S A B E R – S Y S T E M S A P P R O A C H F O R B E T T E R E D U C AT I O N R E S U LT S STUDENT ASSESSMENT 2 69015 Developing the Enabling Context for Student Assessment in Chile Updated Edition María-José Ramírez Note to the Reader As of August 27, 2012, the following updates were made to the original YHUVLRQRIWKLVSDSHUEDVHGRQWKH8QLYHUVLGDGGH&KLOH·VRIÀFLDOEXGJHW information obtained through the Access to Information Act (Ley de 7UDQVSDUHQFLD  ‡ 3DJHVDQG7KHRIÀFLDOH[DPLQDWLRQEXUHDXEXGJHWZDV changed from US$10 million to US$6.6 million. An explanation was DGGHGUHJDUGLQJZKDWLVFRYHUHGE\WKLVRIÀFLDOEXGJHWDQGZKDWLV transferred as indirect cost to the university that hosts the examination bureau. ‡ 3DJHThe original text “The examination fee allowed Universidad de Chile to collect US$13.6 million, 36 percent more than the DEMRE yearly budget� was changed to “The examination fee allowed Universidad de Chile to collect US$14.9 million, more than double the DEMRE yearly budget.� ‡ 3DJH The original text “The budget for the examination bureau also seems to have remained relatively stable in the last decade� was changed to “The yearly budget for the examination bureau increased by US$3.8 million in the last decade.� An explanation was added comparing this increase with the increase in the amount of money collected via examination fees. ‡ 3DJH The original text “The examination budget has remained relatively stable since the 1990s� was changed to “The budget of the examination bureau more than doubled between 2000 and 2011.� ‡ 3DJH The original text “The examination budget has remained relatively stable since the 1990s, despite the fact that the number of VWXGHQWVSD\LQJWRWDNHWKHH[DPLQDWLRQVKDVJURZQPRUHWKDQ percent in the last decade� was changed to “Between 2000 and 2011, the yearly amount of money collected from the examination fee grew by around US$9.6 million, whereas the examination yearly budget increased by only US$3.8 million.� ȱ WORKINGȱPAPERȱNO.ȱ2 DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱ forȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ UpdatedȱEditionȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ©ȱ2012ȱTheȱInternationalȱBankȱforȱReconstructionȱandȱDevelopmentȱ/ȱTheȱWorldȱBankȱ 1818ȱHȱStreetȱNWȱ WashingtonȱDCȱ20433ȱ Telephone:ȱ202Ȭ473Ȭ1000ȱ Internet:ȱwww.worldbank.orgȱ ȱ 1ȱ2ȱ3ȱ4ȱ 15ȱ14ȱ13ȱ12ȱȱ ȱ ThisȱworkȱisȱaȱproductȱofȱtheȱstaffȱofȱTheȱWorldȱBankȱwithȱexternalȱcontributions.ȱTheȱfindings,ȱ interpretations,ȱandȱconclusionsȱexpressedȱinȱthisȱworkȱdoȱnotȱnecessarilyȱreflectȱtheȱviewsȱofȱ TheȱWorldȱBank,ȱitsȱBoardȱofȱExecutiveȱDirectors,ȱorȱtheȱgovernmentsȱtheyȱrepresent.ȱ TheȱWorldȱBankȱdoesȱnotȱguaranteeȱtheȱaccuracyȱofȱtheȱdataȱincludedȱinȱthisȱwork.ȱTheȱ boundaries,ȱcolors,ȱdenominations,ȱandȱotherȱinformationȱshownȱonȱanyȱmapȱinȱthisȱworkȱdoȱ notȱimplyȱanyȱjudgmentȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱTheȱWorldȱBankȱconcerningȱtheȱlegalȱstatusȱofȱanyȱ territoryȱorȱtheȱendorsementȱorȱacceptanceȱofȱsuchȱboundaries.ȱ ȱ RightsȱandȱPermissionsȱ Theȱmaterialȱinȱthisȱworkȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱcopyright.ȱBecauseȱTheȱWorldȱBankȱencouragesȱ disseminationȱofȱitsȱknowledge,ȱthisȱworkȱmayȱbeȱreproduced,ȱinȱwholeȱorȱinȱpart,ȱforȱ noncommercialȱpurposesȱasȱlongȱasȱfullȱattributionȱtoȱthisȱworkȱisȱgiven.ȱ Anyȱqueriesȱonȱrightsȱandȱlicenses,ȱincludingȱsubsidiaryȱrights,ȱshouldȱbeȱaddressedȱtoȱtheȱ OfficeȱofȱtheȱPublisher,ȱTheȱWorldȱBank,ȱ1818ȱHȱStreetȱNW,ȱWashington,ȱDCȱ20433,ȱUSA;ȱfax:ȱ 202Ȭ522Ȭ2422;ȱeȬmail:ȱpubrights@worldbank.org.ȱ ȱ Coverȱdesign:ȱPatriciaȱHord.GraphikȱDesign,ȱAlexandria,ȱVAȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Contentsȱ AboutȱtheȱSeriesȱ...............................................................................................................ȱ v AboutȱtheȱAuthorȱ..........................................................................................................ȱvii Acknowledgmentsȱ..........................................................................................................ȱ ix xi Abstractȱ............................................................................................................................ȱ ExecutiveȱSummaryȱ.....................................................................................................ȱxiii Introductionȱ......................................................................................................................ȱ1 LargeȬScaleȱAssessmentȱ..................................................................................................ȱ2 TheȱUniversityȱEntranceȱExaminationsȱ........................................................................ȱ8 ClassroomȱAssessmentȱ..................................................................................................ȱ13 LessonsȱLearnedȱ.............................................................................................................ȱ18 Referencesȱ.......................................................................................................................ȱ22 ȱ Tableȱ Tableȱ1.ȱKeyȱfeaturesȱofȱtheȱenablingȱcontext,ȱmechanismsȱofȱchange,ȱandȱ driversȱforȱchangeȱofȱChile’sȱstudentȱassessmentȱsystemȱ................................ȱ18 ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ iiiȱ ȱ ȱ AboutȱtheȱSeriesȱ Buildingȱ strongȱ educationȱ systemsȱ thatȱ promoteȱ learningȱ isȱ fundamentalȱ toȱ developmentȱ andȱ economicȱ growth.ȱ Overȱ theȱ pastȱ fewȱ years,ȱ asȱ developingȱ countriesȱ haveȱ succeededȱ inȱ buildingȱ moreȱ classrooms,ȱ andȱ gettingȱ millionsȱ moreȱ childrenȱ intoȱ school,ȱ theȱ educationȱ communityȱ hasȱ begunȱ toȱ activelyȱ embraceȱ theȱ visionȱ ofȱ measurableȱ learningȱ forȱ allȱ childrenȱ inȱ school.ȱ However,ȱ learningȱ dependsȱ notȱ onlyȱ onȱ resourcesȱ investedȱ inȱ theȱ schoolȱ system,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ onȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ theȱ policiesȱ andȱ institutionsȱ thatȱ enableȱ theirȱ useȱ andȱ onȱ howȱ wellȱtheȱpoliciesȱareȱimplemented.ȱȱ Inȱ 2011,ȱ theȱ Worldȱ Bankȱ Groupȱ launchedȱ Educationȱ Sectorȱ Strategyȱ 2020:ȱ Learningȱ forȱ All,ȱ whichȱ outlinesȱ anȱ agendaȱ forȱ achievingȱ “Learningȱ forȱ All�ȱ inȱ theȱ developingȱ worldȱ overȱ theȱ nextȱ decade.ȱ Toȱ supportȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ strategy,ȱtheȱWorldȱBankȱcommencedȱaȱmultiȬyearȱprogramȱtoȱsupportȱcountriesȱ inȱ systematicallyȱ examiningȱ andȱ strengtheningȱ theȱ performanceȱ ofȱ theirȱ educationȱ systems.ȱ Thisȱ evidenceȬbasedȱ initiative,ȱ calledȱ SABERȱ (Systemsȱ Approachȱ forȱ Betterȱ Educationȱ Results),ȱ isȱ buildingȱ aȱ toolkitȱ ofȱ diagnosticsȱ forȱ examiningȱ educationȱ systemsȱ andȱ theirȱ componentȱ policyȱ domainsȱ againstȱ globalȱ standards,ȱ bestȱ practices,ȱ andȱ inȱ comparisonȱ withȱ theȱ policiesȱ andȱ practicesȱ ofȱ countriesȱ aroundȱ theȱ world.ȱ Byȱ leveragingȱ thisȱ globalȱ knowledge,ȱ SABERȱfillsȱaȱgapȱinȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱdataȱandȱevidenceȱonȱwhatȱmattersȱmostȱ toȱimproveȱtheȱqualityȱofȱeducationȱandȱachievementȱofȱbetterȱresults.ȱȱ SABERȬStudentȱAssessment,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱsystemsȱexaminedȱwithinȱtheȱSABERȱ program,ȱ hasȱ developedȱ toolsȱ toȱ analyzeȱ andȱ benchmarkȱ studentȱ assessmentȱ policiesȱ andȱ systemsȱ aroundȱ theȱ world,ȱ withȱ theȱ goalȱ ofȱ promotingȱ strongerȱ assessmentȱsystemsȱthatȱcontributeȱ toȱimprovedȱeducationȱqualityȱandȱlearningȱ forȱ all.ȱ Toȱ helpȱ exploreȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ knowledgeȱ inȱ theȱ area,ȱ theȱ SABERȬStudentȱ Assessmentȱ teamȱ invitedȱ leadingȱ academics,ȱ assessmentȱ experts,ȱ andȱ practitionersȱ fromȱ developingȱ andȱ industrializedȱ countriesȱ toȱ comeȱ togetherȱ toȱ discussȱassessmentȱissuesȱrelevantȱforȱimprovingȱeducationȱqualityȱandȱlearningȱ outcomes.ȱ Theȱ papersȱ andȱ caseȱ studiesȱ onȱ studentȱ assessmentȱ inȱ thisȱ seriesȱ areȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ thoseȱ conversationsȱ andȱ theȱ underlyingȱ research.ȱ Priorȱ toȱ publication,ȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ papersȱ benefitedȱ fromȱ aȱ rigorousȱ reviewȱ process,ȱ whichȱ includedȱ commentsȱ fromȱ Worldȱ Bankȱ staff,ȱ academics,ȱ developmentȱ practitioners,ȱandȱcountryȱassessmentȱexperts.ȱ AllȱSABERȬStudentȱAssessmentȱpapersȱinȱthisȱseriesȱwereȱmadeȱpossibleȱbyȱ supportȱfromȱtheȱRussiaȱEducationȱAidȱforȱDevelopmentȱTrustȱFundȱ(READȱTF).ȱ READȱTFȱisȱaȱcollaborationȱbetweenȱtheȱRussianȱFederationȱandȱtheȱWorldȱBankȱ thatȱ supportsȱ theȱ improvementȱ ofȱ studentȱ learningȱ outcomesȱ inȱ lowȬincomeȱ countriesȱthroughȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱrobustȱstudentȱassessmentȱsystems.ȱȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ vȱ TheȱSABERȱworkingȱpaperȱseriesȱwasȱproducedȱunderȱtheȱgeneralȱguidanceȱ ofȱ Elizabethȱ King,ȱ Educationȱ Director,ȱ andȱ Robinȱ Horn,ȱ Educationȱ Managerȱ inȱ theȱHumanȱDevelopmentȱNetworkȱofȱtheȱWorldȱBank.ȱTheȱStudentȱAssessmentȱ papersȱinȱtheȱseriesȱwereȱproducedȱunderȱtheȱtechnicalȱleadershipȱofȱMargueriteȱ Clarke,ȱ Seniorȱ Educationȱ Specialistȱ andȱ SABERȬStudentȱ Assessmentȱ Teamȱ CoordinatorȱinȱtheȱHumanȱDevelopmentȱNetworkȱofȱtheȱWorldȱBank.ȱPapersȱinȱ thisȱseriesȱrepresentȱtheȱindependentȱviewsȱofȱtheȱauthors.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ viȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ AboutȱtheȱAuthorȱ MaríaȬJoséȱ Ramírezȱ isȱ anȱ Educationȱ Specialistȱ inȱ theȱ Humanȱ Developmentȱ Networkȱ atȱ theȱ Worldȱ Bank.ȱ Sheȱ hasȱ beenȱ workingȱ onȱ theȱ SABERȬStudentȱ Assessmentȱinitiative,ȱdevelopingȱtoolsȱforȱevaluatingȱ theȱ qualityȱofȱassessmentȱ systems.ȱ Beforeȱ joiningȱ theȱ Bank,ȱ sheȱ wasȱ involvedȱ inȱ keyȱ reformsȱ ofȱ theȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ inȱ Chile,ȱ withȱ responsibilitiesȱ inȱ bothȱ nationalȱ andȱ internationalȱassessments.ȱInȱtheȱChileanȱMinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱsheȱheadedȱtheȱ dataȱanalysisȱunitȱofȱtheȱassessmentȱprogramȱ(SIMCE)ȱ(2005–06)ȱandȱworkedȱasȱaȱ nationalȱcoordinatorȱforȱTIMSSȱ(1998–2000).ȱSheȱalsoȱwasȱtheȱCollegeȱDirectorȱofȱ Universidadȱ Diegoȱ Portales,ȱ Chileȱ (2007–09).ȱ Sheȱ ledȱ universityȬlevelȱ projectsȱ relatedȱ toȱ qualityȱ assurance,ȱ institutionalȱ analysis,ȱ accreditation,ȱ andȱ academicȱ evaluation.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States,ȱ sheȱ wasȱ aȱ researchȱ assistantȱ inȱ theȱ TIMSSȱ andȱ PIRLSȱInternationalȱStudyȱCenterȱ(2000–04).ȱSheȱreceivedȱherȱPhDȱinȱeducationalȱ research,ȱmeasurement,ȱandȱevaluationȱfromȱBostonȱCollegeȱ(2004)ȱandȱwasȱtheȱ recipientȱofȱaȱFulbrightȱscholarshipȱ(2000)ȱandȱtheȱ2005ȱawardȱforȱbestȱempiricalȱ dissertationȱfromȱtheȱInternationalȱAssociationȱforȱtheȱEvaluationȱofȱEducationalȱ Achievementȱ (IEA).ȱ Herȱ workȱ andȱ publicationsȱ focusȱ onȱ studentȱ assessments,ȱ educationȱquality,ȱandȱcomparativeȱeducation.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ viiȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Acknowledgmentsȱ Manyȱ peopleȱ providedȱ inputsȱ andȱ suggestionsȱ forȱ thisȱ paper.ȱ Thanksȱ inȱ particularȱ goȱ toȱ theȱ READȱ Trustȱ Fundȱ team,ȱ particularlyȱ Margueriteȱ Clarke,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ Juliaȱ Liberman,ȱ Robinȱ Horn,ȱ Elizabethȱ King,ȱ Olavȱ Christensen,ȱ Emilyȱ Gardner,ȱ Manoramaȱ Gotur,ȱ Emineȱ Kildirgici,ȱ Dianaȱ Manevskaya,ȱ Cassiaȱ Miranda,ȱ andȱ Fahmaȱ Nur.ȱ Inȱ Chile,ȱ specialȱ thanksȱ goȱ toȱ allȱ thoseȱ whoȱ contributedȱ withȱ keyȱ informationȱ andȱ insights:ȱ Violetaȱ Arancibia,ȱ Juanȱ Bravo,ȱ Leonorȱ Cariola,ȱ andȱ Franciscoȱ Meneses,ȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education;ȱ Matkoȱ Koljatic,ȱ Lorenaȱ Meckes,ȱ Verónicaȱ Santelices,ȱ andȱ Sandyȱ Taut,ȱ Universidadȱ Católicaȱ deȱ Chile;ȱ Joseȱ Joaquinȱ Brunner,ȱ Universidadȱ Diegoȱ Portales;ȱ Jacquelineȱ Gysling,ȱ Alejandraȱ Mizala,ȱ Pilarȱ Romaguera,ȱ andȱ Ivánȱ Silva,ȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chile;ȱ andȱ Joseȱ Manuelȱ Robles,ȱ Universidadȱ delȱ Desarrollo.ȱ Thanksȱ alsoȱ toȱ theȱ peerȱ reviewersȱMarlaineȱLockheed,ȱAlejandroȱGanimian,ȱandȱJeffȱMarshall;ȱandȱtoȱtheȱ usefulȱ commentsȱ ofȱ Jamilȱ Salmi,ȱ Worldȱ Bank.ȱ Finally,ȱ thanksȱ toȱ theȱ Russianȱ governmentȱ forȱ theirȱ supportȱ forȱ thisȱ workȱ underȱ theȱ READȱ Trustȱ Fundȱ program.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ ixȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Abstractȱ Developingȱ aȱ strongȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ isȱ aȱ priorityȱ forȱ manyȱ countries.ȱ Butȱ whereȱshouldȱtheyȱstart?ȱThisȱpaperȱdescribesȱtheȱjourneyȱexperiencedȱbyȱChileȱ toȱ developȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ (policies,ȱ institutions,ȱ andȱ humanȱ andȱ fiscalȱ resources)ȱ forȱ itsȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ program,ȱ itsȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinations,ȱandȱclassroomȱassessmentȱactivities.ȱCountriesȱaimingȱtoȱdevelopȱ theirȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ mayȱ drawȱ valuableȱ lessonsȱ fromȱ thisȱ caseȱ study,ȱ mostȱ importantlyȱ theȱ following:ȱ (i)ȱ developingȱ theȱ rightȱ enablingȱ contextȱ isȱ aȱ longȬ termȱ processȱ thatȱ buildsȱ onȱ gradualȱ changes;ȱ (ii)ȱ stakeholdersȱ shouldȱ beȱ representedȱ inȱ theȱ governanceȱ ofȱ theȱ assessmentȱ unit;ȱ (iii)ȱ whileȱ differentȱ institutionalȱ arrangementsȱ areȱ possibleȱ forȱ anȱ assessmentȱ unit,ȱ itȱ isȱ importantȱ thatȱ theȱ unitȱ isȱ accountableȱ andȱ autonomousȱ toȱ makeȱ technicalȱ decisions;ȱ (iv)ȱ countriesȱneedȱtoȱdevelopȱlocalȱcapacityȱinȱassessment;ȱandȱ(v)ȱcountriesȱneedȱtoȱ anticipateȱ theȱ pressureȱ theȱ expansionȱ ofȱ theȱ educationȱ systemȱ willȱ putȱ inȱ theȱ assessmentȱsystem,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminations.ȱCountriesȱ thatȱcanȱbenefitȱfromȱtheseȱlessonsȱwillȱbeȱinȱaȱbetterȱpositionȱtoȱcontinueȱonȱtheȱ journeyȱ ofȱ strengtheningȱ theirȱ enablingȱ contextȱ forȱ anȱ effectiveȱ assessmentȱ system.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ xiȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ExecutiveȱSummaryȱ Countriesȱaimingȱtoȱdevelopȱtheirȱstudentȱassessmentȱsystemȱshouldȱfindȱsomeȱ interestingȱ lessonsȱ inȱ thisȱ caseȱ study.ȱ Chileȱ wasȱ aȱ pioneerȱ amongȱ developingȱ countriesȱ inȱ strengtheningȱ itsȱ studentȱ assessmentȱ system,ȱ whichȱ encompassesȱ threeȱ mainȱ typesȱ ofȱ assessmentȱ activities:ȱ theȱ nationalȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ program,ȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinations,ȱ andȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ activitiesȱ byȱ teachersȱ andȱ students.ȱ Thisȱ achievementȱ requiredȱ puttingȱ inȱ placeȱ theȱrightȱenablingȱcontext;ȱthatȱis,ȱdevelopingȱtheȱrightȱpoliciesȱandȱinstitutions,ȱ andȱensuringȱtheȱrightȱfiscalȱandȱhumanȱresourcesȱforȱassessment.ȱ InȱChile,ȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱeachȱassessmentȱtypeȱfollowedȱdivergentȱpaths.ȱ Theȱ nationalȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ startedȱ asȱ aȱ pilotȱ programȱ housedȱ inȱ aȱ university.ȱTheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminationȱprogramȱwasȱdevelopedȱbyȱoneȱ university,ȱ andȱ thenȱ voluntarilyȱ adoptedȱ byȱ theȱ others.ȱ Whileȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ commonȱ practiceȱ sinceȱ theȱ foundationȱ ofȱ theȱ schoolȱ systemȱinȱtheȱnineteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱcountryȱstillȱhasȱlittleȱinstitutionalȱcapacityȱ toȱsupportȱit.ȱ Theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ forȱ eachȱ typeȱ ofȱ assessmentȱ variesȱ considerablyȱ inȱ Chile.ȱBothȱtheȱlargeȬscaleȱassessmentȱandȱtheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminationsȱ haveȱ beenȱ inȱ placeȱ forȱ severalȱ decades.ȱ Theseȱ programsȱ areȱ highlyȱ institutionalizedȱ thanksȱ toȱ clearȱ regulations,ȱ organizationalȱ structures,ȱ stableȱ funding,ȱandȱtrainedȱstaff.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱenablingȱcontextȱforȱclassroomȱ assessmentȱisȱweak.ȱWhileȱsomeȱpolicyȱdocumentsȱandȱguidelinesȱareȱavailableȱ online,ȱimplementationȱofȱtheseȱguidelinesȱremainsȱweak.ȱ Keyȱdriversȱthatȱhaveȱallowedȱforȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱassessmentȱsystemȱ inȱ Chileȱ includeȱ strongȱ politicalȱ andȱ technicalȱ leadershipȱ fromȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱandȱuniversities,ȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱstability,ȱsocialȱpressures,ȱandȱ curricularȱreforms.ȱȱ Importantȱlessonsȱcanȱbeȱextractedȱfromȱthisȱcaseȱstudy.ȱDevelopingȱaȱstrongȱ assessmentȱsystemȱtakesȱtime,ȱeffort,ȱcommitment,ȱandȱresources.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱoneȱ rightȱ wayȱ toȱ developȱ aȱ sustainableȱ assessmentȱ system.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ someȱ importantȱ ingredientsȱ includeȱ havingȱ aȱ longȬtermȱ vision,ȱ planningȱ forȱ gradualȱ implementationȱ ofȱ changes,ȱ ensuringȱ representationȱ ofȱ stakeholdersȱ inȱ theȱ governanceȱ ofȱ theȱ assessments,ȱ creatingȱ localȱ capacity,ȱ andȱ securingȱ enoughȱ funding.ȱCountriesȱthatȱmanageȱtoȱputȱatȱleastȱsomeȱofȱtheseȱingredientsȱinȱplaceȱ willȱ beȱ inȱ aȱ betterȱ positionȱ toȱ developȱ theirȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ and,ȱ mostȱ importantly,ȱtoȱcontributeȱtoȱeducationȱquality.ȱȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ xiiiȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱ forȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ Introductionȱ Studentȱassessmentȱplaysȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱpromotingȱeducationȱquality,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱ strategicȱpriorityȱforȱaȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱcountries.ȱBecauseȱeducationȱisȱmainlyȱ aboutȱ learning,ȱ assessingȱ studentȱ learningȱ hasȱ gainedȱ attentionȱ inȱ theȱ politicalȱ arena.ȱAssessmentȱisȱnowȱconsideredȱaȱkeyȱpolicyȱareaȱofȱanyȱeducationȱsystem.ȱ Aȱ growingȱ numberȱ ofȱ countriesȱ areȱ interestedȱ inȱ developingȱ strongȱ assessmentȱ systemsȱ thatȱ contributeȱ toȱ improvedȱ educationȱ quality.ȱ Assessmentȱ contributesȱtoȱqualityȱbyȱclearlyȱsignalingȱwhatȱstudentsȱareȱexpectedȱtoȱlearn,ȱbyȱ monitoringȱ andȱ certifyingȱ studentȱ learning,ȱ byȱ trackingȱ studentsȱ intoȱ differentȱ educationȱ paths,ȱ andȱ byȱ informingȱ teachingȱ andȱ learning.ȱ Howȱ canȱ aȱ countryȱ startȱbuildingȱanȱeffectiveȱassessmentȱsystem?ȱWhereȱdoȱyouȱstartȱwhenȱthereȱareȱ noȱinstitutions,ȱpolicies,ȱandȱfundingȱforȱtheȱassessment?ȱHowȱdoȱyouȱcreateȱanȱ assessmentȱcultureȱwithȱteachersȱthatȱareȱ“assessmentȱliterate�?ȱ Becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ challengesȱ involvedȱ inȱ developingȱ anȱ assessmentȱ system,ȱ governmentsȱ areȱ interestedȱ inȱ learningȱ fromȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ otherȱ countries.ȱ TheȱpurposeȱofȱthisȱcaseȱstudyȱisȱtoȱtrackȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱChile’sȱassessmentȱ system,ȱ andȱ toȱ offerȱ lessonsȱ toȱ otherȱ countriesȱ aimingȱ toȱ developȱ theirȱ ownȱ assessment.ȱChileȱisȱanȱinterestingȱcaseȱbecauseȱitsȱstudentȱassessmentȱsystemȱisȱ relativelyȱ strongȱ comparedȱ toȱ otherȱ developingȱ countries.ȱ Thisȱ studyȱ analyzedȱ theȱdevelopmentȱofȱthreeȱtypesȱofȱassessmentȱactivities:ȱlargeȬscaleȱassessments,ȱ universityȱentranceȱexaminations,ȱandȱclassroomȱassessments.ȱTheȱfocusȱisȱonȱtheȱ conditionsȱ orȱ enablingȱ contextȱ thatȱ allowedȱ forȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ assessment,ȱencompassingȱpolicies,ȱinstitutions,ȱandȱhumanȱandȱfiscalȱresources.1ȱ Inȱ learningȱ fromȱ theȱ Chileanȱ experience,ȱ countriesȱ shouldȱ considerȱ theȱ broaderȱ contextȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ assessmentȱ operates.