From Promise to Productivity Making Digital Work for People and Jobs Copyright © 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / the World Bank Washington, D.C. 20433 +1-202-473-1000 www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. All dollar amounts are US dollars unless otherwise indicated. Rights and Permissions: The material in this work is subject to copyright. 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From Promise to Productivity Making Digital Work for People and Jobs Contents Foreword................................................................................................. vii Acknowledgments.................................................................................. ix Abbreviations and Acronyms................................................................ ix Executive Summary................................................... xi 1 Introduction................................................................. 1 2 How Digital Technologies Are Unlocking Value for People.......................................................... 5 2.1 Digital in Education: More Data, More Opportunity, More Learning.................................................................................. 6 2.2 Digital in Health: More Data and Access, Better Care and Administration..........................................................................9 2.3 Digital Solutions to Support Social Safety Nets........................ 13 2.4 The Flip Side: An Array of Risks in Using Technology.............. 14 3 Why Technology Has Not Yet Reached Full Potential...................................................................... 17 3.1 Foundational Barriers Hamper Widespread Adoption............ 17 3.2 The Techno-Optimism Effect....................................................... 21 3.3 Endless Pilots with Few Scaled Solutions: Pilotitis....................22 3.4 Weaknesses in Implementation, Follow-Through, and Sustainability........................................................................... 23 3.5 Data Fragmentation and a Weak Regulatory Environment..... 24 3.6 Challenges in Financing and Prioritization................................ 26 4 Looking Forward: Why This Time Might Be Different..................................................................... 29 4.1 Reasons for Optimism................................................................... 29 4.2 Imagining Technology-Infused Human Capital Growth.......... 31 iii iv 4.3 How Technology May Transform Education.............................. 32 4.4 Elevating Health Systems to New Heights with Technology...34 4.5 How Technology Can Help Protect the Vulnerable.................. 36 5 Government Action.................................................. 39 5.1 Strengthen Shared Digital Infrastructure................................... 39 5.2 Invest in Integrated Digital Services and Shared Systems............................................................................................40 5.3 Facilitate Responsible, Beneficial Private Sector Engagement....................................................................... 41 5.4 Manage Digital Vulnerability Using Balanced Risk Approaches............................................................................43 6 Conclusion: Transforming Human Capital through Innovation................................................... 45 7 References................................................................. 47 Boxes 1 Digital Classrooms and Online Learning Platforms................... 8 2 Promoting Virtual Reality Technologies in Public Technical Institutes..........................................................................9 3 Telemedicine Services for Chronic Disease Management.................................................................................. 11 4 Digital Job Aids That Support Community Health Workers............................................................................... 12 5 Challenges with the One Laptop per Child and Massively Open Online Course Initiatives.................................22 6 Digitalized and Personalized Learning Mathematics Software in Ecuador...................................................................... 33 v Tables 2.1 The benefits of digital technology in human capital development for people who receive services, people who provide the services, and people who manage the services.............................................................................................. 6 4.1 Looking forward............................................................................. 31 4.2 The expanding use of digital and data technologies in health care.................................................................................. 35 Maps 1 Ratio of women to men in internet use, 2023............................ 19 Figures 2.1 Internet coverage, by type of mobile network and country income status, 2023, % of population ........................... 5 2.2 The value that digital technology has added in the health sector............................................................................ 10 3.1 Individuals using the internet as of 2023, by region and income level.......................................................... 18 3.2 Men and women using the internet, by country income status, 2023................................................... 19 3.3 Learning poverty, by region, 2015, 2019, and 2022................. 20 Foreword Mamta Murthi During the 2024 World Bank–International Monetary Fund Spring Meetings, Vice President: People leading voices in digital technology and artificial intelligence (AI) joined the Human Capital Ministerial Conclave to discuss how countries can use technology to build, use, and protect human capital. This annual gathering of ministers of finance from the 95-country Human Capital Network is a global effort to accelerate investments in people. I would like to thank the ministers for the conversation at the Conclave and for their commitment to building education, skills, and good health. This note builds on that conversation. Speakers noted that, while technology cannot replace human abilities, such as empathy, mentoring, counseling, and collaboration, it can support service delivery and better manage services for human capital. They highlighted that, with a strong human capital foundation, individuals can learn to use AI to increase productivity and opportunities. They also discussed the potential of AI to help reach the 4.5 billion people who lack access to essential health care services. Ministers emphasized the importance of access to electricity and the internet and the need to make technology education available to people of all ages. Success requires collaboration among governments, development partners, the private sector, and citizens to ensure that technology benefits everyone. Speakers underscored the need for foundational infrastructure and skills— starting with basic literacy and mathematics, combined with access to electricity and technologies—to prepare individuals for training and job opportunities in the digital economy. The opportunities to use technology to improve health care, social protection, gender equality, and education are numerous. While human interaction is essential in early education, AI-powered solutions show promise in targeted support programs and online learning platforms that aid women to continue in education. Inclusive digital strategies and access to electricity are vital to these solutions, enhancing skills, and bridging gaps in health care and education. This note represents a contribution to exploring ways to amplify and anchor the potential of digital technology. It aims to assist governments and other stakeholders in applying these technology more effectively to protect, build, and utilize human capital, to unlock human potential, and to create more and more meaningful jobs. vii Acknowledgments This policy note was developed by a team at the World Bank led by Marelize Görgens and Alex Twinomugisha. The team is thankful to persons who provided advice, discussions, inputs and peer reviews to strengthen the contents of the note, including Aditi Kadam, Agastya Yeachuri, Angie Regina Manjali, Christine Zhenwei Qiang, Cristobal Cobo, Daisy Demirag, David Wilson, Derya Sahin, Ekua Bentil, German Caruso, Ian Forde, Idah Pswarayi-Riddihough, Jed Friedman, Jeremy Ng, Jonathan Marskell, Juul Pinxten, Katriel Friedman, Liz Koechlein, Mahesh Nayak, Malar Veerappan, Matthew Hulse, Melis Guven, Michael Weber, Miravola Randria, Muhammad Hardhantyo Puspo Wardoyo, Pandu Harimurti, Patrick Mullen, Peter Kusek, Sandor Karacsony, Sharmista Appaya, Somil Nagpal, Sonia Rector, Stela Mocan, Tiago Hashiguchi, Tina George, Ugo Gentilini, Wendy Cunningham, and Yan Liu. Throughout the process, the team benefited from the guidance provided by Gabriel Demombynes, manager of the Human Capital Project, and Dena Ringold, Director of Strategy and Operations of the People Vertical. The team would also like to thank Robert Zimmermann for his copyediting of the publication and Theo Hawkins for graphic design. Abbreviations and Acronyms AI artificial intelligence GDP gross domestic product PPP public-pivate partnership ix Executive Summary If used wisely, digital The needs are vast: technology can be a • 4.5 billion people lack access to essential health services powerful tool to boost human development and • 2 billion people live without basic social protection stretch the value of every • 7 in 10 children in low- and middle-income countries are public dollar. learning poor—unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10 To tackle these challenges, digital technology holds the promise of better health care, more responsive social support, and personalized learning at scale. To unlock this potential, technology must be harnessed in service of human capital. That means focusing squarely on jobs, skills, and people. Digital transformation will only deliver results if people have the skills to invent, adapt, and use these technologies. Digital technology also brings real risks. Millions still lack access to affordable data and devices or the skills to use them. Women and low-income groups face the steepest digital barriers. Many countries still rely on outdated, fragmented systems that isolate users, replicate costs, and fail to protect data. And with AI developing at breakneck speed, often more rapidly than society can adapt, the risks of misuse, exclusion, or harm are rising. This policy note sets out four priority actions to help realize the promise of digital technology for human development while managing the risks. 1. Build the Foundations for Universal Digital Access and Skills Start with the basics: electricity, affordable internet, and digital literacy. These are not luxuries—they are lifelines. Without them, even the best-designed digital services will fail to reach the people who need them most. Governments can invest in basic and advanced digital skills, from using smartphones and accessing online learning, to managing xi xii FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY health records or building AI applications. These skills open the door to opportunity. If a nurse in a remote village can consult a doctor online, or a child can access free digital textbooks, the benefits ripple across communities and economies. 2. Invest in Integrated, Interoperable Digital Systems Too often, digital systems are built in silos—one app for education, another for health, a third for cash transfers. This fragmentation raises costs, blocks innovation, and shuts out users. A better path is to build shared digital infrastructure that connects across sectors—platforms that are secure, scalable, and people- centered. These systems can prioritize high-value use cases with clear fiscal returns and human development impacts—such as digital ID, mobile payments, and interoperable health or education records. As Estonia and other countries have shown, the payoff is huge: faster services, lower costs, better outcomes. 3. Forge Responsible Partnerships with the Private Sector Governments cannot go it alone. The private sector brings capital, creativity, and capacity to scale digital solutions. But for partnerships to work, they must rest on clear rules, aligned incentives, and shared value. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) can expand broadband, boost digital skills training, or build platforms for e-health or e-learning. Rwanda’s PPP law is a good example: it codifies business models, clarifies responsibilities, and anchors innovation in public interest. 