SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Evidence at Your Fingertips Series Can Safety Nets Reduce Gender-Based Violence? How? Summary 1. A growing body of evidence finds that cash 4. There is little systematic evidence on how specific transfers reduce intimate partner violence (IPV) in design features, such as size and frequency of various contexts, even when the cash transfer was transfers, affect GBV. Existing evidence suggests that not designed to do so. The effects are comparable digital payments may be more convenient for women with standalone violence-prevention interventions and more likely to allow them to retain control over and consistent with various forms of IPV (physical, the transfers, reducing risk of GBV. emotional, controlling behavior). 5. Evidence also suggests that, when cash transfers 2. Researchers hypothesize that safety nets curb gender- are combined with group-based accompanying based violence (GBV) via three impact pathways: by measures, they are more likely to reduce IPV, even reducing poverty and food insecurity, empowering if GBV prevention is not an explicit objective of the women, and increasing women’s social capital. accompanying measures. 3. Average results mask heterogeneity; some groups of women are at higher risk of GBV than others. For example, women whose partners have low levels of education and abuse alcohol tend to be at greater risk of GBV. SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Introduction There is limited systematic evidence on how specific cash transfer design features affect GBV. A growing body of evidence finds that cash Most impact evaluations do not distinguish the effects of transfers reduce violence against women and specific design and implementation features or consider children—even when the cash transfer was subsets of households with specific characteristics, but not designed with violence prevention in mind. they find that, on average, cash transfers reduce multiple Research on social protection and GBV1 has focused forms of GBV in various contexts. Qualitative evidence on the impacts of cash transfers on IPV.2 A few studies suggests that there are opportunities to enhance these have examined impacts on violence against children and impacts through program design and implementation adolescent girls. Overall, the evidence finds that the effects choices (Botea et al. 2021). of cash transfers in curbing violence against women and children are overwhelmingly positive and comparable with standalone violence-prevention interventions. Key Questions 1. What are the pathways through which cash transfers affect GBV? 2. How do cash transfers affect different kinds of GBV? How do different types of cash transfer programs (e.g., public works, economic inclusion programs) affect GBV? 3. What do we know about specific design choices in relation to GBV? Who should receive the benefit? How should it be transferred? How do transfer size, frequency, and duration affect GBV? What is the role of accompanying measures? 1 Gender-based violence is an umbrella term for any harmful act perpetrated against a person’s will and based on socially ascribed (that is, gender) differences between males and females. It includes acts that inflict physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering and threats of such acts, coercion, and other deprivations of liberty. 2 Intimate partner violence refers to violence that a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship commits against the other spouse or partner. -2- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Impact Pathways cash transfers affect GBV: poverty reduction, women’s empowerment, and social capital accumulation. Although Researchers have proposed several direct and indirect most impact evaluations focus on IPV, cash transfer pathways through which cash transfers can affect the recipients may also be at risk of other forms of violence prevalence of violence against women and children. that are not the focus of this note, including sexual Figure 1 presents three direct pathways through which exploitation, abuse, and harassment.3 Figure 1: Pathways for Effects of Cash Transfers on Gender-Based Violence Reduced • Reduced poverty-related stress poverty and • Reduced negative coping mechanisms GBV food insecurity • Increased emotional well-being • Increased access to and control over resources Women's • Increased bargaining power and status in household GBV empowerment • Increased self-esteem • Risk of backlash to shift in balance of power/challenges to male authority • Strengthened social networks Increased • Increased status and visibility in the community GBV social capital • Risk of backlash if women are percieved to ransgress social norms experience work- or unemployment-related stress are Reducing Poverty and Food more likely to be depressed and use violence against Insecurity their partners (Dooley et al. 2019). Cash transfers reduce poverty-related stress and improve emotional well-being, The first pathway through which cash transfers reducing violence in the household (Barrington et al. 2022; curb violence within households is reducing Buller et al. 2018; Ellsberg et al. 2015; Peterman, Valli and poverty and food insecurity. Violence within Palermo 2021; Vyas and Watts 2009). Greater access to households is often associated with food insecurity, cash, particularly in extremely poor households, can ease poverty, unemployment, and excessive alcohol use or intrahousehold conflict by reducing arguments over use drug addiction. Violence rates rise as the mental health of of scarce resources and daily spending decisions (Buller household members deteriorates or as men feel unable to et al. 2018). Predictability and regularity of transfers are fulfill their socially prescribed role as providers. Men who important for this pathway to take effect. 