ȱ Chileȱ isȱ anȱ upperȱ middleȬ incomeȱ countryȱ thatȱ stillȱ needsȱ toȱ reduceȱ povertyȱ andȱ inequalityȱ rates.ȱ Theȱ country’sȱ returnȱ toȱ democracyȱ inȱ 1990ȱ providedȱ theȱ necessaryȱ politicalȱ stabilityȱ toȱallowȱforȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱgrowth.ȱChileȱisȱaȱleaderȱinȱLatinȱAmericaȱforȱitsȱ economicȱdevelopment:ȱtheȱgrossȱnationalȱincomeȱGNIȱperȱcapitaȱwasȱUS$10,120ȱ inȱ2010,ȱeconomicȱgrowthȱaveragedȱ4.1ȱpercentȱofȱgrossȱdomesticȱproductȱ(GDP)ȱ betweenȱ 1991ȱ andȱ 2005,ȱ andȱ theȱ Humanȱ Developmentȱ Indexȱ isȱ “veryȱ high.�ȱ Povertyȱ wasȱ reducedȱ fromȱ 20ȱ toȱ 15ȱ percentȱ betweenȱ 2000ȱ andȱ 2009.ȱ However,ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 1 ȱForȱaȱgeneralȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱenablingȱcontextȱforȱstudentȱassessment,ȱseeȱClarkeȱ(2012).ȱȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 1ȱ ȱ Chileȱ isȱ laggingȱ inȱ theȱ distributionȱ ofȱ theȱ wealth:ȱ itsȱ Giniȱ coefficientȱ (52)ȱ isȱ theȱ worstȱ amongȱ Organisationȱ forȱ Economicȱ CoȬoperationȱ andȱ Developmentȱ (OECD)ȱcountries.2ȱ Theȱ educationȱ systemȱ inȱ Chileȱ isȱ relativelyȱ strongȱ comparedȱ toȱ Latinȱ America,ȱ butȱ weakȱ whenȱ comparedȱ toȱ richerȱ countries.ȱ Inȱ primaryȱ education,ȱ coverageȱ isȱ universal;ȱ inȱ secondaryȱ education,ȱitȱ expandedȱ quickly,ȱ reachingȱ 96ȱ percentȱinȱ2006.ȱInȱtertiaryȱeducation,ȱtheȱexpansionȱwasȱalsoȱstrong,ȱreachingȱ40ȱ percentȱ inȱ 2012.ȱ Investmentȱ inȱ educationȱ isȱ highȱ whenȱ consideringȱ publicȱ andȱ privateȱexpendituresȱ(7.1ȱpercentȱofȱGDP),ȱbutȱitȱisȱlowȱwhenȱconsideringȱpublicȱ expendituresȱonlyȱ(4.2ȱpercentȱofȱGDP).ȱTheȱresultsȱofȱnationalȱandȱinternationalȱ assessmentsȱshowȱthatȱChileanȱstudentsȱareȱslowlyȱreachingȱhigherȱperformanceȱ levels,ȱbutȱoverallȱperformanceȱremainsȱlowȱcomparedȱtoȱricherȱOECDȱcountries,ȱ andȱisȱunevenlyȱdistributedȱalongȱsocialȱclasses.3ȱ Theȱ roadȱ toȱ developȱ aȱ studentȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ isȱ notȱ anȱ easyȱ one.ȱ Transitingȱthisȱroadȱtakesȱtimeȱandȱeffort.ȱTheȱmainȱlessonȱfromȱthisȱcaseȱstudyȱisȱ thatȱ countriesȱ aimingȱ toȱ putȱ inȱ placeȱ theirȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ firstȱ mustȱ ensureȱ theȱ necessaryȱ conditionsȱ orȱ enablingȱ contextȱ forȱ theȱ systemȱ toȱ operate.ȱ Theseȱ conditionsȱ encompassȱ theȱ policyȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ supportsȱ theȱ assessment,ȱ theȱ rightȱ institutionsȱ andȱ organizationalȱ structures,ȱ togetherȱ withȱ theȱ appropriateȱ humanȱ andȱ fiscalȱ resources.ȱ Theȱ absenceȱ ofȱ anyȱ ofȱ theseȱ conditionsȱ mayȱ putȱ atȱ riskȱtheȱdevelopmentȱandȱsustainabilityȱofȱtheȱassessmentȱsystem.ȱ Theȱpaperȱisȱorganizedȱasȱfollow.ȱAfterȱthisȱintroduction,ȱtheȱsecondȱsectionȱ providesȱaȱgeneralȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱnationalȱlargeȬscaleȱassessmentȱprogram,ȱitsȱ enablingȱ context,ȱ changesȱ toȱ theȱ enablingȱ context,ȱ andȱ driversȱ thatȱ allowedȱ forȱ thoseȱchanges.ȱTheȱthirdȱsectionȱprovidesȱsimilarȱinformationȱforȱtheȱuniversityȱ entranceȱ examinations,ȱ whileȱ theȱ fourthȱ sectionȱ doesȱ theȱ sameȱ forȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱTheȱlastȱsectionȱpresentsȱtheȱmainȱlessons.ȱ LargeȬScaleȱAssessmentȱ Thisȱ sectionȱ reviewsȱ theȱ evolutionȱ ofȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ ofȱ Chile’sȱ nationalȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ program,ȱ SIMCEȱ (Sistemaȱ deȱ Mediciónȱ deȱ Calidadȱ deȱ laȱ Educación).ȱTheȱfirstȱsubsectionȱpresentsȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱSIMCE,ȱdescribingȱ itsȱ mainȱ purposes,ȱ mandate,ȱ andȱ technicalȱ features.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ subsectionȱ describesȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ inȱ whichȱ SIMCEȱ wasȱ operatingȱ asȱ ofȱ 2012,ȱ providingȱ informationȱ aboutȱ theȱ laws,ȱ institutionalȱ arrangements,ȱ andȱ humanȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 2 ȱAllȱdataȱgatheredȱfromȱTheȱWorldȱBankȱ(www.worldbank.org),ȱUnitedȱNationsȱDevelopmentȱProgramȱ (http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics),ȱ Theȱ Centralȱ Bankȱ ofȱ Chileȱ (www.bcentral.cl),ȱ Chile’sȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ SocialȱDevelopmentȱ(www.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl),ȱandȱfromȱtheȱHumanȱDevelopmentȱReportȱ ofȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱDevelopmentȱProgramȱ(www.undp.org).ȱ 3 ȱAllȱdataȱgatheredȱfromȱWorldȱBankȱEdStats,ȱOECD’sȱEducationȱatȱaȱGlanceȱreportȱandȱPISAȱprogramȱ (www.oecd.org),ȱ Chile’sȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ (www.mineduc.cl)ȱ andȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Socialȱ Developmentȱ (www.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl),ȱandȱChile’sȱnationalȱassessmentȱprogramȱ(www.simce.cl).ȱ ȱ 2ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ andȱ fiscalȱ resourcesȱ thatȱ supportȱ theȱ program.ȱ Theȱ thirdȱ subsectionȱ analyzesȱ howȱtheseȱlaws,ȱinstitutions,ȱandȱhumanȱandȱfiscalȱresourcesȱhaveȱchangedȱoverȱ theȱyears,ȱwhileȱtheȱfourthȱsubsectionȱidentifiesȱtheȱdriversȱthatȱallowedȱforȱtheseȱ changesȱtoȱtakeȱplace.ȱ GeneralȱDescriptionȱ Chile’sȱlargeȬscaleȱassessmentȱprogramȱ(SIMCE)ȱhasȱbeenȱoperatingȱonȱaȱyearlyȱ basisȱ sinceȱ 1988.ȱ Theȱ programȱ aimsȱ toȱ improveȱ theȱ qualityȱ andȱ equityȱ ofȱ educationȱ byȱ reportingȱ aboutȱ studentȱ performanceȱ andȱ theirȱ learningȱ environment.ȱȱ Twoȱ somewhatȱ opposedȱ rationalesȱ explainȱ howȱ SIMCEȱ isȱ expectedȱ toȱ contributeȱ toȱ education.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ oneȱ statesȱ thatȱ SIMCEȱ wouldȱ improveȱ efficiencyȱbyȱpushingȱschoolsȱtoȱcompeteȱforȱeducationȱquality,ȱparents’ȱchoices,ȱ andȱfundingȱ(Majlufȱ1987).ȱSIMCEȱwouldȱinformȱparentsȱaboutȱschoolȱtestȱscoresȱ (anȱ indicatorȱ ofȱ quality),ȱ soȱ thatȱ theyȱ couldȱ chooseȱ theȱ bestȱ schoolȱ forȱ theirȱ children,ȱ noȱ matterȱ ifȱ publicȱ orȱ private.ȱ Theȱ assessmentȱ wasȱ developedȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱofȱaȱnationalȱvoucherȱpolicyȱwhereȱtheȱstateȱpaysȱaȱsubsidyȱtoȱtheȱschoolsȱ basedȱonȱstudentȱenrollmentȱandȱattendance.ȱ Theȱsecondȱrationaleȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱassessmentȱprogramȱwouldȱcontributeȱ toȱ effectivenessȱ byȱ monitoringȱ studentȱ performanceȱ andȱ supportingȱ pedagogy.ȱ Effectivenessȱ wouldȱ beȱ improvedȱ byȱ monitoringȱ howȱ manyȱ studentsȱ wereȱ reachingȱ theȱ learningȱ standardsȱ setȱ byȱ theȱ nationalȱ curriculum.ȱ Pedagogicalȱ supportȱ wouldȱ beȱ providedȱ byȱ disseminatingȱ guidelinesȱ andȱ reportsȱ toȱ schoolȱ supervisorsȱandȱteachersȱ(Himmelȱ1996).ȱ Theȱ assessmentȱ programȱ isȱ highlyȱ institutionalized.ȱ SIMCEȱ hasȱ beenȱ operatingȱ inȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ sinceȱ 1992.ȱ Theȱ officeȱ hasȱ theȱ necessaryȱ autonomyȱ toȱ makeȱ decisionsȱ basedȱ onȱ technicalȱ criteria,ȱ andȱ toȱ reportȱ resultsȱ despiteȱ politicalȱ costsȱ forȱ theȱ government.ȱ Thisȱ hasȱ beenȱ possibleȱ thanksȱ toȱ theȱ integrityȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱgovernmentȱadministrations.ȱ Sinceȱ 1996,ȱ theȱ assessmentȱ programȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ responsibleȱ forȱ coordinatingȱ internationalȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessments.ȱ Theȱ SIMCEȱ officeȱ hasȱ coordinated,ȱ orȱ isȱ coordinating,ȱ theȱ followingȱ assessments:ȱ ICILSȱ 2013;ȱ ICCS/ȱ CIVICSȱ 1999,ȱ 2000,ȱ 2008;ȱ LLECEȱ 1997,ȱ 2006,ȱ 2013;ȱ PISAȱ 2000,ȱ 2006,ȱ 2009,ȱ 2012;ȱ andȱTIMSSȱ1999,ȱ2003,ȱ2011.4ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 4 ȱChileȱfirstȱparticipatedȱinȱanȱinternationalȱassessmentȱinȱ1968–1972—theȱSixȱStudyȱSurvey,ȱadministeredȱ byȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Associationȱ forȱ theȱ Evaluationȱ ofȱ Educationalȱ Achievementȱ (IEA).ȱ Participationȱ inȱ internationalȱ assessmentsȱ wasȱ resumedȱ inȱ 1997ȱ withȱ theȱ Latinȱ Americanȱ Laboratoryȱ forȱ Assessmentȱ ofȱ theȱ Qualityȱ ofȱ Educationȱ (LLECE),ȱ administeredȱ byȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Educational,ȱ Scientificȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Organizationȱ (UNESCO).ȱ Chileȱ hasȱ alsoȱ participatedȱ inȱ IEA’sȱ Internationalȱ Civicȱ andȱ Citizenshipȱ Educationȱ Studyȱ (ICCS);ȱ IEA’sȱ Internationalȱ Computerȱ andȱ Informationȱ Literacyȱ Studyȱ (ICILS);ȱUNESCO’sȱLaboratorioȱLatinoȱAmericanoȱdeȱEvaluaciónȱdeȱlaȱCalidadȱdeȱlaȱEducaciónȱ(LLECE);ȱ OECD’sȱ Programȱ forȱ Internationalȱ Studentȱ Assessmentȱ (PISA);ȱ andȱ IEA’sȱ Trendsȱ inȱ Internationalȱ MathematicsȱandȱScienceȱStudyȱ(TIMSS).ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 3ȱ ȱ Theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ programȱ hasȱ highȱ technicalȱ qualityȱ andȱ credibility.ȱRigorousȱproceduresȱareȱfollowedȱinȱallȱtheȱstepsȱofȱbothȱtheȱnationalȱ andȱ internationalȱ assessments.ȱ Theȱ technicalȱ standardsȱ ofȱ internationalȱ assessmentȱ exercisesȱ haveȱ alwaysȱ beenȱ met.ȱ Assessmentȱ resultsȱ areȱ systematicallyȱ usedȱ toȱ informȱ decisionȱ makingȱ andȱ areȱ widelyȱ disseminatedȱ inȱ theȱ media.ȱ SIMCEȱ resultsȱ areȱ seenȱ asȱ theȱ mostȱ credibleȱ indicatorȱ ofȱ educationȱ qualityȱandȱequityȱinȱtheȱcountryȱ(Ramírez,ȱ2012).ȱ Theȱ nationalȱ assessmentȱ isȱ aȱ technicallyȱ sophisticatedȱ program.ȱ SIMCEȱ providesȱ informationȱ aboutȱ studentȱ performanceȱ inȱ coreȱ curricularȱ areas:ȱ mathematics,ȱ languageȱ (Spanish),ȱ andȱ sciencesȱ (naturalȱ andȱ social).ȱ Theȱ questionsȱ areȱ mainlyȱ inȱ multipleȬchoiceȱ format,ȱ butȱ openȬendedȱ questionsȱ andȱ essaysȱ haveȱ beenȱ graduallyȱ introduced.ȱ Allȱ schoolsȱ andȱ studentsȱ inȱ theȱ targetȱ gradesȱ (4,ȱ 8,ȱ andȱ 10)ȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ assessment.5ȱ Inȱ 2010,ȱ nearlyȱ 500,000ȱ studentsȱ fromȱ nearȱ 9,000ȱ schoolsȱ answeredȱ theȱ SIMCEȱ tests.