4. Protect the Vulnerable While Encouraging Innovation Digital tools must work for everyone—not only the connected or the tech-savvy. This means designing systems that support people at critical moments: job loss, illness, disaster. It also means closing the digital gender gap, addressing algorithmic bias, and building systems that are trusted and safe. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS xiii Governments should prioritize strong data governance, clear regulation, and safeguards against misuse. With the rise of AI, the stakes are even higher. A period of responsible experimentation— with transparency and oversight—can help harness AI’s power without exposing societies to harm. Panama's nationwide telemedicine program connects rural patients with specialist care serves 75 percent of the population, while reducing health care delivery costs by an estimated 30 percent. 1 Introduction The world faces a human If 70 percent of children ages 10 in developing countries cannot capital development read and comprehend a simple text, then not only is the statistic crisis that has profound shocking, but millions of young minds are unable to imagine and implications for lives, jobs, seek to fulfill their potential (World Bank 2021). If 4.5 billion people and economies. lack essential health services, then an enormous number of families are vulnerable to health shocks that may push them deeper into poverty. Even people who receive health care may not be spared because they may be receiving only the minimum of what they need. It has been estimated that 40 percent of the health care that is delivered globally is either of little value or harmful (Braithwaite, Glasziou, and Westbrook 2020). If 2 billion people lack social protection, and many others receive inadequate support too late, then whole communities that exist without safety nets may easily fall into crisis (World Bank 2025). These challenges are associated with enormous human suffering and economic constraints because human capital—the skills, health, and resilience of people— represents 64 percent of national wealth worldwide (World Bank 2021). Without strong human capital, economies will not be able to generate sufficient jobs, and people will lack the skills, or the good health required to carry them out. Digital technology and In Panama, a nationwide telemedicine program now connects artificial intelligence (AI) rural patients with specialist care previously unavailable to outlying offer tools to enhance areas (World Bank 2022). The program serves 75 percent of human capabilities the population, while reducing health care delivery costs by an while optimizing public estimated 30 percent. In India, digital ID systems have empowered resources. citizens through secure access to the benefits to which they are entitled, reducing the frustration caused by bureaucratic hurdles, while saving an estimated US$40 billion in leakage as of 2024 (MacDonald 2025). In Kenya, digital learning platforms have opened up educational opportunities among students in remote areas, while maintaining educational outcomes at between 40 percent and 60 percent less cost per student than traditional expansion methods. These examples demonstrate how technology can simultaneously improve lives and enhance the efficiency of the government purse. 1 2 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Inversely, people with the necessary digital skills can invent, drive, use, and participate in how digital technology shapes development and apply it in their own lives and jobs. Not all technology has Previous digital investment cycles had often disappointed lived up to its full or the population and governments because of several faulty anticipated potential. patterns: (1) systems designed without sufficient input from the intended beneficiaries resulting in low adoption rates; (2) fragmented implementation that forced people to navigate among disconnected services; (3) inadequate attention to inclusiveness, leaving the vulnerable behind and widening the digital divide; (4) lack of support for front-line workers who are the interface between technology and the population; (5) low levels of involvement of the private sector and concerns that private sector technology companies have put profits before people; and (6) underinvestment in the management of the changes that are needed to transform the culture of service delivery. These patterns had generated systems that were inadequate in serving people and in delivering fiscal returns. The digital revolution These technologies often amplify disparities by involving and advances in AI unequal access to digital infrastructure, widening that digital have introduced new divide and leaving the vulnerable farther behind. AI systems dimensions of inequality. that have been trained on biased data perpetuate and intensify structural inequities. The algorithms used by AI in decision- making in critical areas, such as health care, employment, and criminal justice, frequently disadvantage marginalized groups because of a lack of transparency and accountability. Women have remained underrepresented in AI development and technical fields, resulting in systems that often fail to account for women's needs and experiences. The bias in algorithms may perpetuate harmful gender stereotypes and discrimination in opportunities and outcomes. The economic benefits of technological progress disproportionately flow to those with technical expertise and capital, tending to concentrate yet more power in fewer hands and widening the wealth gap. These overlapping forces foster a complex system that reinforces inequality and highlight the need for multidisciplinary solutions that span technology design, policy, and education. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 3 This policy note provides a Section 2 examines how digital technologies are already creating framework for investing in value for people. It also describes the risks that have emerged and digital transformation in ways that need to be addressed. Section 3 analyzes why technology that boost human capital investments have not reached their full potential to unlock human and maximize people’s capital development. Section 4 explores future technology-driven involvement in the digital opportunities for human capital. Section 5 presents four priority and digitalizing economy actions governments might take to unleash the potential of through meaningful jobs. technology. Section 6 concludes. The rapid increase in access to mobile phones has changed how people communicate and transformed health care, education, and social protection services 2 How Digital Technologies Are Unlocking Value for People Digital technologies have Over 95 percent of the world’s population lives in areas with access become more ubiquitous to mobile data (refer to figure 2.1).1 The rapid increase in access in enhancing human to mobile phones has changed how people communicate and capital. transformed health care, education, and social protection services (Gentilini 2022). Figure 2.1  Internet coverage, by type of mobile network and country income status, 2023, % of population Percentage of population covered by type of mobile network in 2023 5G 4G 5G 4G 3G 5G 5G 3G 4G 4G 3G 5G 3G 2G 4G 2G 2G 3G 2G 2G Low-income Lower-middle- Upper-middle- High-income World countries income income countries countries countries Source: Based on ITU 2023 Table 2.1 illustrates the following three types of value based on an analysis of more than 300 cases in health care, education, and social protection. It shows that digital technologies are already widely dispersed among service providers, front-line service workers, the private sector, and government. ¹ Refer to Principles for Digital Development (dashboard), Digital Impact Alliance, Washington, DC, https://digitalprinciples.org/. 5 6 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY • Better information about how to raise and protect human capital • More digitally enabled services allowing for better access and personalization • More digitally supported management of systems and services Table 2.1 The benefits of digital technology in human capital development for people who receive services, people who provide the services, and people who manage the services People Information Services System management Service ∙ Online learning ∙ Telemedicine services ∙ Comparison of the beneficiaries platforms and digital costs of health care or ∙ New learning libraries education services materials ∙ Health information ∙ Provide reviews of ∙ Grant payments services delivered ∙ Benefit portals and ∙ Electronic rights awareness appointment campaigns scheduling Direct front-line ∙ Information systems ∙ Digital radiography ∙ Better targeting of providers for services delivered households ∙ Digital identity and persons referred verification ∙ New education content and lesson planning Government ∙ Better information ∙ Supply chain ∙ Allocation of human system managers about students and predictions resources based on patients changing needs ∙ Better targeting of ∙ More up-to-date those who need information about the services workforce The following subsections provide details on the use of technology in education (section 2.1), health care (section 2.2), and social protection (section 2.3). Section 2.4 concludes by investigating the risks that have emerged from the use of digital technologies and the need to mitigate these risks. 2.1 Digital in Education: More Data, More Opportunity, More Learning Digital technologies are being used to support education in four ways: (1) more educational information, (2) better communication with students and parents to reduce absenteeism and improve learning, (3) more ways to learn, and (4) better ways to learn. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 7 • More information about education. During the last 30 years, schools have increasingly been using education management information systems in reporting and to foster data-driven decision-making in education. These systems were initially rudimentary, paper-based, and focused on data collection without the aid of sophisticated analytical tools. As the global impetus for education reform and accountability has grown in strength, the emphasis has shifted to developing more robust digital data systems to track student enrollments, teacher performance, infrastructure needs, and learning outcomes. • Better communication with students and parents to reduce absenteeism and improve learning. Simple digital technologies that show high penetration and coverage rates, such as video technologies and mobile phones, can enhance enrollment and learning. For example, the distribution of mobile phones with an installed digital reading app among Nigerian children ages 6–9, supported by phone-based mobile learning platforms, has led to a 42 percent reduction in absenteeism at a cost of US$7 per student per year. The learning gains have been greater through the program than through most nondigital educational interventions reviewed (5th among 73 interventions); in cost-effectiveness, the program ranks in the upper quarter among all programs (Orozco-Olvera and Rascon-Ramirez 2023). Children who previously struggled with reading now engage enthusiastically with interactive learning apps that are tailored to their level and help them build confidence and foundational skills (Hawkins et al. 2020). Education authorities in Botswana piloted the use of SMS and phone-based tutorials to teach basic mathematics skills to pupils in primary-school grades 4–6. Within six months of the launch of the pilot exercise, absolute innumeracy rates had declined by 31 percent relative to pupils who had not participated in the program (Angrist, Bergman, and Matsheng 2022). • More ways to learn. Digital classrooms and online learning platforms enhance teaching and learning. Computers, the internet, educational software, and other technologies can become extensions of physical classrooms or fully virtual environments in which students learn alone or collaboratively. They offer more opportunities for collaboration and research. 