougou. The breakdowns Next, the results of the TCO sensitivity analyses are described in detail. of TCO by cost category (in percent) in Bamako and Ouagadougou are shown in Figure 3A.2 and Figure 3A.3. SCENARIO A (3-YEAR LIFE SPAN) Figure 3A.1. The results show that the reduction in the number of years of use penalizes electric vehicles in both cities except TCO per km in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - baseline scenario for the three-wheeled cargo vehicle (Figure 3A.4). Electric vehicles had a lower cost than ICE vehicles in the baseline scenario. In this scenario, almost all of them have a higher cost than their thermal counterparts. The only E-3W cargo 0.109 E-3W cargo 0.108 exception is the electric tricycle for freight transport. This is related to the higher impact of the purchase cost over C-3W cargo G 0,199 C-3W cargo G 0,198 the period of use and together with the lower impact of the economic benefits in terms of energy consumption. C-3W cargo 0,204 C-3W cargo 0,204 E-3W tuk-tuk 0,126 E-3W tuk-tuk 0,122 C-3W tuk-tuk 0.125 C-3W tuk-tuk 0.128 Figure 3A.4. E-2W (Moto) 0,053 E-2W (Moto) 0,044 TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario a C-2W (Moto) 0,052 C-2W (Moto) 0,047 USD USD E-2W (Mobi) 0,039 E-2W (Mobi) 0,034 10000 10000 C-2W (Mobi) 0,042 C-2W (Mobi) 0,037 e-Bike 0,017 e-Bike 0,016 Baseline scenario Baseline scenario 7500 7500 Scenario a Scenario a 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 168 / 200 5000 5000 Figure 3A.2. 2500 2500 Percentage of TCOs by category in Bamako - baseline scenario E-3W cargo 0 0 C-3W cargo G e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo C-3W cargo E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk E-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) SCENARIO B (PURCHASE PRICE +25 PERCENT) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Mobi) This scenario shows similar results to the previous one, confirming the importance of vehicle purchase costs e-Bike (Figure 3A.5). 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Depreciation Insurance Taxes Energy/Fuel Battery replacement Maintenance Figure 3A.5. TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario b Figure 3A.3. USD USD 10000 10000 Percentage of TCOs by category in Ouagadougou - baseline scenario E-3W cargo Baseline scenario Baseline scenario 7500 7500 C-3W cargo G Scenario b Scenario b C-3W cargo 5000 5000 E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W tuk-tuk 2500 2500 E-2W (Moto) C-2W (Moto) 0 0 E-2W (Mobi) e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo C-2W (Mobi) e-Bike 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% SCENARIO C (ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER KM +25 PERCENT) SCENARIO E (ELIMINATION OF TAXES) The results of this scenario in both cities show that there is no significant change in the TCO of electric The elimination of taxes for electric vehicles in Bamako makes electric motorcycles and electric tuk-tuk slightly scooters, which continue to be cheaper than ICE models. The same is true for electric three-wheelers cheaper than ICE models, while in Bamako no change in the relative convenience is observed (Figure 3A.8). for freight transport. In Ouagadougou, the TCO of electric motorcycles and three-wheelers for passenger transport, compared to the baseline scenario, is similar to that of ICE vehicles (Figure 3A.6). Figure 3A.6. Figure 3A.8. TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario c TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario e USD USD USD USD 10000 10000 10000 10000 Baseline scenario Baseline scenario Baseline scenario Baseline scenario 7500 7500 7500 7500 Scenario c Scenario c Scenario e Scenario e 5000 5000 5000 5000 2500 2500 2500 2500 170 / 200 171 / 200 0 0 0 0 e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo SCENARIO D (MAINTENANCE COSTS +25 PERCENT) SENSITIVITY IN RELATION WITH TRAVELLED DISTANCES The change in maintenance costs envisaged in this scenario does not significantly change the TCO of electric The TCO was also analyzed for both cities in km, when another additional battery is required. vehicles in the two cities compared to the baseline scenario (Figure 3A.7). relation to different annual mileage scenarios, Beyond this distance, the differential is practically compared to the baseline scenario of 9,125 km per zero. year (25 km per day) while assuming a lifetime of Three-wheel electric vehicles for passenger five years. With increasing annual mileage, the TCO transport are more economical than ICE vehicles decreases and electric scooters and three-wheelers Figure 3A.7. for distances between 14,000 and 25,000 km, while for freight transport become progressively more for longer distances they are negatively affected by TCO in Bamako (left) and Ouagadougou (right) - Scenario d attractive than ICE vehicles. For other vehicles, the cost of additional batteries. there are differences between the two cities USD USD regarding TCO. For other vehicle types, ICE types have higher costs 10000 10000 for almost all mileages. The differentials range Figure 3A.9 illustrates how a positive differential Baseline scenario Baseline scenario from 6 percent to 20 percent for scooters, from 38 7500 7500 means that the TCO of the electric vehicle is lower Scenario d Scenario d percent to 63 percent for gasoline-powered three- than that of the ICE vehicle. In Bamako, the chart wheelers, and from 42 percent to 50 percent for 5000 5000 shows for electric motorcycles, cost parity with diesel-powered three-wheelers. ICE motorcycles is achieved at around 11,000 km 2500 2500 driven per year, although the differential is still Figure 3A.10 shows that electric motorcycles, negative at 25,000-30,000 km because of the need except for those with mileage below 6,000 km, 0 0 for an additional battery. It should be noted that cost between 6 percent and 19 percent less than e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo e-Bike C-2W(Mobi) E-2W (Mobi) C-2W (Moto) E-2W (Moto) C-3W tuk-tuk E-3W tuk-tuk C-3W cargo C-3W cargo G E-3W cargo the mileages that require an additional battery ICE vehicles in Ouagadougou. For other vehicles, are indicated in the figure by a circle. From this ICE types have higher costs for all mileages, with a mileage, ICE motorcycles have an additional cost differential ranging from 10 percent to 40 percent between 1.6 percent and 3.1 percent, up to 50,000 for scooters, from 1 percent to 16 percent for three-wheelers for passenger transport, from 38 model (i.e., charging at stations or other locations, percent to 71 percent for three-wheelers for freight swapping batteries). Although the findings do not ANNEX 4 transport using gasoline, and from 41 percent to 59 influence the TCO, they could influence the actual percent for three-wheelers for freight transport feasibility of the electric transition as well as the USERS’ OPINIONS ON ELECTRIC MOBILITY using diesel. decisions of users. PERCEPTION OF THE MOST POLLUTING VEHICLES IN TOWN The results show that, with a few exceptions for The TCO analysis does not consider the operational In both Bamako and Ouagadougou, trucks are of traffic) to be the most polluting; about 41 percent motorcycles and three-wheelers for passenger costs of running a potential battery swapping perceived by respondents as the most polluting of people in Ouagadougou and about 7 percent of transport for specific annual mileages, the electric service that might be incurred by commercial mode of transport (Figure 4A.1). Although the share people in Bamako hold this view. This perception transition could be profitable for all vehicles used operators (e.g., mototaxi companies). However, of trucks in the traffic of both cities is not high (e.g., does not seem to be much different among the for both for private and professional purposes. these findings will not have a significant influence about 1 percent in Ouagadougou), users consider following sample categories of people in the on the overall outcomes of the analysis. Similarly, them to be the most environmentally damaging. On analysis: age, gender, education, means of transport It should be noted that the analysis does not consider no incentives were considered in the analysis (e.g., the other hand, fewer people consider motorized used, average daily distances travelled. the specific operational challenges associated tax reductions related to electric mobility). two-wheelers (which account for the largest share with setting up and operating the future charging Figure 3A.9. Figure 4A.1. TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Bamako Perception of more polluting modes of transport 172 / 200 173 / 200 80% Ouagadougou 70% 60% Bamako 60% 50% 45% 40% 30% 30% 20% 10% 0 15% -10% 0 5.000 9.125 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000 55.000 0 Cars Public transport Motorbikes Scooters Trucks KM E-2W (Mobi) E-2W (Moto) E-3W tuk-tuk E-3W cargo E-3W cargo G PERCEPTION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERIES Figure 3A.10. Most respondents do not think it would be easy to ease of charging. In Bamako, slightly more people TCO differential between ICE and electric vehicles in Ouagadougou recharge the battery of a two- or three-wheeler in think that the duration would be sufficient (about Bamako or Ouagadougou (Figure 4A.2 - left). Only 37 percent). 80% 27 percent of people in Bamako and 31 percent of These responses highlight the problem of the future 70% people in Ouagadougou find it easy to recharge 60% charging infrastructure’s ability to meet demand as batteries in their cities. This perception is very 50% well as the prevailing issue of “autonomy anxiety.” different among the various sample categories 40% If the first issue is a challenge for the government of people except for men who seem to largely 30% and local administrations in terms of adequate 20% disagree on this issue. investments in the electrical grid and for the 10% A significant part of respondents also believe that implementation of charging stations, the second 0 -10% the battery capacity itself is not sufficient to cover issue needs to be addressed through effective the daily distance travelled (Figure 4A.2 - right). communication, especially for users whose daily 0 5.000 9.125 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000 55.000 In Ouagadougou, this is the perception of about 31 distances could already be easily covered with the KM percent of people which is the same percentage for autonomy of an electric vehicle. VEHICLES FOR INTRODUCING ELECTRIC MOBILITY AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS TO ADDRESS Figure 4A.2. About 73 percent of respondents indicated that electric mobility even by people who currently Perceived ease of battery charging (left) and battery life (right) motorcycles were the best mode of transport to use bicycles. This may indicate a lack of available 80% 80% introduce electric mobility in Bamako. Similarly, information about the characteristics of e-bikes, about 69 percent of respondents held the same view or it may indicate a desire to change modes of Ouagadougou Ouagadougou 60% 60% in Ouagadougou (Figure 4A.4). This is probably due transport. The latter view would be consistent with Bamako Bamako to the strong presence of motorized two-wheelers the relative reduction in bicycle use in recent years. 