ȱ Students,ȱ theirȱ parents,ȱandȱteachersȱalsoȱansweredȱbackgroundȱquestionnaires.ȱAroundȱ22,500ȱ testȱ supervisorsȱ andȱ externalȱ administratorsȱ wereȱ directlyȱ involvedȱ inȱ theȱ fieldȱ operation.ȱ EnablingȱContextȱ Thisȱ subsectionȱ describesȱ theȱ mainȱ featuresȱ ofȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ ofȱ Chile’sȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ program.ȱ Theseȱ featuresȱ encompassȱ theȱ policyȱ framework,ȱ publicȱ supportȱ forȱ theȱ assessment,ȱ institutionalȱ arrangements,ȱ andȱ theȱhumanȱandȱfiscalȱresourcesȱallocatedȱtoȱtheȱprogram.ȱ InȱChileȱtheȱlargeȬscaleȱassessmentȱisȱmandatedȱbyȱlaw.ȱTheȱlawȱstatesȱthatȱ regularȱ assessmentsȱ ofȱ studentȱ learningȱ shouldȱ beȱ carriedȱ outȱ withȱ theȱ aimȱ toȱ improveȱ educationȱ qualityȱ andȱ equity.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ ensuresȱ theȱ availabilityȱ ofȱ resourcesȱ toȱ runȱ bothȱ theȱ nationalȱ andȱ internationalȱ assessments.ȱ Allȱ schoolsȱ mustȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ nationalȱ assessmentȱ andȱ theirȱ resultsȱ mustȱ beȱ widelyȱ disseminated.6ȱ Theȱ assessmentȱ programȱ hasȱ wideȱ publicȱ support.ȱ SIMCEȱ isȱ theȱ mostȱ credibleȱindicatorȱofȱeducationȱqualityȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱItȱisȱlargelyȱbacked,ȱorȱatȱ leastȱ accepted,ȱ byȱ students,ȱ teachers,ȱ parents,ȱ theȱ academia,ȱ theȱ media,ȱ politicians,ȱ andȱ theȱ government.ȱ Theȱ mainȱ criticismȱ againstȱ SIMCEȱ isȱ thatȱ itȱ stigmatizesȱ poorȱ publicȱ schools.ȱ Claimsȱ aboutȱ corruptionȱ orȱ irregularitiesȱ areȱ veryȱisolated.ȱ Chileȱhasȱaȱclearȱinstitutionalȱarrangementȱsupportingȱtheȱassessment.ȱAsȱofȱ 2012,ȱSIMCEȱisȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱCurriculumȱandȱEvaluationȱUnitȱofȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱ Education.ȱ Itȱ isȱ accountableȱ toȱ theȱ Ministerȱ ofȱ Education,ȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ Nationalȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 5 ȱSinceȱtheȱearlyȱ2000s,ȱnewȱareasȱ(writing,ȱEnglish,ȱcomputerȱskills,ȱandȱphysicalȱeducation)ȱandȱgradesȱ (2,ȱ6,ȱandȱ11)ȱhaveȱbeenȱaddedȱtoȱtheȱassessmentȱonȱaȱsampleȱorȱcensusȱbase.ȱ 6 ȱSeeȱGovernmentȱofȱChileȱ(2009,ȱ2011):ȱtheȱ2009ȱGeneralȱLawȱofȱEducationȱ(LeyȱGeneralȱdeȱEducación— LGE)ȱandȱtheȱ2011ȱQualityȱAssuranceȱLawȱ(SistemaȱNacionalȱdeȱAseguramientoȱdeȱlaȱCalidadȱdeȱlaȱEducaciónȱ Parvularia,ȱBásicaȱyȱMediaȱyȱsuȱfiscalización).ȱ ȱ 4ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ Educationȱ Council,ȱ anȱ autonomousȱ publicȱ agencyȱ thatȱ overseesȱ educationȱ qualityȱ inȱ theȱ country.ȱ SIMCE’sȱ organizationalȱ structureȱ includesȱ theȱ followingȱ teams:ȱsubjectȱareas,ȱdataȱprocessing,ȱcommunication,ȱstandardȱsettings,ȱqualityȱ control,ȱspecialȱneedsȱandȱadaptations,ȱandȱinformationȱtechnologies.ȱ Thereȱisȱaȱspecialȱunitȱthatȱcoordinatesȱinternationalȱassessments.ȱHowever,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ tasksȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ internationalȱ assessmentsȱ areȱ executedȱ byȱ theȱ sameȱteamsȱinȱchargeȱofȱtheȱnationalȱassessmentȱ(forȱexample,ȱdataȱprocessing).ȱ OtherȱfunctionsȱareȱdelegatedȱtoȱotherȱteamsȱofȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducationȱ(mostȱ notably,ȱhumanȱresources).ȱ SIMCEȱ hasȱ aȱ qualifiedȱ staffȱ toȱ runȱ theȱ assessment.ȱ Theȱ staffȱ hasȱ aȱ suitableȱ technicalȱprofileȱandȱisȱrecruitedȱbasedȱonȱmerit.ȱAsȱofȱ2012,ȱSIMCEȱhasȱaȱstaffȱofȱ aroundȱ 70ȱ people,ȱ includingȱ subjectȱ matterȱ specialists,ȱ teachers,ȱ psychologists,ȱ textbookȱspecialists,ȱeconomists,ȱengineers,ȱandȱbudgetȱandȱadministrativeȱstaff.ȱ Inȱtermsȱofȱcontractualȱstatus,ȱ20ȱpercentȱofȱtheȱstaffȱbenefitsȱfromȱaȱcontractȱasȱaȱ publicȱ employee;ȱ theȱ otherȱ 80ȱ percentȱ hasȱ toȱ renewȱ theirȱ contractsȱ onȱ aȱ yearlyȱ basis.ȱMostȱofȱtheȱstaffȱhasȱaȱbachelor’sȱdegreeȱ(Licenciatura),ȱnearlyȱoneȬfourthȱ hasȱaȱmaster’sȱdegree,ȱandȱtwoȱpeopleȱhaveȱaȱdoctorate.ȱMostȱofȱtheȱstaffȱisȱinȱtheȱ earlyȱ stagesȱ ofȱ theirȱ professionalȱ careerȱ andȱ gotȱ onȬtheȬjobȱ assessmentȱ training.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ enoughȱ staffȱ stabilityȱ toȱ allowȱ forȱ capacityȱ buildingȱ andȱ toȱ trainȱ newȱ personnel.ȱ Chileȱinvestsȱ0.26ȱpercentȱofȱtheȱprimaryȱandȱsecondaryȱeducationȱbudgetȱinȱ itsȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ program.ȱ Theȱ SIMCEȱ yearlyȱ budgetȱ isȱ public,ȱ andȱ inȱ 2012ȱ itȱ reachedȱ US$26ȱ million,ȱ outȱ ofȱ whichȱ US$2ȱ millionȱ wasȱ devotedȱ toȱ internationalȱ assessments.ȱ Theȱ costsȱ ofȱ theȱ nationalȱ assessmentȱ perȱ studentȱ reachedȱ US$20ȱ inȱ primaryȱ andȱ US$15ȱ inȱ secondaryȱ schoolsȱ (whichȱ seemsȱ relativelyȱlowȱcomparedȱtoȱotherȱLatinȱAmericanȱcountries).ȱInȱ2004,ȱtheȱbiggestȱ budgetȱ linesȱ wereȱ personnelȱ (28ȱ percentȱ ofȱ theȱ totalȱ budget),ȱ printingȱ (20ȱ percent),ȱandȱfieldȱworkȱ(15ȱpercent).7ȱ MechanismsȱofȱChangeȱ Thisȱsubsectionȱanalyzesȱtheȱmechanismsȱofȱchangeȱthatȱallowedȱforȱtheȱcurrentȱ levelȱofȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱlargeȬscaleȱassessmentȱprogramȱinȱChile.ȱItȱexaminesȱ howȱ theȱ legalȱ framework,ȱ institutionalȱ arrangements,ȱ infrastructure,ȱ staff,ȱ andȱ budgetȱevolvedȱoverȱtime.ȱTheseȱchangesȱallowedȱforȱaȱsuccessfulȱrevampingȱofȱ theȱassessmentȱofficeȱaroundȱyearȱ2000.ȱ Theȱlegalȱframeworkȱsupportingȱtheȱassessmentȱhasȱbeenȱinȱplaceȱforȱmoreȱ thanȱ 20ȱ years,ȱ andȱ wasȱ recentlyȱ updated.ȱ Theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ wasȱ firstȱ mandatedȱ byȱ lawȱ inȱ 1990.ȱ Thisȱ lawȱ ensuredȱ theȱ transferȱ ofȱ theȱ assessmentȱ intoȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education,ȱ andȱ aȱ stableȱ budgetȱ toȱ operateȱ onȱ aȱ regularȱ basis.ȱ However,ȱtheȱlawȱlackedȱlegitimacyȱsinceȱitȱwasȱpassedȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱmilitaryȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 7 ȱ Asȱ forȱ 2012,ȱ theȱ budgetȱ fromȱ primaryȱ andȱ secondaryȱ educationȱ reachedȱ nearȱ US$10,000ȱ million.ȱ Allȱ dataȱbasedȱonȱChile’sȱ2012ȱbudgetȱlawȱ(http://www.dipres.gob.cl);ȱonȱpersonalȱcommunicationsȱwithȱtheȱ SIMCEȱoffice,ȱandȱonȱWolffȱ(2007).ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 5ȱ ȱ regime.ȱInȱ2009ȱandȱ2011,ȱwithȱChileȱnowȱunderȱaȱdemocraticȱgovernment,ȱtwoȱ relatedȱ lawsȱ cameȱ toȱ replaceȱ theȱ firstȱ one.ȱ Theseȱ newȱ lawsȱ mandatedȱ thatȱ bothȱ theȱ nationalȱ andȱ internationalȱ assessmentsȱ shouldȱ beȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ aȱ qualityȱ assuranceȱagencyȱindependentȱfromȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱandȱaccountableȱ toȱ aȱ Superintendenceȱ ofȱ Educationȱ (thisȱ institutionalȱ changeȱ hasȱ yetȱ toȱ beȱ implemented)ȱ(seeȱGovernmentȱofȱChileȱ2009,ȱ2011).ȱ Differentȱ institutionalȱ arrangementsȱ haveȱ supportedȱ theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessment.ȱ Initially,ȱ theȱ programȱ wasȱ commissionedȱ byȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ EducationȱtoȱUniversidadȱCatólicaȱdeȱChile,ȱtheȱleadingȱprivateȱuniversityȱinȱtheȱ country.ȱFromȱ1982–84,ȱtheȱassessmentȱwasȱnoȱmoreȱthanȱaȱpilotȱsurveyȱhostedȱ inȱ aȱ universityȱ (Majluf,ȱ 1987).ȱ Fromȱ 1988–92,ȱ theȱ programȱ wasȱ runȱ byȱ aȱ teamȱ fromȱ bothȱ theȱ universityȱ andȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education;ȱ andȱ wasȱ graduallyȱ transferredȱintoȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation.ȱDuringȱtheȱ1990s,ȱSIMCEȱwasȱhousedȱ underȱ theȱ officeȱ ofȱ theȱ UnderȬSecretaryȱ ofȱ Education.ȱ Inȱ yearȱ 2000,ȱ itȱ wasȱ absorbedȱ intoȱ aȱ newȱ Curriculumȱ andȱ Evaluationȱ Unitȱ inȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education.ȱInȱ2013,ȱSIMCEȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱbeȱtransferredȱintoȱtheȱaforementionedȱ qualityȱassuranceȱagency.ȱ TheȱrevampingȱofȱSIMCEȱcameȱtogetherȱwithȱnewȱinfrastructureȱtoȱcarryȱoutȱ theȱassessment.ȱInȱ2000,ȱSIMCEȱmovedȱintoȱaȱnewȱbuilding,ȱstrategicallyȱlocatedȱ nearȱtheȱMinister’sȱoffice.ȱTheȱnewȱofficesȱprovidedȱtheȱadditionalȱspaceȱneededȱ forȱ contractingȱ moreȱ staff.ȱ SIMCEȱ gotȱ newȱ serversȱ andȱ dataȱ processingȱ equipment.ȱ Theȱassessmentȱstaffȱhasȱchangedȱinȱparallelȱwithȱtheȱdifferentȱinstitutionalȱ arrangementsȱ ofȱ theȱ program.ȱ Inȱ theȱ 1980s,ȱ theȱ universityȱ staffȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ theȱ pilotȱ assessmentȱ programȱ wasȱ aȱ highlyȱ qualifiedȱ multidisciplinaryȱ teamȱ ofȱ 10ȱ professorsȱ (mostȱ ofȱ whomȱ hadȱ graduateȱ degreesȱ inȱ engineering,ȱ education,ȱ psychology,ȱ andȱ sociologyȱ fromȱ prestigiousȱ universitiesȱ inȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States)ȱ (Himmelȱ1996;ȱMajlufȱ1987).ȱInȱtheȱ1990s,ȱwhenȱSIMCEȱwasȱtransferredȱintoȱtheȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education,ȱ theȱ staffȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ theȱ assessmentȱ wasȱ aȱ teamȱ ofȱ approximatelyȱ 20ȱ fullȬtimeȱ publicȱ employees.ȱ Mostȱ wereȱ schoolȱ teachersȱ whoȱ hadȱleftȱtheȱclassroomsȱmanyȱyearsȱago.ȱManyȱwereȱinȱtheȱlatestȱstagesȱofȱtheirȱ career,ȱjustȱbeforeȱretiring.ȱȱ Inȱ theȱ 2000s,ȱ whenȱ SIMCEȱ wasȱ transferredȱ intoȱ theȱ Curriculumȱ andȱ EvaluationȱUnitȱofȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱtheȱstaffȱwasȱgreatlyȱincreasedȱandȱ professionalized.ȱTheȱhiringȱofȱaȱcriticalȱnumberȱofȱnewȱstaff—threeȱtoȱstartȱwith,ȱ includingȱ aȱ newȱ SIMCEȱ director—allowedȱ forȱ puttingȱ neededȱ changesȱ intoȱ motion.ȱ Theȱassessmentȱstaffȱmoreȱthanȱtripledȱinȱ15ȱyears.ȱTheȱpermanentȱstaffȱgrewȱ fromȱ approximatelyȱ 20ȱ inȱ 1996,ȱ toȱ 40ȱ inȱ 2000,ȱ andȱ upȱ toȱ 70ȱ inȱ 2010.ȱ Youngȱ professionalsȱ fromȱ differentȱ fieldsȱ cameȱ toȱ reinforceȱ theȱ technicalȱ capacitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ existingȱ team.ȱ Theȱ technicalȱ leadershipȱ wasȱ providedȱ byȱ newȱ seniorȱ staff,ȱ someȱ ofȱ whomȱ hadȱ completedȱ graduateȱ studiesȱ atȱ prestigiousȱ universitiesȱ inȱ EuropeȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱStates.ȱHowever,ȱtheyȱallȱhadȱtoȱlearnȱbyȱdoingȱtheȱbasicȱ ȱ 6ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ assessmentȬrelatedȱ tasks.ȱ Havingȱ bothȱ theȱ oldȱ andȱ theȱ newȱ staffȱ workingȱ togetherȱwasȱaȱchallengingȱtask.ȱȱ Theȱyearlyȱbudgetȱforȱtheȱassessmentȱprogramȱhasȱincreasedȱmoreȱthanȱ10Ȭ foldȱduringȱtheȱlastȱtwoȱdecades.ȱDuringȱtheȱ1990s,ȱtheȱyearlyȱbudgetȱwasȱUS$2ȱ million;ȱ inȱ 2001ȱ itȱ wasȱ US$2.5ȱ million;ȱ inȱ 2011,ȱ US$22.7ȱ million;ȱ andȱ inȱ 2012ȱ US$26ȱmillion.8ȱ DriversȱforȱChangeȱ Theȱ followingȱ driversȱ allowedȱ forȱ changesȱ inȱ theȱ legalȱ framework,ȱ institutions,ȱ andȱhumanȱandȱfiscalȱresourcesȱforȱrunningȱtheȱlargeȬscaleȱassessmentȱprogramȱ inȱChile:ȱ x Leadership.ȱLeadershipȱfromȱbothȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducationȱandȱacademiaȱ allowedȱ forȱ launchingȱ andȱ sustainingȱ theȱ assessmentȱ program.ȱ Thisȱ leadershipȱ wasȱ alsoȱ requiredȱ forȱ revampingȱ theȱ assessmentȱ officeȱ andȱ ensuringȱincreasedȱresources.ȱ x Educationȱ asȱ aȱ nationalȱ priority.ȱ Thisȱ createdȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ anȱ assessmentȱ programȱ thatȱ couldȱ provideȱ betterȱ informationȱ aboutȱ theȱ qualityȱ andȱ equityȱ ofȱ education.ȱ SIMCEȱ becameȱ theȱ mainȱ indicatorȱ forȱ judgingȱ theȱ effectivenessȱofȱeducationȱreformȱprograms.ȱ x Politicalȱ stability.ȱ Thisȱ providedȱ theȱ contextȱ forȱ longȬtermȱ commitmentsȱ andȱ sustainableȱ reforms.ȱ Anȱ adȱ hocȱ technicalȬpoliticalȱ commissionȱ (Comisiónȱ SIMCE)ȱ wasȱ createdȱ inȱ 2003ȱ toȱ agreeȱ onȱ theȱ developmentȱ agendaȱofȱSIMCE.ȱ x Economicȱgrowth.ȱEconomicȱgrowthȱofȱtheȱcountryȱallowedȱforȱtheȱgradualȱ increaseȱofȱtheȱassessmentȱbudgetȱandȱtheȱhiringȱofȱmoreȱstaff.ȱȱ x Curricularȱreform.ȱThisȱcreatedȱtheȱneedȱtoȱalignȱtheȱSIMCEȱtestsȱwithȱtheȱ newȱcurriculum.ȱTheȱinstitutionalȱsolutionȱforȱdoingȱsoȱwasȱtheȱcreationȱ ofȱtheȱCurriculumȱandȱEvaluationȱUnitȱofȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation.ȱThisȱ needȱforȱalignmentȱtriggeredȱtheȱrevampingȱofȱtheȱassessmentȱoffice.ȱȱ x Socialȱ pressures.ȱ Inȱ 2006,ȱ studentȱ protestsȱ againstȱ poorȱ educationȱ qualityȱ translatedȱ intoȱ aȱ strongerȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ andȱ aȱ newȱ institutionalȱ arrangementȱforȱtheȱassessment.ȱInȱtheȱnearȱfuture,ȱschoolsȱwillȱbeȱmoreȱ closelyȱmonitoredȱbyȱaȱqualityȱassuranceȱagency.ȱ x Participationȱ inȱ internationalȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessments.ȱ TIMSSȱ andȱ PISAȱ providedȱ highȬquality,ȱ handsȬonȱ trainingȱ onȱ allȱ keyȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ assessment.ȱ Thisȱ trainingȱ directlyȱ benefitedȱ theȱ staffȱ inȱ theȱ internationalȱ assessmentȱ unitȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ staffȱ workingȱ inȱ theȱ nationalȱ assessmentȱ program.ȱ Theȱ newȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ technologyȱ wasȱ quicklyȱ transferredȱ fromȱtheȱinternationalȱtoȱtheȱnationalȱassessmentȱprogram.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 8 ȱAllȱdataȱbasedȱonȱChile’sȱnationalȱbudgetȱ(http://www.dipres.gob.cl)ȱandȱHimmelȱ(1996).ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 7ȱ ȱ TheȱUniversityȱEntranceȱExaminationsȱ Thisȱ sectionȱ reviewsȱ theȱ evolutionȱ ofȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ ofȱ Chile’sȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinationȱ programȱ (Pruebaȱ deȱ Selecciónȱ Universitaria,ȱ PSU).ȱ Theȱ firstȱsubsectionȱpresentsȱaȱgeneralȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱPSU.ȱTheȱfollowingȱsubsectionȱ analyzesȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ PSUȱ asȱ ofȱ 2012.ȱ Theȱ lastȱ twoȱ subsectionsȱ examineȱ reformsȱ toȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ andȱ theȱ driversȱ thatȱ allowedȱ (orȱ blocked)ȱtheseȱreforms.ȱ GeneralȱDescriptionȱ Theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinationȱ programȱ isȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ educationalȱ landscapeȱinȱChile.ȱItȱhasȱbeenȱinȱplaceȱsinceȱ1967ȱandȱitȱisȱtheȱmainȱgatekeeperȱ forȱ distributingȱ educationalȱ opportunities.ȱ Itȱ isȱ theȱ highestȬstakesȱtestȱ thatȱ mostȱ Chileanȱstudentsȱwillȱtakeȱinȱtheirȱlifetime.ȱDependingȱonȱtheirȱresults,ȱstudentsȱ willȱ gainȱ accessȱ toȱ aȱ wideȱ qualityȱ rangeȱ ofȱ universityȱ programs,ȱ whichȱ inȱ turnȱ willȱ greatlyȱ affectȱ theirȱ abilityȱ toȱ getȱ aȱ goodȱ jobȱ andȱ aȱ goodȱ salary.9ȱ Theȱ examinationȱreceivesȱwideȱmediaȱcoverage,ȱespeciallyȱduringȱtheȱadministrationȱ andȱuniversityȱapplicationȱprocess.ȱ Theȱ examinationȱ programȱ wasȱ createdȱ byȱ theȱ leadingȱ publicȱ universityȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chile.ȱ Thisȱ universityȱ madeȱ theȱ examinationsȱ availableȱtoȱallȱotherȱuniversities,ȱwhileȱretainingȱtheȱcopyrights.ȱTherefore,ȱwhatȱ wasȱenvisionedȱasȱtheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminationsȱforȱoneȱinstitutionȱgrewȱ toȱbecomeȱtheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminationsȱforȱtheȱwholeȱcountry.ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinations,ȱ thereȱ haveȱ beenȱ twoȱtestȱbatteries.ȱTheȱfirstȱbatteryȱ(PruebaȱdeȱAptitudȱAcadémica,ȱPAA)ȱwasȱaȱ paperȱ andȱ pencil,ȱ multipleȬchoiceȱ testȱ thatȱ includedȱ twoȱ compulsoryȱ “aptitudeȱ tests�ȱ inȱ mathematicsȱ andȱ language;ȱ fiveȱ optionalȱ subjectȬspecificȱ testsȱ inȱ (advanced)ȱ mathematics,ȱ socialȱ sciences,ȱ biology,ȱ chemistry,ȱ andȱ physics;ȱ andȱ oneȱ compulsoryȱ subjectȬspecificȱ testȱ inȱ historyȱ ofȱ Chile.ȱ Inȱ 2003,ȱ aȱ newȱ batteryȱ basedȱ onȱ aȱ recentlyȬintroducedȱ secondaryȱ schoolȱ curriculumȱ (Pruebaȱ deȱ SelecciónȱUniversitaria,ȱPSU)ȱcameȱtoȱreplaceȱtheȱPAAȱexamination.10ȱPSUȱisȱalsoȱ aȱpaperȱandȱpencil,ȱmultipleȬchoiceȱbatteryȱthatȱincludesȱtwoȱcompulsoryȱtestsȱinȱ mathematicsȱandȱlanguageȱandȱtwoȱoptionalȱtestsȱ(studentsȱhaveȱtoȱtakeȱatȱleastȱ one)ȱinȱsocialȱsciencesȱandȱnaturalȱsciences.ȱ Theȱexaminationȱadministrationȱinvolvesȱaȱvastȱandȱcomplexȱoperation.ȱTheȱ majorityȱofȱsecondaryȱschoolȱgraduatesȱ(78ȱpercentȱinȱ2009)ȱtakeȱtheȱtest,ȱmakingȱ itsȱadministrationȱaȱmajorȱeventȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱInȱ2011,ȱ231,000ȱstudentsȱsatȱforȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 9 ȱSeeȱFuturoȱLaboralȱatȱhttp://www.futurolaboral.cl/.ȱ 10 ȱTheȱshiftȱfromȱPAAȱtoȱPSUȱreflectedȱaȱnewȱvisionȱofȱlearning.ȱTheȱPAAȱexaminationȱwasȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ assumptionȱthatȱtheȱskillsȱ(orȱaptitudes)ȱmeasuredȱinȱtheȱtestsȱwereȱinnate,ȱandȱhenceȱwereȱnotȱaffectedȱ byȱ (lackȱ ofȱ orȱ poor)ȱ education.ȱ Theȱ PSUȱ model,ȱ onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ recognizesȱ thatȱ bothȱ contentsȱ andȱ skillsȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱeducation.ȱHence,ȱitȱisȱfairerȱthatȱtheȱtestȱmeasuresȱtheȱcontentsȱandȱskillsȱthatȱallȱ studentsȱhaveȱaȱchanceȱtoȱlearnȱatȱschoolȱthroughȱtheȱnationalȱcurriculum.ȱ ȱ 8ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ theȱ examinationȱ inȱ 169ȱ testingȱ centers.ȱ Theȱ testsȱ areȱ administeredȱ byȱ externalȱ administratorsȱunderȱstrictȱstandardizationȱandȱsecurityȱconditions.ȱȱ Aȱtightȱtimelineȱallowsȱforȱonlyȱtwoȱmonthsȱbetweenȱtheȱtimeȱstudentsȱtakeȱ theȱ examinationsȱ andȱ whenȱ theyȱ applyȱ toȱ university.ȱ Theȱ PSUȱ isȱ administeredȱ onceȱ aȱ yearȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ schoolȱ yearȱ (usuallyȱ midȬDecember)ȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱinȱtheȱwholeȱcountry.ȱExaminationȱresultsȱareȱreleasedȱmidȬJanuaryȱandȱtheȱ universityȱ selectionȱ processȱ concludesȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ thatȱ month.ȱ Thisȱ tightȱ timelineȱisȱnecessaryȱforȱallowingȱtheȱacademicȱyearȱtoȱstartȱinȱMarch.ȱ Resultsȱ areȱ confidential,ȱ andȱ canȱ beȱ accessedȱ onlineȱ usingȱ theȱ students’ȱ nationalȱidentificationȱnumber.ȱTheȱresultsȱincludeȱtheȱexaminationȱscoresȱfromȱ eachȱtest,ȱandȱaȱscoreȱbasedȱonȱtheȱstudents’ȱsecondaryȱschoolȱgrades,11ȱbothȱofȱ whichȱ areȱ alsoȱ usedȱ toȱ applyȱ toȱ university.ȱ Studentsȱ applyȱ toȱ theȱ universityȱ programsȱ ofȱ theirȱ preferenceȱ usingȱ aȱ weightedȱ score.ȱ Universityȱ programsȱ weightȱtheȱscoresȱfromȱtheȱdifferentȱtestsȱandȱfromȱtheȱschoolȱgradesȱdependingȱ onȱtheȱrelativeȱimportanceȱgivenȱtoȱeachȱone.ȱ Chileȱhasȱtwoȱuniversityȱapplicationȱprocesses,ȱwhichȱrunȱonȱparallelȱtracks.ȱ Theȱcentralizedȱapplicationȱservesȱaroundȱhalfȱofȱtheȱuniversitiesȱinȱtheȱcountriesȱ (33/60).ȱStudentsȱcanȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱuniversitiesȱandȱrelatedȱcareerȱoptionsȱthroughȱ anȱautomatedȱsystem,ȱandȱuniversitiesȱselectȱstudentsȱbasedȱonȱtheirȱscoresȱandȱ placesȱ available.ȱ Forȱ theȱ otherȱ universities,ȱ studentsȱ haveȱ toȱ applyȱ toȱ eachȱ institutionȱseparately,ȱmakingȱtheȱwholeȱprocessȱlessȱefficientȱandȱcumbersome.12ȱ EnablingȱContextȱ Thisȱ subsectionȱ describesȱ theȱ mainȱ featuresȱ ofȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinationȱ programȱ inȱ Chileȱ asȱ ofȱ 2012.ȱ Thisȱ includesȱ itsȱ governanceȱ andȱ institutionalȱ framework,ȱ humanȱ resourcesȱ andȱ funding,ȱ policyȱ regulations,ȱandȱpublicȱsupport.ȱ Theȱbureauȱinȱchargeȱofȱtheȱexamination,ȱtheȱDepartamentoȱdeȱEvaluación,ȱ MediciónȱyȱRegistroȱEducacionalȱ(DEMRE),ȱisȱaȱsemiȬautonomousȱdepartmentȱofȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chile.ȱ DEMREȱ isȱ accountableȱ toȱ twoȱ institutions:ȱ theȱ provostȱ officeȱ ofȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chileȱ (Vicerrectoríaȱ deȱ Asuntosȱ Académicos)ȱ andȱ theȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Rectors.ȱ Theȱ provostȱ officeȱ isȱ responsibleȱ forȱ overseeingȱ allȱ issuesȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ yearlyȱ budgetȱ ofȱ DEMRE,ȱ itsȱ personnel,ȱ administration,ȱ equipment,ȱandȱinfrastructure.