3 Sexual exploitation includes any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or trust for sexual purposes, including but not limited to profiting monetarily, socially, or politically from the sexual exploitation of another. Sexual abuse includes any actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions. Sexual harassment includes any unwelcome sexual advance; request for sexual favor; or verbal or physical conduct or gesture of a sexual nature that might reasonably be expected or perceived to cause offence or humiliation if such conduct interferes with work, is made a condition of employment, or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment. -3- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Empowering Women Increasing Women’s Social Capital Cash transfers can empower women, reducing GBV. Cash transfers can reduce GBV by strengthening There are gender gaps in income and asset ownership in women’s social networks and social capital. most regions. Women are often the designated recipients of Accompanying measures, such as group-based training cash transfers because of their instrumental role in human and behavior change sessions, can help reduce GBV. development outcomes for children. Transferring resources Interacting with service providers can increase access to women may also increase their bargaining power. In focus for underserved communities. Participating in training group discussions among beneficiaries of the Bangladesh sessions not only builds skills, but also reinforces social Jawtno Program, women reported improvement in status bonds and support networks. These activities tend to and treatment by husbands and mothers-in-law as a result boost self-esteem and self-efficacy, especially if life of receiving transfers (Ali and Kuttner 2020). Greater access skills are taught, which can increase women’s ability to to own resources reduces women’s dependence and the communicate and negotiate effectively for their priorities. need to ask for money, which may eliminate conflicts. In Participating in group activities may also make violence focus group discussions with beneficiaries of Bangladesh’s more visible and therefore “costly” to men, increasing Employment Generation Program for the Poorest, women the risk of public exposure and social sanctions for reported that intimate partners were likely to be more misbehavior (Brody et al. 2015; Pavanello et al. 2016; cautious about verbal harassment after the women had Stets 1991; Van Wyk et al. 2003). become income earners (Ali and Kuttner 2020). Similar findings were reported in Ghana (Peterman, Valli, and Palermo 2021). Women’s increased bargaining power may Evidence Overview reduce their tolerance for violent behavior and increase their ability to exit violent relationships.4 Effects of Cash Transfers on GBV Nevertheless, empowerment may come with risks A growing body of evidence from a cross-section of low- of backlash, particularly for the most vulnerable. and middle-income countries finds that cash transfers A shift in the balance of power toward women can lead to have significant potential to reduce violence against backlash by men, including violence (Eswaran and Malhotra women and children, even if GBV prevention is not an 2011). If transfers to women elevate their status in the explicit program objective. A review of 22 studies in low- household, men may feel threatened and use violence to and middle-income countries found reductions in IPV of reassert authority and control. This is especially likely in 11 percent to 66 percent (Buller et al. 2018). A mixed- patriarchal contexts when women start contributing more methods review found that 11 of the 14 quantitative to household finances or take jobs that defy traditional studies (79 percent) found declines in IPV attributable to social norms (García-Moreno et al. 2005; Hautzinger the program, one found mixed impacts (decreases and 2003; Hughes et al. 2015), but mitigation measures such increases depending on the type of IPV measured), two as ensuring that norm holders in the community support found no impacts and five of the eight qualitative studies women’s participation in cash-transfer programs can reduce found a reduction in IPV after receipt of cash transfers; the risk of backlash. It is important to balance the risk of one showed mixed results, with IPV decreasing in some backlash with the risk of reinforcing unequal gender norms households and increasing in others; and two found no that are at the root of GBV and persistent gender gaps. clear effect of cash transfers on IPV (Figure 2). 