40% 40% in both cities, which are perceived as a necessity for Figure 4A.5 shows the range of opinions of daily travel. Indeed, this same view was shared by respondents on the modes of transport that should 20% 20% almost all the stakeholders consulted. be used to introduce electric mobility. It is interesting to note that in Bamako, motorcycles 0 0 are viewed as the appropriate vehicles to introduce Disagree Agree Disagree Agree BUYING AND MAINTAINING AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE Figure 4A.4. Figure 4A.5. AND THE DIFFERENTIAL WITH AN ICE VEHICLE Opinions on the mode of transport to Ease of use of an electric vehicle 174 / 200 introduce electric mobility by mode of transport 175 / 200 The possibility of purchasing and maintaining two- with the similarity of purchase and maintenance and three-wheelers is not perceived as an easy task costs between electric and ICE two- and three- in either city (Figure 4A.3 - left). In Bamako, about wheelers, indicating a strong perception of electric Tricycle for Tricycle for passengers passengers 77 percent of respondents perceive a difficulty; in vehicles as a more expensive alternative (Figure Ouagadougou this perception is shared by about 86 4A.3 - right). It is interesting to note that this Tricycle Tricycle percent of respondents. This question involves the perception is not consistent with the results of the for freight for freight problem of the availability of vehicles at retailers as TCO analysis. Mototaxi Mototaxi well as the availability of specialized workshops and Indeed, several consulted stakeholders indicated spare parts for vehicles. This may reflect the current Private Private that users are much more sensitive to the cost of motorcycle motorcycle lack of vehicles circulating in cities; however, some purchasing a vehicle (i.e., the amount they must retailers who were consulted stated that there spend immediately) than to the costs over time of Scooter Scooter would be no difficulty in providing electric vehicles operating (e.g., fuel) and maintaining the vehicle. and technical assistance on a similar level to what is Bicycle Bicycle According to stakeholders, most people would not currently offered for ICE vehicles. buy an electric vehicle at a higher cost than its ICE 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 0 25% 50% 75% 100% A similar percentage of respondents (67 percent in counterpart. The respondents to the questionnaires Bamako and 91 percent in Ouagadougou) disagreed seem to confirm these perceptions. Ouagadougou Bamako Figure 4A.3. PERCEPTION OF POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH ELECTRIC TWO- AND THREE-WHEELERS Perceived ease of purchase (left) and similarity of purchase cost (right) Most respondents from both Bamako and (Figure 4A.7 - left). There is less concern about 100% 100% Ouagadougou believe that the use of electric two- battery life when distances are less than 5 km. and three-wheelers would not pose any problems 75% Ouagadougou 75% Ouagadougou It appears that women in both Bamako and Bamako Bamako (Figure 4A.6). This perception appears to be Ouagadougou find it easier to use an electric vehicle somewhat stronger in Bamako than in Ouagadougou. 50% 50% than men. This could be related to differences in This perception was confirmed by most of the driving behavior and other characteristics of women stakeholders who were consulted for this report. 25% 25% and men. For example, most trips made by women Greater concern seems to exist among those are less than 20 km (more than 80 km), while most 0 0 whose daily travel distances are greater than 30 trips for men are much longer (Figure 4A.8). Disagree Agree Disagree Agree km (perceived ease of use is just over 40 percent) ANNEX 5 Figure 4A.6. MAIN ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT Ease of use of an electric vehicle Below are the main assumptions used to perform battery. This is a “conservative” assumption, and the life cycle analysis. there are two reasons for reduced efficiency over Disagree the life of the battery that would have a greater For electric bicycles, the on-board battery has impact on the environment: the charging and the following characteristics: Lithium 36 V, 15 Ah discharging processes become less efficient, and (~500 Wh) with 800 charge cycles. Considering the stored energy and power output are decreasing. Agree that one charge allows travel of up to 45 km, the calculated lifetime of an electric bicycle is 36,000 The main characteristics of electric bicycles are 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% km with 12 Wh/km. shown in Table 5A.1. The efficiency of charging and discharging the Ouagadougou Bamako Lithium battery is constant over the life of the Table 5A.1. Figure 4A.7. Main characteristics of electric bicycles Ease of use of an electric vehicle by distance travelled (left) and gender (right) 176 / 200 177 / 200 More than Elements Bicycles 30 km Controller 0.4 kg Female Charger 0.5 kg 20 to 30 km Electric motor 250 W / 2.7 kg Li-ion battery 2.6 kg 10 to 20 km Total weight ~23 kg Lifetime 15m000 km 5 to 10 km Male Energy consumption (average)  0.01 kWh/km Maintenance required Tires every 4,000 km // Li-ion battery after 3 years (depending on use) Less than 5 km For electric scooters, the typical battery size is 2 kWh, while the typical battery size electric motorcycles is 3 0 25% 50% 75% 100% 0 20% 40% 60% 80% kWh. The main characteristics of electric scooters and motorcycles are shown in Table 5A.2. Ouagadougou Bamako Table 5A.2. Main characteristics of electric scooters and electric motorcycles Figure 4A.8. Average distance travelled under 20 km by gender Elements Scooters Motorcycles Controller 1.5 kg 1.5 kg Female Charger 2.0 kg 2.0 kg Electric motor 2,200 W / 7.0 kg 2,900 W / 8.5 kg Li-ion battery 9 kg pour 2 kWh 17 kg pour 3 kWh Male Total weight ~70 kg ~80 kg Lifetime 50,000 km 70,000 km 0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Energy consumption (average)  0.035 kWh/km 0.075 kWh/km Tires every 10,000 km Tires every 15,000 km Ouagadougou Bamako Maintenance required Li-ion battery after 4 years (depending on use) Li-ion battery after 4 years (depending on use) For motorized three-wheelers, the main characteristics of electric tricycles are shown in Table 5A.3. Figure 5A.1. The LCA requires the identification of the vehicle’s component parts, as described below. Detailed diagram of the electric drive train Table 5A.3. Main characteristics of electric tricycles Elements Tricycles Controller 2.5 kg Charger 4.0 kg Electric motor 8,000 W / 25 kg Li-ion battery 45 kg pour 6 kWh Total weight ~170 kg Lifetime 70,000 km Energy consumption (average)  0.13 kWh/km Maintenance required Tires every 15,000 km // Li-ion battery after 5 years (depending on use) 179 / 200 178 / 200 DC Energy AC Energy THE ELECTRIC POWER TRAIN Understanding the subsystems that are part of the vehicles, the Li-Ion battery is the most used, and it Charger Li-Ion Battery Controller Hub Motor two- and three-wheelers is the basis for a reliable has been considered in the LCA. In fact, a lithium life cycle analysis. battery has a best-in-class combination of total weight and capacity. Lithium-ion batteries have the Figure 5A.2. Figure 5A.1 shows the main components of the advantage of possessing the highest specific capacity electric bicycle drive train. Note the presence of Schematic diagram of the powertrain for two- and three-wheelers and energy density of all existing types. Lithium- the battery (the main energy source), the controller ion batteries also do not have the “memory” effect, (the DC-AC converter), and the electric motor, which occurs when the charging phase is performed DC-AC power converter which can be installed in the hub (as shown in the on a non-discharged battery. In addition, lithium-ion photo) or in the pedalboard. Figure 5A.2 shows batteries for electric bicycles must be designed to fit a block diagram for two-wheel and three-wheel the specifications of a battery management system Electrical machine electric vehicles. This diagram is also valid for Battery (BMS). This circuit must be set appropriately to heavier vehicles such as scooters and motorcycles. control the amount of current needed by the motor The DC-AC converter consists of MOSFET devices and to limit over-discharge of the battery, which Vde and the corresponding diodes. Capacitors are placed could significantly reduce its life. The BMS is also on the DC bus between the inverter and the battery. important for balancing the cell charge between the The traction motor is powered by the inverter and different cells in the battery to maintain battery Mechanical is coupled to the wheel. The coupling devices can life over time. Because of the inherent instability coupling be very different depending on the vehicle, ranging of lithium, electric vehicle manufacturers are now from a simple chain for electric vehicles to a CVT replacing the common Lithium-ion battery with with a belt for electric scooters, to a gearbox and a more stable LiFePO4 (lithium iron phosphate) chain for motorcycles. battery, also known as an LFP battery. This is the Batteries nowadays are mainly powered by Lithium safest type of lithium battery available today. It is Digital controller and Inputs from where each type has its own specific characteristics, designed to be small and lightweight and has a high battery management system (BMS) the driver due to the different chemical composition of energy density. It can also last for thousands of the Lithium element and the reactants. For light cycles when used and maintained properly. Recommendations for increasing the life of the Figure 5A.3 shows the properties of lithium, which Figure 5A.5. Figure 5A.6. battery are listed below: is the basis of the batteries currently used thanks to its relatively high energy density. Lithium is a light Electric motor composition Material composition of the controller (Without case) Tip 1 - Try not to discharge the battery below 20 PWB: Printed Wiring Board. percent. A deep discharge makes the battery too metal, non-toxic and very abundant on the planet difficult to use and reduces its capacity in the (more than copper). In its metallic form, it is very Overall: ~63% is Aluminium from the case future. A lithium battery starts to oxidize, which reactive, which means that lithium-based energy has a negative effect on its capacity as well as storage systems (such as the BMS mentioned its life span. If the power is turned off (e.g., in above) require additional circuitry to ensure their winter), it is recommended to fully charge the safety. battery at least once every 90 days. Figure 5A.4 shows the detailed composition and Tip 2 - Do not charge the battery immediately corresponding percentages of elements in the cell after driving. The battery must cool down before of a lithium battery. As the figure shows, lithium charging. If you start charging a heated battery, represents the lowest percentage of material in it will not be able to cool down at all and will the cell’s composition. 40 percent of the cell is degrade much faster. made up of metals such as aluminium and copper, Tip 3 - Don’t fully charge the battery if you 20 percent is made up of electrolytes and the rest do not need to. When you charge the battery is comprised of positive and negative electrodes, Steel - 51% Plastics - 1% Cables - 40% Copper bus - 2% to more than 80 percent of its capacity (about only one of which is lithium-based. Copper - 13% Aluminium - 30% PWB - 13% Plastics - 5% 40V for electric bicycle batteries), the internal Neodynium-Iron-Bor Magnet - 5% Electronic Components - 40% 180 / 200 Another important element of the electrified 181 / 200 resistance of the battery increases, the battery heats up more and this accelerates the powertrain is the electric motor that converts degradation process considerably. electrical energy into mechanical energy. The Tip 4 - Avoid extreme temperatures. High motor is manufactured with an external rotor temperatures and freezing temperatures affect for installation in the wheel hub. Due to the core magnets account for about 5 percent of the for global impact is powertrain electronics. performance and shorten the life of the battery. compactness and weight constraints of these composition and the presence of plastic is very Recycling locally or in another country is strongly Never store the battery outside where it will be machines, their application is