ȱ TheȱCouncilȱofȱRectorsȱoperatesȱasȱanȱautonomousȱexaminationȱboard.ȱItȱhasȱ anȱ examinationȱ committeeȱ (Consejoȱ Directivoȱ paraȱ lasȱ Pruebasȱ deȱ Selecciónȱ UniversitariaȱyȱActividadesȱdeȱAdmisión)ȱthatȱaddressesȱallȱstrategicȱissuesȱ(bothȱ technicalȱ andȱ political)ȱ regardingȱ theȱ PSU.ȱ Theȱ committeeȱ isȱ supportedȱ byȱ anȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 11 ȱ Secondaryȱ schoolȱ gradesȱ (whichȱ areȱ onȱ aȱ scaleȱ ofȱ 1–7)ȱ areȱ transformedȱ intoȱ theȱ sameȱ scaleȱ ofȱ theȱ examinationȱtestsȱ(whichȱareȱonȱaȱstandardizedȱscaleȱwithȱMȱ=ȱ500ȱandȱSDȱ=ȱ110).ȱ 12 ȱTheȱcentralizedȱapplicationȱprocessȱbenefitsȱallȱtheȱtraditionalȱuniversitiesȱexistingȱinȱChileȱbeforeȱ1981.ȱ Inȱ2012,ȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtimeȱnewerȱprivateȱuniversitiesȱwereȱallowedȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱcentralȱapplicationȱ process.ȱEightȱnewȱuniversitiesȱjoinedȱtheȱcentralȱprocessȱthatȱyear.ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 9ȱ ȱ advisoryȱboardȱ(ComitéȱTécnicoȱAsesor)ȱthatȱliaisesȱbetweenȱtheȱcommitteeȱandȱ theȱexaminationȱbureau,ȱDEMRE.ȱ Theȱ governanceȱ ofȱ theȱ examinationsȱ hasȱ legitimacyȱ problems.ȱ Theȱ Councilȱ ofȱRectorsȱdoesȱnotȱrepresentȱmostȱofȱtheȱuniversitiesȱinȱtheȱcountryȱ(35ȱoutȱofȱ60ȱ universitiesȱ areȱ excluded).ȱ Instead,ȱ itȱ onlyȱ representsȱ theȱ “traditional�ȱ universitiesȱexistingȱinȱChileȱbeforeȱ1981.13ȱTheȱcouncilȱisȱformallyȱheadedȱbyȱtheȱ MinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱbut,ȱinȱpractice,ȱUniversidadȱdeȱChileȱisȱitsȱmostȱpowerfulȱ member.ȱ DEMREȱisȱresponsibleȱforȱexecutingȱtheȱexaminationȱpoliciesȱagreedȱbyȱtheȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Rectors.ȱ Itȱ isȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ allȱ coreȱ examinationsȱ areas,ȱ includingȱ developingȱ andȱ administeringȱ theȱ examinations,ȱ dataȱ processing,ȱ publishingȱ examinationȱ results,ȱ andȱ studentȱ applicationsȱ toȱ universities.ȱ Theȱ bureauȱ hasȱ sevenȱ units:ȱ testȱ construction,ȱ studentȱ registration,ȱ dataȱ processing,ȱ logistics,ȱ communications,ȱresearchȱandȱdevelopment,ȱandȱmanagementȱandȱbudget.ȱȱ DEMREȱ hasȱ stableȱ andȱ professionalȱ staffȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ itsȱ duties.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ 75ȱ publicȱ employees,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ whomȱworkȱ fullȱ timeȱ (bothȱ withȱ termȱ andȱ nonȬtermȱ contracts).ȱManyȱofȱthemȱhaveȱbeenȱworkingȱatȱDEMREȱforȱmoreȱthanȱ10ȱyears.ȱ Theȱstaffȱincludesȱteachersȱandȱsubjectȱmatterȱspecialists,ȱstatisticians,ȱcomputerȱ specialists,ȱ mediaȱ specialists,ȱ andȱ administrativeȱ andȱ supportȱ staff.ȱ Aroundȱ 10ȱ percentȱ ofȱ theȱ staffȱ hasȱ aȱ master’sȱ orȱ doctorateȱ degree;ȱ inȱ someȱ cases,ȱ theseȱ degreesȱ areȱ inȱ areasȱ directlyȱ relatedȱ toȱ studentȱ assessmentȱ (forȱ example,ȱ psychometrics).ȱ Theȱmainȱsourceȱ ofȱ professionalȱ developmentȱ forȱ theȱ examinationȱ staffȱ hasȱ beenȱ onȬtheȬjobȱ training,ȱ andȱ shortȱ trainingȱ courses.ȱ Aroundȱ 30ȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ 75ȱ DEMREȱ staffȱ haveȱ benefitedȱ fromȱ annualȱ intensiveȱ twoȬweekȱ coursesȱ toȱ learnȱ aboutȱkeyȱassessmentȱtopicsȱ(forȱexample,ȱtestȱconstruction,ȱscoring,ȱscaling,ȱandȱ logistics).ȱDEMREȱcontractedȱtheseȱcoursesȱwithȱaȱprestigiousȱassessmentȱcenterȱ inȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱ(EducationalȱTestingȱServices,ȱETS).ȱȱ Theȱ examinationȱ bureauȱ hasȱ aȱ stableȱ budgetȱ thatȱ isȱ negotiatedȱ onȱ aȱ yearlyȱ basisȱwithȱitsȱhostȱinstitution,ȱUniversidadȱdeȱChile.ȱTheȱbudgetȱreachedȱUS$6.6ȱ millionȱ inȱ 2011.ȱ Theȱ budgetȱ coversȱ allȱ directȱ operationalȱ costsȱ ofȱ DEMRE,ȱ includingȱpersonnel,ȱtestȱdesign,ȱadministration,ȱdataȱprocessing,ȱdissemination,ȱ students’ȱ enrollmentȱ inȱ theȱ examination,ȱ andȱ theirȱ applicationsȱ toȱ universities.ȱ Theȱbudgetȱdoesȱnotȱcoverȱtheȱcostsȱofȱsomeȱcoreȱtasksȱthatȱareȱabsorbedȱbyȱtheȱ university,ȱ suchȱ asȱ writingȱ testȱ questions,ȱ management,ȱ andȱ administrationȱ byȱ theȱ universityȱ provost.ȱ Inȱ 2011ȱ andȱ 2012,ȱ theȱ budgetȱ fromȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱallocatedȱ US$582,000ȱforȱ anȱ internationalȱ andȱ independentȱ reviewȱ ofȱ theȱexamination.14ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 13 ȱ Inȱ 1981,ȱ aȱ lawȱ wasȱ passedȱ allowingȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ newȱ privateȱ universities.ȱ ThirtyȬfiveȱ privateȱ universitiesȱ existȱ todayȱ inȱ Chileȱ basedȱ onȱ thisȱ law.ȱ Theseȱ universitiesȱ areȱ notȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Rectors.ȱȱ 14 ȱ Allȱ dataȱ basedȱ onȱ Chile’sȱ nationalȱ budgetȱ (http://www.dipres.gob.cl),ȱ onȱ theȱ examinationȱ bureauȱ webpageȱ (www.demre.cl),ȱonȱUniversidadȱ deȱ Chile’sȱ officialȱ budget,ȱ andȱonȱ personalȱ communicationsȱ withȱtheȱbureau.ȱ ȱ 10ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ Studentsȱ haveȱ toȱ payȱ aȱ feeȱ toȱ enrollȱ inȱ theȱ PSUȱ examination,ȱ butȱ stateȱ subsidiesȱareȱ availableȱ forȱ thoseȱwhoȱ cannotȱ affordȱit.ȱ Inȱ2011,ȱ 272,000ȱstudentsȱ enrolledȱinȱtheȱtest,ȱofȱwhichȱ150,000ȱbenefitedȱfromȱtheȱUS$8ȱmillionȱavailableȱinȱ stateȱ subsidiesȱ toȱ payȱ theȱ examinationȱ feeȱ (aroundȱ US$50ȱ perȱ student).ȱ Theȱ examinationȱ feeȱ allowedȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chileȱ toȱ collectȱ US$14.9ȱ million,ȱ moreȱ thanȱdoubleȱofȱtheȱDEMREȱyearlyȱbudget.ȱMoreȱinformationȱwouldȱbeȱneededȱtoȱ knowȱifȱtheȱexaminationȱfeeȱreflectsȱtheȱrealȱcostsȱofȱtheȱPSU.ȱ Inȱ Chile,ȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ nationalȱ lawȱ thatȱ recognizesȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examination.ȱ Instead,ȱ everyȱ yearȱ theȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Rectorsȱ publishesȱ theȱ PSUȱ regulations.ȱ Universitiesȱ haveȱ autonomyȱ toȱ decideȱ theirȱ policies,ȱ andȱ theyȱ recognizeȱtheȱPSUȱexaminationȱinȱtheirȱadmissionȱregulations.ȱ Publicȱsupportȱforȱtheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminationsȱhasȱbeenȱsuffering.ȱ WhileȱtheȱPSUȱisȱfreeȱofȱcorruption,ȱaȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱstakeholdersȱperceiveȱ itȱasȱunfair.ȱLowerȬincomeȱstudentsȱgetȱsystematicallyȱlowerȱscoresȱthanȱhigherȬ incomeȱ students,ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ areȱ lessȱ likelyȱ toȱ getȱ intoȱ aȱ qualityȱ university.ȱ Supportȱhasȱalsoȱsufferedȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱtheȱgovernanceȱofȱtheȱexaminationȱ boardȱ(OECDȱandȱWorldȱBankȱ2009,ȱchapterȱ5).ȱ MechanismsȱofȱChangeȱ Whileȱtheȱuniversityȱentranceȱexaminationȱprogramȱgrewȱtoȱnationalȱscaleȱafterȱ beingȱ launched,ȱ itsȱ governanceȱ andȱ institutions,ȱ personnel,ȱ andȱ theȱ policyȱ frameworkȱ supportingȱ itȱ doȱ notȱ seemȱ toȱ haveȱ changedȱ accordingly.ȱ Onlyȱ theȱ examinationsȱbudgetȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱadjustedȱtoȱtheȱnewȱcontext.ȱ Becauseȱofȱhistoricalȱreasons,ȱtheȱexaminationȱbureauȱhasȱalwaysȱremainedȱaȱ unitȱwithinȱUniversidadȱdeȱChile,ȱalthoughȱwithȱdifferentȱnames,ȱfunctions,ȱandȱ organizationalȱ dependency.ȱ Theȱ majorȱ changeȱ occurredȱ inȱ 1996,ȱ whenȱ theȱ examinationȱbureauȱandȱtheȱadmissionȱofficeȱofȱtheȱuniversityȱwereȱseparatedȱtoȱ avoidȱ conflictsȱ ofȱ interest.ȱ Theȱ currentȱ institutionalȱ arrangementȱ seemsȱ outȱ ofȱ lineȱwithȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱexaminationȱisȱnowȱaȱnationalȱpublicȱgood.ȱ Theȱstaffingȱofȱtheȱexaminationȱbureauȱhasȱremainedȱrelativelyȱstableȱsinceȱ theȱ1990s,ȱdespiteȱtheȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱstudentsȱtakingȱtheȱexaminationsȱandȱ theȱ greaterȱ technicalȱ sophisticationȱ ofȱ theȱ tests.ȱ Changesȱ inȱ technologyȱ haveȱ allowedȱ forȱ greaterȱ efficiency.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ whereasȱ before,ȱ theȱ DEMREȱ personnelȱ hadȱ toȱ manuallyȱ registerȱ allȱ students,ȱ todayȱ studentsȱ enrollȱ forȱ theȱ examinationȱonline.ȱAccordingly,ȱtheȱexistingȱpersonnelȱhaveȱbeenȱreallocatedȱtoȱ newȱfunctions.ȱ Theȱ policyȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ supportsȱ theȱ examinationȱ (PSUȱ regulationsȱ andȱ universityȱadmissionȱpolicies)ȱhasȱalsoȱremainedȱessentiallyȱtheȱsame.ȱTheȱmainȱ variationȱ isȱ thatȱ allȱ newȱ universitiesȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ theȱ PSUȱ inȱ theirȱ admissionȱ policies.ȱ Theȱ yearlyȱ budgetȱ forȱ theȱ examinationȱ officeȱ increasedȱ significantlyȱ inȱ theȱ lastȱdecade;ȱnevertheless,ȱthisȱincreaseȱdidȱnotȱmatchȱtheȱincreaseȱinȱtheȱamountȱ ofȱmoneyȱcollectedȱviaȱexaminationȱfees.ȱTheȱyearlyȱbudgetȱforȱtheȱexaminationȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 11ȱ ȱ bureauȱ increasedȱ byȱ US$3.8ȱ millionȱ inȱ theȱ lastȱ decadeȱ (fromȱ US$2.8ȱ millionȱ byȱ 2000ȱtoȱUS$6.6ȱmillionȱinȱ2011).ȱHowever,ȱinȱtheȱsameȱperiod,ȱtheȱyearlyȱamountȱ ofȱ moneyȱ collectedȱ viaȱ examinationȱ feesȱ byȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chileȱ increasedȱ inȱ US$9.6ȱmillionȱ(passingȱfromȱUS$5.3ȱmillionȱinȱ2000ȱtoȱUS$14.9ȱmillionȱinȱ2011).ȱ ItȱisȱuncertainȱthatȱDEMREȱhasȱfullyȱbenefitedȱfromȱtheseȱadditionalȱresources.ȱȱ DriversȱforȱChangesȱ Thisȱsubsectionȱanalyzesȱhowȱtheȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱeducationȱsystemȱaffectedȱtheȱ enablingȱenvironmentȱofȱtheȱexaminationȱinȱChile.ȱ Theȱ mainȱ driverȱ thatȱ allowedȱ forȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinationsȱinȱChileȱwasȱtheȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱuniversityȱsystem.ȱInȱtheȱ1960s,ȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chileȱ openedȱ regionalȱ campusesȱ thatȱ allowedȱ increasingȱ itsȱ enrollmentȱbyȱmoreȱthanȱ3,000ȱstudentsȱ(10ȱpercentȱincrease).ȱToȱselectȱinȱaȱfairȱ wayȱ studentsȱ fromȱ allȱ overȱ theȱ country,ȱ theȱ universityȱ implementedȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinations.ȱThisȱ examinationȱ programȱ wasȱ thenȱ adoptedȱ byȱtheȱotherȱsevenȱuniversitiesȱexistingȱinȱtheȱcountryȱatȱthatȱtime.ȱ Inȱtheȱ1980s,ȱaȱsecondȱwageȱofȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱuniversityȱsystemȱoccurredȱ whenȱaȱnewȱlawȱallowedȱforȱtheȱcreationȱofȱnewȱprivateȱuniversities.ȱWhenȱtheȱ lawȱwasȱpassedȱinȱ1981,ȱChileȱhadȱ25ȱ“traditional�ȱuniversitiesȱ(allȱderivedȱfromȱ theȱeightȱoriginalȱonesȱexistingȱinȱtheȱ1960s)ȱthatȱenrolledȱaroundȱ7ȱpercentȱofȱtheȱ population.ȱ Inȱ 2012,ȱ Chileȱ hasȱ 60ȱ universitiesȱ andȱ enrollmentȱ inȱ tertiaryȱ educationȱisȱaroundȱ40ȱpercent.15ȱ Inȱtheȱ2000s,ȱaȱthirdȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱuniversityȱsystemȱoccurred,ȱthisȱtimeȱ byȱincreasingȱtheȱnumberȱofȱstudentsȱattendingȱalreadyȬexistingȱuniversities.ȱTheȱ numberȱ ofȱ studentsȱ almostȱ doubled,ȱ growingȱ fromȱ 340,000ȱ toȱ 660,000ȱ inȱ 2001– 11.16ȱTheȱmainȱfactorsȱbehindȱthisȱexpansionȱwereȱtheȱgreaterȱnumberȱofȱstudentsȱ graduatingȱ fromȱ secondaryȱ education;ȱ moreȱ familiesȱ beingȱ ableȱ toȱ payȱ forȱ universityȱ studies;ȱ andȱ increasedȱ accessȱ toȱ stateȱ subsidies,ȱ loans,ȱ andȱ scholarships.ȱ Theȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱuniversityȱsystemȱhadȱaȱdirectȱimpactȱonȱtheȱenablingȱ environmentȱofȱtheȱexamination.ȱFirst,ȱallȱnewȱuniversitiesȱinȱChileȱadoptedȱtheȱ examinationȱ asȱ theirȱ mainȱ entryȱ criteria.ȱ Second,ȱ theȱ expansionȱ affectedȱ theȱ governanceȱofȱtheȱexamination.ȱWhenȱtheȱexaminationȱwasȱcreated,ȱtheȱCouncilȱ ofȱRectorsȱrepresentedȱallȱeightȱuniversitiesȱexistingȱinȱtheȱcountryȱatȱthatȱtime.ȱ Today,ȱtheȱcouncilȱstillȱrepresentsȱtheseȱoriginalȱinstitutionsȱonlyȱ(orȱinstitutionsȱ derivedȱ fromȱ them),ȱ excludingȱ fromȱ amongȱ itsȱ membersȱ allȱ newȱ privateȱ universitiesȱcreatedȱafterȱ1981.ȱȱ Pushesȱforȱreformȱhaveȱarisenȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱtheȱlackȱofȱrepresentationȱ ofȱtheȱCouncilȱofȱRectors.ȱTheyȱhaveȱalsoȱarisenȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱtheȱexcessiveȱ powerȱ thatȱ Universidadȱ deȱ Chileȱ seemsȱ toȱ haveȱ inȱ theȱ council.ȱ Despiteȱ theȱ factȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 15 ȱ Allȱ dataȱ basedȱ onȱ Chile’sȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Socialȱ Development’sȱ 2009ȱ Nationalȱ Socioeconomicȱ Surveyȱ (EncuestaȱCasen)ȱandȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱ(www.mifuturo.cl).ȱȱ 16 ȱSeeȱMinistryȱofȱEducation’sȱwebsite:ȱhttp://www.mifuturo.cl/.ȱ ȱ 12ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ thatȱtheȱMinisterȱofȱEducationȱheadsȱtheȱcouncil,ȱinȱpractice,ȱs/heȱhasȱlittleȱpowerȱ toȱ influenceȱ itsȱ “autonomous�ȱ universities.ȱ Pushesȱ forȱ biddingȱ theȱ examinationȱ asȱaȱmeansȱtoȱendȱtheȱmonopolyȱofȱUniversidadȱdeȱChileȱhaveȱfailed.17ȱ Third,ȱ stateȱ subsidiesȱ payingȱ forȱ theȱ examinationȱ feeȱ ofȱ lowerȬincomeȱ studentsȱhaveȱallowedȱmoreȱstudentsȱtoȱsitȱforȱtheȱexamination.ȱTheseȱsubsidiesȱ wereȱ introducedȱ afterȱ theȱ 2006ȱ studentȱ protestsȱ forȱ fairnessȱ inȱ accessȱ toȱ universities.ȱAfterȱthisȱpolicyȱwasȱintroduced,ȱtheȱnumberȱofȱstudentsȱregisteringȱ forȱ theȱ examinationȱ increasedȱ inȱ 55ȱ percent,ȱ fromȱ 175,000ȱ inȱ 2005ȱ toȱ 272,000ȱ inȱ 2011.ȱ Fourth,ȱ theȱ growingȱ numberȱ ofȱ studentsȱ registeringȱ forȱ theȱ examinationȱ allowedȱ forȱ aȱ significantȱ increaseȱ inȱ theȱ amountȱ ofȱ moneyȱ collectedȱ byȱ UniversidadȱdeȱChile,ȱandȱinȱtheȱyearlyȱbudgetȱofȱtheȱexaminationȱoffice.ȱTheseȱ additionalȱresourcesȱhaveȱstrengthenedȱtheȱexaminationȱoffice.ȱ ClassroomȱAssessmentȱ Thisȱ sectionȱ reviewsȱ theȱ evolutionȱ ofȱ theȱ enablingȱ contextȱ ofȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ activitiesȱ inȱ Chile.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ subsectionȱ presentsȱ anȱ overviewȱ ofȱ theȱ currentȱ stateȱ ofȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱ Theȱ followingȱ subsectionȱ analyzesȱ theȱ enablingȱcontextȱasȱofȱ2012.ȱTheȱlastȱtwoȱsubsectionsȱexamineȱtheȱchangesȱtoȱtheȱ enablingȱcontextȱandȱtheȱdriversȱthatȱallowedȱ(orȱnot)ȱforȱtheseȱchangesȱtoȱtakeȱ place.ȱ GeneralȱDescriptionȱ Classroomȱassessmentȱisȱwhatȱteachersȱdoȱinȱschoolsȱeveryȱday.ȱItȱisȱtheȱprocessȱ ofȱ collecting,ȱ synthesizing,ȱ andȱ interpretingȱ informationȱ toȱ aidȱ inȱ pedagogicalȱ decisionȱ making,ȱ supportingȱ studentȱ learningȱ (formativeȱ assessment),ȱ andȱ judgingȱ studentȱ performanceȱ (summativeȱ assessment).ȱ Itȱ encompassesȱ theȱ formalȱ gradingȱ ofȱ students’ȱ workȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ moreȱ informalȱ observationsȱ ofȱ studentsȱ(Airasianȱ2005).ȱ Byȱ far,ȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ isȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ typeȱ ofȱ assessment.ȱ Becauseȱitȱhappensȱinȱdirectȱcontactȱwithȱteachersȱandȱstudents,ȱitȱhasȱtheȱgreaterȱ powerȱ toȱ boostȱ learning,ȱ asȱ comparedȱ toȱ externalȱ examinationsȱ orȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessments.ȱ Classroomȱ assessmentȱ isȱ deeplyȱ embeddedȱ inȱ anyȱ educationalȱ process.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ itȱ receivesȱ theȱ leastȱ attentionȱ comparedȱ toȱ examinationsȱ andȱlargeȬscaleȱassessments.ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ easyȱ toȱ talkȱ aboutȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ inȱ Chile.ȱ Despiteȱ theȱ existenceȱofȱclassroomȱassessmentȱpracticesȱsinceȱtheȱschoolȱsystemȱwasȱfoundedȱ inȱtheȱnineteenthȱcentury,ȱthisȱisȱanȱactivityȱthatȱremainsȱpartȱofȱtheȱ“blackȱbox�ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 17 ȱ Theȱ battleȱ forȱ theȱ controlȱ ofȱ theȱ universityȱ examinationsȱ reachedȱ itsȱ maximumȱ expressionȱ whenȱ theȱ MinistryȱofȱEducationȱpushedȱforȱtheȱalignmentȱofȱtheȱtestsȱwithȱtheȱnewlyȱintroducedȱsecondaryȱschoolȱ curriculum.ȱTheȱCouncilȱofȱRectorsȱadoptedȱthisȱpolicyȱonlyȱafterȱstrongȱopposition.ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 13ȱ ȱ ofȱ theȱ educationȱ process.ȱ Teachersȱ assessȱ theirȱ studentsȱ inȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ schoolȱ classroomsȱ aroundȱ theȱ country,ȱ withȱ littleȱ supportȱ andȱ supervision.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ scarceȱ systematicȱ informationȱ aboutȱ classroomȱ assessment,ȱ andȱ theȱ informationȱ generatedȱisȱnotȱusedȱtoȱinformȱpolicy.ȱ Chileȱ doesȱ notȱ haveȱ strongȱ mechanismsȱ toȱ ensureȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ inspection/supervisionȱ systemȱ doesȱ notȱ overseeȱ theȱ qualityȱofȱtests,ȱquizzes,ȱandȱtheȱgradingȱsystemȱusedȱinȱschools.ȱSupervisorsȱdoȱ moreȱ ofȱ aȱ bureaucraticȱ reviewȱ ofȱ studentȱ transcripts.ȱ Moderationȱ processesȱ whereȱ teachersȱ reviewȱ andȱ adjustȱ theirȱ assessmentsȱ areȱ notȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ assessmentȱcultureȱinȱChile.ȱȱ Asȱaȱconsequence,ȱclassroomȱassessmentȱsuffersȱfromȱimportantȱweaknesses,ȱ includingȱtheȱfollowing:ȱȱ Aȱ normativeȱ approachȱ dominatesȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱ Itȱ isȱ commonȱ practiceȱ thatȱ theȱ maximumȱ scoreȱ (7)ȱ isȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ bestȬperformingȱ student,ȱ andȱ theȱ passingȱscoreȱ(4)ȱisȱmatchedȱwithȱ60ȱpercentȱofȱcorrectȱresponses.ȱThisȱnormativeȱ approachȱ contrastsȱ withȱ aȱ criterionȬreferencedȱ approachȱ basedȱ onȱ curricularȱ standards.ȱ Itȱisȱnotȱpartȱofȱtheȱteachingȱcultureȱtoȱuseȱexplicit,ȱaȱprioriȱsetȱcriteriaȱforȱgradingȱ students.ȱ Inȱgeneral,ȱ teachersȱ doȱ notȱ useȱ “scoringȱ guides�ȱandȱ doȱ notȱengageȱ inȱ moderationȱ practicesȱ withȱ theirȱ colleaguesȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ sameȱ criteriaȱ areȱ usedȱ toȱ scoreȱ studentȱ work.ȱ Theseȱ areȱ commonȱ practicesȱ inȱ highȬperformingȱ schoolȱsystems.18ȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ largeȱ gapȱ betweenȱ theȱ officialȱ curriculumȱ andȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ practices.ȱForȱinstance,ȱimportantȱcurricularȱtopicsȱareȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱclassroomȱ assessment;ȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ assessmentȱ ofȱ lowerȬorderȱ cognitiveȱ skills;ȱandȱthereȱisȱanȱoveremphasisȱonȱmultipleȬchoiceȱquestionsȱ(Ministerioȱdeȱ Educaciónȱ2009).ȱ TeachersȱhaveȱfewȱopportunitiesȱtoȱlearnȱaboutȱclassroomȱassessmentȱinȱpreȬȱandȱinȬ serviceȱ teacherȱ trainingȱ programs.ȱ Teachersȱ areȱ notȱ “assessmentȱ literate�ȱ toȱ implementȱ theȱ reformȱ curriculum.ȱ Asȱ aȱ consequence,ȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ practicesȱ areȱ weakerȱ comparedȱ toȱ otherȱ teachingȱ activitiesȱ (forȱ example,ȱ asȱ comparedȱtoȱplanningȱandȱimplementingȱaȱpedagogicalȱactivity).19ȱ Gradeȱ inflationȱ andȱ theȱ applicationȱ ofȱ unevenȱ standardsȱ inȱ gradingȱ studentsȱ areȱ common.ȱTheȱlowestȬperformingȱschoolsȱ(asȱmeasuredȱbyȱtheȱnationalȱassessmentȱ program,ȱ SIMCE)ȱ tendȱ toȱ giveȱ theȱ higherȱ gradesȱ toȱ theirȱ studentsȱ (Ficherȱ andȱ Repettoȱ2003).ȱStudentsȱ(andȱtheirȱfamilies)ȱfeelȱcheatedȱwhenȱtheyȱgetȱveryȱhighȱ schoolȱ gradesȱ butȱ areȱ notȱ evenȱ ableȱ toȱ reachȱ theȱ cutoffȱ pointȱ onȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱexaminationsȱtoȱapplyȱtoȱaȱuniversity.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 18 ȱ Moderationȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ applyingȱ comparableȱ standardsȱ forȱ evaluatingȱ studentȱ workȱ orȱ responses.ȱInȱschools,ȱitȱinvolvesȱgroupsȱofȱteachersȱlookingȱatȱexamplesȱofȱstudentȱwork,ȱdiscussingȱtheȱ extentȱtoȱwhichȱtheseȱmeetȱtheȱexpectedȱstandard,ȱandȱcomingȱtoȱagreementȱonȱtheȱlevelȱofȱattainmentȱ representedȱbyȱeachȱexample.ȱTheȱgroupȱmayȱcompriseȱstaffȱfromȱoneȱschool,ȱfromȱdifferentȱschoolsȱorȱ acrossȱauthorities.ȱSeeȱDarlingȬHammondȱandȱWentworthȱ(2010).ȱȱ 19 ȱSeeȱOECDȱ(2004)ȱandȱtheȱTeacherȱEvaluationȱSystemȱatȱhttp://www.docentemas.cl.ȱ ȱ 14ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ Thereȱisȱnoȱqualityȱassuranceȱsystemȱthatȱmonitorsȱclassroomȱassessmentȱpracticesȱ atȱ theȱ schoolȱ level.