8 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY The reliance on digital classrooms surged during the COVID-19 pandemic (UNICEF 2020) when many education systems went online (refer to box 1). For instance, India's DIKSHA platform serves over 17 million students, including in remote areas, at an annual cost of about US$0.21 per student (Muralidharan, Singh, and Ganimian 2019).2 Teachers find that digital resources help engage diverse learners more effectively. Box 1  Digital Classrooms and Online Learning Platforms The Singapore Student Learning Space app provides curriculum- aligned digital content for students and teachers to use as learning resources and offers tools to support teachers in creating lesson plans.a AI tools have been integrated into the platform to supply personalized adaptive learning, assessment, and feedback tools and lesson planning aids (Chan 2024). The Smart Education of China platform, with over 13 million registered users, offers a one-stop window for education-related services and interactive tools for teachers, learners, and families. Through the Massive Open Online Courses Initiative, the platform provides 27,000 individual courses in higher education (UNESCO 2023). The Kenya Education Cloud has been developed as a one-stop window for all digital teaching and learning materials. It is accessible by anyone from anywhere at any time. a. SLS (Singapore Student Learning Space) (dashboard), Ministry of Education, Singapore, https://www.learning.moe.edu.sg/. b. KEC (Kenya Education Cloud) (portal), Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development, Nairobi, https://kec.ac.ke/. • Better ways to learn. New technologies offer the opportunity to increase the quality of learning. Virtual reality technologies simulate a computer-generated environment and facilitate interactions with the environment that mirror real-world interactions. A systematic review of the empirical evidence indicates that, on average, virtual reality training can effectively ² Refer to DIKSHA (Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing) (portal), National Council of Educational Research and Training, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, https://diksha.gov.in/. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 9 deliver technical, socioemotional, and practical (applied) skills, especially in fields related to health and safety, engineering, and technical education. Students who are exposed to virtual reality training are typically more efficient in using inputs and time and in avoiding performance errors (Angel-Urdinola, Castillo-Castro, and Hoyos 2021). • Virtual laboratories offer cost-effective and flexible alternatives to traditional real-world training (refer to box 2). They require less investment in inputs and consumables, adapt readily to changes in technologies, mitigate risks, provide unlimited practice opportunities within a safe environment, accommodate a personalized learning pace, automatically record and analyze student performance data, and deliver immediate feedback. Box 2  Promoting Virtual Reality Technologies in Public Technical Institutes Supported by the Republic of Korea, the World Bank has collaborated with Ecuador's Secretariat of Higher Education to promote virtual reality in public technical institutes. Promising results from the Transformation of the Tertiary Technical and Technological Institutes Project include six laboratories for automobile mechanics using virtual and augmented reality. These laboratories help students gain proficiency in engine assembly and repair relative to traditional methods (Angel-Urdinola et al. 2023). These applications demonstrate that investment in digital education yield optimal returns among people and in budgets if they enhance rather than attempt to replace the critical human connection between teachers and students, address specific barriers to learning among the disadvantaged, provide ongoing support and development opportunities for educators, and combine digital and traditional approaches to create enriched learning environments. 2.2 Digital in Health: More Data and Access, Better Care and Administration Digital technologies have been aiding in the effort to promote universal health care coverage in many countries. These technologies provide value for patients, health workers, health system managers, and public health (refer to figure 2.2). 10 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Figure 2.2  The value that digital technology has added in the health sector For PATIENTS: Make health personal For HEALTH SYSTEM MANAGERS: and reduce health di erences Improve health nancing and keep healthcare costs from increasing Patient access to their own health data • reassurance • In Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, health • reduce anxiety systems can save 15% of total health system • positive impact on consultations costs by increasing tlemedicine and electronic • better doctor-patient relationships health records • increased adherence to medication VALUE of • In india, the national telemedicine service • improved patient outcomes Digital in eSanjeevani costs $21 per patient per year For PROVIDERS: Reimagine Health service delivery and improve For POPULATION HEALTH: conditions for health workers Accelerate earlier and better public health actions Physicians who use digital health technology were 14% more likely to be satis ed in their jobs and 20% more like to have good work-life Higher digital adoption prior to COVID 19 was balance associated with fewer COVID cases and deaths Source: World Bank 2023b Digital solutions in health care have focused on providing (1) digitalized health data, (2) more communication with patients and health workers, (3) more ways to access health care, (4) better health care, and (5) streamlined health system administration. • More digitalized health information. Over the past decade, the digitalization of health information systems has been a cornerstone of the progress in health care. Of the US$2 billion invested by the World Bank in digital health from 2012 to 2022, over 50 percent was used to fund health information systems across approximately 75 countries (World Bank 2023b). These systems include health management information systems, human resource information systems, laboratory and diagnostic systems, logistics management systems, and facility registration systems. Primarily designed for reporting to health managers and donors, these systems have not been widely used in inpatient management because of the current inability to capture patient data extensively. The systems are used to register births and deaths digitally and issue and store electronic birth certificates. If linked to a digital ID system, they assign each newborn a unique digital identity number, ensuring lifelong access to government services. As of 2022, digitalized civil birth registration systems were being used in 96 MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 11 countries, indicating that more progress is needed (Adair et al. 2023). • Better communication with patients and health workers. The widespread use of mobile phones can help deliver health care services to remote or underserved populations in low- and middle-income countries through mobile health technologies. Key benefits include enhanced access to health information, support in disease management, and real-time health monitoring. SMSs have been used extensively to encourage people living with HIV to adhere to treatment regimens. Over 70 percent of people on HIV treatment live in low- and middle- income countries. HIV treatment is medication that needs to be taken for life. Stopping the medication can lead to resistance. A metareview of eight studies found that SMS-based interventions significantly improved adherence to antiretroviral treatment. Unidirectional SMSs made it 1.7 times more likely and bidirectional SMSs made it 2.4 times more likely that a patient would adhere to treatments (Sun et al. 2023). • Expand access to health care through telemedicine. Telemedicine uses electronic information and communication technologies to provide and support clinical and nonclinical health services remotely. During the COVID-19 pandemic, telemedicine grew worldwide. An evaluation in low- and middle-income countries during COVID-19 reported over 90 percent patient satisfaction, accurate diagnoses, efficient resource use, better accessibility, and increased service utilization (Tiwari et al. 2023). Telemedicine is especially effective for those with chronic diseases (refer to box 3) Box 3 Telemedicine Services for Chronic Disease Management Telemedicine for patients with diabetes in Mexico: To combat one of the world's highest diabetes burdens, the International Finance Corporation invested in Clínicas del Azúcar (IFC 2019). This private health care provider offers affordable diabetes management to low- and middle-income patients. It has enhanced its strategy by integrating behavioral science, AI, and a mobile app. It has reduced the financial burden among patients, improved condition management, and reduced the need for costly hospitalization. Box 3 continued 12 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Box 3 Telemedicine Services for Chronic Disease Management (continued) Telehealth plays a crucial role in managing chronic ailments in Panama, such as arthritis, diabetes, and hypertension. The 2021 telemedicine legislation, prompted by COVID-19 restrictions, led to reduced hospital congestion, remote patient monitoring, and more preventative screening. This has made health care more accessible, with shorter travel times, reduced waiting periods, and fewer work absences among patients in 12 of 16 health regions (World Bank 2024). • Better health care through digital job aids. Community health workers, who are often unskilled or semiskilled part-time workers or volunteers, are vital in many low- and middle- income countries. Numbering around 6 million globally, they provide primary health care in low-resource settings, especially rural and underserved areas. Digital job aids, such as mobile or tablet-based tools, help these workers by offering step-by-step guidance, decision support, and real-time data collection. These tools improve diagnosis, treatment adherence, and health education by ensuring protocol compliance and enabling better data reporting and patient tracking, thereby enhancing care quality. The results are striking (refer to box 4). Box 4 Digital Job Aids That Support Community Health Workers Digitally supported supervision and job aids for Anganwadi workers in India. Despite decades of public health improvements, many children in India still face poor health and undernutrition. Anganwadi workers, part of the Integrated Child Development Scheme, provide nutrition education and support to pregnant women, young children, and their mothers. However, the delivery of the services is associated with significant gaps. With support from the World Bank, the government has enhanced the scheme though an mHealth intervention, implementing smartphone software and data dashboards for workers and supervisors. The system has improved household visits and helped more pregnant women maintain recommended breastfeeding practices (Patil et al. 2022). Box 4 continued MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 13 Box 4 Digital Job Aids That Support Community Health Workers (continued) Job aids for community health workers in Uganda. A large- scale randomized evaluation of the community health program in Uganda of Living Goods and BRAC shows a substantial impact in reducing unnecessary deaths (Living Goods 2023). After three years, there was a 27 percent reduction in child mortality at an estimated average cost of US$68 per life-year saved. Infant and neonatal mortality were also significantly reduced, by 33 percent and 27 percent, respectively. • Digital approaches to administrative processes. Digital tools are changing insurance claims by boosting efficiency, transparency, and accessibility. Automated systems reduce paperwork and processing times, benefiting insurers and customers. Mobile platforms allow real-time claim submissions and status monitoring, especially in remote areas. This digital shift cuts administrative costs, enhances the customer experience, and reduces fraud. In the United States, Medicare processes over a billion fee-for-service claims annually, using digital verification methods, such as data analytics and medical record reviews, thereby saving US$14.7 billion in fiscal year 2022 (CMS 2024). These uses show that digital health investments deliver optimal returns if they strengthen rather than replace the human connection between providers and patients, reduce administrative burdens, allow more time for patient care, enable continuity of care through better information sharing, and empower patients with information to take an active role in their own health. 