based on permanent low. As a result, the electric motor is almost 100 recommended for batteries, as they are composed exposed to temperatures below 0ºC. Similarly, it magnet synchronous topologies. This results in is recommended that the battery not be stored at percent recyclable. mainly of metals and plastics. Rare earths such as an average material composition of the system temperatures above 30ºC. Also, avoid prolonged neodymium (Nd) or samarium (Sm) will also be (as summarized in Figure 5A.5) that is about half The final component of the electric drive is the parking in direct sunlight. present in permanent magnets that are part of a steel, followed by aluminium and copper. Rare- control panel, also called the “controller.” As synchronous electric machine that forms the basis shown in Figure 5A.6, it is based on an electronic of the traction motor. Metals and resins must also circuit board where the components and one or be taken into account in the recycling chain. more microcontrollers are placed. This is the Figure 5A.3. Figure 5A.4. actual electronic part that is manufactured in a Properties of lithium Average composition of a Lithium-based battery. corresponding technological process. As you can CALCULATION METHODS see, the electronic components and wiring are the The LCA has been conducted using two overlapping Lithium properties main elements, followed by the Printed Wiring methodologies. From the software perspective, 6 Lightest metal Only ~ 1% of a Li-Ion cell is Li Board (PWB). Plastic only represents about 5 the bibliographic analysis of previously achieved 6 Highest electrochemical potential percent of the control panel. LCA investigations has supported the use of the 6 Not toxic (used as medicine) 6 Not scarce (e.g. more abundant than The battery has a significant overall impact open LCA20 tool. For the open LCA software, the Cu, 0.17 ppm in sea water) ~40% of a cell is Al (~23%) and Cu (~13%) on various environmental indicators such as “Ecoinvent”20 and “European Platform on Life 6 Highly reactive in metallic form (burns) extraction of copper, lithium and other metals, and Cycle Assessment (ELCD)”21 databases were used. production. Recycling systems for batteries as well These databases include datasets for a range of Production ~40% is the active electrode as for electronic components such as inverters and products covering various sectors such as metals, material (cathode LiMn2O4 ~24%, traction motors will be important to environmental chemicals, plastic, etc. 6 Mainly won from salt lakes in the Andes anode graphite ~16%) (Chile, Bolivia) or in China (Tibet) sustainability. The second area of consideration 6 Mainly solar energy used for production 6 Refined to Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) near the saline ~20% is the electrolyte (Lithium salt) 20 https://www.ecoinvent.org/ 21 https://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/index.html Table 6A.1. Figure 6A.1. Main characteristics of electric tricycles Methodological scheme for energy consumption analysis City Total EVs e-Bikes e-Motos/Scooters e-Tricycles Calculation of Selection of Selection EV penetration typical paths of scenarios Slow penetration scenario Ouagadougou 29,050 10,263 12,297 6,489 Bamako 6,400 2,795 2,283 1,323 Selection Percent of EV in Energy of EV Ouagadougou consumption Fast penetration scenario and Bamako Ouagadougou 406,700 143,701 172,170 90,830 Bamako 89,600 39,125 31,957 18,517 ANNEX 6 Based on the algorithm, the number of electric 6A.1 and Map 6A.2. The three trips selected in MAIN ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT vehicles in Ouagadougou and Bamako in the slow Ouagadougou include the following: and fast penetration scenarios is presented in Route 1: The first route starts at the Kossodo The methodology used to estimate energy The slow penetration scenario describes a future with Table 6A.1. Industrial Zone and ends at Sandogo; the distance is about 20 km. 182 / 200 183 / 200 consumption is based on international literature slow technological development and insufficient Note that these values are based on statistical [32]. The block diagram of the implemented charging facilities, while the fast penetration models. They are useful for calculating what Route 2: The second route starts at Moro algorithm is shown in Figure 6A.1. Electric Vehicle scenario describes a future with rapid technological might happen in terms of energy consumption in NabaKiba Street and ends at Solidarity Street, (EV) penetration methodology is developed to development and sufficient charging facilities. hypothetical scenarios. They are not intended to be Cité Azimmo Tampouy; the distance is about 8 analyze consumer choice of vehicle technologies an accurate reflection of reality. km. In addition, although battery capacity can reduce based on a series of attributes and to predict the and increase impedance during cycling [34], the In order to be representative of average daily Route 3: The third route starts in Dapélogo and market share of each technology. ends in Av. de la Liberté, Dapoya; the distance is influence of battery performance was limited by driving behavior, different routes in Ouagadougou In (1), the probability P(j|k) that a consumer maintaining the same state of charge (SOC) at 80 and Bamako were selected, as shown in Map about 35 km. chooses vehicle technology j from the set of percent at the beginning of each starting trip. technologies k was derived as a function of the In the slow penetration scenario, the total number utility of the technology by assuming that the Map 6A.1. Map 6A.2. of electric vehicles under consideration on the road unobservable part of the utility is random and in Ouagadougou and Bamako is 29,050 and 6,400, Examples of daily trips in Ouagadougou Examples of daily trips in Bamako subject to an independent and identical Gumbel respectively. In the fast penetration scenario, the distribution [33]. number of electric