ȱ Theȱ currentȱ inspection/supervisionȱ systemȱ doesȱ notȱ monitorȱ classroomȱassessmentȱpracticesȱfromȱaȱpedagogicalȱstandpointȱ(thatȱis,ȱactivities,ȱ testsȱ andȱ gradingȱ criteria,ȱ scoringȱ andȱ grading,ȱ andȱ feedbackȱ toȱ theȱ students).ȱ Supervisorsȱ ensureȱ gradesȱ areȱ correctlyȱ registeredȱ forȱ bureaucraticȱ purposesȱ mainly.ȱ Theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ doesȱ notȱ haveȱ aȱ centralizedȱ informationȱ systemȱthatȱgathersȱregularȱinformationȱonȱclassroomȱassessment,ȱandȱthatȱusesȱ thatȱinformationȱtoȱinformȱpolicies.ȱ Theseȱ weaknessesȱ preventȱ anȱ effectiveȱ useȱ ofȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ forȱ learning.ȱTheyȱalsoȱraiseȱconcernȱaboutȱtheȱvalidityȱofȱusingȱstudentȱgradesȱasȱanȱ inputȱtoȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱuniversity,ȱasȱdiscussedȱabove.ȱSecondaryȱschoolȱgradesȱareȱ typicallyȱ weightedȱ 20–30ȱ percentȱ inȱ computingȱ theȱ finalȱ applicationȱ scoreȱ toȱ universityȱ programsȱ (theȱ complementȱ comesȱ fromȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinations).ȱ Schoolȱ gradesȱ areȱ aȱ relativelyȱ strongȱ predictorȱ ofȱ successȱ atȱ theȱ universityȱ andȱ areȱ lessȱ correlatedȱ withȱ socioeconomicȱ backgroundȱ ofȱ theȱ students,ȱ comparedȱ toȱ PSUȱ examinationȱ testȱ scoresȱ (Comitéȱ Técnicoȱ 2010).ȱ However,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱaȱmoderationȱsystemȱthreatensȱtheȱcomparabilityȱofȱstudentȱ gradesȱacrossȱschools.ȱAsȱanȱoption,ȱthereȱareȱeffortsȱtoȱrankȱstudentsȱbasedȱonȱ theirȱschoolȱgradesȱandȱtoȱincludeȱthisȱinformationȱinȱtheȱformulaȱtoȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱ university.ȱ EnablingȱContextȱȱ Inȱ aȱ typicalȱ Chileanȱ school,ȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ isȱ guidedȱ byȱ theȱ schoolȱ regulationsȱ statingȱ theȱ purposes,ȱ frequency,ȱ types,ȱ andȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ theȱ assessment.ȱTheseȱregulationsȱmustȱbeȱalignedȱwithȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation’sȱ decreesȱ andȱ standardsȱ aboutȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱ Theȱ Nationalȱ Educationȱ Council,ȱ anȱ autonomousȱ publicȱ institution,ȱ isȱ ultimatelyȱ responsibleȱ forȱ approvingȱ ministerialȱ guidelinesȱ relatedȱ toȱ grading,ȱ andȱ promotion/retentionȱ policies.ȱ ClassroomȱassessmentȱdecreesȱfromȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducationȱstateȱthat:20ȱ x Studentsȱshouldȱbeȱevaluatedȱregardingȱattainmentȱofȱobjectivesȱstatedȱinȱ theȱofficialȱschoolȱcurriculum.ȱ x Allȱ schoolsȱ mustȱ haveȱ theirȱ ownȱ assessmentȱ regulations,ȱ whichȱ shouldȱ specifyȱproceduresȱforȱinformingȱparentsȱandȱstudentsȱaboutȱtheirȱgrades,ȱ pass/failȱ criteria,ȱ andȱ proceduresȱ forȱ assessingȱ studentsȱ withȱ specialȱ needs,ȱamongȱothers.ȱ x Gradeȱmarksȱshouldȱbeȱassignedȱusingȱaȱscaleȱfromȱ1ȱtoȱ7,ȱwithȱ4ȱasȱtheȱ passingȱscore.ȱ x Considerationȱforȱstudentȱpromotionȱtoȱtheȱnextȱgradeȱshouldȱincludeȱtheȱ numberȱofȱsubjectȱareasȱsuccessfullyȱcompletedȱandȱattendanceȱrates.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 20 ȱSeeȱMinistryȱofȱEducation’sȱdecreesȱatȱwww.mineduc.cl.ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 15ȱ ȱ Teachingȱstandardsȱ(MinisterioȱdeȱEducaciónȱ2004)ȱandȱschoolȱmanagementȱ standardsȱ (Ministerioȱ deȱ Educaciónȱ 2005)ȱ furtherȱ specifyȱ theȱ functionsȱ ofȱ classroomȱ assessment:ȱ toȱ ensureȱ learningȱ forȱ allȱ students,ȱ toȱ monitorȱ studentȱ learningȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ curricularȱ standards,ȱ toȱ adjustȱ instructionȱ basedȱ onȱ assessmentȱresults,ȱandȱtoȱinformȱparentsȱaboutȱstudentȱperformance.ȱClassroomȱ assessmentȱstandardsȱincludedȱinȱtheȱteachingȱstandardsȱareȱalsoȱusedȱasȱcriteriaȱ inȱtheȱChileanȱTeacherȱEvaluationȱSystem.21ȱ Whileȱ regulationsȱ aboutȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ areȱ quiteȱ progressive,ȱ theyȱ seemȱ toȱ haveȱ littleȱ impactȱ atȱ theȱ classroomȱ level.ȱ Inȱ practice,ȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ isȱ mainlyȱ aboutȱ gradingȱ studentsȱ andȱ complyingȱ withȱ bureaucraticȱ regulations,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ fillingȱ theȱ classȱ book.22ȱ Teachersȱ haveȱ littleȱ trainingȱ andȱ supportȱtoȱengageȱinȱhighȬqualityȱclassroomȱassessmentȱpractices.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ hasȱ publishedȱ someȱ assessmentȱ materialȱ forȱ teachers.ȱ Thisȱ materialȱ isȱ availableȱ fromȱ theȱ webȱ pagesȱ ofȱ someȱ programsȱ sponsoredȱ byȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education,ȱ includingȱ theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱprogramȱSIMCE.ȱKeyȱdocumentsȱare:ȱ x Teachingȱandȱschoolȱmanagementȱstandards.ȱTheseȱincludeȱcriteriaȱforȱhighȬ qualityȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ andȱ forȱ usingȱ itsȱ informationȱ toȱ monitorȱ learningȱ(MinisterioȱdeȱEducaciónȱ2004,ȱ2005).ȱ x Progressȱmapsȱdescribingȱtheȱtypicalȱsequenceȱofȱlearning.ȱTheseȱguidelinesȱareȱ availableȱ fromȱ gradesȱ 1ȱ throughȱ 12,ȱ inȱ mathematics,ȱ Spanish,ȱ socialȱ sciences,ȱ naturalȱ sciences,ȱ andȱ Englishȱ (asȱ aȱ secondȱ language).ȱ Theyȱ provideȱ examplesȱ ofȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ tasksȱ studentsȱ areȱ expectedȱ toȱ doȱ atȱ differentȱlevels.23ȱ x Guidelinesȱ forȱ Assessmentȱ forȱ Learning.ȱ Theseȱ guidelinesȱ areȱ availableȱ forȱ gradesȱ1ȱthroughȱ8ȱandȱsupportȱeducatorsȱinȱimprovingȱtheirȱassessmentȱ practices.ȱ Theyȱ provideȱ modulesȱ onȱ designingȱ technicallyȱ soundȱ assessments,ȱ definingȱ andȱ usingȱ assessmentȱ criteria,ȱ andȱ providingȱ feedbackȱtoȱpromoteȱstudents’ȱlearning.24ȱ x Centrallyȱdesignedȱtestsȱforȱtheȱteachersȱtoȱuseȱinȱtheirȱschools.ȱTheseȱtestsȱwereȱ designedȱ withȱ theȱ aimȱ thatȱ teachersȱ useȱ themȱ toȱ diagnoseȱ theȱ performanceȱlevelȱofȱtheirȱstudentsȱandȱtoȱsetȱendȬofȬschoolȬyearȱlearningȱ goals.25ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 21 ȱ Teacherȱ evaluationȱ isȱ mandatedȱ byȱ lawȱ forȱ allȱ teachersȱ workingȱ inȱ publicȱ schools.ȱ http://www.docentemas.cl/dm_sistema_eng.php.ȱ 22 ȱ Theȱ classȱ bookȱ isȱ usedȱ byȱ teachersȱ toȱ keepȱ trackȱ ofȱ topicsȱ coveredȱ inȱ classesȱ andȱ homework,ȱ andȱ students’ȱ attendance,ȱ grades,ȱ disruptiveȱ behavior,ȱ amongȱ others.ȱ Thisȱ bookȱ isȱ usedȱ byȱ theȱ schoolȱ administrationȱ andȱ theȱ schoolȱ supervisorsȱ toȱ monitorȱ complianceȱ withȱ regulationsȱ andȱ toȱ provideȱ pedagogicalȱsupport.ȱ 23 ȱSeeȱMinistryȱofȱEducation’sȱwebpage:ȱhttp://www.mineduc.cl.ȱ 24 ȱMinisterioȱdeȱEducacionȱ(2006).ȱSeeȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation’sȱwebpage:ȱhttp://www.psp.mineduc.cl/.ȱ 25 ȱSeeȱMinistryȱofȱEducation’sȱwebpage:ȱhttp://www.planesdemejoramiento.cl/.ȱ ȱ 16ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ Toȱwhatȱextentȱtheseȱguidelinesȱareȱreachingȱtheȱclassroomȱremainsȱanȱopenȱ question.ȱ Theȱ designȱ andȱ availabilityȱ ofȱ classroomȱ materialȱ isȱ aȱ firstȱ importantȱ step.ȱHowever,ȱaȱstrategyȱforȱreachingȱallȱtheȱschoolsȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱmissing.ȱȱ Classroomȱ assessmentȱ doesȱ notȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ consideredȱ aȱ strategicȱ areaȱ forȱ improvement.ȱ Theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ doesȱ notȱ haveȱ aȱ teamȱ orȱ budgetȱ specificallyȱdevotedȱtoȱthisȱarea,ȱandȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱaȱqualityȱassuranceȱsystemȱtoȱ supportȱandȱsuperviseȱclassroomȱassessment.ȱȱ Thereȱ isȱ littleȱ publicȱ awarenessȱ aboutȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱaȱtopicȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱmediaȱandȱhasȱlittleȱcoverageȱinȱ educationȱforums.ȱNevertheless,ȱclassroomȱassessmentȱisȱgainingȱmoreȱattentionȱ asȱ aȱ consequenceȱ ofȱ theȱ increasedȱ importanceȱ ofȱ studentȱ gradesȱ inȱ applyingȱ toȱ theȱuniversity,ȱasȱdiscussedȱpreviously.ȱ MechanismsȱofȱChangeȱ Attemptsȱtoȱimproveȱclassroomȱassessmentȱpracticesȱhaveȱfocusedȱonȱnormativeȱ andȱ pedagogicalȱ guidelines.ȱ Inȱ theȱ 1990s,ȱ decreesȱ specifyingȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱactivitiesȱandȱproceduresȱcameȱtoȱlightȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱcurricularȱ reform.ȱInȱtheȱ2000s,ȱclearerȱguidelinesȱstatingȱwhatȱconstitutesȱgoodȱclassroomȱ assessmentȱ practicesȱ wereȱ published.ȱ Noȱ reformsȱ wereȱ implementedȱ toȱ bringȱ theseȱ guidelinesȱ intoȱ theȱ classroom.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ noȱ systematicȱ trainingȱ wasȱ offeredȱ toȱ preȬȱ andȱ inȬserviceȱ teachers,ȱ andȱ theȱ supervision/inspectionȱ systemȱ wasȱnotȱalignedȱtoȱensureȱtheȱqualityȱofȱclassroomȱassessmentȱpractices.ȱ Aȱ smallȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ teamȱ existedȱ atȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ untilȱ2010.ȱInȱ2002,ȱwhenȱtheȱteamȱwasȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱCurriculumȱandȱEvaluationȱ Unit,ȱ itȱ hadȱ aȱ staffȱ ofȱ oneȱ orȱ twoȱ people,ȱ notȱ fullȱ time.ȱ Theȱ teamȱ leaderȱ hadȱ aȱ doctorateȱdegreeȱandȱwasȱfamiliarȱwithȱtheȱliteratureȱonȱassessmentȱforȱlearning.ȱ Otherȱ teamȱ membersȱ variedȱ fromȱ yearȱ toȱ year,ȱ hadȱ aȱ bachelor’sȱ orȱ master’sȱ degree,ȱandȱgotȱonȬtheȬjobȱtrainingȱinȱclassroomȱassessment.ȱFromȱ2005ȱtoȱ2009,ȱ theȱ annualȱ budgetȱ allocatedȱ toȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ activitiesȱ reachedȱ US$80,000ȱ (notȱ includingȱ theȱ salaryȱ ofȱ theȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ team).26ȱ Theȱ classroomȱassessmentȱteam,ȱactivities,ȱandȱbudgetȱwereȱeliminatedȱinȱ2010.ȱ DriversȱforȱChangesȱ Twoȱmainȱfactorsȱhaveȱworkedȱagainstȱhavingȱaȱstrongerȱenablingȱenvironmentȱ forȱclassroomȱassessmentȱinȱChile.ȱFirst,ȱthereȱisȱaȱvisionȱofȱclassroomȱassessmentȱ asȱaȱcontrolȱandȱbureaucraticȱtool.ȱThisȱvisionȱisȱveryȱdominantȱamongȱeducatorsȱ andȱ isȱ associatedȱ withȱ behavioralