Report No. 21060-IS Israel Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan November 6, 2000 European Union-Taba-Eilat-Aqaba-Macro Area (TEAM) Project Prepared in Partnership with: the Government of Israel, the Municipality of Eilat, the European Union and the World Bank Rural Development, Water and Environment Department Middle East and North Africa Region FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ** ** * ** Document of the European Union and the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without European Union and World Bank authorization. CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Currency unit = Shekel (Shk) US$1.00 = Shk 4.07 Shk 1.00 = US$0.25 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES m meter km kilometer km2 square kilometer m 3 cubic meter ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS EEPC Eilat Environmental Protection Committee EIS Environmental Impact Statement EREU Eilat Regional Environmental Unit EU European Union GAEAP Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan GOI Government of Israel LMP Local Masterplan ME Mtmicipality of Eilat MOE Ministry of the Environment MOI Minristry of the Interior NGO Non-Governmental Organization NMP National Masterplan NRNPA Nalture Reserves and National Parks Authority RMP Regional Masterplan Regional Vice-President: Jean-Louis Sarbib Sector Director: Doris Koehn Sector Manager: Salah Darghouth Task Tearn Leader: Nicole Glineur FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan (GAEAP) is the result of a partnership between the Government of Israel, the Municipality of Eilat, the European Union and the World Bank, during the period May 1997 through November 2000. The preparation of the GAEAP was coordinated by Mr. Ram Aviram, Director of Multilateral Peace Talks, Coordination and Water Issues, in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Instrumental support was provided to the preparation team by Mr. Gabi Kadosh, Mayor of Eilat and the higher staff of the Municipality, including Mr. Jacob Storch, Head of Strategic Planning and Information, Ms. Osnat Post, City Engineer, and Mr. Yehiam Shlezinger, Head of the Regional Environmental Unit, as well as in the Ministry of Environment in Jerusalem by Mr. Dror Amir, Director, Division of International Relations and Special Projects and Mrs. Valerie Brachya, Head of Planning. In Eilat, valuable collaboration was extended by Messrs. Avi Baranes, Jonathan Erez, Amazia Ganin and Anton Post from the Inter-University Institute; Hillel Gordin, Noam Mozes and Amoz Tandler from the National Center for Mariculture; Rami Klinger from the Port Authority; and Aharon Dekel from the Eilat Hotel Owners Association. This exercise was led by Mr. Anthony Knott, Principal Administrator, Technical Unit for Mediterranean, European Commission, Brussels. The report was drafted by a team lead by Ms. Nicole Glineur, Task Manager, Senior Environmental Specialist in the Middle East and North Africa Region of the World Bank, and including Mme./Messrs. Isabel Braga, James Harrington, Jean-Pierre Villaret and Philip Warburg, consultants. The GAEAP is based on the findings of the Baseline Report, prepared by a local team headed by Mr. Aharon Zohar and presented in an Annex of the GAEAP report. The peer reviewer in the Bank is Mr. Stephen Lintner, Lead Specialist in the Environment Department. The GAEAP preparation process benefited from the advice and support of Mr. Salah Darghouth, Sector Manager, Water and Environment, Ms. Marjory-Anne Bromhead, Principal Natural Resources Economist, and Mr. Sherif Arif, Regional Environinental Coordinator, in the Rural Development, Water and Environment Department of the Middle East and North Africa Region. Administrative and secretarial assistance was provided by Ms. Syviengxay Creger. This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not be otherwise disclosed without World Bank authorization. THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN, ISRAEL TABLE OF CONTENTS Page no. FOREWORD EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................... . i-v I. CONTEXT OF THE GAEAP ..........................................................1 H. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS ...................................... 2 III. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS ..........................................................3 IV. INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY ..........................................................4 V. STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION .................................................... 6 VI. THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN ................... ..................8 A. Strengthening of the Local Environmental Capacity ............................................8 B. Improving the Legal and Regulatory Framework .................................................9 C. Environment-Supporting Investment Projects ................................................... 11 Cl. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources ....................... 11 C2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources .............................. 11 C3. Management of the Nature Reserve Areas ................................................ 11 C4. Monitoring and Research ...................................................1 I C5. Public Awareness in Environmental Matters ............................................ 12 C6. Transboundary Environmental Cooperation .............................................. 12 TABLES Table 1: Summary of Actions, Responsibility and Priority. iii-v Table 2: Process for Updating the Statutory Masterplans .13-14 Table 3: Monitoring and Research Program .15 Table 4: Corresponding References in Baseline Report .16 ANNEX TO THE GAEAP, ISRAEL: BASELINE REPORT MAPS Location Map (IBRD 30250) Map 1: Land Use Map for the Eilat Region (IBRD 30251) Map 2: Nature Preservation and Tourism (IBRD 30252) Map 3 Eilat Region - Infrastructure (IBRD 30253) Map 4: Eilat's Ports (IBRD 30254) Map 5: Eilat Region - Environmental Conflicts (IBRD 30255) FOREWORD The Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan (GAEAP) represents for the Government of Israel a step towards achieving the national environmental objectives outlined in its legislation. The proposed actions, both curative and preventive, will protect the Gulf's land and water interface and ensure conservation of natural resources within a framework in which economic development can take place. The Israeli GAEAP is a component of the Taba-Eilat-Aqaba-Macro Area (TEAM) project which is sponsored by the European Union (EU) within the framework of the Regional Economic Development and Environment Multilateral Working Groups of the Middle East Peace Process. The preparation of the GAEAP was funded by a European Union grant of US$200,000. The Israeli GAEAP is the result of a cooperative vision between the Government of Israel, the Municipality of Eilat, the European Union and the World Bank. As part of GAEAP preparation, a comprehensive Baseline Report on all environment-related issues on the Israeli coast of the Gulf of Aqaba has been assembled by an Israeli consulting team lead by Mr. Aharon Zohar to provide the detailed description of the background situation and proposed actions. The Baseline Report is presented in an Annex to the GAEAP. Table 4 hereafter indicates the sections of the Baseline Report relevant to each action proposed under the GAEAP as summarized in Table 1. Links With National and Regional Initiatives In addressing existing threats and preventing further damage to the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba, the GAEAP will support priorities outlined in the relevant Israeli master plans. In addition, it will provide for integrated management of environmental issues affecting the Israeli coastal area of the Gulf of Aqaba. The proposed plan will also complement existing efforts to combat water pollution in the Gulf of Aqaba supported by the Oil Spills Contingency Plan co-financed by EU. Regional Importance All the riparian governments recognize that effective environmental management and pollution control programs are needed to protect the Gulf of Aqaba's natural resources, especially its valuable and vulnerable coral ecosystems, while allowing for development of the region's trade, industry and tourism. They also recognize that some environmental problems may not be contained by national boundaries and that regional environmental protection mechanisms are required. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. The Israeli portion of the Gulf of Aqaba is limited in size (14 km of the shoreline) and includes a unique but limited and fragile set of natural resources, including sand beaches, clean waters, coral reef and desert inland. 2. These sensitive ecosystems are under pressure from the booming economic activities in the Eilat region, all competing for use of the limited natural resources. In addition to tourism, Eilat's economic base includes oil import and mineral and chemical exports through the commercial port, navy operations, fish farming, lagunas and hotels, all of which generate marine pollution and/or risks of toxic spills. 3. The rapid expansion of tourism (1.3 million tourists recorded in 1995, a 57% increase over a five-year period) and the associated growth of the city of Eilat constitute the dominant economic activity and pose a major threat to the environment from unsustainable pressure on the marine and desert ecosystems. Under current plans, hotel capacity and resident population are projected to double during the next ten years, from 9,000 to 17,000 rooms and 40,000 to 80,000, respectively. 4. Without enhanced environmental protection measures, the carrying capacity of the natural resources on which Eilat's economy is based may be exceeded, with adverse consequences for the environment and the tourism industry. 5. Although a comprehensive set of legal instruments exists and measures have already been taken to conserve a significant portion of the coral reef, environmental protection is insufficiently articulated, in both central and local governments, to reverse the increasing environmental deterioration. The main cause is the lower priority given to environmental matters by the Municipality of Eilat, coupled with inadequate budgetary allocation, insufficient communication with the central government levels, inadequacy of the statutory masterplans, and continuous pressure of private interests. 6. To address the environmental issues, the GAEAP would implement a strategy including the strengthening of the local capability for environmental protection, revision of the statutory masterplans on the basis of a precise determination of carrying capacity of the natural resources, completion of the proposed declaration of additional marine and terrestrial natural reserves, and implementation of environment-related projects, in particular for pollution control. 7. In this connection, the GAEAP proposes institutional strengthening measures (para. 9.a thereafter), development of the regulatory framework (para. 9.b) and environment-related projects (para. 9.c to 9.h). Details are provided in Table 1 thereafter and in section VI of the Report. 8. Total cost of the GAEAP is estimated at US$28 million, of which US$18.5 million for the priority program (category-I actions in Table 1). ii 9. The GAEAP would include the following activities: (a) strenghtening the local environmental capacity, by re-activating the Eilat Environmental Protection Committee and the Eilat Regional Environmental Unit; (b) developing the legal and regulatory framework, through (i) updating the relevant statutory national, regional and local masterplans, in order to fully integrate environmental considerations; (ii) adopting economic and administrative incentives supporting environmental protection; and (iii) completing declaration of the proposed additional nature reserves; and (c) implementing environment-oriented investment projects, aimed at: * preventing marine pollution from land-based sources, through investments in wastewater and solid wasle management, and control of mineral dusts and chemical spills; * preventing marine pollutiion from marine-based sources, through oil spill control at sea, transfer of fish farming (mariculture) to land-based ponds and improvement of marina management practices; * enhancing management or the protected areas, by expansion of the existing nature reserves and implementation of an integrated coral reef management plan; * implementing a monitoring and research program on environment-related issues; - increasing public particip,ation in environmental matters, through establishment of a local committee and promotion of environmental education and public awareness; and * developing transboundary cooperation in protecting the environment of the Northern Gulf of Aqaba. iii GAEAP ISRAEL Table 1: SUMMARY OF ACTIONS, RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIORITY ACTION COST RESPONSIBILITY PRfORTY ITAITI US$ /I LEVEL12 13 Al Re-activating the Eilat Environmental Protection Committee oEEPC) within ME I the Municipality of Eilat A2 Re-activating and re-staffing the Eilat Regional Environmental Unit (EREl 150,000 ME, EREU 1 TA+TR and stren hening of its elanning, enforcement and modring paptcith dut(n B. Revision and updating of all national, regional and local masterplans 00,000 PI,ME to Eilat regional development with a view to better integrating enviro a d economic considerations B2 Complete declaration of Nature Reserve areas ME, EREU, NRA B3 Adoption of the "polluteras psprinciple and other required environmental MOE, EREU 2 reg ulatory measures Cl. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources 13.6 million Cl .a Construction of a modern waste water treatment plant (in progress) 10,500,000 ME I I Cl.b Moving the existing sanitar land fill 1,700,000 MOE, NME I Cl.c Control of phosphate and potash dust (in progress) 1,100,000 PS I CIA. Survey and repair of the wastewater conveyance system 200,000 NME 2I Cl.e Improve handling of solid waste 80,000 ME 2 Cl.f Prohibit dumping construction debris in the Gulf ME, EREU, NRA2 C1 .g Transfer parking from east of the southern shore road 30,000 ME, NRA 2 C1l.h Review decision to transport phosphoric acid through Eilat MOE, MOT 2 iv GAEAP ISRAEL Table 1: SUMMARY OF ACTIONS, RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIORITY ACTION COST RESPONSIBILITY PRIORITY TAITR/I -____________________________________________________________ !US$ /1 LEVEL/2 /3 C2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sourees 6.9 mIllion ____:_i; C2.a Develop Israeli participation into the EU-supported Oil Spill Contingency 2,325,500 MOE I TA Plan C2.b Implement the pilot project for land-based mariculture 4,390,000 NCM 2 I+TA C2.c Improving infrastructure in the North marina 130,000 ME I I C2.d Re-examining the lagoon concept 65,000 MOE, ME, RI 2 TA C3 .a Complete declaration of the protected areas (see B2) - ME. FREI J, NRA A C3.b Implemenitation of a land use scheme along the seashore 100,000 PI, ME 2 I C3.c Preparation of an integrated coral reef management plan 900,000 NRA 2 TA C3.d Increase enforcement - GM, ME, EREU, NRA 1 (A.f Monitvorin:gZand R 3 million __ :______ C4.a hnplementation of a comprehensive monitoring and research program 3,200,000 EREU, NRA, NCM, 1111 2 TA (see Table 3) I C5.a Establish a committee for public participation in environmental matters - ME, P 1 C5.b Promote environmental education and public awareness 200,000 ME, EREU, MOE, NRA, I I+TA C5.c Establish a visitor center 400,000 MOE, NRA, EREU, ME 2 I+TA C6.a Cooperate in establishing a regional environmental strategy - MOE, ME, EREU |_2 _TA C6.b Coordinate emergency response to oil spills MOE I TA v GAEAP ISRAEL Table 1: SUMMARY OF ACTIONS, RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIORITY /I Responsibility EAPC - Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Co. MOE - Ministry of the Environment PI Planning Institutions GM - Government Ministries RA - Nature Reserves Authority PS - Private Sector ME - Municipality of Eilat NCM - National Mariculture Center RI - Research Institutions MOT - Ministry of Transport P - Public EREU - Eilat Regional Environmental Unit /2 Priority Priority I - For immediate action Priority 2 - To be accomplished within the medium term /3 TA Technical Assistance TR: Training I Investment I. CONTEXT OF THE GAEAP Geographical Background 1.1 The Gulf of Aqaba is a marine environment enclosed by arid lands that experience extremes of temperature and exceedingly low levels of precipitation. These conditions have led to the evolution of unique, and hence internationally important, coral reef and marine ecosystems that are particularly susceptible to damage from pollution or other forms of environmental impact. The Gulf of Aqaba also represents a natural resource of major economic significance to the four riparian countries (Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia) in terms of access to sea transportation and development of tourism and other industries along its shores. 1.2 Israel's shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba, approximately 14-km, is the smallest among the riparian countries. The entire shoreline lies within the municipal limits of the city of Eilat. Economic Activities 1.3 A large number of diverse activities have been concentrated along the shore or within a short-distance inland, resulting in the highest density of developmental activity currently along the Gulf s coast. 1.4 Activities now existing along the Israel Aqaba coast include hotels and tourist attractions; shopping areas; bathing beaches; coral reef reserves, military, oil and commercial port facilities; lagunas and commnercial fish farming operations. The city of Eilat and its associated facilities and infrastructure are located behind the beachfront and directly impact the marine and coastal environment. 1.5 Tourism provides the major economic activity in Eilat. At present, there are more than 9,000 hotel rooms in Eilat and more are under construction. The expansion of the tourist economy has induced continual rapid growth in the city that currently has a population of 40,000, half of which is engaged in the tourism industry. 1.6 Coral reef attractions draw a large number of divers - over 250,000 dives per year is estimated, in addition to snorkelers and reef-viewing cruise boats. The reefs along the Israel coast, which were heavily damaged in the past, are intensely managed, with controlled entry points, offshore patrols and markers designating the reef areas. 1.7 Other economic activities along the coast include the operations of the commercial port, mainly export of phosphate mineral and derivatives and import of crude oil, marina management and fish farming. 2 II. EXISTING AND POTE NTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS 2.1 Current and potential threats to the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba arise principally from tourism and associated activities, population growth in the city of Eilat induced by tourism expansion, and - to a less extent - maritime activities associated with ship traffic, port operations and fish farming. Tourism Industry 2.2 Tourism is the principal economic activity in Eilat. Some 1.3 million tourists were recorded in 1995, a 57% increase over a five-year period, generating a gross revenue of US$200 million or 20% the total country revenue from tourism. There are now over 9,000 hotel rooms in the city, 60% of which are located along the 3-km north shore, which has a very narrow strip of beach for bathing. As a result, the linear shore per hotel room in this area is currently less than 0.6 meter, far below the international standard of 1.0 meter. Approximately 40% oi- all tourist nights are for foreign visitors. The attractions for tourists are primarily the Gulf waters and coral reefs, as well as the surrounding desert environment. 2.3 The Municipality of Eilat seeks to increase foreign and local tourist visitation. The most conservative plan envisions almost doubling the number of hotel rooms up to 17,000 by year 2010. Expansion of tourist visitation of this magnitude will pose the potential for significant adverse impacts on the reef and will add to the already crowded condition of the limited beach areas. Both impacts, if not properly regulated, would seriously undermine the future of the tourism industry. A more ambitious growth of the hotel capacity might exacerbate the environmental pressures beyond controllable levels and make the future of the tourism industry even more questionable. Population Growth 2.4 Continued expansion of the tourist accommodations will necessitate expansion of the city population, as the need for workers to serve the new tourist facilities grows. Estimates based on current Regional Master Plan goals suggest that Eilat's population, currently 40,000 after sustaining a 6.4% annual growth over the last ten years, will more than double in the next 12 years under the most conservative development projection. Such a trend will generate increased pressures on water supply, wastewater treatment and solid waste management facilities, ancl other infrastructure needs, in particular highways and airport. At the same time, access to the Gulf beaches for the local population is already limited and any significant population increase will exacerbate pressures on the already crowded shoreline. 3 Activities Impacting on the Gulf's Waters 2.5 Cargo throughput at the commercial port - about 1.5 million tons per year - is stable or declining in volume. There remains, however, a major potential threat to the coral reefs from oil spills at, or near the port, which is located close to the major reef formations and bathing beaches. In addition, the handling of phosphate and potash minerals causes significant air pollution and threat to the coral reefs through sedimentation while the handling of phosphoric acid and crude oil remains a potential threat of toxic spill. 2.6 Fish farming is concentrated off the north shore of Eilat, near the major tourist beaches. Although it provides a very modest contribution to Israel's supply of fish, this activity is currently expanding in response to the demand from the tourism industry. There are already evidences that the fish farming industry has a marked adverse impact on adjacent waters from nutrient release and potential local eutrophication. Sewerage still presents a problem in the northern lagunas due to obsolescence of the collection system. Current Environmental Deterioration and Protection Initiatives 2.7 Results of Government surveys on the shoreline indicate a reduction of the number of coral colonies up to 56% between 1968 and 1990, with some stabilization since then due to recent protection measures. 2.8 In addition to adopting a number of legal and regulatory instruments (see Section III), the government has taken three important initiatives aimed at effectively protecting the marine environment, including: (a) declaration of the Coral Reserve on about 30% of the total coastline, which prohibits development of urban and tourism infrastructure and carefully monitors visitor access to the waters (167,000 visitors in 1996) - further expansion on additional sensitive areas is proposed but still not approved; (b) creation, equipment and support of the Marine Pollution Control Station, as part of the EU-supported Regional Oil Spills Contingency Plan; and (c) encouragement to applied research on marine biology through the Inter-University Institute (IUI) and the National Center for Mariculture (NCM). III. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS Legislation 3.1 A set of laws dealing with environmental and nature protection provides the legal framework. These are supplemented by specific laws and regulations dealing with preparation and enforcement of Environmental Impact Statements (EIS), water quality, 4 wastewater treatment and solid waste management, air quality and all aspects of marine pollution. 3.2 With EIS requirements contained only in regulations of the Ministry of the Environment, legislation mandating the use of EIS would be helpful in ensuring the full application of these guidelines to all new development projects. Moreover, a strengthened commitment to enforcing existing laws and regulations would help protect valued environmental resources in ard along the Gulf. Master Plans 3.3 A hierarchy of planning instruments exists, with National Master Plans (NMP) prepared, or in process, for all activities pertinent to the Gulf coast area. These NMPs establish guidelines for comprehensive land use and resource management, and provide a background for more detailed Regional Master Plans (RMP) and local master plans. There is a multitude of subordinate single-issue plans covering various aspects of development and land use in Eilat. All master plans are statutory binding. 3.4 Of particular relevance to the GAEAP is NMP no.13, specifically regulating the use and development of the Eilat shoreline with the objective of supporting urban development, increasing the bathing beaches area and concentrating port activities. NMP no.13 is still under preparationl and could, therefore, accommodate the GAEAP recommendations. RMP no. 4 of the Southern region, still not approved, was prepared in 1994 and mainly defines regional lard use. The local masterplan for Eilat was prepared between 1975 and 1980 and needs updating. IV. INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY 4.1 The key institutional responsibilities for environmental issues lie with the Ministry of Environment and the M; nistry of the Interior at the national and regional level, and the Municipality of Eilat at :he local level. Ministry of the Environment 4.2 The Ministry of the Enviromnent (MOE), created in 1990, is responsible for defining national policy and priorities for environmental matters. These include laws and standards for enforcement, and requirements and procedures for EIS. MOE also exercises authority over prevention of marine pollution and pollution from land-based sources. A district office of MOE, located in Beersheva, has responsibility for supervising local environmental units and ensuring that municipalities fulfill their environmental protection responsibilities. The district office also represents MOE in regional planning and building committees. 5 4.3 A unit of MOE in Eilat, the Marine Pollution Control Station, operates the spill cleanup functions, conducts marine and coastal surveillance and inspects vessels and shore terminals. 4.4 The Nature Reserves and National Park Authority (NRNPA) is a department of MOE. A district office in Eilat has jurisdiction over the Coral Reef Reserve, the Eilat Mountain reserves and other natural reserves in the district, and exercises this jurisdiction through reserve managers for each designated reserve. Ministry of the Interior 4.5 The Ministry of the Interior (MOI), as chair of the National Planning and Building Board, plays an important role in environmentally sound planning. The Planning administration within the Ministry is responsible for preparing national, regional and local masterplans. Through district planning and building committees, the Ministry oversees regional and local level planning and building programs. Other Central Agencies 4.6 Other national agencies represented in Eilat include the Ministry of Tourism, the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Transport through the Shipping and Ports Authority (responsible for safety inspection of all Israeli tankers) and the Ports Authority (in charge of the management and operations of the Port of Eilat), the Ministry of Finance, through the state-owned Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company (which operates an oil terminal at the Port of Eilat) and the Ministry of Defense (through the Navy port facility). Municipality of Eilat 4.7 Local administration of environmental protection and planning functions is by the Municipality of Eilat. The Municipality, in addition to all other normal municipal functions, is the senior partner and immediate supervisor of the Eilat-Regional Environmental Unit (EREU). This Unit functions as a branch of the Municipality and the Municipal council sets its budget. The unit has responsibility for environmental monitoring, inspection and enforcement of environmental regulations, acts as an advisor to local policy and decision-makers, and participates in the planning and building decisions. EREU also serves as secretary of the Eilat Environmental Protection Committee (EEPC) chaired by the mayor and including 15 voting members nominated by the municipal council. 4.8 Of major concern to the GAEAP is the EEPC inactivity and the lack of budget for the EREU, which was funded, until recently, jointly by the Municipality, the Eilot Regional Council and the Ministry of the Environment. In response to reduced funding from MOE and local budgetary problems, the Unit is now virtually unstaffed. 6 Research and Non-Governmental Organizations 4.9 The Inter-University Institute of Eilat provides an institutional setup for investigation and collaboration by scientists from five Israeli universities and offers educational programs in the marine sciences. The National Center for Mariculture, as a branch of the Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, serves as a research institute specializing in the area of fish farming propagation and production. 4.10 The most active non-governmental organization (NGO) operating in Eilat is The Society for the Protection of Nature. Other active NGOs with programs relevant to the GAEAP include The Israel Union for Environmental Defense, the Eilat Hotel Owner's Association and the Israeli Diving Federation. V. STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Environmental Issues 5.1 The fragile marine ecosystem, in particular the coral reef, is currently under the mounting pressure of economic activities competing for limited land and fresh and marine water resources. Strong protection measures are needed to stop further environmental deterioration. 5.2 The main issues impacting on -nvironmental protection include: (a) the number and volume of economic activities competing for a drastically limited space, which causes difficulty in ensuring an environmentally- sound development, with worrisome pollution from residential and recreational areas, port activities, lagunas and fish farming; (b) the rapid expansion of the tourism industry, the driving force of the regional growth, which requires effective regulatory decisions; (c) the fragmentation of institutional responsibilities and planning instruments (masterplans) directing regional development; (d) the limited communication on environmental affairs both at the central and local levels; and (e) the insufficient enforcement of existing legislation and widening lack of support to environmental protection at the local level. 7 The Environmental Dilemma 5.3 Rapid growth of the tourism economy in Eilat has induced increasing pressures on the natural resources - the Gulf waters, beaches and coral reef - which have been important factors in attracting tourists to the area. Continued economic growth will exacerbate these pressures. The challenge is to encourage high-value growth that appropriately reflects the limited resources in the area, in such a way that the tourism economy can flourish economically in an environmentally sustainable manner. 5.4 The environmental dilemma for the Israel coast of the Gulf of Aqaba is that of allocating and regulating the uses of limited land and water area between competing users, in such a way as to ensure protection of the natural and environmental resources that underlie the tourism industry, the main economic base of the city. Objective 5.5 The Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan for Israel (GAEAP) will focus on strengthening existing protection of the coral reef and marine ecosystems, while promoting further economic development that can be sustained economically without degrading the natural and enviromnental resources that support this development. Future Development 5.6 The principal threat to the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba in Eilat stems from expansion of the tourism economic base and the population growth induced by that expansion. The challenge of meeting this threat is to manage this growth in a manner that is economically sound and environmentally sustainable. 5.7 Comprehensive planning, embodying financial feasibility and natural and environmental limitations on tourism growth, should be the major tool in meeting this challenge. Completion of planned nature reserve designations and strengthening local envirortnental enforcement capabilities are also of critical importance. Strategy for GAEAP 5.8 Based on the assessment of current strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, the strategy recommended for the GAEAP includes the following four areas of action: (a) first, updating the cluster of planning instruments impacting on Eilat regional development, namely the relevant national, regional and local masterplans, with the objective of carefully ensuring consistency of economic decisions with the region's carrying capacity; 8 (b) second, strengthening local capabilities and central support for environmental coordination, monitoring and enforcement; (c) third, completing actions necessary to expand the nature reserves and protected areas; and (d) fourth, targeting specific investments at environment-related projects oriented toward protecting Gulf's water quality through oil spill combating, land-based fish farming, and modem wastewater collection and treatment. VI. THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN Content 6.1 Consistent with the above mentioned strategy (para. 5.8), the GAEAP would support three categories of measures dealing with: (a) institutional strengthening by activating the local environmental capacity; (b) development of the regulatory framework by updating the planning instruments; and (c) implementation of environment-supporting projects aimed at preventing water pollution, managing the nature reserves, supporting research and monitoring, increasing public awareness and encouraging transboundary environmental cooperation. Total Cost 6.2 Total base cost of the proposed action plan is estimated at US$26 million, of which US$16.5 million is for priority projects. Total costs including contingencies (about 12 %) are US$28 million and US$18.5 million, respectively. Works already in progress have been valued at their full base cost and represent an aggregate US$11.6 million. Details are presented in Table I of the Executive Summary. A. Strengthening of the Local Environmental Capacity (US$0.15 million) 6.3 Upgrading the local capacity to coordinate environmental matters is a prerequisite to GAEAP implementation. This would be achieved through two immediate measures to be taken by the Municipality of Eilat, namely: (a) reactivating the existing Eilat Environmental Protection Committee (EEPC), (which has not met over the last two years) to oversee environment-related activities and, in particular, GAEAP implementation; (b) restaffing and reactivating the Eilat Regional Environmental Unit (EREU), to oversee planning, design, enforcement and monitoring of all regulatory 9 activities associated with environmental protection and, in particular, GAEAP implementation, and act as Secretary to the EEPC. B. Improving the Legal and Regulatory Framework (US$0.5 million) Summary 6.4 The cluster of existing National and Regional Masterplans (NMP and RMP) relevant to the development of the Eilat region would be updated as appropriate by MOI, in coordination with MOE and the Municipality. The objective for the Government is to have the environmental considerations fully integrated in all statutory masterplans, with particular attention to: (a) the detailed zonine of physical developments (for tourism facilities and transport infrastructure, in particular); (b) the arnount of budget appropriations required for the capital-intensive public investments in municipal infrastructure (such as wastewater collection and treatment) and transport infrastructure (highways, ports, airport and railway); and (c) the identification of regulatory measures and economic incentives required to enhancing environmental protection. 6.5 Subsequently, the existing Local Master Plan (LMP) for Eilat would be updated as appropriate by the Municipality under MOI and MOE guidance. The objective is for the Municipality to have the adequate, comprehensive and enforceable regulatory instrument required for GAEAP implementation. 6.6 The updated LMP would also define appropriate regulatory measures, such as tariff schedules and fee structure, to enforce and finance the environmental protection in the context of the LMP, incorporating the "polluter-pays principle" as an economic instrument for further pollution control. 6.7 As an immediate measure, the Government and the Municipality would implement the proposed - but still not approved - expansion of the existing Nature Reserve Areas to protect additional sensitive marine and terrestrial zones. Process for Updating the Planning Instruments 6.8 The cornerstone in updating the planning instruments (NMP, RMP and LMP) is to define the optimum economic expansion compatible with the natural and environmental assets of the region. Therefore, the updating of the masterplans would be contingent upon the identification, review and evaluation of comprehensive development alternatives designed to adequately integrate environmental and economic considerations with a long- term perspective. The process of updating the statutory masterplans would be implemented in three steps as described in the following paragraphs and summarized in Table 2. 10 6.9 SteP 1: Implementation of a Preparatory Study to help selecting the optimum solution to be embodied in the statulory masterplans. The Study would include: (i) the assessment of the environmental carrying capacity of the ecosystems of the Eilat Region; (ii) the determination of the environmental assets affected by the current land use patterns and economic activities, as well as those to be affected by future development; (iii) identification and analysis of the economic development alternatives; and (iv) selection of the optimal alternatixe. 6.10 The Study would take into consideration the tolerance of the marine ecosystems to the pressure resulting from the existing and planned economic activities and the type and level of protection measures ensuring nature conservation under increased pressure. It would include the review of the set of sectoral projections supporting the regional economic growth, such as tourism expansion, population growth, urban development, port and industrial activities, transport infrastructure development, etc. The review would determine, in particular, the siting anc. cost of public and private investment involved, the environmentally sensitive areas to be affected by such investments, the assessment of their environmental impact and the type and level of required conservation measures. A number of sectoral projections already exist, for tourism in particular, and would be reviewed and updated or revised as appropriate. 6.11 The Study would identify several development alternatives and select the optimal one ensuring the maximum economic growth in a financially and environmentally sustainable manner. Each alternative would be evaluated to assess: (a) its impact on the natural and environmental resources of the Eilat area, with particular emphasis on protecting the marine and desert ecosystems; (b) the costs of infrastructure requirements, with focus on the amount of public investments for urban and transport infrastructure; and (c) the type, level and cost of the associated conservation measures. 6.12 The process of implementing the Preparatory Study would be overseen by the EEPC with EREU as coordinator, under the MOI and MOE guidance. All major stakeholders, representing the leading economic and non-economic activities of the region, would be involved in the preparation process, with the objective that all conflicting interests be clearly prese lted and a wide consensus reached before final decision-making by MOE, MOI and the Municipality. 6.13 Step 2: Adopting modifications of the statutory masterplans. This would include: (i) the review and final approval by MOI and MOE of the modifications to the NMP and RMP recommended by the Preliminary Study; and (ii) the review and final approval by the Municipality of Eilat of the proposed modifications to the LMP. 6.14 Step 3: Developing additional regulatory instruments. The objective is to put in place regulations to appropriately support and enforce the conservation measures reflected in the updated Masterplans The focus would be placed on economic incentives 11 contained in appropriate tariff schedules and fees structures implementing, in particular, the "polluter/user-pays" principle C. Environment-Supporting Investment Projects C1. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources (US$13.6 million) 6.15 The main action to be taken under the GAEAP is the construction of a modem wastewater treatment (in progress), associated with the improvement of the main sewage collection network. 6.16 Additional important measures would include: (a) the transfer of the sanitary landfill to a more appropriate site; (b) the control of dust emissions from phosphate and potash handling (in progress); and (c) the transfer of phosphoric acid handling to a Mediterranean port. C2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources (US$6.9 million) 6.17 Israel would continue participating in the development of the EU-supported Regional Oil Spill Contingency Project aimed at combating major oil spills from collisions or groundings at sea. 6.18 To reduce pollution from the expanding fish farming industry, the GAEAP would support implementation of a pilot project for conducting fish farming in land-based ponds. 6.19 The infrastructure of the marina would be improved to properly collect and evacuate all liquid and solid wastes from docking boats. C3. Management of the Nature Reserve Areas (US$1.0 million) 6.18 Further to expanding the coastal Nature Reserves area (see para. 2.8 and 6.7), a comprehensive integrated coral reef protection plan would be prepared and approved for. implemention. In parallel, the enforcement of protection measures in the Eilat Mountain Reserve would be strengthened. C4. Monitoring and Research (US$3.2 million) 6.19 A comprehensive monitoring and research program would be implemented. The main research themes would include fish farming ("mariculture") and impacts on marine 12 ecology and coral reef management. Monitoring would focus on seawater and air quality, coral reef destruction/regeneration, and fish farming. C5. Public Awareness in Environmental Matters (US$0.6 million) 6.20 A visitor center would be installed to raise public awareness about both marine and desert ecosystems. In addition, the GAEAP would support selected public education programs and promote participation of environment-oriented NGOs. C6. Transboundary Environmental Cooperation 6.21 The GAEAP would support. (a) the preparation of a strategy addressing the regional environmental issues of the Gulf of Aqaba, such as sea water pollution and protection of fragile ecosystems; (b) a coordinated emergency response to any environmental disaster such as accidental oil spill or hazardous material release. 13 Table 2 GAEAP - ISRAEL PROCESS FOR UPDATING THE STATUTORY MASTERPLANS (See Section V1.B in Text and Section B in Table 1) Steps Activities Responsibility l(i) Determine the environmental carrying capacity of the Eilat Region: (a) identify/delineate critical natural areas, shoreline and offshore areas. for which conservation measures are needed; (b) evaluate the assimilative capacity of the Gulf of Aqaba waters and shoreline in the vicinity of ERECU, Eilat; MOI, (c) evaluate the ambient air quality in the Eilat Region for any constraints which may affect MOE, human health; ME (d) determine appropriate limitations on traffic/occupancy of environmentally sensitive desert lands; and (e) other carrying capacity evaluations. 1(ii) Identify and evaluate the environmental limitations: (a) that are affected by current land use patterns and economic activity; and. (b) that will affect, or be affected by, future development, such as EEPC, - water, waste water capacity; EREU - shoreline areas, beach access, offshore reefs; ME, PS - assimilative capacity of the Gulf of Aqaba in proximity to Eilat; - air quality limitations; and - other. 1(iii) Identify and analyze economic development alternatives: (a) analyze population impact and infrastructure cost of each alternative; EEPC, (b) analyze environmental impact of each alternative; EREU, MOI, (c) correlate each alternative with applicable NMP; and MOE, (d) identify and evaluate alternatives on the basis of adverse environmental impacts and PS economic cost-effectiveness. I(iv) Select optimal alternative to be incorporated in the Masterplans as minimizing the adverse MOI, MOE, environmental impact while supporting sustainable economic activities. ME (Continued next page) 14 Table 2 (continued) PROCESS FOR UPDATING THE STATUTORY MASTERPLANS (continued) 2(i) Modifications to statutory National and Regional Masterplans: (a) review the alternative proposed by preparatory study against applicable National and Regional Masterplans and propose modifications to the existing Masterplans as necessary; MOI, (b) select optimal alternative; and (c) obtain approval of NMP and RMP modifications. 2(ii) Updating the statutory Local Masterplan: (a) review relevant updated NMP and RMP and prepare the LMP; and MOI, MOE, (b) approve proposed LMP. ME, PS ____ N ___ _ WIN Develop appropriate regulations, such as tariff schedules and fee structures, to support and enforce MOI, MOE, appropriate conservation measures as reflected in the updated Masterplans ME LMP Local Masterplan NMP National Masterplan RMP Regional Masterplan MOI Ministry of the Interior MOE Ministry of the Environment ME Municipality of Eilat EEPC Eilat Environmental Protection Committee EREU Eilat Regional Environmental Unit PS Private sector 15 Table 3 GAEAP ISRAEL MONITORING AND RESEARCH PROGRAM (See Section C4 of Table 1) Item Responsibility' Cost (US$) Evaluation of phosphate release associated with EREU 46,000 loading operations Evaluation of seasonal concentrations of dissolved EREU 60,000 phosphate Sediment phosphate evaluation EREU 25,000 Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in EREU 50,000 water Equipment of two monitoring stations EREU 200,000 (Coral reef damage evaluation NRA 26,000 Artificial reef generation study NRA 30,000 Assembling a Gulf of Aqaba biological database EREU 25,000 Monitoring of environmental impact from fish farming. NCM 1,750,000 Implementing a trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel) IUI 900,000 program for research and monitoring for ecological management of the coral-reef ecosystems of the Gulf of Aqaba "Responsibility IUI - Inter-University Institute NRA - Nature Reserves Authority EREU - Eilat Regional Environmental Unit NCM - National Center for Mariculture 16 Table 4 GAEAP ISRAEL CORRESPONDING REFERENCES IN BASELINE REPORT (*) Section of GAEAP in Table BASELINE REPOR T Al Activating of the Eilat Environmental Coordination Council (EECC) within the 6.1.2.1 - 9.1.9 Municipality of Eilat A2 Reinstatement of the Regional Environmental Unit and strengthening of its 1.2.4.2 - 6.1.2.2 - 7.3.3 - enforcin and monitoring ca aci 9.4.9 BI Preparation of a regional statutory master plan (see Table 2) 6.2.2 B2 Com lete declaration of Nature Reserve areas 7.2 - 9.3.4.2 B3 Ado tion of the " olluter pays" rinci le 8.7 - 9.4 C l .a Construction of a modem waste water treatment plant (in progress) 3.3.7.2 - 4.2.1 - 9.3.3.1 Cl .b Moving the existing sanitary land fill 3.3.8 - 9.3.3.2 C 1.c Control of phosphate and potash dusts (in progress) 3.3.4.1 - 4.2.2.1 - 9.3.3.1 C l.d Survey and repair of the sewage collection system 3.3.7.1 - 9.3.1.1 CI .e Improve handling of solid waste 3.3.8 - 4.2.4 - 9.3.3.2 Cl .f Prohibit dumping construction debris in the Gulf 4.2.2.6 - 9.3.1.5 C I.g Transfer parking from east of the southern shore road 4.2.5.1.2 - 9.3.1.3 C I.h Review decision to trans ort phosphoric acid throue Eilat 4.9.3 - 9.3.1.4 C2.a Develop Israeli participation in the EU-supported Oil Spill Contingency Plan 9.2.4.1 - 9.8.1 C2.b Implement the pilot project for land-based mariculture 3.5.1.1 - 4.3.4 - 8.5 - 9.3.2.2 C2.c Improving infrastructure in the north marina 3.3.4.4 - 4.2.5.2 - 9.3.2.3 C2.d Re-examinin the la oon concept 4.2.5.2. - 9.3.2.4 C3.a Complete declaration of the protected areas (see B2) 7.2 - 9.3.4.2 C3.b Implementation of a land use scheme along the seashore 7.1 - 9.3.4.1 C3.c Preparation of an integrated coral reef management plan 7.3 - 9.3.4.3 C3.d Increase enforcement 7.3.1.1.1 - 9.3.4.4 C4.a Im lementation of a monitorini and research ro am see Table 3 9.5 - Annexes I to 6 C5.a Establish a committee for public participation in environmental matters 9.6 C5.b Promote environmental education and public awareness 9.7 C5.c Establish a visitor center 9.7 C6.a Establish a regional environmental strategy 3.5 - 4.5 - 9.8.1 C6.b Coordinate emergency response to oil spills 9.8.3 Annex to THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN ISRAEL BASELINE REPORT June 22, 1999 Aharon Zohar Regional and Environmental Planning Carmei Yosef, Israel Abbreviations CZM Coastal Zone Management EAPC Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Co. EIS Environmental Impact Statement GAEAP Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan fUED Israel Union for Environmental Defense IUI Inter-University Institute MOE Ministry of the Environment MOT Ministry of Transport MPCU Marine Pollution Control Unit NCM National Center for Mariculture NIS New Israeli Shekel, $1 U.S. = 3.5 NIS NMP National Master Plan NPBB National Planning and Building Board NRA Nature Reserves Authority REU Regional Environmental Unit SPNI Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel TIDF The Israel Diving Federation WWTP Waste Water Treatment Plant Acknowledgments Thanks are due to all those who h.ve played a part in the production of this report: * Isaac Diwan, who assisted me with research, writing and editing. * Michal Kidron, who drew the maps. * Rosana Milshtein, who assisted in translation. Thanks are also due to all those who provided support and information: Gabbi Kadosh, Osnat Post, Yehiam Shiezinger and Jacob Storch from the Municipality of Eilat; Valerie Brachya, Ellik Adler, Liora Golob from the Ministry of the Environment; Ezri Alon, Noam Meshi and Roni King from the Nature Reserves Authority; Jonathan Erez, Avi Baranes, Anton Post and Amazia Ganin form the Inter-University Institute of Eilat; Amos Tandler, Noam Mozes and Hillel Gordin from the National Center for Mariculture; Aharon Dekel from the Eilat Hotel Owners Association; Rami Klinger from the Ports Authority; Alon Tal from the Israel Union for Environmental Defense; and Sigal from Architect Uri Shitrit. Special thanks are extended to Philip Warburg, consultant, for his assistance and contribution ii Table of Contents EXECU VE SUvARY ................... E-1 1. BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW ..........................1l 1.1. BACKGROUND ..................1... .............1 1.2. OVERVIEW .................. ...1 1.2.1. Dilemma of Development in the Gulf of Aqaba - the Case of Israel .1 1.2.2. The Gulf of Aqaba Coral Reef Ecosystems: a Global Concern .2 1.2.3. Transboundary Concerns .3 1.2.4. Institutional and Legal Issues .3 1.2.5. Boundaries .4 1.2.6. Objectives of the Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan .5 2. SINGULARITY OF THE EILAT REGION .6 2.1. TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT ................... ,, 6 2.1.1. Base rock ......,..,,,,,,,....,,,..,,,,,..6 2.1.2. Variegated rock ............,. . , , , , . 6 2.1.3. Varied landscapes .......................... . ... . . . 6 2.1.4. Fauna and Flora .7 2.1.5. Level of environmental degradation .7 2.2. THEMARINEENviRONMENT ................... I ,, ,,,,,,,8 2.2.1. Hydrography of the Gulf of Aqaba .......................... , . , . 8 2.2.2. Coral reefs ......8., , , , , ....8 2.2.3. Level of marine environment degradation .9 3. EXISTING AND FORESEEN DEVELOPMENT . 10 3.1. TouRism .10 3.1.1. Tourism Development Trends .10 3.1.2. Beach-Front Development .13 3.1.3. Tourist Activities ..................... ,14 3.2. MuNICIPAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 17 3.2.1. Demographic Trends .17 3.2.2. Economy and Manpower .18 3.2.3. Housing .............. ,,, 21 3.2.4. Architectonic Design .............. 21 3.3. INFRASTRUCTURE .21 3.3.1. Road Network .21 3.3.2. Railway .... 23 3.3.3. Airports ............,,... 23 3.3.4. Seaports .24 3.3.5. Power Supply ........ 29 3.3.6. Water Supply ................... ...... 30 3.3.7. Wastewater Treatment .... 30 3.3.8. Solid Waste ........ 35 3.4. OTHER ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ........... .. 36 3.4.1. Mariculture .......... . 36 3.4.2. Industry ...... 37 3.4.3. Agriculture ....... ,,,.... 38 3.4.4. Quarries ..................... 38 3.5. PROPOSED REGIONAL PROJECTS .. . 40 3.5.1. Short Term Projects ........................ ..... 40 3.5.2. Long-Term Projects .......................... . .. .. ....... 42 iii 4. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS ......................................... 43 4.1. NATURALHAZARDS ............................................... 43 4.1.1. Flood Control ................................................ 43 4.1.2. Earthquakes ............................................... 44 4.2. LAND-BASED POLLUTION ............................................... 44 4.2.1. Wastewater ............................................... 44 4.2.2. Air Pollution ............................................... 46 4.2.3. Hazardous Substances ................................................ 49 4.2.4. Solid Waste ................................................ 49 4.2.5. Other Enviromnental Impacts ............................................... 50 4.3. . MARINE POLLUTION .......................................................... 51 4.3.1. Oil Spills..................................... 51 4.3.2. Ballast and Bilge Water .................. 53 4.3.3. Wastewater from Vessels .................. 53 4.3.4. Mariculture..................................... 54 4.4. TOURIST ACTIVITIES .................. 54 4.5. POTENTIAL TRANs-BouN)ARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PROPOSED REGIONAL PROJEcTs.56 4.5.1. Industry and Energy Procluction ..................................................... 56 4.5.2. Transportation ..................................................... 57 4.5.3. The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) ..................................................... 58 5. CONFLICTS ..................................................... 59 6. INSTITUTIONS AND LLGISLATION ..................................................... 60 6.1. CURRENT INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK - INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES . . 60 6.1.1. The National and Regional Level ..................................................... 60 6.1.2. The Local Level ..................................................... 63 6.1.3. Research Organizations ..................................................... 64 6.1.4. Non-Governmental Organizations .................................................... 66 6.2. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS ..................................................... 68 6.2.1. National Level Instruments - Laws and Regulations ....................................... 68 6.2.2. Masterplans ....................................................... 75 6.2.3. Relevant International Conventions ................................................... 79 6.2.4. Inte rn ational Cooperation . ......................................1................ l 7. CZM AND NATURAL PESOURCE MANAGEMENT ....................................................... 83 7.1. ZONATION SCHEMES ....................................................... 84 7.2. LEGAL SCHEMES ....................................................... 85 7.3. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ....................................................... 85 7.3.1. The Nature Reserves Autiority ....................................................... 85 7.3.2. The Marine Pollution Control Unit ..........................................9........................... 89 7.3.3. The Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit .......................................... 89 7.3.4. The Israeli Diving Federation .......................................... 89 8. OPTIONS FOR ENVIRCNMENTAL MANAGEMENT ......................... ................. 90 8.1. TRENDS OF TOURISM DEVsLOPMENT .. ........................................ 90 8.1.1. Growth of the tourism sector .. ........................................ 90 8.1.2. Level of tourism developmnent .. ........................................ 92 8.2. ECONOMIC DIVERSITY .......................................... . 92 8.3. EILAT's GROWTH DIRECTION .......................................... 93 8.4. INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELCPMENT ........................................... 93 8.4.1. Ports ........................................... 93 8.4.2 . Airports ........................................... 94 8.4.3. Roads ........................................... 95 8.4.4. Trains ........................................... 95 8.4.5. Border crossings .......................................... . 95 iv 8.4.6. Drinking water supply ................................................ 95 8.5. MARICULTU RE ................................................ 95 8.6. FLOOD CONTROL ................................................ 96 8.7. EcoNoMic INSTRUMENTS ................................................ 99 9. GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN ................................................ 100 9.1. PRINCIPLES OF THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN ..................................... 100 9.1.1. Long-Term Preventive Perspective ................................................ 100 9.1.2. Prevention of Further Environmental Degradation ....................................,,,,.,.,.,.,.,,.100 9.1.3. Resource Conservation ............... ,101 9.1.4. Promotion of Development that Minimizes Damage to the Coastal and Marine Enviromnent 101 9.1.5. Reduction of Pollution at the Source .101 9.1.6. Removal of Polluting Activities from the Urban Area .101 9.1.7. Concentration of Similar Activities .101 9.1.8. Adoption of Economic Incentives .101 9.1.9. Strengthening Local Capacity .102 9.1.10. Transboundary Responsibility and International Equity .102 9.2. DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF THE EILAT REGION .102 9.2.1. Tourism Development Growth Rate .102 9.2.2. Level of Tourism Development ..................... 102 9.2.3. Economic Diversity .102 9.2.4. Direction of Urban Growth ..................... 102 9.2.5. Regional Infrastructure Trends .103 9.3. POLLUTION PREVENTION .104 9.3.1. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources .104 9.3.2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources .106 9.3.3. Prevention of Pollution from Other Sources .107 9.3.4. Nature Preservation ............... 107 9.3.5. Conservation ................ ,109 9.3.6. Local Environmental Administration Strengthening .110 9.4. ADOPTION OF ECONOMIC MECHANISMS .111 9.5. MONITORING AND RESEARCH .111 9.5.1. Monitoring Programs ..................... , , .111 9.5.2. Research Programs ................ ,113 9.5.3. DataManagement ..................114 ............ 114 9.6. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION ..................114...,,,,,,,,,,,,,,......................., 114 9.7, EDUCATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS ................................ , . , , , ,, .. 115 9.8. TRANSBOUNDARY ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION . 118 9.8.1. Regional Environmental Strategy .... .. 118 9.8.2. Regional Environmental Coordination Council . 118 9.8.3. Coordinated Emergency Response .............................. , ., . , . , , .. 118 9.9. MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF THE PLAN. . .. . . 118 10. ANNEXES ............. .1 II. REFERENCES ............ ,13 V List of Tables TABLE 1. VISITS AND BED OCCUPANCY IN EILAT 1990-1996 (THOUSANDS) . .................................................... 11 TABLE 2. FORECAST OF HOTEL ROOM CONSTRUCTION IN EILAT ...................................................................... 14 TABLE 3. TOURIST AyrRACTIONS IN EILkT ............................................................................... 15 TABLE 4 ATrRACTIONS ON THE OUTSKIRTS OF EILAT.1.,,,,,......................................... .....,,.,,.,,,, 16 TABLE 5. HIKING TRAIL VISITS PER DAY IN THE EILAT MOUNTAINS RESERVE .................................................... 16 TABLE6. IMMIGRATION ANDEMIGRATIONRATES FOREILAT- 1993 TO 1995 .................................................. 17 TABLE 7. FISCAL REPORT OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF EILAT, 1996. (1000 NIS) ' ............................................... 20 TABLE 8. PROPERTY TAXES APPLIED TO )IFFERENT SECTORS N 1996 IN EILAT. ..............................21 TABLE 9. CARGO TRAFFIC IN EILAT PORT. 1985-1994 ....................................................... 26 TABLE 10. NUMBER OF VEHICLES TRANSPORTED THROUGH THE PORT OF EILAT . .............................................. 27 TABLE 11. QUANTITY OF HAZARDOUS StUBSTANCES IN CONTAINERS AND TONS ............................................... 27 TABLE 12. DAILY QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN CONTAINERS AND TONS AT THE EILAT PORT (SAMPLE DAYS, 1996) .......................................................................................................................... 27 TABLE 13. DESALINATION UNITS SERVING EILAT ................................. 31 TABLE 14. DOMESTIC WATER COST .......................... 32 TABLE 15. DESCRIPTION OF EILAT'S SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS ................................................................ 33 TABLE 16. DESCRIPTION OF EILAT'S SEWAGE COLLECTION PIPELINES . ............................................................. 33 TABLE 17. VOLUME OF EILAT'S TREATED WASTEWATER USED IN AGRICULTURE- 1986-1992 . ........................... 3 5 TABLE 18. PROJECTED DAILY AND ANNUAL QUANTITIES OF SOLID WASTE GENERATED IN EILAT AND THE SOUTHERN ARAVA 2000-2030 (TONS) ............................................................ 36 TABLE 19. QUARRIES IN THE EiLAT AREA ............................ 39 TABLE 20. ISRAELI ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO THE GULF OF AQABA .k............... 70 TABLE 21. NATIONAL MASTERPLANS APPLICABLE TO EILAT AND THE GULF OF AQABA ................................... 75 TABLE 22. INTERNATIONAL TREATIES ANYD CONVENTIONS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT RATIFIED BY ISRAEL.80 TABLE 23. ENFORCEMENT OF NATURE ASSETS REGULATIONS ALONG THE RED SEA COAST OFEILAT, 1990-1995. ................................................... ...................................................................................................... 86 TABLE 24. PROJECTED NEW HOUSING DISTRIBUTION IN EILAT . ........................................................................ 92 TABLE 25. LAND BASED MARICULTURE FACILITY AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS ........................................... 98 TABLE 26. METHODS FOR ADVANCING PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS FOR DIFFERENT TARGET POPULATIONS .............. 117 vi List of Figures FiGuRE 1. NUMBER OF VISITORS AND OVERNIGHT VISITs IN EILAT 1990-1994 . ............................................... 11 FIGuRE 2. FOREIGN TOURIST VISITS TO EILAT, BY MONTH (PERCENTAGE) 1996 ............................................... 12 FIGURE 3. TOTAL MONTHLY NUMBER OF ISRAELI VACATIONERS AND FOREIGN TOURISTS TO EILAT BY MONTH, 1996 ................................12 FIGURE 4. NUMBER OF HOTEL ROOMS IN EILAT: 1985 - 1996 .............................................. 13 FIGURE 5. POPULATION MIGRATION TO AND FROM EILAT - 1993-1995 .............................................. 17 FIGURE 6. AGE DISTRIBUTION - EILAT AND ISRAEL .............................................. 18 FIGURE 7. INTEGRATED POND SYSTEM SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM .............................................. 97 List of Maps MAP 1. LAND USE MAP FOR THE EILAT REGION .............................................. 119 MAP 2. NATURE PRESERVATION AND TOURING MAP ............................................... 120 MAP 3. EILAT REGION INFRASTRUCTURE MAP .................................... . . . . . . . 121 MAP 4. EILAT PORTS ............................... 122 MAP 5. EILAT REGION ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS MAP .......................................................................... 123 Annexes ANNEX I.EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF EILAT'S DEVELOPMENT ON THE ENVIRONMENT. ANNEX 2. PROJECTS PROPOSED BY THE EILAT-EILOT REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL UNIT. ANNEX 3. PROJECTS PROPOSED BY THE INTERUNIVERSITY INSTITUTE FOR MARINE SCIENCES. ANNEX 4. PROJECTS PROPOSED BY THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR MARICULTURE. ANNEX 5. PROJECTS PROPOSED BY THE NATURE RESERVES AUTHORITY. ANNEX 6. MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR COMBATING MARINE POLLUTION. ANNEX7. THE RED SEA PARTNER-SHIP. vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. Background Israel's shoreline is notable for being the shortest among neighboring states bordering the Gulf of Aqaba. However, because of the concentration of diverse activities in a limited area, Israel's shore and natural environment face significant potential threats. Israel's coastline combines bathing beaches, three ports, two marinas, and numerous hotels, tourist amenities, coral reef reserves and commercial mariculture activities. The city of Eilat and its associated facilities and infrastructure, such as pipelines, the airport, and the wastewater treatment plant, are located behind the beach-front and directly impact the marine and coastal environment. The principal objective of the GAEAP-Israel is to ensure sound integrated management of all marine and coastal resources, and of activities that impact them, by allowing sustainable development and multiple human use of the marine and coastal zones. 2. Existing and Potential Environmental Threats The central conflict in the Eilat region exists between economic growth and environmental conservation, and gives rise to most other existing conflicts. The major threats to the environment are: a) Tourism. The economy of Eilat is based on tourism whose development has caused an increase in the size of the city, its population, and its labor force (See Chapter 3). At present, there are more than 9,000 hotel rooms in Eilat. Foreign tourists comprise approximately 30% of the total visitors (around 1.3 million in 1995), and 40% of all bed occupancies. Eilat has a population of approximately 40,000 inhabitants with a natural annual growth rate of 6.4%. Approximately half of Eilat's inhabitants live there for 5 years or less. The high growth rate of the population requires continued expansion of housing and infrastructure. In the year 2000, approximately 64% of the workers in Eilat will be employed in the tourism industry. Each additional hotel room adds an average of 2 to 3 workers. Most of the workers in tourism are young: The 20-29 age group makes up 24% of Eilat's population compared to 15% nationwide. These workers are characterized by their transient nature and lack of attention to the natural environment. According to the Eilat Regional Master Plan, adopting the controlled development alternative of 17,000 hotel rooms by the year 2010 will result in controlled growth of the city population to 81,000 inhabitants by 2010. This will also reduce the number of temporary workers, and slow the rate of expansion of the city (See Chapter 8.1). This scenario was not evaluated from point of view of environmental protection. At present the length of linear shore per hotel room in Eilat lags behind the international standard of one room per linear meter of beach. There is 0.56 meter of linear shore per hotel room along the north shore, and 0.16 meter per room along the E-1 south shore. These data do not take into consideration the needs of Eilat's inhabitants and the 2,500 hotel rooms located in the city (See Chapter 3.1.2): Eilat's coral reefs endure hundreds of thousands of divers every year. These are responsible for damage caused by stepping on the reefs and suspension of sediments. Boat activity near the reefs can catuse damage to the reef through breakage by anchors and suspension of sediments (See Chapter 4.4). b) Land Based Pollution Major sources of land-based pollution are (See Chapter 4.2): * Wastewater Although Eilat's wastewater is no longer discharged to the Gulf, the wastewater treatment plant is not in satisfactory condition. The Municipality has approved the construction of a modern wastewater treatment facility whose construction will be completed in the near future. A central environmental issue is the uncontrolled flow of untreated wastewater to the Gulf following breakage from old or worn out pipes in the mu nicipal sewage system. * Phosphate dust released during the ship loading operations at the cargo port. Dust will drop dramatically following the installation of a choke feeder in the near future. * The marina on the north shore is the source of ongoing environmental pollution. Because of a lack of appropriate infrastructure for collection of wastewater, used oil, bilge water, and garbage, lhese pollutants are discharged directly from cruise boats into the Gulf The remaining sources of pollution are less important. Air pollution sources include gas turbines, exhaust from vehicles and airplanes and dust released from quarries. Accidents involving hazardous materials also need to be addressed. These accidents can occur during use, transport, and handling of hazardous materials, mainly to and from the cargo port. c) Marine Pollution There are three main sources of marine pollution (See Chapter 4.3): * Oil Spills. Although enforcement and inspections have dramatically decreased the number of marine pollution incidents involving oil, a medium to large sized oil spill will cause severe damage to marine biota and the tourism industry. * Mariculture. Research has shown that the quantities of nutrients released from mariculture cages may cause significant damage to the marine environment. * Sanitary wastes, oil, and garbage. Cruise boats discharge sanitary wastes, oil and garbage to the Gulf because of a lack of collection systems at the marina. d) Potential Trans-Boundary Environmental Impacts The main transboundary environmental impacts are air pollution, marine pollution of the Gulf from land and marine sources, elevation of the groundwater level and groundwater pollution in proximity to the wastewater treatment plants, and visual disturbances. The major potential ;ources of pollution consist of industry and energy E-2 production facilities, port operations, transportation sources of various kinds and tourism (See Chapter 4.5). 3. Institutional and Legal Issues Israel has a well developed institutional and legal framework for environmnental protection. The Mnistry of the Environment and the Ministry of the Interior are the main national-level governmental bodies that establish environmental and development policy, while other ministries are partially or wholly responsible for environmental aspects of activities that fall within their realm (See Chapter 6.1). The need to strengthen local environmental administration is in absolute contradiction to the decision of the Municipality of Eilat to dismantle the Regional Environmental Unit following cutback of half of its financial support received from the Ministry of the Environment. Planning legislation includes environmental guidelines and addresses the whole range of issues such as environmental impact assessments; air quality; water quality; marine pollution control; solid wastes; hazardous wastes; and nature preservation (See Chapter 6.2.1). National masterplans establish guidelines for comprehensive land use and resource management (See Chapter 6.2.2). National Master Plan No. 13 for Eilat Gulf Shore is currently under preparation (See Chapter 7). Although regulations specify the kinds of projects for which an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is mandatory, any planning authority may require an EIS. The EIS has proved to be a highly effective tool for a limited number of projects in which severe environmental impacts are anticipated, but not as an appropriate tool for checking small plans whose cumulative environmental impact may be significant, such as hotels (See Chapter 6.2.1.2). The institutional and legal issues associated with environmental protection in the Gulf of Aqaba are absence of a local environmental administration, overlapping responsibilities, and inadequate enforcement. 4. Coastal Zone Management and Natural Resource Management The main dilemma of CZM is how to make the best use of the limited shoreline, allowing maximum public access to the sea. Israel currently does not have an approved CZM plan for the Gulf of Aqaba. In actuality, each stakeholder manages his own share of the shoreline, and is influenced by a narrow outlook (See Chapter 7). Because of the unique natural resources, nature reserves consist of 36% of the region's land area. Paradoxically, the areas that are considered to be problematic since they are threatened by future development fall under the category of proposed nature reserves. The management of common marine and coastal zone resources falls under the responsibility of three main bodies, each with enforcement authority for specific laws: The Nature Reserves Authority, the Marine Pollution Control Unit, and the Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit. The main strategies used to protect the coastline and its natural resources are (See Chapter 7.3. 1): E-3 * Direct strategies: enforcement. limit on use and controlled access and limit on number of visitors. * Indirect strategies: providing impact education, charging entrance fees, non- development of specific areas, providing alternative sites e.g., artificial reefs, to relieve visitor pressure on natural resources. 5. Public Participation, Education and Public Awareness Although public support for environmental protection becomes more essential with time, in Eilat, public participation is still in an incubatory stage. Limited public involvement in environmental issues has been led by NGOs located outside of the Eilat region (See Chapter 9.6). Education and public awareness eflorts should be directed at Israeli vacationers (70% of the total hotel visitors), tourists (who stay longer than Israeli vacationers), tour operators, pupils, teachers, tourisrn industry workers, officials, and the media (See Chapter 9.6). 6. Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan For a summary of actions, responsibilities, and priorities of the Action Plan recommendations, see Table a. For the entire Action Plan, see Chapter 9. 6.1 Principles of the Plan - Long-term preventive perspective. * Prevention of further environmental degradation. - Resource conservation. P Promotion of development thaLt minimizes damage to the coastal and marine environment. * Reduction of pollution at the source. * Removal of polluting activities fi-om the urban area. * Concentration of similar activities. * Adoption of economic incentives. * Strengthening local capacity. * Transboundary responsibility and international equity. 6.2 Recommended Development Directions 1. Evaluation of the impact of the Eilat area's population growth and tourism development on the environment. Findings of such an evaluation will provide data necessary to update the city's fiuture development directions and to evaluate the current tourism growth forecasts. 2. Development of 4-star hotels represents the best combination of the number of workers per room (and therefore less population) and sufficient variety of indoor and pool-side activities will relieve pressure from the beaches and natural environment (See Chapter 8.1.2). E-4 3. Diversification of economic activity, especially development of industry is necessary in order to attract a more stable population (See Chapter 8.2). 4. Extending the City of Eilat and its tourist industry in a northward direction along the Arava Valley, taking into account seismic considerations (See Chapter 8.3). 5. Arresting tourism development along the south shore in order to protect the natural resources there (See Chapter 8.3). 6. Decreasing the size of the ports and crowding them will liberate more shoreline, mainly for public beaches, and relieve development pressure from sensitive coastal areas (See Chapter 8.4.1). 7. Examining the possible removal of Eilat's airport. Removal of the airport will free the city from air and noise pollution and risks associated with air traffic (See Chapter 8.4.2). 8. Paving the Eilat Bypass Road and the South Beach Bypass Road will redirect heavy traffic to and from the port and international traffic away from the city of Eilat, thereby decreasing levels of air and noise pollution, and risk of hazardous substance accidents the densely populated area. In planning these roads, visual impacts and options for free passage of migrating animals should be addressed (See Chapter 8.4.3). 9. Removing the border crossings from Taba to Ein Netafim and from the existing Arava crossing north of the Aqaba airport will divert most of the intemational vehicular and tourist traffic, relieving the city of Eilat from environmental pollution and disturbances. 1O.Concentration of linear infrastructure along the Arava Road and parallel to the Israeli-Jordanian border (See Chapter 9.2.5.6). 11. Siting of industrial and infrastructure facilities will concentrate projects that have the potential to pollute the environment and impact the natural scenery, will place facilities away from residential areas and concentrate them into compact land areas (See Chapter 9.2.5.7). 12.Improvement of Eilat's skyline and the integration of the urban environment to desert conditions (e.g., shading, use of insulating building materials, and appropriate structural cover materials) (See Chapter 3.2.4). 13.Planning and establishing an operational system to manage flood hazards (See Chapters 4.1.1 and 8.6) 6.3 Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources 1. Supervision of the installation of the choke feeder, the unloading infrastructure, and the dust monitoring system at the cargo port (See Chapter 4.2.2.1). 2. Conducting a leakage survey of the wastewater conveyance system followed by repairs or replacement of defective pipes, and ensure ongoing maintenance (See Chapter 3.3.7.1). E-5 3. Prevention of use of the area east of the southern shore road for parking vehicles through placement of barriers along the eastern side and establishing parking areas on the western side (See Chapter 7.3). 4. Widening the south beach by moving the road westwards into semi-opened tunnels (See Chapter 9.3.1.3). 5. Re-examine the plan to transport phosphoric acid through the port of Eilat (See Chapters 3.3.4.1 and 4.2.3). 6. Prevention of sediment caused by construction to be swept into the water (See Chapter 4.2.2.6). 7. Re-examine the lagoon concept (See Chapter 4.2.5.2). 6.4 Prevention of Marine Pollutiona from Marine Sources Prevention of marine pollution from marine sources can be encouraged by the following actions (See Chapters 4.3 and 9.3.2). 1. Cancellation of bulk crude oil transport from Egypt to Israel through the Gulf of Aqaba, and use of subsidies to redirect transport to Israel's Mediterranean ports or replacing the old tankers by new anes. 2. Completion of equipment needs to combat marine pollution. 3. Training a larger team of specialists to combat marine pollution. 4. Relocation of mariculture operations from the Gulf to land-based operations in ponds. 5. A set of actions should be taken in the northern marina in order to prevent sewage, oil, and solid waste disposal into r.he Gulf (for details, see Chapter 9.3.2.3). 6. The Gulf of Aqaba should be declared a "no discharge zone" by law. 6.5 Prevention of Pollution from Clther Sources Prevention of pollution from other sources can be accomplished by (See Chapter 9.3.3.): 1. A survey to assess groundwater contamination levels around the wastewater treatment plant. 2. Closure of the Eilat sanitary landfill and transfer of operations to the Nimra site. 6.6 Nature Preservation Nature preservation recommendations are (See Chapter 7): 1. Implementation a 3 level zonation scheme: Complete protection zone, controlled protection zone, and development zone (See Chapter 7.1). 2. Completion of declaration of nature reserves (See Chapter 7.2). 3. Development of an integrated coral reef management plan. 4. Increased enforcement. E-6 6.7 Resource Conservation Resource conservation will include improvement of (See Chapter 9.3.5.1): 1. Water and wastewater conservation. 2. Energy conservation. 3. Solid waste reduction, separation, and recycling . 6.8 Use of Environmentally Friendly Energy Sources Promote use of environmentally friendly energy sources: 1. Solar and wind energy 2. R&D in the area of solar energy use for wastewater treatment and seawater desalination. 6.9 Local Environmental Administration Strengthening Local environmental administration strengthening should include (See Chapters 6.1 and 9.3.6): 1. Expansion of the responsibilities of the Regional Environmental Unit, fields of action and staff. 2. Significant increase in the budget of the Unit, including use of money collected according to the "polluter pays" principle. 3. Taking responsibility for coordination of the different entities involved in environmental protection, including the Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan. 4. Updating the local environmental bylaws. 6.10 Economic Measures. The introduction of the Gulf of Aqaba Action plan should be accompanied by the following economic measures (See Chapters 8.7 and 9.4, and Table a for proposed economic measures for each action): 1. Establishment of revenue generating mechanisms. 2. Adoption of "polluter pays" principle. 3. Provision of a system of positive incentives for pollution prevention. 4. Provision of incentives to entrepreneurs for establishing enterprises which would relieve visitor pressure from natural assets (e.g., artificial reefs) and increase the area of bathing beaches. 5. Cost sharing of monitoring and control operations in cases of transboundary pollution. 6.11 Monitoring and Research Programs The plan suggests the following monitoring programs (for more details, see Table b, Chapter 9.5, and Annexes 1-3): 1. Evaluation of phosphate release associated with loading operations; 2. Evaluation of seasonal concentration of dissolved phosphate; E-7 3. Sediment phosphate concentration evaluation; 4. Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in water 5. Addition of two air quality monitoring stations to the four that are planned for the cargo port. 6. Coral reef damage monitoring, including: * A coral reef damage evaluation; * An artificial reef generation study. 7. Noise monitoring around the Eilat Airport (See Chapter 4.2.3.5). 8. Undertake research programs to assist in resolution of specific management problems. 9. Improve the environmental data management systems, among others, by the introduction of a GIS system in the Regional Unit. 6.12 Public Participation, Education, and Public Awareness Public participation, education, and public awareness recommendations include (See Chapters 9.6 and 9.7): 1. Establishment of an environmental public committee. 2. Implementing educational campaigns. 3. Directing education and public awareness efforts to specific target populations using courses, seminars, mass media, written materials and other means. 4. Establishment of a Visitor Center and preparation of advertising material (See Annex 4). 6.13 Transboundary Environmental Cooperation Transboundary environmental cooperation should include (See Chapter 9.8): 1. Development of a regional environmental strategy. 2. Establishment of an environmental coordination council. 3. Coordinated emergency response. Finally, a monitoring and evaluation process is needed to ensure dynamic implementation of the Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan. E-8 Table a. Summary of action responsibilities and priorities. Action 1 Responsibility, Priority2 | Proposed Economic l______________ _ I_ __________________I Measures3 A. Development Trends of the Eilat Region Decision regarding tourism GM, PI, ME 1 NA development growth rate Decision regarding level of GM, PI, ME 1 1 tourism development Decision regarding GM, PI, ME 2 6,8,9 economic diversity Decision regarding GM, PI, ME 1 NA direction of urban growth Decision regarding GM, PI, ME, 2 NA decreasing the area of the Ports ports and concentrating them Decision regarding GM, PI, ME, Civil 2 NA removal of Eilat Airport Aviation Administration Decision on border GM, PI, ME 2 NA crossing removal Decision on railroad to GM, PI, ME 3 8 Eilat Decision on concentration GM, PI, ME 1 NA of infrastructure Decision on siting of PI, ME 1 NA industrial and infrastructure facilities B. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources Control of phosphate and Ports Authority, 1 3 potash dust REU Survey of, and repair of ME 1 1 wastewater conveyance system Prevention of parking east ME, NRA 1 5 of the southern shore road Relocation of the southern ME 3 E-9 Action Responsibility' Priority2 Proposed Economic Measures3 shore road to a semi-open tunnel Review phosphoric acid MOE, MOT 1 3 transport through Eilat Port Flood control ME 1,2 NA Prevention of dumping ME. REU, NRA 1 5 construction debris into the Gulf C. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources Prevention of oil spills MO:E, MOT, 1 3,5,8 EAF'C Land-based mariculture NCM 1 6,8,9 pilot plant Declaration of the Gulf of MOE-, ME 1 3,5 Aqaba as a "no discharge" zone Improving infrastructure in ME 1 2,3 the north marina (see Ch. 9.3.2.3) Reexamination of the MOE, ME, RI 2 NA lagoon concept D. Prevention of Pollution from Other Sources Construction of a modem ME 1 1,2,3 WWTP Removing the present MOE, ME 1 2,3,5 sanitary landfill to the Nimra site E. Nature Preservation Implement zonation PI, VE 1 NA scheme along the seashore Completion of declaration NRA I NA of nature reserves Development of integrated NRA 2 3,10 coral reef management plan Increased enforcement GM, 'ME, REU, 1 2,5 E-10 Action Responsibility' Priority, Proposed Economic Measures3 NRA Water conservation ME, PS, Public 2 1,5,6,7 measures Energy conservation ME, PS, Public 2 1,5,6,7 measures Handling of solid waste ME, REU, PS 2 3,4,7 Use of environmentally MOE, ME, PS, RI 3 6,8,9 friendly energy sources F. Local Environmental Administration Strengthening local ME, MOE 1 1,3 environmental administration Updating local ME, REU 1 1,2,3,5 environmental bylaws J. Adoption of Economic Mechanisms Developing a plan to ME, REU 1 3 charge polluters according to the "polluter pay" principle H. Monitoring and REU, NRA, WI, 1-3 NA Research (See Table b) RI I. Establishment of P 1 NA Public Participation Committee J. Education and Public Awareness Promote environmental ME, REU, MOE, 1 1,2,3,10 education and public NRA, P awareness Establishment of a visitor MOE, NRA, 3 2,10 center REU, ME K. Transboundary GM, ME, RI, 1 NA Environmental REU, P Cooperation E-11 LEGEND 1. Responsibility: EAPC- Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Co. GM - Govemment Ministries; Pi - Planning Institutions; ME - Municipality of Eilat; MOT - Ministry of Transport; MOE - Ministry of the Environment; NRA - Nature Reserves Authority; RI - Research Institutions; REU - Regional Environmental Unit; NCM - National Mariculture Center, PS - Private Sector; P- Public. 2. Priority: 1. for immediate action 2. to be accomplished within the medium term 3. to be accomplished in the long-term 3. Proposed economic measures: 1. taxes and surcharges; 2. price increases; 3. user fees (polluter pays, etc.); 4. deposits; 5. fines; 6. tax credits or reductions; 7. refunds; 8. subsidies; 9. R&D support; 10. technical assistance. E-12 Table b. Summary of projects for technical assistance. Action Responsibility' Priority Cost I LeveI2 (US$) Marine Pollution Control Comrletion of equipment needs MOE 1 2,325,000 Seawater Monitoring Evaluation of phosphate release REU 1 46,000 associated with loading operations Evaluation of seasonal concentrations REU 1 60,000 of dissolved phosphate Sediment phosphate evaluation REU 1 25,000 Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbon REU 1 50,000 concentrations in water Air Quality Monitoring Two monitoring stations REU 1 200,000 Coral Reef Monitoring Coral reef damage evaluation NRA 1 26,000 Artificial reef generation study NRA 2 30,000 Research Gulf of Aqaba biological database REU 2 25,000 Monitoring of environmental impact NCM 2 1,750,000 from mariculture. Trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel) I U I 1 900,000 Program for Research and Monitoring Aimed at Ecological Management of the Coral-Reef Ecosystems of the Gulf Of Aqaba _ Education and Public Awareness Coral reef protection visitor center INRA 12 | 400,000 Preparation of advertising material INRA 1 2 J 100,000 Management Data management REU 1 100,000 Hike coordination system NRA 1 5,000 Mariculture Pilot land-based integrated NCM 1 4,390,000 mariculture facility 2v,_602_00 Mariculture training center NCM 2 9,602,000 1. Responsibility: MOE - Ministry of the Environment. NRA - Nature Reserves Authority. REU - Regional Environmental Unit. NCM - National Mariculture Center. IUI - Interuniversity Institute. 2. Priority: I - for immediate action. 2 - to be accomplished within the medium term. E-13 1. BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW 1.1. BACKGROUND The Gulf of Aqaba is a branch of the Red Sea that is bordered by Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. The Gulf is of strategic and economic importance to the region, and is host to unique marine ecosystems and coral communities. The enclosed nature of the marine environment of the Gulf of Aqaba causes the sea to be particularly susceptible to pollution and other forms of environmental impacts. The riparian countries bordering the Gulf recognize that effective environmental management and pollution control programs are necessary to protect the Gulf of Aqaba's natural resources. Furthermore, they recognize that such environmental management must be addressed by all the countries that border the Gulf. The Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan for Jordan was developed in 1993, and represents the Government of Jordan's first steps towards achieving national environmental objectives and for regional protection of the Gulf of Aqaba. Regional protection of the Gulf of Aqaba cannot be achieved without addressing environmental and development issues of the remaining riparian states. Therefore, the World Bank, in partnership with the European Union, has commissioned Environmental Action Plans for Israel and Egypt. This document is the Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan for Israel. It addresses the environmental and development issues that are unique to Israel's section of the Gulf of Aqaba, and offers alternatives for environmental management and regional cooperation. 1.2. OVERVIEW 1.2.1. Dilemma of Development in the Gulf of Aqaba - the Case of Israel Israel's shoreline is notable for being the shortest among neighboring states bordering the Gulf of Aqaba. As is the case with Egypt, the tourism industry is the primary factor to impact the environment. However, because of the limited beachfront, tourist activities are concentrated into a relatively small area, and their impact on the environment is significant. Eilat's past importance as Israel's south port has been replaced by its importance to the booming tourist industry. Eilat's combination of desert and sea is an important tourist attraction, generating an annual income of some $200 million, or about 20% of Israel's total revenues from tourism. Land use conflicts result from pressure of commercial interests to develop tourism amenities contrasted against the need to maintain free access to the sea, and to conserve the valuable coral reef resources. Israel's coastline combines coral reef reserves, beaches, three ports, an airport, a marina, and numerous hotels and tourist amenities. 1 Eilat is a city that is characterized by its lack of significant industrial activity. Nevertheless, quarries in the outskirts of the city are a major cause of airborne dust. Mariculture activities in the Gulf have the potential to become a significant source of pollution in the form of nutrient input to the Gulf. Although shipping activities have been on the wane, Eilat's port is used to transport a significant quantity of bulk chemicals - most notably phosphate, and the Eilat Ashkelon Oil Pipeline company terminal receives about 20 tankers of oil per year. Most prominent impacts of the port activities are the fugitive release of phosphate dust to the air and marine environment during ship loading operations, and operational spills of oil. In addition to nutrient pollution frem the ports and the mariculture cages, Eilat's coral reefs endure thousands of divers every year who are responsible for unintentional damage caused by stepping on the reefs, suspension of silt in the water columnn, and littering. Although the city of Eilat's wastewater no longer flows to the Gulf, the lack of wastewater collection facilities at the municipal marina forces all pleasure boats to discharge their wastes to the Gulf Although this source has not been adequately investigated, its importance cannot be discounted. 1.2.2. The Gulf of Aqaba Coral Reef Ecosystems: a Global Concem The level of biodiversity and the number of endemic species are greater in the Gulf of Aqaba than elsewhere in the world, and preservation of that region's marine biological diversity is of global importance. Coral reef communities are important components of the Gulf of Aqaba's marine ecosystem. In addition the coral reef systems are important to maintaining and developing the Gulf's tourist industfy. Pollution caused by development and activities along the shores of the Gulf of Aqaba is endangering the existence of marine ecosystems. The biological and economic value of the coral reefs may be lost as a result of poor planning or mismanagement of development and activities in the coastal zone. Excessive nutrient inputs to the Gulf coming from wastewater discharges, phosphate loading operations, and mariculture cages is also altering the balance of the coral reef ecosystems. In severe cases, nutrients can lead to localized or widespread eutrophic conditions, whereby excessive algal growth competes with, and displaces coral reef communities. Despite accordance of Nature Reserve status to a large part of the coral reef along Israel's shore, these reefs have been partly damaged, and are stressed by the effects of excessive tourist diving and snorkeling. Coral reefs are very sensitive to ck anges in the physico-chemical environment. The three established marine reserves (Ras Mohamed in Egypt; Eilat in Israel and Aqaba in Jordan) are all of limited size, and vulnerable to pollution taking place outside their borders. In addition, fragmentatiort of the reef caused by tourism and industrial activities serves to increase these impacts. 2 Effective conservation of the Gulfs reef ecosystems will require a region-wide evaluation of sources of anthropogenic stressors, and preparation and application of regional-level management plans to reduce inputs of these stressors to the Gulf. Furthermore, design of protected coral reef reserves should be designed in a manner that ensures that the systems are of viable scale, and are afforded adequate protection. 1.2.3. Transboundary Concems The main transboundary environmental impacts are air pollution, marine pollution of the Gulf from land and marine sources, and visual disturbances. The potential sources of pollution consist of industry and energy production facilities, port operations, transportation sources and tourism. Industrial activity in Aqaba is far greater than in Eilat, and extends over a greater area. Some of the industrial plants are chemical plants that anticipate significant expansion in the future. In addition, the existing heavy-fuel power station is now being doubled in capacity from 260 MW to 520 MW. Emissions of pollutants from Aqaba's industries and power station have been shown to be in excess of internationally acceptable levels. However, these pollutants generally do not impact on Eilat because of the direction of prevailing winds. Most of Aqaba's wastewater is treated at a wastewater treatment plant located north of the city, and the rest flows into pit latrines. Industrial wastewater is treated separately within the industrial zone. The poor level of treatment of Eilat's wastewater results in odor nuisances. Infiltration of wastewater from treatment facilities into the ground in Jordan and in Israel causes pollution of groundwater and elevation of the groundwater table. Dust dispersed from Aqaba's and Eilat's industrial plants, ports and power station settles into the Gulf. Without data regarding currents in the Gulf, it is difficult to estimate the extent of the impact of these pollutants on the shores of the Gulf The fish cages operated by the Israelis close to the Jordanian border represent another significant source of pollution. Considering the importance of tourism to the region, an additional problem is the visual impact of industrial zones, ports and hotels on the natural scenery. There are no significant transboundary environmental concerns from Taba. 1.2.4. Institutional and Legal Issues Israel has a well developed institutional and legal framework for environmental protection. The Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry of the Interior are the main national level governmental bodies that establish environmental and development policy, while other ministries are partially or wholly responsible for environmental aspects of activities that fall within their realm. 