2.3 Digital Solutions to Support Social Safety Nets Digital social protection systems are improving the resilience of vulnerable families while enhancing efficiency. Three areas can be distinguished: (1) the progressive digitalization of analog core social protection and labor architecture; (2) leapfrogging innovations, which use novel digital approaches from the outset in contexts where social protection and labor provision is nascent and traditional core architecture does not exist; and (3) the use of supporting technologies that may be helpful in their own right, but neither contribute to nor rely on the digitalization of core social protection and labor architecture (Lowe et al. 2023). 14 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY • Digital IDs for empowered access. Digital ID systems have transformed how people interact with government services. In India, biometric identification has eliminated the need for people to produce multiple documents and visit numerous offices, reducing frustration and ensuring that benefits reach the intended recipients. Among women who once struggled to establish their identities in man-dominated systems, digital ID has provided newfound financial autonomy and secure access to benefits. • Automated payments for reliability. Digital payment systems ensure that social protection reaches families when they need it most. During moments of crisis, when traditional cash distribution might be delayed or disrupted, digital payments provide critical stability. Among farmers in Thailand receiving fertilizer subsidies through digital channels, this means timely support during planting and greater household financial security. • Responsive safety nets. Machine learning in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, and Togo during the COVID-19 pandemic helped identify vulnerable households in real-time as economic conditions changed. Among families such as Ibrahim’s family, who suddenly lost income during the pandemic, responsive targeting meant that support was received before the limited savings had been exhausted or before negative coping strategies, such as pulling children from school, had to be adopted. Investments in digital social protection yield optimal returns if they maintain alternative access methods for those who cannot use digital channels, provide transparency so beneficiaries understand their entitlements, adapt responsively to changing household circumstances and needs, and respect the dignity and agency of the recipients through user-friendly design. 2.4 The Flip Side: An Array of Risks in Using Technology The acceleration in the spread of digital technologies has created a complex landscape of challenges affecting both individuals and systems. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 15 • Privacy concerns. For many individuals, privacy concerns have grown as data collection mechanisms are often being used to gather personal information across platforms and devices, potentially creating profiles that can inform targeted content delivery. This data ecosystem, operated by various corporate and governmental entities, may reshape certain power dynamics in society, frequently without fully transparent oversight mechanisms. • Mis- and disinformation. Digital platforms can sometimes amplify content that generates emotional engagement, potentially contributing to information environments where some users experience selective exposure to viewpoints that align with their existing beliefs. In this context, mis- and disinformation can easily spread. • Mental health. Research suggests the possible existence of links between certain technology usage patterns and mental health outcomes. Research shows that constant connectivity can trigger a range of psychological challenges for some individuals—fostering an expectation of instant gratification, amplifying distractibility and narcissistic tendencies, disrupting sleep patterns, elevating stress levels, and, in some cases, even leading to anxiety and depression (Shensa et al. 2019). • More cybersecurity threats. Critical infrastructure increasingly incorporates digital systems that can, in some cases, become the targets of sophisticated actors who might exploit security weaknesses to disrupt services in sectors ranging from energy to health care (CPR 2024). • Environmental impact. Technology's environmental impact, including energy consumption by data centers and electronic waste management, raises important issues of sustainability that affect communities differently. These many considerations invite nuanced governance approaches to balance continued innovation with appropriate protections for human rights, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. Additional risks The risks associated with AI warrant specific responses. AI systems associated with AI. present a multifaceted risk landscape that spans technical, social, and ethical dimensions. Current AI technologies may amplify existing societal biases through the AI training data and the designs 16 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY based on algorithms, potentially perpetuating discrimination in critical areas, such as hiring, lending, and criminal justice. The increasing deployment of AI in decision-making raises concern about accountability because complex neural networks often function as black boxes where reasoning remains opaque even to the creators of the technology. The risks to privacy are emerging as AI systems grow more sophisticated at analyzing personal data and generating insights that users have never explicitly shared. Advanced AI development raises longer-term issues about maintaining human control over increasingly autonomous systems, particularly as the systems become integrated into critical infrastructure and human development initiatives. The rapid pace of innovation often outstrips the regulatory framework, creating governance gaps that may allow harmful applications to emerge before appropriate safeguards can be established. This is a particular concern in areas in which certain job functions may be outsourced to AI, such as supporting a radiologist in interpreting an X-ray or helping staff in a human resources department screen job applications. These interrelated risks demand multidisciplinary approaches that balance technological progress with robust governance, ethical frameworks, and inclusive stakeholder participation. 3 Why Technology Has Not Yet Reached Full Potential Understanding why digital Six critical barriers have limited the human and fiscal returns on investments have not technology investments: foundational barriers (subsection 3.1), reached their full potential in the techno-optimism effect (subsection 3.2), pilotitis (subsection improving lives is essential 3.3), poor follow-through and sustainability (subsection 3.4), data if governments are to make fragmentation and weak governance (subsection 3.5), and financing more effective investments. considerations (subsection 3.6). 3.1 Foundational Barriers Hamper Widespread Adoption Energy access is an Global access to electricity rose from 75 percent to 90 percent enabler of technology. between 2000 and 2020. However, this statistic does not fully reflect the issues of affordability and reliability. Min et al. (2024) reveal that approximately 1.18 billion people—60 percent more than the number of people who do not have access to electricity (733 million) —are effectively energy poor and unable to use electricity meaningfully despite living in areas that technically have access to electricity. For the 1.18 billion people who are energy poor, unreliable electricity means a student cannot study after dark, a health clinic cannot maintain the cold chain for vaccines, and a small business owner cannot use a digital payment system. Such statistics about infrastructure reflect the daily constraints on human potential that ultimately limit economic development. Data affordability as a Data may be available, but access may still be compromised. Data participation gateway. are typically used the least in places in which they can help the most (refer to figure 3.1). If the cost of data exceeds 11 percent of monthly income, a common situation in low-income countries, people must make the choice between digital connectivity and other needs. For teachers such as Emmanuel in rural Ghana, the prohibitive cost of data means choosing between online professional development opportunities and the needs of the family: a choice no educator should have to face. 17 18 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Figure 3.1  Individuals using the internet as of 2023, by region and income level World 67% Total Africa 37% Americas 87% Arab States 69% Asia-Paci c 66% CIS 89% Europe 91% Low-income 37% 27% Lower-middle-income 55% Upper-middle-income 81% High-income 93% Least Developed Countries % 35% Landlocked Developing Countries 39% Small Island Developing States 67% Source: Based on ITU 2023 The digital divide by sex The significant sex gap in internet use represents an economic is a foundational barrier. inefficiency, but also lost potential among women and girls. The gap is widest in locations with the lowest human capital index (refer to figure 3.2; map 1). If women entrepreneurs such as Fatima in Bangladesh cannot access the digital marketplace, their family livelihoods and the broader economy suffer. UN Women (2023) estimates that low- and middle-income countries have lost US$1 trillion in gross domestic product (GDP) by excluding women from the digital economy. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 19 Figure 3.2  Men and women using the internet, by country income status, 2023 37% 20% Low-income 34% % 51% Lower-middle-income 59% 80% Upper-middle-income 81% 93% High-income 94% Women Men Source: Based on ITU 2023 Map 1  Ratio of women to men in internet use, 2023 Internet Gender Gap 1 0.96 0.91 0.82 0.22 0 IBRD 48960 | JUNE 2025 This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World Bank Group. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Source: Digital Gender Gaps (web application), University of Oxford, Oxford, UK, https://www. digitalgendergaps.org/ 20 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Learning poverty and Technology implementation efforts in education and development gaps in digital literacy have frequently encountered significant obstacles stemming from have constrained the interrelated challenges of learning poverty and limited digital technology take-up. literacy. If basic literacy and numeracy skills are underdeveloped, the introduction of digital tools often creates an additional cognitive burden rather than helping students and teachers (refer to figure 3.3). Learning poverty undermines technology adoption as users struggle to navigate interfaces, comprehend digital content, and troubleshoot basic technical issues independently. The digital literacy gap is substantial. Figure 3.3  Learning poverty, by region, 2015, 2019, and 2022 100 Learning crisis (pre-pandemic) Learning crisis (simulation) 90 Sub-Saharan Africa 80 Latin America & Caribbean South Asia 70 GLOBAL Middle East & North Africa 60 50 East Asia & Paci c 40 30 20 Europe & Central Asia 10 0 2015 2019 2022 Source: World Bank et al. 2022. Only 16 percent of the people in low-income countries have basic digital skills, such as using email or word processing. This is manifested across multiple dimensions. Thus, technical skill deficits prevent effective hardware maintenance and basic troubleshooting; information literacy limitations hamper the ability of users to evaluate online content critically; and challenges in MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 21 pedagogical integration leave educators unable to incorporate technology into teaching practices meaningfully. These gaps are pronounced in marginalized communities in which learning resources and technology exposure are limited. Implementation efforts have frequently faltered because the focus has been primarily on hardware distribution without adequate attention to developing the human capabilities necessary for sustainable technology integration. The result is abandoned computer labs, underutilized tablets, and educational software that fails to improve learning outcomes despite significant investment. Because technology changes frequently, digital skills and literacy must also evolve; people frequently need to be upskilled; and curricula need to be updated. 