* AAF RICA REG IO N HUMAN D EVE LOP M ENT SE RI ES THE WORLD BANK A Chdnce to Ledrn Knowledge dnd Finance for LCducdtion in SuL-Sdhardn Africd 22005 February 2001 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~It LR-mi LSb T ' i ,' w 't pt' ' . * 1t} t t z vSSfi s t s ,! >:t>> < m Other Tit(es in This Series Education and Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Sector-Wide Approaches Adult Literacy Programs in Uganda Knowtedge and Finance for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa Sector Assistarnce Strategy Regional Human Development Family Africa Region WorLd Bank Copyright © 2001 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. 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The requirement for faster development of the new nations in Africa . . . is more education and train- ing at all Levels-a more generaLLy Literate working force, more skiLLed artisans, more members of the [earned professions, more entrepreneurs, more skilled government administrators. UntiL the hiuman resources of the new African nations are more fuLLy developed-and no huge injection of money can greatLy acceLerate that process-the opportunities for the wise and effective utilization of ifreign investment wiLL necessariLy remain Limited. -Eugene Block, President of the World Bank, 1949-62 Address to the United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1960 ALL agree that the single most important key to development and to poverty alleviation is education. This must start with universal primary education for girls and boys equally, as well as an open and com- petitive system of secondary and tertiary education. . . . Adult education, Literacy, and LifeLong Learning must be combined with the fundamental recognition that education of women and girLs is central to the process of development . . . pre-schooL education must be given its full weight . . . developments in science and technology and knowLedge transfer offer a unique possibiLity to countries to catch up with more technologically advanced ones. -James D. Wolfensohn, President of the World Bank, 1995-present "A Proposal for a Comprehensive Development Framework, " 1999 This strategy paper was prepared by Adriaan Verspoor, education lead specialist in the Africa Region of the World Bank, with the assistance of Angel Mattimore and Patrick Watt. The paper is based on an ear- tier version by Wadi Haddad, Ruth Kagia, and associates, that was discussed with a focus group of African education specialists in May 1998. A revised version was further discussed at a consultation meeting organized in October 1999 at Unesco, Paris, with African ministers of education as well as with other education specialists and representatives from NGOs, parent associations, and teachel unions. We wouLd like to thank those who participated in those meetings for their comments, as welL as David Berk, Eduard Bos, NichoLas Burnett, Sam CarLson, David Court, Birger Fredriksen, Alan Gelb, Wadi Haddad, Jon Lauglo, Aminata Maiga-Toure, Mmantsetsa Marope, Dzingai Mutumbuka, John May, Alain Mingat, Bettina Moll, Paud Murphy, Susan Opper, Robert Prouty, Stefan Quenneville, Nandita Tannan, Daniel Viens and the members of the Education Sector Board (all of the World Bank), Peter Williams of I]nstitute for Development Studies at the University of Sussex, Tony Read of InternationaL Book Development, and Eamon Cassidy of the Department for International Development. We would also tike to thank the Norwegian Education Trust Fund for providing funding for both consuttations. Contents Foreword ix Preface xi Executive Summary 1 1. African Education on the ThreshoLd of the 21st Century 7 Stalled Progress in Education Development 8 Access to primary schooling 9 Mastery of basic skills 11 Beyond Primary Education 13 Higher Education 14 Efficiency 15 Private Education 15 Limited Education Attainment 17 Limited Impact of Extemal Aid 18 2. The Challenges of the African Development Context 21 Pervasive Poverty 21 Economies at the Periphery of the Global Economy 22 Inadequate Financingfor Development 23 Insufficient Scientific Knowledge 24 Extensive Armed Conflicts 24 The HIV/AIDS Pandemic 26 High Fertility 29 Overcoming Adversity 30 3. Country Responses: A Quantum Leap in Education DeveLopment 32 Relentless Pursuit of Quality 34 Leaming environment 34 Curricula and instruction strategies 36 Trained and motivated teachers 38 New technologies 41 Student readiness 42 Measuring progress 43 Unwavering Commitment to Equity 44 Up-Front Emphasis on Institutional Strengthening 50 Tough Choices to Ensure Financial Sustainability 54 Setting priorities for public spending 55 Spending resources effectively 55 Diversifying funding sources 55 Providing additional public funding 57 The Way Forward: National Reform, Regional Cooperation, and Intemational Partnerships 58 4. The World Bank's Response: Doing More and Doing Better 60 Opportunities-and Challenges-for Expanded Lending Services 61 Greater Emphasis on Nonlending Services 64 CONTENTS v Refocusing economic ond sector work 64 Reorienting policy discussions 65 The Imperative of Better Portfolio Performance 66 Sharpening the strategicfocus of lending 67 Improving lending development 70 Promoting partnerships 75 Matching lending strategies to country conditions 75 Applying state-of-the-art knowledge 78 Enhoncing technical skills ond knowledge 80 A Commitment to Act 81 Conclusion 82 Bibliography 83 FIGURES, TABLES, AND BOXES Figures 1.1 Primary Gross EnrolLment Ratios Have FaLLen in Many African Countries 10 1.2 Results of Reading Achievement Tests in SeLected Countries 12 1.3 Estimated EnroLlment Ratios of 12-17-Year-Olds by Region 13 1.4 ReLationship between the Number of Teachers and Students at the Primary LeveL in Niger 16 1.5 Average Years of Adult SchooLing Have Stagnated in Africa 18 1.6 OfficiaL DeveLopment Assistance to Education, 1996 19 2.1 Annual PopuLation Growth Rates for Developing Regions 30 3.1 Primary EnrolLment Ratios by Grade for RuraL and Urban ChiLdren in Niger 45 4.1 New Commitments for Bank Lending to African Education 61 4.2 Subsector Distribution of Lending in the Africa Region Education Sector 62 Tables 1.1 Gross Enrollment Ratios in Africa, 1960-97 (percent) 8 1.2 Primary School Net Enrollment and Intake Rates, 1990, 1995, and 1998 9 1.3 Comparative Indicators of Education Spending Efficiency, 1993 17 2.1 Basic SociaL Indicators by Region 22 4.1 Debt ReLief Relative to Spending on Education (milions of doLLars) 63 Boxes 1.1 Textbook Availability in Africa 11 2.1 Africa's Information Infrastructure 25 2.2 Education and AIDS: Experience in Zambia and Uganda 28 3.1 Uganda's National Commitment to Basic Education 33 3.2 Lessons from the 'ADEA Prospective Stocktaking Review of Education in Africa" 35 3.3 The World Links for Development Program 38 3.4 Guinea's Pre-service Teacher Education Project 39 3.5 Technology and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa 40 3.6 Early ChiLdhood Development in Kenya 43 vi CONTENTS 3.7 Southern African Consortium for the Measurement of Educational Quality 44 3.8 Success Factors in GirLs' SchooLing 46 3.9 Nigeria-DeveLoping Education Programs for Nomads 48 3.10 The Dual System of Face-to-Face and Distance Education at the University of Namibia 50 3.11 Providing Basic Education Opportunities to Reduce ILLiteracy: Senegal's Experience 51 3.12 Makerere University: A ModeL of InstitutionaL Reform 53 3.13 The African VirtuaL University 54 3.14 Government Sponsorship of Students at Private Institutions: A Case of Demand-Side Financing 56 3.15 Privatization and DecentraLization of Textbook Provision in Kenya 57 4.1 A CoLLaborative Effort to Prepare a Strategy Paper in Madagascar 65 4.2 The FRESH Start Partnership: Focusing Resources on Effective SchooL HeaLth 68 4.3 Increasing Support for Education Technology 70 4.4 Sectorwide Approaches 72 4.5 Bank Support under Different Country Conditions 76 4.6 Building a KnowLedge Base for SkiLL DeveLopment 79 CONTENTS vii Foreword ensure national ownership and sustainability of innovation and reform programs. Whether Africa can indeed "claim the 21st century," The World Bank has a long record of supporting as a recent report (World Bank 2000b) proposes, wiLL education development in Africa. But the impact of depend largely on the effectiveness of its invest- our assistance has often been less than expected. ment in education. Progress toward better gover- Given the critical contribution of education to nance, more effective conflict resolution, increased accelerated growth and development in Africa, we competitiveness, reduced fertiLity, improved have in the past two years carried out an internal health-including fewer people with HIV/AIDS- process of analysis, reflection, and discussion on and most important, accelerated poverty reduction the impact of our assistance in this sector. In addi- is intimately related to progress in education and tion, we have consulted with representatives of training of Africa's children and adults. African governments, civil society, and UN agencies ClearLy, Africa will not be abLe to sustain rapid on how to become more effective a; a partner in growth without investing in the education of its education development in Africa. people. Many lack the education to contribute to- This report is the product of these processes. It and benefit from-fast economic growth. Yet in argues that there is a strong case fcr the Bank to many countries in the region education develop- expand and broaden its support for education devel- ment has stagnated in the past two decades. opment in Africa. This implies continued and sus- Unabated growth of the school-age population, tained support for basic education de\elopment. But severe constraints on public resources, and policy it also implies expanding our support: for the other reforms that too often were too little and too Late, education subsectors, especially higher education. contributed to a widening education gap between The report also makes it clear that such an expanded Africa and the rest of the world. Almost 40 percent program only makes sense if we step Lup our efforts of the popuLation is iLLiterate. EnroLLments at alL to address the central issues of quaLity, equity, leveLs are lower than on any other continent. Many capacity, and sustainabiLity. Because we cannot do chiLdren complete schooL without mastering the this alone, we are deepLy committed t:o working in knowLedge and skills prescribed in the curricuLum. government-Led partnerships for accelerated educa- Few schools prepare students for an economy dom- tion development. inated by information and communication tech- At the WorLd Education Forum in Dakar in April noLogies. And most tertiary institutions are 2000, World Bank President James Wolfensohn isoLated from international knowLedge networks. reaffirmed the readiness of the Bank to work with Ensuring that no child is denied access to school governments and other deveLopment partners to because of her or his inability to pay remains a dis- accelerate progress toward the Education for AlL tant goal in many countries. goals. He pledged that the Bank would make every Reversing these trends wiLL not be easy. The effort to ensure that no country with a credibLe challenge will require a major effort by Africans plan will be unable to implement it Lecause of lack and their development partners over a long of external support. This commitment will govern period-often a decade or more. Many govern- our support for basic education in the next decade. ments will need to implement changes-often At the same time we are equally committed to pro- politicaLLy controversiaL changes-in the way edu- viding assistance to ensure that students graduat- cation is financed and managed. Governments, ing from secondary schools, vocational training civil society, and external funding agencies will programs, and universities have the skills and sci- need to estabLish or reconfigure partnerships to entific and technicaL knowledge to *nter the 21st FOREWORD ix century's world of work. RegionaL cooperation will Information and communication technology offer often be essentiaL to accelerated progress in many new opportunities to overcome constraints of dis- of these areas. We intend to deveLop instruments tance and time. that will alLow us to support regionaL programs And there is more. For severaL countries addi- more effectiveLy. tionaL resources wiLL become avaiLable under the At the cusp of the 21st century the opportuni- Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief ty to address the often intractabLe probLems of initiative. Many funding agencies are committed to education in Sub-Saharan Africa are perhaps better increasing their support for education in Africa. New than at any time in the past two decades. Growth aid reLationships are being piLoted in the context of has resumed in many countries. The poLitical sector deveLopment programs. I expect this report to commitment to education deveLopment is strong set the stage for rapidly acceLerating Bank support aLmost everywhere. The rising tide of democracy for education deveLopment in this new environment. has created a more favorabLe environment for the participation of civiL society and communities in Callisto Madavo policy formuLation and program implementation. Vice-President Africa Region x FOREWORD Preface to collaborate more effectiveLy with one another, with governments, and with civil sociEty to support The World Bank's Africa Region first outLined its education deveLopment in Africa. The prospects for views on education development in Africa in the education development may be better now than at 1988 paper, "Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: any other time in the past decade. Since 1995 eco- Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and nomic growth has resumed in many Sub-Saharan Expansion" (World Bank 1988). The paper chal- African countries. Since 1994 the primary gross lenged African countries to formuLate comprehen- enroLLment ratio has increased, and recent data from sive and coherent education development the UNESCO Institute of Statistics suggest that the programs with balanced policies for adjustment, trend may be acceLerating. At the Wcrld Education revitalization, and selective expansion. Several Forum in April 2000 countries confirmed their com- countries moved in this direction. In a few, finan- mitment to the goal of universaL primary education ciaL adjustment poLicies set the stage for better by 2015. Accelerated debt relief and more education quality, sustained progress toward universal pri- aid can help mobilize the necessary resources. mary education, and seLective expansion at higher The policy dialogue since 1988 has been a levels. Yet in many countries progress in revitaLiz- modeL of effective donor-government partnerships. ing their education systems was disappointing. The dialogue was initially coordinated loy the infor- In six African countries-Burkina Faso, maL group Donors to African Educatirn, which has Ethiopia, Liberia, Mali, Niger, and Somalia-less since become the Association for the D)evelopment than half the school-age population is enroLled in of Education in Africa (ADEA). Members include all primary schooL. In 20 countries more than one-haLf African ministers of education and 17 donors. Its of women are illiterate. Low Levels of learning per- objective is to provide a forum in which the minis- sist throughout the region. The potential of distance ters can lead the discussion with donors on key education programs has yet to be tapped. Many education issues and on the need to aciapt externaL vocational and technical programs remain ineffi- aid policies to national needs. ELeven thematic cient. And the quality of research and post-graduate working groups study and report on zreas of broad training has not improved. interest. ADEA reviewed progress in education in Analysis, dialogue, and internal consultation Sub-Saharan Africa since 1988 through a participa- often have taken much longer than anticipated. Still, tory process based on country stuiies and the a growing number of countries are formulating poli- active involvement of African education specialists cies to address the issues raised in the 1988 paper- and policymakers. The result of this process, the and to respond to the chaLLenges of the Jomtien "Prospective, Stocktaking Review of Education in DecLaration of the WorLd Conference on Education for Africa," was presented at ADEAs bianriuaL meeting All (1990), the targets of the World Summit for Social in Johannesburg in December 1999. DeveLopment (1995), and the Dakar Framework for The WorLd Bank has actively supported the Action, adopted at WorLd Education Forum (2000). ADEA-Led assessment and is a member of the More than 40 African governments have prepared steering committee estabLished to rianage it. In action plans to achieve education for all, and at least addition, the Bank's Africa Region Education FamiLy six countries are piloting sectorwide approaches to has refLected on its nonLending experiences and on education development. ways to increase the effectiveness of its Lending and Since 1988 donors have spent considerabLe time nonLending support. The first draft o.: a discussion reassessing aid priorities and procedures. Most have paper was prepared and discussed ri 1998 with now completed this process and are exploring ways senior education officials from Africa as well as PREFACE xi other stakeholders. In October 1999 a second con- Region of the World Bank as it strives to support sultation was held in Paris with African ministers countries in their efforts to accelerate education and policymakers as well as members of civil society development. It incorporates much of the advice organizations. Both consultations were funded by provided in these consultations. The authors sum- the Norwegian Education Trust Fund. The findings of marize the challenges facing education development the ADEA assessment contributed significantly to in Africa, suggest key elements of country respons- this process, and a number of case studies enrich es, discuss the implications of these responses for this document. the Bank, and propose actions for making the Bank This report is intended primarily to propose a a more effective partner for education development strategy and a program of action for the Africa in Africa. xii PREFACE Executive Summary is not surprising that learning achievement is Limited. In the knowLedge-based gLobal economy of the This record is especially disturbing when set coming decades, education wiLl be the cornerstone against other regions. Africa has the lowest enroll- of broad-based economic growth and poverty ment rate at every level, and it is the onLy region reduction-providing the means for peopLe to con- where the numbers of chiLdren out of school are front new deveLopment chaLLenges and improve continuing to rise. The average African adult has their Lives. Without major advances in education fewer than three years of schooLing, Lower than the Africa wiLL not be abLe to take advantage of trade attainment for any other region. There are aLso and deveLopment opportunities in a technoLogy- growing education inequaLities within Africa driven and rapidLy integrating worLd economy. between income groups and between urban and Education is aLso the most important investment ruraL popuLations. Poor chiLdren, especially those in for making progress toward the internationaL social ruraL areas, are the most disadvantacled in educa- deveLopment goaLs adopted by the world's govern- tion access and quality. ments for 2015. Without rapid and substantiaL Education trends have a direct bearing on improvements in education access and quality in poverty reduction efforts in Sub-Sanaran Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa, where 40 percent of people Africa's share of gLobaL poverty since 1987 has struggLe to survive on Less than $1 a day, broader risen, and a growing proportion of Africans cannot poverty reduction efforts wiLL be bLunted. meet their basic needs. More than 24(0 miLLion peo- ple Live on Less than $1 a day. Wilh its rapidLy growing popuLation, the region needs 5 percent African Education Trends annuaL growth to keep the number of )oor from ris- ing. HaLving the incidence of poverty by 2015 wiLL The education deveLopment record in Africa since require annuaL per capita gross domestic product 1988 has been disappointing. Several countries- (GDP) growth of at Least 7 percent-urilikeLy, with- incLuding Botswana, Cape Verde, Mauritius, out accelerated progress at aLL LeveLs of the educa- Namibia, Seychelles, SwaziLand, and Zimbabwe- tion system. sustained progress in the 1980s and 1990s. Others Without a quantum leap in education at the have initiated promising Long-term programs of nationaL LeveL, Africa wiLL miss the 2315 target of reform and deveLopment. But the reaLity for too universal primary education by a marqin of 55 miL- many Africans is an education system characterized Lion chiLdren. Enrollment trends since the Jomtien by Low quaLity and Limited access. conference in 1990 indicate that in 2015 Africa wiLL For the region as a whoLe, progress has Large- account for 15 percent of the world's primary Ly stalled since 1990, faiLing to reverse the set- school-age children, but 75 percent of children not backs of the 1980s. Every level has too few in school. education faciLities, and those that exist are FaiLing to extend the benefits of education often in poor repair and inadequateLy equipped. deveLopment to the poor is thus LikeLy to prove Teachers, often underpaid and underqualified, highLy costLy-economicaLly, sociaLLy, and political- rareLy receive the support and supervision they Ly. AcceLerating education deveLopment in Africa need to be effective. The annuaL number of hours therefore needs to be part of broader proverty reduc- spent in the cLassroom by most African students tion and rural deveLopment strategies. There are is far below internationaL standards. Instructional pLenty of exampLes of educational successes and materials are often in desperateLy short suppLy. It promising innovations in Sub-Saharan Africa to A CHANCE TO LEARN 1 show what can be achieved if countries show a gen- unLess it can meet three other key deveLopment uine commitment to education deveLopment. chaLLenges-ending extensive armed confLict, reversing the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and reducing The African development context fertiLity rates. Recent confLict in Africa has caused massive human and economic devasta- The broad deveLopment context for African educa- tion. At Least one African in five Lives in a coun- tion has changed dramaticaLLy in the past decade. try severeLy disrupted by war. Between 1990 and Most important, economic performance has 1994 more than 1 miLLion peopLe died because of improved markedLy since 1995, with consecutive conflict. In 1998 more than 20 milLion Africans years of per capita growth in many countries for were either refugees or displaced. Restoring the first time since the 1970s. peace and stabiLity in the region is thus an * In some countries, such as Uganda, growth is urgent priority. beginning to provide the resources needed to Africa has aLso been the region hardest hit by expand education opportunities. AIDS, which has evoLved from a heaLth issue into a * Many countries can expect significant addi- development issue. By kiLLing people in their most tional national resources for education devel- productive years, the pandemic is destroying the opment as debt relief is granted under the social and economic fabric of countries. Reversing enhanced HeaviLy Indebted Poor Countries hard-won human deveLopment gains, repLacing (HIPC) program. education sector staff Lost to AIDS-reLated iLLness- * WhiLe confLicts have devastated the economies es, providing education to AIDS orphans, and inte- of severaL countries, many others are steadily grating AIDS education into school programs are moving toward better governance and partici- urgent chaLLenges. patory democracy. MeanwhiLe, rapid population growth consistent- These changes make the prospects for acceler- Ly frustrates efforts to achieve universaL primary ating education deveLopment better than at per- education. Notwithstanding the impact cf AIDS, haps any time in the past decade. And at the World Africa's popuLation will continue to grow rapidLy by Education Forum in Dakar, the 185 participating internationaL standards. Its dependency ratio is the countries adopted a Framework for Action toward highest in the world, placing an unusualLy heavy the 2015 goal of Education for ALL, giving special burden both on the pubLic purse and on house- attention to the needs of Sub-Saharan Africa. hoLds. Africa must face all these chaLLenges to move Even so, the region faces daunting deveLopment forward and create education systems that meet the chaLLenges. Poverty, pervasive across the region, is a needs of the 21st century. barrier to expanding education access and improving Learning outcomes. Waste in the pubLic sector and Country responses weak governance structures continue to hoLd back many countries and urgently require reform. Given the deveLopment chaLLenges facing Africa UnsustainabLe externaL debt has diverted scarce and the widespread faiLure of current approaches in resources from priority social needs-at a heavy cost the education sector to deliver the desired results, for the poor. This is why the resources freed through nationaL governments must respond cLearLy and the HIPC initiative have to be genuineLy additional decisiveLy. The nationaL education challenge has and directed toward meeting the needs of the poor. four main dimensions: Africa cannot sustain any of the necessary * Creating a framework for reform. investments in education and infrastructure * Identifying strategic priorities. 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY * Developing investment programs. Fourth, acting seLectively to make a quantum * Acting seLectively based on a few clear principLes. Leap in education development will be achieved What do these four dimensions mean for gov- and sustained only where efforts are underpinned ernments? First, creating a framework for reform by genuine commitment to a clear set of guiding requires bold poLicies, sustained over time and principLes: impLemented in broad partnership with civil soci- * A relentless pursuit of quality. Without this, ety and with donors. The reforms need to be framed expanded educational opportunities are unlikely in a sectorwide perspective that promotes bal- to achieve their purpose-impiarting useful anced development of education and considers the knowledge, reasoning abilities, skiLls, and values. Linkages between different parts of the system. The * An unwavering commitment to equity. This is chaLLenge is to develop Local solutions to financial, vital to ensure that disadvantaged groups- educational, and institutional issues-all informed especially ruraL residents, the poor, and by international experience. femaLes-have equal access to Leairning oppor- Second, because Africa has such a diversity of tunities at all levels. This will demand explicit- contexts, the process of identifying strategic prior- ly targeted strategies for hard-to-reach groups ities will have to be country specific. But to and better analysis of the mechanisms that achieve a quantum Leap in education development, excLude peopLe from education. any country's priority objectives must include an * A willingness to make tough choices to ensure increase in the educational attainment of the labor financial sustainability. African countries need to force through universaL primary education-and a ensure that education deveLopment strategies gradual expansion of access to the fuLL education are financially sustainable. Tough decisions are cycle. Two other key priorities are especially impor- needed in setting spending priorities, spending tant now that the world of work is increasingLy effectiveLy the resources that have been aLLocat- dominated by information and communication ed, diversifying funding sources, and in many technologies: enhancing vocationaL and technicaL cases mobilizing additionaL fundinc. Once made, skills, and strengthening post-primary science, these decisions will have to be adhered to. mathematics, and technology. * An up-front emphasis on instituticral strength- Third, designing investment programs to make ening. Effective planning, implementation, and this happen wiLL often require fundamentaL evaLuation of reforms depend on effective changes in the management and financing of edu- incentives, reasonable rules, efficient organi- cation systems: zational structures, and competent staff. * Exploring aLternatives to existing service deLiv- Without them, no strategy for education devel- ery approaches that are currently based on opment can succeed. assumptions inappropriate in much of Africa. The agenda for reform and progress is challeng- * Moving pLanning and resource aLLocation in ing. Yet the emergence of new technoLogies is cre- many cases from central ministries to local ating opportunities for African educat-ion to move offices and community organizations. forward in ways that only a decade ago couLd not * Allocating adequate resources to nonsalary be imagined. The extent to which Afric3 will be able needs. to take advantage of these new opportunities to * Sharing responsibiLity for the financing and participate in the gLobal knowLedge economy will provision of schooling strategically among gov- depend on the capacity of its education systems to ernments, private providers, parents, and non- harness the potential of information aid communi- governmentaL organizations (NGOs). cation technologies. A CHANCE TO LEARN 3 But the process of identifying priorities and is consistent with the institutional commitment to designing and implementing reforms must be coun- eLiminating poverty. The need to baLance the devel- try led if it is to succeed. NationaL direction and opment of different leveLs of the education system ownership is wideLy recognized as a key ingredient has not aLways been observed. Policy recommenda- of successfuL impLementation. tions have often rested on weak analytical founda- Much is already under way. Burkina Faso, tions. The linkages to broader poverty reduction Guinea, Mozambique, Senegal, and Uganda have all efforts have not been well developed. And too few initiated promising Long-term programs of reform interventions have generated sustainable institu- and development at the primary level. Uganda has tional benefits. also impLemented far-reaching changes in higher Bank evaluations cLearLy show the limited education. SeveraL South African Development impact of many past investments and emphasize the Community countries are piloting reforms in sec- need to Learn from these experiences-at a time ondary education and in math and science teach- when there are strong caLLs on donors to contribute ing. Madagascar and Zambia are pLanning radical to broad-based country-Led partnerships for educa- reforms in the way vocationaL and technical educa- tion deveLopment. Democracy has created a space tion are financed and managed. South Africa has for stakehoLder diaLogue on education reform, and formulated a comprehensive nine-point program for severaL countries have either sustained reforms or sector reform. Such efforts derive from a recogni- embarked on promising new programs. At the same tion that without equitabLe, high-quaLity, and effi- time, donors are Learning to work more closeLy with cient education systems, Africa cannot meet the government, with each other, and with civil society, development chaLLenges of the 21st century. in pursuit of common objectives. The deveLopment New technologies are creating opportunities for of sectorwide programs in particuLar is an encourag- African education to move forward in ways unimag- ing new approach. inabLe onLy a decade ago. The extent to which To grasp these new opportunities, the Bank must education systems prepare the students for partici- do more-and it must do it better. Becoming a more pation in an economy increasingLy dependent on effective partner involves both pursuing a strategy electronic information and communication tech- and identifying specific goaLs. The Bank's strategy nologies will be a key factor in the ability of African should give priority to encouraging innovation and countries to take advantage of the opportunities change and expLoiting its comparative advantage. offered by the new global economy. The Bank can be an effective lender only if it increases the effectiveness of its nonlending ser- The World Bank's response vices, by sharing its knowledge and by recognizing and promoting local capacity for sound anaLysis and Supporting accelerated education development in pLanning. The strategy shouLd aLso emphasize the Africa is pivotaL to the World Bank mission of elim- Bank's key institutional priorities for the education inating poverty. The Bank has two comparative sector: equitable access for the poor, especiaLly girls; advantages for education sector development: a broadening the portfolio to include combating strong macroeconomic and public expenditure per- HIV/AIDS as a central eLement in the Bank's assis- spective and an unusual depth and breadth of inter- tance; and improving the quality of provision mea- nationaL knowLedge and expertise. sured by Learning achievement and sustainable Even so, the scope and effectiveness of World financing. ALL this requires that education invest- Bank support often have been Limited. Lending ments be designed as an integral part of overall commitments have stabilized at a lower level than poverty reduction programs. So education sector 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY staff wilt have to work in a more integrated way Promoting Long-term partnerships with govern- across sectors. ment and civil society wilL require a sector speciaList In pursuing this strategy, the Bank needs to: in the field office of every country where the Bank has * Provide comprehensive support for sector deveL- a significant invoLvement in the education sector. opment priorities at the nationaL LeveL. This is a chaLlenge in Africa, where man y countries are * Improve portfolio performance. smatL and operations are often adversely affected by The Bank's support wilL increasingLy be designed economic and politicaL instabiLity. to promote the balanced deveLopment of the entire Matching support strategies to couritry conditions sector and consider the tinkages between all parts of requires a more flexibLe and responsive Bank. Where the education system-from earLy childhood to post- the conditions exist for success, it could provide graduate programs. Investment priorities wiLL refLect Large-scaLe budget support for education deveLop- that universaL primary education is necessary for ment. Where poLicy environments are weak, it could meeting national social and economic deveLopment support reform with small, specific investment Loans. goals. They wiLL aLso recognize the importance of Bank operations should provide enough assistance graduaL and seLective expansion beyond the primary and incentives to countries emerging from conflict to level. Policies and targets supported by these invest- aLLow them to develop as quickLy as possible the con- ments wiLL be highly country specific, reflecting a ditions for viable sector deveLopment programs. political consensus on priorities and trade-offs based Many needed reforms and innovations can be on human and financial resources, deveLopment more effective in cooperation with neighboring coun- objectives, Labor market signaLs, and the demands of tries facing simiLar problems. This cooperation will society. aLLow programs to expLoit economies of scaLe, recruit Better portfolio performance wiLt require action students from a much Larger pooL of czrididates, and in five areas: Learn from impLementation in different settings. To * Improving Lending deveLopment. support regional or subregionaL programs effectiveLy, * Promoting partnerships. the Bank will need to deveLop instruments that fit the * Matching support strategies to country conditions. specific requirements of these programs;. * AppLying state-of-the-art knowLedge. The Bank can only meet these chaLlenges by * Enhancing staff skills. appLying state-of-the-art knowledge to its opera- Improving the lending deveLopment process wiLL tions, something that clients demand and are enti- require a focus on heLping countries impLement the tLed to. KnowLedge can be effecl:ive if it is policy reforms they have identified. With more than underpinned by sector analysis of economic, finan- 40 potentiaL borrowers, the Bank needs to respond cial, educational, and institutional issues. Technical to a range of development situations and develop solutions must be based on locaL conditions and Lending strategies to match. Improving tending reflect LocaL knowledge, whiLe incorporating inter- deveLopment wiLL aLso require more nonLending ser- nationaL experience. Indeed, far greater priority vices and cLear standards at entry. Also crucial is shouLd go to strengthening countrs capacity to greater fLexibiLity in appLying Bank policies and pro- deveLop and appLy new knowledge. cedures, enabLing the Bank to be more responsive to To aLign its staffing with the new sector strat- the new program priorities of budget support, egy, the Bank wiLL assembLe an apprcpriate mix of decentraLized impLementation, and community economists, education speciaLists, aid staff with invoLvement. In particuLar, the Bank wiLL need to speciaLized skiLLs in areas such as institutional support programs that include recurrent expendi- analysis and implementation. The strategy aLso tures such as teachers' saLaries. requires a good mix of experienced staff and A CHANCE TO LEARN 5 younger staff eager to experiment and innovate. Bank needs greater seLectivity in the context of Increasing technical and operational knowledge increased dialogue and partnership with govern- about education in Africa is central to the success ments and with other deveLopment actors the Bank of the proposed action program. Achieving this is Less accustomed to working with. Experience goal will require intensifying efforts in the region shows that education for all can be achieved and to hire staff-from inside and outside the Bank- sustained onLy where governments, donors, and civil ranging from top-quaLity, experienced staff to society work coLLectively toward shared priorities. promising young taLent. It wiLL aLso require mak- The Dakar WorLd Education Forum and the Social ing expLicit arrangements with senior staff to Summit injected new urgency into coLLective efforts mentor and coach Less experienced coLLeagues- to achieve education for all. The Bank is determined and implementing an Africa-specific staff deveL- to grasp this opportunity. It will provide the maxi- opment program. mum possibLe contribution to achieving universal None of these goaLs wiLL be achieved unLess the primary education in Africa by 2015 whiLe stepping Bank becomes at once more comprehensive in its up support for broader deveLopment of the educa- anaLysis and more seLective in its approach. The tion sector. 