3 Planning legislation includes envi-ronmental guidelines and addresses the whole range of issues such as environmental impact assessments; air quality; water quality; marine pollution control; solid wastes; hazardous wastes; and nature preservation. National and regional masterplans establish guidelines for comprehensive land-use and resource management. The most problematic institutional issues associated with environmental protection in the Gulf of Aqaba are: overlapping responsibilities, weak local environmental institutions, lack of local control, and inadequate enforcement. 1.2.4.1. Overlapping Responsibilities The issue of overlapping responsibilities results when several governmental entities at the national, regional and local level are given responsibility for aspects of the same set of activities. For example, four cntities oversee oil unloading activities at the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline terminal: the Ministry of Transport, the Ports Authority, the Ministry of the Environment and the Eilat-Ashkelon Pipeline company. There is little to no interaction between these entities, each of which focuses on a limited aspect of the transfer process. As is often the case with overlappi;ig responsibilities, certain key environmental aspects may fall by the wayside, if no entity see it as being within domain. 1.2.4.2. Local Environmental Institution Environmental policy is established at the national level and implemented at the regional and local level. Up to the present, the Eilat/Eilot Regional Environmental Unit was responsible for local aspects of environmental management. This environrnental unit, which is mainly funded by the Municipality of Eilat and the Ministry of the Environment, has lost a major part of its backing because of budgetary cutbacks, and is in the process of being closed down. The future of environmental protection in the Eilat region is therefore unknown. 1.2.4.3. Enforcement Notwithstanding the pending closLre of the Eilat/Eilot Regional Environmental Unit, enforcement of environmental laws in Eilat is not adequate because of a lack of trained inspection and enforcement staff. 1.2.5. Boundaries Determination of the size and borders of the area to be addressed is one of the key decisions in formulating the Gulf oi Aqaba Environmental Action Plan for Israel. The borders must include all of the coastal and marine resources of interest and all of the activities that are capable of affecting these resources and the waters of the coastal zone. Such an approach would normally result in a zone that extends inland to include the upper reaches of the watersheds and seaward to the limits of territorial jurisdiction. Because of the desert conditions of the area, there is no surface water flow to the Gulf, except for rare flood run off. In addition, human activity is concentrated in city of 4 Eilat. Therefore, activities in the far upper reaches of the watersheds and the Arava Valley do not necessarily result in impacts to the Gulf The terrestrial boundaries of the area to be addressed in the Action Plan are limited by the artificial borders with Jordan an Egypt on the one hand, and by the extent of human activity in Israel on the other. 1.2.6. Objectives of the Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan The objectives of the plan are to: * Develop an overall vision to guide future development of the marine and coastal environment of the Israeli shoreline of the Gulf of Aqaba. * Protect, preserve, restore, and enhance the diversity, quality, quantity, functio..s, and values of the marine and coastal natural resources. * Ensure sound integrated management of all marine and coastal resources and activities impinging on them, by allowing for sustainable economic development and multiple human uses of the marine and coastal zones. * Strengthen local management and enforcement capacities to improve the environmental management of the marine and coastal zones. * Coordinate decision-making that affects the marine and coastal environmental at all levels, by establishing clear guidelines for their management. * Strengthen monitoring and applied research. * Make coastal management processes visible, coherent, accessible, and accountable to the public through encouragement of public participation in decision making. * Increase public awareness of the importance of protecting the marine and coastal environmental. * Encourage international regional cooperation on environmental management of the Gulf of Aqaba area. The principles of the GAEAP for Israel address these goals through long term preventive measures, prevention of continued environmental degradation development and increased use in environmentally-friendly technologies, and promotion of development to minimize impact to the coastal and marine environment. 5 2. SINGULARITY OF THE EILAT REGION The Eilat region is unique in its range of natural and scenic phenomena which are concentrated in a small geographic area and which typify the region. The region is divided into two parts: The terrestrial environment and the marine environment. 2.1. TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT The terrestrial environment is cha-acterized by a number of factors: 2.1.1. Base rock The Jordan Rift Valley, which constitutes part of the Syria-Africa Rift, is unique in the given section, where base rock vwas metamorphosed. This is the only place in Israel where pre-Cambrium base rock is found on the surface, and constitutes part of the Arabo-Nubian massif In the southern shore region of Eilat these rocks lie close to the sea shore and their combination with the deep blue sea color creates a unique landscape. 2.1.2. Variegated rock The Eilat mountains are notewor;hy for their varied geological history, during which various types of rocks were formed: Base rock, metamorphic rock, land sedimentary rock (colored sandstone) and sedimentary rock. The different colors of these rocks and the manner in which they have eroded create a unique landscape. 2.1.3. Varied landscapes The interaction between the geological and geomorphologic processes creates a wide range of scenic phenomena: * Erosion fans. These erosion fans are formed by streams that run perpendicular to the Rift Valley and drain the Eilat mountains. Upon exiting the mountains, the force of erosion and the carrying capacity of these streams weaken considerably, and as a result most of their sediment load formed from eroded base rock, limestone and sandstone is deposited along the slopes of the mountains. The finer load continues in motion and is layered on the lower reaches of the erosion fans according to size. As the river proceeds further towards the center of the Arava Valley, so the erosion layer becomes thicker. * Salt lakes. Salt lakes are internal drainage basins with no outlet. Three such lakes are found in the southern Arava: Eilat salt lake, Evrona salt lake and Yotvata salt lake, The center of the lake is a moist zone, totally devoid of vegetation, where salt accumulates on the ground surface. The groundwater level is high below this surface. Sand and particulates accumulate along the margins of the lake, and the area is covered with light, sparse bushes. * Base rock, metamorphic rocki and sandstone (Eilat Mountain Reserve). As stated above, the Eilat massif is unique because the base rock is visible above ground and is found in five clasters separated from one another by sedimentary 6 rock: Timna cluster, Amram cluster, Moon Valley cluster, Roded-Shahmon cluster and Eilat cluster. The rocks which form these clusters are base rock and metamorphic rock, which are conspicuous for their dark coloring and lack of stratification. They create a cleft and serrated landscape typified by steep slopes. In the area between Eilat mountains and the Arava Valley, there are layers of Nubian sandstone. West of the mountains there are limestone ridges dating back to the Cenomanian-Turonian period. Most of the rock types which make up the Arabo-Nubian massif can be found in all five of the massif clusters. 2.1.4. Fauna and Flora The flora in the region is affected by the availability of water and the type of stone or ground and is generally concentrated in the river beds. The river bed flora can be categorized as either low river bed flora or high river bed flora. In rainy years the slopes are covered with an abundance of vegetation. Animals in the region include: Mammals * Rock Hyrax and Ibex which live on the cliffs and in the canyons. * Hyenas and foxes which live on the mountain slopes. * Hyrax and Negev deer which live in the river beds. Rodents Common mouse, spring hare and porcupine live on the mountain slopes. Birds * Eagles, Egyptian vulture, golden eagle, rock doves make their nests on the cliffs and in the canyons. * White-winged wheatear, desert lark, desert yellowhammer, and partridge all make their nests on the mountain slopes. * Large shrike, Palestine babbler, scrub warbler and blacktails make their nests in the river beds. * Other birds inhabiting the region: swallow, desert swallow, short-tailed crow, Chinese rose-finch and black-bellied wheatear. 2.1.5. Level of environmental degradation The environmental sensitivity of the landscape units in the Eilat region were mapped by the Ministry of Environment, Nature Reserves Authority and the Society for the Protection of Nature (see Section 6.2.2.4.5). The main disturbance to the terrestrial environment in Eilat region is in the visual realm. Due to the desert nature of the region, the small amount of precipitation and the absence of vegetation, the rate of rehabilitation of the landscape is extremely low and 7 any damage (mining and quarrying, vehicle tracks, etc.) remains for a long period. The main impact is seen as scars left by the intensive development on the land, such as quarrying in the natural rock and strewing of solid waste in the area. Development has irreversibly affected the areas habitats, particularly the natural vegetation and land texture. The different pollution levels, their sources, and their impact on the natural environment are described in Chapter 4. 2.2. THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 2.2.1. Hydrography of the Gulf of Aqaba The Gulf of Aqaba constitutes part of the Rift Valley and the north-western branch of the Indian Ocean. The Gulf is an entity that is isolated from the Red Sea by a shallow strait. This isolation coupled with the high evaporation rate resulting from the extreme desert conditions (about 210 cm per year), and the absence of fresh water supply (except for winter flood waters) cause high salinity of the Gulf waters: 4.1% at the northern extremity. The Gulf of Aqaba is 180 km long and 20 km wide, and it is 1800 m deep in some parts. Water temperature reaches 23 degrees C. The high deep-water temperature is explained by the presence of shallow straits (at Ab-el-Mandab and Tiran), which prevent the entry of deep cold witer currents from the Red Sea. High and low tides are limited in extent, though occasionally there is a significant low tide. For example in September 1970 and March 1983, extensive reef areas were exposed, causing the death of corals. The limited dimensions of the GLulf and the shallow straits which links it to the Red Sea result in the fact that the slightest increase in pollution affects the fragile ecological balance of the Gulf. 2.2.2. Coral reefs The coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba are unique in their wealth of species and proximity to the shore. The reefs of Eilat are of the fringing type, and exhibit exceptionally high biodiversity with over 900 species of fishes, hundreds of species of corals and about 200 species of molluscs. The coral reefs are made up of billions of small organisms, most from the coelenterate system and others from the mollusca, worms and calcium algae. These organisms absorb calcium from the sea water and with the aid of a complex chemical process, convert it into lime and form coral reefs. This process depends on the parti cipation of mononuclear algae which inhabit the coral structure. Being a plant, the algae requires suitable light. In the absence of such conditions these algae are unable to interact with the coral. This explains why there are no coral reefs in deep waters (the Gulf of Aqaba: below 100 m). The Gulf of Aqaba coral reefs consist mainly of stone coral. These organisms lie close to the stone substrate and do not move from their location. The growth rate is slow and ranges between 1 to 5 cm a year. 8 The following conditions are necessary for the formation of reefs: * Temperature above 18 degrees C. Reefs cannot survive at temperatures below 18 degrees C (mainly stone corals which form the reef). Temperature has a decisive effect on the metabolic process, the building and propagation of the flora and fauna in the reef. * Water clarity. The penetration of light is one of the factors that determines the proliferation of flora and fauna in the depths of the ocean. In shallow regions, the strongest photosynthetic processes take place, creating organic matter. The depth of the region in the Gulf reaches 80-90 meters, a range which provides optimal conditions for the formation of reefs. * Nutrient-poor water (nitrates and phosphates). In addition to a NaCl concentration of 4%, other minerals such as nitrate and phosphate in very specific concentrations are necessary for the development of reefs. * Ocean currents which supply oxygen and food. 2.2.3. Level of marine environment degradation Studies conducted along the Israeli coast of the Gulf of Aqaba clearly show that coral reefs have been severely harmed by oil and phosphate dust (mainly in the past) and as a result of visitor's impacts (the main cause of damage to coral reefs at present): between 1996-1968 the number of coral colonies in the area surveyed decreased by some 55%. Between 1983-1990 the number of coral clusters along the shore decreased by some 12%. Scores of fish species have totally disappeared from the southem coast and the abundance of another 34 species diminished during these years. It should be noted that since the beginning of the nineties, damage to coral reefs has been halted and there is significant recovery of the reefs and the associated living organisms, as a result of education, control and enforcement efforts detailed in the report. 9 3. EXISTING AND FORESEEN DEVELOPMENT 3.1. TOURISM Since the early 1980's the tourisri industry has become the main contributor to Eilat's economy. At present, approximat:ely half of the workforce in Eilat is employed in the tourism industry. The tourism irdustry has been developed in Eilat due to temperate winter weather, relatively shor: travel distance from Western Europe, pleasant swimming beaches, and natural r',sources such as the combination of desert, sea, sun and coral reefs. 3.1.1. Tourism Development Trends The tourism industry in Eilat can be characterized by several trends: an increase in the number of tourists, seasonal fluctuations in the proportions of Israeli vacationers relative to foreign tourists, unchanging visit duration, and an increase in quantity of tourist accommodations. 3.1.1.1. Increase in number of tourists Since 1991, there has been a significant increase in the number of tourists and vacationers to Eilat (Table 1 and FJigure 1). 3.1.1.2. Proportions of foreign tourists to Israeli vacationers Foreign tourists to Eilat make up approximately 30 percent of the total number of visitors to Eilat, and 40 percent cf all bed occupancies. On a seasonal basis, foreign tourists are more common than ILraeli vacationers in the months of January through April, while the reverse is true for the rest of the year (Figure 2). The months of June through August show the peak number of visitors to Eilat (Figure 3). 3.1.1.3. Visit duration The average number of nights spent in Eilat by foreign tourists and by Israeli vacationers has remained stable from 1990 to 1996. Foreign tourists spend an average of 4.5 nights while Israeli vacation -rs spend an average of 2.8 nights in Eilat. 3.1.1.4. Number of hotel rooms The number of hotel rooms in Eilit has increased by 57% since 1990 (see Figure 4). In 1996, there were 6795 hotel rooms in Eilat. 10 Table 1. Visits and 8ed occupancy in Eilat 1990-1996 (thousands). Year Foreign Israeli Total Visitors Bed Visitors Bed Visitors Bed Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy 1990 165 756 516 1,445 681 2,201 1991 109 433 488 1,424 597 1,857 1992 202 846 461 1,291 663 2,137 1993 243 1,077 598 1,697 841 2,274 1994 335 1,518 706 1,964 1,041 3,482 1995 n/a 1,668 n/a 2,379 1,272 4,039 1996 nfa 1,688 nla 2,830 n/a 4,518 Source: Municipality of Eilat Figure 1. Number of Visitors and Ovemight Visits in Eilat 1990-1994. 3500 - 4Tourist* -Visitors --Tourlsts-Overnights 3000 A- Israeli- Visitors s sraeli- Ov rnights Total- Visitors 2500 ----Total -Overnights_ S~~~~~~~~~~~~~ X 2000 - 1500 1000 500 0 I 1990 1991 1992 1993 , 1994 Year Source: Municipality of Eilat 11 Figure 2. Foreign tourisit visits to Eilat, by month (percentage) 1996. 70- 60- U _40 - 30- 20 - - - [ 10- 3 F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1M1onth Source: Eilat Hotel Association. Figure 3. Total monthly number of Israeli vacationers and foreign tourists to Eilat by month, 1996. So _ 450- 400- 350- . 300 Sr250 0 TolAscti 12~~Z 0 13 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Israelis ~-200- 50 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Month Source: Eilat Hotel Association 12 Figure 4. Number of Hotel Rooms in Eilat: 1985 - 1996. 7000 675 69 6000 4815 E5000 4036 3912 3699 3869 84000 ~3000I 0 2000 I I 1000 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Year Source: Municipality of Eilat and Eilat Hotel Association 3.1.2. Beach-Front Development Eilat's projected beach-front development is defined in the National Master Plan for Tourism (NW 12). The main aspects of this plan include: - Increasing by 9,600 the number of hotel rooms by the year 2010 while maintaining a balance between the local population and tourists. * Prevention of overcrowding the city with tourists. * Concentration of new hotel development along the north shore and prevention of expansion south towards environmentally sensitive areas. D Development of both housing and tourism areas at the back (north) of the north shore * Future use of the ports for development of the tourism industry. * Removing the airport in order to connect the city to the hotel area, and development of a joint Israeli-Jordanian airport. * Strengthening of the commercial and entertainment aspects of the City of Eilat. * Increase in foreign tourism. The tourist industry in Eilat is concentrated primarily on the north shore (Map 1), where in 1996 59% of all Eilat hotel rooms were located. The rest of the rooms are located in the city -20% and on the south shore - 21% (Table 2). The City of Eilat's development forecast for the construction of hotel rooms (Table 2) shows that in the year 2000 the relative importance of the north shore will rise slightly from 59% to 62%, the relative importance of the south shore will drop from 21% to 13% and the relative importance of the city will rise from 20% to 25%. It is notable that this forecast shows that, by the year 2000, the number of hotel rooms in the city 13 will exceed the Regional Development Plan (see Section 6.2.2.4.4) controlled forecast estimates for the year 2010 (17,000 rooms). The Regional Development Plan proposes that the continued development of hotels along the north shore be at a far lower density than exists at present (7 rooms per dunam instead of 12.5) but with higher density (10 rooms per dunam) in areas adjacent to the shore line east of the existing hotel area. A density of 8 rooms per dunam is proposed for the south shore. According to existing plans, no additional hotel construction will be permitted along the shoreline after plans for additional hotel construction along the remaining vacant shoreline east of the existing hotel complex are approved, and after construction of a hotel north of the naval port. Table 2. Forecast of Hotel Room Construction in Eilat. North shore 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 North shore 4,578 5,1,40 6,304 8,042 10,582 City 1,593 2,561 2,561 2,561 4,354 South shore 1,602 1,602 1,602 1,602 2,270 Total 7,773 9,303 10,467 12,205 17,206 Source: Municipality of Eilat The proximity of the hotels to the water line on the north shore and south shore leaves only a very narrow strip of beach :or bathing along the 4 kilometers designated for this purpose. This strip constitutes about one third of Israel's shore. As a result, the beaches are very crowded during peak tourist seasons, and this crowding is expected to become more severe as the tourist sector continues to develop. The existing shores are already far more developed than the international tourist beach development standard of one room per linear meter of beach: • The north shore has 5140 rooms on 2900 meters of shoreline, or 0.56 meter of linear shore per hotel room. * Almog beach has 1602 rooms on 250 meters of shoreline, or 0.16 meter of linear shore per hotel room. These estimates do not include the requirements of the city residents who currently have an 850 meter stretch of shoreline (Dekel beach) allocated to their needs, and the requirements of tourists staying in hotel rooms in the city (2561 rooms). 3.1.3. Tourist Activities Tourist activities in Eilat and the region are based around Eilat's main attractions: the beaches, the coral reefs, the desert, and activities offered at the hotels (pool, restaurants, etc.) and in the city. Tourist facilities and attractions available in Eilat are listed in Table 3, and include scuba diving and snorkeling; coral watching at the Underwater Observatory or from glass-bottom boats, birdwatching and nature appreciation; and desert tours in jeeps or mini tractors. In addition, Eilat has numerous shopping, entertainment, and amusement facilities. 14 Tourist attractions on the outskirts of Eilat include numerous desert nature trails, and observation points (Table 4, Map 2). In addition, desert tours in jeeps, mini-tractors and other off-road vehicles are organized by different tour operators. These desert excursions are concentrated on marked desert trails, although individual vehicles are known to wander occasionally off these trails. Hiking trails in the Eilat Mountains reserves attract between 200 to 1000 visitors per day (Table 5, Map 2). These hikers consist in great part of organized groups that arrive to the trailheads by bus. Although the scale of environmental damage caused by such hikers is generally limited, the Nature Reserves Authority is currently developing a plan to limit the number of daily visits by bus groups on specific hiking trails. Data regarding the number of divers or snorkelers that frequent each particular coral reef are not available. However, a total of over 250,000 dives per year are reported by the Nature Reserves Authority. Snorkelers and divers typically approach reefs from shore, and can inflict damage to coral in this manner. In order to limit damage to the reef, the Nature Reserves Authority has constructed two bridges leading from shore to the outside edge of the reefs at the Coral Reserve. Another bridge was constructed opposite the Princess Hotel north of the Taba Crossing. Three glass bottom boats cruise daily along the coral reef (about 4,000 cruises per year), and may occasionally anchor in proximity to the reef. These boats are authorized to cruise along the marked buoy line in order not to get too close to the reef. Table 3. Tourist Attractions in Eilat. Type of Tourist Attraction Attraction Diving Centers - Coral Watching Coral Nature Reserve South Shore Reef Dolphin Reef Nature Appreciation Birdwatching Park Dolphin Reef Desert Tours Jeep Tours Mini-Tractor Tours Hiking Boating/Yachting Coral Beach Marina Northern Marina New Marina Submarine Glassbottom Boats Amusement Parks/Activities Ostrich Farm Texas Ranch Miniland Luna Park Airodium Shopping and Commercial Centers Beit HaGesher Khan Tzenter Center Center Rechter Center Red Canyon Shalom Center New Tourist Center City Gate Center Eilat Pearl Center 15 Table 4 Attractions on the outskirts of Eilat. Type of AKtraction Attraction Archeological Sites Fugarot Frimna Park Canyons and Geological Amram Pillars Nahal Shehoret Canyon Formations Hidden Valley Nahal Shlomo Lost Canyon Red Canyon/Nahal Nahal Atag Shani Observation Point Ayit Mountain Shelomo Mountain E3erekh Mountain Tzefahot Mountain Hizqiyyahu Mountain Yo'Ash Mountain Ma'Ale Shaharut Plants and Wildlife HaDom Palms Reserves Hai Bar Raham Palms Wells and Water Source Ein Evrona Ejin Netafim Milhan Well Other Y otvata Visitor Center Table 5. Hiking trail visits per day in the Eilat Mountains reserve. Name of Trail Hike Distance Number Duration (Km) of Hikers (hours) per Day Nahal Tzefahot, Tzffahot Mountain 2 5 400 Central Ridge 4 6 300 Upper Ridge - Tzafra Crossinig 5 8 300 Yoash Mountain, Nahal Yoash 1.5 3 500 Shlomo Mountain, Nahal Ma12alim 6 7 400 Ein Netafim 3 3 300 Ein Netafim, Nahal Netafim 5 7 300 Ein Netafim, Schoret Canyor 8 12 300 Yotam Valley 2 3 500 Schoret Canyon 2 5 500 Amram Valley, Amir Mountain, 3 7 300 Nahal Amir Seismographic Station, Amram 6 8 300 Valley Red Canyon 2 3 1000 Southern Nahal Shani, Red 4 6 300 Canyon Southern Nahal Shani, Nahal 10 16 200 Raham, Amram Valley Harrach Mountain, Ma'aleh Borech 7 10 200 kshatot Tinam Hidden Valley 2 2 600 Source: Nature Reserves Aithority 16 3.2. MUNICIPAL DEVELOPMENT 3.2.1. Demographic Trends Eilat had a population of 38,992 on January 1, 1996. In the last 10 years, Eilat experienced a mean annual growth rate of 6.4 %. Growth of the population is a result of natural growth and net positive migration. There are 18.7 live births per 1000 inhabitants per year in Eilat, compared to a national rate of 14.8 births per 1000. The migration data shown in Table 6 and Figure 5 point to a relatively high turnover in the population of the city. Approximately half of Eilat's inhabitants live there for 5 years or less. Table 6. Immigration and Emigration Rates for Eilat - 1993 to 1995. Year Immigration Emigration Net Migration No. % No. % 1993 6,171 18.5 5,091 15.3 1,080 1994 6,514 18.2 4,898 13.7 1,616 1995 7,520 19.2 5,121 13.1 2,399 Total 20,205 15,110 5,095 Source: Municipality of Eilat Figure 5. Population migration to and from Eilat - 1993-1995. |ONet Migration 8000 * Immigration 7620 OEmrigration 7000 -17 6514 6171 6000 6091 4898 6121 5000 zd 4000-- 3000- 2399 2000 -1616 1080 1000 0 1993 1994 1995 Year Source: Municipality of Eilat 17 The high growth rate in the ci:y's population requires continued expansion of the infrastructure: housing, municipal services, and infrastructure (pipelines and sewers, water supply, roads, etc.). The expected expansion in the tnumber of hotel rooms in Eilat over the next several years will require a parallel expansion in the labor force and result in an increased city population. Each additional hotel room adds an average of 2.3 workers to the labor force, approximately half of these in the hotel services, and the other half in secondary tourist services. Each additional hotel room is expected to result in an increase of 4.8 persons to the city's population. 3.2.2. Economy and Manpowver Comparison of the age structure of the Eilat population to the general population of Israel (Figure 6) shows a large difference in the 20-29 age group. This age group makes up 24% of the Eilat population compared to only 15% nationwide. A large difference is also observed in the over 65 age group, which comprises only 2.7 percent of the Eilat population compared to 10.9% nationwide. This age distribution indicates that the workforce in Eilat consists of younger workers that are attracted to the city for temporary, unskilled, and relatively low-paying work in the tourism industry. Development of the tourism industry has far exceeded development of all other industries in Eilat. Approximately 12% of the city's population was involved in the tourism industry in 1972 compared to 48% in 1993. In comparison, certain industries have undergone retraction in tha: period. For example, the manufacturing industry's labor force has decreased from 24% in 1972 to 5% in 1993; the transportation industry's labor force dropped fro -n 24% to 7% over that same period. Figure 6. Age Distribution - Eilat and Israel. 10.9 6 2.7 srae 3.6 66134 1.8 13.4 | 10.2 20.6 j 34 21.4 16 20-: 26.4 8.9 II ~~ 7.8 9 1 4 8.1 9.4A Li 10.2 9.1 l a10.5 30 20 10 Percent 10 20 30 Source: Israel Central Bureau of SI atistics 18 The decrease in the relative importance of the manufacturing industry was primarily caused by the closure of the copper mines in Timna. The decrease in the transportation industry was caused by the lower levels of activity in the port of Eilat. Comparison of the distribution of Eilat's labor force to the general Israeli labor force in 1993 shows a significantly higher number of workers involved in tourism (48% in Eilat compared to a national average of 14.4.%); and a significantly low number in manufacturing (5.2% in Eilat compared to 22.3% nationwide) and in the public sector (9.8% in Eilat compared to 28.7% nationwide). The projected growth in the number of hotel rooms and positions in the tourism industry will also impact the labor force involved in commerce and food services. The total tourism industry labor force is projected at 64% of workers in Eilat in the year 2000, Reliance of a major proportion of the labor force on one industry is associated with a high level of risk, and can result in high unemployment rates, negative migration of residents, and arrested development of the city. The Municipality of Eilat's fiscal report for the year 1996 shows the following (see Table 7): 1. Approximately 2.7% of the normal operating budget for 1996 was allocated to environmental protection. In fact, some 3% of the budget was spend on this sector, and the budgeted income from this sector was some 81.6% of actual expenditure. 2. The budget for water supply consisted of 10.24% of the total normal operating budget while the budget for the sewer system was some 1.8% of the total. The relatively high water expenses are attributed to losses resulting from leakage from old worn-out pipes and seismic factors; to the high quantities required for irrigation of gardens and to the high evaporation rates. 3. Water and sewage taxes (normal charges and surcharges for construction of the new wastewater treatment plant) covered some 79% of actual expenses in 1996. Income earmarked for these sources consisted of 19.05 million NIS, while expenses were 24.04 million NIS. 4. Income from property taxes and fees were some 45% of total municipal income for 1996. 5. The municipality's deficit for 1996 (operating budget) was approximately 12 million NIS (some 6.5% of the total operating budget). Table 8 shows the minimum and mean property tax rates that have been applied to different sectors in Eilat. 19 Table 7. Fiscal Report of the Municipality of Eilat, 1996.(1000 NIS)' Income Expenses Category Bucigeted Actual Budgeted Actual Taxes and Grants Property taxes and fees 83, 56 84,511 7,022 7,275 Grants 7,087 7,087 5,301 5,962 Financing expenses 3,791 3,391 Loan repayment 12,000 13,735 .________________________ 190,243 91,598 28,114 30,363 Local Services Waste removal 913 493 10,864 12,003 Security 49 75 3,306 3,226 City planning 11,989 12,253 6,500 7,102 Public property 2,505 2,415 13,111 14,185 Public events 25 4 950 797 Other services 140 369 2,729 2,493 Economic development and 249 167 4,243 4,774 tourism Municipal enforcement 75 85 1,406 1,268 _15,945 16,861 43,109 45,848 National Services Education 22,030 22,276 39,249 43,870 Culture 997 1,390 10,886 11,522 Health 56 27 409 485 Welfare 6,146 5,536 9,884 10,804 Religion 70 - 2,853 2,606 Immigrant absorption 43 1 66 44 Environmental protection 480 357 496 588 l 29,82'2 29,587 63,843 69,919 Municipal Enterprises Water 22,6t)0 24,854 18,618 20,460 Property 700 785 5,798 7,573 Transport 1,575 1,699 1,933 2,400 Purchases and supply - - 1137 1307 Sewers 2,450 2,902 3,278 3,583 27,3215 30,240 30,764 35,323 Irregular Income Interest 510 220 - Returns from previous years 85 617 - Transfers from development 7,40C 8,690 - fund for loan repayment Transfers from development 10,5C0 10,500 - fund the operating budget Returns of budgeted funds - 22 - Irregular Expenses Pensions and compensation - - 9000 9882 Salary transfers - - 500 785 Tax discounts - - 6500 7135 Expenses from previous years - - - 16 18,495 20,049 16,000 17,818 TOTAL 181,830 187,335 181,830 199,271 1) 1$ = 3.251 NIS Source: City of Eilat 20 Table 8. Property taxes applied to different sectors in 1996 in Eilat. (in NIS)' Sector Minimum tax rate (NIS Mean tax rate (NIS per per sq. meter) sq. meter) Housing 17.65 18.19 Businesses 61.70 111.17 Factories and Workshops 26.10 34.53 Offices 61.70 128.43 Banks 735.00 735.00 Hotels 31.50 67.46 Agricultural Land 0.03 0.03 Occupied Land 1.90 6.52 Other Properties 0.21 0.96 1) 1$ = 3.251 NIS Source: City of Eilat 3.2.3. Housing There were 11,000 housing units in Eilat in 1995, an average of 3.5 residents per unit. The characteristics of the labor force and its age distribution result in a relatively high number of residents living in rental housing. As a result, rental prices are elevated compared to the center of Israel. 3.2.4. Architectonic Design The city of Eilat is not designed or adapted to the to the desert scenery or climate. The urban landscape reflects little consideration of shading public areas (e.g., shaded pedestrian pathways), or use of materials that are suitable to the desert climate and building materials that integrate into the desert scenery. 3.3. INFRASTRUCTURE 3.3.1. Road Network The existing road network in Eilat extends from a central artery: the Arava road (Road No. 90) which runs from Taba to northern Israel along the Jordan Rift Valley. This highway is an urban road within the confines of the city of Eilat. In addition to urban use, this road is used to transport freight to and from the port of Eilat, and tourists and 21 vacationers from Israel to Sinai and back. In 1995, traffic counts showed an average of 3800 vehicles on an ordinary day, and up to 5600 vehicles per day on holidays. The Arava road is densely traveled, especially during holidays. Its proximity to the seashore in the section between the Coral Reserve and Taba prevents the appropriate development of the most scenic part of the Israeli shoreline along the Gulf of Aqaba. The Eilat hotel area is connected to the city by only one road which passes south of the Eilat airport. This road presents a transportation bottleneck and a security risk. The existing master plans (National Master Plan No. 3 for roads; Regional Master Plan No. 4, correction No. 14) attempt to address traffic density on Road No. 90, and to link Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia through Israel. 3.3.1.1. Regional road network 3.3.1.1.1. The Eilat Bypass Road The Eilat Bypass road, described in NMP No. 3, (proposed highway in Map 3) will direct motorized traffic, and especially heavy truck traffic, to the west of the city, by providing access to Eilat from the west. This road is planned with two lanes in each direction. An additional advantage of this road lies in its scenic value. This road is expected to link the planned Jordan-Israel border crossing through the Eilat mountains to the planned new main Israel-Egypt border crossing. This road will therefore replace the southern section of Road No. 90 and the Taba border crossing between Israel and Egypt. Furthermore, parts of this road are proposed to pass through tunnels in order to widen the existing shoreline and thus protect the sensitive environment. 3.3.1.1.2. The South Shore Bjpass Road This road is described in Regional Mdaster Plan No. 4, correction 14. The south shore bypass road was planned primarily to direct heavy truck traffic to and from the port of Eilat, and to relieve truck traffic and congestion from Road No. 90. From its intersection with the Eilat bypass road in the north, this road will cross Ramat Yotam, and will descend to the Gulf of Aqaba by way of Nahal Shlomo (Alternative 1 in Map 3) or Nahal Garof (Alternative 2 in MAap 3). 3.3.1.1.3. The Peace Road This road is planned for use by international land traffic moving between Egypt and Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf States. The border crossing will be located north of the joint Israel-Jordan airport. The r oad from the border crossing will connect to the Eilat Bypass road, and from there tlhrough the Eilat mountains (Road No. 12) to the Ras A-Nakab border crossing to Egypt. This section of the road is known as the pilgrimage road (Darb el Hadj - Derech Hahogegim). The Eilat-Eilot development plan proposes that this road consist cf two lanes in each direction. 22 3.3.1.2. Urban road network The Eilat-Eilot Development Plan proposed a number of additions to the existing urban road network. These are described below. 3.3.1.2.1. Widening of the road connecting the city to the hotel area Widening this road to 3 lanes in each direction will be possible in the event that the municipal airport is moved from its present location, or that the runway is extended northwards, and shortened at its southern end. In the event that the runway is not moved or adjusted, it will be necessary to evaluate the possibility of tunneling the road under the existing runway, or building a road at the north end of the runway. 3.3.1.2.2. Development of main and secondary road networks in North Eilat The two main roads proposed here would connect between Road No. 90 and the Eilat bypass road (Map 3). 3.3.2. Railway The National Master Plan for railways, (NMP No. 23 - see Section 6.2.2.1.9) shows the railroad rights-of-way extending from the port of Eilat northwards and crossing the city of Eilat in a path parallel to Road No. 90. The Regional Master Plan No. 4, Correction 14 defines two corridors for freight railways: one extends along the border with Jordan (Alternative 1 in Map 3), then follows a path parallel to Road No. 90 (Alternative 2 in Map 3); the other extends along the Eilat bypass road. The Eilat-Eilot Development Plan proposes maintenance of railroad rights-of-way at a width of 20 meters parallel to road No. 90 up to the northern boundaries of the city. The development plan does not foresee any possibility to build a freight railway across the city to the port. One of the proposed options is to transfer freight containers directly from the phosphate fields or the Dead Sea Works to the port of Aqaba using a rail line in Jordanian territory. Alternatively, transport to the port of Aqaba can be accomplished using a railroad within Israel running along the border with Jordan, and crossing into Jordan north of Eilat. This latter alternative is likely to result in increased transportation costs. Finally, the issue of different railway width standards used in Israel and Jordan needs to be addressed in all proposals of this nature. 3.3.3. Airports The Eilat airport is located between the city and its hotel area (Map 3). Occupying 380 dunams of land, the airport serves primarily domestic flights. Eilat's present international airport is the military air base "Ovda" which has been converted into a civilian airport. Ovda is located some 50 minutes' drive from Eilat. The airport receives all charter flights to Eilat from Europe, but is viewed as a temporary measure until one of the following solutions is implemented: 23 3.3.3.1. Joint Israel-Jordan airport Following the peace agreement with Jordan and according to the decision of the governments of Jordan and Israel, the Aqaba airport, which is located about 5 kilometers north of Eilat, would also serve air traffic to Eilat. 3.3.3.2. Construction of a new airport at Evrona The proposed airport is located some 1 kilometers north of Eilat and would serve as both an international and domestic airport. Development of this airport was frozen following the government decision to pursue the possibility of shifting international flights to Aqaba. 3.3.3.3. Shortening the existing airport from the south and lengthening it the north The City of Eilat is opposed to moving the airport out of convenience, and in fear that Eilat residents' sense of isolation from the rest of the country's citizens will increase. Thus the municipality proposed that the existing airport remain in use as a domestic airport. The runway of the existing airport would be shortened from the south and lengthened in the north. The area vacated by the runway in the south would be used to widen the existing access road tc, the hotel district, and provide some open space between the city and the hotel area. However, this solution will not provide a solution to the noise problems now affecting the hotel district and other nearby urban areas. Moreover the proximity of the nmway to the bird sanctuary located north of the runway creates a safety hazard for aircraft. 3.3.4. Seaports The importance of the ports in Eilat's economy has dropped considerably since the early 1970s, when they employed about one quarter of the city's workforce. At present the ports employ only about 2% of Eilat's workers. The decision of the Israeli government to maintain the cargo port in its present size is mainly based on its political importance as Israel's southern gateway to the Far East and Africa. Three ports are located along the south shore of Eilat: The cargo port, the fuel port, and the navy port. In addition, a yacht and pleasure boat marina is located on the north shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. 3.3.4.1. Cargo port The cargo port occupies about 1100 meters of shoreline, of which 400 meters are ship piers, 530 meters are a cargo pier, and 260 meters are an undeveloped section of shoreline adjacent to the dry bulk ter minal. The operational area totals about 180 dunams, the dry bulk terminal area 60 dunams, and rear port area 205 dunams, mosi; of which is used for car storage (Map 4). 24 The operational areas of the ports include the following components: * container pier and container storage areas; * general cargo pier, adjacent operational areas and storage areas; * dry bulk terrninal including storage hangars and conveyance facilities; * temporary passenger terminal; * pier for ships used by the service vessels of the port and small passenger ships; * administrative structures and workshops; * parking areas for operational equipment and heavy vehicles. All of the facilities are within the port's declared boundaries. Following are the main characteristics of the cargo traffic at Eilat port: * A sharp increase in loading of phosphate and potassium occurred since 1993. These materials constituted 76% of all the cargo traffic at the port in 1995 and 70% in 1996 (Table 9). * Containers cargo constituted some 30% of all the cargo traffic at the port in the past, but has decreased in recent years, and stood at 15% of all cargo traffic in 1995 (Table 9). D About 60% of the private vehicles arriving in Israel come through Eilat port (Table 10). * In 1996, 44,658 tons of hazardous substances were transported through Eilat port, and 93% of these were exported. Oxidizing substances constituted 68.6% of the exports (Table 11). * As shown in Table 12, there is a substantial fluctuation in the daily quantity of hazardous substances transported through the port. Most of the hazardous substances that are stored at the port are oxidizing substances. A storage facility is planned by the Ports Authority for handling 50,000 to 100,000 tons of phosphoric acid per year, with a total storage volume of 13,000 cubic meters. The facility will be supplied by tanker trucks with a capacity of 30 tons each. Prior to choosing the southern port area for establishment of its phosphoric acid storage facility, the Ports Authority evaluated 3 alternative sites in the port of Eilat: * In the southern port area, south-east of the phosphate storage area, * North of the port, * West of the port, in the area of the automobile storage facility. An additional site located in the tank farm area west of the port and belonging to the Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company was also proposed 25 As stated above, the demand for cargo port services is low. The State of Israel, acting through the Ports Authority, directly subsidizes cargo transport in the amount of about $2 million a year, and indirectly subsidizes transport through mechanisms such as low storage fees for vehicles. These subsidies serve to maintain the existing level of traffic at the port. The level of activity at the )ort may be increased through two anticipated developments: 1. Eilat port may serve as a home port for passenger ships; and 2. Phosphate and potassium transport may expand. Cruise tourism has tourist-hotel aharacteristics where the ship serves as a floating hotel. There is a significant difference between a home port and transit port in tenns of types of operation, in terms of area required in the port, and in the ensuing economic benefits. In a home port, the ship is equipped like a hotel (cleaning, food services, laundry, etc.) and the home port services the cruise ship. In 1996, 130 small passenger ships called on the Port of Eilat. The Ports Authority built a temporary terminal within the cargo port to service these passenger ships. An economic assessment within the framework of the National Master Plan for the Eilat shore (under preparation) concludes that passenger ship activity has a positive economic value which justifies keeping open the option of a passenger terminal within the port's declared boundaries, assuming the passenger forecast is realized. The City of Eilat is opposed to cruise ship tourism development which would compete with existing hotels and commercial cenmers in the city. Table 9. Cargo Traffic in Eilat Port. 1985-1994. Unloading Loading (1000 tons (1000 tons) Year Total Total C:ont. General Total Dry Cont. General ______ Traffic Unloading C:argo Cargo Load Bulk Cargo Cargo 1985 1,009 359 T 210 149 650 396 181 73 1986 965 369 230 139 596 336 217 43 1987 1,257 380 269 111 877 601 289 59 1988 1,210 370 252 118 840 529 318 22 1989 1,181 398 293 105 783 465 305 n/a 1990 1,231 527 363 164 704 399 292 n/a 1991 1,426 654 389 265 772 480 254 t/a 1992 1,486 611 354 257 875 616 76 5 1993 1,446 303 137 166 1,143 1,062 38 5 1994 1,561 236 91 145 1,325 1,284 95 3 1995 1,649 264 136 128 1,385 1,288 142 2 1996 1,443 289 154 135 1,154 1,008 126 4 26 Table 10. Number of vehicles transported through the Port of Eilat. Year No. of Cars 1991 63,958 1992 82,530 1993 62,144 1994 66,258 1995 70,688 1996 82,979 Table 11. Quantity of Hazardous Substances in Containers and Tons at the Eilat Port- 1996. No Risk Group Import Export Total Tons Conts. Tons Conts. Tons Conts. 1. Explosives 16 1 5 1 22 2 2. Gases 40 4 1,853 82 1,895 86 3. Combustible 2,238 106 765 34 3,007 140 liquids 4. Combustible 214 10 2,448 196 2,662 206 solids 5. Oxidizing 28,431 1,299 28,434 1,299 substances 6. Toxic 415 22 6,515 349 6,930 371 substances 7. Corrosive 208 14 1,228 56 1,436 70 substances 8. Misc. 81 4 201 10 282 14 Total 3,212 161 41,446 2,027 44,658 2,188 Source: Ports Authority Table 12. Daily Quantities of Hazardous Substances in Containers and Tons at the Eilat Port (Sample Days, 1996). No. Risk Group Date 31.1.96 28.3.96 29.5.96 30.8.96 29.10.96 22.12.96 1. Explosives 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. Gases 161 91 92 0 0 0 3. Combustible 210 306 32 0 20 107 liquids 4. Combustible 148 363 464 0 0 0 solids 5. Oxidizing 1,408 1,290 1,518 701 264 0 substances 6. Toxic 156 124 193 70 217 0 substances 7. Corrosive 22 0 146 46 47 0 substances 8. Misc. 0 0 41 0 0 0 Total 2,105 2,174 2,486 817 548 107 Source: Ports Authority 27 3.3.4.2. Fuel port The Eilat fuel port occupies 1200 m. of the shore area and includes: * Two oil jetties (only the south is operative) along a 150 dunam strip of shore. * Operational shore area including pumping equipment and fuel storage area, occupying an area of 546 dunams. * Pipe corridor from the shore container storage area to the rear container storage area. * Rear container storage area at Ramat Yotam, on an area of 315 dunams. * Fuel pipeline from Ramat Yotam to the fuel port in Ashkelon: two pipes 16" and 42" in diameter respectively, vihich run along a 50-60 meters wide corridor. The Eilat Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company has had the legal rights to these areas since 1968 (See Section 6.1 1.7), is directly accountable to the Minister of Finance, and is exempt from the requirements of the Planning and Building Law. Since the opening of the Suez Canal in the early 1980's, the EAPC has been exploiting only about 15% of its storage and annual transfer capacity of 60,000 tons. The EAPC has approximately 90 workers in Eilat, a third of the workforce employed when the pipeline was operating are nearly full capacity. . Oversight of oil unloading activities at the EAPC terminal falls under the responsibility of four different entities. There .s little to no interaction between them, and each focuses on a limited aspect of the transfer process: * The Ministry of Transportation has prime oversight responsibility to uphold laws, regulations, and internaticnal conventions. * The EAPC maintains owriership of the terminal. * The Ministry of Finance supervises the EAPC. * The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for upholding the various environmental laws and regulations applicable to marine pollution prevention. While these parties operate with 'ittle coordination, they nevertheless have several common goals: * Loading/unloading of oil in a safe and efficient manner given economic and time constraints. * Prevention of marine pollution from accidental or intentional spills of oil during loading/unloading operat'ions. * Prevention of safety and environmental risks due to maneuvering constraints in the Gulf, and due to fire or gases. 28 3.3.4.3. Naval port The Naval port was established in 1949 and occupies an area of 160 dunams. It includes: * Piers for sailing vessels, 600 meters. * Shipyard and hoisting equipment for sailing vessels. * Military base containing command post, storage structures, garage, and other facilities. The Navy is prepared to move its facilities from its present location on condition that it receives sufficient space to meet its needs, and that transfer costs are completely covered by other parties. 3.3.4.4. Eilat marina The marina located on the north shore is defined as a tourist port where some 30 commercial tour vessels are anchored. Day cruises leave the marina, with an average of 1500 passengers per day during the summer and about 800 passengers per day in winter. Some 200 vessels are anchored in the lagoon, some of which are used for residential purposes only. 3.3.5. Power Supply Eilat's electricity system is fed by two 161 kW lines which are part of the national electricity grid. The lines reach the sub-stations at Yotvata, at Timna and at Eilat close to the gas turbine site located at Ramat Yotam, about 2 kilometers west of the city of Eilat (see Map 3). The Eilat gas turbine contains: * 2 gas turbines of 35 and 20 megawatt supply, operated by fuel with 0.4% sulfur content. * 2 fuel tanks, with a capacity of 2000 and 4000 cubic meters. * a transformer station. The gas turbines are designed to operate about 300 hours a year on average, but in the event of a power failure on the national grid or harsh weather conditions, they can operate up to 1000 hours. The 161 KW line leaves the gas turbines, running south-east to the sub-station located close to the cargo port, from where the electricity distribution lines branch out. According to the Regional Master Plan, 3 sub-stations are planned for the Eilat area: east of the naval port, in the area of the old industrial zone and in the "Shoret" industrial zone to the north of the city. 29 3.3.6. Water Supply Eilat's water supply comes from the Paran aquifer in the Arava Valley, 100 km north of Eilat through 8", 12", 16" and 20" pipes, and from brackish water wells. The brackish water undergoes desalination in the Sabha reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant east of Kibbutz Eilot (Map 3), and is mixed with water originating from Paran prior to being introduced into the rnunicipal water supply. Since the "Mekorot" water company desalination plants were build at the Sabha site in 1978, energy consumption for desalination has been reduced in half, while water recovery has increased from 50%1, to 70% desalinated water per raw water unit. Mekorot's desalination units serving Eilat and their capacities are listed in Table 13. Total water use in Eilat was 11 million cubic meter in 1995. Maximum daily demand is approximately 43,200 cubic meters and mean daily demand in winter is 25,000 cubic meters. The mean annual per capita reside itial water use is 150 cubic meters, compared to a national per capita use of 100 cubic meters per year. This relatively higher water use is a result of the hot desert climate and use of "desert coolers" as air conditioning devices. Each desert cooler evapotates water at a rate of 1 cubic meter per day. The average annual water use per hotel room is 450 cubic meters (1233 liters/room/day). Domestic costs for drinking water -ire based on a sliding scale designed to discourage wasteful demand. Household water costs are shown in Table 14. In addition to drinking water costs, households are charged a sewage fee of 0.76 NIS per cubic meter of water used, not including water allocated for gardening. The differential use is established though the allocation of a water quota for gardening. 3.3.7. Wastewater Treatment Wastewater generated by households and businesses in Eilat is pumped through the sewage collection system to the mrunicipal wastewater treatment plant. In the past, treated wastewater was discharged into the Gulf of Aqaba, but this practice was stopped in 1994 following legal ac3tion against the municipality. Currently, treated wastewater is reused to irrigate agricultural crops. The amount of wastewater generated in 1991 was 3.318 million cubic meters, and 3.712 cubic meters in 1992. 30 Table 13. Desalination units serving Eilat. Unit Name Desalination Capacity Feed Water Year of Process (M3/day) Salinity (ppm Commissioning (M3/day) TDS) Sabha A- Unit BWRO 1,650 6,600 1978 1 Sabha A - Unit BWRO 1,650 6,600 1979 2 Sabha A Unit BWRO 2,600 6,600 1979 3 __ Sabha A Unit BWRO 3,900 6,600 1981 4 _ Sabha A Unit BWRO 2,00 6,600 1981 5 Sabha A Unit BWRO 4,800 6,600 1984 1/2 Retrofit Sabha A Unit BWRO 2,300 6,600 1990 7/8 Sabha A Unit BWlRO 7,200 6,600 1992 3/4 Retrofit Sabha A Unit BWRO 6,300 6,600 1994 5/6 Retrofit Sabha A Unit BWRO 4,800 6,600 1995 7/8 Retrofit Sabha B BWRO 6,300 6,600 1993 Sabha B BWRO 9,600 6,600 1994 Extention Sabha A+B BWRO 32,700 6,600 (today) Eilat SWRO SWRO 8,000 42,000 1997 Note: BWRO = Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis SWRO = Sea Water Reverse Osmosis Source: "Mekorot" 31 3.3.7.1. Wastewater collection system Eilat's wastewater collection system consists of 3 main sewer collection areas: the western residential part of the city, the south beach area, and the north beach area. Sewage originating from the western residential area flows by gravity through asbestos cement pipes to the main pumping station. The other two sewage collection areas are subdivided into sub-areas which contain one or more pumping stations. These pumping stations, volumes, pipes, and connections are described in Table 15 and Table 16. The pumping stations are generally equipped with backup pumps to ensure continued flow in case of main pump failure. In addition, all pumping stations are equipped with backup electrical generators and emergency systems. However, under conditions of pump malfunction or pipe blockage, wastewater will overflow into the surrounding environment, including the Gulf ol Aqaba. Wastewater collected from the m. nicipal wastewater collection system flows through a main pumping station to the municipal wastewater treatment plant. 3.3.7.2. Wastewater treatinent plant Eilat's wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is located in the Arava valley, approximately 6 km north of the center of the city. The WWTP consists of six facultative oxidation ponds, each with a volume of 18,000 cubic meters and a surface area o f 6,000 square meters and an open reservoir with a capacity of 400,000 cubic meters. Wastewater treated in these ponds is pumped to the Elipaz reservoir 19 km north of the WWTP. This open reservoir has a capacity of 400,000 cubic meters. Untreated effluent from the city of Eilat is characterized by very high concentrations of chlorides (436 to 1071 mg/l). This is attributed in part to the relatively high salinity of drinking water, and to salts used in industrial laundries and hotel dishwashers (Municipality of Eilat, 1994). Table 14. Domestic water cost. Volume Cost (NIS per cubic meter) First 22 cubic meters per month 2.00 First 40 cubic meters per month (for 2.00 households with gardens) Above 22 cubic meters per month (40 2.94 cubic meters for households with gardens) Above 76 cubic meters per month 4.27 32 Table 15. Description of Eilat's sewage pumping stations. Sewerage Pumping Pumps Overflow Unit Nominal data for pumps area Station to No. Pumping Pumping Type of volume height (m) pump c u. m/hr) Wastewater Main WWTP Treatment 1 1030 49 Centrif. Treatment ponds 2 1030 49 Centrif. Plant 3 400 25 Centrif. North Coast Queen of Main Western 1 300 24.5 Centrif. Sheba Lagoon 2 300 24.5 Centrif. Neptune Main None 1 300 24.5 Centrif. 2 300 24.5 Centrif. South Coast Princess nderwater Gulf 2 100 35 Sub. bs. Adi nderwater Gulf 2 50 18 Sub. bs. Under- Coral Gulf 2 140 32 Sub. water Obs. Coral Port Gulf 2 250 20 Sub. Port Main Gulf 2 180 35 Sub. Naval Port Neptune n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Red Rock Neptune None 1 1.5 8.5 Sub. Hotel Sub. Centrif. Centrifuged; Sub Submerged. Source: Municipality of Eilat, 1994 Table 16. Description of Eilat's sewage collection pipelines. Sewerage Path Type of Pipe Length Year Area Pipe Diameter {m) Installed Oxygenating From main pumping Asbestos 18 5400 1984 ponds station to ponds Cement North Beach Queen Sheba Asbestos 10 900 1972 pumping station to Cement Neptune Neptune to main Asbestos 16 1600 1960 Cement _ South Beach Princess pumping PVC 160 1992 station to Underwater Observatory Underwater Obs. To PVC 160 780 1978 Coral PVC 250 1100 1992 Coral to Port PVC 315 2500 1992 Port to Adi Hotel Asbestos 10 2200 1992 Cement PVC 450 450 1992 Naval Port to PVC 160 170 Sonesta Source: Municipality of Eilat, 1994 33 The quality of treated effluent (based on analyses of reservoir water, 1991 to 1993) was: * Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 10 to 80 mg/l * Total suspended solids (TSS) ''4-142 mg/I * Organic suspended solids 58-108 mg/l (constituting approx. 75% of TSS) * pHof7.2to7.8 High chloride levels are the major problem associated with reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes. Prior to ireatment, chloride concentration in wastewater was measured at 2,500 mg/. Average chloride levels after treatment in the facultative oxidation ponds have been reported to be approximately 700 mg/l. A new WWTP is being planned for the city of Eilat and Eilot. This WWTP will initially treat 9 million cubic meters of wastewater per year (25,000 cubic meters per day). Expansion will increase capacity to 12 million cubic meters per year (32,000 cubic meters per day). Treatment at the WWTP will include activated sludge systems with nitrification-denitirification processes including: * pretreatment with mechanical rake and sand separation * biological reactor * secondary settling ponds * sludge treatment including stabi:ization and mechanical drying. Anticipated treated wastewater quality will conform to Israeli standard of 30 mg/l suspended solids and 20 mg/l BOD. 3.3.7.3. Reuse of treated wastewater Reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes had been declining prior to 1994 when the practice of discharge of wastewater to the Gulf was ceased (Table 17). Almost all of the treated wastewater had been used for watering date palms in plantations belonging to Kibbutz EPilot. The past decline in wastewater reuse was attributed to lack of incentives to expand agricultural production due to declining revenues from that sector. Although there are no current data available, re-use of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes has increased dramatically since 1994. Wastewater treated in the new proposed wastewater treatment plant is expected to be of higher quality than at present, and will be reused for watering public gardens and playing fields in Eilat as well as continued use for irrigation of agricultural crops 34 Table 17. Volume of Eilat's treated wastewater used in agriculture- 1986-1992. Year Volume (thousand cubic meters) 1986 1,400 1987 1,700 1988 1,400 1989 910 1990 860 1991 820 1992 660 Source: Municipality of Eilat, 1994 3.3.8. Solid Waste Solid waste generated in the city of Eilat consists of household wastes, wastes from light industry, construction rubble, and scrap cars. Household wastes also include wastes from hotels and restaurants. Quantities of waste generated in the Eilat area (including the southern Arava settlements) are projected to be in the range of 160 to 320 tons per day by the year 2000. Currently, wastes generated in the city of Eilat are disposed at one of two sites. Household wastes are disposed of at the Yotam sanitary landfill. This site also contains an area for disposal of metal wastes such as scrap car and white good (household appliances). Dry wastes, such as construction rubble, are disposed of at the Nahal Shoret disposal sites. Hazardous wastes and cytotoxic wastes are supposed to be disposed of at the national hazardous waste treatment plant in Ramat Hovav, near the city of Beer Sheva. In practice, most of this waste is delivered to the Yotam sanitary landfill. Planning for a new sanitary landfill site in Nimra (open mining pits in Timna, 25 km north of Eilat) is being conducted by the city of Eilat and the Eilot Regional Council. This site would receive solid waste from the city of Eilat and the southern Arava settlements. Solid waste quantities to be received at this site were projected on the basis of the following estimates: * Household waste: 1.5 kg/person/day, increasing by 2% per year to 2.5 kg/person/day by 2020. * Waste from tourist, commercial, and light industrial areas: 35 tons per day, increasing by 2% per year plus 100 tons per day during holidays. * Waste from military installations: 10 tons per day. * Dry wastes: 25% of total solid waste. Total projected solid waste generation for the Eilat/Eilot region is shown in Table 18. 35 Table 18. Projected daily and annual quantities of solid waste generated in Eilat and the southiern Arava 2000-2030 (Tons). Source 2000 2010 2020 2030 Daily Annual Daily Annual Daily Annual Daily Annual Household 24,000 32,000 47,000 68,000 Eilat 70 94 127 185 EilotVS. Arava 5 7 10 15 Tourist areas, 45 15,000 49 16,000 53 17,000 60 19,000 light industry, commerce and offices __ Defense 10 3,000 10 3,000 10 3,000 10 3,000 installations __ Dry wastes 30 8,000 40 11,000 50 14,000 60 17,000 Total 160 50,000 .200 62,000 250 81,000 330 107,000 3.4. OTHER ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 3.4.1. Mariculture Consumer demand for fish in Isrzel is approximately 80,000 tons per year. Of that, approximately 17,000 tons are produced in fish ponds, 5,000 tons from marine fisheries, and 1,200 tons from mariculture. The balance of the demand is currently met by imports. By the year 2010, Israeli demand for fish is projected to reach 120,000 tons. Based on conservative scenarios, mariculture is expected to produce approximately 40,000 tons, mostly in cages in the Mediterranean. The mariculture industry in the Gulf of Aqaba supports two companies that operate complexes of fish cages approximately 300 meters off the north shore of the gulf, in waters along the Jordanian border. Each of these two mariculture facilities is composed of two rows of circular caged pens (approximately 150 m3 each), secured to each other along a central pontoojn that extends over 120 meters. The fish pens are anchored in waters ranging from 3C to 50 meters in depth. In the past, food conversion efficiency was 3.5 kg of food per kilogram of fish. This conversion efficiency has been improved over the years to 2.2 kg of food per kg of fish. This improvement has been brought about to some extent through partial replacement of fish meal with veget Lble sources. Two companies "Ardag" and "Dag Soof' currently produce approximately 1,200 tons of fish annually, and employ approximately 75 workers. Fish species grown in the mariculture pens consist mainly of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), european seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). The Gulf of Aqaba waters provide a suitable environment for year-round mariculture operations. It is preferable to the M'editerranean Sea because of its stable temperature regime, and the low current and tide activity. The mariculture industry in the Gulf of Aqaba obtains technical assistance from the National Center for Mariculture (NC(M) located in Eilat. The Center's research efforts have been essential to the establishment of this industry in the Gulf 36 Growth in the in-situ mariculture industry is expected to be limited by environmental factors; i.e. nutrient inputs to the Gulf and conflicts in use of the sea surface. According to the NCM, the mariculture industry in the Israeli section of the Gulf of Aqaba is expected to undergo a maximum increase of 20% in production by the year 2010. Further increase in this industry is possible through the use of land-based seawater ponds. Such systems would use seawater pumped from the Gulf, and would treat wastewater to remove nutrients prior to discharge to the Gulf of Aqaba. Land- based systems face an annual evaporation rate of 4 m/year, and a water turnover requirement of 10% to 20%. An integrated land-based mariculture system developed by the NCM is described in Chapter 8. Two thousand dunams reserved for such systems may be integrated with the energy tower infrastructure. 3.4.2. Industry The Eilat region supports three industrial zones: the old industrial zone, the export industries park, and the Nahal Shoret industrial zone. In addition, the District Master Plan has designated an area north of Nahal Roded as the site for a future national industrial zone. These industrial zones are discussed below. 3.4.2.1. Old industrial zone The old industrial zone is located at the northern entrance to the city and covers an area of about 400 dunams. The industrial zone houses a plant for ready cement and plants which supply services to the hotels and residents such as laundries and garages. 3.4.2.2. Export industrial park This park is planned north of the old industrial zone and covers an area of about 160 dunams. A parking area for heavy vehicles is adjacent to the industrial park. 3.4.2.3. Nahal Shoret industrial zone This industrial zone is located north of Kibbutz Eilot on an area of about 4000 dunams and is planned for all types of industries. Three plants for imported cement and one gravel crusher operate in this zone. The Eilat-Eilot development plan proposes to expand this industrial zone by an additional 1380 dunams (of which 640 dunams would be zoned as an open area). 3.4.2.4. Other industries A number of industrial plants producing construction materials operate in the Eilat region. These plants generate and release significant amounts of dust to the air. These plants include: * Four imported cement plants: 3 in Nahal Shoret industrial zone, and one in the old industrial zone. All are equipped with dust suppression equipment, including watering and misting systems, and silos for cement storage. * An asphalt plant located in Ramat Yotam. This plant is not fitted with dust suppression equipment. 37 * A gravel crusher in the Naha] Shoret industrial zone. The following industrial facilities are located north of the tourist area on the north shore of the Gulf: * "Ardag" fish breeding plant. * Spirolina algae growing facility. * Salt evaporation ponds and e ctraction facility. Intel's "Orbit" plant is an additiDnal facility planned for Ramat Yotam. This facility will manufacture high-tech components, including printed circuit boards. However, the facility has not yet submitted an environmental impact statement for review, and there is no information on the spccific activities or products of the plant. It is therefore not possible to estimate the potertial impacts of this facility on the environment 3.4.2.5. National industrial zone In the Southern District Master Plan (4/14) an area of more than 10,000 dunams north of Nahal Roded is designated for industry. There is widespread opposition to the establishment of this industrial zone because of its potential damage to the unique natural and scenic assets and due to its location upwind of the city and its tourist areas. Prevailing winds could result in air pollution to those areas. Furthermore opponents claim that there is sufficient area cdesignated for industry in Eilat. 3.4.3. Agriculture Agriculture is the main source oF income of the Eilot Regional Council settlements. Most of the cultivated areas are located east of the Arava road, while most of the settlements are located to the west. The cultivated areas cover some 12,000 dunams, and the settlements - 5,700 dunams. Plans exist for the expansion of the cultivated areas by about 500 dunams. Agriculture has a significant visual impact on the area. 3.4.4. Quarries Quarries supply the Eilat area with raw building materials for construction. Annual demand for gravel and bedrock has been estimated at 500,000 tons, and demand for sand at 125,000 tons. A monopoly in the building materials sector has developed because of Eilat's distance from the center of Israel. Prices for quarried materials are approximately 20% higher in Eilat than in other parts of the country. Development of additional quarries is not expected to lower prices because pricing arrangements have been established between the various producers. Furtherrnore, development of new quarries is suppressed because of these existing arrangements. There are three active and a numbcer of proposed quarry sites for raw building materials in the Eilat area (Table 19). These sites are located as close as 2 km and as far as 70 km away from the city, and the area of the individual quarries extends from 34 dunams to as much as 1900 dunams. 38 Table 19. Quarries in the Eilat Area. Site Distance Area Production Reserve Status from (dunam) (1000 Eilat Tons) (km) ___ Asphalt Cement Rock/ Sand .______ ________ ______ G ravel Nahal 6 100 x 400 Active Shoret I_I Nahal 7 520 x 1,600 Expansion Shoret I Nahal 5 34.4 X x gravel none n/a Shlomo Har Natzotz 70 160 x 3000 In dev. Samar 40 294 x 200 Active Nahal 2 310 x 1,200 Partially Roded active Har Asa 2 100 x 3,900 Inactive Har 27 250 x 12,000 Reserved Shagove Northem 30 700 X x 2,800 Reserved Seifim Southem 30 500 X x 14,000 Reserved Seifim _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ Haklil Mnt. 23 400 X x 13,000 n/a Beer Oran 18 100 X x 500 n/a Har Yoash 8 50 x 500 Central 23 1,900 x 18,000 Planned Nahal Rotem W.Nahal 23 700 x Planned Rotem Shoret 7 300 x 6,300 Planned Heights Marine Lab. 8 200 x boulder 5,000 Abandoned Har Amram 17 90 _ x boulder 3,000 Grofit 58 1,300 x 2,500 Yotveta 52 3,200 x Samar 40 1,500 x 6,300 Planned Nemera 26 150 x 2,500 Evrona 20 150 x 2,700 Cliffs _ Elipaz 40 1,300 x 3,000 Timna Keha 36 400 x 500 Nechustan 33 1,200 x 3,000 Evaluation Hol Haklil 25 250 x 2,000 Evaluation Timna 25 1,400 _ x 4,000 Evaluation Source: Israel Lands Authority, 1996 39 Quarried materials must be transported by truck to construction sites in Eilat, Quarrying activities and transport of building materials in open trucks generate large quantities of dust. Dust control measures, such as wetting or misting, can reduce dust generation by 30 to 50%. 3.5. PROPOSED REGIONAL PROJECTS Since there are no known significant projects planned for Taba, this sections refers to proposed projects in Aqaba. 3.5.1. Short Term Projects Twenty of the 68 short-term projects that were defined as part of the Jordan Rift Valley Master Plan (JRV) are applicable to the Gulf of Aqaba Region. These are listed in the sections below. 3.5.1.1. Mariculture * Desert mariculture. This project is aimed at establishing a pilot plant north of Eilat over 3 years to develop the technical and commercial capacity for inland mariculture. The concept was developed at the National Center for Mariculture (NCM) and is based on an integrated pond system used to produce fish, clam, and algae. 3.5.1.2. Industry The following industrial projects would be located in Jordan: * Aqaba industrial estate. The project is planned on 50 hectares north of the city of Aqaba. Its goal is to attract light manufacturing and service industries. * Aqaba free zone expansion. Planned on 160 hectares north of the city of Aqaba, this project is aimed at expanding the existing site in order to accommodate commercial storage and light iridustry. * Logistics center. This project is planned on 20 hectares north of Aqaba. It is aimed at developing the region as a competitive trans-shipment and distribution center. Suggested composition of facilities includes: warehouses, gate houses, joint customs facilities, hotel, truck and container park, garage services, and ancillary services. * Joint cold stores. Planned on 2.5 hectares north of Aqaba. This project is aimed at increasing cold storage capacity in the region. * Workshops for motor rewinding. Planned for the city of Aqaba. * Potassium sulfate and di-calcium phosphate center. The project is aimed at increasing the value added of basic fertilizer products for export. The project scale is 72,000 tons per annum potas;sium sulfate and 41,000 tons per annum di-calcium phosphate. * Potassium nitrate complex. 'The project is aimed at producing 100,000 tons per annum of potassium nitrate. 40 3.5.1.3. Tourism * Infrastructure for the Aqaba Tourism Project. Planned at Ras Al Yamaniya, the project is aimed at providing the required infrastructure for implementing the Aqaba South Coast Master Plan. It contains the following elements: hotel development, tourist village, golf complex and amusement park. * Focusing tourist activities in Aqaba. The project is aimed at promoting visitor interest and expanding the range of activities in Aqaba while focusing on Aqaba's cultural perspective and location. * Development of Aqaba hotels. The project is aimed at expanding the room capacity in Aqaba town by 2,000. This is stated to be the upper limit for long-term development. * Expansion of Eilat hotel development. The project is aimed at expanding the hotel room capacity in Eilat to 18,000 rooms in the long-term (according to the JRV Master Plan). 3.5.1.4. Energy * Solar power project. Planned close to Aqaba, the project is aimed at maximizing the use of renewable energy by generating power from solar sources. The project will combine a 30 MW solar plant and a 60 MW thermal plant which will operate on gas or a dual-fired combined cycle with oil-fired generation. * Wind power project. Planned north of the Aqaba Airport, the project is aimed at developing a joint electric energy wind farm extending on both sides of the border. The project area will cover 4.5 km2 and produce 200 GWh. * Regional energy center. Planned in Aqaba, the center will provide a forum for exchange of information and data for joint energy research and development projects. 3.5.1.5. Transportation - Entrance to Aqaba City. The project is aimed at upgrading to a 4 lane highway a 14 km stretch of the existing road leading into Aqaba from the Wadi Yutum interchange to the airport road intersection. * Aqaba Airport highway. The project is aimed at upgrading to 4 lanes the 7 km stretch of the Aqaba City to Aqaba Airport road. * Aqaba Salaam Airport. The project is aimed at developing and upgrading Aqaba Airport as a joint Jordanian-Israeli airport. This will be achieved by upgrading the runway, providing a new taxiway, constructing a new Israeli terminal and expanding the Jordanian terminal. * Enlargement of the grain berth at Aqaba Port. The project is aimed at enlarging the capacity of the existing grain berth at the main port of Aqaba. * Computerization of the Aqaba Container Terminal. 41 * New industrial berth. The project is aimed at installing new equipment and constructing a new berth al: the Aqaba Industrial Port to handle the increasing volume of fertilizers, industrial minerals, and chemicals. 3.5.2. Long-Term Projects Relevant long term projects for the Gulf of Aqaba Region outlined in the Jordan Rift Valley Master Plan (JRV) are listed below: * Expansion of inland mariculture production. Expansion from 5,000 tons per annum (short-term target) to 15,000 tons per annum. Allocation to the Gulf of Aqaba region compared to the rest of the Jordan Rift Valley is unknown. * Expansion of Aqaba industrial estate. Expansion by an additional 150 hectares. * Expansion of Aqaba Logistic Center. * Expansion of DAP or NPK production. Planned for Aqaba's South Coast Industrial Zone. * Nitrogen fertilizer project at Aqaba. Planned at producing 2,000 tons per day of ammoma. - Expansion of Aqaba South Coast tourism development. - Gas pipelines. This pipeline would carry liquified natural gas from the Egyptian Sinai or from Saudi Arabia to Aqaba. • Aqaba coastal highway. Planned to divert commercial traffic from tourist areas. To be developed through coistruction of a highway that follows the 100 meter contour. * Aqaba Port expansions. These consist of several projects: Enlargement of the livestock jetty, expansion of the container berth to 600 meters, and redevelopment of a container storage yard. The JRV Master Plan recommends that environmental impact statements be conducted for the following projects in the transportation field: * Entrance to Aqaba City. * Aqaba Salaam Airport. * Enlargement of the grain berth at Aqaba Port. * New industrial berth. 42 4. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS 4.1. NATURAL HAZARDS The Eilat region witnesses natural hazards in the form of floods and earthquakes. 4.1.1. Flood Control The analysis of the flood run-off and the amount of sediment carried by it is of great importance in planning engineering structures such as roads and water supply systems. Nahal Arava and Nahal Shlomo are the main rivers which constitute a potential flooding problem in the Eilat area. Nahal Arava flows into the Gulf on the north shore, adjacent to the border with Jordan, and Nahal Shlomo flows into the Gulf on the south shore, north of the Almog Beach tourist complex. One of Nahal Arava's largest tributaries is Nahal Roded which flows from west to east, north of Kibbutz Eilot. Rainfall in the desert region is characteristically very intense and it falls on surfaces lightly covered with soil and vegetation. These properties facilitate the development of flash floods. Due to the steep slopes of the river beds and the abundance of erodible materials along the slopes, floods carry large amounts of sediment on erosion fans while diverting the active river course, making it difficult to predict its future location. The Eilat area experiences an average of 3-4 flood events per year. These floods are characterized by heavy stream flow that occurs within a relatively short time following rainfall events. Heavy stream flows can continue for several hours, and recede quickly. Floodwaters carry considerable amounts of materials and suspended sediments. Where alluvial fans cross the Arava road, the road surface can be covered by 0.6 to 1 meter of sediment following a single flood event. Flood control necessitates planning and establishment of operational systems that can be employed to manage large quantities of water and fast stream flows, as well as large quantities of sediment carried by floodwaters. The sediments in the river bed and water passages significantly reduce their effective carrying capacity. As a result, the flow switches to unexpected channels, causing flooding damage and destroying unprotected infrastructure. The rapid development of the city of Eilat on the erosion fans has significantly reduced the river bed area and the natural surfaces where flood water previously penetrated the ground and where the sediments settled. As a result, the flow channels have changed, causing flooding with extensive settling of sediments in the urban area of the city. The city was originally planned so that the run-off would drain into the main streets running parallel to the flow direction. But the detailed planning did not account for sediment settling on roads in the water drainage system. Consequently, part of the flow has been diverted to residential areas, causing damage along the way. As the built up area of the city grows, so the danger of smaller floods increases. The enhanced development of Eilat in the last two decades completely ignores the flooding factor, leaving the urban area vulnerable to heavy damages. 43 Sediment deposition and pollutant transport are additional problems caused by flooding. In 1994, parts of the Coral Reserve were covered by such deposits following a flood, and the outcome necessitated intensive preservation measures. The effect of the sediments and pollutants (municipal wastes and wastewater) on the corals and fish was not investigated. A floodwater channel has been build approximately 500 meters away from the border with Jordan. This channel direct;s floodwaters from the Arava river towards the Gulf This channel is 50 to 100 meters wide; however, there are plans to adjust the width of the channel to 40 meters. In the future, this channel can also be used to remove brines from the reverse osmosis process, waste water from mariculture ponds, or can serve as a conduit for transporting seawater to the energy towers project and for removing used brines produced by the towers. 4.1.2. Earthquakes The Jordan Rift Valley is a seismically active area with a history of seismic events as severe as 6 orders of magnitude or more on the Richter scale. The most severe earthquake in the area was estimated to be in the order of magnitude of 8. Magnitude 6 earthquakes can occur with a probability of once in 144 years. The central fault line in the Rift Valley lies more or less along the path of the Arava road from the point where it crosses the north-western end of the Gulf of Aqaba. Secondary faults also exist in the area. Two types of building construction limitations have been proposed based on the location and potential strength of the faults: * Areas where construction is prohibited, 1 km on each side of the central fault line. * Areas in which construction limits determine the kind of structure that is built, its height, foundation, and materials used. 4.2. LAND-BASED POLLUTION The main sources of land-based pollution are wastewater, air pollution, hazardous substances, and solid waste. 4.2.1. Wastewater 4.2.1.1. Domestic wastewater Domestic wastewater from the Eilat wastewater treatment plant is no longer discharged into the Gulf of Aqaba.. This practice was ceased in 1994 following legal proceedings filed against the municipality. Nevertheless, a number of incidents have since been reported where wastewater flowed into the sea because of lack of other use. Treated wastewater from the Eilat WWTP is currently piped for re-use on agricultural crops in the Arava settlements. Therefore, environmental threats to the Gulf of Aqaba from wastewater are limited to overflows and accidental releases from pumping stations and broken sewage mains. The most serious such incidents occurred in August 44 1992, when a sewage main burst, and untreated sewage flowed directly into the Coral Reef Reserve, and in 1995 when sewage flowed across the border towards Aqaba.. The wastewater pumping stations located along the south shore lack backup generators and pumps. Incidents involving pump malfunctions or power failures result in overflow of wastewater from the pumping station to the surroundings, and can endanger coral reefs and marine biota in the Gulf In case of pump failure, sewage pumping stations located on the north coast of the Gulf overflow into the artificial marina lagoon, while pumping stations located on the south coast overflow directly into the Gulf (Table 15). Furthermore, the residential areas of the city are generally situated on a slope that faces the Gulf. Sewage released from any break in the sewage pipe in that part of the city can potentially reach the Gulf waters. According to the Regional Environmental Unit, sewer pipe failures on main lines occur at an average frequency of once per month, and uncontrolled sewage flows occur until the pipes are fixed. Pipe failures last for approximately 2 hours per event. 4.2.1.2. Industrial wastewater Data regarding wastewater from industrial plants is general in nature and does not include information on the specific sources of pollution. Due to the small number of industrial plants in the Eilat region, it is assumed that the quantities of wastewater produced by these plants are small. The tourist industry and its support services produce liquid waste with high fat content (hotels and restaurants), salinity (laundries and cooling systems), and detergents (laundries and hotels). Fatty wastewater is separated at the source using oil/water separators. Wastes are collected by pump trucks and disposed of at the municipal sanitary landfill. 4.2.1.3. Treated wastewater Reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation of agricultural crops, public gardens and fields may result in unpredictable consequences to the environment. As discussed above, treated wastewater contains large quantities of salts. In the long-term, these salts have the potential to infiltrate groundwater aquifers. However, at present, areas in which wastewater is being re-used do overlie brackish water aquifers. Future plans to use any oversupply of treated wastewater to irrigate desert areas may result in changes in desert biota and the unique scenery around Eilat. The extent of such impacts is not predictable given current lack of detailed plans and alternative irrigation sites. 4.2.1.4. Seawater desalination brines Waste products of seawater desalination consist of concentrated salty brines. These brines are discharged into the Gulf, and can have deleterious effects on marine biota. Future increase in the importance of desalination of groundwater and seawater to supply drinking water to Eilat will result in greater quantities of brines being produced and discharged to the Gulf A potential solution to this problem is to supply the 45 seawater evaporation ponds witli desalination process brines. The evaporation ponds are located north of the airport irt proximity to the desalination plant. These ponds use seawater as a raw material in the production of sea salt. Use of desalination brines could considerably shorten sea salt production times. 4.2.2. Air Pollution 4.2.2.1. Phosphate dust Excess quantities of natural organic substances introduced into the environment have a direct effect on seawater quality, including its oxygen content and clarity, and an indirect effect on the availability of food materials released through the breakdown of organic material, thus affecting the rate and amount or organic matter in the water. The increase in the presence of rutrients in water, primarily phosphorus and nitrogen, is know as eutrophication, and causes enhanced algal growth. An associated feature of nutrient enrichment is the accunulation of dead and partially decomposing algae between the shore and the coral reefs. These algae return nutrients to the water, and in so doing encourage the further growth of algae. Algae decomposition processes can reduce dissolved oxygen content of the water and increase mortality of marine animals. A dense layer of algae covering the reefs depresses coral growth, repels fish and other marine wildlife, causes shading, and affects the transparency of the water. One of the main causes of eutrophication in the Gulf is the deposition of nutrients, mainly phosphorus contained in phosphate minerals. Research has shown that high concentrations of phosphates in tie water encourage the rapid growth of algae which compete with corals and impoverish the reef (Shlezinger, 1980). Research on the influence of wastewater and phosphate dust on the coral reefs in Aqaba found 4 to 5 times greater death rate among cor al in contaminated areas than in control areas. Other researchers attribute the death of corals to the increased turbidity, the disruption of calcification processes in the presence of phosphates, and the accumulation of sediments on the reefs. Phosphate loading operations in the Eilat Ports result in the dispersion of dust particulates into the air. These particulates constitute a health hazard and a hazard to the marine environment as well as a aesthetic impacts. The main particulate dispersion points are at ship loading facilities and truck unloading docks. Because no monitoring has been conducted to determine levels of phosphate dust in the air or deposition in the sea, it is not possible to evaluate the severity of this impact from this source of pollutiorn. Despite the lack of data, phosphate dust release is believed to have almost doubled in recent years because of an associated steep increase in quantities of phosphate transported from the port (See Chapter 3). It is notable that potash, which constitutes about half the bulk cargo quantity moved through the port, presents virtually no problem. This is due to its hygroscopic properties which prevent the accumulation of dust, and to the fact that it does not contain nutrients such as phosphorous and nitrogen which cause eutrification. Air quality standards are specified in the relevant regulations (see Section 6.2.1.4). 46 The Ports Authority and the companies which produce and transport phosphates and potash have taken a series of measures designed to reduce the fugitive dust emissions during the processes of transportation, unloading and loading of these substances. These include: * Meticulous use of truck covers. * Sealing openings in storage structures. * Paving roads and surfaces around the storage structure and keeping them clean. These measures have been found to be insufficient and the Ports Authority is preparing the following additional steps: * Installing a chokefeeder at the end of the loading arm, which should radically reduce the dispersion of dust during loading into the ship's hull. Two chokefeeders for loading phosphates have been in operation at Aqaba Port since August 1993. In June 1997 the Ports Authority signed an agreement whereby a chokefeeder is to be installed at the phosphate loader in Eilat Port by February 1998, should the existing infrastructure comply with the manufacturer's specifications. If not, it will be necessary to adapt the existing equipment to the chokefeeder, which will require more time. * Erecting a closed unloading facility for phosphates with a feed system which will pump out the phosphate dust. The facility design has been completed and a contractor has been appointed. The facility will be erected upon receipt of a building permit from the City of Eilat. * Establishing a monitoring system which will include four monitoring stations with continuous monitoring equipment for suspended and settled particulates, and two meteorological stations with measuring equipment: wind velocity and direction gauges, radiation and temperature gauge and relative humidity and precipitation meters. The issued tender opened on 23.7.1997. It is anticipated that the stations will begin operation early in 1998. The need for monitoring (including two additional monitoring stations) is described in Section 9.5.1.1 and in Annex 1. 4.2.2.2. Industrial air pollution Due to the small number of industrial plants in the Eilat region, and particularly, the small number of polluting plants, it is assumed that industrial pollution in Eilat is minimal. Since there is no air pollution monitoring in the Eilat region, it is not possible to forecast the impact of air pollution sources on the region. The following subsections present an overview of the main sources of air pollution in Eilat. 4.2.2.3. Eilat gas turbines The pollutants emitted by the gas turbines are SO2 and NO,. These pollutants are emitted from relatively low stacks (10 to 30 meters), but because of high emission temperatures, they are carried vertically to a height of several hundreds of meters, even 47 in the presence of inversions. Maximum concentrations of pollutants at receptors close to the source are a result of turbine operation under cloudy conditions with strong winds - relatively rare meteorological conditions in the Eilat region. The fuel system at the gas turbine site has been planned according to the guidelines of the environmental authorities, arid includes safeguards to prevent oil leakage to the environment. This is despite the fact that there are no significant freshwater aquifers in the region. 4.2.2.4 Quarries Dust generation from quarrying, building and trucking operations is considered to be a major environmental problem in Eilat. As discussed in Section 3.4.4, quarries for building materials are located as close as a few kilometers from the City of Eilat. Operations at these quarries and transportation of quarried material in open trucks to construction sites in Eilat have the potential to generate large quantities of airborne dust. Dust is also generated at all construction sites, earth-moving operations, and trucking over unpaved roads. Control measures, such as wetting and use of truck covers can reduce dust generation by 30% to 50%. There are currently no means to q iantify the airborne dust problem in Eilat because of the lack of air quality monitoring stations in and around the city. 4.2.2.5. Construction The construction of new buildings and other infrastructure along the shore, mainly in the northern shore area, caused sediment to be swept into the water. The main sources of such loads in the last few years were the new Northern Lagoon and maintenance works along the northern shore that were built in order to enlarge the sea-front of the city. In addition, there is annual loss of sand from the public beaches of Eilat (northern coast) which drifts into the sea. This loss is supplemented artificially every year by the local municipality from sandy areas north of the city. 4.2.2.6. Pollution associated with transportation Environmental aspects of transportation in Eilat include pollution from vehicle emissions, dispersal of particulates from truck cargo, and risks of accidental releases of hazardous substances during transport, loading, and unloading operations. The main pollutant emitted by vehicles is NOx. In the absence of data on the existing level of air pollution in Eilat, it is riot possible to assess the ambient concentrations of Nox. Transport of cargo to and from the Eilat Port involves trucks travel across the city of Eilat along Road 90. Air pollution due to dispersion of particulates and dust is associated with transport of phosphate in cases where trucks are not covered or are inadequately covered. Due to its hygroscopic nature, the risk of air pollution from potash is far lower. The relative contribution of particulates from truck cargo to ambient dust levels is believed to be negligible due to enforcement of truck cover practices for phosphate trucks, anc. due to the relatively high ambient levels of dust 48 generated because of the dry desert characteristics of the region and because of the prevailing winds. 