vehicles on the road is equal to 406,700 in Ouagadougou and 89,600 in Bamako. e -Vj P(j |k) = n (1) Next, the set of two- and three-wheelers was e -V’j j=1 selected based on the following attributes: In (2), nis the number of vehicle technology types in Purchase price set k and Vj is the consumer utility (or generalized Fuel economy cost) of vehicle technology j, which is a weighted sum of the product between the attribute weight βj Autonomy and the observable attribute functions f(xi,j). Performances Maintenance cost n Vj = i=1 βi • f(xi,j) (2) Fuel price Refueling / loading convenience. A discrete choice model was adopted to analyze The types of vehicles and their characteristics the factors affecting the penetration of electric considered for this analysis are described in Annex vehicles. According to this model, two scenarios were 4. evaluated: 1) slow penetration and 2) fast penetration. Those selected in Bamako include the following: conditions were considered: normal, relaxed, Figure 6A.2. Route 1: The first one starts from Ave De La stressed. These driving styles are considered because the energy consumed by electric vehicles Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different trips under normal Liberté and ends at Senou; the distance is about can change depending on their average speed, driving conditions in Ouagadougou: (left) slow penetration scenario; (right) fast penetration scenario 20 km. maximum speed, and acceleration. Considering Route 2: The second one starts at Djikoroni and all these factors and the energy used by individual ends at Avenue Manoir Diagne; the distance is 20000 250000 electric vehicles per km (kWh/km), the energy about 8 km. Energy consumption [kWh] Energy consumption [kWh] consumption by time period was estimated for Route 3: The third route starts at Rue Pasteur 16000 200000 Ouagadougou and Bamako. and ends at Diago; the distance is about 35 km. Figure 6A.2 and Figure 6A.3 show the energy 12000 150000 The number of vehicles per type and per trip consumption of two- and three-wheel electric (distance) is shown in Table 6A.2 and Table 6A.3. vehicles for different trips using a normal driving 8000 100000 Different scenarios were simulated to obtain the style in Ouagadougou and Bamako for slow and energy consumed for each hour of the day. The fast penetrations. These results represent the 4000 50000 number of electric vehicles driving on the three energy consumed during the trips. The batteries of routes was also estimated for each hour of the day. the electric vehicles are charged at a time that is 0 0 different from the time scale shown in the figures. 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 The proposed energy assessment considers the Hours Hours influence of driving style. Three different driving 184 / 200 185 / 200 Trip 1 Trip 2 Trip 3 Table 6A.2. Number of EVs circulating for different routes in the slow penetration scenario Figure 6A.3. Energy consumption of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles for different trips under normal City Trip e-Bikes e-Motos/Scooters e-Tricycles driving conditions in Bamako: (left) slow penetration scenario; (right) fast penetration scenario 1 3,592 4,304 2,271 Ouagadougou 2 2,567 3,074 1,621 4000 60000 3 4,105 4,919 2,596 Energy consumption [kWh] Energy consumption [kWh] 1 978 800 434 3000 45000 Bamako 2 699 517 331 3 1,119 912 528 2000 30000 1000 15000 Table 6A.3. Number of EVs circulating for different routes in the fast penetration scenario 0 0 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 City Trip e-Bikes e-Motos/Scooters e-Tricycles Hours Hours 1 50,295 60,258 31,789 Trip 1 Trip 2 Trip 3 Ouagadougou 2 35,925 43,042 22,708 3 57,480 68,869 36,332 1 13,693 11,184 6,480 Bamako 2 9,781 7,989 4,630 3 15,651 12,784 7,407 Figure 6A.4 and Figure 6A.5 show the energy consumption of electric two- and three-wheelers during trips Figure 6A.6 and Figure 6A.7 show the energy consumption of electric two- and three-wheelers as a function according to driving styles in Ouagadougou for the slow and fast penetration scenarios. of driving styles in Bamako for the slow and fast penetration scenarios, respectively. Figure 6A.4. Figure 6A.5. Figure 6A.6. Figure 6A.7. Energy consumption of two- and three- Energy consumption of two- and three- Energy consumption of two- and three- Energy consumption of two- and three- wheeled electric vehicles for different driving wheeled electric vehicles for different driving wheeled electric vehicles for different driving wheeled electric vehicles for different driving styles in a slow penetration scenario in styles in a fast penetration scenario in styles in a slow penetration scenario in styles in a fast penetration scenario in Ouagadougou: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; Ouagadougou: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; Bamako: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; (bottom) Bamako: (top) route 1; (middle) route 2; (bottom) (bottom) route 3 (bottom) route 3 route 3 route 3 16000 25000 3500 45000 Trip 1 energy consumption Trip 1 energy consumption Trip 1 energy consumption Trip 1 energy consumption 20000 2800 36000 12000 15000 2100 27000 [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] 8000 10000 1400 18000 4000 186 / 200 187 / 200 5000 700 9000 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 Hours Hours Hours Hours 5000 40000 1000 16000 Trip 2 energy consumption Trip 2 energy consumption Trip 2 energy consumption Trip 2 energy consumption 4000 800 30000 12000 3000 600 [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] 20000 8000 2000 400 10000 4000 1000 200 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 Hours Hours Hours Hours 30000 350000 6000 90000 Trip 3 energy consumption Trip 3 energy consumption Trip 3 energy consumption Trip 3 energy consumption 75000 24000 280000 4500 60000 18000 210000 [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] 3000 45000 12000 