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. African Education on the Threshold Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified by of the 21st Century every nation except SomaLia and the Llriited States, recognizes children's right to educatior and requires The WorLd Bank's Africa Region comprises the 41 signatories to provide free compuLsory basic countries (Djibouti is part of the Middle East and education. Education is aLso the cornerstone of North Africa Region) on the continent south of the deveLopment and the foundation of economic Sahara and the six isLand nations cLose to it. competitiveness and social well-being. Numerous Africa's rich cultural and ethnic traditions refLect studies show that education, particLLarLy primary different heritages in aLL countries-an earLy education, has a significant positive impact on eco- Christian heritage in the Nile Basin, a strong nomic growth (Barro 1991; Lau, Jamison, and Louat Islamic infLuence in the north, and Christian influ- 1991; Nehru and Dhareshwar 1994), earnings ences dating from coLoniaLism in many central and (PsacharopouLos 1985), and productivity (Lockheed, southern African countries. Each isLand nation has Jamison, and Lau 1980). By increasing the vaLue and also developed its own cuLture. efficiency of Labor, education heLps raise the poor GeographicaLLy and economicaLLy, Africa is from poverty. By increasing the overaLL productivity diverse and fragmented. In 1998 the region's and inteLLectuaL flexibiLity of the labor force, it heLps popuLation was about 630 milLion, with two-thirds ensure a country's competitiveness in world markets. in rural areas. Seven countries have fewer than 1 Almost aLL the newLy industriaLized economies million peopLe. Nigeria has 120 miLLion and that have experienced dramatic growth in the Ethiopia 60 miLLion. Within the continent past 25 years-such as Hong Kong, China, the communications and traveL are difficuLt, and inter- RepubLic of Korea, and Singapore-achieved uni- naL trade is Limited. GNP per capita averaged $488 versaL or near-universaL primary education by in 1998, ranging from about $100 in the 1965. This helped increase productivity and Laid Democratic RepubLic of Congo, Ethiopia, Eritrea, the foundation for an equitable distribution of and Mozambique to more than $2,800 in the benefits of rapid growth. In contrast, coun- Botswana, Gabon, Mauritius, and South Africa. On tries with uneducated populations cannot expect the whoLe, the region's GNP growth and human to increase incomes and weLL-being (Lockheed deveLopment have Lagged behind those of other and Verspoor 1991; WorLd Bank 1990, 1999a). regions, especially since 1980. Education is thus intertwined inexl:ricably with Despite gains in the second haLf of the 1990s, economic development. It is both a source and a Sub-Saharan Africa enters the 21st century with consequence of development, fcr economic many of the worLd's poorest countries. Can it rise growth provides the resources to e>pand educa- to the chaLLenges of this new century? The answer tion opportunities. will depend Largely on the scope and effectiveness Primary education cannot expand and economies of investments in education. Decades of research cannot grow without an education system that trains and experience in Africa and eLsewhere have a Large number of students beyond the basic cycLe, shown the pivotal roLe of a weLL-educated popuLa- incLuding graduate students at universities. To be tion in initiating, sustaining, and acceLerating sustainable, education deveLopment must be baL- sociaL and economic deveLopment. Education anced. It must ensure that systems produce students deveLopment is unquestionabLy of cruciaL impor- at different LeveLs with quaLifications that respond to tance for Africa. the demand of the labor market, producing a contin- Every country in the worLd recognizes basic edu- uous suppLy of skiLLed workers, technicians, profes- cation as a fundamental human right. The 1989 sionaLs, managers, and Leaders. A CHANCE TO LEARN 7 In addition to its economic returns, education- parts of the system-make a difference. Third, the particuLarly of girLs-has a positive impact on a returns to these investments materialize onLy in an variety of nonwage activities that increase house- environment of good governance, political and hoLd welfare. For example, the schooLing of girls macroeconomic stabiLity, and broad and equitabLe atters behavior in ways that Later reduce fertiLity and access to sociaL services. infant and child mortality, improve househoLd heaLth by influencing nutritional and heaLth care practices, and improve chiLdren's school perfor- Stalled Progress in Education Development mance. Several benefits of these behavioral changes aLso accrue to society, such as tower incidence of In 1960-about the time most African cDuntries communicabLe diseases. Furthermore, education can gained independence from colonial ruLe-the increase social cohesion by teaching chiLdren to region tagged far behind the industriaL wortd in Learn and work together with others from different nearly every standard indicator of education deveL- social or ethnic groups early in life, contributing to opment. Efforts to redress this situation yieLded nation-building and personaL toLerance. Broad and dramatic resuLts in the 1960s and 1970s. equitabLe access to education is thus essential for Since 1980 enroLLments have declined. Access to sustained progress toward democracy, civic partici- education has risen sLowly. The quaLity of faciLities pation, and better governance. and teaching is poor in many areas. Repetition Three caveats are clear, however. First, educa- rates are high, compLetion rates Low. While region- tion deveLopment is a necessary but not a sufficient at trends hide Large national variations in education condition for development. Second, onLy invest- development, they are indicative of the challenges ments in quality education-baLanced among aLL Africa faces. Table 1.10Grs Enrolltment atiosin Africa, 1960 97 (percent) Primary total 43.2 52.5 79.5 74.8 76.8 Primary female 32.0 42.8 70.2 67.6 69.4 Primary male 54.4 62.3 88.7 81.9 84.1 Primary female as share of totaL 37.0 41.0 44.0 45.0 45.0 Tertiary tota 0.2 0.8 1.7 3.0 3.9 Tertiary female 0.1 0.3 0.7 1.9 2.8 Tertiary maLe 0.4 1.3 2.7 4.1 5.1 Tertiary female as share of total 20.0 20.0 22.0 32.0 35.0 Note. All data include Sout Afica excep 0: Source: UNESCO 1984,1999b. 8 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY Access to primary schooling cent for Afrca, compared with 51 percent for all developing countries. The tertiary enrollment ratio EnroLLments quintupLed in the 1960s and 1970s- in 1997 reached 3.9 percent for Africa, compared from 12 million to 62 million. Primary enrolLments with 10 percent for all developing courtries. jumped from 11 mitlion in 1960 to aLmost 53 miLLion FemaLe primary enrollments increased by 55 in 1980, while the primary gross enrollment ratio percent between 1980 and 1995 and almost kept exceeded 79 percent in 1980 (table 1.1). Growth at up with population growth. At the se.ondary LeveL the secondary and tertiary levels was even more dra- femaLe enroLLments more than doubled, while at matic, with secondary enroLlments increasing by 15 the tertiary Level female enroLLmerts increased times and tertiary enrollments by 20 times. more than fourfoLd. Despite these in-reases, gen- From 1980 to 1995 enrollments continued to der inequaLities persist at all levels. Female enroll- increase in absoLute terms, but much more slowly ments are onLy 80 percent of male einroLLments at than durng the initial post-independence period. the primary and secondary LeveLs and less than 55 The number of prmary schooL students increased by percent at the tertiary level. 52 percent, to 76.5 miLlion. The number of secondary WhiLe gross enrollment rates have stagnated, schoot students doubLed to 18.8 miLLion. And the intake and net enroLLment rates shovwed consider- number of tertiary students more than trpLed to 1.9 abLe improvement in the 1990s (table 1.2). Net miLLion. enroLlment rates increased from 54 percent in 1990 At the primary Level, however, enrollment to 60 percent in 1998, apparent intake rates from growth did not keep up with popuLation growth. 70 percent to 81 percent, and net intake rates from The prmary gross enrolLment ratio fell from 80 per- 33 percent to 43 percent. The country coverage of cent in 1980 to 75 percent in 1990, [argely a resuLt these indicators, though incomplete, suggests that of dectining maLe participation rates. In the 1990s more school-age chiLdren are in school, the decline enroLlments, especially for boys, began to recover, in boys' participation has reversed, inore chiLdren reaching 77 percent in 1997. At the secondary level are enroLLing in grade 1, and the proportion of the gross enrollment ratio in the 1990s was 26 per- overage and underage children has dropped- Tabte 1.2 Primary School Net Enroltment and Intake Rates, 1990, 1995, and 1998 1990 1995 IMMl Boys Girls Boys Girts Boys Girts Net enrollment ratea 59.8 49.9 64.2 52.9 67.6 54.2 Apparent intake rateb 75.7 65.3 83.4 70.0 88.3 73.5 Net intake rate* 34.7 31.9 41-4d 40.6d 44.5 41.6 a. Net enrollment is the proportion of school-age children-excduding underage or overage children-as a percentage of the school-age popuation b. Apparent, or gross, intake is the number of children entering grade 1, regardless of age, as a percentage of t6e population of offcial entry age. c. Net intake is the number of school-age children entering school as a percentage of the official school-age population. d. Because no data were available for 1995, these figures are for 1994. Source: UNESCO 2000b. A CHANCE TO LEARN 9 possibly refLecting the decLine in repetition rates Despite the progress in some countries, access reported by UNESCO (2000a). But many children to primary education remains probLematic in much enroLL Late (only two-thirds of the new entrants in of Africa. The economic problems of the 1980s 1998 were the official age for school enroLLment), caused a dramatic decline in primary participation the gap in girLs' initiaL enroLLment rate has rates that was redressed only partiaLLy in the 1990s increased, and more than 40 percent of school-age (figure 1.1). Of the 44 countries with data for 1996, children are not in school. only 10 (Botswana, Cape Verde, Congo, MaLawi, Botswana, Cape Verde, Mauritius, Namibia, the Mauritius, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Togo, SeycheLLes, SwaziLand, and Zimbabwe sustained and Zimbabwe) had a primary gross enrollment ratio education progress despite concern about the quaL- of 100 percent. Six (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Liberia, ity of teaching and Learning. MaLawi, Mauritania, MaLi, Niger, and SomaLia) had a primary gross and Uganda implemented poLicies that resulted in enrollment ratio below 50 percent. And since 1985 a sudden increase in primary enroLLments and now the primary gross enroLLment ratio has actuaLLy are struggLing to deal with consequent quality declined in 17 countries-Angola, Burundi, challenges. Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mozambique, Cameroon, Central African RepubLic, Comoros, C6te and Senegal opted for a more graduaL approach. d'Ivoire, the Democratic RepubLic of Congo, Kenya, Many others-Nigeria among them-are formulat- Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, ing comprehensive Long-term strategies for educa- Sierra Leone, SomaLia, Tanzania, and Zambia. tion deveLopment, incLuding universal primary Together, the 17 are home to more than haLf of education. Africa's schooL-age popuLation (UNESCO 1998d). Figure 1.1 Primary Gross Enrotlment Ratios Have Fallen in Many African Countries Percent 120 -.. t;00 . > ~ _. ............... s =ffil=......;u 1985 1990 1997 60 v 0 10 A E A E T E IV0 Sre:UNESCO 199a.~ 10 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY The chaLLenge is clear. In aLmost alL countries, Learning is further constrained by Limited access has expanded far too sLowLy to achieve Learning materiaLs (box 1.1). MateriaLs that are international education targets for gender avaiLabLe are often in Languages that most students equity and universaL primary education. (The target do not speak at home. A recent study (UNESCO dates of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation 1998d) found that in 10 of 11 countries surveyed, and DeveLopment, DeveLopment Assistance Commi- more than a third of students had no chalkboards ttee are 2005 for gender equity in primary and sec- in their cLassrooms. In 8 of the 11 more than haLf ondary enrollment and 2015 for universaL primary the students in the highest grade i,ad no math education; OECD, DAC 1996.) About 12 percent of the books. Most African children spend rc ughLy haLf as worLd's children ages 6-11 Live in Africa, yet the much time in the cLassroom over the academic year region accounts for more than a third of chiLdren out as chiLdren in the industrial countries. of school. Unless current trends reverse, Africa will Poverty-reLated deprivation contributes to low account for three-quarters of the world's chiLdren out education attainment in Africa. Foor chiLdren of schooL in 2015 (Oxfam 1999). spend more time than other chiLdren contributing directly or indirectLy to household income. As a Mastery of basic skills result they are Less LikeLy to spend out-of-schooL hours on schooLwork, more LikeLy l:o be absent Leaming conditions. Many African countries faiL to from school during periods of peak Labor demand, provide an environment for effective Learning. and more LikeLy to be tired and iLL-prepared for ChiLdren are taught in overcrowded cLassrooms by Learning when they are in the cLassroom. More underqualified and unmotivated teachers who are than 40 percent of chiLdren in Africa are stunted, often poorLy and irregularLy paid and receive littLe whiLe aLmost a third are underweight. Primary manageriaL support. Teacher absenteeism is wide- schooL-age chiLdren are especialLy susceptible to spread, disrupting Learning and eroding pubLic con- iLLnesses that affect poor people mcst, in partic- fidence in the vaLue of education. uLar gastrointestinal and respiratory probLems. Box 1.1 Textbook Availabiity in Afrca Textbook availability is generaLly poor in most es and damages. Delays in book suppLies and the African countries. Some countries (Lesotho, for rapid increase in primary enrollment have also con- exampte) have had well-managed revolving textbook tributed to the lack of adequate textbooks. funds since the early 1980s and have managed to Textbooks are typicalLy scarcer farther away from sustain high textbook plrovision. But these countries distribution centers: the difference in textbook avail- are exceptions. In Uganda field surveys in 1999 dis- ability between rural and urban areas is marked. covered that despite significant donor-supported Textbook availability aLso varies among grade levets textbook suppLies, actual textbook:student ratios and subjects. At the secondary leveL more books are were as Low as 1:30 in some cases, tower than the avaiLabLe for core subjects, such as Language and math, official estimate of 1:7. The main reason for the dis- than for science and hImanities. Although official cur- crepancy appears to be a lower-than-expected book ricula usually specify between 8 and 10 subjects, life caused by poor storage conditions and high loss- donors tend to supply books only for core subjects. A CHANCE TO LEARN 11 MaLnourished and sick chiLdren are tess LikeLy than More recentLy, the Southern Africa Consortium healthy chiLdren to Learn in schooL and are more for Monitoring Educational QuaLity assessed the Likely to be absent from Lessons (Lockheed and reading skiLLs of grade 6 students in Mauritius, Verspoor 1991). And if private costs for education Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Zanzibar, Tanzania. The are substantial, parents in poor households are mean for reading achievement-that is, the aver- more likely to withdraw their children from school age percentage of correct answers-ranged from early in the schooL cycLe (UNICEF 1999). All these 38 percent to 58 percent (figure 1.2). In SenegaL effects are exacerbated by the rapid spread of onLy 25 percent of students recentLy tested on HIV/AIDS, which affects the attendance of teach- proficiency in material from the officiaL curricu- ers and students and strains househoLd resources. lum achieved mastery leveL-defined as a score of Monitoring and assessment. Unsurprisingly, 75 percent correct or higher-in science and students who compLete primary schooL often have French (INEADE 1997). an unacceptably low level of learning. The few Retention. The poor Learning environment in reguLar assessments of learning achievement in many African schools often resuLts in high repeti- Africa are not encouraging. In 1990-91 Botswana, tion rates and low completion rates (UNESCO Nigeria, and Zimbabwe participated in a 31- 1998a). A few African countries have Low repeti- country survey of grade 9 reading skiLLs (Elley tion rates. Some of these, for example, Zambia, 1992). Students in these three countries regis- have adopted a policy of automatic promotion. In tered the lowest scores, performing considerabLy others, such as Mauritius, effective instruction worse than students in the other four non-African resuLts in less than 10 percent of students repeat- deveLoping countries participating in the survey, ing each year. But in 15 countries more than 20 (the PhiLippines, ThaiLand, Trinidad and Tobago, percent of students are repeaters-in C6te d'Ivoire and Venezuela). more than haLf of aLL primary students are repeat- Figure 1.2 Resuts of Reang Achievement Tests in Selected Countries Percent 60 Narrative 50 Expository 40 Z ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Document 30 U Total Test 20 10 0 Namibia at Zanzibar, Tanzania Zimbabwe Source: Saito 1998. 12 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY ing a grade at any time. Repetition is an inefficient mentary Literacy and numeracy skill;. For exam- use of scarce resources. In 11 of 33 countries with pLe, in Chad, Ethiopia, and Madagasc3r more than data, the input-output ratio (the number of stu- a third of the chiLdren who enter school never dent-years spent by a cohort entering primary complete grade 2. school divided by the theoretical number of student-years graduates need take to complete pri- mary education without repeating or dropping out) Beyond Primary Education is more than 1.5. The cLoser the vaLue to 1, the ideal, the more efficient the system. These coun- Few countries provide adequate oppor-tunities for tries spend 50 percent or more than wouLd be nec- education and training needed by 12-17-year- essary in an ideaL system. oLds (figure 1.3). WhiLe some youths in this age Repetition is aLso a major factor in students' cohort have never attended school. and others dropping out of school, since Learning rareLy have dropped out, in many countries an increas- improves after students repeat grades. In Africa ing proportion have compLeted primary education onLy Mauritius, the SeychelLes, and Zimbabwe and are looking for opportunities to either con- have primary compLetion rates of more than 90 tinue formal schooLing or acquire skilLs that wiLL percent. In 14 of 32 countries for which data are equip them to enter the world of work. This is the available, more than a third of schooL entrants age when people acquire habits of Lifelong learn- fail to reach the finaL grade (UNESCO 1998a). In ing and deveLop skiLLs and interests. The educa- the CentraL African RepubLic, Chad, Congo, tion and skiLLs of this age group wiLL be cruciaL in Madagascar, and Mozambique fewer than haLf the shaping national deveLopment well nto the 21st chiLdren who enroll in primary school complete century. five years. Many of the students drop out early in Education and training for youths is not onLy an the primary cycLe, before they acquire even rudi- economic imperative. In many countries young peo- Figure 1.3 Estimated Enrollment Ratios of 12-17-Year-Olds by Regioni Percent 80 &O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ gjg ~~~~~~~~~~~MaLe ..... E .... .. ....... ........ l i _ g Female 60 50 40 30 20 Af1ica Arab States Latin America and Eastern Asia/ Southern Asia Caribbean Oceania Source: UNESCO 1995. A CHANCE TO LEARN 13 pLe's dissatisfaction and disillusionment with their locaL probLems. Yet African universities are reLa- prospects for education and work threaten social tively new and weak institutions. EarLy curricuLum cohesion and stability. Reaching this age group links to reLigious studies and civiL service needs through formal and nonformaL education is aLso have often promoted the humanities and social sci- vital to the success of targeted interventions in ences at the expense of the natural sciences, such areas as HIV/AIDS and reproductive heaLth applied technoLogy, business-reLated skiLLs, and education and programs to raise awareness of civic research capabiLities (WorLd Bank 1998a). rights and responsibilities. Yet only one-fourth of Many countries have found it difficuLt to move youths in this age group have access to secondary away from the coLoniaL modeL in which the state education, and only 6 percent are reached by voca- was the onLy Legitimate provider of higher educa- tional and nonformaL education programs. Moreover, tion for a small priviLeged eLite. The effectiveness the quaLity of pubLicLy funded skiLLs deveLopment of university education has been further hampered programs is usualLy poor. These programs depend by poor national economic performance, inappro- heaviLy on externaL financing and carry high costs priate governing structures, weak nationaL poLi- per student (Middleton, Van Adams, and Ziderman cies, weak manageriaL capacity, politicaL 1993). Such programs often are also poorly attuned interference in universities, and campus instabiLi- to Labor market demand and fail to Lead to income- ty (ADEA 1999b). MeanwhiLe, often Limited region- earning opportunities. SkiLLs training programs typ- al cooperation among institutions further restricts ically are geared to formal sector employment at a teaching and research capacity. Nevertheless, time when the formaL sector in most African coun- enroLLment growth in higher education has been tries absorbs only a smaLL minority of Labor market unprecedented. In 1960 Africa (excluding South recruits (Mingat and Suchet forthcoming). Africa) had six universities with fewer than 30,000 Access to new communication, information, and students. In 1995 the region supported nearLy 120 computer technology is Limited in secondary and universities enrolling aLmost 2 miLLion. pubLic training institutions in Africa. The Lack of Dwindling resources during this period of grow- instructional equipment and materiaLs further ing enrollments (ADEA 1999a) has had a sharpLy inhibits Learning. Parallel to public training institu- negative impact on the quaLity of education in tions, aLmost aLL African countries have a large pri- African universities. Expenditure per student- vate training sector that trains people for measured in units of GNP per capita-decLined in empLoyment in the formaL and informal sectors 10 of 15 countries for which data are avaiLable. In through on-the-job and school-based training. While countries such as Mauritania and Zambia expendi- many of these private training approaches have been ture per student fell by more than 50 percent. Yet successful, many others are of poor quaLity. Only a on average African higher education remains few give students the skiLLs they need to work in the expensive by international standards. In 1992 pub- emerging information and communications economy. lic education spending per pupiL as a percentage of per capita GNP was 15.1 percent at the pre-prima- ry and primary Levels, 53.7 percent at the sec- Higher Education ondary leveL, and 507 percent at the university Level. This disparity makes the strategic manage- In many African countries universities are the only ment of higher education resources a centraL con- national institutions with the skilLs, equipment, cern of any education development policy. Some and mandate to generate new knowledge through universities have begun to develop aLternative research and to adapt global knowledge to solve methods of service deLivery through distance edu- 14 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY cation programs for rural and sparsely populated income LeveL the cost per student of secondary areas, disadvantaged students, and students who schooling varies considerabLy between countries work fuLL time. A number of universities are begin- and within countries. In fact, secondary school- ning to use Internet-based technoLogies. These ing is most expensive reLative to GNF' per capita options offer an alternative to the traditionaL high- in countries with the Lowest enroLLment rates. In er-education model of fuLL-time pre-empLoyment Africa secondary schools use resources such as training on residential campuses, but in most cases teachers and buiLdings much Less efficientLy than the potentiaL of the new technoLogies is under- primary schooLs. One reason may be that in the used. poorest countries, secondary schooLs are stiLL organized aLong traditionaL Lines to educate a smaLL elite. Efficiency Limited public resources and cornpeting pub- Lic spending priorities have preventEd many gov- The efficiency of education expenditures varies ernments from addressing the challenges of considerabLy, as do the reasons for differences education deveLopment. Since the mid-1980s the within and between francophone and angLophone share of education spending in the GDP has countries. In some countries, especiaLLy in the increased in 14 of the 26 African countries for Sahel, high teacher salaries make it difficuLt to which data are available, remained the same in 1, mobiLize the resources to reach universal primary and decreased in 11. Perhaps more significant, education in the foreseeabLe future. In other coun- this share is stilL Less than 3 percent in 8 coun- tries teacher saLaries are so Low that teachers are tries (UNESCO 1998c). At a given level of educa- forced to take additionaL jobs. tion spending as a share of GDP, participation and Teacher deployment poLicies can aLso lead to attainment levels in Africa comparE unfavorabLy inefficient and inequitable distribution of with those in other Low-income countries (tabLe resources. Often teachers are not depLoyed accord- 1.3). Inefficient and inequitabLe use of scarce ing to number of students, years of experience, or resources in a context of high population growth saLary. The teacher:student ratio in Niger, for exam- and demand for generaL pubLic financing of edu- pLe, varies wideLy from schooL to schooL (figure cation by politically powerfuL pressure groups 1.4). For example, in primary schooLs of 200 stu- adds to the fiscal chaLLenge. Thus countries must dents, the teacher:student ratio ranges from 1:100 set priorities for pubLic spending, achieve effi- to 1:20. The situation is simiLar at the secondary ciency gains where possible, and identify oppor- level. These discrepancies can jeopardize the effec- tunities for mobilizing additional pubLic and tive operation of the entire education system and private resources. aLmost invariabLy result in low student Learning and participation rates. DetaiLed country-specific anaLysis is needed for an appropriate poLicy Private Education response. A recent study (Lewin and CaiLLods 1999) The private sector is an increasincily important argues that deveLoping countries with low sec- provider of education in Africa. Private providers ondary enrollments, including most African coun- range from community-run schools reLying on in- tries, cannot finance substantiaLLy higher kind contributions to for-profit schooLs run for the participation rates from domestic public weaLthy. Today most registered private schooLs in resources with current cost structures. At a given Africa are nonprofit community arid reLigious A CHANCE TO LEARN 15 Figure1.4 Retationship between the Numbefrof leachers and Students at the Primary Lev:el inNiger Number of teachers 22 - A 21- A 20Q A A A 19: AA A A 18 A AAA A AA 17 AA A AA AC A 16- A A A A AA A 15 B A AA B A A AA A 14 A ABAAACAR A AAA AA BA A 13: A AAB C AAAAA AAAA ACAA AA 12- Ac~ BAADBAAA AA ~A AA A 11- A OBAA AAAAA Mt>BB A A A A 10 k B A A BBACAA CA A A A A 9 BB BACD B ABCt BAA A A 8- AB ABABBBCCAAAOAA A A A 7 A BA AD :}0EtD :A AMA A 6- - AB!tGIKXJJLGECCCBA - - A _ _ 5 ABBDMHKFkFHCQCx A 4 =HGdOGMGEHCBA C 3- EZZZZZZZUO::BBA 2- ZZZZZYVIGC: 1- LZZKCCB A 0 2200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Number of students Note: A - 1 school, B = 2 schools, C = 3 schools;.. Z = 26 schools. Source: World B3ank forthcoming b. schooLs (IIEP 1999). The private sector plays a burden on governments, give parents more choice smalL roLe at the primary level, but its share in and control, and improve accountabiLity. meeting secondary, vocational, and tertiary educa- Some countries are also increasing the role of tion needs has increased significantly in recent private providers in deLivering support services years. In C6te d'Ivoire 36 percent of generaL sec- such as textbook publishing, classroom construc- ondary students and 65 percent of technical stu- tion, and university catering. Countries will need dents are enroLled in private schools (Vawda, detaiLed analyses of these programs, organization- Yaaub, and Patrinos 1999). In Zambia almost 90 al arrangements, and cost structures as they con- percent of students taking technicaL and vocation- sider affordable poLicies for expanding access to aL examinations were trained outside pubLic insti- secondary education, vocationaL training, techni- tutions. Private education can reduce the financiaL caL education, and higher education. 16 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY Table 1.3 Comparative Indicators of Education Spending Efficiency, 1993 Years of Primary Education Primary Education Gross Schooling Teacher Spending/ Spending/ Enrollment per 1 Percent Salary/GDP Country GDP (percent) GDP (percent) Ratio (percent) of GDP per capita Burkina Faso 2.7 1.13 38 1.06 8.4 Chad 2.4 1.03 59 1.75 5.5 Mali 2.8 1.32 25 0.69 10.3 Niger 3.1 1.43 29 0.73 9.7 Senegal 4.2 1.85 59 1.15 7.2 Average 3.0 1.35 42 1.08 8.2 Limited Education Attainment maLes and three years for femaLes (UNESCO 1998c). In aLmost all countries the situation is worse for The economic shocks Africa experienced in the 1980s girLs. Average maLe and femaLe Literacy rates in and early 1990s are stiLL feLt in education systems. Africa differ by aLmost 10 percentage points, whiLe Following earLier progress, education deveLopment average primary gross enrollment ratios differ by 14 stagnated and in several cases decLined. Many coun- percentage points (UNESCO 1998c). Only five tries stilL cannot provide their populations with equi- African countries (Botswana, Cape Verde, Kenya, table opportunities for good education. As a resuLt Lesotho, and Namibia) have female primary gross many peopLe stiLL have Little or no education, skiLLed enroLlment ratios equal to or above those for males. workers are Lacking, and the region is increasingly As disturbing as the Low LeveLs of literacy and isoLated from gLobal knowledge networks. education attainment is the marked decLine in the The average African adult has fewer than three capacity of many African countries to generate knowL- years of education (figure 1.5). One in three males edge as a resource for tertiary Level instruction and for and one in two femaLes is illiterate. In severaL coun- research and technology development. A 1992 study tries the average six-year-oLd can expect to receive (UNESCO 1999a) estimated that Afric:a has onLy fewer than three years of formal education. Average 20,000 scientists and engineers, or 0.36 percent of education attainment in Burkina Faso is estimated the worLd's total. In Nigeria, with 20 percent of at three years for males and two years for females; Africa's popuLation, only 15 scientists anid engineers in Mozambique it is estimated at four years for per miLlion people engage in research and develop- A CHANCE TO LEARN 17 Figure 1.5 Averag X Yearsof Adult Schooing4 Have Stagnated in Africa 6 \: 0 0000_ ;00 0 0000000 000 0: X 1980 5 1985 4 1990 3 Africa t fAmeEast Asi &l Lt A ca & e East & South Asia Paciffc Caribbean North Africa Source: Barro and Lee 1996; EDsTATS. ment, compared with 149 in India, 350 in China, and deveLopment assistance represented 6.7 percent of 3,700 in the United States (UNESCO 1998c). Africa's GNP, compared with an average of Less than A continuing brain drain exacerbates these 1 percent for all deveLoping countries (UNDP 1999). probLems. Reasons vary from country to country but Worldwide, about 10 percent of aid supports educa- usuaLLy reLate to a Lack of empLoyment opportunities tion and about 1.5 percent supports basic educa- in the modern sector, Limited research budgets in tion. Since 1992, however, aid flows have decLined, universities, and the Lack of freedom of speech and and since 1994 aid to Africa has dropped by $3.7 the fear of politicaL repression in countries with billion (Oxfam 1999). The effect of this reduction in authoritarian regimes. AvaiLabLe figures suggest that aid on education access and quaLity is not cLear. about 30,000 Africans holding Ph.D. degrees Live The 1990 WorLd Conference on Education for outside the continent, and 130,000 Africans study All was an important impetus for a review of edu- in higher learning institutions outside Africa. Many cation deveLopment strategies and assistance pri- of those who find employment abroad never return. orities. WorLd Bank Lending for basic education, having increased in the Late 1980s, jumped con- siderabLy after the conference. UntiL 1990 biLater- Limited Impact of External Aid aL support for basic education was Limited. After the conference aid agencies began to reorder their Africa has consistentLy received more external aid priorities and formuLate policies for increased than other regions. Between 1996 and 1997 over a assistance to basic education. The result was sub- third of totaL officiaL deveLopment assistance flows stantiaL biLateraL support for basic education went to Sub-Saharan Africa despite the fact that deveLopment, especiaLLy in Africa. In 1996, 42 the region accounts for onLy 12 percent of the totaL percent of the $668 million Africa received in aid deveLoping country popuLation. Africa aLso is more to education went to basic education (figure 1.6), aid dependent than other regions. In 1997 official an important increase from the Late 1980s. Yet 18 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY official deveLopment assistance represents only Shortcomings in donor approache; have con- 3-4 percent of totaL expenditure on education in tributed to the mixed record of aid for education. Africa. This average hides large variations: some Often donors have paid insufficient attention to countries receive virtually no foreign aid, while countries' capacity to manage deveLopment pro- others receive aid from several donors and can grams, so that aid has not been used as efficientLy as fund much of their pubLic expenditure on educa- it could have been. Donors have rareLy coordinated tion from externaL sources. In some post-conflict their education aid programs, and many projects countries, such as Mozambique, aid to education remain enclave operations with Limited nationaL has roughLy equaLed spending from domestically ownership. Where nationaL ownership is Lacking, generated revenue in recent years. donors and governments often have different objec- ExternaLLy assisted education deveLopment tives. In this situation fungibiLity can become a programs have a mixed record. Many programs- probLem, and aid is more LikeLy to substitute for, incLuding those supported by the Bank-have rather than compLement, government efforts failed to achieve the expected results, especially (Feyzioglu, Swaroop, and Zhu 1998; WorLd Bank in strengthening national policies and institu- 1998a). Programs have often failed to take into tions. Sustaining initiaL positive resuLts has even account nationaL macroeconomic and institutionaL been more difficuLt. In onLy a few cases has exter- environments, focusing instead on specific invest- naL assistance brought about systemic reform. The ments refLecting externaL agencies' agendas rather reasons for this mixed record are varied and com- than nationaL priorities and often supporting the cre- pLex. In many countries poLitical upheaval and vio- ation of unsustainabLe paraLLeL systems. VWeak coordi- Lent confLict have disrupted reforms. In other nation of externaL aid programs has rruLtipLied the countries governments have faced formidabLe demands on domestic institutions, Led t) fragmented poLiticaL opposition to sector reform, particuLarLy and dupLicated efforts, distorted spending priorities, reform that challenges traditionaL modes of and produced gaps in coverage and funding. financing and delivery that benefit priviLeged These probLems are wideLy recognized by minorities. donors and governments. In response, severaL Figure 1.6 Official Development Assistance to Education, 1996 By Level: By Education Sector: Pre-primary 7% AduLt 1 Vocational 20% educatian 19% \ TechnicaL17% = / riay22% Secondary 20%S General 42% euaon 201% Nor -format 2 1% Post-secondary 12% Source: ADEA 1998. A CHANCE TO LEARN 19 countries, including Ethiopia, Mozambique, and * PoLicy-based aid shouLd be provided to nurture Zambia, have designed sectorwide approaches. better policies in countries with credibLe But experience with these approaches is Limited, reformers and strong domestic Leaders. and not aLL agencies have sufficient staff with the * DeveLopment projects shouLd strengthen institu- anaLyticaL, poLicy, and operationaL skiLLs required tions and poLicies by increasing the efficacy of to contribute effectively to the design of these pubLic spending and by promoting partnerships programs. SimiLarLy, many countries do not have with civil society to repLace top-down approach- the nationaL capacity to manage the design and es to project design and impLementation. implementation of these programs or coordinate * Projects should create and transmit knowLedge the assistance of severaL donors-especiaLLy when and capacity and incLude evaLuation as part of donor poLicies and procedures differ. the process. The case for increasing aid flows to education, * In distorted policy environments, ideas are particuLarLy basic education, is strong. But per- more usefuL than Large-scaLe finance. haps the most urgent challenge is ensuring that * Ideas will have the greatest impact where part- aid programs produce visibLe and sustainabLe nerships between government and dcnors are resuLts on the ground. A recent review of aid effec- genuine and grounded in diaLogue. tiveness argues that aid shouLd find the right com- The WorLd Bank study of aid effectiveness rec- bination of finance and ideas to address different ommends that aid agencies become more selective, situations and problems (WorLd Bank 1998a). This more knowLedge based, better coordinated, and report finds that: more seLf-critical. WhiLe they do not focus specifi- * Financial aid works in a strong poLicy environ- caLLy on education, the findings are a useful frame- ment. In weak policy environments, money has work for rethinking approaches to aid for education Less impact. (see chapter 4). 20 AFRICAN EDUCATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 21st CENTURY 2. The Challenges of the African * New scientific knowLedge is sLow toD penetrate Development Context the continent. * Armed conflicts disrupt civit societY. Economic growth was slow in Sub-Saharan Africa * HIV/AIDS is spreading rapidly, and disease in the 1980s and earLy 1990s. Rising oil prices exacts a heavy toLL. and weakening export markets in industrial * FertiLity rates remain high. countries, along with drought and civil strife in many African countries, resulted in baLance of payments deficits and declining and often nega- Pervasive Poverty tive economic growth rates. These probLems refLected years of poor economic management Economic stagnation in the 1980s and earLy and exposed unsustainable structuraL weaknesses 1990s had a devastating impact on the progress in the economies. Average real GDP growth in of human deveLopment in Africa. Most basic the region dropped from about 5 percent in the social indicators stiLl lag behind thDse of other 1960s to less than 2 percent in the 1980s and regions (table 2.1). Of the 35 countries the 0.1 percent during 1990-93. Because of rapid United Nations Development Prograimme (UNDP) popuLation growth, this drop represented an classifies as having Low human development, 28 annual average decLine of 1 percent in per capita are in Sub-Saharan Africa (UNDP 1999). More GDP between 1980 and 1995. As a result, by the than 40 percent of Africans Live below the $1 a mid-1990s onLy 12 countries in the region had a day poverty Line, and the incidence of poverty as higher per capita GDP than they had in 1975. well as the absolute numbers of people Living in Many African countries had to adjust their poverty have increased since the Late 1980s. economies to the changing economic environ- Extreme poverty and deprivation both impede ment. But during 1994-97 growth rates gradual- investments in education by governments and Ly recovered, and reaL GDP growth per capita househoLds and are a result of Low educationaL averaged 2.9 percent. In 1997 per capita growth attainment. averaged 3.1 percent and was positive for 35 of DeveLopment strategies designEd to reduce the 47 Sub-Saharan countries for which data are poverty must thus be grounded in sound eco- avaiLabLe. Notwithstanding the worLdwide finan- nomic policy and centered on hLrnan capitaL ciaL crisis, half the countries in Sub-Saharan deveLopment programs. With its rapidly growing Africa showed a positive growth in 1998. popuLation, the region needs an annuaL growth The economic crisis of the 1980s had a severe per capita of 5 percent to keep the number of impact on the education sector (chapter 1), poor from rising and it must do so in such a way adverseLy affecting household demand for and pub- that increased production expands employment Lic suppLy of education. Without acceLerated opportunities and improves access ':o sociaL ser- improvements in the sector, the region's Long-term vices for the poor. To haLve the incidence of deveLopment prospects will remain dim. Yet the poverty African countries wiLL have to sustain context for education deveLopment in the region is annuaL per capita growth rates of a: Least 7 per- daunting: cent untiL 2015 (WorLd Bank 2000b). Human * Poverty is pervasive. deveLopment programs must be based on cLear * Economies function at the periphery of the anaLysis of who the poor are and what gLobal economy. mechanisms exclude them from social services, * DeveLopment finance is difficuLt to mobiLize. incLuding education. A CHANCE TO LEARN 21 Table 2.1 Basic Social Indicators by Region I 1;.1; 1 .s.L.. 1 iLL I' 1. I ILLI1 _ _~~~ni Afrcanm contie 74tt fia(oLdBn 97.Mn South Asia N76 94 East Asia and Pacific ill a : 115 Latin Amperict on Caribban 105 ~ 110 N N '\ andspoL,Ariapoue ut ecn f o the ecnmiaL NcieLbrfrc I019) Middle E~ast NNNNNN N and Nohder 77s 84 i' hN n Source: UNICEF 199NNi Economies at the Periphery of the Global of foreign direct investment flows to developing Economy countries went to Africa (World Bank 1997). Many African economies have a small modern productive With 18 percent of the worLd's [and and 11 percent sector, typically absorbing no more than 30 percent of its people, Africa produces just 1 percent of of the economically active labor force (ILO 1998). gLobal GoP. The international economy has Increasing the productivity and competitiveness of expanded and changed dramaticaLly in the past 20 the informal and modern sectors is a challenge that years, with shifting patterns of trade and competi- few African countries can afford to ignore. tion and continuous technotogical innovation. As noted, however, rost African economies Together these changes are creating a high-speed, have experienced faster growth since 1994. More knowledge-driven, and competitive global econo- flexibLe and competitive exchange rates, healthier my. Africa has not been able to maintain its share fiscaL baLances, and an icproving export market in this new global economy. indicate that the recent trend can be sustained During 1980-96 as world GDP grew 3.3 percent over the next few years. Furthermore, the continent a year, GDP growth in Africa averaged only 1.7 per- can make huge gains if it can take advantage of its cent a year. Worldwide exports of goods and ser- catch-up potential in the returns on new invest- vices (in current dollars) almost tripled during this ment (KiLlick 1998). period, but Africa's exports stagnated, causing its Longer-term economic performance will depend share of the total to plummet from about 4.0 per- on improvements in humani capital and the associ- cent to 1.3 percent (World Bank 1999c). The rapid ated ability to use modern technology, as well as increase in foreign direct investment since 1990 on improvements in public institutions and infra- has Largely bypassed the region, reflecting in part structure at nationaL and regional levels. The most the overhang effect of unsustainable externaL important determinant of the pace of Africa's debts. Between 1990 and 1996 Less than 3 percent development may be its abiLity to create, acquire, 22 THE CHALLENGES OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT absorb, and communicate knowledge (WorLd Bank taxes, but trade LiberaLization is eroding these l999c). This process can accelerate if the region instruments. The contraction of the formial economy can Leapfrog to new technoLogies, skipping inter- and the concomitant growth of the informal sector mediate stages. But without concerted effort, coun- in many countries pose further chaLLenges to tries wiLL be unabLe to adapt to the demands of a resource mobiLization, given the difficLlty of taxing gLobalized economy and wiLl risk further marginal- smaLL-scale enterprises in the urban gray and black ization. Africa needs to improve its macroeconomic economy (Grunberg 1998). poLicies, governance, and export performance and The resource enveLope available to governments to invest more in human capital. And in several often has been further constricted by weak eco- countries deveLopment poLicy needs to recognize nomic performance and the voLatiLity and decline of that peopLe are the most important-sometimes export receipts for primary commodities exports, on virtuaLLy the onLy-resource they have. Thus the which most countries in the region de3end heavily. deveLopment of education-at aLL leveLs, from basic The combined effect of these constraints has been to tertiary-is the centraL deveLopment imperative. faLLing per capita expenditures on priority sociaL services, including education. Between 1985 and 1995 regional spending per student on primary edu- Inadequate Financing for Development cation fell by 6 percent. In stark contrast to this decrease, primary education spendinig increased Sustained economic growth and poverty eLimination approximately threefoLd in every other deveLoping depend on strong and effective government. UnLess region over the same period. Per student spending governments can mobilize finance from stabLe feLL simiLarly at the secondary and tertiary Levels sources, they wiLl be unabLe to meet their core (UNESCO 1998d). responsibiLities in the sociaL sectors and in infra- Unsustainable pubLic debt has further con- structure or to provide the institutional framework strained the mobilization of developTient finance needed for deveLopment. Education financing is across much of the region. Debt overh ang has cre- typicaLly one of the largest items of government ated uncertainty for domestic and foreign investors expenditure, often claiming as much as one-fifth or and restricted growth. UnsustainabLe Jebt has also more of the total budget. Spending on education imposed a direct fiscal burden in many heaviLy increases in line with popuLation and income indebted poor countries (HIPCs) by diverting Limit- growth and is a long-term investment that requires ed public revenue to debt repaymerts. Debt has a predictabLe income source. acted as a further brake on growth by undermining In recent years many African countries have public investment in social and economic infra- improved markedLy the efficiency, equity, and trans- structure. Many African HIPCs have spent three to parency of their tax regimes. Yet the countries stiLL four times as much on debt servicin(g as on basic face enormous challenges to resource mobiLization, social services in recent years. ResoLution of the and Africa's unmet needs are greater than those of debt impasse is now in sight. The current HIPC debt any other region. Tax revenue is low even by devel- reLief initiative, which provides comprThensive debt oping country standards, typicalLy about 10 percent stock reduction, is expected to relieve almost 20 of GNP. Domestic capacity to raise revenue is often African countries of unsustainable debt burdens and Limited, and the tax base is smaLL in the region's significantLy increase their nationaL edication bud- predominantLy ruraL and nonwage economies. This gets within the next five years. small tax base traditionally has led to favoring Falling aid fLows to Africa have mirrored chaL- other tax instruments, in particuLar trade-based Lenges to mobiLizing domestic revenue. Between A CHANCE TO LEARN 23 1990 and 1998 per capita net aid flows to Africa of its children are out of school. Secondary enroLL- felL from $32 to $19, refLecting the gLobaL decLine ments are Low, especially in science and math in aid fLows since 1991 (WorLd Bank 2000b). cLasses. And the science and technology base of FalLing aid fLows have reduced the proportionate most African countries is inadequate. contribution of aid to deveLoping country financing Public investments in scientific research and needs, but the decline has been accompanied by a development are estimated at 0.2 percent of surge in private capital fLows to developing coun- regional GNP, one of the Lowest LeveLs in the worLd. tries. Yet Africa has been Largely bypassed by these The region is responsibLe for onLy 0.8 percent of private fLows and stiLL depends heavily on official the worLd's scientific pubLications (UNESCO 1999a). deveLopment assistance. In 1996 net aid flows to Most African universities tack sufficient resources the region-excLuding South Africa-equaLed 8.6 to carry out effective teaching and research. percent of regional GNP, compared with [ess than 1 To take advantage of the new knowledge econ- percent in other deveLoping regions. omy, Africa needs weLL-trained scientific, techno- Whether the HIPC initiative provides reaL addi- logical, and processing personnel-incLuding some tional finance for African countries or simpLy recy- with sophisticated research skiLls-who can partic- cLes existing aid budgets will determine whether ipate in advances in key fieLds (physics, materiaLs downward aid trends can be reversed. In the longer science, computer science, technoLogy, engineer- term, the extent to which debt reLief boosts ing) and who can assess and develop Local appLica- investor confidence in Africa and the abiLity of tions of new technoLogy. WorLd class centers for African governments and creditors to avoid future scientific education and research, abLe to suppLy debt crises will be crucial in shaping prospects for and retain these personnel, wilL be needed at economic growth, poverty aLLeviation, and reduced regionaL and subregional leveLs. aid dependency. Weak communication networks and information flows further constrain Africa's use of new knowL- edge. These shortcomings Limit information on the Insufficient Scientific Knowledge quaLity of products and services, inhibit monitor- ing, and impede exchanging information with ben- The globaL explosion of knowledge gives African eficiaries (box 2.1). Addressing these information countries an opportunity to narrow information gaps will be an essential eLement of every nation- and knowLedge gaps, thereby raising incomes and aL knowledge management strategy. living standards much faster than previousLy imag- ined. But to take advantage of the gLobaL stock of knowledge, countries need to deveLop the techno- Extensive Armed Conflicts logicaL competence-typicalty in universities and other pubLic and private research institutions-to In 1996 alone a third of African countries experi- select, absorb, and adapt imported technoLogy and enced armed conflicts. One African in five lives in a pursue a research agenda focused on local prob- country severely disrupted by war. These conflicts lems. Creating, absorbing, and communicating new cause enormous human suffering, material devasta- knowLedge requires basic education (pre-primary, tion, human capital depLetion, and damage to the primary, and adult) for all and opportunities to social and cultural fabric that holds nations continue Learning and to acquire advanced techni- together. Conflicts have aLso destabiLized the region caL and scientific skiLLs (WorLd Bank 1999b). Africa as a whole, eroding investor confidence, disrupting lags behind on both counts. More than 40 million trade routes, accelerating the spread of HIV/AIDS, 24 THE CHALLENGES OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT Box 2.1 - Africa's Information Infrastructure * Daily newspaper circulation per 1,000 people in Burkina Faso to 7 in Zimbabwe and 37 in South Africa ranges from I in Benin, Burkina Faso, and Africa (compared with 38 in Chile, 172 in Mauritania to 28 in Gabon and 31 in Botswana Singapore, and 408 in SwitzerLand). (compared with 135 in Argentina, 246 in Latvia, * The number of telephone mainlines per 1,000 peo- and 800 in Hong Kong). pte ranges from 2 in Niger and 8 in Kenya to 48 in * The number of radios per 1,000 people averages 198, Botswana and I00 in South Africa (compared with ranging from 34 in Angola to 231 in Ghana and 316 75 in Brazil, 166 in Malaysia, and 335 in BuLgaria). in South Africa (compared with 163 in China, 404 in * The number of fax machines per 1,000 people Lithuania, and 469 in Malaysia). Three of five ranges from 0.1 in the Central African Republic Africans live within reach of a radio transmitter. and Guinea to 2,5 in Cape Verde (compared with * The number of television sets per 1,000 people 113 in Japan). averages 36, ranging from less than 1 in Eritrea to * Forty-seven African countries have access to the 96 in Swaziland and 123 in South Africa (com- Internet. However, an average of onlt 1 person in pared with 322 in Trinidad and Tobago, 469 in the 5,000 uses the Internet, compared with 1 in 40 Czech Republic, and 805 in the United States). globally and 1 in 6 in Europe and North America. Television is limited mainty to major towns. The nrumber of Internet hosts per 1,000 people * The number of personal computers per 1,000 peo- ranges from 0.01 in Burkina Faso to 3.82 in South ple averages 3, ranging from tess than 1 in Africa. Source: UNESCO 1998c; UNOP 1999. and sending refugee populations into neighboring aLso addressing the causes of conflicts. Countries countries. The United Nations High Commissioner wilL then have to rebuild and expaid the infra- for Refugees estimated the number of refugees, structure needed to increase economic productivi- returnees, and persons displaced within their own ty; improve human welfare, mobility, and countries at 22.3 million in Africa in 1998. Between communication; and reintegrate different popula- 1990 and 1994, more than 1 million people died as tion groups into a dynamic and vibrant society. At a result of conflict. By conservative estimate, the same time, democracy has to take root in civiL 200,000 Africans died because of war in 1998. Most society, and governments must continue to deveL- of those who died were civiLians, and a growing op and adhere to systems of good governance, number of the perpetrators of violence are chiLdren. accountability, and responsibiLity. The rising numbers of chiLd combatants in Africa The challenge for education efforts in countries pose enormous challenges for post-conflict social emerging from conflicts or civil repression is to rehabilitation and economic development. support confLict resoLution and instill civic vaLues Before countries affected by conflict can move and principles of democracy, tolerance, and cooper- forward economicalLy and politically, they must ation. Restoring and improving basic social ser- end civil strife, not only stopping hostilities but vices, especialLy education, is crucial to the post A CHANCE TO LEARN 25 conflict transition. Education helps normalize an the individual Level. A child born today in Zambia often chaotic environment and is a powerful symbol or Zimbabwe is more likeLy than not to die of AIDS, of confidence in the future. Education aLso heLps while in several other African countries the Lifetime restore the stock of human and sociaL capital that risk of dying as a result of AIDS is greater than one is depleted during conflicts. To become productive in three. Declining life expectancy across much of members of society, former combatants must have central and southern Africa refLects the spread of viable opportunities to secure a livelihood without the virus. In nine African countries with aduLt taking what they want or need by force. To avoid prevalence of 10 percent or more, life expectancy becoming a Lost generation, chiLdren whose educa- is projected to regress to an average of just 47 tion has been disrupted need opportunities to years by 2015 (World Bank 1999b). catch up, often requiring nontraditional approaches An especiaLLy devastating aspect of the pan- to learning. In many countries NGOs play a key roLe demic is that it usually affects peopLe in their in deLivering nonformaL education to such chiLdren, most productive years. A mortality rate of 3 per- both in post-confLict and confLict situations. cent in the 20-30 age group-in which infection rates are highest-transLates into half of the age cohort dying within 14 years. In the most severeLy The HIV/AIDS Pandemic affected countries, spreading from eastern through central and southern Africa, HIV/'AIDS is The burden of disease is dramaticaLly higher in reversing years of investment in education and Africa than eLsewhere in the worLd and an obstacLe training, creating shortages of skilled Labcr in the to regional economic and human deveLopment. modern sector, and burdening already overex- MaLaria, onchocerciasis (river bLindness), and try- tended health budgets. In Botswana, with a preva- panosomiasis (sleeping sickness), though they occur lence rate among aduLts of cLose to 25 percent, eLsewhere in the worLd, are essentiaLLy African dis- the epidemic could reverse years of buoyant eco- eases. MaLaria, which accounts for about 11 percent nomic growth by creating severe labor shortages, of the burden of disease in the region, exacts both reducing government revenue by 7 percent and a human and economic toLL, costing many African increasing expenditures by 15-20 percent, and countries over 1 percent of their GDP (Leighton and reducing the GDP growth rate by 1.5 percentage Foster 1993; GaLLup and Sachs 1998; Shepard and points. Within 25 years the economy wouLd be 31 others 1991). percent smaller than it would have been without But HIV/AIDS is the condition that most pro- the epidemic. In Tanzania, with a prevalence rate foundLy threatens African deveLopment, having hit of aLmost 20 percent, GDP wiLL decLine between 15 Africa harder than any other region. In 1998 the and 25 percent by 2015 if the epidemic continues region accounted for 70 percent of all new HIV to spread at its present rate. infections and 80 percent of all AIDS-related The demographic impact of HIV/AIDS on the deaths. Two-thirds of the worLd's 33.4 miLLion peo- region is less clear. However, most experts beLieve pLe Living with HIV and 9 of 10 chiLdren carrying that the pandemic may not significantly affect the the virus are African (UNAIDS 1999). dependency ratio (Stover 1999). HIV/AIDS has The 21 countries with the highest prevaLence increased the adult mortaLity rate, but this increase rates are found in Africa. In Botswana and will be largely offset by fewer births and an Zimbabwe one in four adults is infected. In at least increase in child mortality resulting from perinatal 10 other African countries prevaLence rates exceed infection. WhiLe HIV/AIDS has Led to significant 10 percent. The data are perhaps most alarming at downward revisions of growth projections in the 26 THE CHALLENGES OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT most severeLy affected countries, fertility wiLL not ing rate. This depLetion of scarce human capitaL is drop rapidly enough in any country to cause nega- both a human tragedy and an econormic disaster. tive growth (Decosas and Adrien 1999). AIDS aLso affects the quaLity of teachinc. The disease The impact of HIV/AIDS in Africa has important resuLts in ListLessness and prolonged absenteeism impLications for pLanning and providing education among sick staff and a widespread sense of heLpLess- (box 2.2). First, HIV/AIDS forces miLLions of chiL- ness. Learning outcomes are further affected by Low dren out of schooL and into work. As aduLts become attendance rates among children and the diversion of sick and die, househoLds face a double squeeze- resources to heaLth expenditures and away from vitaL they have more needs but Less abiLity to meet them. education investments (such as learniigi materiaLs) Households have been forced into increasingLy des- at household and nationaL LeveLs. perate coping strategies as a resuLt. Traditional Education pLans urgentLy need to factor in family structures are frayed and in the worst cases expLicitly, at every Level, the LikeLy personneL and disappear. Twelve milLion chiLdren in Africa have financial costs of the pandemic and llhe changing been orphaned by HIV/AIDS, many of them cared nature of education demand. Growth projections of for by elderLy relatives ilL-equipped to provide for Zambia's primary school age populat on iLLustrate the chiLdren's deveLopment. Most of these orphans this urgency. In 1998 Zambia had about 1.9 million wiLL suffer permanentLy as a result of Leaving school, school chiLdren. With HIV/AIDS, the country is entering the worLd of work early, and eating Less. In expected to have over 2.2 million in 2015. Without the worst-affected countries, incLuding Botswana, HIV/AIDS, the projection would have reached far Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, about 30-35 per- more than 2.9 miLLion. IncreasingLy, schooLs wiLL cent of chiLdren have Lost one or both parents to need special arrangements to heLp ensure contin- the disease. Providing these children with genuine- ued effective instruction, and universities must Ly accessibLe forms of education that are fLexibLe pLan to replace many facuLty members. and sensitive to their speciaL needs and the trauma At the same time, education systems have a many of them have experienced is an urgent and vital roLe in reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS by ongoing chaLLenge for every African society. addressing some of the key underlying causes: Second, AIDS threatens to reinforce gender poverty, lack of knowLedge, and gender inequaLities. disparities in education in Africa. GirLs in AIDS- Until the worLd has a vaccine or therapies that affected househoLds are more LikeLy than boys to deveLoping countries can afford, AICS, prevention remain at home to nurse sick relatives and perform strategies will depend largeLy on edication cam- tasks that were previousLy the responsibiLity of other paigns to persuade peopLe to change tieir behavior. famiLy members. Given the importance of girls' edu- Providing information on HIV/AIDS and other sexu- cation for gains in nutrition, fertiLity, and health, aLLy transmitted diseases and reproductive heaLth this trend seriousLy threatens wider deveLopment issues in formaL and nonformaL progrmrns for youth prospects in the region. and adults can combat the spread of the virus. Third, AIDS is devastating the teaching profes- Schools can provide many of these services. sion. More than 30 percent of teachers in MaLawi and ChiLdren are a window of hope in efforts to combat Zambia are infected. In 1996 Zambia reported more the disease: most can be easiLy reachei through the than 600 teacher deaths; by 1999 this number had education system, and because 90 percent of HIV more than doubLed. Teacher deaths from AIDS-relat- infection is sexually transmitted, infection rates are ed iLLnesses now outstrip the number of teachers Low among 5-14-year-olds. Experience shows that trained in the country's training colleges. Similarly, if HIV/AIDS prevention is to succeed, educators academic staff at universities are dying at an alarm- must seek every opportunity to include the topic in A CHANCE TO LEARN 27 Education and AIDS: Ex0perence in Zamhbia and Uganda In the African countries most severely affcted by AIDS, for monitoring and coping with the impact of the social and econmi changes brought about by the AIDS, and0 deveLop intrasectoral information sys- pandemic are so vast that education Systems face col- t ems as weU as sensitive policies for dealing with Lapse unless they place ASatte centof ther the needs and human rights of AIDS-affected per- national education agendas. AV human development sonneL. emergency on thi scale requires emergencyrpses. Th The cotry will need more accountable and cost- Education systems face a doubte chaLtenge: they need effective financial management at all leveLs to to plan to cope with the effects of AIDS on the fu:nc- respond to reducd national, community, and tioning of the system (Zambia) and at the same time household resources for education. Households mobilize it to cti to the fihta4 spread have Lost income and diverted resources to health of AIDS (Uganda). 