4.2.3. Hazardous Substances Accidents and events involving hazardous substances may occur during the various handling processes: loading, transportation, unloading and storage. No significant events involving hazardous substances have been reported in recent years, neither in the port nor along the transportation routes which traverse the city of Eilat. The transportation of hazardous substances could be problematic in the event of an accident. However, the relatively small amount of hazardous substances transported through Eilat Port reduces this risk. The risk level may increase should the Ports Authority transport phosphoric acid through the port (short-term plan) and chloric salts and magnesium (long-term). Plans to transport phosphoric acid (UN No. 1805) through the Eilat port may also present a hazard. Phosphoric acid is highly reactive when exposed to alkaline substances or metals. Although this does not represent a fire hazard, such reactions are exothermic in nature, and release large quantities of hydrogen gas. The hydrogen released in such reactions is highly explosive when mixed with oxygen in air. In addition, such reactions also result in release of acid droplets that are dispersed in the air. Proximity of the planned phosphoric acid storage facility to the potash storage yard increases the risk of contact between the two materials that would result in a chemical reaction which would release hydrochloric acid to the air. Hydrochloric acid gas is corrosive and presents an acute hazard to human health and to marine biota. Risks associated with the transport of hazardous substances will be mitigated with the paving of the Eilat bypass road (see Chapter 3) which will divert all cargo transport away from the city center. The risk potential from accidents involving hazardous substances can be defined in two ways: * Spill of non-evaporative corrosive substances: these substances constitute about 64% of all hazardous substances transported through Eilat port. In this case, dispersion of the hazardous substances is minimized, and only the immediate environment is endangered. * Release of hazardous substances into the air resulting in a toxic gas cloud. The risk levels associated with this kind of release depend on the substance, concentration, meteorological dispersion conditions and distance from the emission source. 4.2.4. Solid Waste Municipal and industrial solid wastes generated in Eilat and the southern Arava are not disposed of in the Gulf. The municipal sanitary landfill is located several kilometers inland, and eliminates any possibility of leachates reaching the Gulf waters. The main environmental problem derives from fires which severely impact air quality. The Municipality of Eilat is responsible for trash removal from the beaches. 49 4.2.5. Other Environmental Impacts 4.2.5.1. Road network In addition to the problem of a-.r pollution caused by vehicles on the roads, in many instances roads are associated with visual impacts and noise pollution. In addition, roads function as a barrier to migrating animals, a particular problem in the Eilat area since most of the animals live in the Eilat mountains, while their food supply is in the Arava Valley. 4.2.5.1.1. Eilat bypass roaa' At present there is no estimate cif the scope of people and goods being transferred by road, but there is a warranted fear that heavy traffic on the planned bypass road will cause air pollution, harm the riatural assets, curtail the development of the town northward, create a safety hazard, bring about environmental pollution by solid waste, and cause noise and visual disturbances. Paving the road adjacent to the eastern slopes of the Eilat hills requires consideration of the problem of animal migration described above. 4.2.5.1.2. The south shore lypass road The interchange through Nahal -3arof is less desirable than the interchange through Nahal Shlomo, due to the immediate proximity to the Shahmon residential neighborhood (air and noise poIllution) and due to the fact that the road will cross over the fuel pipeline infrastructure bel onging to the Eilat Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company. 4.2.5.2. Ports, marinas and lagoons The environmental implications cf the three ports - cargo port, oil port and military base, beyond those widely described above, are marginal and focus mainly on the visual impact they create. This is not so for the Eilat marina, where the following problems are prevalent: - Lack of services for sanitary sewage removal from yachts. Due to the absence of this service, yacht owners pour their sewage directly into the open sea and the marina itself In some of the yachts there are chemical toilets. Without suitable removal services, the waste ot these toilets includes chemicals which are toxic for the sea. * Lack of public toilets in the marina. Due to the lack of public toilets in the marina, the yacht crews and tourists use the toilets on board the yachts. As above, the sewage flows directly into l:he sea. * Lack of garbage removal services from yachts. A large portion of garbage which accumulates on board the yachts finds its way into the sea. In several sites where the yachts are anchored the dock area looks like a garbage dump. Large quantities of floating garbage (e.g., plastic containers), which are thrown overboard at sea, are drawn towards the shore. 50 * Lack of bilge water and used engine oil removal services. In the absence of these removal services, bilge water and used engine oil flows directly into the sea, particularly at night. * Lack of suitable fueling services. As a result, the fueling and oil supply services for the vessels are inefficient, unsafe and do not operate according to accepted international standards, with occasional leaks into the sea during fueling. * Sewage pollution of the marina and lagoon water. The sewage pipe in the area is old and blocked in several places. As a result, raw sewage flows into the marina, the lagoon and the sea during breakdowns. * Pollution of the marina and lagoon water with trash from land sources. Due to inadequate control and insufficient number of trash cans, and in the absence of legislation forbidding the sale of products in plastic containers, large quantities of trash reach the water in the marina and the lagoon. * Odor and visual disturbances from lagoons. Because of the low rate of water exchange between the lagoons on the north shore and the Gulf, these lagoons, especially the western lagoon are a source of odor and visual impacts as well as habitats for unwanted flora and fauna such as algae and sea urchins. 4.2.5.3. Airports The location of the Eilat airport has both planning and environmental rarnifications: * The airport stands on land which was supposed to have been the city's central business district. * The airport creates a wedge between the city and the hotels from a socio-economic standpoint (tourists seldom frequent the commercial centers located in the city). * The fact that the city is connected to the hotel district via a single road creates safety problems. * Aircraft activity results in air pollution and noise. However, because of a lack of noise measurement data, it is not possible to estimate the severity of this impact on residents. The airport itself presents an aesthetic impact on the city skyline. 4.3. MARINE POLLUTION 4.3.1. Oil Spills The majority of oil spills in the Gulf of Aqaba are considered to be operational spills (emptying of bilge, oily wastes or ballast waters). Operational spills during unloading operations have also been observed (European Commission Directorate General ECDG, 1995). Small spills in the order of a few liters to a few hundred liters are observed with a frequency of 30 to 50 spills per year (ECDG, 1995). In recent years, spills of 3-15 tons of crude or bunker oil were recorded. The largest reported spill of crude oil was a spill 51 of 120 tons from the Eilat oil terminal in the 1970s (ECDG, 1995). The largest spill in recent years occurred in 1992 during tanker unloading operations at the Port of Eilat. Tens of tons of crude oil were spilled into the Gulf, and drifted south to the Coral Reserve and the southern beaches of Eilat. Damage from this spill was limited due to the intervention of staff of the Marine Pollution Control Station in Eilat and the direction of the tides (Environmental Law Institute ELI, 1993). Potential sources of oil pollution in the Gulf of Aqaba include oil and fuel spills from tanker ships, the Eilat-Ashkelon Pipeline Company oil terminal facilities, the cargo port, the military port, and the irarina. Oily wastes can also be released with bilge or ballast waters, although international conventions and Israeli laws prohibit discharge of ballast water and bilge wastes to 1:he Gulf. The number of spills has significantly decreased following increased inspections performed by the Marine Pollution Control Unit of the MOE. Details on the structure and operations of the MPCU are presented in Section 6.1.1.1.2. In 1990,there were 22 oil spills reported in the Israeli section of the Gulf of Aqaba, and in 1991 there were 14 spills. Spills were attributed to tankers, yachts and pleasure boats, Israel Navy boats, and large commercial vessels (ELI, 1993). The most severe danger threatening the Gulf of Aqaba is marine pollution by oil as a result of an accident. An accident may occur with the collision between an oil tanker and another vessel, a ship running aground or overflow or oil leak from a vessel. The Gulf of Aqaba is extremely sensitive to pollution due to its physical parameters: a relatively small and closed body of water (except for a narrow outlet in the south) with intensive land-use the length of the north shore; and due to its unique environmental conditions: coral reefs and fish ciaracterized by a wealth of species and their close proximity to the shore. Although no major oil spill has been recorded in the Gulf of Aqaba, there exists a potential for such a spill. Oil transport traffic in the Gulf of Aqaba is limited to import of approximately 3 to 4 million tors of crude for the EAPC. About one third of all ship calls for Eilat consist of crude oil transport by tanker to the EAPC terminal. Egyptian and Jordanian ports do not receive tanker traffic (ECDG, 1995) The largest quantity of oil arriving at the oil terminal in Eilat is that which Israel undertook to purchase from Egypt within the framework of the Camp David agreements. The oil comes from the oil wells in the Gulf of Suez, in old tankers where the risk of an oil leak in the event of an accident is far greater than with newer oil tankers. Oil spills can have an instantaneoLs lethal effect on coral reefs and fish. Cumulative exposure to low concentrations of petroleum byproducts can cause gradual impacts to marine biota which may not be immediately apparent. In the case of chronic oil pollution it is generally difficult to establish a direct linkage between cause and effect. Petroleum hydrocarbons have a tendency to accumulate in fatty tissues of biota. In some animals, hydrocarbons reach zoncentrations that are several orders of magnitude greater in tissue than in the waten. The long-term effects of bioaccumulation and bioconcentration of hydrocarbons in marine biota are reflected by: 52 * Altered fertility. * Disturbances in behavior and mobility of animals, resulting in greater vulnerability to predators. * Altered resistance to disease, treatment and changes in environmental conditions. * Altered species diversity: sensitive species disappear while the populations of toxin-resistant species increase. Instead of a diverse and rich ecosystem, toxic conditions can result in a species-poor and simple ecosystem. Such systems tend to be less efficient, less fertile and inherently unstable. 4.3.2. Ballast and Bilge Water Ballast water is used to wash cargo tanks of oil tankers and to provide weight to empty or partially full vessels. Although state-of-the-art tankers have segregated ballast water tanks, most tankers hold ballast water in oil tanks. The resulting oily waste is a potential source of pollution to the Gulf. The three ports in Eilat have de-ballasting facilities that hold and eventually separate oils from ballast waters. Approximately 25,000 tons of oil are retrieved annually from these facilities. It is mandatory that ships reaching the Gulf of Aqaba replace their ballast water while at sea in the Indian Ocean. Most of the ships arriving at Eilat Port, and mainly the bulk cargo ships, are old vessels which carry rusty water and may contain organisms from elsewhere. Unless the ballast water is replaced en route, the ballast can transport pollutants and biota from the source port to the destination port. While the Center for the Prevention of Marine Pollution checks in the log of every ship entering Eilat Port that the ballast water was replaced en route, these reports are sometimes fictitious Bilge wastes consist of oily waters from ship engine rooms and other sources. Volumes of bilge wastes are typically much less than ballast waters, but the oil content of bilge water is typically much higher. The amount of bilge water is small due to the small number of ships docking in Eilat Port, and because not every ship requires this service. The bilge water is removed from ships using two mobile containers, each having a capacity of 25 m3. Bilge water undergoes treatment using oil-water separators belonging to the Eilat Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company. After treatment the water is channeled to the municipal wastewater system. 4.3.3. Wastewater from Vessels There exist sufficient safeguards and controls to ensure that wastewater generated on ships and cargo vessels visiting the container port and the oil terminal is discharged to the municipal wastewater treatment system. Bilge water is also treated at the WWTP. Environmental pollution from ship-generated wastewater exists because yachts and charter boats is discharged wastewater directly into the Gulf. This practice occurs because there are no land-based sewage collection facilities at the Eilat Marina. Although there are over 100 private yachts and over 30 charter boats of various sizes moored at the Eilat marina, there are currently no estimates of the quantity of sewage 53 discharged from these watercrafl. Nevertheless, these sources represent a significant source of pollutant input to the Gulf 4.3.4. Mariculture As described in Chapter 3, mariculture activities in the Gulf of Aqaba are located approximately 300 meters off the North shore of the Gulf of Aqaba, along the border with Jordan, and produce some 1200 tons of fish annually. Mariculture operations consist of circular fish cages tied longitudinally along a central pontoon. Fish food is supplied to the cages at a rate of 2.28 kg per kg of fish produced. Wastes consisting of nutrient-rich uneaten food and fish waste products are carried by the water, and settle through the cage mesh to the seafloor below. 75 percent of the nitrogen content of the food is released to the water through the gills of the fish. In addition, relatively high levels of phosphorus originate from the fish meal which is a component of the fish food. Nutrient enrichment of the water column can result in nuisance algal blooms and, under severe conditions, lead to eutrophication of the waterbody. Studies conducted by the National Center for Mariculture (NCM) have shown that the benthic environment was severely impacted by existing mariculture operations. The area of impact of sediment underneath one of the fish farm was estimated at 7630 m2 based on visual observations (Angel et. al., 1995). These wastes contain large amounts of dissolved nutrients and fine particulate matter, and have been shown to have a detrimental effect on the benthic environment. The surface of sediments directly below fish cages was found to be dark gray and fluffy in comparison to compacted yellow to light gray sand in natural unenriched sediments (Angel et al. 1997). Such physical changes caused the displacement of seagrasses and softbottom invertebrates from impacted sediments. Instead, enriched sediments were found to be covered with microbial mats in which seagrasses do not grow (Angel et al., 1992, 1995) Impacted sediments below fish farms were also characterized by higher levels of organic matter, porewater nutrients (NH4+ and PO43-), hydrogen sulfide and methane in the top layer, and levels of porewater nutrients (ammonia and orthophosphate) levels of magnitude higher than unimpacted nearby sediments (Angel et. al., 1995). Fish diseases can cause mortality in as much as 30% of penned fish. These dead fish represent an additional source of nutrients that are released to the marine environment. 4.4. TOURIST ACTIVITIES Tourist activities in Eilat revolve around the hotels and amusement centers, the beaches, the coral reefs, and the desert. Environmental impacts associated with activities at the hotels and amusements centers result from demand placed on resources (water, trash services, etc.). Tourist activities around the coral reefs, which are the Gulfs most precious resource, consist of snorkeling, diving, and observation from glass-bottom boats. There are 12 scuba diving centers located along the shore in Eilat, with about 60 instructors and dive-masters, operating about 250,C00 dives annually, most of them in the coral reef reserve. Their activities in the coral reefs are controlled by the NRA wardens. In 54 1995, all uncertified and introductory scuba dives were excluded from the reef areas, and they are no longer permitted there. Diving and snorkeling activities can cause direct damage to the reef though tramnpling or stepping on coral colonies, breakage, and suspension of sediment while swimming. Broken coral pieces cannot regenerate, and are lost to the colonies. Suspended sediment can settle and smother coral. Evidence of damage to the reef by divers comes from comparison of the reef in the Coral Reserve to the reef in the Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company terminal area. The EAPC reef is not open to the public, and this reef is characterized by greater concentration and species diversity than the Coral Reserve reef. Glass bottom boats and boat activity near the reefs can cause damage to the reef by resuspension of sediment while sailing in shallow waters. In addition, boat bottoms are coated with a tributylamine material to prevent settling of marine life. This material leaches from the coating and is toxic to coral. Release of fuel and oils from boat engines and release of sewage from tourist boats in proximity of the reefs can potentially damage coral colonies. Freshwater, soaps and detergents released from beach-based showering facilities is an additional stressor that can impact coral reefs. Dumping of litter, either on the beaches or from vessels, also impacts the reefs. However, there is little evidence of accumulation of litter since it is collected and removed. Artificial lights from hotels and on beaches can also impact coral reefs and marine biota. The activities of certain nocturnal species are adversely impacted by artificial lighting. Suppression or changes to these activity patterns can impact a number of associated or dependent species. Land-based tourist activities include hiking, and desert tours on jeeps or mini-tractors. Hiking is generally limited to marked trails. Environmental impacts of these activities include the accumulation of debris or trash on trails, and potential changes in microcatchment basins and dry streambed configurations. Desert jeep and tractor expeditions also generate large quantities of dust while moving on unpaved desert trails. Since the tourist population is projected to increase, these problems will continue to grow. The polo field and golf courses which have been approved and are planned to be sited north of the city of Eilat on the slope of Har Shahmon represent additional tourist activities that have the potential to cause environmental impacts due to their land requirements. The polo complex would extend on an area of 384 dunams and would include a horse racetrack and polo field, stables, an event tent, spectator stands, sports fields, 100 guest housing units, a sport and health club, retail stores, and worker housing (50 housing units). The golf course complex would extend on an area of 861 dunams and include a 560 room hotel, golf course, club, convention center, clubs and tourist services, restaurants and coffee houses, worker housing, a golf academy, and support buildings. 55 4.5. POTENTIAL TRANS-BOUNDARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PROPOSED REGIONAL PROJECTS The main transboundary enviromnental impacts come from the region of Aqaba, where there is intensified development in many spheres, being the Kingdom of Jordan's sole outlet to the sea. The main environmental impact areas are marine pollution of the Gulf from land and marine sources, elevation of the groundwater level and groundwater pollution in proximity to the wastewater treatment plant, and visual disturbances. The major potential sources of pollution consist of industry and energy production facilities, transportation sources of various kinds, and tourism. There are no known significant edisting and planned projects in Taba that might affect the Israeli section of the Gulf of Aqaba. 4.5.1. Industry and Energy F'roduction Industry in Aqaba is far more developed than in Eilat, and covers a far greater area. Some of the industrial plants are chemical plants which process phosphate and potash deposits. Significant expansion o. these industries is anticipated in both the near and distant future (see Section 3.5). In addition, doubling of the current 260 MW capacity of the existing heavy-fuel power station is now underway. Tests of polluting emissions froff. the industrial region and power station of the city show values which exceed the i:ternationally acceptable levels. Because prevailing winds in the region are northerly, Eilat does not suffer significantly from air pollution from the direction of Aqaba. 75% of Aqaba's municipal sewage is treated in a wastewater treatment plant located north of the city. The rest of the waste flows into pit latrines. The quality of the treated waste is generally below standard for discharge to water bodies. Industrial waste is treated separately within the industrial zone, and no data exist as to whether it reaches the Gulf water. The Gulf water is polluted by air pollutants, mainly dust dispersed from the industrial plants and the power station. Without data pertaining to the pattern of sea currents in the Gulf, it is difficult to estimate the extent of the impact of these pollutants on the shores of Eilat. An accident involving hazardous substances could cause air and marine pollution, the severity of which would depend on the type of substance, quantities, and meteorological conditions. Considering the importance of toarism to the region, an additional problem is the visual impact of Aqaba's industrial zones which can be seen from the city of Eilat. The JRV Master Plan recommends conducting environmental impact statements for the following projects in the fields of industry and energy: * Potassium sulfate and di-calciuri phosphate complex * Potassium nitrate complex * Solar power project * Wind power project 56 4.5.2. Transportation Transportation and related activities, while constituting a substantial environmental threat, offer opportunities for cooperation between the countries for their mutual benefit and for the benefit of the environment. 4.5.2.1. Ports Cargo ship traffic at Aqaba Port is eight times greater than that in Eilat's ports. The main export components from Aqaba Port in 1995 were phosphates (58.1%), potash (25.8%) and fertilizers (9.5%). Despite the fact that bulk carriers are equipped with chokefeeders, their efficiency is about 80%, and the rest of the dust is dispersed into the air, with some settling onto the sea. An additional problem are the goods imported through the Kingdom of Jordan's only outlet to the sea. These include: oil, ammonia sulfate, and various other hazardous substances. An accident involving hazardous substances may seriously endanger the environment and the tourism sector. The ports also represent an aesthetic disturbance. 4.5.2.2. Airports Some 50,000 passengers pass through the Aqaba airport every year, as compared with more than one million passengers at Eilat Airport. The expansion of the Aqaba airport to serve both countries (see Chapter 3) may cause a noise disturbance for the planned northern neighborhoods of Eilat. 4.5.2.3. Peace Road The main contribution of this road to Israel is political: the truck traffic meant to use this road will serve primarily the neighboring countries. At present there is no estimate of the scope of people and goods being transferred by road, but there is a warranted fear that heavy traffic on the road will cause air pollution, harm the natural assets, curtail the development of Eilat northward, create a safety hazard, bring about environmental pollution by solid waste, and cause noise and visual disturbances. Paving the road adjacent to the eastern slopes of the Eilat hills requires consideration of the issue of animal migration. In the Eilat area most of the Peace Road alignment converges with the bypass road alignment and so the environmental impact is similar. 4.5.2.4. Relocation of border crossings The alignment of the Peace Road depends on the location of the border crossing between Israel and Jordan and Egypt. The present border crossing between Israel and Jordan, if left where it stands, constitutes a barrier to the growth of the city. Leaving the border crossing between Israel and Egypt at Taba will route a large number of visitors through the city of Eilat, mainly during vacations and holidays, and may cause an environmental disturbance of natural assets along the southern shore. 57 In an attempt to reduce these impacts it has been recommended that the border crossing between Israel and Jordan be located north of the airport at Aqaba, and the main border crossing between Israel and Egypt be located at Ein Netafim. (The border crossing at Taba will serve only tl e Taba area). 4.5.2.5. Tourism The number of tourists visiting Eilat is seven times greater than that visiting Aqaba. However, the Jordanians are planning to expand the sector. The anticipated environmental implications may be in the creation of sewage and solid waste, with the ensuing impact on the city of Eilat minimal, as discussed above. The JRV Master Plan recommends that an environmental impact statement be conducted for the following projects in the tourism sphere: * Infrastructure for the Aqaba Tourism Project * Development of Aqaba hotels * Expansion of Eilat hotel develcopment- He proposed Aqaba-Eilat Coastal ]'romenade should be taken into consideration under any plan. 4.5.2.6. Wastewater treatinent plants There is a significant elevation of the groundwater and an increased groundwater pollution close to the wastewater treatment plants of Eilat and Aqaba that should be subject to monitoring. 4.5.3. The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSI)SC) is the most important project proposed within the framework of the Masterplan for the Jordan Rift Valley (JRV). Participants in the Middle East Peace Talks agreed that the corridor for the RSDSC would be limited to Jordanian territory. Nevertheless, one of the altemative paths presented for this project shows a 10 km stretch of the canal running from the Gulf of Aqaba along the border between Israel and Jordan. The location of the RSDSC wholly within Jordan avoids a certain threat to protected areas along the Israeli side. The design of all the RSDSC conveyance as leak-proofed has removed or substantially diminished the concern for groundwater contamination. Choosing a northern intake site alternative along the Israeli-Jordanian border causes some minor negative impacts in wh Lt would probably become a congested urban area in the future, but against this , th-re are trade-offs with respect to protecting the marine environment of the Gulf on t,ie Jordanian side. 58 5. CONFLICTS The major environmental conflicts in the Gulf of Aqaba Region are shown in Map 5 and are listed below. * North Eilat: Urban development vs. impact to natural resources and scenery. * South shore: Tourism development vs. impact to unique natural resources. * Oil port: An oil transport terminal vs. risk of a major spill, and associated impacts on natural resources and the tourism industry; pollution impacts and considerable use of precious land area. * Cargo port: Strategic marine access and employment source vs. air pollution (which impacts human health and marine biota), storage of hazardous substances and all its associated risks, and considerable use of precious land area. * Automobile storage lots: Inexpensive storage vs. negative visual impact and use of precious land area. * Naval port: National defense needs vs. negative visual impact and use of precious land areas. * Airport: Ease of access for passengers vs. safety risks, constraint to urban development, source of air and noise pollution, and important consumer of land area. * Eilat bypass roads (planned): Relief of traffic congestion and associated environmental impacts (air and noise pollution, transport of hazardous materials), solution to political issues (Peace road), and widening of coastal areas vs. impacts to natural and visual resources. * Mariculture: Promising economic activity vs. water pollution of the Gulf. * Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (option of a corridor along the Jordanian border): Contribution to reviving the Dead Sea and the economy of the Arava vs. impact to natural resources. * Planned and existing industrial areas: Economic diversity to the region and source of employment vs. release of pollutants and environmental impacts (air pollution, wastewater, noise, and visual impacts). * Nature reserves: Tourist attractions vs. nature preservation. * Gas turbines: Electricity production vs. air pollution. * Solar and wind energy farms: Clean sources of energy production vs. extensive use of land areas. * Tourism: Most significant economic activity and source of employment vs. transient workforce with associated carelessness towards the environment. * Quarrying: A significant building material source vs. air pollution and negative visual impact. 59 6. INSTITUTIONS AND LEGISLATION 6.1. CURRENT INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK - INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES Israel's governmental system is that of a parliamentary democracy, with ministries administered by members of the government. The Ministry of the Environment has authority over most environmental matters as they relate to the Gulf of Aqaba. 6.1.1. The National and Regional Level 6.1.1.1. The Ministry of tlhe Environment The Ministry of the Environment (MOE) concentrates national level authority over environmental matters. Prior to its creation in 1990, responsibility for environmental issues was distributed among other national authorities. In the Gulf of Aqaba, the MOE is charged with the prevention of all marine pollution throughout regulations and enforcement authority over laws related to pollution from land based sources, marine vessels, and individuals. Administration of environmental protection takes place at three levels: national, regional and local. At the national level, the MOE's staff is responsible for defining national policy and priorities, lawvs and standards, operating EIA procedures and supervising district and local authorities. 6.1.1.1.1. Environmental Districts The MOE has six district offices whose responsibilities include supervision of local environmental units and ensuring that municipalities filfill their environmental mandates. Members of regional offices also participate in regional planning and building committees. The MOE southern district is based in Beer Sheva and has jurisdiction over the Gulf of Aqaba area. 6.1.1.1.2. Marine Pollution Control Unit The Marine Pollution Control Station (MPCS) in Eilat is adjacent to the MOE's Marine Pollution Control Division The station is located north of the Coral Reef Reserve, and is staffed 24 hours a day. The MPCS serves as a logistics base for marine pollution control and its primary tas;ks are prevention, abatement, and treatment of oil spills. Functions performed by the staff of the MPCS include marine and coastal surveillance, routine inspections of' vessel and shore terminals, and sea and coastal cleanup operations. The MPCS houses spill cleanup e(quipment consisting of skimmers, pumps, booms, tanks, oil separators, containers, dispersal and absorption materials. A small motorboat is used for year-round inspections while heavier equipment such as barges for extending booms etc. must be mobilized from the Eilat Port and the oil terminal. Equipment and activities of the Eilat MPCS are funded by the Marine Pollution Prevention Fund whose revenues (lerive from user fees paid by vessels and shore terminals and fines imposed on v olators of marine pollution prevention laws and 60 regulations. The Marine Pollution Prevention Fund is described in the following section (see Regulations for the prevention of marine pollution by oil- marine environment protection fee - 1983). 6.1.1.1.3. The Nature Reserves Authority The Nature Reserves Authority (NRA) is a department in the MOE. It is responsible for maintenance and protection of Israel's nature reserves. The NRA has four districts (north, center, south, and Eilat). The Eilat District was specifically established because of its importance in terms of environmental protection in relation to the rest of the country. The Eilat District of the Nature Reserves Authority has jurisdiction over nature reserves in Eilat and its surroundings. The NRA is empowered to regulate and enforce environmental protection of the Coral Reef Reserve, the Eilat Mountain reserves, and other reserves. It does so through reserve managers whose responsibilities include individual reserve operations and nature protection. 6.1.1.2. Ministry of the Interior The Ministry of the Interior chairs the National Planning and Building Board (NPBB), which is responsible for enacting national masterplans, reviewing regional masterplans, and serving as an appeal board for decisions of the district planning and building commissions. As discussed in Section 6.2.2.1, national masterplans are prepared for issues of national planning significance of for land uses that serve national interests. The masterplans are commissioned by the NPBB, and upon completion, they are submitted to the government for approval. The Ministry of the Interior is also responsible for two committees at the national level: the Agricultural Lands Committee whose mandate is to protect lands of agricultural value and minimize loss of such lands; and the Territorial Waters Committee which is responsible for approval of all offshore structures. At the regional level, the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for six district planning and building commissions which are composed of representatives of government ministries and local authorities. District commissions serve as a link between national planning and local implementation. At the local level, the Ministry oversees local planning and building commissions that serve local authorities and are composed of elected members of the municipal councils. These local commissions submit local Masterplans to the District commissions for approval. 6.1.1.3. Ministry of Tourism The Ministry of Tourism maintains a local office in Eilat which is actively involved in promoting tourism. Activities of the Ministry include: licensing of various tourist services, including hotels, restaurants, travel agents, tour guides, shops, etc.; monitoring of tourist service quality; and maintenance of tourist information bureaus and event promotion. The Ministry of Tourism, through its subsidiary companies, is involved in physical infrastructure development that include infrastructure projects such as promenades, marinas and other tourist attractions. 61 6.1.1.4. Ministry of Housing The Ministry of Housing maintains a local office in Eilat. The Ministry is responsible for initiating housing and development projects, such as the North Eilat Master Plan. 6.1.1.5. Ministry of Healtht The Ministry of Health maintains . local office in Eilat. Environmental aspects of this Ministry's responsibilities include monitoring drinking water quality and water quality at bathing beaches. 6.1.1.6. Ministry of Transport - The MOT is charged with regulations and inspection of shipping vessels that visit Israeli shores. The Ministry is also responsible for harmonization of laws under international conventions. The MOT performs its regulatory enforcement, inspection, and facilities management duties through two entities: the Shipping and Ports Authority and the Ports Authority. 6.1.1.6.1. Shipping and Ports Authority The Ministry of Transport, under the auspices of the Shipping and Ports Authority performs continuous fitness inspections of all Israeli tankers, and provides them with operation and safety certificates. In addition the SPA certifies and oversees the safety teams on tankers, in compliance with safety standards. Until recently tankers were inspected according to the IMO inspection standards based on international conventions. In 1992, the Shipping and Ports Authority adopted a procedure requiring all foreign vessels to comply with Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement Concerning Liability for Oil Pollution (TAVALOP) or Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement of Tarner Liability (CRISTAL) safety requirements. Compliance is verified by random inspections. However, because of manpower shortages, actual inspections are conducted on approximately 5% of all foreign tankers sailing along Israel's shores. 6.1.1.6.2. The Ports Authoriti The Ports Authority is charged w th the management and operations of the Port of Eilat. The Ports Authority, whose board of directors and director general are appointed by the government, has responsibility for enforcement of laws relating to movement and moorings of ships, loading, and unloading operations, prevention of marine pollution from ships, and all activities occurring within the port. 6.1.1.7. The Ministry of Finance (Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company) The Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company (EAPC) oil terminal operates under a special concession assured by law, and temporary internal working procedures which define the areas of responsibility of pier owners to include: acceptability of tanker maneuvering and unloading equiprient and procedures, safety of shore installations during unloading operations, and prevention of marine pollution. In addition, the Ministry of the Environment is charged with inspections during the time that tankers are moored and unloaded at the EAPC terminal. 62 6.1.2. The Local Level 6.1.2.1. Municipality of Eilat The municipal council of Eilat consists of 15 elected members. The city is managed by an elected mayor who sits at the head of an administration committee that consists of the deputy mayor, the city administrator, the treasurer, and the personnel administrator. The municipal coordination team is led by the general director of the municipality, and integrates heads of all municipal departments. The municipal spokesperson and the heads of the strategic planning department and of the Regional Environmental Unit participate in meetings of the municipal council. The municipality also supports a number of administrative entities which are relevant to environmental issues. These are: * The Eilat Coast Development Corporation. This corporation is administered by representatives of the Municipality of Eilat, the Ministry of Tourism, and the Israel Lands Authority. It is responsible for tourism development along Eilat's coast. * The Eilat Economic Development Corporation. This corporation is a subsidiary of the municipality which performs planning and project development and management of projects for the city. * The Environmental Protection Committee. The environmental protection committee consists of 15 voting members nominated by the municipal council. In addition, the committee invites members who are recognized experts in environmental disciplines. The committee is chaired by the mayor, and the secretary of the committee is the manager of the Regional Environmental Unit. In the past, the committee met once every month or two and its decisions were subject to the approval of the municipal council. This committee has not met in over two years. 6.1.2.2. Regional Environmental Unit In Israel, the local environmental authorities consist of regional associations for environmental protection, regional environmental units, and local units. The Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit is subordinate to the Municipality of Eilat, since Eilat was the senior partner involved in the formation of this unit. Although the Environmental Unit is not considered as one of the seven municipal departments, it functions as a branch of the municipality, and the head of the Environmental Unit is directly answerable to the city administrator. The budget of the Environmental Unit is approved by the municipal council. Prior to decision by the municipality to close the unit, it employed 5 workers: * The head of the environmental unit who is also in charge of environmental planning and marine biology. * A coordinator in charge of industries, hazardous materials, and business licensing. * A coordinator in charge of wastewater and solid wastes. 63 * A coordinator in charge of education. * A secretary. The Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit acts in an advisory capacity to local policy and decisions makers, participates in the planning and building decision-making process, performs environmental monitoring, supervises preparation of EISs, conducts inspections, assists in enforcement of environmental standards, and promotes environmental education and public awareness. The Environmental Unit is also responsible for environrnental aspects of business permits and oversight of business, factory, and building activities. Members of the Regional Enviromnental Unit in Eilat are authorized to serve as local inspectors, and are empowered to enter public and private business establishments to ensure compliance with national and local bylaws. They are also active in environmental protection campaigr.s such as beach and reef cleanups. The annual budget of the Regional Environmental Unit for the last three years remained around $140,000, even though the annual inflation rate was around 10%. The participation of the Municipality of Eilat in the environmental unit's budget is in the order of 40%, and the Eilot Rtegional Council provides an additional 10%. This year, the participation of the Ministry of the Envirornent has decreased from around 40% to around 20% of the annual budget of the unit. This cutback, occurring in addition to the Municipality's budgetary problems explains the decision of the Mayor of Eilat to close the environmental mnit. 6.1.3. Research Organizations 6.1.3.1. The Interuniversity Institute of Eilat (IUI) The Interuniversity Institute of Eilat operates the Marine Biological Laboratory located on the south shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. The Marine Biological Laboratory was erected in 1968 by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and has operated as an interuniversity institute since 198'. The IUI provides an interdisciplinary umbrella where leading scientists from five Israeli universities (The Hebrew University, Tel Aviv University, Bar Ilan University, E[aifa University, University of Beer Sheva) share facilities and collaborate. The HUA provides education for under-graduate, graduate, and post-doctorate fellows in the various fields of Marine Sciences. It provides 28 annual courses covering fields of ecology, chemical, physical and biological oceanography, ichthyology, population dynamics of invertebrates and vertebrates, mnicrobiology, ecological and pharmacological toxicology and ne robiology. Approximately 1000 students from five of the Israeli universities participate in this curriculum each year. On average, 5 international courses and workshops are held annually by the II, and approximately 300 foreign scientists and students participate in these programs each year. Three symposia have taken place on the ecosystem of the Gulf of Aqaba in relation to the enhanced economic development and the peace process. The fUI provides a base for extensive international activities. Working relations have also been established between the IUI, Egyptian and Jordanian institutions. More than 64 10 joint research cruises on the RIU's research vessel have been conducted in the Gulf of Aqaba and the northern part of the Red Sea. The IUI receives financial support directly from the Council of Higher Education. In addition, research programs are funded by major competitive granting agencies that operate in Israel. These include the Israel Academy of Sciences, the US-Israel Binational Foundation and the German-Israel Foundation. Most recently, the U.S. Agency for International Development approved funding for the IUI as part of an Israeli-Jordanian marine monitoring initiative sponsored under AID's MERC (Middle East Regional Cooperation) program. 6.1.3.1.1. The Red Sea Program The Red Sea Program is a large inter-disciplinary marine research program funded by the German Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology. The main goals of the Red Sea Program are to promote science, cooperation and capacity building in the Gulf of Aqaba/Red Sea region while addressing the needs for development. A marine peace park shared between Israel and Jordan is a project proposed under the auspices of the Red Sea Program. The park boundaries will include resources shared between the nations as an indication of shared environmental concerns. Planning for this park includes joint baseline monitoring and research activities to be used for management purposes. Project components include design and initial implementation of a long term research and monitoring program in the northern Gulf of Aqaba with a focus on park managed areas. The research and monitoring program will focus on physical, chemical, and biological oceanographic parameters and pollution sources important for the maintenance of coral reef ecosystems and sustainable development. This project will be developed in 3 phases over 3 years. The first phase will focus on institutional capacity building, sponsoring collaborative meetings to establish monitoring systems and research, development of regional communications systems etc. The second phase will focus on developing the baseline data and evaluating it for quality and utility. Socio-economic studies will also be undertaken to identify park users and evaluate their need and potential impacts on park resources. A public outreach and education campaign will be initiated in this phase of the program. In the third and final phase, work will be undertaken to evaluate and institutionalize the process, establish mechanisms and methodologies, perform additional outreach and continue ongoing studies. 6.1.3.2. The National Center for Mariculture The National Center for Mariculture (NCM) was established in the early 1970's as a branch of Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research, a goverrunental not-for- profit institute. Over the years, the NCM has developed a technology which is the basis for the present mariculture industry in Israel. NCM serves as a research institute focusing in the general areas of domestication of mariculture candidate species of fish, shellfish, and seaweed, and development of drop- out systems for these species in sea cages and land-based systems. 65 The NCM is located in proximity t: the Israeli-Jordanian border and employs some 75 people. 6.1.4. Non-Govemmental Organizations 6.1.4.1. The Society for the Protection of Nature The Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel (SPNI) is Israel's oldest and largest enviromnental NGO. Its activities focus on nature protection, education and preservation. The SPNI has been ir,strumental in raising public awareness of nature and environmental protection in Israel. The SPNI has approximately 800 full time staff, and an equal number of part-time staff. It operates 26 field schools has 35 local branches, and provides outreach to communities throughout Israel. \Aost of the SPNI's budget comes from its over 50,000 members. Approximately ^ 5 to 18 percent of the SPNI budget is provided by govermment ministries in return for educational activities. Through a broad-based program of education, conservation, research and public action, the SPNI involves over a million people annually (about 20% of Israel's population) in its activities: walking tours, roving camps, lectures and seminars. In recent years, the SPNI has broadened its orientation to include environmental activism. As a public representative on the National Planning and Building Board, the SPNI has been a strong advocate of enviromnental interests. Its activities have been backed up by public protests and legal action, including petitions to the High Court of Justice. Together with Israel's universities and the Ministry of Science, the SPNI operates 13 Information, Research and Development Centers. The Centers provide essential data for developing conservation strategies. The SPNI operates a field school in Eilat, and has been active in lobbying for nature preservation on Israel's Gulf of Aqaba coast. 