4 Some men may become less violent so that their partners choose not to exit the marriage, although it is unclear whether the transfer amounts are sufficient to constitute a credible threat to exit marriage (Farmer and Tiefenthaler 1997; Tauchen, Witte, and Long 1991). -4- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Figure 2: Overall Effects of Cash Transfers on Intimate cash transfers were associated with a significant overall Partner Violence (Combined Results of 22 Studies) increase in IPV. Seven of the 14 studies found significant declines in physical or sexual IPV,6 and the remainder found no significant impact. The direction of the effects in most of 5 the studies that examined emotional IPV also suggested a decrease; two of 10 studies produced statistically significant estimates. Four studies reported results for controlling behaviors, for instance, the husband restricting the woman’s 11 contact with her family; three of the four found that cash transfers significantly reduced this type of behavior.7 More- 2 recent research has found similar results.8 1 1 2 Figure 3: Effects of Cash Transfers on Different Decrease Increase Mixed No relationship Types of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) identified (Combined Results of 14 Studies) Quantitative Qualitative Source: Buller et al. 2018. 8 8 7 Effects of Cash Transfers on Different Types of IPV 2 3 1 Overall, the impact of cash transfers on prevalence Physical/sexual IPV Emotional IPV Controlling behaviors of IPV is consistent for various forms of IPV. A recent Decrease No impact detected meta-analysis found a significant reduction, ranging from 2 Source: Baranov et al. 2021. to 4 percentage points, in physical (including sexual) and emotional violence and controlling behaviors as a result of Cash transfers can also significantly reduce cash transfer interventions (Figure 3).5 Of the 14 studies that nonpartner violence. A study in the Philippines directly examined the relationship with IPV, none found that examined the impact of cash transfers on different types 5 There is substantial overlap in the studies covered by Buller et al. (2018) and Baranov et al. (2021). In addition to the nine studies covered in both, Buller et al. (2018) included quasi-experimental and qualitative studies, and Baranov et al. (2021) included studies that had been published since Buller et al. 2018. 6 Another quasi-experimental study in Peru found a significant reduction in physical IPV, with the cash transfer program reducing the prevalence of physical IPV by 25 percent to 30 percent. This was attributed to reductions in alcohol consumption and alcohol-related aggression from male partners (Díaz and Saldarriaga 2021). 7 The 14 studies that Buller et al. (2018) reviewed examine 56 IPV indicators, including 34 measures of physical or sexual violence. Of the 56 outcomes, 20 (36 percent) were statistically significant and negative. Cash transfers had no significant effect on IPV in the remaining 63 percent. For significant reductions in IPV, the percentage varies according to category of violence examined, with a significant reduction in 44 percent of indicators of physical or sexual IPV and 38 percent of other outcome indicators (e.g., controlling behaviors), whereas there was a reduction in only 8 percent of emotional IPV indicators. The one case in which an increase was found in emotional IPV was in the Give Directly pilot initiative in western Kenya in a comparison of treatment and nontreatment households in the same villages (Haushofer and Shapiro 2016). Nine of these impacts were reductions of 30 percent or more, which is substantial given that most evaluations took place over the short or medium term. 8 Reductions: Heath, Hidrobo, and Roy (2020); Lees et al. (2021); Roy et al. (2019); WFP (2019) (qualitative in Bangladesh, the Arab Republic of Egypt, El Salvador, Jordan, and Mali). No impact detected: Haushofer, Mudida, and Shapiro (2019); Haushofer and Shapiro (2018); Litwin et al. (2019). -5- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 of GBV: IPV, domestic violence by nonpartners (e.g., other especially if they feel unable to meet the roles socially relatives), and violence outside the home. Although it assigned to them (Jewkes 2002). found no impact on IPV and violence outside the home, it found a measurable decline in nonpartner domestic Effects also differ based on household structure.9 violence. This is attributed to the same pathways For instance, Mali’s national unconditional cash transfer described above—less stress because of higher income, program had no systematic effects on IPV in monogamous empowerment, and stronger social networks (Dervisevic, households but had large, significant reductions in Perova, and Sahay 2022). Another study in Tanzania found polygamous households. In particular, violence decreased that cash plus interventions reduced female participants’ against second and later wives, who had faced the experiences of sexual violence (not just by intimate highest rates of violence before the program. Conversely, partners) by 5 percentage points and male participants’ in Ghana, reductions in IPV were observed only in perpetration of physical violence by 6 percentage points monogamous households, with no reductions in any (Palermo, Prencipe, and Kajula 2021). This was attributed domain of IPV in polygamous households (Peterman, to a reduction in household poverty, an increase in women’s Valli, and Palermo 2021). The conflicting findings of self-esteem, and an improvement in men’s attitudes. these two studies may reflect the different sex of the transfer recipients—men in Mali and women in Ghana— although more research is needed to establish patterns. Heterogeneous Effects of In the case of Zambia’s Social Cash Transfer Program Cash Transfers on GBV (providing support to woman-headed households, a large number of whom were older widowed women), These encouraging average effects may qualitative research revealed that the risks of GBV arose nonetheless mask greater IPV risk for certain mainly from adult sons. If vulnerabilities related to age subgroups. Evidence from Latin America shows that, and sex intersect, different risk-mitigation strategies may although average IPV prevalence among beneficiaries be needed (Kuttner and Nkonkomalimba 2020). declined after cash transfers were delivered, the prevalence of some forms of violence increased in Effects of Cash Transfers on less-educated households. In Ecuador, for example, researchers found a decrease in controlling behavior on Violence Against Children average but a substantial rise in emotional violence in beneficiary households in which women had less than There is some evidence that cash transfers six years of schooling and husbands had even lower reduce violence against children.10 The drivers of levels of education (Hidrobo and Fernald 2013). In violence against women and children overlap, so the Mexico, if husbands had low educational attainment or impact pathways can be expected to show parallels no education and abused alcohol, aggressive behavior (Fulu et al. 2017). A systematic review of 14 studies in after drinking increased by 30 percent—increasing even low- and middle-income countries found that there more if the wives were younger (Angelucci 2008). These were statistically significant reductions in violence studies suggest that there may be greater risk of backlash against children according to approximately 20 percent when men have low levels of education. Such violence of indicators (Peterman et al. 2017). The most promising may stem from a sense of powerlessness or insecurity, evidence was related to sexual violence that female 9 Polygamous households in Burkina Faso were analyzed to see how variations in household structures, intrahousehold dynamics, division of responsibility, and resource allocation may mediate outcomes (Guilbert and Pierotti 2016). 10 Although evidence of impacts on other household members is limited, social assistance is expected to reduce neglect and abuse of these members, including children, by reducing poverty-related stress, enhancing psychological well-being, and improving caregiving. -6- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 adolescents experienced in Africa, whereas there was can strengthen the empowerment effect of public works, less-clear evidence for other regions and for young child particularly for women without prior experience of working measures, including harsh discipline. Similar to IPV, outside the home and whose husbands disapprove of reductions in violence against children are thought to their work (Field at el. 2019). be mainly the result of an increase in economic security leading to less need for negative coping mechanisms, such The empirical evidence of the impact of public as transactional sex, access to education, a reduction in works on IPV is mixed. In India, an increase in female poverty-related stress, and a reduction in intrahousehold labor participation as a result of the National Rural conflict. Recent evidence from Tanzania bolsters these Employment Guarantee Scheme was initially associated findings by showing that participation in a cash-plus with a weakly significant increase in domestic violence intervention among adolescents reduces sexual violence (Amaral, Bandyopadhyay, and Sensarma 2015). More against girls and physical violence perpetrated by boys.11 recently, researchers found that participation in the Another study in the Philippines found that parenting scheme mediated the adverse effect of drought on interventions as part of a cash-transfer program reduced domestic violence by reducing poverty-related stress violence against children, measured as a reduction in within the household (Sarma 2020). Similarly, evidence overall child maltreatment, emotional abuse, physical from Sierra Leone, found that physical IPV declined as a abuse, and neglect (Lachman et al. 2021). These findings result of a public works program,13 but in Laos, although were sustained at one-year follow-up.12 participation in public works was linked to an increase in empowerment, there was no impact on IPV (Dervisevic, Perova, and Sahay 2021; Perova et al. 2021). Context is key, Public Works and evidence suggests that the husband’s employment status often mediates the relationship between women’s The work requirement in public works schemes empowerment and IPV. Women’s employment was may affect women’s empowerment and GBV in associated with greater vulnerability to physical violence certain contexts. Public works schemes transfer cash when their husbands’ employment was less secure, (wages) conditional on