3.2 The Techno-Optimism Effect The techno-optimism effect represents a significant risk to human development and fiscal responsibility. Technology Technology solutions are frequently adopted without a clear without purpose. understanding of the human problems they aim to solve or establishing concrete indicators to assess value and impact. An analysis of education technology initiatives found that 42 percent lacked straightforward objectives linked to real challenges. Students were using tablets without appropriate educational content. Teachers were supplied with smart boards, but no training. Administrators were collecting data that never informed decision- making. The lack of strategic awareness not only undermines the effectiveness of digital initiatives, but also makes the justification of continuing investment difficult and hinders learning from experience. Context-blind Technologies deployed without adequate consideration of local implementation. infrastructure, capacity, and culture typically achieve only 30 percent to 40 percent of the projected benefits. The One Laptop per Child Program encountered this challenge when devices reached schools without reliable electricity, internet connectivity, or teacher preparation. The result was not only wasted resources but also missed opportunities to enhance learning (refer to box 5). 22 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Box 5  Challenges with the One Laptop per Child and Massively Open Online Course Initiatives The One Laptop per Child Program. Launched at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2005, the program aimed to transform education by providing low-cost laptops to children in developing countries. Despite initial enthusiasm, the program faced significant challenges, including high costs, lack of teacher training, and insufficient infrastructure. Evaluations have shown limited educational impact, and the program ultimately fell short of its ambitious goals (Ames 2019). The Massive Open Online Courses Initiative. When it was launched, the initiative was touted as a miracle stand-alone solution in the effort to achieve universal higher education. However, the results were sobering. Only small shares of students who enrolled completed the courses. Rather than democratizing education, most students who enrolled were in high-income countries (Lederman 2019). Despite initial enthusiasm, these initiatives fell short of their ambitious goals largely because the importance of the broader ecosystem was underestimated, including infrastructure, local capacity, the cultural context, and integration with existing systems. The lesson is clear. While technology is useful in transformation, it is insufficient on its own and must be implemented in response to specific problems and as part of a comprehensive approach that considers the full range of enabling factors (Clark, Robert, and Hampton 2016). Technology is a tool that is useless by itself. The effectiveness of digital technologies in building human capital depends on how well the technology is integrated with existing systems, supported by appropriate infrastructure, and aligned with local needs and capabilities. Online learning, for example, offers great potential benefits, but requires several enablers, including parents who own the devices (one per child), who are educated, and who can support the child, affordable access to data, and a child who is able and confident in learning online. 3.3 Endless Pilots with Few Scaled Solutions: Pilotitis The phenomenon of pilotitis—multiple small-scale pilot projects that never achieve sustainability—represents a loss in the potential for human impact. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 23 Fragmented user In Ethiopia, more than 230 distinct digital health solutions created experience. confusion and overlapping requirements for health care workers and patients. Rather than a coherent user-friendly system, health workers were obliged to enter the same data into multiple systems and navigating separate interfaces to complete related tasks, reducing the time available for patient care. Unsustainable Each pilot exercise typically involves unique training, support, and support systems. maintenance structures. Among front-line workers, this means learning the various procedures required for each new system, thereby encountering a significant cognitive burden and frustration that ultimately affects service quality. Unequal Pilot programs often benefit limited populations in specific regions, access. creating inequities in service access. A mother in a pilot area might benefit from digital maternal health support, while a woman in similar circumstances a few kilometers away enjoys no such access. This cycle of perpetual piloting wastes resources and breeds skepticism among stakeholders and beneficiaries, ultimately hindering the systematic adoption of digital solutions that could genuinely transform service delivery. Curing pilotitis requires a shift toward longer-term planning, sustainable financing mechanisms, and careful attention to scalability from the outset. 3.4 Weaknesses in Implementation, Follow- Through, and Sustainability Technology implementation efforts have frequently fallen short of their potential because of critical weaknesses in planning, follow- through, and sustainability. Initial deployment often receives robust funding and attention, creating a flurry of activity around hardware distribution and training, but this momentum frequently dissipates once implementation teams depart and external funding cycles conclude. Without sustained technical support, even minor hardware malfunctions or software updates can render systems unusable, leading to rapid deterioration in promising initiatives. Budgetary planning often inadequately accounts for ongoing costs, including the maintenance, replacement parts, connectivity fees, and continued professional development necessary for adoption and sustainability. Challenges in the transfer of expertise emerge if implementation relies heavily on external consultants who 24 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY depart without sufficiently building local capacity, thus creating dependency rather than self-sufficiency. Technology initiatives frequently fail to institutionalize adoption within organizational processes and culture, and the technologies are perpetually viewed as additional rather than integral to daily operations. This pattern of enthusiastic launches followed by gradual abandonment creates technology graveyards of unused equipment and contributes to innovation fatigue among stakeholders, who grow increasingly skeptical of new initiatives after experiencing such cycles of unfulfilled promise. 3.5 Data Fragmentation and a Weak Regulatory Environment Because of pilotitis, the digital data that technology produces are often fragmented and not well regulated. Data fragmentation and inadequate regulation represent challenges that reduce benefits and fiscal returns. Fragmented data If data systems fail to communicate because they exist in isolated hinder integrated silos, people bear the burden of navigating the resulting complex service delivery. bureaucracies. Members of households, such as Olatunji's in Nigeria, might need to register separately for educational subsidies, health services, and social protection by providing identical information multiple times across several systems with different interfaces, requirements, and procedures. This fragmentation creates unnecessary friction, increases transaction costs, and may cause vulnerable populations to avoid using services they are entitled to receive. Governance If the regulatory framework is underdeveloped, the protection gaps amplify the of sensitive personal data becomes more challenging across fragmentation. fragmented systems. Each separate database may operate under different security standards, data classification schemes, and access protocols, creating inconsistent protection levels for the same personal information across government services. Without a comprehensive regulatory framework that establishes clear data standards, interoperability requirements, and access protocols, fragmentation will proliferate as agencies develop solutions opportunistically and in isolation, complicating coordination and potentially promoting privacy violations. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 25 Concerns about The combination of fragmented data systems and weak regulatory privacy and trust oversight creates vulnerabilities as information flows between may reduce systems, from health records to educational assessments and social information sharing. benefit information. The lack of standardized consent mechanisms, transparent data use policies, and clear accountability structures causes people to hesitate to share the information required for effective service delivery. The privacy concerns and fragmentation influence the willingness of the vulnerable, such as refugees or individuals who may be stigmatized because of health conditions, to engage with government data systems and digitalized services given that such engagement may be directly tied to their personal safety. Coordination failures If health, education, and social protection data cannot be discourage holistic appropriately integrated because of technical fragmentation support. and regulatory issues, governments miss critical opportunities to provide coordinated support. A health problem that affects a child’s attendance at school might go unaddressed, or a household experiencing job loss may not receive timely information about available educational support not simply because the data are in different systems, but because the protocols on information sharing and privacy protection have not been established in the regulatory framework. Security Among data breaches, 74 percent involve human error, and vulnerabilities grow education, health care, and the public sector are especially in fragmented targeted. Fragmentation and inconsistent regulations significantly landscapes. amplify the cybersecurity risks (CPR 2024; USAID 2023). Each separate system represents a potential entry point for hackers. The level of security often varies dramatically across platforms. Low- and middle-income countries face particular challenges because of limited security awareness, inadequate risk assessment capabilities across multiple systems, and the difficulty of maintaining security standards. This combination of challenges increases the financial risks. A survey among 5,600 information technology professionals across 31 countries found that 66 percent of health care organizations had reported ransomware attacks in 2021, a 94 percent rise over 2020 (World Bank 2023a). The average cost of remediation reached US$1.85 million, and 25 percent of the affected organizations required up to a month for recovery. According to IBM (2022), 26 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY the cost of health care data breaches increased by 42 percent in 2020–22, averaging US$10.1 million, the highest in any industry for 12 consecutive years. 3.6 Challenges in Financing and Prioritization The financing of digital transformation is facing challenges that are affecting outcomes and sustainability. Sustainability Many promising digital initiatives demonstrate impact at the gaps. outset, but lose funding before achieving a sustainable scale. Among communities, such as Mbale in Uganda, this may mean briefly experiencing improved health services through a donor- funded digital health care initiative, only to witness system deterioration when project funding ends. While the evidence suggests there is significant potential cost savings, such as the estimated 15 percent reduction in annual health system costs through comprehensive health information systems and telemedicine in Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa (Jousset et al. 2023), the up-front investment requirements often represent an insurmountable barrier. These costs extend beyond implementation to include ongoing expenditures for local adaptation, maintenance, technical support, software licensing, security updates, and capacity building, creating a financial burden that many systems struggle to bear (McCool et al. 2022). Moreover, many projects are not sustainable or scalable because of limited local buy-in and funding. Misaligned Traditional budgeting processes often fail to capture the cross- incentives. cutting benefits of digital investments. A digital ID system might be funded entirely from a home affairs budget, despite generating substantial benefits in education, health care, and social protection, thereby potentially curtailing investments that would profoundly improve government services. The challenge Decision-makers must balance long-term efficiency gains of prioritization against immediate service delivery needs, while also considering complicates the equity implications and implementation risks. If funds are financing landscape. limited, choosing which digital initiatives to prioritize becomes particularly complex, especially given the mixed evidence on impact and the need to maintain hybrid systems during transitions. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 27 This uncertainty often leads to underinvestment or piecemeal approaches that fail to achieve a transformative scale. Success requires new financing mechanisms that can provide predictable, sustainable funding while aligning incentives across stakeholders, from government ministries to donors and private sector partners, to support comprehensive digital transformation rather than isolated interventions. More young people are achieving digital literacy. Among youth, 39 percent in low-income countries and 67 percent in middle-income countries are using the internet. 4 Looking Forward: Why This Time Might Be Different Digital transformation opportunities present distinct possibilities for enhancing human capabilities. 4.1 Reasons for Optimism A critical mass of The global policy momentum supporting digital transformation factors is emerging is unprecedented. The United Nations Sustainable Development that favors an impulse Goals and the United Nations Global Digital Compact have toward greater elevated the role of technology, while major initiatives, such as the connectivity, the World Bank Digital Economy for Africa Initiative, are creating an introduction of more enabling environment for digital innovation. devices, expanded technological literacy, The decline in the costs of computing is dramatic. The cost of and lower costs in personal computers has fallen by 96 percent, and the cost of data technology. storage has declined 100-fold in recent decades (BLS 2015; Mathieu 2024). This has democratized access to digital technologies. Cloud computing has eliminated the need for expensive data centers and made sophisticated digital services accessible to organizations and governments without exorbitant up-front investment. More computing power is available, albeit mostly in high-income countries (Lehdonvirta, Wú, and Hawkins 2024). More young people are achieving digital literacy. Among youth, 39 percent in low-income countries and 67 percent in middle-income countries are using the internet. This compares with 23 percent and 54 percent of the general population, respectively. The rates exceed 90 percent in upper-middle-income and high-income countries. While the digital divide persists within and across countries, the growing familiarity with technology is creating a fertile ground for adopting and scaling up digital solutions in human capital development. Schools and health facilities are rapidly becoming connected to reliable and affordable internet services. This satisfies one of the 14 recommendations of the United Nations Global Digital Compact. Giga (International Telecommunication Union and United Nations 29 30 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Children’s Fund) and HealthConnekt (United Nations Children’s Fund) are global initiatives working to provide reliable internet and electricity to all schools and health care facilities. Smartphone access has greatly expanded. There were more than 7.2 billion smartphones in 2024. In 2023 54 percent of the world’s population owned a smartphone (GMSA 2023). Even in Nigeria, a fragile and conflict-affected setting, 38 percent of phones are smartphones. Technology is Digital services are increasingly reaching people through devices meeting people they already own and use. The most powerful digital and AI where they are. applications are now available to anyone with a smartphone and an internet connection even in low- and middle-income countries. The rapid advance and ubiquity of digital technology, including AI, is raises questions about how the technology might be applied to accumulate and use human capital. The ability of AI to provide personalized and adaptable services means it could become important in delivering human capital services. For small business owners, this involves accessing financial services, market information, and government support through a familiar interface they use daily (Muralidharan, Singh, and Ganimian 2019). Digital solutions are Unlike previous cycles in the introduction of technologies that being designed with and often imposed solutions from the top down, current approaches for users. are tending to incorporate human-centered design principles. Life-journey approaches Modern public digital infrastructure enables government services are being Integrated in to be organized around the needs of the population rather than government systems. administrative structures. In Estonia's widely admired government digital system, a new parent can register a birth, apply for family benefits, and schedule vaccinations in a single integrated process thereby saving time, while receiving more comprehensive support. More evidence Appropriate lessons ought to be learned from the past when on effective use is many promises of technology failed. Modern rapid evaluation becoming available. mechanisms and learning models might be established to gather evidence on what works, what does not work, and the proper conditions for success to guide the future use of digital technologies. This may become feasible with the growing ability of technologies to learn, adapt, and personalize. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 31 There is now a better Open-source solutions offer significant advantages, including balance in the application reduced licensing costs, greater customization flexibility, and of open-source solutions. community-driven security improvements. The collaborative model can foster knowledge transfers and local capacity building as developers study and modify code to fit specific needs. Successful implementation requires the recognition that open source is not free. Organizations must invest in technical expertise for customization, maintenance, and security management. Open-source software can still prevent governments from accessing the data in the software. Regardless of whether an information technology solution (that is, the source code) is open sourced or proprietary, the focus has begun to shift toward ensuring safeguarded access to data. A balanced approach is emerging whereby open source is one valuable option within a broader technology ecosystem in which implementation decisions are based on organizational requirements, available resources, and capacity rather than ideological positions about software licensing. This has introduced to the table and to discussions players who did not previously rely on open-source solutions. 4.2 Imagining Technology-Infused Human Capital Growth The transition to technology-assisted human capital development represents an opportunity to simultaneously enhance lives and strengthen fiscal sustainability (refer to table 4.1). Table 4.1 Looking forward Current challenges in the take-up of A technology-assisted human capital future may look technology different Evidence and value ∙ Mixed evidence on the impact of digital ∙ More rapid evaluation mechanisms and learning solutions models ∙ Poor measurement of value and outcomes ∙ Better indicators and real-time impact assessment ∙ Technology effect, leading to ∙ More well targeted, problem-focused overoptimism implementation Integration and data Siloed systems within and across sectors ∙ Integrated digital public infrastructure approach (Desai et al. 2023) Fragmented data and duplicated effort ∙ Standardized platforms and interoperable systems Poor information sharing between agencies ∙ Cross-sectoral data exchange with proper governance Table continued 32 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Table 4.1  Looking forward (continued) Current challenges in the take-up of A technology-assisted human capital future may look technology different Governance, bias, and equity ∙ Weak digital and data governance ∙ Strong protective regulations and standards framework ∙ Hybrid systems maintaining nondigital access ∙ Risk of exclusion of vulnerable populations ∙ Regular audits and robust privacy protections ∙ Algorithmic bias and privacy concerns Implementation and scale ∙ Persistent pilotitis ∙ Sustainable, scalable systemwide approaches ∙ Limited local capacity and ownership ∙ Increased funding for local digital innovators ∙ Poor adaptation to local context ∙ Context-specific solutions with local leadership (Facer and Selwyn 2021) Infrastructure and access ∙ Limited connectivity in low-income ∙ Expanded affordable internet access settings ∙ More efficient data delivery systems ∙ High data costs ∙ Growing smartphone penetration ∙ Device availability constraints Financing ∙ Unpredictable funding streams ∙ New sustainable financing mechanisms ∙ High up-front investment needs ∙ Cloud-based solutions that reduce initial costs ∙ Unclear cost-benefit calculations ∙ Better evidence on the returns to investment Skills and adoption ∙ Low digital literacy ∙ Growing digitally native population ∙ Resistance to change and few homegrown ∙ More intuitive user-friendly interfaces solutions ∙ Enhanced capacity-building programs ∙ Limited technical capacity The following subsections describe the deepening and expanding role of technology in education (subsection 4.3), health care (subsection 4.4), and social protection (subsection 4.5). 4.3 How Technology May Transform Education AI technology can benefit teachers, students, and education system managers in the following ways. Provide a personal tutor Recent advances in generative AI could revolutionize tutoring, for every student. exemplified by Khan Academy's Khanmigo (Khan 2023). While intelligent tutoring systems have shown promise, adding MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 33 generative AI capabilities could create powerful personal learning assistants. The global shortage in teachers is expected to reach 69 million by 2030. Especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, digital tutors could thus support teachers by providing customized help to struggling students outside regular school hours. Personalize the learning Though they should not be considered a substitute for teachers, experience for each adaptive AI-powered learning systems may represent an student at scale. important aid for teachers in the teaching process. Such systems adapt content based on user interaction, quiz results, and prior knowledge. They adhere to the principle of teaching at the appropriate level, which is a well-tested approach to improving student learning (refer to box 6). Box 6 Digitalized and Personalized Learning Mathematics Software in Ecuador Through a World Bank–supported project, education authorities in Ecuador offered digital personalized learning software for mathematics remediation to more than 10,000 first-year students in 40 technical and technological higher education programs. The software reduced the likelihood that a student would need to repeat a course, and it increased standardized test scores in mathematics. Such digital personalized learning software can represent an affordable solution for mathematics remediation. The cost was only US$18 per student, which included licensing fees, teacher training, and the expenditures associated with monitoring the program during implementation (Angel-Urdinola, Avitabile, and Chinen 2023). Support teachers and There were initial concerns about cheating, but adaptive reduce their workloads. AI-powered learning systems and chatbots, such as ChatGPT, are now being embraced in the United States by teachers even more than by students (Hu 2023; Kelly 2023; Toppo 2023). These technologies are making the lives of teachers easier by generating lesson plans, creating and advising on assessment responses, enhancing instruction, and supporting multilingual teaching, from early grade local language instruction to second language transition (Wilichowski and Cobo 2023). Reduce paper textbooks with The Ministry of Education in Korea has announced that it intends to digital and individualized introduce AI-powered digital textbooks in 2025. AI-enabled textbooks. “These textbooks will offer customized learning content tailored to individual student data, enhancing their personalized learning 34 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY experience,” according to the ministry announcement (MOE 2023). This builds on current adaptive and personalized or individualized learning systems by fostering an individualized end-to-end learning experience. Support educational The ability of generative AI to create content across multiple instructional designers formats (text, images, videos) offers a singular opportunity by enabling them to for education authorities in low-income countries to develop create better educational engaging, locally relevant educational materials rapidly (Davenport content more quickly and and Mittal 2022). Combined with personalized tutoring, this cost-effectively. could allow educators to build effective national digital learning platforms that serve both students and teachers. Establish education early Using predictive analytics, education early warning systems can warning systems. identify students at risk of dropping out by examining data on attendance, behavior, and course performance (US Department of Education 2016; UNICEF 2018). Already widely deployed in high-income countries, they are seldom used in low-income countries. They could be transformative in Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, where primary-school completion rates are only 65 percent compared with the global average of 87 percent (Fornino and Tiffin 2024). 4.4 Elevating Health Systems to New Heights with Technology To help achieve ambitious health care access goals, technology is being used in sophisticated and integrated ways. An example is MomConnect, a mother and child education effort in South Africa that expanded and deepened the use of technology as the need became clearer.3 Launched in 2014 as a basic SMS application that provided standard information to pregnant and lactating women, the platform evolved in response to changing user needs and expanding technological capabilities. As smartphone adoption in South Africa grew, MomConnect added WhatsApp messaging, thereby reducing costs by 70 percent, while expanding reach (Shapshak 2017). Facility-based registration apps and health monitoring features for children ages 0–5 were then introduced on the platform, while enabling two-way ³ Refer to MomConnect (web page), MeasureD, Measured Design, Austin, TX, https://measured.design/momconnect/. MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 35 communication through an interactive helpdesk. This made the service more engaging. Now, users could receive immediate responses to their questions. The most recent advance introduced AI-powered query management, enabling personalized responses in the 11 official languages of South Africa. Today, MomConnect operates in 95 percent of health care facilities and reaches 60 percent of pregnant women accessing public health services. MomConnect demonstrates how digital health care services can be successfully scaled up by progressively incorporating new technologies, while maintaining core service delivery and accessibility functions that are responsive to user needs and technological opportunities (refer to table 4.2). Table 4.2 The expanding use of digital and data technologies in health care Current use Future enhanced use Potential new (future) applications Electronic health AI-powered predictive health alerts Health monitoring through records and personalized treatment plans wearables and smart devices, predictive disease modeling Basic telemedicine Advanced remote screening with AI Virtual reality therapy and assistance rehabilitation SMS appointment Interactive patient engagement Personalized AI health reminders platforms coaches Manual data entry by Automated documentation and AI scribes to create health health workers reporting records Digital training Interactive, adaptive learning AI-powered skill development modules systems platforms Using technology in these ways will result in more well coordinated care systems, preventative health engagement, and extended provider reach. Coordinated care For patients who are managing multiple health conditions, such as systems. Gaba in the Federated States of Micronesia, integrated electronic health records ensure that all providers have complete information on the patients, thereby preventing dangerous interactions between medications and unnecessary duplicate testing. Preventive health For community members, such as Mei in rural China, digital health engagement. platforms provide guidance on personalized preventive measures based on family history and health status and empower a reduction in health risks, while preventing costly complications. 36 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Extended provider For midwives, such as Fatima in Bangladesh, telemedicine reach. connections with obstetricians provide critical backup during complicated deliveries, ensuring appropriate resource utilization during emergencies and saving the lives of mothers and infants. 4.5 How Technology Can Help Protect the Vulnerable New digital and AI technologies can support social protection systems in several important ways, as follows. Dynamic safety These can help social protection managers improve targeting nets. and beneficiary identification. Because AI is also an important tool for searching through, processing, and integrating data, including big data, it can help in the accurate identification of vulnerable populations through data analysis. By analyzing satellite imagery, socioeconomic data, mobile phone records, and other digital information, AI systems can make recommendations about who should be targeted by social protection. This would reduce errors of targeting, ensuring that appropriate individuals and communities receive aid and support. Among households that become more vulnerable because of seasonal changes in employment and climate events, AI-enabled systems can regularly reassess needs and adjust support, ensuring protection when needed, while optimizing resource allocation. Coordinated Interactive digital technologies can help people learn about social support. grants and other available assistance. This democratization in information provides people with agency to improve their lives and become less reliant on services providers. Among households experiencing challenges, such as temporary unemployment, a child's health issue, or housing insecurity, integrated case management systems can coordinate support across agencies and provide holistic rather than fragmented assistance. Augmented access AI can streamline the administrative procedures of social with dignity. protection programs. Automated systems can manage casework, process applications, and disburse benefits with less manual intervention, reducing administrative costs and delays. This is especially useful in scaling up social protection systems in areas with few resources, rendering the systems more efficient and accessible. Among elderly beneficiaries, biometric identification MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 37 eliminates the need to travel long distances and wait in line to verify eligibility for pension payments, preserving the dignity of the elderly, while reducing administrative costs. Fraud detection AI can be used to detect irregularities and fraud in the distribution and program of social benefits. By monitoring transactional data, machine monitoring. learning models can identify suspicious patterns, preventing corruption and ensuring that resources reach intended recipients. This builds trust in social protection programs and enhances credibility. Predictive analytics for AI can be used to predict economic shocks, natural disasters, or crisis response. health crises, enabling governments to respond proactively. For example, machine learning models can forecast food insecurity or unemployment trends, allowing the preemptive provision of social assistance before a crisis escalates. Prioritize reliable electricity in schools, health care facilities, and community centers through strategic grid extension and renewable minigrids. 5 Government Action The following four subsections each describe a strategic investment priority that offers the optimal balance of human development impact and fiscal responsibility. The priorities reflect a recognition that investing in people—their health, education, and resilience—is ultimately the most sustainable path to more and better jobs and economic prosperity. 5.1 Strengthen Shared Digital Infrastructure Digital infrastructure determines whether technology enhances human potential or exacerbates inequality. Without reliable electricity, affordable connectivity, and basic digital skills, digital investments will deliver suboptimal returns and may deepen divides. Energy access for Prioritize reliable electricity in schools, health care facilities, and digital progress. community centers through strategic grid extension and renewable minigrids. In rural Zimbabwe, solar-powered digital hub workspaces have become community anchors where health workers can reliably access telemedicine support, teachers can download educational resources, and entrepreneurs can conduct digital business, thereby creating multiplier effects from the initial investment. Affordable data and Implement targeted subsidies and regulatory reforms to reduce device strategy. mobile data costs to less than 2 percent of monthly income among low-income households and consider subsidies for mobile phones. Once connectivity becomes affordable, households can access educational resources, health information, and government services without sacrificing other essentials. Inclusive digital skills Develop digital literacy programs that reach beyond formal development. education to serve adults with varying educational backgrounds, (dis)abilities, and language preferences. Programs in Rwanda that pair basic training in smartphone skills with language-appropriate content have been associated with 85 percent higher digital adoption rates than technology access alone. Governments might consider establishing consolidated digital budgets across ministries to prevent duplicate investments. 39 40 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Implementing dig once infrastructure policies can also be useful because they tend to reduce broadband deployment costs by 25 percent–33 percent. Tax incentives for private sector participation in digital inclusion initiatives may also be useful. 5.2 Invest in Integrated Digital Services and Shared Systems Digital systems support public services and financial transactions. Yet, in most countries, these systems are fragmented having been developed in isolation within departments, driving up costs, hindering cross-sectoral innovation, and limiting inclusive access (Eaves et al. 2025). Fragmented digital systems create frustration among users and inefficiency in governments. Integrated solutions reflect the recognition that people experience life holistically, not in administrative silos. They can enhance service delivery, while enabling economic participation. Governments can shift from siloed, app-based solutions toward interoperable platforms that deliver economies of scale and broader benefits. This demands coordination and investment beyond any single ministry, while accommodating essential sector- specific technology platform development. Digital systems should be viewed as a core layer enabling interactions across government, markets, and civil society. Initial investments should target high-value applications with clear fiscal returns and manageable complexity across health care, education, and social protection, ensuring data security. Such platforms not only expand service access, but also foster better and more jobs and contributions to the digital economy through digital businesses, health care platforms, and public works that form a cohesive network that treats people as individuals with interconnected needs and economic roles. Interoperable service Develop core platforms that address specific service delivery platforms. challenges, while ensuring the seamless exchange of data. Estonia’s X-Road enables secure data sharing across 99 percent of public services, while maintaining user control over data access, reducing the bureaucratic burden, and protecting privacy. High-value case Focus initial investments on applications with clear returns and prioritization. manageable complexity. India’s Unified Payments Interface MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 41 prioritized simple mobile transactions before expanding to more complex financial services and achieved rapid adoption by addressing an immediate need. Whole-person Create digital ecosystems that recognize people as individuals design. with interconnected needs and economic roles. Singapore's LifeSG platform (Life Singapore) organizes services around life events rather than government departments, providing personalized support from birth registration to retirement planning. Enabling economic Design platforms that enable contributions to the digital economy participation. through microwork, care services, or digital businesses. In Kenya, the Ajira Digital platform connects youth to digital work opportunities, while providing skills development, creating economic pathways, and addressing service needs. Realizing such solutions may require implementing outcome- based procurement that ties vendor payments to demonstrated interoperability. Dedicated innovation funds that support locally developed solutions to specific community needs may be appropriate. A public-private data sharing framework with relevant governance and value distribution can produce benefits. 