6.1.4.2. The Israel Union for Environmental Defense. The Israel Union for Environmental Defense (IWED) is a nonprofit grassroots enviromnental organization that promotes environmental protection through litigation and legislative advocacy. The UEI) is not affiliated with other governmental or non- govermmental organizations. Its staff includes attorneys and scientists. The IUED pursues public, legal and scientific initiatives to protect the quality of Israel's air, water and land and to preserve the country's natural resources. It also provides legal and technical services to Israeli citizens facing pollution problems and ongoing support to non-govermnental grassroots environmental organizations. The IUED's stated goals include collection and dissemination of data about the state of the environment in Israel; improvement of the quality of environmental legislation in Israel and encouragement of education iri the area of environmental law; ensuring that the Ministry of the Environment and other government agencies with environmental authority fulfill their statutory mardates and public responsibilities; and creation of a resource center with scientific and technical information regarding environmental problems available to the Israeli public. 66 Environmental issues addressed by the IUED include marine pollution and coastal development. In the Gulf of Aqaba region, IUED has focused on discharges of partially treated sewage from the Municipality of Eilat directly into the Gulf In 1991, the IUED filed formal objections and presented testimony before the interministerial authority that was reviewing a request by the Municipality of Eilat to renew its discharge permit under Israel's Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources Law, 1988. The interministerial committee accepted IUED's call for a halt to the discharges because of their potential damage to the Gulf In 1992, the IUED publicized the municipality's refusal to comply with the decision, and pressured the Attorney General of Israel to file a criminal action against the Municipality and the Mayor of Eilat (Adghaman, 1994) 6.1.4.3. Ecopeace Ecopeace was established in 1994 in the wake of the peace accords. Ecopeace constitutes a consortium of Egyptian, Israeli, Jordanian and Palestinian environmental NGOs working toward peace and sustainable development of the region. Ecopeace has focused on the protection of the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba and other border areas of mutual concern. 6.1.4.4. Eilat Hotel Owner's Association The Eilat Hotel Owner's Association represents hotel owners and operators. Most of its activities are in the realm of tourism promotion and economic issues relevant to the hotel and tourist trade. The association has promoted environmental goals by encouraging hotel guests to reduce laundry needs by re-using towels during their stay, and installation of sensors to reduce electricity consumption when rooms are unoccupied. 6.1.4.5. The Israeli Diving Federation The Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF) was established in 1966, and 80,000 divers have been certified in TIDF courses since. In each of the last three years (1994-1996) over 10,000 divers have been certified annually (one and two star divers), and an additional 500 or so have graduated three star or instructor certification courses. The TIDF is the only wholly-Israeli organization that certifies divers and centers in Israel. The Israeli Sport Diving Law (1979) and its bylaws established legal requirements and rules for divers, diving services, centers, and equipment. 6.1.4.6. Sea and Desert Association The Sea and Desert Association was active in Eilat in the past. Its goals were to protect the marine environment. The chairman and the secretary of this association remain, although the association itself is no longer active. 6.1.4.7. "Bay-Watch" A regional forum that was initiated in 1996 in order to promote the conservation of the Eilat coral reef Members of the forum include: the SPNI (from the Eilat field-school); the NRA (Eilat district); the Eilat Regional Environmental Unit; the Marine Pollution 67 Control Unit; the Ministry of the Environment; the Israel Diving Federation - Eilat division; the NCM; the IUT; the International Bird Watching Center; Dolphin Reef, the Underwater Observatory; the Arava Research Institute and the local Eilat weekly magazine "Erev-Erev". The foram was established in order to coordinate informal efforts to save the natural assets of the Gulf and to promote public awareness activities. 6.2. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS 6.2.1. National Level Instruments - Laws and Regulations National level instruments for protection of the environment consist of a number of laws and regulations that are ac6ministered wholly or partly by the Ministry of the Environment. The legal instruments that are pertinent to the protection of the Gulf of Aqaba are listed in Table 20 and are summarized below. 6.2.1.1. Planning and Building Law The Planning and building law of 1965 regulates building and land-use management in Israel, and established a framework for environmental planning. Under this law, national, regional, and local bodies were established to develop and implement land use plans at the different levels. The National Board enacts national master plans; six district commissions (including one for the south and Eilat) enact district master plans; and local planning commissions (including the commission for Eilat/Eilot) prepare local master plans and detailed plans tc address specific projects. Masterplans are discussed in further detail in Section 6.2.2.1 6.2.1.2. Environmental Impact Statement The Planning and Building Regulations, 1982, establish Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) requirements. The regulations specify four kinds of projects for which an EIS is mandatory: power stations, airports, ports and hazardous disposal sites. The regulations also urge the preparation of an EIS for landing strips, marinas, national water supply arteries, dams and reservoirs, wastewater treatment plants, quarries, waste disposal sites and industrial plants situated outside designated industrial zones - if the planning authority considers that significant environmental impacts may occur beyond the immediate vicinity of the project. In practice, regional planning authorities regard this recommendation as mandating an EIS since all such projects have significant impact beyond the immediate vicinity. In addition, any planning authority may require an EIS on any plan expected to have environmental implications and every ministerial representative may require an EIS for any plan under discussion. Since the MOE is represented on the national and district planning authorities, it can exercise its right to require an EIS if the authorities themselves do not do so. The regulations call for EISs to be prepared in accordance with guidelines, formally issued by the planning authority but prepared by the MOE. 68 The developer is responsible for preparing the EIS in accordance with the guidelines prepared by the MOE. While the regulations do not specify how an EIS should be reviewed, the MOE has examined all EISs since 1987. Experts at the MOE evaluate each EIS and issue an opinion which includes a summary of the main findings, the Ministry's conclusions about the assessment and a list of recommendations for the planning authority. In most cases, the planning authority incorporates the recommendations in its decision concerning the plan. 69 Table 20. Israeli environmental laws and regulations applicable to the Gulf of Aqaba. Environmental Impact Legal Instrument Category Planning and Environmental Planning and Building Law- 1965 Impact Assessment Planning and Building Law (Environmental impact statements) - 1982 General Business Licensing Law - 1968 Control of Nuisance law - 1961 Air Quality Abatement of Nuisances regulations(air quality) of 1972 Abatement of Nuisances regulations ( particulate matter releases to air) - 1972 updated 1994 Water Quality Water Law of 1959 The Local Authorities Law (sewage) of 1962 The Model Bylaw for Local Authorities (the discharge of industrial wastes into the sewer system) of 1981 The Public health regulations (criteria for wastewater) of 1992 Marine Pollution Control Ordinance for prevention of seawater pollution by oil (new version) of 1980 Regulations for the prevention of seawater pollution by oil (marine environment protection fee) of 1983 Reaulation for the prevention of seawater pollution bv oil ( implementation of the convention) - 1987 Regulations of oil spillage to seawaters (fines and cleanup expenses) - 1977 Order for oil spills to seawater (fines) - 1972 Prevention of Sea Pollution (Dumping of Waste) Law of 1983 The Prevention of sea pollution (dumping of waste) regulation of 1984 The Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources Law of 1988 The regulation for the prevention of marine pollution from land-based sources - 1990 Ports Ordinance (New Version) of 1971 Ports Ordinance (loading and unloading of oils) - 1975. Solid Waste Maintenance of Cleanliness law - 1984 Hazardous Substances Business licensing regulations (fuel storage) - 1976 Business licensing regulations (removal and disposal of hazardous substances) - 1993 Business licensing regulations (hazardous facilities) - 1993 The Hazardous Substances Law - 1993 Nature Preservation Law of National Parks, Nature Reserves, Memorial Sites, and National Sites - 1992 The wild animals protection law - 1955 National parks and nature reserves regulations (interdiction of damages to protected natural resources and their protection - 1968 Nature reserves regulations (order and behavior) - 1979 Regulations for national parks, nature reserves, and national sites (prevention of damages to protected natural resources) - 1983 Declaration for national parks and nature reserves (protected natural resources) - 1971 Declaration for national parks and nature reserves (protected natural resources) - 1979. 70 Planning agencies view the EIS as a credible reliable process that helps them analyze and resolve environmental conflicts. Developers tend to favor the process because it helps them represent an environmentally sound plan to the aware public, and the public uses it as a basic document upon which to base objections. Moreover, environmental NGOs have begun to use EIS requirements as a tool in their struggle against environmentally problematic projects. The EIS has proved to be a highly effective tool for a limited number of complex projects in which severe environmental impacts are anticipated. The EIS is not an appropriate tool for checking multiple small plans whose cumulative environmental impact may be significant. The hotel industry in Eilat serves as an example in point. In such cases, the representatives of the MOE evaluate the cumulative effects and make recommendations to the planning authorities. While several local planning authorities do require non-statutory EISs when they suspect that an industrial proposal may adversely impact the environment, the failure of national regulations to require EISs for building permits for industrial plants should be remedied. In the meantime, environmental assessment of specific industries is carried out within the framework of the Licensing of Businesses Law which allows for the incorporation of environmental conditions into business licenses. Efforts are currently being focused on introducing environmental requirements in the initial stages of planning. The master plans are a notable example where environmental consultants are included in the preparation at the outset. Eight EISs have been submitted to date for projects in the Eilat area, including EISs for specific local projects: a quarry in Nahal Shlomo (1.3.87), aluminum recycling in Timna (1.6.89), Birdwatching Park (29.3.93), gas turbines (11.1.94), southern coastal road (5.4.95), solid waste disposal site in Nimra (1.11.95), polo and golf complexes (7.1.96), and the "Orbit" factory (29.10.96). No evaluation of the cumulative environmental impact of these or other projects (e.g., tourism development projects) has ever been conducted. 6.2.1.3. General laws The Business Licensing Law of 1968 is used to ensure compliance of designated businesses with environmental standards. Under the provisions of this law, individual businesses applying for a new business license or renewing an existing license can be required to control, treat, or otherwise manage solid and liquid wastes, air emissions and hazardous materials. Businesses can also be required to install reporting, monitoring, and control systems as required by the local licensing authority. The Control of Nuisances Law of 1961 is Israel's first legislative instrument for controlling air, odor, and noise pollution from stationary and mobile sources. This law is used by the MOE to address specific polluters through personal decrees. 6.2.1.4. Air quality The Abatement of nuisances regulations (air quality) of 1972 and Abatement of nuisances regulations (particulate matter releases to air) - 1972 updated 1994 71 establish ambient air quality standards, and define permissible emission rates of particulate matter from industrial ifacilities. 6.2.1.5. Water quality and wastewater The Water Law of 1959 establishes the basic framework for control and protection of Israel's water resources. This law authorizes the Minister of the Environment to promulgate regulations to prevent the pollution of freshwater resources. The Water law also contains regulations to ptevent water pollution, describes conditions necessary for approval of wastewater treatment operations and assigns to the polluter responsibility for taking remedial measures. The Local Authorities Law (Sewage) of 1962 defines the functions and powers of local authorities to install and operate municipal sewer systems. This law also establishes fines and penalties for unlicensed or improper discharge to the sewer system. The Model Bylaw For Local Authorities (the discharge of industrial wastewater into the sewer system) of 1981 serves as a recommendation to local authorities, and defines the responsibility of waste-water generators for adequate treatment and disposal to avoid health and environmental impacts, or contamination of water sources. This bylaw also defines acceptable indu strial discharges to the municipal sewer systems. The Public health regulations (criteria for wastewater) of 1992 specify the level of treatment required for wastewater prior to discharge, and include limitations on the levels of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids in treated wastewater discharges. 6.2.1.6. Marine pollution The Ordinance for prevention (of seawater pollution by oil (new version) of 1980 is applicable to all vessels inside Israel's territorial waters, and to vessels outside of Israel's territorial waters if there .s a threat that they will pollute Israel's waters. This ordinance establishes a record-keeping system for all oil transfer operations, appoints and empowers vessel inspectors and establishes measures to be taken by vessel owners in case of oil discharge to the sea. It also establishes a fund for the prevention of seawater pollution, imposes a riarine environment protection fee on owners and operators of vessels and land-based installations, and incorporates a system of fines for noncompliance and discharges. This ordinance also confers powers to port managers to institute proceedings against vessel or installation owners in cases of non- compliance or spills. 72 Regulations for the prevention of seawater pollution by oil (marine environment protection fee) of 1983, impose fees on owners of vessels and terminals to be paid into the fund for prevention of seawater pollution. Fines and cleanup expenses in cases of illegal discharges and accidents are collected as defined under the Regulations for oil spillage to seawaters (fines and cleanup expenses) - 1977, and the Ordinance for oil spills to seawater (fines) - 1972. Regulation for the prevention of seawater pollution by oil (execution of the convention) - 1987. This regulation addresses requirements of Annex 1 of MARPOL. It includes rules and regulations for the prevention of seawater pollution by oil through installation of oil collection equipment in ports; and record-keeping, reporting, and inspection requirements. Prevention of Sea Pollution (Dumping of Waste) Law of 1983 prohibits disposal of wastes to the sea. The Prevention of sea pollution (dumping of waste) regulation of 1984 establishes a permit system for legal disposal of wastes to the sea. This regulation lists materials that are allowed and materials that are prohibited for dumping. Permit requirements defined in this regulation include identification of waste packaging, location, timing, and manner of dumping; route to dump site; and loading and transport precautions. Reporting and monitoring requirements are also specified. The Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources Law of 1988 prohibits unpermitted disposal of wastes or sewage to the sea. Permits are issued by a committee consisting of representatives from various government ministries. This law also defines the powers of inspectors empowered by the Ministry of the Environment, and establishes penalties for contravention of the provisions of the law, The Regulation for the prevention of marine pollution from land-based sources - 1990 defines the terms under which waste and sewage disposal permits may be granted. This regulation also identifies materials that may not be discharged of into the sea. Ports Ordinance (New Version) of 1971 prescribes the proper operation of a port, including powers and functions of port officers, licensing requirements, and delivery and handling of goods. Ports Ordinance (loading and unloading of oils) - 1975 defines notification and record-keeping requirements of all tanker vessels entering Israel's territorial waters and ports. This ordinance also specifies the activities that are to be carried out at port terminal facilities regarding loading and unloading of oils, ballast waters, and wastes. The ordinance requires removal of ballast waters to a terminal holding/treatment installation, and prohibits dumping of oil-containing materials to the sea. 6.2.1.7. Solid waste The Maintenance of Cleanliness Law of 1984 prohibits disposal of waste into the public domain, establishes a system of penalties and fines, and creates a cleanliness fund whose purpose is to fund educational activities, inspections and enforcement of the cleanliness laws. 73 6.2.1.8. Hazardous substances The Hazardous Substances Law of 1993 provides the MOE with the authority for comprehensive management of hazardous substances, including the manufacture, import, export, packaging, commerce, issue, transfer, storage and use of hazardous substances. The Business licensing regulations (disposal of hazardous substances) - 1993 identify a nationwide central hazardous waste disposal site where all hazardous wastes must be disposed of . This regulation also defines documentation requirements for tracking disposal of hazardous materials from the source to the disposal site. Licensing, maintenance, and housekeeping requirement for facilities that are deemed hazardous by virtue of manufacture or storage of toxic, flammable, or explosive substances are addressed in the EBusiness licensing regulations (hazardous facilities) of 1993 and the Business licensing regulations (fuel storage) - 1976. The measures listed in these regulations are mcant to prevent accidents and releases of materials to the environment. 6.2.1.9. Nature preservation The National Parks And Nature Reserves Laws of 1963, updated in 1992 (National Parks, Nature Reserves, Memorial Sites and National Sites Law of 1992) provides the legal structure for the protection of natural habitats, natural assets, wildlife, and sites of scientific arid educational interest. This law also established two authorities: the National Reserves Authority (NRA) and the National Parks Authority. Under this law, sites designated for protection are declared by the Minister of the Interior following consultation with other ministries. In Eilat, The Coral Reserve, and the Eilat Mountains are designatcd as nature reserves. The Wild Animals Protection Law of 1955 serves to further protect wildlife within and outside of nature reserves. T i's law lists animals to be protected and authorizes the Minister of Agriculture to appoint inspectors to ensure compliance. Nature reserves regulations (order and behavior) - 1979 prohibit activities and actions that can result in damage to plants and wildlife within the boundaries of nature reserves. These regulations are applicable to all nature reserves, including the Coral reef reserve in Eilat. Damage is described in this regulation to include taking plants or wildlife; or using traps, poisons, explosives or other means that can result in damage to plants or animals. In addition, these regulations prohibit direct or indirect pollution of seawater within the boundaries of reserves. National parks and nature r eserves regulations (interdiction of damages to protected natural resources arid their protection) - 1968 identifies the area of the proposed coral reef reserve as starting 400 meters south of Nahal Shlomo in the north to the Egyptian-Israeli border in the south; and from the high tide line to the border of Israel's territorial waters. These regulations also prohibit damage to corals, invertebrates, and fish through the interdiction of introducing foreign objects, sailing vessels, line fishing, sale of protucted species and other activities that would result in damage to the reserve. 74 Regulations for national parks, nature reserves, and national sites (prevention of damages to protected natural resources) - 1983 contain prohibitions to the taking or keeping of protected species as defined in the Declarations for national parks and nature reserves (protected natural resources of 1971 and 1979). These declarations identify all invertebrates and fish in Eilat's coral reef reserve as protected species. 6.2.2. Masterplans National level instruments for environmental protection in the Gulf of Aqaba include national master plans and environmental impact assessment requirements for certain categories of development projects. These instruments are no less important than the environmental legislation described above in providing management tools for environmental protection. 6.2.2.1. National Masterplans National Masterplans (NMP) establish guidelines for comprehensive management of land use and other resources. These masterplans ar&ef developed under the auspices of the National Planning and Building Board of the Ministry of the Interior. NMPs are of great importance with regard to protection of the Gulf of Aqaba environment. Under Israel's land allocation system, development rights belong to the state, and all lands along the shoreline and the seabed are publicly managed. Environmental impact assessments are required for certain land-use planning decisions, and all regional and local development plans must comply with the existing NMPs for a particular area. National Masterplans exist for a number of development categories that can potentially impact the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba. These are listed in Table 21, and are described below. Table 21. National Masterplans applicable to Eilat and the Gulf of Aqaba. National Master Plan Status No. 3 Roads Approved No. 8 National Parks and Nature Approved Reserves No. 12 Tourism Approved No. 13 Eilat Bay Shoreline Pending Approval No. 14 Mines and Quarries Pending Approval No. 15 Airports Pending Approval No. 16. Solid Waste Disposal Approved No. 22 Forests Approved No. 23 Railways Approved No. 31. Immigrant Absorption Approved 75 6.2.2.1.1. National Master Plan 3 NMP No. 3 for Roads defines the corridor for the Eilat by-pass road (Road No. 90) parallel to the Eilat-Ashkelon pi eline from the Arava road in the north to the Ein Netafim border crossing with Egypt. 6.2.2.1.2. National Master Plan 8 NMP No. 8 for National Parks an I Nature Reserves defines the Eilat Mountains, Eilat Coral Reef Reserve, and Shoret Heights as nature reserves. Shoret heights are a central and dominant element in the north of Eilat. Conservation of their unique views will determine future development of t1he northern areas of Eilat. 6.2.2.1.3. National Master Plan 12 NMP No. 12 for Tourism defines tourism-related development. The major points of this masterplan that relate to Eilat and the Gulf of Aqaba shoreline include: * Addition of 9600 hotel rooms and tourism development in the existing tourism area between the airport and the border with Jordan; concentration of hotels on the north shore and eastern lagoon; and prevention of construction of additional hotels southwards along the sensitive shoreline. * Creation of an interaction between tourists and residents through development of a "holiday" suburb, i.e. mixed use area of hotels, tourist attractions, timeshare apartments, and other housing arrangements. * Creating direct contact betw.,en city and tourism area through removal of the airport from its present location, use of joint airport facilities with Jordan, and exploitation of the area of the: present airport for continued development of hotels and tourist services. * Expansion of Eilat as a foreign tourist destination and development of direct connections to tourist sites in .ordan. 6.2.2.1.4. National Master P'lan 13 NMP No. 13 for Eilat Gulf Shore(under preparation) designates and regulates uses of the sea and land areas within the I'lan boundaries. The plan identifies the following cbjectives: * Developing the City of Eilat iri relation to the sea. * Increasing the area of bathing beaches. * Regulating the conflicts between land uses requiring access to the shore, and concentrating all port activities. * Ensuring open areas for planning beyond the plan's target year. 76 6.2.2.1.5. National Master Plan 14 NMP No. 14 for mines and quarries (proposed) designates the following areas for gravel quarries: Nahal Roded from its source in the Eilat mountains to the Arava road; and the area surrounding the Shoret heights from the west, south, and east. In addition, NVP No. 14 designates three sites for building stone quarries: south of Ramat Yotam, north of Ramat Yotam, and around Har Horam and Har Hoash. 6.2.2.1.6. National Master Plan 15. NMP No. 15 for airports designates the existing airport in Ein Evrona as an international airport that is meant to replace the airport in Eilat. The airport plan was approved at the regional level in 1991. 6.2.2.1.7. National Master Plan 16 NMP No. 16 for solid waste disposal designates the site at Ramat Yotam as the local solid waste disposal facility for Eilat. 6.2.2.1.8. National Master Plan 22 NMP No. 22 for forests designates a proposed Jewish National Fund forest in the north of Eilat. This forest will have an area of 1,201 dunams. In addition, a forest is designated in the building and development plan for the Nahal Roded neighborhood. (see Map 2) 6.2.2.1.9. National Master Plan 23 NTP No. 23 for railroads includes railroad rights of ways which run parallel to the Arava road and cross the city through its center, en route to the Eilat cargo port. 6.2.2.1.10. National Master Plan 31 NMP No. 31 for immigrant absorption includes elements of construction and development. In Eilat, NMP 31 adopted population data presented in the Eilat 2000 Master Plan, and projects long-term population growth reaching 60,000 to 80,000. 6.2.2.2. Regional Masterplan 4, Variance No. 14 RMP No 4, variance No. 14 is in process of approval. This RMP was prepared in 1994, and defines the following land uses in Eilat: * North of Shoret Heights- a national industrial zone. * South of Shoret Heights, - urban area. * Nahal Roded and surrounding hills - quarries. * Road 90 right of way - parallel to the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline right of way, as a substitute for the by-pass road authorized in NMP 3. * The railroad right of way is designated as two paths: parallel to the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline, and parallel to the Arava road. 77 6.2.2.3. Local Masterplan for Eilat Local masterplan No 01/b/02/2 is the approved masterplan for Eilat. This masterplan was prepared between 1975 and 1980. This masterplan defines the planned areas for a near-term population of 50,000 people, and a long-term population of 120,000. Although this plan defines the northern part of Eilat as a non-developed area, it also defines a "northern option" which includes urban development in proximity to Nahal Roded. 6.2.2.4. Other plans 6.2.2.4.1. Programmatic plan for development of the tourism industry - Eilat This plan was prepared by the Ministry of Tourism in 1994. Main points of this programmatic plan include: * Establishment of an authority in charge of Eilat development. * Decision on the subject of the airport and hotel development. The following points were emphasized within the framework of other activities described in the plan: * Focusing marketing efforts. * Moving of the ports. * Completion of tourism facilities. * Reorganization of the development plan. * Urban development. * Development policy. * Regional development. * Transportation systems. * Cooperation with neighboring countries. * Limiting activities in sensitive areas. * Addressing risks of marine pollution 6.2.2.4.2. Eilat scenic plan This plan was prepared in 1988 to address the need to improve the scenery of the city of Eilat, and to transform it into a unique coastal city. One of the specific points addressed in this plan is the need to improve the scenery at the northern entrance to the city. The area south of Nahal Roded was defined as a scenic reserve area which is to include green spaces such as sports fields, a golf course (see Section 4.4), recreational activities, and a desert park. 78 6. 2. 2. 4.3. Alternatives to the housing plan for Eilat The goal of the housing masterplan that was prepared in 1994 was to identify directions of future development for Eilat. Under the rapid growth scenario, the city is projected to have a population of 110,000 by the year 2020. The masterplan identifies areas in the north of the city to be dedicated to housing development, and to receive an additional population of approximately 73,000 inhabitants out of a potential 95,000 inhabitants. Based on this masterplan, an alternative was prepared for building 5,000 housing units in the Nahal Roded neighborhood. 6.2.24.4. Eilat-Eilot development plan This major plan was prepared, directed, and financed by the Israel Lands Authority. The development plan includes physical planning and economic evaluation for the Eilat-Eilot region. The goal of the plan includes integrated regional planning for the area and specific development projects. 6.2.2.4.5. Eilat and Southern Arava - conservation and development plan This plan was prepared by the Nature Reserves Authority , the Society for Nature Protection in Israel, and the Ministry of the Environment. Its goal is to instill awareness of environmental planning in the detailed development planning of the area by evaluating the sensitivity of the Eilat area. The plan evaluates existing natural and scenic resources, and defines development directions in order to conserve these resources. Based on this plan, the area north of Shoret Heights is defined as an area for conservation of natural resources and scenery, while the area south of Shoret Heights is planned for use as open areas mixed with tourism use. 6.2.3. Relevant International Conventions The Israeli legal system recognizes international customs and adopts them as part of Israeli law if the international norm does not conflict with a law enacted by the Knesset (ELI, 1993). International conventions, on the other hand, must be incorporated through a process of legislation to become part of the law that applies in Israel. Israel has ratified a number of international treaties and conventions that relate to the protection of the marine environment (Table 22). The conventions summarized below are particularly relevant to protecting the Gulf of Aqaba environment. 6.2.3.1. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, and the Protocol of 1978 Relating to International Convention of the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) MARPOL serves as the international foundation for prevention of ship-generated pollution. It applies to all maritime vessels except warships and other state ships not involved in commerce. Because of its oceanographic and ecological characteristics, the Red sea is designated as a special area in several provisions of MARPOL. Special area designation entails prohibitions or restrictions of certain discharges, requirements for tankers to be equipped with specialized oil separating equipment, and provision for building and operating of adequate shore facilities. 79 Israel is a party to Annex 1 and 2 of MARPOL. Annex 1 prohibits discharge of oil to the Red Sea from tankers greater than 400 tons, and severely restricts oil discharges from smaller vessels. Annex 2 prohibits and regulates discharges of noxious liquids into the sea and contains pollution control provisions and equipment requirements for ships and facilities. Under Annex 2, noxious substances are categorized, with each category requiring different protective and preventive measures. Annexes 3 to 5 of MARPOL address packaging of harmful substances, sewage from ships, and pollution by garbage. Table 22. International Treaties and Conventions in the Marine Environment Ratified by Israel. Convention or Treaty Year of Responsible Implementation Israeli Government Organization MARPOL, Annex 1 and 2. 1983 MOT, MOE Convention for the Protection of the 1978 MOT Mediterranean Sea against Pollution and related protocols (Barcelona) 1976 Convention for Safety of Life in the Sea, 1974 1980 MOT (SOLAS), Convention for Regulations for Pretention of 1977 MOT Collision at Sea, 1972 Convention on 1978 Standards of T raining 1984 MOT Certification and Watchkeeping, 1984 1 _ Note: MOE - Ministry of the Environment, MOT - Ministry of Transport 6.2.3.2. The Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution (Barcelona Convention) The Convention for the protectior. of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution provides a legal framework for the protection of the Mediterranean. Israel enacted national legislation for implementing this convention and its four protocols. The legislative schemes are applicable to all of Israel's coasts, including the Gulf of Aqaba (ELI, 1993). The protocols of the convention consist of: * Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft - implemented by the Pollution of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes Law, 1983. * Protocol Concerning Cooperation In Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea By Oil And Other HarmfuLl Substances In Cases Of Emergency - Implemented by the Israel Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil Ordinance (New Version) 1980. * Protocol for the protection of the Mediterranean sea against pollution from land- based sources - implemented by the Prevention of Land-Based Sources Law, 1988. * Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Special Protected Areas - implemented through Israel's nature reserves system, including the Coral Reef Nature Reserve in Eilat. 80 6.2.3.3. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS). The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea and its protocols address maritime safety issues, including packaging, labeling and stowage of hazardous materials. The convention aims at reducing pollution risks. This convention is administered by the Ministry of Transportation. 6.2.4. Intemational Cooperation 6.2.4.1. Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil Spill Contingency Plan The Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil Spill Contingency Project was launched in 1993 within the framework of the Middle East Peace Process, and was designed to protect the environment of the upper Gulf of Aqaba from the effects of marine oil pollution. This project established individual oil spill combat centers in Nuweiba, Eilat and Aqaba, and a regional oil spill contingency network of communication and cooperation aimed at joint utilization of the resources of the individual centers in the event of larger spills. The project receives the active support of the Commission of the European Union through provision of a project secretariat, oil pollution combat equipment for Egypt, and regional training and contingency planning. Equipment for Jordan is donated by the Government of Japan. Israel provides its own equipment and facilities. The national centers are designed to combat spills of up to 200 cubic meters in magnitude. The combat strategy is based on the use of boats and vehicles along the shore. Initial response to an oil spill would be mechanical cleanup at sea and on beaches followed by collection of the oily waste for recycling or disposal. Equipment of the centers is based on a risk assessment which evaluated the probability and consequence of oil spills in the upper Gulf of Aqaba. Equipment requirements have also been optimized in view of volumes and handling characteristics at the various centers. Future development of the spill contingency plans including adjustment of equipment inventory and combat strategies will be based on monitoring of ship traffic and cargo handling characteristics. In Eilat, the existing marine pollution control station houses the oil spill combat equipment and organization. The equipment includes booms, skimmers, tanks, vessels, and communication equipment. The Oil Spill Contingency Plan includes descriptions of the response organization, communication and alert procedures, spill combat techniques and duties, equipment and logistics, and preparedness plans that cover preparedness and training. The plan also includes informnation on spill scenarios and combat strategies. 6.2.4.2. Jordan Rift Valley Masterplan With the establishment of peace between Jordan and Israel, both countries recognized the opportunity for development of their shared border zone, the Rift Valley. A Trilateral Economic Committee was formed, chaired by the United States, with membership of the Governments of Jordan and Israel. With the assistance of the 81 World Bank, a five-stage prog,ram to develop the JRV was formulated. The Masterplan for the Development of the JRV is the first stage in this program. The Harza JRV Group was engaged as a consultant to carry out the Stage 1 Jordan Rift Valley Integrated Development Study. This study commenced in October, 1995. The Master Plan is considered to perform five key functions: * Provide strategic guidance tc' statutory planning authorities as to the future detailed planning of the JRV and to direct growth to the most suitable areas. * Outline a framework for the irovision and integration of infrastructure in the study area. * Locate and integrate development projects in a manner that would minimize environmental impacts and development costs. * Allow the evaluation of development projects within a common conceptual framework. * Inform private investors, donors, and governments as to the development needs and investment opportunities that will occur in the JRV in 2020. The participants of the JRV joint steering committee agreed that the focus of the Master Plan would be primarily on the Jordan side of the Rift Valley. From an environmental perspective, the main goal of the JRV Master Plan is "the protection and preservation of the physical, biological, and human resources in such a way as to promote sustainable development." The Master Plan will promote that goal throughout reduction of environrnental degradation, in part, by ensuring that any new development is environmentally sound and sustainable. 82 7. CZM AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Israel currently does not have an approved CZM plan for the Gulf of Aqaba. Approval of National Master Plan No. 13 for the Gulf of Aqaba shoreline (NMP 13) will introduce a process similar to that of integrated coastal zone management of the whole Gulf shoreline (see Section 6.2.2.1.4) The National Planning and Building Board defined the planning boundaries of NMP 13 and the need for coordination with associated national master plans, regional master plans and local plans (see Section 6.2.2.1). The National Planning and Building Board is headed by the Director of the Ministry of the Interior and includes representatives of all the major organizations involved in planning and building in Israel, including: governmental ministries, local authorities, the army, research organizations, environmental organizations, and representatives of the public. NMP 13 will define the future land uses within the master plan boundaries, and include regulations for nature conservation (see Section 6.2.2.1.4). The Ministry of the Interior Planning Board and the Municipality of Eilat are responsible for editing NMP 13 while a steering committee is oversees the preparation of the plan. The steering committee is headed by the Southern District planner of the Ministry of the Interior and includes representatives of the Ministries of Transport, Defense, Environment and Tourism; the Municipality of Eilat, the Israel Lands Authority, the Nature Reserves Authority, the Ports and Railways Authority, the Settlement Department of the Jewish Agency and the Society for Protection of Nature in Israel. The Master Plan preparation team includes professionals from the following disciplines: regional and environmental planning, economics, law and marine engineering. In order to obtain a broad-based consensus regarding the future of the Gulf of Aqaba shoreline, the planning team consulted with a large number of public and private bodies that are not members of the steering committee, but which have a direct interest in the area in question. This process is similar to the typical ICZM preparation process, and its greatest advantage is that it will become an integral part of development plans, both at the national and local level. In contrast to the classic ICZM planning process, the needs and views of the public are expressed through representatives rather than directly. Although National Master Plan for Tourism (NMP 12) and the Regional Master Plan (RMP 4/14) that is in preparation both address coastal zone issues, they are limited to a scale 1:100,000 which does not permit development of clear specific guidelines. This is also the case with the Eilat-Eilot development plan which has a scale of 1:50,000 and does not have any statutory standing. In reality, coastal zone management is currently performed by the various stakeholders located along the coast. However, each stakeholder has a narrow outlook which is colored by its specific interests and mandates. For example: * Tourism areas, including the tourist areas on the north shore and the coral reef tourist area along the south beach, are managed by the "Eilat Coast Development Corporation" which is a subsidiary of the Municipality of Eilat (see 6.1.2.1.). 83 * The naval port is under the cortrol of the Ministry of Defense. * The cargo port and the Dekel beach are located in a declared port zone, and are managed by the Ports Authority. * The oil port is owned by the Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company based on ownership rights defined by law in 1968, and is under the control of the Ministry of Finance. * The Coral Reef Reserve is managed by the Nature Reserves Authority. With the exception of the entities associated with the Naval facility and the Coral Reef Reserve, all others have clear economic interests. Furthermore, different and sometimes conflicting mandates and responsibilities of the parties involved make it difficult to implement integrated and comprehensive planning and coastal zone management. The means adopted to achieve CZMd goals are described in the subsections below. 7.1. ZONATION SCHEMES An environmental evaluation of a development plan for the south shore area of Eilat was performed in 1991. The south shore area was defined as the area between the north west corner of the Gulf and the Israeli border with Egypt. This plan developed a zoning scheme which consisted of three categories of protection for the south shore area (Zohar, 1991): C Complete protection zone. Parts of the shoreline zoned in this category include endangered coral reefs that are not protected by nature reserves. Development is forbidden within this zone, and access is limited to researchers only. The shore between the Interuniversity Irstitute and the border with Egypt, and the shore between the two fuel port piers (considered to be the richest area in terms of marine life on the Israeli shore) are zoned under this category. The major accomplishment of this zoning plan is the prohibition of construction of any kind of tourist facility along the southern part of the south shore. * Controlled protection zone. The shoreline designated under this category includes the Coral Reef Reserve (which is otherwise also protected) and two artificial reefs: north of the naval port facility, and north of the Coral Beach. These artificial reefs have developed on submerged scrap vehicles. Areas zoned under this category contain natural and artificial reefs. The number of visitors to these areas will be controlled in a marmer described in sections below. * Development zone. The shoreline designated under this category is not characterized by any remarkable marine or terrestrial natural resources. This lack may have occurred because coirals or other biota never developed on these parts of the shore due to specific physical or oceanographic conditions (e.g., along the north shore beach and the outlet of Nahal Shlomo there is an accumulation of sand that does not permit settling of coral building organisms) or because they were destroyed by human activity (e.g., the area around the cargo port and the naval port). 84 7.2. LEGAL SCHEMES The legal framework associated with nature protection is described in Section 6.2.1.9. Because of the unique natural resources that are located in the Eilat area, nature reserves include around 36% of the land area in the region. From the legal standpoint, these reserves fall under three categories: * Declared nature reserves. The status of these reserves is proclaimed by law and they include (Map 2) the Eilat Mountain Reserves and a 150-meter-wide belt on the terrestrial part of the Coral Reef Reserve. This belt extends from the waterline to Road No. 90. * Nature reserves under declaration process. This category includes a 2 km marine zone between the Interuniversity Institute and the border with Egypt (Map 2). * Proposed nature reserve. Paradoxically, the areas that are considered to be problematic because they are threatened by future development pressures have been proposed as nature reserves, and their final status is pending. These include (Map 2): * An eastward extension of the Eilat Mountains. - Shahmon mountain. - Shoret heights. * The marine zone that extends from a point 400 meters south of the outlet of Nahal Shlomo to the Gulf and the border with Egypt, and between the high-tide mark and the Israeli territorial waters. This zone has a separate legal status (See Section 6.2.1.9). 7.3. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES The management of common marine and coastal zone resources falls under the responsibility of four main bodies that have enforcement authority for specific laws (Chapter 6): The Nature Reserves Authority, the Marine Pollution Control Unit, and the Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit, and the Israeli Diving Federation. 7.3.1. The Nature Reserves Authority. The NRA is responsible for management of declared nature reserves, but in reality it also enforces laws on reserves in process of declaration and on proposed reserves. The Coral Reef Reserve is the reserve that presents the greatest number of problems because it is under constant threat. The Eilat Mountain Reserve contains three main sites that are threatened by an overabundance of visitors: Nahal Shlomo, the Red Canyon, and Nahal Gishron. The NRA utilizes direct and indirect management strategies to control visitors to the nature reserves: 85 7.3.1.1. Direct Management Strategies Direct management strategies are: 7.3.1.1.1. Enforcement. NRA inspectors are charged with enforcement of laws applicable to the nature reserves and protection of natural resources'. Enforcement on shore and in the sea is performed primarily by three inspectors. Law enforcement directed at divers is minor. The number enforcement action files opened against law-breakers from 1990 to 1995 is listed in Table 23. Only 11.3% of these actions were annulled. Inspectors are responsible for protection of natural marine resources through enforcement of the following interdictions: * sailing and anchoring within thc nature reserve; * marine sports activities within the nature reserve boundaries; * fishing with nets or lines; * disposal of trash; * removal of corals and beach rocks; * spreading sand along the shore; * watering of plants along the shore; * drainage of water from showers to the sea; * direction of lights towards the sea, etc. Table 23. Enforcement of nature assets regulations along the Red Sea coast of Eilat, 1990-1995. Year Collection Fishingi Boating Disorderly Illegal Total No. of Coral Behavior Entry Files 1990 29 42 3 9 5 88 1991 37 34 3 5 21 100 1992 52 27 34 6 17 136 1993 4 48 21 8 41 162 1994 114 73 45 12 114 358 1995 90 35 23 10 47 205 Total 366 259 129 50 245 1047 Toa of 34.7 24.7 12.3 5.9 23.4 100 Total Source: NRA Enforcement Departrient 86 7.3.1.1.2. Limits on use and controlled access Access to the coral reefs in the Coral Reef Reserve is restricted through use of bridges over the reefs in order to prevent visitors from stepping on coral. Three such bridges have been constructed in Eilat, two of which are in the Coral Reef Reserve, and these contribute to a reduction in damage to the coral reefs. The Coral Reef Reserve is marked by three floating lines: 1) The coral reef line-rope consisting of small colored buoys lined across the fore-reef to prevent snorkelers from touching the reef, 2) The boating line - a line of larger buoys (about 20 m away from the fore-reef) to show the boats where not to cross; 3) The "Crossing line" - an imaginary line demarcated by a series fo buoys to guide fishing boats, yachts, jet-skis and other vessels (except glass-bottom boats) through passages across the reef In addition, there is a series of twelve permanent moorings along the southern shore: Ten of them are for commercial yachts and two for private boats. The buoys are located about 100-150 m from the coast and are placed about 150 m apart. There is a plan to establish more permanent moorings for scuba divers' vessels. Today, there is only one such mooring - opposite the "Japanese Gardens" which is reserved for diving boats from clubs belonging to the Israeli Diving Federation. There are three additional moorings near the "Hof Almog"(Coral Beach) marina about 150 m from shore. These moorings are maintained by the NRA staff of the Coral Reef Reserve. Boating is not permitted within 200 m of shore and a series of marker buoys designate this line from the "Hof Almog" marina southwards to the international border with Egypt. Only five marine craft have permits to enter this area on a regular basis: a patrol motorboat from the Coral Reef Reserve, a small research motorboat from the underwater observatory, a large tourist submarine, a safety boat to accompany the submarine and a small research motorboat from the JUI Marine Biology Laboratory. Naval vessels may not cross the buoy line, except under rare emergency situations. Three glass-bottom boats ply the route just outside the buoys that demarcate the eastern safety line established to protect the reef, snorkelers and scuba divers from boats. All jet-skis, wind-surfers and motorboats must stay outside this line. In the Eilat Mountain Reserve, certain areas have been closed to vehicle traffic in order to decrease visitor pressure on those areas. Vehicles are not permitted to stray from designated trails, and hikers are not permitted to stray from marked hiking trails. 7.3.1.1.3. Limit on the number of visitors The Coral Reef Reserve had approximately 167,000 visitors in 1996. The maximum number of visitors allowed at any one time on the Reserve is 700. The number of visitors is also limited at specific dive sites. For example, at the the Japanese gardens dive site in the south of the Coral Reef Reserve, there is a limit of 30 divers per day, with no more than 8 divers in a group. In addition, each dive group is required to be accompanied by a certified dive instructor. The Eilat Mountains Reserve had some 120,000 visitors in 1996. Approximately 80,000 of these visitors were parts of school groups. Since it is difficult to control 87 individual visitor access to sites in the Eilat Mountain Reserve, limits to access can only be performed through controls on visitors in groups. The following methods can be used to limit visitor access: * Require reservations. This method is applicable to groups in the Eilat Mountains Reserve and the Coral Reef Reserve, but can also be used for individuals at the Coral Reef Reserve. * Limit the size of the group. The Coral Reef Reserve limits group sizes to 150 individuals. * Limit the length of stay. X isits at the Coral Reef Reserve are limited to the opening hours of the Reserve. 7.3.1.2. Indirect strategies The most important indirect strateg;ies used are described below. 7.3.1.2.1. Provide impact education All visiting groups at the Coral Reef Reserve receive instructions regarding the importance of the coral reefs and their conservation. Other activities include: * Brochures (three languages). The SPNI has produced several brochures, mainly in Hebrew, about landscape and nature conservation in the Eilat area, including trail maps in a scale of 1:50,000. The NRA has produced free brochures on the Coral Reef Reserve in Hebrew, Arabic and English. - Video films (production and firojections). In 1996, the Israeli Diving Federation and the NRA produced a short video film directed mainly at divers on the subject of protection of the coral reef A new movie on the coral reef environment and the importance of its protection is shown at Coral World's "Oceanarium" which is located within the Coral Reef Reserve. . Guided tours. The SPNI, arid NRA are currently guiding tours dedicated to protecting the marine envircnment. The submarine Jacqueline conducts underwater (up to 60 m deep) tours of the reef Glass-bottomed boats regularly cruise along the reef, allowing non-diving visitors the opportunity to have a first hand view of the reef * Cleaning campaigns. Annual clean-up campaigns of the coral reefs incorporating the diving centers and other volunteers have taken place over the last five years. Other clean-up campaigns devoted to the shore have been organized annually for the last years by the same institutions. These annual campaigns are supported by the Ministry of the Environment. In 1993, an international Earthwatch program directed by the NRA brought groups of volunteer divers to Eilat's reefs to aid in an underwater clean-up project. * Instruction posters (billboards and stickers). The Municipality of Eilat, which is in charge of most of the coast, p articularly the public beaches, has erected billboards containing instructions to the public regarding the protection of the beach and coral reefs. There are also several similar billboards in Hebrew, Arabic and English erected by the NRA on the Coral Reef Reserve beach and the South Beach Nature Reserve. The NRA has also pro luced bumper stickers promoting reef protection. 88 * Diver information and awareness sessions. The SPNI and NRA guides provide lectures on nature conservation in the Gulf to all diving centers. The Israeli Diving Federation produced the "Reef Brochure" to instruct divers in correct diving practices. 73.1.2.2. Charge entrancefees The Coral Reef Reserve charges an entrance fee of $4.30 per adult and $2.10 per child. 7.3.1.2.3. Under-development Non-development of specific areas decreases the number of visitors to those sites. For example, shading structures for visitors have not been built along certain stretches of the Coral Reef Reserve. 7.3.1.2.4. Provide alternatives Alternative sites, such as artificial reefs and tourist attractions, can relieve visitor pressure on the nature reserves. There are currently two artificial reefs in Eilat. The first is a modular reef consisting of two pyramids approximately 12 m high partly covered with wire-netting. It was submerged in April 1993 at a depth of 30 m, 300 m from the north coast. The second artificial reef is a small navy frigate submerged by the Scuba Divers Association in 1995 also on the north coast. A third artificial reef is now under construction near the new Underwater Restaurant near Eilat's main public beach on the north shore. 7.3.2. The Marine Pollution Control Unit. The MPCU is part of the Ministry of the Environment (see page 1). The MPCU is responsible for controlling marine pollution within Israel's territorial waters in the Gulf of Aqaba. The major sources of marine pollution in the Gulf are described in Section 4.4.3, and include oil spills; discharges of ballast and bilge water; and wastewater from vessels and mariculture. The MPCU concentrates its efforts on law enforcement and inspections. 7.3.3. The Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit. The Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit is slated for closure. Its responsibilities include inspections of the major land-based pollution sources which are: * Phosphate and potash dust, and hazardous materials in the Port of Eilat. * The municipal sanitary landfill. * The municipal wastewater collection and treatment system. * Various industrial facilities. 7.3.4. The Israeli Diving Federation The Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF) is very active in Eilat and is in charge of the certification of divers and diving centers. There are 12 such centers in Eilat hosting local and tourist divers all year-round. 89 8. OPTIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Eilat's future will be determined mainly by the growth rate of the tourism sector, on which most of the city's economy depends, and which dictates the growth rate of urban sprawl. The development ilate of this sector has a great impact on the marine and terrestrial environment. The following sections review of the various main development options. 8.1. TRENDS OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT Two major factors will affect the growth of the tourism sector: the rate of growth of the sector, and the level of development of tourist amenities. Growth of the tourism sector will also have immediate implications on the city's population; its employment structure; and the rate of expansion of the urban area, municipal services and infrastructure. Tourism development projections were performed within the framework of the National Master Plan for Tourism (NMP 12) and preparation of the Eilat/Eilot Regional Development Plan. The projected number of visitors is the main contributor to expected impacts on the development of the city, including housing needs, commercial development, land us-,, and other factors. NMP 12 projects 9600 hotel rooms by the year 2010, with most of the development concentrated in the existing hotel area on the north beach of ],ilat. Projections of the number of visitors for the years 2000, 2005, and 2010 were determined by the Regional Development Plan for two development alternatives: rap:d development and controlled development. These visitor projections are based on visits of an average of 4.5 nights for foreign tourists and 2.8 nights for Israeli vacationers. 8.1.1. Growth of the tourism .iector The growth rate of the tourisnm sector is the most significant factor affecting development. Two main alternat ves were presented in the Regional Development Plan: 8.1.1.1. Rapid growth as o]pposed to Controlled growth 8.1.1.1.1. Rapid development alternative This alternative assumes that an additional 1000 rooms will be built per year. The projections, which are based on hotel room building starts and requests for building permits, show that the number of hotel rooms in Eilat will be 12,000 by the year 2000, 17,000 by the year 2005, and 22,OC'0 by the year 2010. Approximately 2.1 million visitors are projected to arrive to Eilat in the year 2000, and the number of hotel nights is projected to reach 6.9 million. Approximately 3.0 million visitors are projected for 2005, with 9.7 million hotel nights. In 2010, there will be approximately 3.9 million visitors and 12.6 million hotel nights. 90 8. 1.1.1.2. Controlled development alternative The controlled development alternative assumes a rate of growth of 500 rooms per year. Under this assumption, the number of hotel rooms will be 12,000 in the year 2000, 14,500 in the year 2005, and 17,000 in the year 2010. Under this alternative, the number of visitors to Eilat is projected at 1.9 million with 6.4 hotel nights in the year 2000. In 2005, approximately 2.3 million visitors and 7.7 million hotel nights are projected. In 2010, there will be approximately 2.7 visitors and 9.1 million hotel nights. 8.1.1.2. Environmental evaluation Since the scenarios mentioned above were not evaluated from the environmental point- of-view, there is a need for evaluation of the impact of the population growth and tourism development on the environment. 8.1.1.3. Demographic Impacts The growth rate of the tourism sector will have immediate implications for the demographic make-up of the city. Using the assumptions listed in Chapter 3, in the rapid growth scenario for the city, Eilat's population is projected at approximately 105,000 inhabitants in the year 2010. The controlled development alternative projects a population of 81,000 inhabitants by the year 2010. Based on projections for the rapid growth scenario for the city, there will be approximately 30,000 housing units in the year 2010. The controlled growth scenario projects 25,000 units by that date. Housing construction potential shows 19,000 housing units being built in the distribution shown in Table 24. 8.1.1.4. Employment Employment in the tourism sector is typified by relative young and temporary employees as described in Chapter 3. This population generally undergoes a high turnover and has a short-term outlook. This is reflected by relatively low sensitivity to the physical and human environment and a low rate of involvement in community life. These factors hinder the building of a stable community structure. 91 8.1.1.5. Physical structure Growth in the number of Eilat's residents will necessitate an expansion of the urban area, services and infrastructure. Table 24. Projected new housing distribution in Eilat. Neighborhood Number of housing units projected Shahmon Neighborhood 6,500 Eilat North 5,000 Salt Ponds 3,200 West of Salt Ponds 800 Additions in existing neighborhoods 2,000 Between Shahmon and the sea 1,500 Total 19,000 Source: Eilat-Eilot Develcpment Plan 8.1.2. Level of tourism development The level of tourism development which is meant to suit specific market segments may have an impact on the environmant. Over the past five years Eilat has witnessed relative growth in the construction of 2-3 star hotel rooms (which today represent about 18% of all hotel rooms in the city as compared with 13% in 1993) and of 5DL hotel rooms (which today represent about 14% of all hotel rooms in the city as compared with 7% in 1993). By =ontrast, the construction of 4 and 5 star hotels has dropped (37% and 13% today as compared with 45% and 7% in 1993, respectively). The differential growth rate in the level of accommodation is important for two reasons: * Number of workers per room. While the average number of workers per room in 5 star and 5DL hotels is 2.99, in 4 star hotels it is 1.78, and in 2 and 3 star hotels it is 1.37 (including associated services). The greater number of workers is associated with higher nLmber of dependents and higher potential levels of environmental impact. * Behavioral patterns of visitlors. High-rated hotels offer more activities to their guests than lower rated hotels. As the variety of activities offered by the hotel increases, so does the gues:'s tendency to remain in the hotel. This in turn reduces the number of visitors reaching the beaches and the natural surroundings. 8.2. ECONOMic DIVERSITY In the last two decades, Eilat's economy has relied on the tourism sector, which in the year 2000 will employ about 64% of the city's workforce. Apart from the economic risk, there is also an environmentz.l problem, where a cross-section of tourism sector employees is characterized as relatively young and temporary, with their environmental impact as described above. In order to diversify the economic base of the region, the industrial sector, which today employs only about 5% of all the employees in the city, should be developed as well. 92 Despite the incentives offered for the development of industry in the city, such as development zone A status and free trade zone status (the only area in Israel that has received this status), industry has not developed mainly due to the drawback of distance from the center of the country, which is seen in a shortage of professional manpower, high transportation costs and problematic communication with clients and suppliers and others. In addition, industrial development hinges on the existence of comprehensive service systems. Industrial development may have a positive influence in attracting a more stable population to the city, primarily families. It should be noted that the extent of industrial development and the type of plants should be carefully examined in order to protect the unique environment which is the main asset of the region and the focal attraction for tourists. 8.3. EILAT'S GROWTH DIRECTION The rapid growth of the city's population is accompanied by a growth in demand for housing, services and infrastructure. The Arava Valley north of Eilat and the area behind the ports between Nahal Shlomo and Nahal Garof constitute the main optional directions for expansion of the city. The area between Nahal Shlomo and Nahal Garof is relatively small and massive building there may endanger Eilat's main natural assets, which are being also threatened by other factors. Thus, the main proposed direction of expansion is northward, along the Arava Valley. This is the trend that has been adopted by the planning and building institutions. The development trends for tourism will be similar (City of Eilat, 1996): * Southern shore - the number of hotel rooms will drop from about 21% of all rooms in 1996 to about 13% in 2000. * Northern shore - the number of hotel rooms will rise from about 59% of all hotel rooms in 1996 to about 62% in 2000. * In the city itself - the number of hotel rooms will rise from about 20% of all rooms in 1996 to about 25% in 2000. 8.4. INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT The main options for infrastructure development follow. 8.4.1. Ports The port development plan that was prepared in 1996 by the Ports Authority laid down the following basic guidelines: * The cargo port will remain where it is, and its size and functional distribution will remain the same. * The distribution and chemical terminal in the cargo port will continue to operate using existing facilities and will safeguard the environment. * Land transportation to the port will be via the Eilat by-pass road. * A port for cruise ships will be developed in place of the naval port. The passenger port will be a direct continuation of the city of Eilat which will expand beyond it. 93 * The oil port will remain where it is, but the section of shore used by it will be reduced. * An option will remain open for a railway and road to Aqaba. * The option to erect a canal port along the Israeli-Jordanian border will be canceled. The plan evaluated 4 planning alternatives. In each of the alternatives, the cargo terminal will remain in its present location and format, with the addition of a dry bulk pier. In Alternative A the oil port will be removed from its present location and the shoreline freed for municipal-tourist activities. The naval port will be moved north of the cargo port, and a passenger port will be built in its place. This will form an integral part of the city grid. The area be:ween the passenger port and the naval port will be used as a bathing beach. In Alternative B the area of the oil port will be reduced to about one third of its present size, and the vacated area will be utilized for recreational, tourist and bathing uses. The naval port will remain in its present location but its area will be reduced to about one third of its present size, with a passenger port to be erected on the remaining area. In Alternative C the oil port will remain unchanged. The passenger port will be built north of the existing cargo port. The naval port will remain in its present location, with the rear area of the base reduced. In Alternative D the area of the oil port will be reduced, with the vacated area designated for municipal-tourist uses, as detailed in Alternative B. The passenger port will be located north of the cargc port and the naval port will remain in its present location, but it will be reduced to about one third of its present size, with the vacated area reserved for municipal-tourist uses. In all alternatives presented by National Master Plan No. 13 for the Eilat Gulf Shore, the naval port will be moved from its present location to the cargo port and the passenger port will be included in the present cargo port. The various alternatives relate to the relative location of the different ports in the enlarged port. Under the first alternative, the passenger port will be located north of the enlarged port and contiguous with the city, with the naval port located to its south. Under the second alternative, the naval port will be located north of the enlarged port, with the passenger port located to its south. 8.4.2. Airports A description of airports appears in Chapter 3. In light of the Government of Israel's decision to use the existing airport in Aqaba (which will be enlarged accordingly) and not build a new airport in Ein Evrona, the fate of the existing airport in the heart of the city is questionable. It appears that at least in the near future this airport will continue to serve domestic flights, with the: runway extended northwards and shortened from the south. 94 8.4.3. Roads The alternative to the existing Arava Road (Road no 90), connecting Eilat and its ports with the rest of the country, is the Eilat Bypass Road, with the continuing Southern Shore Bypass Road and the Darb-el-Hadj Road which connects to the border crossing with Egypt. The Eilat Bypass Road and its branches are meant to ease the traffic load on the Arava Road, mainly heavy vehicle traffic which today passes through the city on its way to the port. The Bypass Road is also meant to divert from the city most of the vehicular traffic between the neighboring countries, if any. The Bypass Road will also serve to distance the city from traffic carrying dangerous substances and from the air pollution and noise generated by traffic. At the same time, this road may itself harm the sensitive nature and scenery in the area through which it runs, and may restrict the activity of animals. 8.4.4. Trains Economic evaluations have shown that laying a railroad to Eilat from the Zin phosphate mines and from the Dead Sea Works is not feasible. From an environmental and safety point of view, a railway has a marked advantage over the transportation of cargo by truck. In any event, there is no justification for two tracks, one on the Jordanian side and one on the Israeli side. The most reasonable arrangement is for Israel to use the Jordanian railway to transport potash and phosphate (following solution of the track width problem), either to Aqaba Port or Eilat Port. Before a railroad can reach Eilat Port, however, the problem of the track running through the municipal area will have to be solved. 8.4.5. Border crossings If the border crossing with Egypt at Taba is moved to Ein Netafim, and the border crossing with Jordan is moved from the existing Arava crossing to a location north of the Aqaba airport, most of the international vehicular and tourist traffic will bypass the city of Eilat, thereby mitigating environmental impacts. 8.4.6. Drinking water supply The rapid development scenario for the city of Eilat and water use data presented above show a total water demand of 25.7 million cubic meters in the year 2010. The controlled growth scenario results in demand for 19.8 million cubic meters. There is a need to assess the energy requirements and brine disposal associated with desalination. In order to supply the expected increase in demand, the "Mekorot" water company has requested an additional 100 dunam site next to the existing brackish water desalination units in order to install additional seawater desalination units and increase its production capacity. 8.5. MARICULTURE Mariculture operations are currently located in the Gulf of Aqaba. Pollution in the form of particulate matter and nutrients from fish food have been shown to alter sediment underlying fish cages and surrounding water quality. 95 Control of pollution from mariculture operations is possible with the relocation of mariculture operations from the (Gulf to land-based operations in ponds. The National Center for Mariculture in Eilat is conducting research and plans to establish a pilot- scale land-based integrated pond system (IPS) for marine fish rearing. IPS is far more protective of the marine environnient than in-situ marine fish cages because it allows for the removal of nutrients and wastes prior to discharge to the Gulf environment. In addition, by using a seawater supply channel, it is possible to move intensive mariculture activities several kilometers away from the sea shore. The IPS proposed by the NCM is based on three component production modules (Figure 7): * A main production module fbr intensive fish farming. The fish are fed a pelletized diet at an optimal rate and raised at standing stock densities of 15 kg/m3. Fish yield is projected at 25 kg/m3/year. * A sedimentation pond that is also used for shellfish production. Settling sediments and particulate matter are taken up by micro-algae which in turn feed clams raised in densities of 1000 to 2000 individuals per M2. Yield is projected at 5 to 10 kg/m2/year. * An algae production pond ii which macro-algae take up nutrient residues from the water. Algal biomass production is estimated at 7.5 kg/m2/year. Improvement of water quality while flowing through the sedimentation pond and algae production pond system results in effluent that is suitable for recycling to the fish pond or discharge to the sea. The IPS also allows for the integration of additional water treatment facilities into the system to meet more stringent discharge water quality goals. While the IPS pilot plant is planned for a production of 50 tons of marine fish per year, commercial farm units are expected to produce 100 to 200 tons of marine fish annually. Facilities and equipment required for land-based mariculture activities are listed in Table 25. 8.6. FLOOD CONTROL A number of measures have been proposed for controlling floodwaters in the outskirts of Eilat. These include: * Redirection of channels to central arteries. * Decreasing the linear slope of river channels to control sediment transport and decrease floodwater velocity. * Planting of vegetation in river channels and on banks to control erosion and sediment transport. * Protecting banks from erosion. * Evaluating methods for increasing rainwater infiltration to soil through use of terraces, steps, and planted areas. * Use of protective dikes. 96 * Use of flood warning devices in the mountain channels leading to major floodwater channels to allow time for removal of cars and people from the direction of the floodwaters. * Prohibiting against construction in floodwater channels, and incorporation of floodwater flow evaluation in planning at all levels. A master plan for flood control has been developed for the City of Eilat. At this writing, the master plan recommendations have not yet been finalized. Flooding and deposition of transported sediment in the Eilat urban area can result in catastrophic consequences to the city. It has been suggested that flood control within the municipality of Eilat be accomplished in one of two ways: total prevention of floodwater flow into built-up areas, and control of floodwater flow through urban areas. Figure 7. Integrated Pond System schematic diagram. Fresh sea water Shellfish/ Backto sea Intensive Fish Sedimentation Macro-Algae Ponds Pond Pond Source: NCM Recirculation of treated water 97 Table 25. Land based mariculture facility and equipment requirements. Facility/Equipment Comment Fish ponds Depth 1-2 m Pilot Scale: 2100 m3, Commercial Scale: 4200 m3 Sedimentation/Clam ponds Pilot Scale 2100 m3 Commercial Scale 4200 m3 Macro-algae ponds Pilot Scale 2100 m2 Commercial Scale 4200 m2 Drum filters For removal of organics - Pilot scale capacity of 1000 m3/hr Aerobic and Anaerobic biofilters For removal of ammonia and conversion of nitrates to molecular N2. Pilot scale capacity of 100 m3/hr Oxygen supply, feeding and harvesting machinery Pumps, blowers and assorted water treatment devices Control and measurement instrumentation Source: NCM Total prevention of floodwater ilow into built-up areas is suitable for small and medium-sized flood events. However, the prevention system is at risk of complete and catastrophic failure during large-scale flooding events. Complete prevention of run-off penetration of urban areas can be accomplished by: * Digging a drainage channel to bypass the city. * Establishing a series of reservoirs upstream of the city to collect stormwater and sediment. The method chosen to protect Eilat's urban area is a system of central drains and dams, which are meant to divert the flood water and silt from the city. Five inter- connecting reservoirs have been built in the new Shahmon neighborhood. A reduction in the catchment of the reservoirs due to a blockage caused by silt, and the resulting collapse of the system, may cause far greater damage than the damage resulting from a large flood, and could threaten the established neighborhood. Control of floodwater flow through urban areas can be accomplished by planning urban roadways and drains to charmel floodwaters. This method utilizes the city area optimally, it also offers cost savings, and does not require constant maintenance except after flooding. Its disadvantages are that there is a greater risk of relatively smaller and more frequent floods, and of water pollution as a result of urban runoff. 98 There are several possibilities for treating urban run-off: * Installation of subsurface drainage systems. The advantage of this type of system is arguable in desert regions, where maintenance is difficult on a regular basis, and where the system does not function well on steep slopes. * Using roads as drains. The use of roads as waterways is an acceptable solution. Grades must be suitable and adapted to the anticipated amounts of water, taking into account the edging stones, pavements, crossroads, etc. * Artificial discharge of run-off water. The artificial discharge of run-off water in the urban area of Eilat may prevent flooding and seawater pollution and replenish the groundwater. The discharge of run-off water in urban areas prevents the accumulation of run-off on the roads. 8.7. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS Positive and negative economic incentives can help to reduce, prevent, or correct environmental and social damage, and can encourage sustainable resource use. Negative incentives include taxes, surcharges, price increases, user fees, deposits, regulations, transferable rights, and permits, fines and other penalties. These are all designed to discourage harmful activity and cover the costs resulting from it. Positive incentives include tax credits or reductions, refunds, rebates, subsidies, price reductions, improved technologies, research and development support, and other positive inducements and innovations designed to encourage less harmful or benign activity. Through a variety of incentives and the enforcement of the "polluter pays" principle, the plan will encourage private and public sector investments in environmental protection. 99 9. GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN The Environmental Action Plan of the Israeli sector of the Gulf of Aqaba addresses the main principles and suggested environmental policy, institution-related and investment needs, and identifies priorities for action. Policy aspects include consideration of planning factors that have a dominant effect on environmental protection and a.n institutional facet that would strengthen local environmental capabilities necessary for implementation of the recommendations of this plan. It should be noted that in Israel the legal and regulatory framework, as well as human resources and nature conservai;ion aspects, are adequately developed to fulfill environmental protection goals. 9.1. PRINCIPLES OF THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN The principles of the GAEAP are presented in the following sections. 9.1.1. Long-Term Preventive Perspective Current environmental management systems are not efficient at managing environmental resources for sustainability, particularly in the face of uncertainty about long-term values and impacts. These systems are inherently reactive rather than proactive. There is a need to develop long-term perspective and solutions to improve environmental management. Therefore, the first principle of the GAEAP aims at establishment of a permanent local capacity to prevent, contain, and manage the undesirable consequences of development while facilitating balanced, sustaitiable economic growth. These goals can be achieved by using proactive measures such as involvement of environmental protection decision- makers at the early stages of the planning processes, and using integrated regional planning tools. 9.1.2. Prevention of Further Environmental Degradation Maintenance of the ecological balance of threatened ecosystems and containment of marine pollution from land-based and marine sources should serve as a baseline for future rehabilitation. The GAEAP adopts the principle of preventive action through which it is necessary to prevent certain activities or expansion of existing activities that have shown early signs of causing environmental damage - e.g., further expansion of mariculture in the Gulf 100 9.1.3. Resource Conservation The goals of the GAEAP are to provide incentives for use of renewable energy resources (e.g., solar energy and wind energy), conservation of resources (water, energy, etc.) and recycling in order to decrease levels of environmental pollution and reduce demand on local and global resources. 9.1.4. Promotion of Development that Minimizes Damage to the Coastal and Marine Environment Protection of the marine and coastal environment is possible through displacement of activities and development away from the sea and the coastline, and through providing alternatives to activities that are likely to impact natural resources. An example is the establishment of artificial reefs and the Underwater Observatory, both of which function to relieve diver and visitor pressure from the natural reef and the nature reserve. 9.1.5. Reduction of Pollution at the Source Pollution control can be achieved by controlling the sources of release of specific pollutants. For example, installation of a choke feeder at the phosphate loading pier in the port of Eilat will reduce emissions of phosphate dust by approximately 80%. 9.1.6. Removal of Polluting Activities from the Urban Area. Removal of environmentally damaging activities from the city will reduce pollution impacts on residents of Eilat. For example, transferring the airport to a location outside of the city will significantly reduce noise and will relieve the city from potential risk and air pollution caused by aircraft. Future siting evaluation of projects that are potentially damaging to the environment (e.g., factories with significant emissions or discharges of pollutants) should recommend that they be located away from the city itself. 9.1.7. Concentration of Similar Activities By concentrating similar activities and/or facilities, land requirements can be reduced, and potential uses for remaining open areas can be increased. For example, by concentrating the activities of the existing and planned ports and port facilities, it will be possible to free remaining shoreline areas for use as public beaches, and thus reduce pressure on existing beaches. Similar benefits can be achieved by concentrating infrastructure along a restricted number of corridors. 9.1.8. Adoption of Economic Incentives The environmental action plan will encourage private and public sector protection through a variety of positive and negative economic incentives. 101 9.1.9. Strengthening Local Capacity Strengthening local environmental capacity is important to overcome administrative and management constraints and to achieve effective environmental management. 9.1.10. Transboundary Responsibility and International Equity Every nation is responsible for addressing environmental pollution generated within its own borders. Regional coordinal:ion of environmental protection efforts in the areas of planning, policy, and implementation will result in increased efficiency and decreased costs for addressing transbounda-y environmental issues. 9.2. DEVELOPMENT TRENJDS OF THE EILAT REGION Planning decisions which address development direction of the city of Eilat and its surroundings will have long-ranging impacts on the environmental conditions of the area, and will define whether sustainable development of the city is possible. Analysis of the different options presented in Chapter 8 shows a number of preferable development outcomes, some of' which are already accepted by the different planning levels. These are presented in the subsections below. 9.2.1. Tourism Development Growth Rate The carrying capacity of the E lat region, and particularly its capacity for tourism development should be examined in light of the Eilat Regional Master Plan projections. These projections did not examine Eilat's tourism industry growth rates from the environmental protection aspect. 9.2.2. Level of Tourism Development The development of 4-star hotels represents the best combination of the number of workers per room and sufficietit variety of activities within the hotels. Activities centered in the hotels are likely to keep the majority of guests at the hotels, thereby relieving pressure from beaches and the natural environment. Establishment of additional tourist attractions is a.so likely to produce the same effect, and is therefore recommended. 9.2.3. Economic Diversity Diversification of economic activity in the city is necessary in order to attract a more stable population, preferably families, which is implied to be naturally more caring to their environment. Industrial (levelopment is the most relevant sector which can achieve this economic diversification. It must be noted that decisions regarding the type and size of future industrial facilities will need to be examined closely by decision makers, and environmental impact assessments prepared in order assure a continued level of environmental protection. 9.2.4. Direction of Urban Growth The city of Eilat should grow in a northward direction along the Arava valley. In addition, the tourism industry should also grow in that direction north of the present 102 hotel area on the north shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. Development of housing and hotels should account for seismic considerations. Tourism development should continue to be arrested on the south shore in order to protect the natural resources. 9.2.5. Regional Infrastructure Trends The main recommendations regarding infrastructure are discussed below. 9.2.5.1. Ports Decreasing the size of the ports and concentrating port activities as much as possible in one continuous area will relieve development pressures from sensitive coastal areas. This measure includes incorporating the planned passenger port into the combined port area. Parts of the shoreline that are liberated in this manner can be converted to bathing beaches and relieve visitor pressure from existing beaches. 9.2.5.2. Airports Removal of the airport will free the city from air and noise pollution and risks brought about by aircraft traffic within the confines of a populated area. Therefore, it is recommended that this issue be examined. 9.2.5.3. Roads Paving the Eilat Bypass Road and the South Beach Bypass Road will redirect heavy traffic to and from the port, as well as international traffic away from the city of Eilat. This will alleviate traffic congestion from Eilat' s main thoroughfare, thereby decreasing levels of air and noise pollution and reducing the risk of accidents associated with transport of hazardous substances through a densely populated area. In paving these bypass roads, it is necessary that planners address the issue of visual impact on the unique desert scenery surrounding Eilat, and allow options for the free passage of migrating animals across these roads. 9.2.5.4. Border crossings Relocation of the border crossing with Egypt from Taba to Ein Netafim and relocation of the crossing with Jordan from the existing Arava crossing to a location north of the Aqaba airport will result in redirection of international and national away from the city of Eilat. The impacts of these new traffic patterns will be similar to those discussed in the previous section on roads. 9.2.5.5. Railroads The option involving Israel's use of the Jordanian railroad for transport of phosphates and potash to Eilat should be evaluated. At the same time, it is also recommended to examine the possibility that these materials be shipped out of the Port of Aqaba instead of the Port of Eilat. Use of railroads for transport of materials is clearly an environmentally desirable alternative to current use of trucks. 103 9.2.5.6. Concentration of linear infrastructure From the points of view of land conservation and scenery impacts, great importance is placed on concentrating linear infrastructure along a limited number of corridors. Linear infrastructure includes exi3ting and planned water, wastewater and oil pipelines; communication and electricity lines; and roads. Infrastructure that is dependent on planned projects includes a seawater supply channel and brine discharge pipeline to be used for the energy towers project, land-based mariculture facility and seawater desalination plant. In addition, a special corridor along the border with Jordan is reserved for the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal. The two corridors that should be reserved for infrastructure needs are: * Parallel to the Arava road (road No. 90), and * Parallel to the Israeli-Jordanian border. 9.2.5.7. Siting of industrial and infrastructure facilities The decision to integrate and site industrial and infrastructure facilities in the Gulf of Aqaba area should be based on the following criteria: * Avoidance of projects that have the potential to pollute the environment or alter the natural scenery. * Placement of facilities away from residential areas. * Concentration of facilities in areas zoned for that purpose, preferably in areas that have already been impacted, such as the Timna area. 9.2.5.8. Improving the urban landscape Improving the urban landscape will transform Eilat into a more pleasant city for visitors and improve the resident's outlook of the city. Adapting the city environment to the surrounding desert can be performed by increasing use of shaded areas, use of insulating building materials, and adapting building materials to the environment. 9.2.5.9. Flood control Flood control necessitates planning and establishing of operational systems that can be employed to managed large quantities fo water and sediments (see Section 4.1.1). A number of measures that have been proposed are mentioned in Section 8.6. 9.3. POLLUTION PREVENTION 9.3.1. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources The following are the main recommendations regarding prevention of marine pollution from land based sources. 9.3.1.1. Phosphate and potash dust All of the required elements for the control of phosphate and potash dust are the responsibility of the Ports Aut]lority where their installation and operation are in 104 advanced planning stages (See Section 4.2.2.1). The cost of phosphate and potash dust control elements is estimated at 2.3 million dollars and includes: * Choke feeder for suppressing dust emissions during ship loading operations. * New unloading infrastructure including a vacuum system to control dust release during truck unloading. * A dust monitoring system. 9.3.1.2. Wastewater conveyance system The wastewater pipeline system in the city of Eilat is old and subject to frequent failures. A computerized imaging survey of the system is needed. This survey will identify the parts of the system that need to be repaired or replaced. 9.3.1.3. Southern shore The environmental sensitivity of the south shore between the Interuniversity Institute and the Taba Border Crossing needs to be specifically addressed. The following measures are needed in addition to the measures that have already been taken: * Prevention of use of the area east of the road for parking. This can be accomplished by placing barriers along the eastern side, and establishing parking areas in the valleys on the western side of the road. * Widening the beach by relocating the roadway that lies between the Interuniversity Institute and the Princess Hotel westwards using semi-open tunnels to go through the mountains. 9.3.1.4. Phosphoric acid transport Transport of phosphoric acid through the port of Eilat is likely to result in accidents and may cause environmental pollution (see Section 4.2.3). Establishment of a passenger port in proximity to the planned acid terminal may present an unacceptable risk to the public. Therefore, it is recommended to reexamine the need to transport phosphoric acid through the port of Eilat. 9.3.1.5. Construction Sediments produced by construction activities are swept into the water. There is a need to prevent this source of pollution using enforcement. 105 9.3.2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources. The recommendations presented in this section address the most relevant of the marine sources of marine pollution. 9.3.2.1. Oil spills Although there has been a significant decrease in the number and size of marine oil pollution incidents, oil spills represent the greatest potential danger to the marine environment in the Gulf. A mid-size incident is sufficient to cause heavy damage to marine biota and to the tourism i:ridustry. The relatively small quantities of crude oil that are transported from Egypt in old, unstable tankers do not justify the damage that is likely to be caused as a result of an accident. It is therefore recommended that the State of Israel either subsidize the transport of the oil from Egypt to an alternate site along the Mediterranean shore, or insist the old tankers be replaced with newer ones. Additional recommendations associated with marine oil pollution prevention address: * Completion of equipment needs of the Marine Pollution Control Unit at a total cost of $ 2,325,000 (see Annex 5Y. * Training of a larger team of specialists to control a possible future large sized oil spill. This team should preferably be recruited among workers from the ports. 9.3.2.2. Mariculture Control of pollution from mari-culture operations is possible with the relocation of mariculture operations from the Gulf to land-based operations in ponds. This land- based system is more protective of the marine environment than in-situ marine fish cages because it allows for the removal of nutrients and wastes from seawater used to grow fish prior to its discharge to the Gulf environment. In addition, by using a seawater supply channel, it is possible to move intensive mariculture activities several kilometers away from the sea shore. Plans of the National Center lor Mariculture to establish a pilot-scale land-based integrated mariculture pond system (IPS) should be funded, and eventually, all mariculture operations should be moved to land. Funding for the proposed pilot s,,ale system is estimated at $4,390,000 over 3 years. 9.3.2.3. Marina and pleasure boats. Contrary to the condition at the ports, the condition of pollution control at the northern marina and on pleasure boats requires immediate and action through: * Declaration of the Gulf of Aqaba as a "no discharge zone" through legislation promulgated by the Ministry of the Environment or by the Municipality of Eilat. * Establishment of a boat fue ing station at the marina that is equipped to prevent spills to the Gulf during fueling. * Installation of equipment to r emove used oil and batteries from the boats. 106 * Installation of equipment for removing sanitary wastewater from the boats to the municipal wastewater treatment system. * Installation of dumpsters to collect garbage from ships. * Installation of wastewater collection and disinfection equipment on boats. * Storage of marine pollution fighting equipment at the marina, and worker training and practice in the use the equipment to control spills. * Interdiction of residential use of boats moored at the marina or at the lagoon. * Interdiction of commercial activities on marine structures and boats moored at the marina and the lagoon. 9.3.2.4. Lagoon concept The lagoon concept needs to be examined in light of the different environmental problems and maintenance problems associated with the western lagoon and the northern marina in Eilat (see Section 4.2.5.2). An environmental impact assessment should be carried out before any additional lagoons are constructed. 