0ependitures. National-level funds are tied down by sc and inactive sector staff who remain on the The implications of AD for edu lan- payrotl, and are again diverted to health care. At ning-Zambia the same: im, communities most affected by AIDS Countries such as Zarbia,: where one-third of aLL chil- can contribut less labor to school development. dren have lost a parent to AIDS and children now head AIDS-affected countries will also need to rethink 7 percent of alt households, need first to factor the the traditionaL school model and apply more flexible impact of AIin planining at every Level of 00t0e d and sensitive modets that meet the needs of children- cation system and in each subsector: especially orphans-who have been traumatized, * As a result of AI there are ewerchir to impovershed, stunted, and alienated by the sickness eduate fewer cdren can afford education, And and Loss of family members. Assumptions about the fewer children can c lteeducation. By 200 n e curricuLum content, and advisabilityof Zambia will have about 25 pecent fewer children bringing together large numbers of young people in to educate than itwould have had Without AIDS. often high-sk situations wiLl have to be challenged. The country will need to deploy resources to reflect shifting patterrs of demand for edc 4-across The role of education in combating AIDS- subsectors, regions, and communities. Uganda * Output from teacher training colleges inZambia Education, can play a vital role in reversing the spread cannot even replace teachers who are lost to of HIV/AIDS by reaching chidren with health educa- AIDS. Manof most experienced profesionals, tion messages before they become sexualLy active. including head teachers, managers, planners, and Uganda has experienced one of the most severe AIDS inspectors, are dying. TheVprofile of staff is chang- :epidemics in Sub-Saharan Africa, but since the early ing. Setor staffare on average younger and less 1990s the rate of new infection in that country has experienced than andrctivtyiso been fling. HIV seroprevalence among pregnant because of the large numbe rsoscnant Kampala almost halved between 1989 and staff. To6addrs "thittion,d Zbw he 1 9 and reported behavior of young people has to revise planning of staff n ld capad markedly Between 1989 and 1995 the per- 28 THE CHALLENGES OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT Box 2.2 (continued) - centage of 15-19-year-otds who had had sexual inter- move away from the didactic teaching stVle common course felt from 69 to 44 percent among men and from to most schooLs in Uganda by using theatre, group 74 to 54 percent among women. Condom use has risen discussions, and mass media to engage students. significantly in the same age group, and the percent- Uganda's experience shows that community sup- age of peopte with casual sexual partners has fatten. port is vital to the success of HIV/AIDS education. These trends evolved in the context of a nation- PTograms that aggressivety chaLLenge community val- at AIDS strategy that had fulL poLitical backing at the ues and attitudes toward sufferers can be counterpro- highest Level. In the education sector teaching about ductive and generate tong-term resentrrment against sexually transmitted diseases, including HNV/AIDS, public sector interventions. The participatory was introduced into the primary curriculum. Messages approaches used in Uganda-tistening to and answer- emphasized not only the facts of transmission but ing peopte's misapprehensions and workitng with chit- also sexuaL behavior and gender reLations. District dren and parents to design mateials about health educators worked closely with teachers, super- HIV/AIDS-have overcome suspicion and heLped vising the content of ctasses and supporting school change behavior. health through visits. Meanwhile, educators tried to Source: Kelly 1999; Barnett, de Koning, and Frances 1995, schooL and training curricula at aLL LeveLs. Such Such rapid popuLation growth transLates into an efforts are unLikeLy without cLear and open politicaL especiaLLy high dependency ratio. The schooL-age commitment and adequate resources. Where these dependency ratio (the number of children ages have been forthcoming, as in Senegal and Uganda, 6-14 as a share of aduLts ages 15-64) is 47 percent the spread of the virus has been checked. in Africa compared with 41 percent in the MiddLe East and North Africa, 37 percent in Souith Asia, and 33 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean. High Fertility Africa's Larger school-age popuLation relative to the working-age population means that universal edu- Africa has 11 percent of the world's people but 19 cation would consume a larger share of GNP than in percent of its births. TotaL fertility rates in Africa other regions (ColcLough and Lewiri 1993). This are the highest in the worLd-at 5.5 in 1997 com- burden affects not onLy pubLic finances-in coun- pared with 1.8 in East Asia and the Pacific, 2.7 in tries that aLready face multipLe challenges to Latin America and the Caribbean, and 3.3 in South resource mobiLization-but also househoLds, which Asia. Africa is the only region whose schooL-age typically meet a Large proportion of education population is projected to increase rapidly over the costs. EspeciaLLy heavy are the demands on poor next 20 years (figure 2.1), aLthough the rate of and rural househoLds, which usually have many increase wiLL be affected by the extent to which the dependents. spread of AIDS can be stemmed. By 2015 Africa will Rapid popuLation growth has consistentLy probably have 45 percent more children than it did thwarted the goaL of universaL access to primary in 1996. education in Africa. In 1961 African ministers of A CHANCE TO LEARN 29 fFigure 2.1 Anuat Population Growth Rates for Developing Regions Percent 2.5 ----- 1995-99 2.0 . ... _ . \ .\ .\ ... .. .... --------- 1.5 l | | - . ' - - E2000-04 1.0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2005-09 D2010-14 0.0 . -.. -........... 2015-19 1.0 -- -2.0 Afnrca South Asia East Asia & Middle East & Latin America & Pacific North Africa Caribbean Source: World Bank 1999c. education set 1980 as the target year for univer- Overcoming Adversity saL primary education. At that time peopLe thought that the region wouLd need 33 milLion The chalLenges of the African deveLopment context extra school pLaces by 1980. By the target date, are daunting. Yet the experience of countries such the number of chiLdren in schooL had exceeded as Botswana, Namibia, Mauritius, SwaziLand, and, the goal, and countries provided 45 million in the years immediateLy foLLowing independence, places. But, because Africa's population increased Zimbabwe show how effectiveLy a combination of much faster than expected, the gross enrolLment sound macroeconomic management and effective ratio was just 78 percent by the target date, investments in human resource deveLopment can faLLing 11 milLion schooL pLaces short of the num- overcome many of the constraints discussed in this ber needed to achieve universal primary chapter. The positive development context emerg- education. ing in several countries on the continent is encour- Effective reproductive heaLth programs, com- aging. Prospects are perhaps better today than at bined with efforts to ensure access and continued any other time in the past 10 years. participation of girls in primary and lower sec- * Economic growth has resumed in many countries. ondary education, have been the key to slowing * An end to the crisis of unsustainable debt is in population growth in other regions. Achieving sight with expanded debt reLief under the HIPC lower fertiLity rates is important not Least because initiative. of the education and heaLth impLications of fre- * New technoLogies may help address problems of quent and unpLanned pregnancies for women and access and quaLity. their children. Thus education is a beneficiary of, * The political landscape has changed in similarly as weLL as an essentiaL eLement in, effective popu- dramatic ways: apartheid has ended; the press lation poLicies. has more freedom; many countries have 30 THE CHALLENGES OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT made a rapid transition to eLected govern- democratically eLected government is well ments; and increasing equity, participation, estabLished, and recent political change in human rights, and good governance have Nigeria has improved deveLopment prospects received more attention. greatLy. Given the regionaL importance of these * Between 1990 and 1994, 38 countries held two countries, the effects of these changes competitive nationaL elections. South Africa's couLd spread far beyond their nationiaL borders. A CHANCE TO LEARN 31 3. Country Responses: A Quantum Leap base such reforms on a comprehensive analysis of in Education DeveLopment education issues and embed them in a macroeco- nomic deveLopment strategy. They wiLL also need to To break the vicious development cycle of the 1980s, identify policies and investment programs to meet the deveLopment challenges of the 21st centu- achieve strategic objectives. And they will need to ry, and narrow the scientific and digitaL divide formuLate impLementation plans aimed at rapid between Africa and the rest of the worLd, the region progress and explicitly designed to take interven- will need equitable, efficient, and high-quaLity edu- tions to scale. cation systems. This will require many African In formulating strategies and interventions, countries to make a quantum Leap-a significant priority shouLd go to promoting the baLanced accelation-in their education development over the development of the sector, with attention to the next 10 years, with these priorities: Linkages between aLL parts of the education sys- * RapidLy increasing the education attainment of tem, from early chiLdhood to post-graduate pro- the Labor force by enroLLing aLL schooL-age chiL- grams. At the same time, the system wiLl not be dren in good primary schools. able to contribute to national sociaL and econom- * GraduaLly expanding access to the full basic ic development goaLs without the strong basis of education cycLe for primary schooL graduates rapid progress toward universal primary education. and giving youth and aduLts who Lack essentiaL Beyond the primary Level, expansion wiLL typicaLly Literacy and numeracy skiLLs the opportunity to be more gradual and selective, in Line with participate in aduLt basic education programs. country-specific poLicies and targets. These poLi- * Enhancing the vocational and technical skills cies will need to reflect a poLitical consensus on of youth and aduLts through continuous job- priorities and tradeoffs based on avaiLabLe human reLated skilL deveLopment programs offered by and financial resources, development objectives, demand-driven systems, including pubLic and labor market signals, and social demand. private providers. Second, African countries should formuLate * Preparing more selected students for further Local strategies, policies, and reforms to acceLerate education, especiaLLy for scientific and techno- education development rather than adopt interna- Logical careers, by strengthening math, sci- tionaL solutions customized to Local conditions. ence, and technoLogy programs in secondary However, knowledge and experience from other and post-secondary institutions. African countries and from outside Africa shouLd * Revitalizing national research and deveLopment strengthen and enlighten local strategies. This programs. approach wiLL aLLow countries to design programs Business as usuaL wiLL not achieve the desired that are appropriate, affordabLe, and sustainabLe results. Bold policy reforms-sustained over time without repeating the mistakes of others. and impLemented in partnerships among national Third, strategy formulation is about choice. governments, civiL society, and donors-will be Countries can onLy acceLerate education deveLop- essential. This is not an impossible chatlenge. ment if their reforms and investments focus on pri- Botswana, Cape Verde, Mauritius, Namibia, ority objectives and reflect a willingness to make Swaziland, and Zimbabwe have made considerable difficult poLicy trade-offs. Typically, the most criti- strides in education deveLopment. Many more coun- caL choices wiLL be targeting public spending and tries-for exampLe Guinea, Mozambique, SenegaL, selecting nontraditionaL modes of service deLivery. and Uganda (box 3.1)-have started implementing Fourth, Africa should formulate education far-reaching reforms. But countries wiLL have to strategies with explicit reference to wider poverty 32 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT Box 3.1 - Uganda's National Commitment to Basic Education In 1994 the government of Uganda issued a white paper voluntary. The reduced financial burden on fami- outtining its long-term vision for education reform. This ties resutted in a doubling of primary enrotlments, paper set the stage for majoT policy reforms: to 5.2 mitlion. Pitoting of muLtigrade teaching * Eliminating "ghost" teachers, increasing teacher began in 1999 to bring smatter schooLs closer to salaries to realistic Levels, and training and communities in sparsely poputated areas. deploying teachers. The number of teachers on * Limiting the number of students in hither educa- the payrolt by a third and increased teacher pay tion who must pay for their courses. Today 75 per- tenfol over three years. Teacher competency cent of univetsity students are privately sponsored tests were administered to aU uncertified teach- by famiLies or communities. Scholarships are tar- ers. Those deemed trainable were to receive in- geted to students unable to afford the fees. service upgrading and continuous professional t Recruiting key staff through open cormpetition to support. Support to teachers is deLivered by 560 restructure the Ministry of Education. rhe govern- tutors, each responsible for 20 schools. ment is taking steps to completely integrate pro- * Decenrtralizing the responsibility for primary edu- ject implementation enclaves, which serve cation to Uganda's 45 districts. Each district donor-funded operations exctusivetV, into the deploys and pays teachers, although it receives main ministry in 2000. The government will use funds from the central government. The district its evolving Education Strategic Investment tevel also manages classroom construction using Program to coordinate all future donor support to a community demand approach. education in Uganda. * Liberalizing textbook procurement and provision Implementation of the program has stayed most- in 1995. SchooLs can now choose from lists of ty on track thanks to a massive politicat commitment books vetted by the Ministry of Education, in line and sustained budget support. Education was the prin- with budget allocations based on enrollments. As cipat electoral platform of president Museveni in 1996, a resutt an active private textbook publishing and and the share of education in the budget rose from 22 marketing sector has emerged. As a step toward percent in 1995 to 31 percent in 1999. Yet the num- sustainable book provision, the government has ber of teachers in basic education cannot keep up with allocated 3 percent of the recurrent education the enormous increase in enrNolmenti. Learning budget to instructional materials. achievement in many schools remains very Low. Budget * Introducing free schooling in 1997 for up to four increases to fund more teachers, build more class- children per household. Schools are now funded rooms, and ensure adequate instructional rnaterials are through direct grants based on enrollments, and a high priority. Resources released through the HIPC contributions to parent-teacher associations are initiative will be used for these purposes. reduction strategies. Poverty is a key obstacle to standing the mechanisms that excLude peopLe from expanding access to education and improving education and identifying interventions in other Learning outcomes in Africa, whiLe education is sectors that contribute to education deveLopment instrumentaL in eLiminating poverty. Clearly under- must be part of nationaL education strategies. The A CHANCE TO LEARN 33 aims and budget needs of education strategies tion to increase Learning achievement and retention must be consistent with those of other sectors. and survival rates wilL be critical for reaching the Progress toward these strategic priorities will Education for All goal of universal enroLLment in and require poLicy and institutional reforms that: compLetion of basic education. Investments in * Improve quality, measured by enhanced learning quality often provide the highest returns in educa- achievement and good instructional practice. tion because they not onLy resuLt in higher learning * Provide equitable access to [earning opportu- achievement but aLso partLy pay for themselves nities. through efficiency gains (InternationaL Consultative * Build national, Local, and school capacity to Forum on Education for All 1998; Harbison and manage the delivery of education services. Hanushek 1992). * Ensure sustainabLe financing through a coher- Providing quality education is dauntinc because ent system of compLementary pubLic and pri- the knowLedge and skills expected from graduates are vate financing and provision. changing. The success of education is increasingly BeLow the main reform options and action pri- judged by students' abiLity to appLy knowLedge, think orities avaiLabLe to African poLicymakers are sum- independently, exercise appropriate judgment, and marized, based on research findings and Lessons collaborate with others to make sense of new situa- from Africa and other regions (Lockheed and tions. The purpose of education is not simpLy to con- Verspoor 1991; and other works cited in the text). vey knowledge but to teach how to learn, soLve Another important source was ADEA's stocktaking probLems, and synthesize the old and the new. exercise, which brought together case studies of Education policy is moving rapidLy beyond its tradi- successful experiments in education deveLopment tionaL concern with initial schooLing of young peopLe and suggests one promising approach to increasing toward providing opportunities for lifeLong Learning. national capacity to analyze and disseminate educa- To improve quality, countries first must tion experiences within the continent (box 3.2). ensure that the basic conditions for Learning are in pLace. CurricuLa and instructional strategies must take into account the context of schooling Relentless Pursuit of Quality and prepare students for the worLd of work and further Learning. Teachers must be trained both Translating expanded education opportunities into in muLtigrade and monograde pedagogy and meaningful development depends on whether peo- given necessary teaching materials and guides pLe learn-acquire useful knowledge, reasoning and reguLar professional support. ChiLdren must abilities, skills, and values-as a resuLt of those be ready for school when they enrolL at the usual opportunities (WorLd Conference on Education for schooL age of six. Teachers shouLd measure stu- ALL 1990). High participation rates and efficient dents' progress regularly. Schools in rural areas student flows are necessary but imperfect indica- often will need more flexible curricula and teach- tors of education progress. ActuaL Learning achieve- ing approaches, such as muLtigrade teaching, to ment is the real measure. Poor quaLity almost meet the needs of poor, sparseLy popuLated ruraL inevitably resuLts in widespread repetition and areas. numerous dropouts and discourages parents from enroLling their chiLdren. Often quality improvements Learning environment are a prerequisite for increased enrollment. As the intake ratio approaches 100 percent in Effective instruction and high Learning achieve- many countries (see chapter 1), improving instruc- ment require the folLowing basic conditions: 34 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVEL OPMENT Box 3.2 Lessons from the "ADEA Prospective Stocktaking Review of Education in Africa" In 1998 the Association for the DeveLopment of private sector. Each of these stakeholders can Education irn Africa (ADEA) invited African govern- contribute a combination of ideas and finance to ments to produce country case studies of successfuL education devetopment. Partnerships are also cru- practice in advance of the ADEA biennial meeting in dat at the international level, both within Africa Johannesburg in December 1999- The aim of the exer- and between Africa and other regions, cise was to begin identifying education solutions and * Communities have a vital rote to play in educa- policy responses, from the African context, to well- tion development. They need opportunities to known constraints and probtems. Twenty-five coun- identify their education needs and priorities and tries tesponded. The synchronized findings from these to play a larger role in school management. Often studies reveal that the education sector in many decentralization reforms can help achieve this African countries is rich in innovation and promising objettive. Community participation should not approaches. Key lessons that emerged included: jeopardize equity and efficiency objectives. * The potitical context of education development is * Poticy development and planning must be ground- important. Governments need to be committed to ed in sound research and analysis. Education closing income, gender, ethnic, and other sociat interventions should be founded on robust data inequalities where these are barriers to education and systematically monitored so that their impact for alL Strong and sustained political commit- is known and key policy lessons are internalized. ment t universal basic education is vital, as is a * All paTts of the sector should be addressed holis- set of core guiding principles and a ctear vision ticalty, Each country wilt need to establish an of the direction of education development, appropriate balance between the needs of each * Countries should be prepared to develop policy subsector and ensure synergy between different sotutions as they progress and buitd capacity by subsectorat interventions. 'doing.' They need to make sure that planning * Cost-effectiveness is a blind spot in the case stud- does not slow implementation, and realize that ies. Without a futl assessmernt of firancing and everything need not be in ptace before impte- management costs, the study could draw few con- mentation can start. Ftexibility and a wiltingness clusions about cost-effectiveness or the scope for to take risks are hallmarks of this approach. taking innovations to scate. Strengthening the * Education development is more likely to succeed capacity for fiRnancial anatysis in the education if it is based on consensus among all the stake- sector is an urgent priority in much of the region. holders. Education plannirtg should be based on * Many of the. innovations excessi;vely stress participatory principles, which foster a sense of expanding access and pay too tittle attention to ownership and understanding of policies, improving quality. Interventions that neglect * Accelerated education development depends on education quatity are unlikely to be sustained, effective partnerships among government, donors, since low demand foT education is ctosely related communities, civit society organizations, and the to poor quality provision. Sourmt:: ADCA 1999b. A CHANCE TO LEARN 35 * At least 800-1,000 hours of instruction each sometimes a high political price-and can year. African countries cannot expect students to increase instructional effectiveness consider- achieve the Learning specified in most nationaL ably. Payment of reasonabLe salaries, on time, curricuLa with onLy 400-500 hours of instruction. is aLso important. * Better supervision and more community moni- * PhysicaL infrastructure meeting minimum stan- toring, modified schooL caLendars to better dards for safety and comfort. Many African match agriculture caLendars, and school heaLth countries do not have enough cLassrooms to programs and meaLs. ALL these can heLp to bol- meet the demand for education. Existing ster regular school functioning. schooLs are often in poor condition and Lack * EnrolLment at the usuaL age for school entry. cLean water and basic sanitation. Well- Late enroLLment-common after enrollment maintained, clean, and attractive cLassrooms drives or in countries with biannuaL, triannuaL, symbolize a commitment to quaLity education or even Less frequent admissions-usuaLLy and are the hallmark of well-managed, leads to early dropouts, especiaLLy among girLs effective schooLs. Sanitation and cLean water (LLoyd, Mensch, and Clark 2000). provide a heaLthy Learning environment and * Access to adequate textbooks and other Learn- can be a significant factor in girLs' attendance. ing materiaLs for every chiLd. Effective instruc- tion requires textbooks, notebooks, Library Curricula and instruction strategies books, wall charts, and maps. Despite donor support, few countries have established finan- Countries wiLL need to expLore flexibLe aLternatives to ciaLLy and institutionally sustainable systems the monograde teaching modeL-six classrooms and for book provision. Textbook publishing has tra- six teachers, with students attending schooL five ditionaLLy been a state monopoly in many hours a day, 200 days a year and mastering at entry African countries. This situation is changing the basic vocabulary and grammar of the language of because most countries recognize the impor- instruction. African curricula, textbooks, teacher tance of a thriving pubLishing industry, a net- manuaLs, and teacher training are often designed work of private booksellers, and poLicies that around instructionaL objectives and assumptions that give schooLs the authority and resources to fit neither the operational constraints of the typical choose between competing series offered by school nor the Learning styles or needs of most stu- pubLishers. dents. In many countries curricula are overloaded * Maximum student-teacher ratios of 40-45 stu- with content and often stress knowLedge of facts dents per teacher in primary education and over strategies to promote understanding and appLi- 20-25 in upper secondary education. CLass size cation. Preparation for high-stakes examinations should be kept within a reasonable range of that determine access to the next Level of education the averages. Most African countries have stu- often drives instruction. Systematic assessment of dent-teacher ratios at the high end of these student Learning at cLassroom, school, and system ranges, aLthough some have much higher aver- leveLs is rare, Limiting the scope for targeted reforms ages. But in many countries the key chaLLenge to improve Learning outcomes. is to ensure the equitabLe distribution of CurricuLa rarely take into account the fact that teachers among schooLs and students. most students enter school with littLe or no knowL- Redeploying teachers from administrative and edge of the language of instruction. Students learn other jobs to the cLassroom and from urban to better when taught in their mother tongue. Studies rural areas has a Low financial cost-aLthough have shown consistentLy that students Learn to read 36 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT and acquire other academic skiLLs faster in their escuela nueva, and the schools of the ElangLadesh own Language (UNICEF 1999). But in many African Rural Advancement Committee have yielded Lessons countries fluency in a second Language-French, for designing aLternative approaches (WorLd Bank English, or Portugese-is an essential requirement 1996). The instructional strategies of these models for admission into secondary education and a key refLect the linguistic and other experience of the instructionaL objective of the primary curricuLum. children who enroll; aLLow chiLdren to proceed at Studies of bilingual pilot programs in Mali and Niger their own pace; monitor learning carefully; promote suggest that chiLdren taught in their mother tongue cooperative Learning and peer teaching; eliminate Learn a second language more quickLy than chiLdren repetition; include strategies to deal with student taught in a Language other than that spoken at absences; aim to develop citizen skills; and empha- home (ADEA 1999b). size understanding, applying knowLedge, and soLv- However, much of the evidence from mother- ing problems. tongue pilots is tentative and derived from ques- Preparing students for the worLd of work and tionable methodology. These pilots urgently need lifeLong Learning invoLves teaching skills to analyze stronger monitoring and evaLuation. Moreover, cost probLems, synthesize information, arid tackLe a and management constraints have made it difficuLt wide range of tasks. Primary students need core lit- to scale up biLinguaL pilots. BiLinguaL programs typ- eracy, numeracy, and life skilLs, as welL as commu- icaLly require a broad range of materials and spe- nication skilts and civic education. As the number cially trained staff. And mother-tongue teaching, of people infected with HIV/AIDS grONS, students like the traditional instructional model, is unLikely and youth need knowLedge about HIV/AIDS trans- to be effective without the basic conditions and mission and prevention. Education on health resources for effective instruction. issues, especially reproductive heaLth and Governments need to expLore these resource HIV/AIDS, shouLd be an integraL part of curricuLa. issues fuLLy when they review poLicy options on Lan- The chaLLenge beyond the primary LeveL is to pre- guage of instruction. Language of instruction issues pare students for a worLd that wiLL demazrid advanced are also often politically and culturally contentious. understanding and achievement in these areas, Selecting one African language for instruction may probLem-solving skills, and the ability ta Learn. Most marginalize sociaL groups in Linguistically diverse African countries will have to design secondary cur- countries. Governments will also have to consider ricula and higher education programs to respond to the demand for education in European languages, these emerging priorities and aLign textbooks and which many parents see as opening doors to further teacher manuaLs with the new content and instruc- education and professionaL empLoyment. In sum, tion strategies. Africa has already made progress in instructionaL poLicies must begin with LocaL Lan- this regard. In Zimbabwe, for exampLe, cost-effective guage and cuLture to improve students' performance, teaching strategies promoted by the secondary especiaLLy in the earLy grades when most chiLdren schooL science project (ZIM-SCI)-which uses low- drop out and repeat grades. But successfuL impLe- cost equipment, LocaLLy produced textbooks, and mentation wiLL aLso require an effective strategy for extensive in-service training-successfuLLy expanded transition to a second Language of instruction. education access to scientific learning without com- Many deveLoping countries in Africa and eLse- promising quaLity in the years immediateLy foLLowing where are questioning the effectiveness of the tra- independence. New technology provides further ditionaL model of schooling and are impLementing scope for deveLoping cost-effective ways to deliver other, often more comprehensive, alternative mod- teacher training and teach advanced subjects at the eLs. MaLi's pedagogie convergente, CoLombia's secondary and university LeveLs (box 3.3). A CHANCE TO LEARN 37 The World Links for Development Program The World Links for Devetopment (WorLD) program is A recent evaLuation by a leading firm in the a grant-based initiative sponsored by the World Bank assessment of educational technology initiatives (SRI Institute that uses the Internet to link secondary InternationaL 1999) reported enthusiasm for the schools in Africa with counterpart schools for collab- WorLD program among teachers, students, and admin- orative learning. The program's goaLs are to improve istrators. More than 70 percent of teachers and almost education opportunities for African students, develop 80 percent of students gave the highest possible technology skills among African youth to accelerate scores to the program's impact on students' communi- economic and social development, and build culturaL cation skilts, ability to reason, and attitudes toward understanding around the world. schooL Since 1997 WorLD has provided computer Labs, A visitor to Mengo Secondary School in Uganda Internet connections, and teacher training to more than captured the spirit of the WorLD program: 'Even 140 schooLs in seven African countries (Ghana, though it was a Saturday afternoon and no one was Mauritania, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, Uganda, compeLLed to be there, the little room was packed and Zimbabwe). The program has reached more than 600 with painfulLy shy kids, cLustered five or six to a teachers and 5,000 students. In 1999-2000 the program machine, designing educational Web pages in PageMiLL wilL expand to two more African countries, Burkina Faso with 486 processors and floppy disks. Everything was and Botswana, working with at least 20 schools in each taking forever, but they waited for the screens to country. Senega' Ministry of tEducation has requested redraw, pixel by pixel, with the patience of angels" WorLD support to design a nationwide education tech- (Barlow 1998). In other WorLD projects students in nology program. Over the next few years WorLD hopes to Uganda train local women's groups in computer liter- expand this collaboration with Bank operations to reach acy, and teachers in SenegaL have downLoaded Web many more African teachers and students. sites for biology lessons. Vocational training must reflect the evolving empLoyers as well as for-profit and nonprofit worLd of work. Programs need to respond to the agencies-aLready pLay a centraL roLe in skilLs devel- demands of employers and be flexible enough to help opment. The policy challenge in developing effective some students prepare for employment or appren- vocational training and technical education programs ticeship in the formal or-more often-informal sec- is creating an environment in which public and pri- tor and help others prepare for self-employment. vate providers can compete with and complement Vocational training and technical education pro- each other in responding to the demand of a clien- grams have a different dynamic from traditional sec- tele with widely different training needs. ondary education and are best managed outside the formal education system (Middleton, Van Adams, and Trained and motivated teachers Ziderman 1993). Programs often need to be tailored to the requirements of a specific clientele, with dura- To improve the quality of teaching in Africa, tion and delivery mode guided by instructional teachers' salaries must be paid on time and must objectives. In many countries private providers- cover the cost of living to allow teachers to 38 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT commit themselves fuLL time to teaching. Work Box 3.4 conditions-administrative and management sup- port and the availabiLity of teaching materials, suppLies, and equipment-must enabLe teachers to Guinea's Pre-service Teacher carry out their work as expected. ProfessionaL Education Project recognition and support wiLL heLp motivate teach- ers once the first two conditions are met. Finally, To achieve °Education for Att Guinea witt need to teacher training needs radicaL reform so that recruit about 25,000 new teachers over the next 12 teachers acquire the skiLLs and motivation to apply years. To increase the efficiency of training and the better instructional methods. quality of new teachers, the governmenl: needs new Practice-oriented pre-service training, contin- approaches to pre-service teacher education. Two uous demand-driven in-service training, and new approaches were piloted in 1998: instructionaL Leadership by principaLs can enhance * Short-term intensive summer courses, for which teaching skiLLs (Craig, Kraft, and du PLessis 1998). teachers received provisional certification. For Many countries wiLL have to reevaLuate pre-service permanent certification, teachers must partici- and in-service training. Teacher training can no pate in in-servce training within a specified longer be perceived as an extension of secondary period. education, only LooseLy connected to rural cLass- * An intensive program lasting an entire schooL room conditions and practice. In-service training year and focusing on cLassroom pTactice, with cannot continue to be an event that teachers par- student-teachers spending 30-40 percent of ticipate in for a few days every 5-10 years. their time in primary school clasirooms, fot- SeveraL countries are expLoring shorter pre- lowed by teacher mentoring and Linked in- service training, longer classroom practice, and service training. continuous in-service training (box 3.4), often By August 1999 the teacher education program through a network of decentraLized resource cen- had trained more than 3,000 new teachers-20 ters compLemented by school-based support from times as many as were trained in the year before the headmasters and inspectors or special resource program started. The teachers trained irn the inten- providers. In all these models, teacher training sive summer course in 1998 helped increase becomes a process of lifelong Learning. New 1998-99 enrottments by 52,000 studenti, more than opportunities are arising as new technoLogical half of them girls. In 1999, 1,500 more trained change makes it possible to support teacher edu- teachers began teaching, and the program planned cation programs with quality audiovisuaL materi- to train 3,000 more teachers during the 1999-2000 als, transmitted over the Internet or in more school year. traditionaL ways, including audio and video cas- settes (box 3.5). The quaLity of staff at the secondary and high- ence, and technoLogy-are rare, refLecting an inad- er LeveLs is equaLLy important. Secondary teachers equate suppLy of graduates in these discipLines and are often underqualified or too narrowLy qualified more attractive income-earning opportunities out- to teach more than one subject, leading to gross side the education sector. As a resuLt appropriately inefficiencies in teacher depLoyment-apparent in quaLified staff are difficult to recruit and retain. Large cLass sizes and Low student-teacher ratios. Many countries need to consider upgrading More and more university facuLty members Lack staff, creating more attractive employinent condi- Ph.D.s. QuaLified teachers-especialLy in math, sci- tions, recruiting part-time staff or staff with non- A CHANCE TO LEARN 39 Technology and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa Under the right conditions, tethnoLogy-including tra- low but roughly equivalent to those of the traditional ditional technology-can help Temove the constraints schools. Unfortunately, funding constraints forced the of distance, time, and r lified tachers on the college to discontinue radio broadcasts and limited its delivery of education services. While many of the new ability to provide materiaLs. computer-based technologies are inaccessible to Television also can expand access to secondary African schools for cost and infrastructure reasons, education and improve its quaLity. TeLesecundaria is a these technologies have such great potential that Africa television-based rural system in Mexico that offers sec- should explore their cost-effectiveness, especially at ondary education as part of the national system. SeveraL the secondary and universit levels and for teacher other countries have adopted the program, and some are training. Some of the most promising applications of making it available to secondary schools in remote areas education technology are described below. to enrich and improve instruction, especially in math and science. Regional collaboration would result in Primary education economies of scale and drive down cost per student. The primary school has no technoilbgy-based alterna- tive, but technology can enrich primary instruction Teacher training and help teachers fill gaps in subject matter knowl- Teacher training is among Africa's most formidable edge. Interactive Radio Instruction in Lesotho and education challenges. Education technologies can South Africa broadcasts highly structured lessons with hetp address this challenge. Teacher training accounts periodic pauses for student responses or learning for the bulk of distance education activity in activities. The program has been an effective tool for Africa, using a combination of printed materials, improving the quality of English and mathematics radio, audio and video cassettes, and-increasingly- teaching in primary classrooms. Despite its success, the Internet. Typically, teacher resource and study however, few countries have adopted Interactive centers and district education offices serve as venues Radio Instruction because of high program develop- for face-to-face training supported by tradional tech- ment costs, annual recurrent costs of as much as $2-3 nologies as well as computer and Internet access a year, and the difficulty of adjusting schooL sched- (Roberts and Associates 1998). Using education tech- ules to the broadcasts. nologies in distance teacher training has multiple benefits. Where there are economies of scale, distance Secondary education teacher training is cheaper than conventional Distance education can be a cost-effective education approaches. alternative for students who fail to gain admission to Over the past 10 years in-service teacher train- traditional secondary school. Distance education ing has used new technologies and taken advantage courses are typically delivered through printed self- of the scope they offer for regional and international instruction materiaLs supported and supplemented by collaboration. For example, in West Africa the Gambia radio broadcasts and study centers. The Malawi College College, the National Teachers ColLege in Nigeria, the of Distance Education for many years provided a good University of Ghana, and the Freetown Teachers model of this strategy. Examination pass rates were College in Sierra Leone share learning materials and 40 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT Box 3.5 (continued) - expertise in teacher training and other distance edu- expand the range of resources available to students and cation programs. SimilarLy, the African Network for academics and to allow universities to participate in Distance Learning (RESAFAD), a consortium of tech- gLobaL knowledge networks. For exampte, Pennsylvania nology-oriented agencies in Benin, Burkina Faso, State University in the United States can prcvide a com- Gabon, Guinea, Mali, and Togo, uses the Internet for prehensive digital collection of resources for $1.2 mit- distance training of school principals. lion, one-tenth of the cost of a conventionaL library Applying new technologies to distance education (World Bank 2000a). can also improve gender equity among teaching staff by giving women home-based training opportunities Lifelong learning and giving teachers both a way to communicate and An important private sector in African urban areas share experiences with colleagues and access to a provides training in the application of a wide range of wealth of study materials. computer technologies. Moreover, the WorLd Bank- supported Globat Distance Learning Network trains Higher education public and private sector managers. Several African Distance teaching can expand the pool of university countries are developing community information and graduates and people with advanced degrees (see box teaming centers that offer telephone, fax, and increas- 3.12). In addition, Internet access can facilitate partic- ingly e-mail and Intemet access, usuatly for a smaU ipation in the international research community. fee. These centers may be able to provide learning Meanwhile, digitat libraries are a cost-effective way to opportunities for peopte in remote areas. traditional backgrounds, and using distance educa- reduce unit cost through economies jF scaLe that tion technoLogies and self-instructional materials. require large target audiences, rarely avaiLabLe New Internet-based technologies (see box 3.5) within the nationaL boundaries of Sub-Saharan hoLd considerable promise for deLivering affordabLe African countries, and that aLso puLsh up totaL in-service programs to Large numbers of teachers expenditures. In other cases, to be financially sus- and university faculty. tainable, programs have to shift costs to students, who then pay for a service that students in tradi- New technologies tional schools usually receive free. Technologies often have been inflexible, and Attempts to improve education access and teachers have feLt that the technoLogies take class- quality through technologies-distributing print- room control away from them. Finally, administra- ed materials by surface mail, radio, and tive and program design skills to support education television-have proved disappointing. Taking technology are often in short supply. The new even demonstrably successfuL piLot projects to information and communication technoLogies- scaLe often has been difficult. Without continuing personal computers, wireLess commun-ication, and external support, few countries have been abLe to the Internet-may remove some ol: these con- sustain the higher cost per student of programs to straints, but their large-scale applicc,tion requires improve the quality of education. Expanding edu- the same preconditions as that of the old tech- cation access through eLectronic media can onLy noLogies: A CHANCE TO LEARN 41 * Changes in the cost structure of education sys- by complementary activities that faciLitate commu- tems, especially increases in nonsalary expendi- nity management and influence the competencies tures and declining reliance on external and behavior of adults and older siblings who shape funding. young children's environments. * Institutions with the financial and human Early childhood development programs cover resources to design high-quality programs, deliv- only 5 percent of African children below the age of er them efficiently to target audiences, and pro- six. Given the critical role of such programs in vide training and application support to teachers. raising enrollments and improving learning out- * Regional and subregional cooperation to reatize comes, early childhood development deserves more economies of scale essentiaL to reduce unit cost. support as part of a baLanced approach to educa- Moreover, much of Sub-Saharan Africa lacks the tion development (box 3.6). Because of the pay-off power and telecommunications infrastructure to of better performance in primary school and the realize the potential of the new technologies. Also, reduction of repetition and drop-out, low-cost although the cost of new technologies is falling early childhood development programs can pay for rapidly, cost is still a barrier to widespread applica- themselves. Community-based models of early tion in the poorest countries. Many countries wilL childhood education and care in Latin American have to reform their telecommunications and power have shown that such programs can be Low cost sectors before they can take education applications and effective. In these models parents are usually of new technologies to scale. Finally, education responsible for providing physical facilities and television and computer-assisted instruction are instructors or facilitators. Government agencies, likely to be high risk if they invoLve leading-edge often in collaboration with NGOs, train the parents technoLogy: education will probably be more suc- and facilitators, organize regular health checkups, cessfuL in terms of cost and servicing of equipment and provide instructionaL materials, medicine, and if it follows rather than leads entertainment and nutrition support. commerce (Perraton and Creed 2000). A number of African countries are devel- oping similar programs. In Zanzibar, Tanzania Student readiness community-managed and -funded Islamic schooLs provide earLy childhood learning to almost 80 per- The quality of early childhood development cent of the relevant age group. Some community programs-especially those that include health and groups have worked with international NGOs to nutrition interventions-correLates overwhelmingly improve the learning environment in these with primary school enrollment rates, enroLLment schools and introduce elements of secular educa- age, academic performance, and dropout and repe- tion to prepare children to move into the primary tition rates. The introduction of school readiness school system. These successful experiences teach activities in early childhood development programs two important Lessons about promoting student for four- and five-year-oLds and instruction policies readiness. First, early chiLdhood development that begin with local language and culture are cru- programs need to approach child development cial in improving the performance of students in the comprehensively, incorporating cognitive, health, first grade, where dropout and repetition rates are and nutrition needs. Second, for a strong sense of often high. Early childhood development programs community ownership, programs need to be sen- aLso help ensure that children move on to primary sitive to cultural values. Programs that take local school when they have reached the officiaL entry culture and practices into account are more likely age. The impact of these programs can be enhanced to be sustainable, affordable, and accessible. 42 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT Good health and nutrition are also essential for B children in primary school. Experiments are under- Box 3.6 way in a number of countries to pilot low-cost ways to target school health programs to the poor- Early Chitdhood Development est and most disadvantaged children. in Kenya Measuring progress ILI heatth and poor nutrition during intfancy and early childhood are major factors in the late enrollment, Effective reform programs need reliable data on low success, and high dropout rates among Kenya's inputs and outcomes of education investments poorest school-age chitdren. To improve the physicaL and on classroom processes. The absence of such and intellectual development of these chitdren, in data, a problem not unique to the Africa region, 1997 the Ministry of Education, together with seriously impedes effective remedial action when District Centers for Early Childhood Devetopment and students do not meet standards for learning the NationaL Center for Earty Childhoodt Education, achievement or when pilots or innovations are established a comprehensive early childhood devel- introduced. Although standard indicators on opment program in poor communities in partnership inputs (enrollments, teachers, and schools) and with the World Bank. student fLows are usualLy available, they are The program provides teacher training for some often unreliable or insufficiently detailed. For 17,000 earty chiLdhood devetopment instructors who example, despite a major international effort to have no format training; workshops to raise parenatal assess progress on key indicators for the and community awareness and supportforearly child- Education for ALl 2000 assessment, only a third hood devetopment programs; nutrition and heatth ser- of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa could provide vices targeted to infants in 10 districts, community data on pre-primary enrollments, half did not grants for 2,000 community-operated earty childhood have age-specific data to calculate net enroll- deveLopment centers; and capacity buiLding in moni- ment ratios, and a quarter did not have data on toring and management in the Ministry of Education. girls' participation. More than a miLtion chitdren from poor households Moreover, information about what actually shoutd benefit from the program, which wilt improve happens in schools and classrooms-teaching schoot enrotlment, attendantce, and achievement rates methods, use of instructional materials, and pat- oftower primaryschootlstudents. terns of student interaction-is often not colLect- ed and analyzed regularly. Evaluations of innovations are often superficial and question- ous assessment of student learning or financial able. In particular, outcomes of pilots are rarely and management costs. related to cost-incomprehensible in a region Several African countries, recognizing the where almost all education systems face severe importance of measuring education inputs and resource constraints. The 1999 stocktaking exer- outcomes, participate in initiatives sponsored by cise of the Association for the Development of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Education in Africa documented this point con- Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to improve nation- vincingly. These shortcomings inhibit effective al education statistics and monitor student learn- reforms, not least because countries cannot easily ing through standardized tests (box 3.7). In gauge the impact of policies and expenditures or francophone countries the Program to Analyze the scope for taking pilots to scale without rigor- Education Systems implements simiLar initiatives A CHANCE TO LEARN 43 Southern African Consortium for the Measurement of Educational Quality Lack of technical capacity has kept African countries For each country the exercise generated detailed from participating in comparative internationaL assess- reports on progress in reading and related this infor- ments of learning achievement To remedy this situa- mation to key variables, including the child's socio- tion, a few countries in southern Africa recently formed economic background and the school environment. the Southern African Consortium for the Measurement The results? Pupils performed poorly when judged of Educational Quality. In a promisirng example of what by standards of mastery set by national reading can be achieved through regional cooperation, five of experts and selected grade 6 teachers. Achievement these countries (Mauritius, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, differences within countries tended to surpass those and Zimbabwe) have camred out sample-based nation- between countries. Differences between regions, at assessments of reading in grade 6 of primary schooL socioeconomic groups, and school location (rural or The exercise was supported by the International urban) were much more important than gender differ- Institute of Educational Planning. The assessments' ences. A second exercise to measure learning out- adherence to high technical standards allowed these comes in other subjects and other grades is being countries to compare learning achievemeitt with that undertaken for an expanded group including francoph- of other countries at a similar level of development. one countries. with the support of the Conference of Ministers of tribute to wider knowledge and discussion of Education with French as a Common Language education research findings. (CONFEMEN). Such initiatives build countries' capacity to collect and analyze key education indi- cators. Education assessments that regularly mea- Unwavering Commitment to Equity sure the performance of samples of chiLdren in key grades and subjects enable policymakers to deter- Unless widely and equitably available, effective mine progress over time and compare the out- basic education will not boost social and econom- comes of different groups of children. Regular ic development. Today's out-of-school children are assessments also can often point teaching in a typically members of hard-to-reach disadvantaged positive direction. groups, almost always poor (Filmer and Pritchett In recent years several institutions and net- 1999), and often in remote areas. Nearly 60 per- works focusing on education research have cent of out-of-school children in Africa are girls. emerged in Africa. These include the Council for Countries need targeted strategies that stimu- the Development of Social Science Research in late demand, remove administrative obstacles to Africa (CODESRIA) in Senegal, the Pan African schooling, and adapt curricula and instructional Center for Study and Research in International strategies to rural conditions. Opportunities for Relations and Education for Development learning and advanced education must reflect equi- (CEPARRED), and the Educational Research ty concerns to avoid perpetuating socially embed- Network for East and South Africa (ERNESA). ded disparities based on gender, region, or other Several recently launched education journals con- groupings. Africa will have to close the ruraL-urban 44 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT gap to make rapid progress toward education for in the primary gross enrollment ratio exceeds 20 all. Gross enrollment ratios in urban areas, espe- percentage points. cialLy capitaL cities, are typicalLy much higher than Within countries differences in female partici- those in rural areas; for example, 90 percent in pation rates largely relate to urban-rural dispari- Niamey, Niger, 85 percent in Addis Ababa, ties. A long journey to schooL is a major obstacLe Ethiopia, and 80 percent in Bamako, MaLi, com- to the enrolLment of girls because of the perceived pared with 20 percent or less in the rural areas of dangers involved and the opportunity cost of los- these countries. Living in rural areas usually ing female labor to perform household chores, care affects school enrollment more than gender (figure for young children or sick family members, and 3.1). work on family land. Thus a key priority for much Parents in rural areas often are asked to con- of Africa is to increase the initial enrollment of tribute more than parents in urban areas to the girls in rural areas, both for social equity and the cost of schooling. Their contribution can take the positive impact girls' education has on agricultur- form of labor, usually for school construction and al productivity, fertility, family health, nutrition, maintenance, or payment of official and unofficial and the schooling of the next generation. fees and Levies. In many community schooLs in Raising female enrollment rates will require care- countries such as Chad, these fees must cover the fully targeted programs involving supply-side inter- salaries of teachers hired by parents. Rural disad- vantage is refLected not only in the high household cost of education but also in the poor quaLity of Figure 3.1 Primary Enrollment rural education. Teacher absenteeism is more com- Ratios by Grade for Rural and Urban mon in rural than in urban areas, especially where Children in Niger staff must travel long distances to collect salaries. Percent The educational attainment of staff is typically Lower, and textbooks and other instructional mate- 90 rials are supplied erratically or not at all. 80 Classrooms are often poorly built and unusable dur- Urban Boys ing the rainy season. These factors result in low 70 student learning and high failure rates in sec- \ ondary school entrance exams. Education inequalities between maLes and 50 Urba females is a further chalLenge if Africa is to accel- erate its education deveLopment. The gender gap 40 in the primary gross enrollment ratio in Africa 30 stood at 13.6 percentage points in 1995-lower than in the Middle East and North Africa (16.1 20 roys percent) and South Asia (23.4 percent) but con- 20 siderably higher than in East Asia and Latin America. The regional gender gap conceals consid- _ Rural GirLs = erable country variation. In 11 countries (Benin, 0 Central African Republic, Chad, C6te d'Ivoire, K 1 2 3 4 5 Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Gambia, Source:WorldBank2000c. Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, and Togo) the gap A CHANCE TO LEARN 45 Success Factors in Girls' Schooling The widespread gender enrollment gap in developing * Work with students' families to tutor them and country education systems has been the focus of con- provide further support. siderable research and policy discussion in recent * Receive gender sensitivity training or have many years. However, gender relations in the cLassroom have years of experience. not received the same attention. To understand the Grassroots initiatives such as the following hetp girls key factors in girls' performance at the pnrmary level, stay in school: the World Bank studied interventions in Burkina Faso, * Parent-teacher associations sensitize neighbors to Guinea, MaLi, and Mauritania. The study showed that the importance of girls' education, contribute to girLs perform better when: school construction and maintenance, and work with Parents school administrators to solve discipline problems. * Make a deLiberate effort to reduce the workload at * Mothers of Students Associations in Burkina Faso, home. whose main objective is to raise enrollment and * Give girLs time and space to do their homework. success rates, particularly of girLs, offer encour- * Are invoLved in the chiLd's schooL Life and follow agement, advice, and financiaL support for girLs in her work at home. school. * Reques tutorng0 by a fa ily member or by a T study ultsh also showed that girls are more teacher or a neighbor. likely to participate activeLy in classes taught in the Teachers locaL Language, and that religious traditions need not * Do not shout at students or humiliate them. be a barrier to gender equity in education. Islamic * Call on girls to contribute to classes even when Mauritania, for example, has more than halved the they do not volunteer. gender enrollment gap to only 6 percent at the prima- * Do not underestimate girls' at ry level over the past five years. Source: World Bank 2000c. ventions such as recruitment of femaLe teachers and enroLLment and narrowed the gender enroLLment gap early childhood deveLopment programs for sibLings. by lifting official school fees for girls. Higher female enroLLment will also require demand- Primary completion rates and transiticn rates side interventions to reduce cuLtural constraints to from primary to secondary education show no girls' schooling and increase community awareness clear evidence of systematic disadvantage to and support for the enroLLment of girls (box 3.8). African girLs (International Consultative Forum on Zambia's Programme for the Advancement of Girls' Education for ARl 1998; UNESCO 1998d). Yet varia- Education has piLoted several successful demand-side tions within and between countries are consider- interventions, incLuding inviting parents to observe abLe, and higher repetition and dropout rates, as lessons and introducing single-sex cLasses, that seem weLL as lower Learning achievement, for girls have to have increased female participation in primary been found in several countries. At the same time schooL. SimiLarLy, Benin has increased girls' primary a study of literacy in Mauritius, Namibia, 46 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT Zimbabwe, and Zanzibar, Tanzania found no differ- After teacher saLaries, infrastructjre is the ence between boys' and girls' reading (Saito largest cost associated with the provision of school- 1998). Clearly more research is needed on how and ing and can add 25-50 percent to operal:ing costs. To how much late enrollment, dropping out earLy, and provide places in school for all school-age chiLdren, in-schooL factors affect girls' school performance. African countries will need to build more than While culturaL constraints frequentLy contribute 150,000 new classrooms a year, many in rural areas, to education inequaLities, recent research suggests over the next 15 years. To ensure the access of chil- that poor parents in rural areas are more ready than dren in sparsely popuLated areas, education will have previousLy thought to enroll their chiLdren-including to be provided in schooLs with three or fewer cLass- girLs-in school, provided the schooLs are of accept- rooms. Many of Africa's school construction programs abLe quaLity, fairly close to home, and affordable have been unnecessarily costLy (an initial review of (Glewwe 1994; PROBE Team 1999). BuiLding schooLs World Bank projects suggests that the cost of class- cLoser to girls' homes is often an effective way to room construction in Africa is two to three times the redress many gender inequaLities. CLoser schooLs cost in South Asia) and not designed ior the needs reduce the opportunity costs of girLs' schooLing, of rural areas. Achieving universal access to prmary accommodate absences more easiLy, and make inter- education will require involving comrnunities and action with teachers Less formal and threatening, so NGOs in constructing smaLL, dispersed f3ciLities. This that girLs find it easier to enroll and stay in school. strategy couLd buiLd many cLassrooms at a much These research findings also suggest that a sig- Lower cost and increase enroLLments witliOut compro- nificant obstacle to greater equity in education has mising safety or learning. been the faiLure to adapt the traditionaL six-class- Strategies to invoLve communities in schooL room, six-teacher school to local conditions. construction are part of a broader shift toward Expecting children to enroLl at a specific age and decentraLized pLanning, resource rianagement, come to schooL in uniform with textbooks and basic and deLivery. This shift is based on the recognition suppLies does not fit the constraints faced by poor that highly centraLized education systems are people in low-density rural areas, especially in the unLikeLy to meet the needs of ruraL, disadvan- SaheLian countries and parts of East Africa. These taged, and hard-to-reach groups. Expanding the probLems are particuLarLy serious in areas where roLe of district education offices and communities nomadic customs prevent chiLdren from reguLarly requires a shift both in resources and responsibil- attending traditional schools. In many parts of rural ities linked to concerted capacity bui.ding efforts. Africa aLternative modeLs such as mobile schooLs and Rapid progress toward universal education aLso muLtigrade schools are more appropriate for these wiLL require many more teachers. In 1995 Sub- chiLdren (box 3.9). Multigrade schooling is especial- Saharan Africa had about 3 miLlion teachers, repre- Ly effective if instruction is personalized and based senting 3.6 percent of the nonagri(ULturaL Labor on cooperative Learning and peer tutoring. force. Two-thirds of these teachers tauqht at the pri- Multigrade pedagogicaL training and specialLy mary LeveL. More than haLf of the region's primary designed materials are essentiaL for the success of teachers are LikeLy to leave the teaching force in the such an approach. Such instruction heLps eliminate next 15 years. At Least 1 million additional teachers grade repetition, accommodates student absences, will be required to achieve universaL pimary educa- and aLLows students to proceed at their own pace. tion by 2015, meaning that African countries will SeveraL Latin American countries, following the Lead have to train about 200,000 new teac[ers a year for of CoLombia's escuela nueva, impLement this the next 15 years, assuming an attrition rate of 2.5 approach to rural schooLing. percent. This number is probabLy underestimated, A CHANCE TO LEARN 47 Nigeria-Developing Education Programs for Nomads Nomad communities account for 8.5 percent of Nigeria's the nomad communities and given specialist training. population, or 9.3 million people. Onethird of this pop- Commnities have a central role in managing the ulation is of school age, and until recently few nomadic schools, and the program has collaborated with NGOs children received an education. As a resuLt literacy rates and donors. among nomad groups range from .2-2.0 percent Enrollment results have been impressive, with Nomads face a range of constraints to hher levels of 155,000 children enrolled in 1998 compared with educational attainment. The constant search for pasture, 18,000 in 1990. The proportion of girls enrolled has and among coastal communities, for fish, together with also risen markedly, the parity rate reaching 85 per- the importance of child lbor make most formal and cent in 1998. Adult literacy classes now enrolL 2,600 nonformal education systems ill-suited to the nomadic women across 12 states. way of Life. Challenges remain: quaLity is poor, and the pro- Recognizing these constrainrts the government portion of trained teachers has fatlen since the system created the National Commission for Nomadic rapidLy expanded. Funding is insufficient to provide Education in 1989. The commission is responsible for every school with books for the new curricula, and as providing nomads with functional and elnt educa- a result many children are taught the sedentary school tion and improving their survival sills.k curriculum. Dropout rates are exceptionally high, with The commission first gathered accurate baseline fewer than one-fifth of chiLdren graduating in the daa to prvove a solid f ton ford ar- a dime Some problems are beyond the control native modeLs to meet the needs of nomad children. of the commission. In many areas vioLence between These models include primary education in collapsible nomads and farmers has prevented communities from mobiLe classrooms and boat schools, extension aduLt participating in educationaL programs. Despite these education cLasses, and radio listening groups. challenges, the program has demonstrated that if Alternative curricula have been devel usin flexi- school models are adapted to the needs of nomad bLe timetables, and teachers have been recruited from communities, demand for education is high. given the high attrition rates among teachers in the decisions, and implementation responsibility in a countries worst affected by HIV/AIDS. Such demand small group of officials in central education min- outstrips the capacity of traditional teacher training istries. Nor wiLL universal primary education be institutions, especialLy in countries with Low gross achieved without strategies that explicitly target enroLlment ratios. In many cases countries will need the needs and constraints of excLuded groups such alternative, cost-effective strategies to train Large as the poor, ruraL populations, and girls. numbers of additionaL teachers to accelerate educa- MeaningfuL progress will require: tion deveLopment (see box 3.4). * DeveLoping models of quaLity schooLing appro- In sum, education systems that continue to priate for rural conditions. operate in traditionaL ways are unlikeLy to achieve * DeveLoping education strategies that address universal primary education. Neither are systems the demand- and supply-side obstacles facing that concentrate poLicymaking, resource aLLocation hard-to-reach groups. 