provision of labor. In Bangladesh, regardless of overall income, educational attainment, or public works programs have been found to be more rural or urban residence (Agarwal and Panda 2007). More effective than direct-transfer programs in empowering research on the impact of public works on IPV is needed women, precisely because of the work requirement (Christian et al. 2022). (Ahmed et al. 2009). Greater decision-making power in the households of female participants was attributed to a sense of pride for the income earned. Husbands respected Economic Inclusion their wives more if the wives became income earners, whereas there had been little appreciation of women’s Empirical evidence on the impact of economic unpaid domestic work. Based on evidence from India, inclusion programs on GBV remains limited, despite depositing wages directly into women’s bank accounts a growing body of research on the effectiveness of 11 Based on analysis presented by Lusajo Kajula, Tia M. Palermo, and others at the virtual Cash Transfer and Intimate Partner Violence Research Collaborative–Intimate Partner Violence Initiative workshop on October 29, 2020. 12 The study also found significant effects on reductions in dysfunctional parenting, child behavior problems, and IPV and greater parental efficacy and positive parenting. 13 Additional analysis based on data collected by Rosas and Sabarwal (2016). -7- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 the programs in improving employment, earnings, 2018). An asset transfer and microfinance intervention and other well-being outcomes for women.14 in Uganda similarly found no impacts on IPV (Green et Few impact evaluations of economic inclusion programs al. 2015). A livelihoods training program in South Africa measure impacts on IPV. In Afghanistan, a multifaceted failed to achieve a significant change in IPV experienced program was found neither to increase nor decrease by women, despite a decrease in the reported perpetration IPV among female participants (Corboz et al. 2019). In of IPV by men (Gibbs et al. 2017). The subsequent section Burkina Faso, a comprehensive livelihoods intervention provides an overview of the evidence for specific design insignificantly decreased physical IPV (Ismayilova et al. decisions, summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Summary of Impact of Design Decisions Design decision Evidence on impact Sex of transfer Research does not show any systematic differences in GBV when men versus women receive the transfer, recipients although giving transfers to women can close other important gender gaps (e.g., bank account ownership) and improve other outcomes, including women’s bargaining power and investment in children’s human capital. Transfer modality Although the evidence is limited, studies comparing transfer modalities have found no difference in impact on (cash, in-kind, IPV. voucher) Manual vs digital Although research is limited, digital payments may be less burdensome and more likely to allow women to payments maintain control over resources. Size and frequency of The evidence is inconclusive as to whether smaller, more-frequent or larger lumpsum transfers are better for transfers prevention of GBV. Predictability of transfers (on-time payments) appears to be important for reducing IPV. Accompanying When cash transfers are combined with group-based accompanying measures, they are more likely to reduce measures IPV, even if GBV prevention is not an explicit objective of the activity. Note: GBV, gender-based violence; IPV, intimate partner violence. Transfer Decisions Sex of Transfer Recipients Empirical evidence on the effect of a transfer toward women. The authors concluded that their results recipient’s sex on IPV outcomes is limited. While were broadly consistent with the view that transfers to the evidence remains limited, it suggests no difference in women boost the women’s bargaining power (Haushofer development outcomes overall based on the sex of the and Shapiro 2018). Evidence for a program in Mali in transfer recipient (Haushofer and Shapiro 2018, Lees et which men were the recipients of cash transfers showed al. 2021). A study in Kenya comparing male and female a reduction in physical IPV but no difference in terms of transfer recipients found that decline in IPV was significant sexual violence or controlling behavior (Lees et al. 2021). regardless of the sex of the recipient but that the magnitude More evidence is needed, particularly in more-conservative of the effect was larger if the transfers were directed settings, in which the risk of backlash may be greater. 