140000 30000 1500 6000 70000 15000 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 Hours Hours Hours Hours Relaxed Normal Stressed Relaxed Normal Stressed Figure 6A.8 and Figure 6A.9 show the total energy consumption as a function of daily time periods in the ANNEX 7 slow and fast penetration scenarios in Ouagadougou and Bamako. The peak energy consumption occurs in the morning and evening, since the percentage of electric vehicles is higher than at other times of the day. In EXAMPLES OF PILOT PROJECTS IN EUROPE addition, since the number of two- and three-wheelers is higher in Ouagadougou than in Bamako, the peak Duration of the pilot project: 12 months THE ELVITEN PROJECT energy distribution in Ouagadougou is higher than in Bamako. The project focused on the demonstration of Batteries recharged in the workplace electric mobility services in six European cities. Pilot project carried out in a specific area of the Figure 6A8. Figure 6A.9. One of the Elviten pilot projects was carried out in city of Rome (called “EUR”). Rome with the following characteristics: Total energy consumption of two- and three- Total energy consumption of two- and three- The bicycles were equipped with a “GPS box,” wheel electric vehicles in Ouagadougou: (top) wheel electric vehicles in Bamako: (top) slow Responsible entity of the pilot project: allowing the collection of data on distances slow penetration; (bottom) fast penetration penetration; (bottom) fast penetration Municipality of Rome (with support from travelled, times of use, average speeds, and to UNeed.IT for the implementation, management, monitor in real time the use of each bicycle. 50000 10000 and monitoring of the pilot project). Total energy consumption Total energy consumption This type of e-bike, according to Italian regulations, 40000 8000 Use of 60 L1e-A electric bicycles (also called “motorized bicycles”).22 is considered a moped and therefore needs to be » Brand: Radpower registered and insured (at least for civil liability). In 30000 6000 [kWh] [kWh] Italy, this type of e-bike cannot be used on bicycle » Model: RadRhino 5 20000 4000 lanes and must be used while wearing a helmet. » 250W geared motor 10000 2000 » Up to 70 km per charge During the pilot project period, an average of 56 189 / 200 188 / 200 people used their e-bike every day. On average, 0 0 » 672 Wh Lithium-Ion battery 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 the e-bikes were used for trips (one way) of about » Load capacity: 125 kg 6 km. Approximately 156,000 km were travelled Hours Hours » Maximum speed: 25 km/h on these e-bikes during the pilot project (i.e., 600000 160000 Total energy consumption Total energy consumption » Equipped with throttle approximately 32,000 trips in one year). 450000 120000 » Purchase price: US$2,000 (CFAF 1,092,000) Almost all the e-bike users rode the e-bike fairly consistently, and many of them stated that they Electric bicycles loaned to officials of the [kWh] [kWh] 300000 80000 Municipality of Rome and the Rome Municipal would purchase the bike at the end of the project. Police (one bicycle for each official for 18 150000 40000 months) 22 It is a two-wheeled vehicle with a power output Electric bicycles used for commuting and for of 1,000 watts or less, and a maximum speed not 0 0 travel during working hours (e.g., travel of exceeding 25 km/h 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 Municipal Police officers) Hours Hours Relaxed Normal Stressed Figure 7A.1. L1e-A electric bicycle RA6. REFERENCES [32] Morlock F., Rolle B., Bauer M., Sawodny O. (2020) « Forecasts of Electric Vehicle Energy Consumption Based on Characteristic Speed Profiles and Real-Time Traffic Data». IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 1404-1418 [33] Train K.E. (2009). “Discrete Choice Methods with Simulation” Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. [34] Vetter J., Nov’ak P., Wagner M.R. (2005) “Aging mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries.” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 147, no. 1-2, pp. 269–281. THE LIFE SCPROJET Figure 7A.2. 20 electric scooters (Askoll brand) used Total registered customers: 174 according to a “free floating” sharing model and Electric bicycle Bicycle rental: 45 recharged through battery swapping The Life for Silver Coast project aims Scooter rental: 43 to reduce polluting emissions caused » Maximum speed: 45 km/h. by intense mobility in the Italian » Autonomy: 70 km. Bicycle usage: average rental time 9 hours coastal area through the promotion of averaging 23 km per bicycle 10 electric cars (Renault Zoe) used according to mobility patterns. The objective is to Scooter use: average time of use - 15 hours a “free floating” sharing model and recharged allow residents and tourists to access through public charging stations The analysis of the preliminary data led to the individual or public electric transport One seven-seater electric vehicle used for trips following findings: services, depending on personal needs and the destination to be reached. between the train station and the city center and The average rental time is rather high, probably recharged through public charging stations due to the “in-station” type of sharing that was The project is testing an integrated offered during the first phase of the pilot. 