5.3 Facilitate Responsible, Beneficial Private Sector Engagement Public-private partnerships Governments must establish a legal framework that defines the (PPPs) and private-private parameters of digital economy partnerships, including roles, partnerships offer powerful responsibilities, risk allocation, and governance structures. The mechanisms for digital Rwanda PPP Act demonstrates how governments can codify transformation if they are specific business models for collaboration with the private sector properly structured. in support of digital transformation strategies. Such foundations enable governments to start with basic partnership principles and gradually develop a more sophisticated framework as capacity grows. Collaborative PPPs This can be accomplished by combining government strategic and private-private direction with private sector innovation and creating economic partnerships can opportunities in the digital economy. Infrastructure development accelerate digital partnerships can structure PPPs that expand digital infrastructure transformation. while ensuring equitable access, as demonstrated in Malaysia, where a school connectivity partnership between the government 42 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY and telecommunication providers accelerated broadband deployment to 10,000 schools and established hubs serving surrounding communities. Effective government This could involve the creation of dedicated infrastructure funds infrastructure policy requires the with blended finance mechanisms, implementing transparent development of national digital procurement processes, and establishing regulatory oversight. plans that distinguish between This approach is exemplified by successful PPPs in Singapore that core public infrastructure and maintain public oversight of essential infrastructure, while enabling areas for private market operation. private innovation in service delivery. Governments can focus This effort should remain technology-neutral and be accompanied on modernizing the by the implementation of streamlined licensing for digital regulatory framework. providers, the creation of regulatory sandboxes for innovation testing, crossborder coordination, and the institution of a balanced data governance framework. Service innovation ecosystems follow this approach by fostering environments where private sector innovators can build on public digital infrastructure. Thus, in India, the open application programming interface architecture of the Unified Payments Interface enabled hundreds of financial applications to develop on a common platform, driving both innovation and inclusion. Government capacity This might involve investing in digital skills development in building can include the civil service, creating centers of excellence for knowledge establishing specialized sharing, developing public sector innovation laboratories, digital economy units. and implementing partnership certification programs. This approach supports local digital economy development through partnerships that prioritize domestic digital skills development and business growth, exemplified by Rwanda's partnership with global technology companies that includes requirements for local workforce training and business incubation, ensuring that economic benefits remain within the country. Governments can facilitate market development through targeted tax incentives for digital infrastructure investment, innovation voucher schemes, venture funds for local startups, preferential procurement policies, and digital export strategies. These initiatives may be facilitated by blended finance instruments that share risk between public and private partners, regulatory sandboxes enabling controlled innovation in human capital services, and incentive structures rewarding private partners for MAKING DIGITAL WORK FOR PEOPLE AND JOBS 43 achieving human development outcomes to create new investment interest. To ensure responsibility Those could involve public reporting, independent evaluation and accountability, mechanisms, parliamentary oversight, community feedback governments can establish systems, and a long-term impact assessment framework, while also performance dashboards. implementing risk management protocols, including digital risk mitigation instruments, a standardized risk allocation framework, and specialized dispute resolution mechanisms. This comprehensive This means maintaining public stewardship while enabling private approach to private innovation. It also means ensuring shared risks and rewards and sector engagement building a framework that protects the public interest while creating recognizes that successful sustainable business models. By implementing these measures partnerships depend on progressively according to the specific context and resource careful balancing. constraints, governments can use private sector partnerships to advance inclusive digital transformation. 5.4 Manage Digital Vulnerability Using Balanced Risk Approaches Inclusive digital Addressing the widening digital divide calls for proactive social transformation requires protection mechanisms specifically designed for the marginalized. deliberate strategies to Subsidy programs that reduce the cost of connectivity for support the vulnerable low-income households and the strategic whitelisting of essential who are most at risk of online services—ensuring free access to critical government being left behind. resources, educational platforms, and health care information— represent important components of a digital social protection strategy. These targeted interventions ensure that economic barriers do not prevent vulnerable populations from accessing essential services that are digitalized. Effective vulnerability This means designing digital systems that can be used to identify management includes and respond rapidly to changing life circumstances—job loss, health more than mere access crises, displacement, or family changes—through coordinated and encompasses services that maintain human dignity. If an emergency occurs, comprehensive digital systems should enable swift, efficient responses while support during critical preserving privacy and autonomy. For individuals with complex life transitions and needs requiring multiple services, integrated digital platforms can emergencies. facilitate coordinated care across different agencies and providers. Vulnerable individuals would thus not be required to navigate fragmented systems without assistance. 44 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Approaches that focus on This preventative strategy requires sophisticated, but ethical data prevention use data analytics to systems that can identify patterns, while respecting the boundaries identify early signs of vulnerability, of privacy by, for example, identifying households at risk of enabling proactive intervention homelessness through early indicators rather than waiting until before a crisis occurs. emergency shelter is needed. The foundation of these Such a framework would establish clear guidelines for data vulnerability management collection, storage, sharing, and use that balance innovation with strategies must be a robust protection. It would involve accountability structures, oversight data and digital governance mechanisms, and enforcement provisions that build public trust framework. in digital systems. If users understand how their data is being handled and protected, they will develop greater acceptance of digital services, increasing adoption rates and effectiveness. Regulatory approaches Thus, the protections for sensitive health or financial data must within this governance be stringent, but more flexible approaches may be adopted with framework must be less sensitive information. A well-designed regulatory framework proportionate and creates trust among service providers and users, but remains contextually appropriate. adaptable to technological trends. Through this balanced approach to risk management, digital transformation can proceed with appropriate safeguards that protect the vulnerable, while enabling innovative solutions to complex social challenges. 6 Conclusion: Transforming Human Capital through Innovation Digital technologies and AI are unprecedented tools for unlocking human potential across education, health care, and social protection, which are essential foundations for creating more, better, and meaningful jobs. A digitally enabled workforce with strong human capital is the cornerstone of economic competitiveness in the global economy of the twenty-first century. If people possess the skills, good health, and resilience to participate fully in economic life, they not only improve their own circumstances, but drive innovation, productivity, and growth across society. The path forward requires bold leadership and deliberate action. If governments strengthen digital infrastructure, deploy integrated systems, forge strategic partnerships, and protect the vulnerable, they can create a powerful ecosystem in which technology amplifies human capabilities rather than replacing them. Such interconnected priorities represent not only a digital strategy, but also a comprehensive approach to job creation and economic development in the recognition that human capital accounts for 64 percent of a nation's wealth and is the primary engine of sustainable prosperity. Digital transformation creates employment through multiple channels, including by equipping people with digital skills that are in demand, by enabling new digitally powered business models and entrepreneurship opportunities, by creating efficiencies that allow existing businesses to expand, and by connecting workers to opportunities through digital platforms. If digital infrastructure and human capital investments are aligned, they create a virtuous circle where more well prepared workers drive greater innovation, attracting investment that creates more employment opportunities. 45 46 FROM PROMISE TO PRODUCTIVITY Every child without quality education, every person without health care access, and every family without adequate social protection are examples of individual suffering, but also a collective loss of workforce potential that reverberates through an economy. In a world in which 70 percent of children in low-income countries cannot read a simple text, 4.5 billion people lack essential health services, and 2 billion people remain without social protection, digital transformation offers a path toward the development of robust human capital that meets the needs of evolving labor markets, while ensuring economic inclusion. The future belongs to nations that view digital investment through the lens of human flourishing and productive employment, thus creating societies in which technology can expand opportunity, education prepares everyone for meaningful work, health care enables workforce participation, and social systems provide dignified support during periods of vulnerability. This human- centered approach to digital transformation does not merely produce better services; it cultivates the foundation for job-rich growth, resilient communities, and shared prosperity. Each country's digital journey will be unique, but the destination must be the same: a world in which technology serves people, not the reverse, and in which digital tools expand human capability, agency, and dignity, while creating a path to productive employment. 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Photograph: Javier Conte, World Bank Page 4: Young Somali refugee women look at a smartphone / Chiba, Getty Images Page 8: School girl / Alamy Stock Photo Page 9: Photo / World Bank Page 11: Courtesy Agathe Padovani /World Bank Page 12: Telehealth / Alamy Stock Photo Anganwadi worker / Photo: https://www.sattva.co.in/ski/capacity- building-of-anganwadi-workers-helpers-and-supervisors/ Page 13: Projectbreakthrough photo: http://breakthrough. unglobalcompact.org/ Page 22: OLPC at Kagugu / https://commons.wikimedia.org Page 28: Photo: worldbank.org/en/results/2024/01/18/digital- transformation-drives-development-in-afe-afw-africa Page 33: Video clip / Worldbank.org Page 38: Solar power in Zimbabwe / Alamy Stock Photo