14 Economic inclusion programs are multidimensional interventions that support individuals, households, and communities so that they can increase their incomes and accumulate assets. They are also referred to as productive inclusion or graduation programs (Banerjee et al. 2015). -8- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Transfer Modality but it found that mobile money recipients spent less time traveling to payment points and waiting for the transfers, (Cash, In-Kind, Voucher) were generally more likely to be engaged in productive economic activities, and spent more on children than Although the evidence is limited, studies women who received physical transfers (Aker et al. 2016). comparing different transfer modalities find Researchers hypothesize that women’s enhanced ability no difference in impact on IPV. Results in Ecuador to conceal mobile money transfers boosted their ability indicate that transfers reduce controlling behaviors and to align expenditures with preferences. This accords with physical or sexual violence by 6 to 7 percentage points research suggesting that female recipients are willing to (approximately 19 percent to 30 percent) but that the receive a smaller transfer to maintain control over transfers impacts do not vary according to transfer modality (food, and conceal them from their spouses (Almås et al. 2018). cash, voucher) (Hidrobo, Peterman, and Heise 2016). The Although these studies focused on the ability to conceal as study suggests that an increase in women’s bargaining a pathway to better use of resources, concealing transfer power, and a decrease in poverty-related stress reduced amounts may, in some cases, also help prevent backlash. IPV. The consistency of effects across transfer modalities A study in Mexico found that, if beneficiaries received was attributed to the framing as a food security debit cards, the median distance travelled to access their intervention that did not challenge traditional gender accounts was reduced from 4.8 to 1.3 kilometers, reducing norms. In Bangladesh, cash and food transfers did not the risk of opportunistic GBV (Bachas et al. 2018). The have any impact on IPV 6 to 10 months after the end of series also included a separate evidence brief on payment a program unless group-based behavior change measures mechanisms. were also implemented (Roy et al. 2019). Although transferring cash or food alone did not affect emotional or physical IPV, transfers of either, with accompanying Size and Frequency of Transfers measures, reduced physical violence by 7 percentage points for cash transfers and 6 percentage points for The evidence is inconclusive as to whether smaller, food transfers. A follow-on survey four years after the more-frequent or larger lumpsum transfers are intervention found that IPV reduction was sustained for better for prevention of GBV. Initial research in Mexico the treatment arm that received accompanying measures. suggested that large payments are more associated with See the brief on cash transfer modality for more insights violence than small payments (Angelucci 2008). This was on the topic. thought to show that there was less incentive for men to use violence to extract smaller amounts than larger sums, but a study in Kenya comparing lumpsum with periodic Manual vs. Digital Payments transfers reported a significant increase in a women’s empowerment index after a lumpsum transfer (Haushofer Although research comparing the effects of and Shapiro 2018). The index incorporates measures of manual and digital payments on IPV prevalence is the frequency of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse limited, it suggests that digital payments are less by husbands and the justifications offered for violence burdensome and more likely to allow women to against women. Some qualitative evidence suggests that, maintain control over resources.15 A study in Niger with smaller transfer values, men are less threatened in randomly assigned women to receive transfers through their role as primary providers, and backlash therefore mobile payments or physical cash transfers provided at becomes less likely (CaLP 2018). Smaller transfers may central locations. The study did not consider impacts on GBV, also be more easily concealed. Nevertheless, a study in 15 See Garz et al. (2020) for an overview of evidence on the impacts of digital payments. -9- SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 northern Nigeria that varied the frequency of transfers did et al. 2015; Stets 1991). In a randomized controlled trial not find any difference in women’s control over resources of a cash-plus program in Bangladesh, sustained reductions (Bastian, Goldstein, and Papineni 2017). in IPV were achieved only if transfers were combined with nutrition training sessions.16 The sustained impacts were Regularity and predictability of transfers are attributed to the increase in social capital and reduction also important in reducing GBV risk. Research in tolerance of IPV of beneficiaries, the increase in social on a conditional cash-transfer program in Colombia cost to men for the use of violence, and the strengthened demonstrated that a delay in payments was associated support network in cases of IPV. Similarly, in northern with an increase in violence because delays create an Nigeria, cash transfers alone increased sexual IPV, whereas adverse emotional response (Camacho, Gaviria, and the transfers reduced overall IPV if they were combined with Rodríguez 2016); IPV rates declined by approximately a whole-of-village livelihoods program. A likely explanation 5 percent around the time of receipt of the transfer. In is that husbands and community members also benefited Brazil, cash transfers contributed to a daily reduction in from an increase in income and consumption resulting from IPV of 0.5 percent to 4.3 percent; these effects were the livelihoods component, making the transfers to women stronger