48 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT * Mobilizing and empowering communities to and other groups with traditionally Liniited access manage classroom construction and be active- to higher education (box 3.10). ly invoLved in school operations. Even if aLL children ages 6-11 wele enroLLed in * Increasing in-service training of teachers and school today and all completed the primary cycLe, restructuring the teaching profession, with Africa would need as long as 25 years to raise the decentraLized provision of teacher support. average educationaL attainment of its aduLt popu- * DecentraLizing pLanning and resource manage- Lation to five years. Thus the region needs to give ment responsibiLities to communities and dis- aduLts and youths who have not attended school, trict education offices. or who have dropped out earLy, the opportunity to Without equity in access to quaLity primary continue their education and acquire skills needed education, significant progress in equity at higher in work and society. Expanding educationaL oppor- LeveLs is impossibLe. Countries must ensure that tunities for Africa's 140 miLLion iLilterate aduLts, girLs have the same opportunities as boys to con- and for millions more whose education has been tinue their education beyond the basic cycLe. Limited in duration and quaLity, is an imperative Marriage customs and cuLturaL practices associated on both equity and human deveLoprnent grounds with the onset of puberty are often serious obsta- in particuLar, as one of the most important effects cLes to girls' education. Overcoming these demand- of aduLt basic education is the suppcrt that suc- side obstacLes wiLL require determined efforts by cessfuL participants provide for the schooLing of those who infLuence pubLic opinion and political their chiLdren. Continuing education programs and reLigious Leaders. should deveLop not onLy Literacy and occupational PoLicy options incLude separate schooLs for skiLLs, but also Life skills in areas such as HIV/AIDS girls, schoLarships for girLs, and strategies to short- prevention. en distances between homes and schools. While the importance of aduLt basic education Countries aLso wiLL have to improve the participa- programs for acceLerating education deveLopment tion and performance of girLs in math and science is wideLy accepted, such programs have a variabLe classes. Girls account for less than 25 percent of all track record. Many have had high dropout and low students enroLLed in these cLasses in Burkina Faso. pass rates, aLthough recent approaches have In Chad in 1997-98 onLy 4 percent of the students improved these rates considerabLy. However, the enroLLed in science were girLs. Girls aLso have a Lack of good data and evaLuation coistrains judg- Lower success rate than boys in science subjects ing the effectiveness of such programs (Oxenham (UNESCO 1998b). Tutoring and exposure to roLe and Aoki 1999; LaugLo 2000). The evidence that is modeLs are possibLe remedies for this probLem. availabLe suggests that aduLt basic education pro- Females are most underrepresented in higher edu- grams are more effective if they t3rget specific cation, as a direct resuLt of their disadvantage at audiences, receive strong support from govern- the secondary Level. Affirmative action programs in ment, and maximize opportunities to deveLop higher education may heLp, but a Lasting soLution partnerships between governmenl: and NGOs. depends both on tackLing equity issues with deter- SeveraL countries have invoLved NGO; by contract- mination at the primary and secondary Levels and ing out basic education programs lbox 3.11) or on deveLoping more fLexibLe models of Learning at inviting NGO participation in nationaL programs higher education LeveLs that allow women to com- (Namibia, Mozambique, Uganda). Instructors who bine study with househoLd responsibiLities. Where receive a stipend-and sometimes voLunteer such approaches have been deveLoped, they have instructors-usuaLLy deliver these programs in successfuLLy expanded opportunities for women national languages. A CHANCE TO LEARN 49 The Dual System of Face-to-Face and Distance Education at the University of Namibia The distance education degree program offered by the College to supplement existing courses. Links with the Center for External Studies at the University of University of South Africa and British institutions fund- Namibia is a promising example of how distance edu- ed by the Commonwealth of Learning enhanced capaci- cation programs can expand opportunities to groups ty building. Nine regional program centers across the who have traditionally had littLe or no access to high- country collect student fees, organize face-to-face ses- er education. Since political independence in 1990, sions, handle examinations, and advertise courses distance learning has been a key dimenslion of the among local communities. Distance learners now University of Namibia's expansion program. The dual account for a third of University of Namibia students. system-offering the same qualifications to full-time The Center for External Studies has been particuLarly and distance learners-reflects the governments com- effective in reaching women. Seventy-five percent of mitment to make eveTy Level of education available to distance learners are women, many of whom would be people excluded under the apartheid regime. unable to attend traditional campus-based programs Since 1997 the Center for External Studies has because of household responsibilities. offered diploma courses in education and Bachelor of Costs are met entirely by the students and are set Education and 8achelor of Nursing degrees, and in at the same level as for full-time students. As a result 1998 introduced a Bachelor of Business Administration the center is 40-50 percent self-financing. While stu- degree on a pilot basis. The Bachelor of Education dent retention and test results are not as high as for course was designed to increase4the numbers of highly ful itudets dropout rates have falLen markedly, qualified secondary teachers in the priorisuts of so that 80 percent of distance teamers now complete math and English, wfhile the nursing course was a prag- their courses. Pass rates among distance students have matic response to the fact that the Ministry of Health also improved, reaching almost 70 percent in 1998. could no longer afford to release trained nurses for fu- Students and academics agree that the distance learn- time upgrading. The university hopes that intermediate ing program has maintained quality. The key lessons qualifications will motivate external students for whom from Namibia's dual-mode distance learning program? a six-year part-time course can be uting. Strong leadership from the highest university level and The program has benefited from widespd collab- an emphasis on staff development, decentralization, oration with other insttions. Courses were bought and quality control can make a significant contribution from the Polytechnik oftNamibia,0 the Brits On pn toexpanding access to higher education in Africa with- University, and the Cambridge National Extension out compromising quality. Up-Front Emphasis on Institutional design and deliver education deveLopment pro- Strengthening grams. To deliver education effectively and effi- cientLy aLL stakehoLders need sensible incentives AcceLerating education development aLmost aLways and must operate according to reasonable and requires an explicit action pLan to strengthen the transparent ruLes within efficient organizationaL capacity of nationaL and locaL institutions to structures and with competent staff. 50 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT Box 3.11 - Providing Basic Education Opportunities to Reduce Iltiteracy: Senegal's Experience Senegals Literacy Program Prioritizing the Participation pants. Of the total volume of PAFP publications (101 of Women (PAFP) is part of the National Directorate of books/booklets, including a dictionary in Wolof) Literacy and Basic Education's national literacy pro- 187,000 copies have been sold. gram. The program supports functional and post-literacy Teaching is outsourced to more than 420 local courses in five regions of Senegal and periurban areas nongovemrnment providers, up from 77 providers in 1995. of Dakar. Since 1995 PAFP has reached more than The increase shows that a rapidly growing market of 150,000 learners. In the most recent (fifth) intake for training providers can be created over a short period. the functionaL literacy courses, 54,000 enroled. Prospective literacy operators submit applications The post-literacy program has enrolled 15,500 according to a procedures manual and are screened and learners in three intakes. Demand is large: 183,000 nominated by a national selection board appointed by applied at the last intake. More than 80 percent of the the minister of education. Financial management of the leamers are 15-39 years old, and about three-quarters contractuaL reLations with operators (and some routine are women. A major achievement of the program is the monitoring) has been outsourced to AGETIP, a state low dropout rate, estimated at 10 percent parastatal agency experienced in project administra- The functional literacy classes provide at least tion. Through its executing agency, the ministry con- 300 hours of instruction in local languages over 18 centrates on planning and program design, program months for at least 20 people per class. Providers can implementation (including training of the operators), choose from a list of curricula approved by the capacity deveLopment, and quality assurance. Every 10 Ministry of Education. PAPF also supports local news- cLasses has a supervisor. The NationaL Directorate of papers in each region in the local language and pro- Literacy and Basic Education is primarily re;ponsible for jects retated to agriculture, health, and the evaluating and monitoring the nationat literacy program environment. PAPF plans a Link to microcredit access of which PAPF is part. Each contracting NGO hires its and to local learning resource centers, which wilL serve own teachers, most of whom are localLy recruited and a target group wider than the program's own partici- have a lower secondary school dipLoma. Accountability of providers to beneficiaries is As more countries assign responsibiLity for increasingly recognized as centraL to institutionaL managing education deLivery to subnational Levels effectiveness in the public sector (World Bank and institutions, they need to redefine roles and 1999b). In education this finding has Led to a responsibilities and establish new incentive sys- move away from traditional, highLy centralized tems and financiaL and personnel management management modeLs. SeveraL countries are decon- rules. Capacity buiLding wiLL invoLve all Levels of centrating management authority to fieLd-leveL the system. At the national Level the priority wiLL government officiaLs responsible for specific geo- be to strengthen the capacity to analyze key sec- graphic areas (Crooke 1997). Others are searching tor issues, plan national poLicy and institutionaL for ways to increase autonomy at the LeveL of the reforms, and support their implementation. school, training center, or university. A few are EquaLLy important are capacities to establish doing both. benchmarks for policy reform and to monitor and A CHANCE TO LEARN 51 evaLuate progress toward these benchmarks. In with the expectation of complementary communi- particuLar, countries need stronger research and ty contributions, poor househoLds should not face deveLopment capacities to experiment with and excessive burdens that wiLL risk excluding disad- pilot programs, develop curricuLa and instructionaL vantaged chiLdren. materiaLs, formuLate teacher training programs, Often governments can use pubLic funds to and design schooL faciLities. contract private providers of essential education At the local and institutionaL LeveL they wiLL need services. This is a good way to reduce the burden to deveLop capacity for new responsibiLities such as on public institutions without jeopardizing equity allocating resources, managing teaching staff, and objectives because it concentrates government planning and impLementing investment programs. provision on activities with no aLternative SeveraL countries are experimenting with providers (see box 3.10). Government agencies can empowering communities to manage the deLivery of then focus on policy, planning, and contract man- education services either partially or compLeteLy. agement, turning to service deLivery onLy where These experiments typicaLLy invoLve estabLishing or private providers are not cost-effective. Several revitaLizing schooL management committees, par- countries are exploring ways to contract the deLiv- ent-teacher associations, or village education com- ery of adult basic education and vocational pro- mittees and alLowing them to decide how to use grams to parastataL or private providers. public subsidies and community resources. Such SimilarLy, anaLysts and university administra- decisions have often been limited to schooL con- tors agree on the benefits of making universities struction but increasingly involve nonsaLary operat- responsible for managing their resources and ing costs and other service delivery issues. Where defining institutional policy. The nature of need- communities are given a greater role in education ed poLicy reforms is reasonabLy cLear and accept- management, support for community-LeveL capacity ed by most stakehoLders, but the political will and buiLding is usuaLLy a condition of success (Colletta sustained support for these urgent changes is and Perkins 1995). often Lacking. Some countries, however, are mak- Some countries have gone even further, aLLow- ing progress in this direction. Universities in ing communities to decide on the hiring and firing Burkina Faso, C6te d'Ivoire, and Senegal have of teachers. Others have asked communities to started on the reform path. Uganda's Makerere deveLop school improvement pLans that can be University is probably Africa's most impressive funded from pubLic resources. In a number of exampLe of institutional reform in higher educa- African countries communities have started their tion (box 3.12). own schooLs without public subsidies. However, Urgent reform of the management and financ- these faciLities, whiLe a testimony to the commit- ing of higher education needs to be accompanied ment of poor, mostLy rural communities to educa- in many countries by a radicaL rethinking of tion, are generaLLy of [ow quaLity and are attended approaches to broadening university access. Most by a minority of chiLdren, usualLy from poor fami- African countries cannot maintain current universi- lies. Because they provide services that the state ty enrollment Levels of under 5 percent. The emer- typically provides free to weaLthier parents in gence of a globaLLy integrated knowLedge-based urban areas, these schooLs have a regressive effect economy, and the need for LifeLong learning oppor- on pubLic spending counter to the centraL educa- tunities for workers to upgrade their skills and tion equity objective of excLuding no chiLd from maintain their competitiveness, are creating new education opportunities for financiaL reasons. pressures to raise university enroLLments. Yet with Even where governments provide pubLic subsidies severe resource and management constraints, 52 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT expanding the traditionaL residentiaL campus Box 3.12 modeL-students pursuing a fuLL-time degree B course for three or more years-is unlikely to be feasibLe. Makerere University: A Model of Instead Africa needs new institutional Institutional Reform arrangements that can overcome current cost, access, and quaLity probLems in higher education Since the early 1990s Uganda's Makerere University and enabLe its universities to compete successfuL- has more than doubled its enroltmertt, improved ly with institutions in other countries that recruit much of its physical and academic infrastructure, students from a globaL pool through distance edu- introduced a semester system, and estabtished new cation programs. The region also needs more fLex- courses, degrees, departments, and facLitties. ARl of ibLe and cost-effective Learning modeLs that this was achieved despite declining finarncial support harness new technoLogies and aLLow students to from the government. enter degree programs that combine work and The university carried out fundamental financial study. Access to computers is onLy part of the and administrative reform, intensified the use of solution. Countries that want to take advantage of facilities, dramaticalty increased fee-paying stu- new technologies will need to invest in curricu- dents, and created five commercial units and an lum-reLated software. An example of this approach associated consultancy company. Accom Danying and is the Confederation of Open Learning Institutions facilitating these changes has been a new relation- in South Africa (COLISA), a partnership of the ship with the government that gives the university country's three main higher education distance more control over internal institutiorial matters. Learning institutions. COLISA is deveLoping Makerere's dramatic pace and shape of enrollment Internet-based courseware, a Web-based student- expansion, financial diversification, acadlemic devel- teacher interaction system, and a series of local opment, administrative reform, and generaL revital- Internet access points for students. Such experi- ization offer several lessons. ments offer scope for enhancing access to higher Reforms have included alternative financing education without compromising quaLity. strategies (encouraging privately sponsored stu- Traditional universities are testing promising dents, commercializing service units, institutional- innovations using new technoLogy to deliver quaLi- izing consultancy arrangements), demand-driven ty education services. For exampLe, the African academic reforms (attracting private sftudents by VirtuaL University is beginning to deLiver high-quaL- providing courses for which individuaLs, families, ity degree courses in science, engineering, and and companies are willing to pay), and decentral- business through satellite networks (box 3.13). ized and participatory management (enhancing aca- Open universities are aLso broadening access to demic development, research, planning, and higher education through more traditional means, staffing by restructuring management to increase as in Namibia (see box 3.10). autonomy and internaL decentraLization). Strengthening institutions and implementing education reforms and related investments wilL take time-often as long as 10-15 years. The time ly designed to Learn from experience and to frame for performance targets, deveLopment objec- support programs Long enough to aLLow them to tives, and financiaL and institutionaL sustainabiLity build capacity. The timeframe for institutional goals should refLect this Long-term view. strengthening ilLustrates the importance of long- ImpLementation strategies wiLL have to be expLicit- term government-donor partnerships. In addition, A CHANCE TO LEARN 53 The African Virtual University The African VirtuaL University, a university without Library with over 1,000 full-text journals, and a Web waUls, uses modern information and communication site (www.avu.org) that alLows access to e-mail for technologies to give the countries of Sub-Saharan over 10,000 free accounts. Africa direct access to some of the world's highest Building on the success of its pilot phase, the quality academic faculty and learning resources. The African Virtual University has become an independent African Virtual University bndges the digitaL divide by nonprofit organization with headquarters in Nairobi and training world-class scientists, engineers, technicians, a supporting office in Washington, D.C. The university business managers, and other professionals who will plans two main product lines: the academic channel, promote economic and sociaL development and heLp which wiU offer undergraduate students degrees in com- Africa leapfrog into the knowledge age. puter science and electrical and computer engineering Since the launch of its piLot phase in 1997, as of October 2001 and the business and technoLogy with World Bank support the African Virtual channel, which will deliver short courses in manage- University has provided students and professionals ment, information technology, and foreign languages as in 15 African countries more than 2,500 hours of of October 2000, as well as an executive Masters in interactive instruction in English and French. More Business Administration soon thereafter. than 12,000 students have completed semester-long In the next three years the African Virtuat courses in engineering and the sciences, and over University pLans to expand to more countries in Africa 2,500 professionals have attended executive and and reach undergraduate students, faculty, and profes- professionaL management seminars on topics such as sionaLs through learning centers in pubLic and private strategy and innovation, entrepreneurship, globaL universities, private franchises, and on-site competencies, and e-commerce. The African Virtual proesional learning centers housed in corporations University also provides access to an on-Line digital and NGOs. strategies for innovation and reform wiLL need to after the adoption of significant policy reforms. be tested in experimentaL settings but designed for Countries with Low enrolLment may need such assis- Low-cost repLication. Countries cannot afford muL- tance for 10-15 years. But to sustain education tipLe high-cost experiments that end up as perma- deveLopment over the Long term, countries wiLL need nent pilots (Verspoor 1989). to mobiLize the domestic resources (pubLic and pri- vate) that the education system needs to operate, as well as to ensure efficient use of these resources. Tough Choices to Ensure Financial Nevertheless, even when opportunities for Sustainability efficiency gains and private financing are fully expLoited, programs to acceLerate education deveL- African countries will have to ensure that programs opment wilL usualLy have considerabLe impLications for accelerated education development are financial- for government budgets. Thus countries must ly sustainabLe. External assistance can narrow the change the way education is financed and man- financing gap that aLmost inevitabLy deveLops just aged. A quantum leap in education development 54 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT will demand financial policies that define cLear pri- ciency gains. Better instruction will often require orities for public resource allocation, increase the increasing annual costs per student, usually for effectiveness of public spending, include strategies nonsalary spending, but should result in more grad- for diversifying funding sources beyond the public uates, tower costs per graduate, and a more effi- sector, and allocate additional resources to the cient flow of students through the system. In many sector. These tough choices will be feasible after countries teacher pay and deployment are sources extensive consultations with stakeholders in a of inefficiency. Teacher saLaries may be pegged at democratic and participatory environment. levels that effectively preclude the enrollment of all children, or teachers may be underpaid. In several Setting priorities for publi spending countries the student:teacher ratio is Linnecessarily low; in others it is inefficiently high. Many countries, especially the poorest, can only Almost all African countries allocate too few meet the demand for education if they make clear resources for instructional materials and the profes- and consistent choices about allocating public sional development of teachers. In several countries resources to purposes that no private resources can administrative expenditures are growing faster than fund. The top priorities for public spending will any other expenditure category. Many countnes typically be: spend too much public money on too few students * Protecting equity by ensuring that poor people in institutions of higher education, often providing are not excLuded from education because they poorly targeted support for living experditures and cannot pay for it. Basic education typically will inadequately funding teaching and research. be provided free to the poor and adequate sup- Reallocating such spending toward better instruc- port will be available at higher levels for capa- tion usually will make resource use more efficient. ble poor students. * Allocating resources to deLiver quality service, Diversifying funding sources by protecting nonsalary spending even when resources are scarce and managing admissions Operation of education systems in Africa has tra- beyond the basic education cycle to provide ditionally been funded primarily from centrally sufficient funding for all necessary inputs for managed public resources. Many governments quality instruction. need to expLore ways to broaden the resource base * Providing resources and personnel to strength- for education and training and set clear priorities en the capacity of national and local institu- for public funding. The case for public funding of tions to design and impLement reforms, basic education is strong (Lockheed and Verspoor including resources and personnel for evalua- 1991), but even at the basic education level, tion and knowledge dissemination. financial pressures have led governments to rely * Developing and disseminating lessons from on parent contributions-school fees, contribu- innovations, particularly those involving new tions to school development funds, aid textbook technologies that can improve quality and purchases-to defray the direct costs of instruc- expand access cost-effectively. tion. Combined with other private costs associat- ed with schooLing (school un iforms, the Spending resources effectively opportunity cost of labor), education has become too expensive for many poor people. In Burkina Reducing dropout and repetition rates through Faso and Uganda the private out-of-pocket cost of more effective instruction can achieve major effi- sending one child to school amounts to as much A CHANCE TO LEARN 55 as 20 percent of per capita income (Mehrotra and incentives could enhance their contribution to edu- Delamonica 1998). cation deveLopment. Ensuring equitable access to Thus free basic education sometimes com- quality primary education for all is a public responsi- bined with targeted support-in the form of free bility, but government does not always have to be books and scholarships-wiLL often be needed to responsible for financing as well as delivering the ensure that the poorest children, especially girls, complete gamut of education services. Where public are enrolled in basic education. At higher Levels, authorities, private providers, and communities work usually beyond tower secondary education, selec- in partnership, a wide range of alternatives such as tive cost sharing is often a policy option, with a concessions to NGOs and block grants to communi- strong equity justification. Students at these 1ev- ties operating their own schools may be feasible. els are typicaLLy better off. Need-based scholar- Private operators are increasingly important ships and student loan programs can assure the partners in education service delivery in Africa, as equitable access of poor students, and universi- democratic change and free market policies across ties can often generate resources by seLLing ser- the region create a new space for civil society vices (see box 3.12). organizations and commercial providers. Private Another important eLement of pubLic education institutions run by for-profit operators provide spending is reguLation that maximizes opportunities vocationaL and technical training, especially in for service delivery by private for-profit and nonprof- business skills, computer skiLLs, and Languages. it providers. Many such providers exist, but their Large employers usuaLLy train their workers in- quaLity is extremeLy variable. Better reguLation and house. Many NGOs operate basic skill training for m !. A lA Government Sponsorship of Students at Private Institutions: A Case of Demand-Side Financing Student sponsorship in private institutions is a good ondary schooL and also in technical and professional example of the pubLic and private sectors working training. Students can be sponsored to attend both together to heLp achieve important educational and religious and secular private schools. Student pLace- social objectives. The number of places in public insti- ment depends partLy on the educationaL performance tutions in C6te d'Ivoire is insufficient to meet student of the schools. Only "chartered' institutions are eLigi- demand. To heLp bridge some of the gap, the govern- ble to take on sponsored students. ment has begun sponsoring public students to attend The payment varies with the student's education private institutions. level: 126,200 CFAF ($200) per year for lower secondary Private institutions play an important roLe in the students and 147,023 CFAF ($233) per year for upper Cote d'Ivoire education system, where they represent secondary students. Until recently students were eligible 12 percent of primary schooLs, 36 percent of secondary for partial subsidies (50 percent), but these are being schooLs, and 67 percent of technical training colleges. phased out. In 1997 the government paid about $10.3 Under the sponsorship program, the government pays million to sponsor over 162,000 students in private pri- private schools for each public student placed. The mary and secondary schooLs. In 1995-96, 40 percent of government sponsors students in Lower and upper sec- students in private institutions were state sponsored. 