9.3.3. Prevention of Pollution from Other Sources. The recommendations address pollution from other main land-based sources which impact mostly on the terrestrial environment. 9.3.3.1. Wastewater treatment plant The existing WWTP is not impermeable, and leakage from the plant is polluting groundwater. Because of a lack of data, groundwater monitoring is necessary to determine the distribution and severity of groundwater pollution from this source. This source of pollution will be eliminated following construction of the new WWTP. 9.3.3.2. Solid waste treatment The proximity of the sanitary landfill to the new Shahmon neighborhood, the air pollution that is caused by fires at this site, and other sanitary impacts justify the immediate transfer of the landfill from its present site to the Nimra site. 9.3.4. Nature Preservation A number of aspects need to be examined, in addition to actions have already taken place. 107 9.3.4.1. Zonation scheme Subdividing the marine area and the shore east of road No. 90 into three levels of protection will enhance nature preservation: * Complete protection zone - located between the Interuniversity Institute and the border with Egypt; and between the two oil port piers. * Controlled protection zone the Eilat Nature Reserve and two artificial reefs. * Development zone - the rest of the area. 9.3.4.2. Completion of declaration of Nature Reserves The areas that are under the most danger from development impacts are not yet declared as nature reserves. These areas include an eastern expansion of the Eilat Mountains Reserve, Shahmon MIountain, Shoret Heights, and the marine area that extends south of Nahal Shlomc' to the Gulf It is imperative that these areas be declared as nature reserves in order that they be afforded the full necessary protection. 9.3.4.3. Development of integrated coral reef management plan. Although coral reefs are under continuous threat, no integrated coral reef management plan has yet been developed. This plan must be based on the data obtained from the reef monitoring systems which will provide an indication of the condition of the coral reefs. In the absence of any monitoring data, certain of the planning decisions regarding the coral reefs are arbitrary and impede management actions, such as controlled closure of parts of the reef for recovery. Additional subjects that need further examination: * Plan for control of divers at dive sites along the shore, and * Research on the impact of thc: divers on the coral reef (See Section 9.5.1.3). 9.3.4.4. Increased enforcement The human resources available f3r enforcement are limited relative to the severity of problems faced. Expanded staffing is needed to enable enforcement efforts to be carried out at all hours of the (lay, along the shoreline. Additional staffing is also needed to allow for effective patrolling of the Eilat Mountains Reserve, particularly in light of the lack of controlled acc-.ss to this preserve. User fees collected from groups at the time of issuance of entrance permits to the Eilat Mountains Reserve can be used to support additional enforcement staff. Sanctions must be sufficiently stringent to serve as an effective deterrent to violation of environmental protection laws and regulations. Tough sanctions should be held specifically against tour operators, including rescinding their certification. It is proposed that a computerized hike coordination system be established for the Eilat Mountains Reserve. Cost of the system is projected at $5,000 (see Annex 4). 108 9.3.5. Conservation This aspect is not sufficiently developed. The following actions are suggested. 9.3.5.1. Resource conservation 9.3.5.1.1. Water Conservation. Water conservation measures include: * Identification and fixing of leaks in the municipal water pipeline. * Installation of computerized sprinkder systems in all privately owned gardens. * Limitation of watering of public and private gardens to nighttime hours because of the high evaporation rates during daytime hours. * Planting of vegetation adapted to desert conditions. * Installation of water conservation devices on taps and toilet tanks in hotel rooms. * Informing hotel guests of the need to re-use towels and to shower instead of bathing in order to save water. * Reuse of wastewater that remains after supplying agricultural needs for watering public parks and the planned golf course and polo fields. The possibility of reuse of wastewater for establishment of a constructed wetland should be examined. 9.3.5.1.2. Energy Conservation * Completion of installation of automatic switches to turn off lights after guests leave their hotel rooms. * Use of energy-efficient lighting in hotels and municipal lighting systems 9.3.5.1.3. Recycling of Solid Wastes The issue of recycling must be decided at the national level. At the time of this writing, there do not exist any incentives to encourage recycling because of low solid waste disposal costs. Eilat is expected to be one of the last areas to implement wide-scale recycling because of its distance from the center of the country, where the only recycling facilities are located. Nevertheless, the following should be evaluated: * Encouragement of the food manufacturers and distributors in Eilat to reduce packaging for their products. * Evaluation of establishment of international regional recycling facilities. * Source separation of compostable food waste. 109 9.3.5.2. Use of environmentally friendly energy sources Use and R&D of environmentally friendly energy sources such as the sun and wind should be encouraged as follows: * Use of sun and wind energy. * Research and development in the subjects of solar energy use for: * Wastewater treatment. * Seawater or brackish water desalination. 9.3.6. Local Environmental Administration Strengthening The need to strengthen local environmental administration is in absolute contradiction to the decision of the Municipality of Eilat to dismantle the Regional Environmental Unit, since the local community and administration are likely to be the most concerned and affected by the ecological and economic health and productivity of the marine and coastal zone, and the most impacted by poorly planned development and environmental degradation. The numerous environmental problems in Eilat and their complexity require the presence of a strong local environmental unit. Furthermore, Eilat must be responsible for the trans-boundary impacts of pollution produced within its borders. Because of Eilat's distance from other population centers in Israel, it is not possible to enforce environmental laws and address environmental issues by remote control. In light of these problems, the decision of the MOE to cut its funding of the Regional Environmental Unit is counterproductive. The existing situation justifies: • Expansion of the Regional E:wvironmental Unit to include experts from at least the following disciplines: * Environmental planning * Air pollution * Marine pollution * Solid waste * Hazardous materials * Environmental education * Significant increase in the budget of the Regional Environmental Unit to allow it to perform proactive functions in the various environmental disciplines as well, but specifically in the realms of environmental education and data collection. * Developing a plan followed by legislative measures at the local level, to charge polluters according to the "polluter pays" principle. In parallel, the MOE, the Municipality of Eilat and the Eilot Regional Council should increase their participation in the funding o'the Environmental Unit. 110 * The Regional Environmental Unit should be responsible for coordination of the different entities involved in environmental protection. Within this framework, responsibilities, authority, and enforcement capacities of each organization should be clearly defined so as to avoid duplication of responsibilities. * The Regional Environmental Unit should be responsible for the implementation of the GAEAP. * Update local environmental bylaws, especially industrial wastewater quality standards for discharge to the municipal wastewater treatment system under the Model Bylaw for Local Authorities of 1981. 9.4. ADOPTION OF ECONOMIC MECHANISMS The introduction of the Gulf of Aqaba Action Plan should be accompanied by the following economic steps: * Establishing revenue-generating mechanisms, including impact fees on new construction in the coastal zone, user fees, bed tax, water supply fees, and concession tax for certain activities (e.g., diving). * Adoption of "polluter pays" principle to ensure that the financial burden for prevention and control of pollution rests with the party that was responsible for its generation. This principle can be adopted to address dust release, wastewater release, and storage of hazardous materials. * Provision of a system of positive incentives for not polluting, including tax and price reductions, refunds, subsidies, and research and development support. * Provision of incentives to entrepreneurs for establishing artificial reefs and other attractions which would relieve visitor pressure from natural assets. * Cost sharing of monitoring and control operations in cases of transboundary pollution. 9.5. MONITORING AND RESEARCH Despite the existence of some 2,500 publications related to the Gulf of Aqaba, there are significant infornation gaps. To support future assessments of impacts owing to environmental changes, it is essential to establish an information baseline for use in future evaluations. 9.5.1. Monitoring Programs The plan suggests the following monitoring programs. 9.5.1.1. Seawater quality monitoring. The objectives of the program are to assess the current water quality and to establish measures to improve water quality. Proposed seawater quality monitoring programs are as follows (see Annex 1 for more detailed descriptions): 111 * Evaluation of phosphate release associated with loading operations. Sampling of water quality prior to, during, and after phosphate loading operations on ships would allow the quantificatiorn of phosphate inputs to the Gulf, and of elevation of phosphate concentrations above baseline levels in the water. The cost of this evaluation is estimated at some $ 46,000. * Evaluation of seasonal concentrations of dissolved phosphate. Monthly measurements of dissolved and suspended phosphates along Israel's shore would provide information on the seasonal distribution of phosphates. The cost of this evaluation is estimated at $ 60,000 * Sediment phosphate evaluation. Sediment phosphates would be sampled in areas surrounding the Port of Eilat. Phosphates in sediments act as a long-term source of release of phosphates to surrounding water. A one-time sampling program to determine phosphate concentrations as a function of distance and direction from the port of Eilat is needed to evaluate quantities of phosphate deposited from port activities, and to provide a baseline for evaluating future changes in sediments. The cost of this evaluation is estimated at $ 25,000. * Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in water. Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations i:l seawater would be sampled and analyzed on a monthly basis to develop a baseline and evaluate the severity of potential impact from this source of pollution. The cost of this evaluation is estimated at $50,000. * Noise monitoring around Eilat Airport. 9.5.1.2. Air quality monitoring The goals of this program would include a baseline air quality assessment and an emissions inventory. Results of suich a program could be used for pollution control planning and management (see Annex 1). It is proposed that two air quality monitoring stations be added to the four stations that are planned in the cargo port area. These two additional stations should be placed outside the port. In addition to meteorological instruments and equipment for measurement of airborne dust cor,centrations, these stations should be equipped with NO, monitoring instruments. NOCX is the primary pollutant emitted by vehicles and planes. Cost of the air quality monitoring stations $ 200,000. 9.5.1.3. Coral reef monitoring A coral reef damage monitoring program should be developed and implemented. The goals of this program would be to: * Describe the current condition of the reef. * Evaluate damage that has occurred over time, and in relation to development activities. * Provide a management tool for predicting and mitigating damage resulting from human activity, and for evaluating the effectiveness of management actions - such 112 as pollution control measures, levels of permitted activity, and reef closures to allow of portions of the reefs to regenerate. It is recommended that the monitoring program be coordinated with sirnilar programs in neighboring states, and use historical data to improve the value of the information developed. Examples of the investigations proposed under the coral reef damage monitoring program are (see Annex 1); * Coral Reef Damage Evaluation. This evaluation proposes to use historical data in the form of detailed maps and records of species presence, diversity, and density to evaluate the extent of damage and regeneration of coral reefs as a result of changes in human activity patterns. The cost of this evaluation is $26,000. * Artificial Reef Generation Study. Artificial reefs exist at several locations along the shore of Eilat. This study proposes to track biota on submerged objects in the Gulf. Parameters to be reviewed would include species presence, diversity, and density, as functions of location, depth, substrate, and time since submergence. Understanding the artificial reef colonization process will provide natural resource managers and planners with a tool necessary to plan and manage existing and planned artificial reefs. The cost of this evaluation is estimated at $75,000. 9.5.2. Research Programs Research should be undertaken to assist in resolution of specific management problems, enhance resource protection efforts, and assist in the interpretation of the resources to visitors. Examples of the proposed research programs are: * Gulf of Aqaba Biological Database. This database would be developed based on published and unpublished studies conducted in the Gulf of Aqaba. The goal of the database would be to provide natural resource managers a basic tool for evaluating and predicting physical and chemnical oceanographic processes; and for evaluating and predicting the extent and nature of damage and recovery periods of biota and coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba. Cost of this programs is projected at $25,000 (see Annex 1).. * Trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel) Program for Research and Monitoring Aimed at Ecological Management of the Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Gulf Of Aqaba. The goal of this program is to establish a joint Egyptian-Jordanian- Israeli program for evaluating the status of Northern Red Sea coral reefs and developing the tools for their conservation. The program will be an extension of the pending program which was submitted to the US-AID for research and monitoring of the Marine Peace Park (MPP) already established between Jordan and Israel. The proposed integrated and comprehensive program will result in a balanced scientific assessment of future trends in the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba, and the needed database for the zoning and land use plans. The resulting database will provide the authorities in the countries surrounding the Gulf with a sensitive early warning system in case any change or deterioration of the coral reefs is detected. This will allow adequate corrective action to be taken before any 113 irreversible damage occurs. Furthermore, activities related to the study, conservation and enjoyment of the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba will generate considerable economic incentives and opportunities for the development of specialized human resources il this region. Cost of this project is $900,000 (see Annex 2). * Monitoring Environmental Impacts From Sea-Cage Aquaculture. The aim of this project is to employ state of the art remote sensing technology to monitor the environmental impact of fish farms on surrounding waters. Because this approach has not been previously used, the initial phase of the project will focus on analyzing the multispectral data to determine the most informative spectral channels by comparing these to the field-sampled water quality data. In addition, the output of digital imagery data from aerial sensors will be compared to that from satellite sensors in order to decide w:lich approach is more informative and most cost- effective. After establishing the optimal means of carrying out this work, the waters around several different fish farms situated in the Red Sea and in the Mediterranean will be sampled by both remoi:e and direct means in order to calibrate the remote monitoring approach. The hope is to ultimately establish a generic algorithm that will allow remote sensing to replace traditional oceanographic monitoring of the waters around fish farms. The cost of carrying out this study is $875,000 spread over 4 years (see Annex 3). * Land-Based Mariculture Pilot Plant. The objective of this project is to prove the technical and economic viability of developing integrated and intensive fish, shellfish, and seaweed farming operations in the Arava Valley using seawater from the Gulf of Aqaba. This project is described in greater detail in Section 8.5. This project can be implemented within a short time-period. The pilot plant could be in full operation within one and a half years of funding approval. Total investment requirements over 3 years are S4,390,000 (Annex 3). 9.5.3. Data Management Improvement of environmental data management systems is necessary to generate information that is relevant to address specific environmental management problems. Data management systems should include the introduction of an independent GIS system in the Regional Unit to facilitate the incorporation of environmental data collected into an integrated database and to produce relevant and timely outputs at a cost of $100,000. 9.6. PUBLIC PARTICIPATICIN Although public support for environmental protection efforts becomes more essential with time, in Eilat public participation is still in an incubatory stage. Public involvement in environmental issues has been led by NGOs located outside of the Eilat region. Their involvement has also been limited, in part because of Eilat's distance from the center of the country. Public support can be an effective counterbalance to narrowly based opposition of coastal stakeholders to implementation of environmental protection programs and actions. 114 The establishment of a committee which includes as its members representatives of the public is suggested. The goal of the committee would be to provide a forum for environmental oversight of the region and of specific projects and encouragement of environmental public education and awareness. Establishment and administration of this committee will include the following stages: * Identify the target groups and target communities to be recruited. * Decide what specific issues and goals will be addressed. * Select methods and tools for implementing and assessing the selected issues. * Identify options for action. 9.7. EDUCATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS The education and public awareness programs should be designed to enhance public awareness and understanding of the marine and coastal environment, and to promote the need for protection of these resources through increased appreciation and support. The public should be provided with accurate information about current resource protection and relevant activities. Public education and information efforts should be directed at the following target populations: * Israeli vacationers. Some 70% of the total hotel visitors to Eilat are Israeli vacationers. In addition, there is an unknown number of elementary and high schools pupils that arrive in school groups and as individuals and do not stay in hotels, but make intensive use of natural sites and may even sleep there overnight. l Tourists. Most of the tourists to Eilat are European, and it is assumed that their environmental awareness is high. Although they consist of some 30% of all visitors, they tend to stay in Eilat longer than Israeli vacationers (4.5 days compared to an average of 2.8 days). * Tour operators. Tour operators play a significant role since they come into contact with a wide range of visitors. This category includes tour guides, diving guides, cruiseboat operators, etc. e Pupils.. School age children are future decision makers. They make up some 26% of the city's population. * Teachers. Preschool and school teachers can directly influence and educate their pupils. * Tourism industry workers. Workers in the tourism industry are characterized by their relatively young age, and by the transient nature of their stay in Eilat. This is often expressed through an uncaring attitude towards the environment. The importance of this segment of population is notable since some 60% of the workforce will be associated with the tourism industry in the year 2000. * Officials and media. Decision makers at the different levels have a great influence on the future of the region, and thus they need to receive in-depth and current updates on the environmental conditions and threats. This population also includes managers of infrastructure facilities (e.g., ports), factory managers, and formers of public opinion (e.g., media reporters). 115 * Other populations of the region. Socio-economic evaluation is necessary to effectively direct environmental education efforts to the remaining population. Visual aids need to be distributed at locations frequented by the different visitors. The visual aids should be multi-lingual in nature, For example, videos could be shown on arriving flights and at the airport, in closed circuit video networks within hotels, and on boats sailing to the different toujrist attractions. The different means of advancing environmental education and awareness for different sub-populations are presented in Table 26. Proposals within the frameworlc of education and public awareness actions are described in Annex 4 and: * Establishment of a Visitor Center. This center would serve to disseminate information on the importanc.- of protection of the marine and coastal zone. Cost of establishment of the center is estimated at $400,000. * Preparation of advertising material on the subject of the importance of protecting the marine and coastal zone. Examples of the types of material are presented in Table 26. Material preparation costs are $100,000. * The Red Sea Partner-Ship. A ship that would sail between the Gulf of Aqaba states and would deliver a message of peace and environmental protection. Cost is estimated at $1,200,000. 116 Table 26. Methods for advancing public environmental education and awareness for different target populations. Method Population Segment brad Toits Tour Pups Teats Taxsunm offi0ias Oher Vastnn Opertns hiuw y Courses + Seminars + + + Workshops + + + Lectures + + + + + + + + Field Tours + + + + Local TV + + + + + + + Local Radio + + + + + + + Videos + + + + + + + + Newspapers + + + + + Internet + + + + + + Books + + + Brochures + + + + Newsletters + + + Training + Materials Posters + + + + Transit posters + + + + + Stickers + + + + 4 T-shirts and + + + + + Exhibitions + + + + + Information + + + Stations Periodic + Examinations Wayside + + + Direction Signs 117 9.8. TRANSBOUNDARY E,NVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION Transboundary environmental issues include: oil spill pollution, protection of endangered natural resources, air pollution, marine pollution, groundwater pollution, tourism impacts, and transportation impacts. These issues can be addressed in the manner described below. 9.8.1. Regional Environmental Strategy A regional environmental strategy will address the following CZM-related issues: * Pollution control. * Natural resource conservatior. * Prevention systems. * Monitoring and research. 9.8.2. Regional Environmental Coordination Council The establishment of a regional coordination council is recommended. The council would be responsible for policy development and coordination, program oversight, and dispute resolution. A committee of specialists would serve the council in an advisory capacity. The council would decide, arnong other things, the need for trans-boundary environmental assessments and cciordination of planning in the border zones. 9.8.3. Coordinated Emergency Response The coordinated response capability to combat oil spills and possible hazardous waste accidents should consider the following: * Online communication. * Interchangeable and compatible equipment for joint emergency operations. * Provision of mutual training activities. 9.9. MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF THE PLAN A monitoring and evaluation process is needed to ensure dynamic implementation of the GAEAP. This process should include the following: * Identification of expected periormance. * Assessment and measurement of the actual performance of the Plan. * Establishment of performnance variances. * Post-evaluation of the Plan. In order to ensure implementation of the Action Plan, it is suggested that it be incorporated into the Eilat Shore National Masterplan (NMP 13). 118 10. ANNEXES A-1 Annex 1. Evaluation of the Impact of Eilat's Development on the Environment An in-depth analysis of the impact of the Eilat area's future development on the environment is needed because of the rapid development that characterizes the area in general and specifically because of the accelerated tourism development. This evaluation must concentrate on the proposed development of the region as a whole and on tourism development while considering the area's sensitive environment. This evaluation will include examination of data and trends while performing a critical evaluation of growth projections for the region in general and for the tourism sector; and evaluating the potential impact of these projections on the environment. In parallel, additional alternatives will be evaluated and the preferred alternative will be selected. Cost: $40,000 A-2 Annex 2. Projects Proposed by the Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit 1. Evaluation of Phosphate Release Associated with Loading Operations. This evaluation includes sampling prior to, during, and after phosphate loading operations on ships. The goal of the evaluation is to determine quantities of phosphate that are released during such operations, and elevation of phosphate concentrations above baseline levels. Sets of 30 samples will be taken per ship one week prior to loading, during loading operations, and one week after loading. Sampling will evaluate dissolved and particulate phosphate concentrations. This evaluation is priced for analysis of a total of four ship loading events spread out over four seasons. This is equivalent to 120 samples. Cost: Manpower: $25,000 Equipment: $6,000 Sampling and analysis: $15,000 Total $46,000. 2. Evaluation of Dissolved Phosphate in Seawater This evaluation will include filtration to measure levels of phosphate in dissolved and in suspended solid form. Monthly samples will be taken from the port to the border at Taba. This sampling program will extend over a year and provide information regarding the seasonal distribution of phosphates in water. Twelve monthly samples will be taken for a total of 150 samples. The data obtained can be compared to historical data from 1980-1981 Cost: Sampling equipment: $10,000 Boat rental and manpower: $30,000 Sampling, and analysis: $20,000 Total = $60,000 3. Sediment Phosphate Evaluation Phosphates are deposited in surrounding sediments as a result of ship loading activities at the Port of Eilat. Changes in phosphate concentration in these sediments can take years, as phosphates are dissolved and released to the surrounding waters. Historical data from 1974, 1980, and 1981 exist. A one-time sampling programn to determine phosphate concentrations as a function of distance and direction from the port of Eilat A-3 is needed to evaluate quantities of phosphate deposited from the port activities, and to provide a picture of changes over the years. This study will consist of the following: * 35 sediment samples on a 2500 meter by 800 meter grid in front of the port of Eilat in order to map the deposition gradient. Samples will be taken every 250 meters using GPS positioning, up to a depth of 15 to 20 meters. * 3 samples in control areas, one on the north shore of the Gulf, and two on the south shore. Cost: Equipment $7,000 Sampling, and analysis - $3,000 Manpower, dives and boat: rental- $10,000 Total: $25,000. 4. Evaluation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Water. This evaluation can be perfonr ed concurrently with the evaluation of dissolved phosphate. It would entail montfily sampling and analysis of seawater for petroleum hydrocarbon concentration, and comparison of results to historical data from 1980 and 1981. Monthly samples would be laken in the manner described above. Cost: Sampling equipment: $10,)00 Sampling and analysis: $40,000 (if performed concurrently with phosphate sampling) Total: $50,000 5. Air Quality Monitoring This evaluation is proposed to evaluate the contribution of phosphate loading operations to the total airborne dust concentration during loading operations. Such air quality monitoring is required by the Ministry of the Environment. Data would be collected using dust traps and a high volume sampler. Sampling equipment would be placed at two stations in proximity to the Coral Reef Tourist Resort, and the hills between the Shahmon neighborhood and the port. 4 stations Cost: $200,000 A-4 6. Coral Reef Damage Evaluation. The extent of damage to the coral reefs in Eilat and the Sinai peninsula as a result of development and tourism activities has not been studied in a methodical manner. Evaluation of changes over time, and with relation to development and activity on the reef will provide researchers and managers with the tools necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of various management actions - such as pollution control measures, levels of permitted activity, and reef closures to permit regeneration of portions of the reefs. Historical data in the form of detailed maps and records of species present, species diversity and density were collected up to 1980's for the length of the Gulf of Aqaba, from Eilat to the tip of the Sinai peninsula. These data were collected every 50 meters along the reefs of the Sinai peninsula. On the present Israeli shore of the Gulf, data were collected at a number of sites, in depths of up to 30 meters, and include various biotypes - e.g., sandy bottoms, aquatic vegetation, knolls and reefs. Replication of the previous studies, and comparison of present-day data to historical data will allow decision makers to evaluate impacts that have occurred in relation to changes in land-use and development patterns since 1980. Mapping of the Israeli shore of the Gulf for the various biotypes, artificial reefs, and dive areas will provide an additional tool for integrated planning of coastal zone development. Cost: Israeli Shore damage evaluation: Manpower $15,000 Equipment $10,000 Total: $25,000 7. Artificial Reef Generation Study Artificial reefs are planned at several locations in the Gulf of Aqaba. Artificial reefs consist of submerged hard substrate/structures that are colonized by reef-building organisms over time. The time required for colonization and stabilization of artificial reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba has not been studied in detail. Artificial reefs can be used to relieve diver pressure on existing and over-visited reefs. Understanding the artificial reef colonization process will provide natural resource managers and planners with a tool necessary to plan and managed artificial reefs. This study proposes to track biota on submerged objects in the Gulf. Parameters to be reviewed would include species presence, diversity, and density, as functions of location, depth, substrate, and time since submergence. Some of the sites to be studied were originally evaluated in the 1980s. A-5 The study would run over 4 years. Initial costs in the first year would include initial equipment acquisition required for the study. Costs for each additional year include manpower, boat rental and bottled air for dives. Cost: First year: Manpower - $70,000 Equipment - $5,000 Total -$75,000 8. Gulf of Aqaba Biological Dat.abase Natural resource managers lack basic tools for evaluating and predicting the extent and nature of damage and recovery periods for coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba. In addition, there is very little background data regarding physical and chemical oceanographic processes in the Galf. Numerous studies have been published, in Israel and abroad on subjects on interest to managers. Unfortunately, these studies have not been collated or presented in a manner that can be of use to natural resource managers. This study proposes to address this omission through review of existing literature (published and unpublished) and development of a subject sensitive database that can be accessed by natural resource managers and workers in the Gulf of Aqaba. The database will serve as a readily accessible resource and decision-making tool to managers and decision makers plamning projects or actions in the Gulf. Cost: Manpower: $20,000 Computer and production costs: $5,000 Total: $25,000 A-6 Annex 3. Project Proposed by the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences 1. Trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel) Program for Research and Monitoring Aimed at Ecological Management of the Coral-Reef Ecosystems of the Gulf Of Aqaba. The goal of this program is to establish a Joint Egyptian-Jordanian-Israeli Program for evaluating the status of Northern Red Sea coral reefs and developing the tools for their conservation. The program will be an extension of the pending program which was submitted to the US-AID for research and monitoring of the Marine Peace Park (MPP) already established between Jordan and Israel. The proposed integrated and comprehensive program will result in a balanced scientific assessment of future trends in the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba, and the needed database for the zoning and land use plans. The resulting databases will provide the authorities in the countries surrounding the Gulf with a sensitive early warning system in case any change or deterioration of the coral reefs is detected. This will allow to take adequate corrective action before any irreversible damage occurs. Furthermore, activities, related to the study, conservation and enjoyment of the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba will generate considerable economic incentives and opportunities for the development of specialized human resources in this region. Aims of the project are: * Development of a model for the conservation and management of the Gulf of Aqaba's reef system and their integration in the regions tourism industry. . Protection of the area's terrestrial and maritime natural resources from destruction resulting from tourism development. * Adjusting the magnitude and level of development to the carrying capacity of the region's coastal ecosystems. *Incorporation, whenever feasible, of the region's coral reefs into development schemes with an tourism-based economic potential. *Establishment of a research and monitoring program to follow in real-time the effects of development on the coral-reef s natural environment. The work program is outlined as follows: 1.Establishment of a long terrn research and monitoring network to follow natural and anthropogenic effects on the coral reef ecosystem of the Gulf of Aqaba. 2.Identification of "development sensitive" and "development neutral" zones for planning and controlling the development of the tourist industry in the area. Analysis and subdivision of the sensitive zones. 3.Recommendations on the scale and nature of development of tourism and other projects according to each units' carrying capacity. 4.Recommendations on the conservation of the region's ecosystems and natural resources. Cost: $900,000 A-7 Annex 4. Projects Proposed by the National Center for Mariculture 1. Land Based Mariculture Pilct Plant The objective of this project is to prove the technical and economic viability of developing integrated and intensive fish, shellfish, and seaweed farming operations in the Arava Valley on seawater from the Gulf of Aqaba. The project offers the prospect of laying the foundation for a new major economic activity and related processing -Facilities, which are environmentally friendly in the Arava Valley. There is a substantial market for sea food products both in Israel and in Jordan, and the export potential, in regional and international markets is considerable. The project will rely on the existing knowledge and experience accumulated a the NCM in Eilat. There will be continuous collaboration with the Marine Science Station in Aqaba, Jordan. Which will provide two persons to work on the project in Eilat. This project will assist in capability building of the Jordanian partners in the area of mariculture. The facility will be used for training technical operators of farms as well as for cooperation between Jordanian and Israeli scientists in the R&D of mariculture in land based facilities. In the longer term ,the success cf the project could lead to vertical integration with development opportunities and dc wnstream processing. This project can be implemented within a short time-period. The pilot plant could be in full operation within one and a half years of funding approval. Cost: $4,390,000 over 3 years 2. Use of Remote Sensing As an Efficient Means To Monitor Environmental Impacts From Sea-Cage Aquaculture The aim of this project is to employ state of the art remote sensing technology to monitor the environmental impacL of fish farms on surrounding waters. Because this approach has not been explored before, the initial phase of the project will focus on analyzing the multispectral data tc determine the most informative spectral channels by comparing these to the field-sampled water quality data. In addition, the output of digital imagery data from aerial sensors will be compared to that from satellite sensors in order to decide which approach is more informative and most cost-effective. After establishing the optimal means to carry out this work, the waters around several different fish farms situated in the Red Sea and in the Mediterranean will be sampled by both remote and direct means in order to calibrate the remote monitoring approach. The hope is to ultimately establish a generic algorithm that will allow remote sensing to replace traditional oceanographic monitoring of the waters around fish farms. A-8 The project will consist of the following parts: Phase 1. 1. Acquisition of water samples and field measurements at the study sites, 2. Laboratory analysis of samples, 3. Acquisition of satellite and aerial digital imagery data taken on the same day and time as water samples were collected, 4. Statistical analysis of satellite and aerial digital imagery data with the field/laboratory results, 5. Evaluation of the comparative value of satellite versus aerial digital imagery data. All of the above will be carried out in the initial phase (first 2 years) of this study at the existing fish farms near Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba) to develop the technology and to test it. Phase 2. Simultaneous acquisition of data (remote and field-collected) from several different farms, located elsewhere in the Red Sea (Jordan, Egypt) and in the Mediterranean Sea (Greece, Cyprus, Turkey) relying on the conclusions from the first phase of this study, b. statistical analysis of the data in order to generate a generic algorithm for remote sensing around fish farms. Phase 3. Summary of the 4 years of data, and final additional field work in order to produce a generic algorithm to monitor environmental impact by remote sensing that is suitable for use in a variety of regions. Partnerships will be formed with research institutions in Jordan, Egypt, the Palestinian Authority, Cyprus, Greece, and Turkey. Cost: $875,000 spread over 4 years. A-9 Annex 5. Projects Proposed by the Nature Reserves Authority 1. Coral Reef Protection Visitor Center The Visitor Center will be built in proximity to the Underwater Observatory. Marine ecosystems in the Gulf of Aqaba are endangered as a result of human activity. This center would serve to disseminate information on the impacts of various activities on the marine environment, and the importance of protection of the marine and coastal zone. The Visitor Center will inclade the following elements: * Three dimensional sound and light exhibits * Computer systems with instructional software * An information center that includes a manager and two guides. * Distribution of information and advertising material. Cost: Structure: $200,000 Exhibits and computers: $200,000 Total: $400,000 2. Increasing Public Awareness lor Protection of Coral Reefs. This project includes: * Development and distribution cf video material, stickers and advertising material in different languages; * Information sessions; * Information Stations during holi days and vacations for visitors to the coral reefs Cost: $100,000 3. Computerized Hike Coordination System for the Eilat Mountains Reserve. The Eilat Mountains Reserve receives some 120,000 visitors per year. Most of these visitors are concentrated on a limited number of sites. Crowding at those sites results in environmental damage and hinders visitor enjoyment. This project consists of a computerized center whose puwpose would be to control crowding through coordination of visitor traffic to sp?ecific sites: the Red Canyon, Nahal Geshron, Har Shelomo, and Nahal Mapalim. In addition, the Center would disseminate information on the Eilat Mountains Reserve, and run field inspections. Cost: $5,000 A-10 Annex 6. Ministry of the Environment Requirements for Combating Marine Pollution Equipment and Training Costs Item Description Cost (S) High Seas Boom 1600 meter 300,000 Permanent Boom To be placed on the south 500,000 side of the EAPC port. Medium Boom 2000 meter 300,000 Absorbent Mats For shore and coral reef 200,000 protection Skimmers 2 300,000 Dedicated Boat 700,000 Annual Course 30 participants, 1 week 25,000 Total 2,325,000 Source: Ellik Adler, Manager of the Marine Pollution Prevention Division, the Ministry of the Environment. A-11 Annex 7. The Rted Sea Partner-Ship This proposal consists of a ship that would sail between the Gulf of Aqaba states and would deliver a message of peace and environmental protection was proposed by Christa Rachel Bat-Adam, Yaakov Hayat, and David Troim. The Partner-Ship would be sailing between the four Red Sea nations and anchor at their desert shores. Seven guests .from the four countries would board her every week, each one from his home shore. Disabled people (especially those disabled in war) would be part of the team. On the ship, the guests will be involved in various activities, including activities associated with the environment and the importance of protection of the Gulf of Aqaba's natural resources. To meet this goal, scientists and specialists in environmental protection of the Culf of Aqaba will also be among the guests of the ship. Cost of the catamaran: $1,200,000. A-12 11. REFERENCES Aharonson, S. and Y. Green. Eilat Scenic Plan. Municipality of Eilat. October, 1988. (in Hebrew). Angel, D.L., P. Krost, and H. Gordin. 1995. Benthic Implications of Net Cage Aquaculture in the Oligotrophic Gulf of Aqaba. European Aquaculture Society Special Publication No. 24. Ghent. Pp 129-173. Angel, D.L., P. Krost, and W.L. Silvert. 1997. Describing Benthic Impacts of Fish Farming with Fuzzy Sets: Theoretical Background and Analytic Methods. Submitted to Journal of Applied Ichthyology, June 1997. Angel, D.L., P. Krost, D. Zuber, and A. Neori, 1992. Microbial Mats Mediate the Benthic Turnover of Organic Matter in Polluted Sediments in the Gulf of Aqaba. Proc. U.S.-Israel Workshop on "Mariculture in the Environment", Eilat, Israel. June 1992. Augier, Henry. Protected Marine Areas. Council of Europe. 1985. Burton, Rosemary. Travel Geography. Pitman Publishing, 1995. Central Bureau of Statistics. Tourism and Hotel Services Statistics Quarterly Central Bureau of Statistics. Traffic Counts on Non-urban Roads, 1985-1995. Jkrusalem. May, 1996 Cooke R.U. et al., Urban Geomorphology in Drylands. Oxford University Press. 1982 ECDG - European Commission Directorate General. External Econornic Relations, June 1995. Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil Spill Contingency Project - Project Implementation Report Establishment of Oil Spill Centers. Environmental Law Institute. Protecting the Gulf of Aqaba. February, 1993. Government of Israel. Development Options for the Middle East. 1995. Harza. Jordan Rift Valley Integrated Development Study. Jordan Rift Valley Steering Committee, 1997. ICLEI. The Local Agenda 21 Planning Guide. Interuniversity Institute for Marine Research, the Ministry of the Environment, and the Nature Reserves Authority. The Gulf of Aqaba Ecosystem in Light of Rapid Economic Growth of the Region. November, 1991. (in Hebrew). Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences in Eilat. The Ecosystem of the Gulf of Aqaba in Relation to the Enhanced Economic Development and the Peace Process. January, 1996. Interuniversity Institute of Eilat. Study program for the Academic Year 1997-1998. ISPAN, Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Data Survey. USAID. October, 1992. Israel Electric Company. Environmental lmpact Assessment: Eilat Gas Turbines. December, 1993 (in Hebrew). Kadir, Yuval. Survey of Environmental Actions at the Eilat Marina. The Ministry of the Environment. November, 1994. (in Hebrew). A-13 Levin, Giora. Tourism trends in E ilat. February, 1991. (in Hebrew). Loya, Y. Possible Effects of Water Pollution on the Community Structure of Red Sea Corals. In: Marine Biology 29 (pp 147-185). 1975. Mann Roy. Coastal zone Managgement Guidelines and Standards from Tourism and Urban Development in the Aqaba Region of Jordan. October, 1995. Ministry of the Interior and Israel Lands Authority. National Masterplan for Tourism (NMP 12). January, 1996. (in Hebrew). Ministry of the Environment. Nature conservation and the Coral Reef Ecosystem in the Israeli Part of the Gulf of Aqaba. September, 1997. Ministry of the Environment. The Environment in Israel. Jerusalem, 1994. Ministry of Tourism. Progranumatic Plan for Tourism Development in Eilat. November, 1994. (in Hebrew). Municipality of Eilat, Dec. 1994 (b). Improvement in Sewage Quality. Preliminary Plan and Evaluation of Alternalives. (in Hebrew). Municipality of Eilat, Jan. 1994. Master Plan for the Municipal Sewage Collection System. (in Hebrew). Miunicipality of Eilat. Urban and E conomic Development Plan for the City of Eilat. (in Hebrew). Negev Tourism Development Authority. Masterplan for the Negev Following the Peace Process. July, 1991. (in Hebrew). Ports Authority. Port of Eilat Development Plan. September, 1996. (in Hebrew). Ports Authority. Tender for Installation of an Air Monitoring System in the Port of Eilat. (in Hebrew). Rahmimov, Arieb. Masterplan for Housing in North Eilat. Municipality of Eilat, Housing Department. 1997' (in Hebrew). Red Sea Program on Marine Scierces. March, 1997. Shlezinger, Yehiem. Petroleum and Phosphates in the Gulf of Aqaba. The Nature Reserves Authority. 1980. (in Hebrew). Smithsonian Institution. National Forum on Ocean Conservation. Washington DC. November, 1991. U.S. Department of Commerce. Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan. Marine and Estuarine Management Division. November, 1987. UNEP. An Approach to Environmental Impact Assessment for Projects Affecting the Coastal and Marine Environment. 1992. Warburg, Philip. Priority Measures Addressing Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Hazards. 1994. World Bank. Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan - Jordan. Environmental Division, Technical Department. Europe and Central Asia, Middle East and North Africa Regions. October, 1993. A-14 World Bank, The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan. Project Document. May, 1996. World Bank. Noorgwich Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Environmental Department. November, 1993. Zohar, Aharon. The South Beach of Eilat: Environmental Conservation as a Basis for Regional Planning and Tourism Development. November, 1991. (in Hebrew). 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