on the day after a withdrawal (Nour 2022). The appear less threatening to men. series includes a separate brief on cash transfer values and frequency. Accompanying measures are more likely to reduce IPV if they are designed to increase women’s self-esteem and self-efficacy and improve their Accompanying Measures communication skills. Some participants in a South African program reported that the increase in self- Evidence suggests that, when cash transfers confidence and social support and improvement in are combined with group-based accompanying communication skills improved partner communication, measures, they are more likely to reduce IPV, which helped prevent conflicts from escalating into even if GBV prevention is not an explicit objective violence (Kim et al. 2007). Similarly, interventions that of the activity. Most cash or in-kind transfer programs build aspirations have been found to be effective in include complementary activities (also known as “cash reducing IPV risk. Cash transfers in Kenya reduced IPV plus”) to enhance outcomes through training or coaching. if they were shown a 20-minute video showing positive Although the content, frequency, and duration of these role models (Mahmud, Orkin, and Riley 2020). Neither activities vary, they are usually delivered in group the cash transfers nor the aspirational video alone settings and cover topics such as health, hygiene, and affected IPV.17 feeding practices to improve nutritional outcomes or early childhood stimulation and care. Accompanying measures are increasingly engaging husbands and community members to change Group-based activities build social capital and social norms and build support for women’s networks that can increase women’s confidence economic empowerment. This has occurred largely and social status, raise the costs of violence for because of the recognition that programs targeting women men, help resolve conflicts, or provide support to need to reflect the complex relationships of beneficiaries women seeking to exit abusive relationships (Brody rather than regarding them as autonomous agents. Several 16 IPV did not differ between women receiving transfers and a control group 6 to 10 months after the program, although women who received transfers along with behavior change communication experienced 26 percent less physical violence (Roy et al. 2019). 17 In northern Nigeria, reductions in IPV were sustained only if cash-transfer programs included add-on measures linked to community-​ wide livelihoods support (Cullen 2020). - 10 - SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 initiatives have improved outcomes for women by engaging Qualified researchers with specialized training men, including the United Nations Population Fund schools on ethical protocols for GBV data collection must for husbands in Niger, CARE’s couples training to build collect data on GBV to ensure that no harm is support for women’s participation in savings groups, and caused. To avoid putting respondents at risk, data on Promundo’s participatory couples discussions on topics GBV prevalence should not be collected directly as part such as gender, power, and masculinity.18 of routine program monitoring. Projects are increasingly adapting their grievance mechanisms to record and respond to GBV in a survivor-centric manner.19 Additional resources, Considerations for Research and including an operational toolkit and e-learning course, are Operational Experimentation available at www.worldbank.org​ /safetyfirstrecources. Given the prevalence of GBV and its detrimental effects on human capital, cash transfers should Areas for Future Research20 be leveraged more systematically to prevent GBV. This is especially true given the expanding reach of Impact of program design choices: Few studies isolate cash transfers among the poorest. Key principles to follow the impacts of design features or program components while designing and implementing programs include: to determine, for example, whether transfer amount or frequency (e.g., larger, lumpsum vs smaller, more-frequent • Consider how the program can increase women’s transfers) have different impacts on IPV, to evaluate the access to and control over resources. trade-offs between transferring cash to men versus women, or to determine whether in-person or digital payments are • Consider how the program can strengthen women’s more likely to remain within the recipient’s control. networks and skills by bringing them together for training and creating meaningful interactions among Mechanisms: The mechanisms at play to bring about participants. change are poorly understood because most studies are not designed to test them rigorously. Few studies use mixed • Consider how the program might engage men to methods to understand how or why of changes work. ensure their buy-in for women’s participation and prevent backlash. Role of accompanying measures: Many questions remain about the impacts of accompanying measures. • Ensure oversight to understand any risks of GBV For example, what are the most-efficient and most- in the program and adopt mitigation measures to cost-effective “plus” interventions that could be prevent those. implemented alongside cash transfers to prevent GBV? 18 See Doyle et al. (2018). Promundo introduced a program in Brazil as a companion to the Bolsa Família cash transfer to try to change gender norms and mitigate risk of violence. See “Bolsa Família Companion Program,” Promundo, Washington, DC, https:// promundoglobal.org​/programs/bolsa-familia-companion-program/. 