56 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT youth and adults. The number of private secondary tion in West Afrca, and prvatization of food and schools is increasing rapidLy in many countries, and housing services in institutions of high2r education about 40 private universities have been estab- in Burkina Faso, C6te d'Ivoire, and Seneqal. Lished in the 1990s in Africa. Several countries give students attending private institutions public Providing additional public funding financial support through scholarships or vouchers. This kind of demand-side financing (box 3.14), Macroeconomic strategies must prioritize improving especialty when targeted to eLigibLe students from and expanding education. To achieve rapid progress poor families, can increase the equity and efficien- in education deveLopment, many counties will have cy of public expenditures for education. to increase pubLic education expenditures signifi- Governments may also want to reconsider their cantLy, even after redirecting public resources to invoLvement in pubLishing textbooks, buiLding class- high-priority areas. One estimate of such expendi- rooms, and providing catering services to secondary tures is an increase each year over the next decade schools and universities, alL of which the private by 5-6 percent in reaL terms (Mehrotra 1997). sector usualLy does more effectively. Several Afrcan Another is an annual additionaL expenditure of $3.6 countries have started to move in this direction, billion to put Sub-Saharan Africa on track toward with promising resuLts. Examples include textbook universaL primary education by 2015 (Oxfam 1999). provision in Kenya (box 3.15), cLassroom construc- These caLcuLations ilLustrate the magnitude of the Box 3.15 - Privatization and Decentratization of Textbook Provision in Kenya In recent years a growing number of African countries the limrit of their allocated textbook budget. School have shifted the responsibility for textbook provision orders were then consolidated at the d4strict level, from government agencies to private publishers. In and suppty corntracts were awarded based on tocal most cases this shift has involved a move from monop- competitive bidding. oly to competitive textbook provision. As part of this A detailed evaLuation of the three methods of process, governments have had to devetop systems selection and procurement, as well as the performance that give schools the purchasing power and responsi- of publishers and local retaiL booksellers, showed that bility for selecting textbooks. all three approaches produced good results, atthough Kenya undertook a pilot project in textbook pro- district procurement created distribution problems, vision during 1996-98, covering 533 primary schools and the local purchase orders created administrative in the districts of Machakos and Laikipia. The schoots problems. Publishers and bookselters performed wetl, were divided into three groups, each group given a and schools noted that decentralized suppty and per capita budget for textbook purchase and selection school-based decisionmaking led to lower prices, effi- based on a list compiled by the Ministry of Education cient and fast delivery by book setlers, and rapid cor- and Sports. The first group received cash deposited in rection of order inaccuracies, benefits that were a school bank account. The second group received a lacking during the period of state pubtishing and sup- local purchase order. The third group schools received ply. The pilot project has since become part of Kenya's an order form on which they could order books up to nationaL textbook provision poLicy, A CHANCE TO LEARN 57 expense, but in practice a sustainable framework for Bold reforms are needed, as welL as a stronger base each country wiLL require country-specific caLcuLa- of knowledge and capacity for effective action. tions. Not aLL countries will be abLe to produce Educational, institutionaL, and financial reforms national plans for reform and financing frameworks must reinforce each other. Many countries in the in the same time frame. region have started the reform process and are Africa's high dependency ratios and its need to ready to move ahead, but they have difficuLt choic- catch up with education systems eLsewhere make it es to make and country-specific lessons to Learn. aLmost inevitabLe that it will spend more on educa- RegionaL cooperation and internationaL partner- tion as a share of GDP than other regions. The $3.6 ships can acceLerate education development in at billion figure just mentioned represents 2 percent of Least three areas. First, regional and subregional the GNP of the region, excLuding South Africa, or an forums can help countries learn from each other and increase of 35 percent over current regionaL spend- strengthen the African knowLedge base in education. ing. By comparison, debt payments totaL 14.5 biL- Although countries exchange some information Lion a year and miLitary expenditures $7 biLLion about their education development experience, more (Oxfam 1999). However, improving both internaL systematic and rigorous evaluation would add vaLue efficiency (by reducing dropout and repetition rates to these exchanges. The Association for the and high teacher salaries) and aLlocative efficiency Development of Education in Africa and its working (by shifting spending bias away from secondary and groups are increasingLy effective for such exchanges. higher education and administrative and salary Moreover, programs sponsored by UNESCO and CON- expenditures) can achieve enormous gains. FEMEN have created a framework for regional coop- Better economic management wiLL be essential eration. As these programs expand, they can to ease constraints on public spending decisions. contribute to poLicy and planning. Public expenditure reviews wiLL need to pay special Second, a region with many small, Low-income attention to the needs of the education sector, in countries has considerable potentiaL to take advan- Line with equity objectives. ConverseLy, education tage of economies of scaLe through muLtinational financing strategies shouLd link expLicitly to over- cooperation in activities such as book production, aLL pubLic spending reforms, including the develop- distance education, and research, analysis, and ment of medium-term expenditure frameworks. evaluation. A strong African pubLishing incustry is Debt reLief in the framework of the HIPC initiative an imperative that wiLl require removing trade bar- wilL heLp countries reorder their resource aLLocation riers between countries and allowing pubLishers to priorities to ensure a sound and sustainabLe finan- compete freely in the region. Distance education ciaL framework for the sector. Similarly, the end of programs can improve quaLity and access, but will war and civil strife can free money spent on have to spread high upfront costs over many users weapons and miLitary personneL. to be financiaLLy viable. Third, a few worLd-class centers for graduate education and basic and applied research could con- The Way Forward: NationaL Reform, tribute significantLy to regional education deveLop- RegionaL Cooperation, and International ment. Although Africa has a tradition of cooperation Partnerships in higher education, such arrangements pLace dis- proportionate burdens on the host countries when The poor performance of education systems in many partner countries faiL to make their contributions. A African countries impedes sustained economic regional network of institutions that can sustain growth, poverty reduction, and sociaL development. regional cooperation programs wiLL require institu- 58 COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT tions that can generate their own resources from embedded in a stabLe public expenditule program. student fees, consuLtancy, and research and offer At the same time, countries can take ztcdvantage of internationaLLy competitive remuneration to attract the knowLedge, experience, and resources of inter- African schoLars in the diaspora. nationaL partners. The challenge wiLL be to manage Thus a quantum leap in education deveLopment donor contributions to maximum naticnal advan- wiLL require a radicaL shift in the priorities, scaLe, tage. Each donor-incLuding the Bank--wiLL have speed, and impLementation of education reform, to give up some pride and prejudice 'to create a adjustment, and investment, as weLL as in education framework for effective cooperation. finance and management. These changes are unLike- After a Long period of disappointing progress in Ly to succeed unLess government-Led partnerships many African countries, the prospects for education repLace traditional, narrowLy focused, externally dri- deveLopment have improved. Many countries are ven aid programs. Countries must invest in the testing new ways of deLivering, financing, and man- entire sector, including early chiLdhood deveLop- aging education services. New technologies couLd ment, basic education, secondary education, skiLLs acceLerate this process dramatically. Moreover, the training, higher education, and aduLt education. success of some countries in improving Learning Because each leveL is important, the question and equitabLe access is heLping o:ihers design is not whether to provide these services, but how nationaL programs of innovation and reform. fast and through what financing and management Governments and donors wilL need tc renew their mechanisms. Investments must be grounded in a commitment to transLate these prospects for soLid understanding of what works and what does change into genuinely improved learning opportu- not. To this end, countries wiLL need stronger ana- nities. The central challenge is to develop nationaL lyticaL and evaLuation capacity. This broad, sec- capacity in pLanning and implementation to give toraL approach to education deveLopment must be the miLLions of Africans currentLy excluded from Linked to sound macroeconomic policies and education the chance to learn. A CHANCE TO LEARN 59 4. The World Bank's Response: Doing orities through donor forums, country-specific ana- More and Doing Better lytical and project deveLopment work, and discus- sions with national economic and financial It is unacceptabLe, at the beginning of the 21st authorities. The Bank's 1988 regionaL poLicy paper century, that 40 miLLion African children cannot "Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: PoLicies for exercise their right to education. It is equalLy unac- Adjustment, RevitaLization, and Expansion" (World ceptable that a continent of more than 600 milLion Bank 1988) initiated a dialogue between aid agen- peopLe is not participating in the global knowledge cies and African ministers of education that even- economy and that more than 40 percent of its pop- tualLy led to the estabLishment of the Association ulation Lives on less than a $1 a day (World Bank for the DeveLopment of Education in Africa. A sense 2000b). Accelerating education development must of partnership between national policymakers and be a key element in efforts to eliminate poverty the internationaL education aid community is now and provide Africa's chiLdren with brighter futures. weLL-estabLished. Since 1994 progress in education development In many countries the chalLenges of education has resumed in many countries in Sub-Saharan development have become even more urgent and Africa. The disappointments of the 1980s; the exam- more cruciaL to growth and poverty elimination than pLes of countries that have been abLe to move for- they were in 1988. Governments, civil society, and ward; the increasing recognition of the importance the education aid community-incLuding the Bank- of education for poverty elimination, competitive- are searching for ways to work together to break the ness, and economic growth; the prospect of acceler- stagnation of the past two decades. But questions ated debt relief-all have created an environment have been raised-inside and outside the Bank- more favorable to education development than at about the scope and effectiveness of Bank assistance any time in the past 10 years. Many countries in the to education in Africa. For example, Oxfam (1999) region are ready to move forward with much-needed characterizes the Bank's record in support of basic poLicy reforms and innovations. But few countries education in Africa as "underperformance." will be abLe to tackle this challenge alone. Many of these questions are valid and have The WorLd Bank is ready to support activeLy the encouraged the Africa Region to reflect on its pri- acceLeration of education development in Africa. To orities and approaches to Lending for education. do this effectively, the Africa Region of the World WorLd Bank Lending for education in Africa has Bank wilL expand its support for education devel- stagnated at Less than $200 million a year since opment and move aggressiveLy to improve the 1995. Strategies to ensure equitable access of the scope and effectiveness of its Lending and non- poor to education services have often been under- Lending services. It will ensure that a strategic designed. Secondary, vocationaL, and technical focus on poverty eLimination, technical quality, education may have received too little attention. and support for government-Led partnerships The educationaL potentiaL of oLd and new tech- become the defining features of the Bank's work in noLogies has rareLy been exploited. The Bank's poL- the sector. icy support often rests on narrow analytical The WorLd Bank is one of many sources of foundations. Linkages to macroeconomic reform external assistance to education in Africa, provid- have often been weak. The sustainability and ing 20-25 percent of externaL aid (Ridker 1994, institutional impact of Bank investments cause ADEA 1998). In addition to providing financial concern, aLthough the impLementation perfor- support, the Bank has made important contribu- mance of the current portfoLio has improved sig- tions to the discussion of poLicy issues and aid pri- nificantLy since 1998. 60 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER This chapter discusses how the Bank proposes to Bank's expLicit centraL mission, education has be a more effective partner for education develop- gained prominence in the lending program for ment in Africa. In summary, the Bank pLans to be an Africa. The Bank made more Loans for education in active participant in country-Led partnerships for edu- the 1990s than in the previous 27 years-$2.9 biL- cation deveLopment, inspiring innovation and change Lion, or 9 percent of Lending to the region com- with a focus on fostering Learning opportunities for pared with a Bankwide average of 8 percent. the poor in systems that measure performance by The current education portfoLio contains 35 pro- learning achievement and financiaL sustainability. To jects invoLving a commitment of $1.13 jiLlion. These this end, the Bank wilL draw on its comparative projects are implemented in 27 countries containing advantage-its macroeconomic and pubLic expendi- about 70 percent of Africa's population. In about ture perspective, its sectorwide view of poLicy half of the 21 countries without education projects, reforms, and its abilities to identify and deveLop link- protracted confLict and economic chaos have pre- ages with other sectors, and to tap into a wide range cLuded Bank investment. Most of the remaining of internationaL knowLedge and experience. countries are not eligibLe for ]:nternationaL Development Association funds and, with one or two exceptions, have eLected not to borrcvw for educa- Opportunities-and Challenges- tion on InternationaL Bank for Reconstruction and for Expanded Lending Services DeveLopment (IBRD) terms. Bank commitments for education Lending aver- Bank support for education in Africa began in 1963 aged Less than $150 miLLion a year in the Late and has totaLed $4.8 biLLion for alL leveLs of the for- 1980s, increased to about $350 milLion a year in maL system as weLL as for aduLt Literacy, earLy chiLd- the earLy 1990s, and decLined to Less than $200 hood education, and skilL development. Over the million a year during 1995-00 i'figure 4.1). past 10 years, as poverty elimination became the Disbursements have averaged about $200 miLLion a Figure 4.1 New Commitments for Bank Lending to African Education _ AFR Cob mitments I_-& AlR DistCFR 450 . . . .. - - - - - -. 400 350 300~ 0 2500 1986 1987 198 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Fiscal year Source: Wortd Bank data. A CHANCE TO LEARN 61 year since 1995. Education Lending has declined than 30 percent supported vocational, secondary, and since the mid-1990s for several reasons, including higher education. The Bank's commitment to provide the turmoil in some large countries, the reluctance balanced support to all parts of the system in line of others to reform education policy, and the weak with nationaL priorities makes a prima facie case for absorptive capacity of key institutions throughout developing a more balanced portfolio of education the region. Moreover, the 1995 reorganization of projects. This will involve increasing support for post- the Bank's Africa Region and the time required to primary education while maintaining strong support "retool" the sector in the face of intensifying chal- for basic education development. lenges and evoLving priorities made quick respons- New Lending instruments are changing the way es to new requests for funding support difficult. the Bank supports education development in Africa. In addition, the Bank might have focused its lim- Of the 16 projects presented to the Board in fiscal ited staff resources too narrowly on basic education 1999 and 2000, 4-for The Gambia, Lesotho, at the expense of other subsectors and portfolio Senegal, and Zambia-were adaptabLe program diversity. The difficulty of designing and sustaining loans designed to support long-term, sectorwide impLementation of investment programs supporting education development through a series of invest- reforms in vocational, secondary, and higher educa- ments. In all four the first loan tranche focused on tion reinforced this trend. As a result, the composi- primary education. Investments in other parts of the tion of education Lending shifted in the 1990s (figure system are expected to be funded by future tranch- 4.2). In 1985-89 Less than 25 percent of Bank lend- es activated by predetermined poLicy triggers. Seven ing was for primary education in Africa, whiLe more of the fiscal 1999/2000 projects were Learning and than 50 percent was for vocational, secondary, and innovation loans designed to test new approaches higher education. Since then the emphasis on prima- to technical and policy problems in primary teacher ry education has increased markedly. In 1995-99, 48 training in Guinea, adult literacy in the Ivory Coast, percent of Bank lending for education in Africa sup- nationaL language instruction in Mali, and distance ported pre-primary and primary education, and less education in four countries (see box 3.4). Figure 4.2 Sb o iLndingi intheA Rgion Eatio Sector IFY 85-89: FY 95-99: Permary 0%Pre-prnay2 Other 24%Ote19 Primary 29% Hgher 7%~- Higher 17% -9 riig5 Vocational 4%~P'm4y~46 Teacher training 12% General ~~~secondr 7 rmr 6 Souce Work Bank daa 62 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER Opportunities exist to expand support for considering in several Africa countries such as education development. The reemergence of Benin, Chad, and Uganda. Nigeria as an active borrower could have an The Bank strategy thus wiLL be to heLp coun- important impact on lending commitments. And tries build the human capital foundation for a number of IBRD countries in the region are accelerated growth and poverty alleviation considering borrowing for education. Several through a combination of direct inve;tments and countries are ready to make the tough decisions budget support. The total of this su)port wouLd and impLement the poLicy reforms needed to represent a significant increase--possibLy a accelerate education deveLopment. In war-torn tripLing of the LeveLs of education financing of countries such as Burundi and Rwanda where the Late 1990s. This will allow the Bank to con- poLiticaL agreements resuLt in increased stabiLity tribute to acceLerating African education and peace the Bank wiLL support post-confLict development in line with its internzational com- reconstruction. mitments and institutionaL emphasis on poverty Lending for education deveLopment through eLimination. traditionaL direct investments in the sector is Reaching these Levels of support for education currentLy programmed to increase to an average deveLopment wiLL require changes in the way the of around $300-350 million a year over the Bank conducts its business. It wiLL require much period 2000-03. In addition substantial support cLoser Linkages between macroeconomic and sec- for education is programmed through budget sup- toraL poLicy diaLogue and financial support as welL port programs as part of the HIPC debt initiative, as changes in internaL practices and lending poLi- and through Public Expenditure Credits (PERC) or cies and priorities. It will also require administra- Poverty Reduction Support Credits (PRSC). tive budget and staffing levels that wiLL alLow the Expanded debt reLief under the HIPC initiative Bank to support these programs financially and presents opportunities to free funds to strength- professionally. But ultimateLy the feasibility of a en the nationaL resource base to sustain acceLer- major increase in Bank support for education ated education deveLopment. Uganda, an early deveLopment in Africa will aLso depend on the beneficiary of debt stock reduction under the willingness of countries to pLace education high HIPC initiative, is a promising exampLe: budget on their poLicy agendas, initiate nationaL progams savings from debt relief have been channeLed into the national poverty action fund and have heLped finance the drive for quality basic educa- Table 4.1 Debt Relief Relative tion for alL chiLdren. Approximately 20 countries to Spending on Education : in the region shouLd become eLigibLe for HIPC (millions of dotlars) relief in the next five years. In each case debt relief will be able to contribute to expanded edu- Average Annual cation opportunities (tabLe 4.1). For exampLe, in Debt Relief MaLi education expenditures are expected to Country 2000-09 increase from 24 percent to 27 percent of a larg- er budget, while in Niger an increase in educa- Mauritania 34 tion expenditure from 3.6 percent to 4.5 percent Mozambigue 72 is being considered. PoLicy reform and increased Tanzania 150 budget aLLocation for education typically are pri- Uganda 220 orities in PERCs and PRSCs, which the Bank is l_l_______X__ A CHANCE TO LEARN 63 of innovation and reform, strengthen nationaL poLicy impact of these reports was usually Limited. capacity for poLicy formuLation and impLementa- A review of education sector anaLysis in Africa tion, and resoLve confLicts peacefully. (UNESO 1996) found that many studies by interna- tionaL funding and technical assistance agencies, including the Bank, have had Little nationaL own- Greater Emphasis on Nonlending Services ership, have rarely been used by poLicymakers, and have focused on issues that were high on the To be an effective Lender for education development, agencies' policy agendas but of Limited reLevance the Bank must be an effective source of knowledge, to pressing national poLicy. Taken together, these ideas, and poLicy advice. Bank staff have provided studies show considerabLe duplication without such nonlending services through their work on Lend- much national capacity building. ing operations and through seminars and workshops, There have been exceptions to this approach, often in coLlaboration with the World Bank Institute. however. In 1972 an Ethiopian team undertook a Effective nonLending services are an important part national education sector study. In 1980 a Sierra of the Bank's assistance package because they can Leonian team's review of education issues formed help countries build a solid analytical foundation for the basis for a national basic education deveLopment expanded lending and strengthen the nationaL program supported by the Bank, and in the mid- knowledge base for poLicy reform and the capacity 1980s the Bank and UNESCO collaborated to support for effective impLementation. country-led sector work in severaL French-speaking countries. Starting in the late 1980s, the Bank made Refocusing economic and sector work a more conscious effort to deveLop the capacity of national staff for analytical work in the context of Good analyticaL work can contribute significantly to sector studies and project preparation. In many project outcomes. A recent analysis of Bank pro- instances, however, internationaL consuLta-its have jects showed that anaLyticaL work has a high pay- continued to play a Large role. off: even after controlling for country, sector, and Problems with the traditional approach to eco- economic conditions and staff preparation and nomic and sector work in the education sector are supervision costs, benefits were nine times staff widely recognized. The Bank is now trying to ensure costs (Deininger, Squire, and Basu 1998). The same a Leadership role for national analysts and researchers study found that the Bank underinvested in these in sector anaLyses (box 4.1). In some cases workshops activities and recommended shifting resources from with nationaL education speciaLists have been the project preparation to anaLytical work. ALthough basis of study design, review of findings, and devel- this approach wouLd Likely lead to fewer projects opment of an action plan. and Lower commitments, projects wouLd be better In recent years budget aLLocations for eco- designed, better impLemented, and more successful. nomic and sector work on African education have FormaL analyses typically have been the foun- declined drastically. Bank-funded sector wvork is, dation of the education diaLogue between the Bank however, onLy a small part of the Bank's anaLyti- and its cLients. Before 1990 most Bank-sponsored caL work. National staff carry out many studies sector analysis was done by Bank staff (or by with funding from the PoLicy and Human UNESCO staff under a cooperative agreement with Resources Development fund estabLished by the the Bank), with varying but usually limited Japanese government for project preparation, or involvement of national staff, and funded from the from funds earmarked for that purpose in existing Bank's budget for economic and sector work. The projects. 64 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER Box 4.1 - A Collaborative Effort to Prepare a Strategy Paper in Madagascar In late 1992 the Government of Madagascar and the The process had three important features. First, World Bank agreed to develop an operational strategy the Bank was able to leverage high-quality domestic for reforming primary and secondary education. A work- expertise and quality research with limited but strategic ing group of 12 professionals from the Ministry of inputs. Bank resources incLuded four short visits to Education's Research and Ptanning Unit was established Madagascar (about eight staff-weeks). Second, the in early 1993 to study quatitative improvements at both research contributed to capacity building in the tevels. Ministry of Education and institutionaL strengthening in Following a 10-day workshop in July 1993, the its Research and Planning Unit. Expertise developed working group deveLoped a research framework to test during this research has been used in siriilar research ways to improve the quality and efficiency of primary since then, as well as in severaL other African countries, and secondary education. including Comoros, Mtali, and SenegaL. Third, the results flata and observations were cotlected during two- and recommendations of the study shaped a pilot day visits to 36 public schools in all six regions of school-based development program impLemented Madagascar. The data were then anatyzed, and the between 1994 and 1998. That program forned the basis results were discussed and vatidated in 1994 before for a revised nationat strategy for education improve- draft versions of the reports were prepared and circu- ment adopted by the government of Madagascar in tated in eary 1995. December 1997. These studies are, however, rarely reviewed by require nationally implemented sector anaLyses as peers or by Bank staff other than task managers. As weLL as formal and informaL Bank reports that a resuLt their quaLity is extremely variabLe and their include arrangements for peer review to heLp task coverage uneven. ClearLy the Bank wiLL need to managers contribute state-of-the-art knowLedge rethink the pLace of sector work in its assistance and experience to poLicy discussions. A smaLL, package, as weLl as funding arrangements and recentLy estabLished regionaL team wiLL support review procedures, if it wants to play an effective task managers with the economic and financial cataLytic roLe for reform and innovation in Africa. In analysis required to underpin the education com- fact, new processes have been estabLished in the ponent of HIPC-supported reform programs. This Africa Region to improve the management and quaL- support already has noticeabLy improved the depth ity review processes of economic and sector work. of economic anaLysis. Reviews of recent project appraisaL documents suggest that financial, institutional, and technicaL Reorienting policy discussions issues have not been anaLyzed routineLy or in suf- ficient depth. Moreover, most project appraisal In recent years the Africa Region has tried to sup- documents point out continued weaknesses in port subregionaL and nationaL discussions of poLicy national capacity for education data collection, obstacLes to basic education deveLopment. poLicy anaLysis and evaLuation, and program imple- Seminars and training workshops for borrower staff mentation. Addressing these weaknesses will and Bank task managers have been organized A CHANCE TO LEARN 65 under the United Nations Special Initiative for unless national staff internalize the findings of Africa (UNSIA), which targets the 16 African coun- the analytical work and exchanges of experiences tries with the Lowest enrollments. UNESCO and the and translate them into action, they are unlikely World Bank are co-Leaders of the education to reaLize the potentiaL benefits. The chaLLenge is component of UNSIA, which is impLemented in coL- to ensure that these activities build local capaci- laboration with UNESCO and the United Nations ty and generate analytical work relevant to nation- Children's Fund (UNICEF), with support from the al policy reform and used by policymakers. Norwegian Education Trust Fund. This component will focus on the 16 countries with less than 60 percent of their children in primary school. The Imperative of Better Portfolio The Bank's Africa Region will continue to sup- Performance port these discussions and to encourage regional and globat developing country partnerships. Implementation ratings of Bank education projects Important regional experience and expertise in Africa have traditionalty been lower than those should inform national strategies and foster mech- in other regions. WhiLe there have been few mean- anisms for regional and subregional cooperation. ingful assessments of project impact, there is a Several regional partnerships have been influen- perception-and mounting evidence-that Bank tial, such as the Forum for African Women Lending has not been as effective as it could have Educationatists (FAWE) on policy discussions on been. Portfolio ratings improved significantly in fis- female education, and the Educational Research cal 2000 when all probtem projects were targeted Network in Eastern and Southern Africa (ERNESA) for intensive supervision, severat were restructured, and the Council for the Development of social and others were closed. Only 3 of the 41 current Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) on the education projects are rated as unsatisfactory or exchange of information on education develop- highly unsatisfactory in terms of implementation ment issues. In addition, Latin America, South and progress toward development objectives. Asia, and other regions can teach important Yet nearLy a third of Africa's education lessons on such key issues as early chiLdhood projects-twice the Bankwide average for deveLopment, adult education, multigrade teach- education-are considered at risk by the Bank's ing, and school management. Several study visits Quality Assurance Group, mainly because unfavor- have been organized in collaboration with the abLe country conditions may affect impLementa- World Bank Institute to give African planners and tion. In addition, performance ratings by the policymakers an opportunity to review innovations Bank's Operations Evaluation Department for such as Colombia's escuela nueva and the Republic African education projects completed during of Korea's education development strategy. The 1993-2000 show that 61 percent achieved satis- Africa Region intends to continue such efforts and factory outcomes (the Bankwide average for educa- intensify them as appropriate. tion is 69 percent), and 22 percent are likely to be The Bank has aLso actively supported the ADEA sustained (compared with the Bankwide average of working groups that promote capacity buiLding 49 percent). But only 10 percent show substantial and analysis. All of these activities can add to the institutional deveLopment impact (compared with local knowledge base for innovation and reform the Bankwide 34 percent). and create an environment for deveLoping nation- These results in part reflect exogenous factors al solutions-informed by regionaL and interna- beyond the Bank's control, especialty widespread tionaL experience-to national