4 electric boats, used for trips between mobility network in three coastal towns downtown and the beach and recharged through The most active travel points provide a more (Isola del Giglio, Monte Argentario, public charging stations. complete understanding of service location, Orbetello) combining public transport which is more revealing in densely populated and private sharing services. In During the first phase of the pilot project (from Source: Brand’s website areas and an important factor in the region’s particular, the project develops the July 2020 to October 2020), the electric mobility main tourist attractions. following: services (i.e., bicycles and scooters) achieved the following results: 190 / 200 191 / 200 A sharing system operating with Figure 7A.3. electric bikes and electric cars Scooter New links, operated by electric boats, connecting Orbetello to the nearby beaches Electric boats suitable for sea operation for tourist connections in the coastal area of Argentario and Giglio An electric shuttle bus between the Orbetello train station and the town center An integrated mobility platform that allows users to travel on all services using a single ticketing system. Source: Brand’s website The pilot began in July 2020, with bike (15) and electric scooter (10) sharing services. It is expected that the remaining Figure 7A.4. electric mobility services will be rolled Electric car out starting in June 2021, including the following: 80 pedal-assist electric bicycles (ICONE brand) used in a “point-to- point” sharing model (bicycles are recharged by bicycle parking facilities located in different areas of the three cities): » Maximum speed: 25 km/h. » Autonomy: 30-40 km. Source: Brand’s website ANNEX 8 ESTIMATION OF EMISSIONS BY POLLUTANT OUAGADOUGOU Table 8A.1 Table 8A.4 CO emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou NH3 emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou g CO / km CO gNH3 / km NH3 Transport Share Transport Share modes in traffic modes in traffic Low High Low High Low High Low High Two-wheelers 71 percent 3.0 33.0 74 percent 75 percent Two-wheelers 71 percent 0.001 0.002 76 percent 70 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 3.0 35.0 1 percent 1 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.001 0.003 1 percent 1 percent Cars/taxis 17 percent 3.5 37.0 21 percent 20 percent Cars/taxis 17 percent 0.002 0.004 18 percent 25 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 6.0 59.0 4 percent 4 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 0.001 0.002 4 percent 4 percent 192 / 200 193 / 200 Table 8A.2 Table 8A.5 NMVOC emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou PM2.5 emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou gNMVOC / km NMVOC gPM2.5 / km PM2.5 Transport Share Transport Share modes in traffic modes in traffic Low High Low High Low High Low High Two-wheelers 71 percent 0.008 8.2 74 percent 76 percent Two-wheelers 71 percent 0.003 0.18 66 percent 69 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.01 8.3 1 percent 1 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.005 0.22 1 percent 1 percent Cars/taxis 17 percent 0.01 8.9 22 percent 20 percent Cars/taxis 17 percent 0.010 0.90 26 percent 20 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 0.01 10.0 3 percent 3 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 0.004 0.20 6 percent 10 percent Table 8A.3 Table 8A.6 NOx emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou N2O emissions by type of vehicle in Ouagadougou gNOx / km NOx g N2O / km N2O Transport Share Transport Share modes in traffic modes in traffic Low High Low High Low High Low High Two-wheelers 71 percent 0.06 0.5 75 percent 28 percent Two-wheelers 71 percent 0.001 0.002 63 percent 38 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.06 4.0 1 percent 2 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.001 0.005 1 percent 1 percent Cars/taxis 17 percent 0.18 10.0 18 percent 54 percent Cars/taxis 17 percent 0.002 0.01 30 percent 45 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 0.06 2.0 6 percent 16 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 2 percent 0.003 0.03 5 percent 16 percent BAMAKO Table 8A.7 Table 8A.10 CO emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako NH3 emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako g CO / km CO gNH3 / km NH3 Transport Share Transport Share modes in traffic modes in traffic Low High Low High Low High Low High Two-wheelers 76 percent 3.0 33.0 70 percent 73 percent Two-wheelers 76 percent 0.001 0.002 74 percent 68 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 3.0 35.0 1 percent 1 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.001 0.003 1 percent 1 percent Cars/taxis 19 percent 3.5 37.0 21 percent 19 percent Cars/taxis 19 percent 0.002 0.004 17 percent 24 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 6.0 59.0 8 percent 7 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 0.001 0.002 8 percent 7 percent Table 8A.8 Table 8A.11 194 / 200 195 / 200 NMVOC emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako PM2.5 emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako gNMVOC / km NMVOC gPM2.5 / km PM2.5 Transport Share Transport Share modes in traffic modes in traffic Low High Low High Low High Low High Two-wheelers 76 percent 0.008 8.2 73 percent 75 percent Two-wheelers 76 percent 0.003 0.18 63 percent 64 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.01 8.3 1 percent 1 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.005 0.22 1 percent 1 percent Cars/taxis 19 percent 0.01 8.9 21 percent 19 percent Cars/taxis 19 percent 0.010 0.90 24 percent 18 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 0.01 10.0 5 percent 5 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 0.004 0.20 11 percent 17 percent Table 8A.8 Table 8A.12 NOx emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako N2O emissions by type of vehicle in Bamako gNOx / km NOx g N2O / km N2O Transport Share Transport Share modes in traffic modes in traffic Low High Low High Low High Low High Two-wheelers 76 percent 0.06 0.5 71 percent 25 percent Two-wheelers 76 percent 0.001 0.002 61 percent 33 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.06 4.0 1 percent 1 percent Three-wheelers 1 percent 0.001 0.005 1 percent 1 percent Cars/taxis 19 percent 0.18 10.0 16 percent 47 percent Cars/taxis 19 percent 0.002 0.01 28 percent 39 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 0.06 2.0 11 percent 27 percent Trucks/buses/minibuses 4 percent 0.003 0.03 10 percent 27 percent 197 / 200 196 / 200