19 A survivor-centric approach means empowering GBV survivors by prioritizing their rights, needs, and wishes, which promotes recovery and reinforces their capacity to make decisions for themselves, including about whether and which support services to access. It means ensuring confidentiality, informed consent, and access to good-quality services, including health care, psychological support, security, and legal services as appropriate. 20 The evidence gaps were discussed during a virtual Cash Transfer and IPV Research Collaborative workshop on October 29, 2020. See Cash Transfer and Intimate Partner Violence Research Collaborative (dashboard), International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, https://www.ifpri.org/project/cash-transfer-and-intimate-partner-violence-research-collaborative, Intimate Partner Violence Initiative (dashboard), Innovations for Poverty Action, New Haven, CT, https://www.poverty-action.org/program-area/health​ /­intimate-partner-violence-initiative. - 11 - SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Given what is known about the positive impacts of households, such as violence against children or elderly non-GBV-focused interventions, how do the impacts adults, and GBV experienced outside the household while of similar interventions focused on general human engaged in program-related activities? development compare with interventions focused on changing gender dynamics and reducing GBV? Which Long-term impacts: Most studies assess GBV impacts specific program elements are responsible for the during program participation or shortly after a program positive impacts of interventions explicitly aimed at ends, but what are the longer-term effects? Are there norm change and GBV prevention? intergenerational impacts? Cost-effectiveness of proven interventions: Measurement: Which survey methodologies generate Cost-effectiveness studies should accompany impact the most-accurate GBV prevalence data, and which evaluations to compare the impacts of programs factors influence accuracy? How might one control for of different GBV-focused and non-GBV-focused a potential increase in GBV reporting as a result of the accompanying measures with cash-only transfers. intervention that boosts the ability of participants to recognize forms of GBV that have become normalized? Heterogeneity of impacts: How do impacts on GBV What are the ethical considerations in weighing research vary based on sociodemographic or other characteristics? and measurement methods? More research on heterogeneous effects (e.g., according to vulnerability, family structure, educational attainment Context and external validity: Although context is of beneficiaries and their partners), particularly in regions an important confounding factor, few studies seek to other than Latin America, would help identify risk factors determine the contribution of context (e.g., gender norms) and inform mitigation measures. to the relationship between GBV and participation in cash-transfer schemes. More research is needed to clarify Diversity in GBV typologies: How do cash-transfer the extent to which current evidence is generalizable to programs influence violence other than IPV in beneficiary different cultural contexts. 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The Potential of Cash-Based Interventions to Promote Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Multi-Country Study. Technical Report (February). Rome: WFP. - 15 - SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS | P  OLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE MARCH 2024 | No. 30 Evidence at Your Fingertips Series This note is part of thematic briefs in the series including: • Evidence Briefs on Cash Transfers: Overview and Ten Key Messages • Cash transfer values: How much is enough? • Cash Transfer Timing: How Transfer Duration and Frequency Contribute to Outcomes • Payment mechanisms: Do outcomes vary according to payment type? • Cash versus in-kind transfers: Do outcomes vary according to modality? The series is launched with that aim that these be living documents. In that spirit, the team welcomes suggestions on materials and topics to be covered in the future series that can serve as useful, practical references for practitioners of social protection. The series is a joint initiative by Innovations for Poverty Action and the World Bank’s Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice comprising Nathanael Goldberg, Lauren Whitehead, Savanna Henderson, Ana Alatriste Tamayo, Julie Kedroske, Ugo Gentilini, Yuko Okamura, Mohamed Almenfi, Hrishikesh TMM Iyengar, and Mia Blakstad. Alessandra Heinemann (aheinemann@worldbank.org) and Palak Rawal wrote this brief based on a toolkit produced by Ioana Botea, Aline Coudouel, Alessandra Heinemann and Stephanie Kuttner. © 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: +1 (202) 473 1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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