problems. But armed confLict in the region. Yet the Bank couLd 66 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER do much to improve project performance. A 1998 development with a better performing and more Bankwide review of quaLity at entry found that diversified portfolio. If the Bank is to continue to including systematic institutionaL anaLysis and pLay its roLe as a key source of sector poLicy advice, social assessments in the preparation work couLd improve the performance of its education portfolio, improve the initial design of projects in Africa and expand support for education development, the significantLy. These generaL findings are undoubt- Africa Region wilL need to change the way it does edly fully applicabLe to the education portfolio. business. Specific actions are proposed on the devel- In recent years the Africa Region has taken opment and implementation of lending operations in steps toward more effective and extensive support five areas: sharpening the strategic focus of Lending, for education deveLopment in Africa. Lending has improving the Lending development process, promot- become more country focused, portfoLio ratings ing partnerships, matching Lending strategies to have improved, and targeted supervision has country conditions, and applying state-of-the-art improved implementation performance. More staff knowLedge. In addition, and perhaps most impor- are being recruited, and experience with nearLy 10 tant, the region wilL have to enhance st:aff technicaL years of support for sector investment and adjust- skilLs and knowledge for a better and lairger program ment programs is being used to guide the design of support to education development in Africa. of sectorwide assistance strategies. Several coun- tries are expLoring the possibility of implementing Sharpening the strategic focus of lending such strategies within a comprehensive develop- ment framework. ColLaboration with other donors An expanded lending program should heLp coun- is stronger, and increasingly borrowers are taking tries implement policy reforms that wiLL help them responsibility for sector analysis and project move toward the strategic objectives discussed in deveLopment, implementation, and supervision. chapter 3: But the Bank couLd do more to improve the * Improving Learning, not just expanding access effectiveness of its assistance. First, it shouLd con- and meeting enroLLment targets. tribute to education development in Line with its * Providing equitable access to education oppor- comparative advantage-its macroeconomic and tunities, especiaLLy for the poor and for girLs. pubLic expenditure perspective, its sectorwide view * BuiLding capacity and strengthening institu- of poLicy reforms, and its abiLities to identify and tions. develop linkages with other sectors, and to tap & Achieving Long-term financial sust,ainability so into a wide range of internationaL knowledge and that successful reforms can be taken to scale. experience. Second, it should design its operations, With more than 40 potential borroNers in Africa, consistent with its overaLL objectives in the sector regionaL Lending priorities will be neither simple nor (World Bank 1999a), to emphasize: uniform. Thus the Bank should be ready to respond to * Equitable access of excluded groups-the poor, a wide range of education development situations, rural popuLations, girls-to reaL learning depLoying different strategies for different countries. opportunities. Nevertheless, formaL primary educatior will remain a * QuaLity service, as measured by Learning top priority for the Bank's investments iri African edu- achievements. cation. Education deveLopment cannot be balanced * SustainabLe financing. without a quaLity system of basic education accessi- The Bank must ensure that it responds effec- ble to alL children of primary schooL acge. tively to emerging opportunities and matches Of particuLar concern are the 16 UNSIA countries countries' commitment to accelerated education without the capacity to enroLL more than 60 percent A CHANCE TO LEARN 67 The FRESH Start Partnership: Focusing Resources on Effective School Health Good health and nutrition are essential for Learning. * Skills based health education targets HIV/AIDS, Effective school health programs wilL contribute to good nutrition, and hygiene. reduced absenteeism and drop-out, and the enrollment * School based health and nutrition services that and retention of more of the poorest and most disad- deliver safe, simple, and familiar interventions, such vantae children in schoo. Tee rnanyof as deworminr and good nutrition. whom are girls-are often the least heatthy and most Bank-funded projects exist today in Guinea, maLnourished, and have the most to gain educational- Burkina Faso, and Cote d'Ivoire while a number of ly from improved health. other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are develop- An interagency initiative of UNESCO, WHO, ing school heaLth components to be folded into UNICEF, and the World Bank has identified a core existing projects. The program provides an unprece- group of activities, each already recommended by the dented opportunity for new partnership across sec- participating agencies, that captures the best practi- tors and traditional boundaries, such as the private cies from program experiences. sector support from SmithKline Beecham. Overall, E Effective curriculum and school policies on health the interagency action is perceived as focusing issues such as tobao, epro e health, and resources on effective school health, and giving a HIV/AIDS. FRESH Start to improving the quality and equity of * Safe water and sanitation in alt schools. education. of the age group in primary school. SeveraL of these pLete the basic education cycLe and graduate with countries are emerging from civiL strife and need to the knowLedge and skiLLs specified in the curriculum. rebuild systems that have atL but coLLapsed. They Reducing repetition is cruciaL to achieving this goaL, often face acute resource constraints and require since high repetition rates resuLt not onLy in occu- major financiaL assistance in the immediate pied school pLaces that could otherwise be taken by post-confLict period. But others, incLuding many other chiLdren but aLso in high dropout rates. So far francophone West African countries, require radicaL Bank lending has typicaLly emphasized providing reforms in delivery modes, resource allocation prior- inputs into the education process, which is clearLy ities, and management systems to Lay the founda- insufficient. Henceforth the Bank wilL give priority tion for education systems that contribute to attention to the process and outcomes of learning. sustained economic and sociaL development. Several Achieving quality basic education for all wiMl are preparing ambitious sector deveLopment pro- require more than reforms of and investments in grams-with primary education deveLopment as the the formaL system. It wiLL aLso require broad sup- top priority. port for basic education through investments in In many other countries-incLuding those that earLy chiLdhood education programs, school health already have the capacity to enrolL aLl their (box 4.2), and aduLt literacy. In all three areas the chiLdren-continued support for primary education Bank and its borrowers will need to Learn lessons will be essential to ensure that this capacity is used from international experience as well as from the efficientLy and effectively to allow students to com- few Bank-supported programs currently impLement- 68 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER ed, whiLe diversifying program designs and experi- Learning, and ensure equitabLe access for girLs and menting with new approaches through [earning ruraL residents. In countries with Low qross enroLL- and innovation Loans. ment ratios or significant underfinancing and CentralLy managed systems have typically had quaLity probLems at the primary Level, Bank sup- great difficulty in responding to different locaL port will be set in the context of a sectoraL policy needs and effectively managing rapid system and financiaL framework that ensures sustained expansion. The effectiveness of Bank support for progress toward universaL access to and compLe- acceLerated deveLopment of basic education in Sub- tion of primary education. Saharan Africa wiLL depend largeLy on how well WhiLe Bank support for education deveLopment Lending operations can be designed to heLp govern- in the past two decades has not excLuded a priori ments mobiLize communities for education develop- any subsector, the Africa Region's ending and ment. This will invoLve support for strengthening nonLending work needs to give higher priority to community organizations such as parent-teacher education beyond the basic cycLe. Recognizing the associations and viLlage education committees, cre- importance of opportunities for continued Learn- ating mechanisms to transfer resources and respon- ing and skill acquisition for youth, the Bank plans sibiLity to these organizations, and deveLoping to strengthen its capacity to support the develop- working reLations with locaL government authorities ment of secondary education, particularly the who will be increasingLy invoLved in deLivering edu- teaching of math, science, and techriology. The cation and training services. Bank wiLL also be ready to support seill deveLop- Thus Bank support for basic education wiLL ment systems that respond to Labor market increasingly cover the full range of basic education demand. An emerging Lending area is continuing services whiLe giving priority support to programs education, incLuding aduLt basic education. Bank that: support will be directed especiaLly to programs • Ensure equaL opportunities for excLuded that target poor people. But much is still to be chiLdren-poor, ruraL, and femaLe-to access Learned about cost-effective delivery modes- quaLity basic education. including the role of the private sector and the * Adapt service modeLs-muLtigrade schooLs, potentiaL of new technologies. flexible staffing arrangements, local language In higher education, considerable poLicy work instruction, choice of textbooks and instruc- has been done by the Bank and other organiza- tionaL materiaLs-to locaL conditions. tions, incLuding ADEAs Higher Education Working * Deconcentrate management responsibiLity and Group. In most countries the options for policy empower community organizations to support reform and institutional strengthening are rea- education. sonabLy cLear. The challenge has beer to make the There is increasingLy strong demand through- tough decisions required to revitaLize key higher out the region to expand access to upper primary education institutions and develop the necessary (sometimes called Lower secondary) programs- stakehoLder (especiaLLy student and faculty) sup- typicaLly grades 6-9. Many countries consider this port. As a resuLt, reform impLementation has been Level to be part of the basic education cycLe. slow, and the Bank's portfolio and lending for Expansion at this LeveL wilL be particuLarLy rapid higher education in Africa remain relativeLy smalL. where the primary gross enrollment ratio The Bank wilL continue to expLore opportunities approaches 100 percent. Bank support at this to support higher education development, includ- leveL wiLL stress the need to deveLop more cost- ing graduate programs and scientific research. effective delivery modes, improve teaching and Such support is expected to focus crl reforms to A CHANCE TO LEARN 69 improve teaching and research, in part through Improving lending development more effective use of new education technologies. These reforms wiLL need to be implemented in the Recent changes in the Bank's operational and sector context of a long-term, financiaLLy sustainabLe work are designed to foster client ownership, put framework for institutionaL strengthening and borrowers in the driver's seat, encourage national selective expansion. (rather than international) solutions, and emphasize Education technoLogy, when used judiciously, the transfer and adaptation of knowledge. These can broaden access to and improve the quality of new approaches will need further development. education services (see box 3.5). The record of Ideally, nationaL speciaLists would carry out all oper- education technoLogy projects has been disap- ational tasks except appraisal, with Bank staff serv- pointing however, and Bank Lending for this pur- ing as a sounding board for ideas and contributing pose has been Limited. Yet much has been international expertise. This is an important shift Learned about the potential of education tech- from the Bank's traditional way of doing business- noLogy and the pitfalls of its impLementation. staff and internationaL consultants taking primary New interactive computer and Internet technolo- responsibility for sector anaLysis, project prepara- gies are creating promising but still untested tion, and supervision, with varying but often Limit- opportunities. The Bank will ensure its readiness ed colLaboration with national staff (see chapter 3). to assist countries with the introduction of edu- In some countries the Bank has made consider- cation technology and distance Learning systems able progress in this direction, but it needs to inten- (box 4.3). sify its efforts to ensure that the ideaL becomes the lncasing ot o fducton Technotogy With a fewe exceptions, educatio echnology has not * Ensurethat The experiencen of the African Virtuat been a prominent ei l n uca- Univesity, WorldLinks, and the Global Distance tion in Sub-Sah so te gies Lea g is available to countries and task that use surface mail, radaio, tlviso,adoaand is adequately considred in the video cassettes, andothe newour andtd f new lending operations. based technoo lp at sider the impliions of introducin educa- developmet, th Ba n t ies in the design of education fiancing * Strengtthen tekoldebsbycmisoiga ndapcity-buitding strategies. paperviewing ti * Mov aggressivelyto support the large-scale * Establish cls w n t indcte ce t technologies as organizations such as the Cmowat of Leanin and partofeducationlendin the African r suppotthg project Buil in-house c and innovation loans for tion; specialists to support task team leadersin the promisingexperiments and innovations that require design of distance education and education technolo- further testing and piloting-especially thwos using gy coponaents in new len atios. n communicatnd computer technology 70 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER norm. The Africa Region will need to think through programs are clearly promising for coherent policy the implications for managing the project cycle and reform and more effective externaL aid. However, adapt its operationaL procedures and staff perfor- sectorwide programs cannot be expected to soLve mance expectations to the fact that controL over aLL the problems that have affectecl education project deveLopment and processing wiLL rest largeLy deveLopment projects, nor are they suitable for alL with the borrower. The Bank will need to communi- countries. cate expectations for quality at entry standards Moreover, sectorwide approaches should not clearly to staff and agree on them with clients. divert attention from the continuing importance of These changes will require: experimentation and pilots in the development of * Building capacity for country-led education policy frameworks. development. The sectorwide approach usually increases * Greater use of sectorwide approaches. demands on national planning and imFlementation * Better quality at entry. capacity. Given these demands, the Bank is ready * More fLexibility in applying Bank poLicies and to design flexibLe financiaL assistance packages to procedures. help governments move forward expeditiously with * Enhanced field presence. reform programs, even when all parts of financing Building capacity for country-led education plans have not been formally agreed on. Moreover, development. Bank Lending and project preparation the need to reach consensus on a range of poLicy assistance will be structured to help develop issues with a large number of stakehoLders usually national capacity to analyze sectors, prepare means more time and resources for program devel- investment programs, and supervise their impLe- opment and preparation. mentation. Processes and timetables wiLL need to be Given the time frames involved, the success of designed so that national staff can carry out quali- sectorwide programs will depend on deepening and ty work. The Bank has an array of instruments- strengthening the Bank's long-term partnerships learning and innovation loans, adaptable program with governments and other donors. Countries and loans, and institutional development grants, in donors will need to review carefully the lessons from addition to traditional investment loans-to sup- first-generation sector investment proqrams and be port intensive capacity building as countries flexible in the design and implementation of new embark on Large-scaLe investment programs. programs. Since many African countries do not have Greater use of sectorwide approaches. Bank assis- sufficiently strong institutions to simultaneously tance increasingly will be designed in the context of design and implement all elements of often techni- a sectorwide approach to education deveLopment. cally complex and politically sensitive sector invest- Sectorwide approaches have been used to meet sev- ment programs, investments will often have to be eral objectives. Most important, they have been used sequenced by subsector. But even these cases will to develop a broad policy framework within which demand financial analysis covering the whole sector. donors and government work in partnership to accel- Others will need aLternative approaches such as erate progress toward key policy objectives, with the longer term subsectoral investment programs. aim of fostering country ownership and sustainable In addition, financial assistance strategies wiLL national solutions. The sectorwide approach also pro- need to recognize that sectorwide reform and vides a foundation for investment programs that seek development programs take a long time (often 10 to accelerate progress toward key policy objectives. years or more) to implement and institutionalize. Although experience with sector investment Adaptable program loans provide a f:ramework for programs in education is limited (box 4.4), such supporting Long-term sector investment programs. A CHANCE TO LEARN 71 Sectorwide Approaches A recent study (Johanson 2000) reviews the Bank's at reviews. During implementation problems are the stilt-limited experience with sectorwide approaches in ruLe rather than the exception. the Africa Region to identify strengths, weaknesses, Good practice recommendations include: and good practice. * OnLy undertake a sectorwide approach when the Strengths of sector approaches were noted in country is cLearly committed to coLLaborating and has several areas. All cases reviewed developed compre- demonstrated a minimum level of implementation hensive plans and strategies, and in some countries capacity. capacity was developed for decentralized planning. * EstabLish a government-ted collaboration from the Stronger links were forged between policies, alloca- outset based on a clear understanding of the rights and tion of funds, and performance. Stakeholder consulta- responsibilities of all partners, mutuaL trust, and ade- tions were strengthened and frameworks for donor quate time to review poLicies and discuss agreements. coordination established. Donors adopted common * Establish a comprehensive policy framework for procedures, especialLy for joint missions, monitoring, analytic purposes, recognizing that policy anaLysis will and progress reporting, thus reducing the burden of be ongoing and that an initiaL investment may be lim- aid administration for governments. Some programs ited to a particuLar subsector. have begun to move to budget support by pooLing * Develop financial parameters, whenever possible external resources and channeLing them through based on public expenditure reviews, to ensure rea- national budgets. Resources altocated to the sectors sonable intrasectoraL resource allocations with a cLear increased. longer-term commitment to pooled funding. Weaknesses included the lack of rigorous sector * Build marnagement systems and capacity based on analysis in some cases, the lack of systematic analy- explict institutionaL and capacity analyses, incLuding sis of institutionaL and implementation capacity in monitorng ;and evaluation systems as weLl as arrange- most cases, and inadequate design of monitoring ments for financial management, common procedures indicators. Other probLems were weak data coLLection for joint review and reporting, and contingency plan- and disappointment with the outcomes of semiannu- ning and risk analysis. An increasing share of support for Africa's educa- financial framework with monitorabLe parameters, tion investment programs is expected to come an agreed plan for organizational strengthening and through these kinds of loans. capacity building with monitorable benchmarks, a Better quality at entry. The initial design of sociaL assessment for every project that focuses on Lending operations, referred to in the Bank as quaL- the needs and constraints of socially disadvantaged ity at entry, is an essential element in translating groups, and a project implementation plan. sector anaLysis into results on the ground. Clear To help staff achieve these goals, the Africa standards must be established, and staff must be Region will: aware that these standards must be refLected in pro- * Strengthen its peer review procedures. ject appraisal documents. Minimum standards will * Enhance technical advice to country directors include a credible quality improvement strategy, a and sector managers through a review by the 72 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER education sector leader or other senior staff of education development programs. This includes all economic and sector work, project concept poLicies and procedures for incremental. operating documents, and project appraisaL documents. costs (including teacher saLaries), community con- * Establish mechanisms for systematicaLly pro- struction of classrooms, procurement and account- viding advice and guidance to inexperienced ing (when responsibility for implementation and staff. spending is highly decentralized), budiget support The Bank will make a speciaL effort to invoLve in the context of multidonor sector investment senior education specialists from other regions in programs, and lending for regional prcgrams. peer reviews. For programs that address especially WorLd Bank Lending for education deveLop- difficult challenges-strategies for universaL ment in the Africa Region has LargeL~ been limit- primary education, the renewal of vocational ed to support for investment costs. Only in training, better secondary science and math exceptionaL cases have loans supported incre- teaching-speciaL advisory groups with staff from mentaL teacher salaries and recurrent costs. In outside the region and outside the Bank wiLL be reaLity, the distinction between capitaL and created to support task teams. VoLuntary Quality recurrent education expenditures is often an Assurance Group reviews wiLL be requested as need- arbitrary one, whiLe supporting recurrent costs ed. Project timetabLes wiLL be designed to ensure such as teachers' payroLLs may be the most effec- adequate time between the project concept docu- tive contribution to a country's human capitaL ment and the project appraisaL document to foLLow base (CoLcLough and Lewin 1993). Moreover, in a up on the comments of the peer reviewers. rapidly expanding system such costs can be sig- Efforts to ensure quaLity at entry are wasted nificant, and underfunding them can undermine without effective impLementation. When prob- the effectiveness of donor interveritions eLse- Lems are understood and soLutions are known, where in the education sector. implementation issues can and should be In the context of sectorwide investment pro- addressed before Loan approval. But where pro- grams, in which alL external resources are chan- jects support investments or strategies for which neLed through the government budgel: and thus are the knowLedge base is weak, or where the eco- fungibLe, the reluctance to fund operating costs nomic and political environment is uncertain, has no cLear justification, provided tnere are cLear project designs wiLL need to be fLexible. They wilL agreements on a financiaL framework and teacher need to include mechanisms for adjusting project remuneration and deployment policy. Where pro- designs in light of lessons learned during imple- grams incLude such agreements, the Africa Region mentation, through preparation of annuaL action wiLl be ready to support spending on incrementaL pLans and midterm reviews. In addition, man- teacher salaries and other recurrent expenditures agers should recognize that the need for peer in accordance with established Bank poLicy. review and support does not end once a Loan has IncreasingLy, responsibility for implementing been approved. Several Bank regions have had key eLements of education deveLopment programs, positive experiences in estabLishing review and often accompanied by a transfer of authority for support groups for task managers overseeing at- resource aLLocation, is being assigned to Lower- risk and probLem projects. This approach will also level government officials, schools, and schooL be tried in the Africa Region. management committees. These grIoups will be Flexibility in applying Bank poticies and proce- expected to take responsibiLity for building class- dures. Operational policies and procedures wiLL rooms, maintaining infrastructure, and buying fur- need to be applied fLexibLy to support acceLerated niture and instructionaL materiaLs. A CHANCE TO LEARN 73 This shift has important implications for pro- A constraint on Bank Lending so far has been curement, financial management, accounting, and the difficuLty of supporting regionaL or subregional auditing. The Bank's traditional approach to programs. Yet such programs have considerable contractor-executed construction-supervised by potential in a fragmented region where subregion- national departments or ministries and awarded on aL cooperation often can yield substantial benefits the basis of national competitive bidding-is through pooLing knowledge and skills, tapping into inappropriate for buiLding the tens of thousands of economies of scale, and reducing unit cost. The two- and three-classroom blocks that wiLl be potential benefits of regionaL programs are espe- required to provide education opportunities to ruraL cialty attractive in higher education-in particular children. Experience in South Asia shows that com- at the graduate and post-graduate levels, in cur- munity-managed construction can result in the con- riculum deveLopment for programs with limited struction of a Large number of small schools at Low country-specific content, and in the use of educa- cost-provided there is adequate technical support tion technoLogy to support math, science, and (DPEP 1999). technology education in secondary schools and Similarly, procurement procedures must recog- undergraduate university programs. Efforts are nize that local needs for goods and services wiLL under way to develop new lending instruments and differ in kind, in quantity, and over time. Thus procedures designed specifically to overcome the bulk procurement is often impracticaL and incon- obstacLes to Lending for regional programs. sistent with community or other forms of decen- Enhanced field presence. Changes in the way tralized management of resources, making LocaL the Bank carries out its operational work will shopping the preferred method. Procurement pro- require making adequate time and resources avaiL- cedures in credit agreements need to be formu- able to ensure: lated so that community construction is allowed * First-rate technical support for national teams. for the bulk of construction in rural areas and so * Sufficient time for clients to work through that Local shopping is recognized as the most analysis and project designs to ensure that cost-effective way to procure small amounts of technicaL interventions are viabLe. building supplies and instructional materials. * Effective monitoring of impLementation Accounting and auditing procedures need to be progress and use of resources. designed to aLLow effective financiaL control of Washington, D.C.-based teams that visit a expenditures by a large number of dispersed country two or three times a year for two weeks of implementing agents. discussion driven by the need to reach agreement Procurement and financial management arrange- and closure wilL find it difficult to sustain the sup- ments in sector investment programs invoLving port and dialogue that such efforts entail and that several donors often are not easily accommodated are essential to building colLaborative business within traditional Bank guidelines. Special procedures. Much of this work can only be done by arrangements involving compromises by all parties, local and international technical specialists based including the Bank, may need to be negotiated. More in Bank fieLd offices. Such a need poses an impor- flexibiLity impLies the need to agree at appraisal on tant chalLenge in Africa, where most countries are a procedures manual for procurement, financial man- smaLl and operations are often affected by politi- agement, accounting, and auditing. Financial officers caL and economic instability. The strategy to test in district education offices, head teachers, and trea- will be one of posting senior education specialists surers of schooL management committees must be in the fieLd offices of major education borrowers trained in procurement and basic accounting. and locally recruited education professionaLs in 74 THE WORLD BANK'S RESPONSE: DOING MORE AND DOING BETTER the fieLd office of every country where the Bank With the move toward more open, democratic has or is preparing a major education program. societies in Africa, broader goverminent-donor These speciaLists wouLd then aLso support Locally partnerships and engagement of civiL society- recruited and Less experienced staff in neighboring including nationaL NGOs, trade unions, and student countries. organizations-in an open debate about education poLicies and deveLopment strategies will become Promoting partnerships more important. The Bank and its borrowers will need to enter into a systematic diaLogue? with these The daunting demands of education deveLopment in stakehoLders and deveLop new modes of coLlabora- Africa can onLy be met when donors and govern- tion and partnership appropriate to the capacity ments work together toward common goaLs. At the and needs of civiL society organizations. The regionaL Level, donors and governments can coLLab- strengthening of civiL society institutions during orate in severaL organizations-ADEA, UNESCO, the 1990s has greatLy faciLitated this process, UNICEF, CONFEMEN, the Organization for African which needs to be supported by external financing. Unity, and international NGOs. At the country leveL, The Bank has begun such dialogue and collabora- however, much remains to be done to promote coL- tion with the support of the Norwegian Education Laboration and partnership. In programs supported Trust Fund, but needs to intensify its efforts. by multipLe donors, governments will have to take charge of donor coordination and work with donors Matching lending strategies to country and nationaL stakehoLders to define the rules. conditions Donors and governments need to share information and frankLy discuss analytical findings. Wherever Improved portfolio performance and rEsuLts orienta- feasibLe and desirabLe, the Bank will be ready to tion wiLL require the Bank to be selective about tar- coLLaborate cLosely with governments and other get countries, support, and conditions. Different donors. Over time, such coLLaboration shouLd deveL- country conditions will require differeit assistance op into full partnership, based on common objec- strategies (box 4.5). Sound macroeconomic and fis- tives and a readiness to share risks and rewards caL poLicies, a demonstrated commitment to good with partners. governance, a cLearLy specified sector poLicy frame- In a number of instances in which the Bank has work, and readiness and capacity to impLement the worked with partners, its role has been limited to often difficuLt poLicy decisions associated with edu- that of "Lender of Last resort," especially in the con- cation and financiaL poLicy reforms must be prereq- text of sector investment programs. While appropri- uisites for large-scale Bank investments in ate in pureLy financial terms, this roLe occasionally education. has been misinterpreted and has resulted in a dis- In countries that meet these conditions, the proportionate aLLocation of Bank funding for civiL Bank is ready to provide budget support under cofi- works spending. This has reduced the Bank's abiLity nancing arrangements or in cLose coordination with to support the design and impLementation of key the support provided by other exterrial financiers poLicy and institutional reforms. IncreasingLy, the and NGOs. In many cases the Bank will be able to Bank wiLL seek to cataLyze innovation and reform by support broad sector development stiategies over a contributing its knowledge to the design of sector long period through adaptabLe prograrn loans. Such investment programs, when possibLe under cofi- Loans provide a framework for Lend ng operations nancing arrangements, and otherwise by targeting based on clearLy agreed benchmarks and triggers its financiaL resources to key program eLements. over a period as Long as 10 years. A CHANCE TO LEARN 75 Bn Support udrDfferet: \05Countr Conditions:f Case11 1: on e cooi poli Cnein externa1 .1 i,l fiancier5 , Secto deeomn rgas cies godgvrac, el rnfrrn eore, ugtspot,aatbepo designe setrplc oioigimlmnain ga on frmwok adqut absrp experience providing0:;ff: advicef0?ff liv caact an guianc base on 000 .:. ; 4 0 \i . t g international experience2 g i|#0#||i g |, ! 9 E |i ! M S Eg |~~~~\ |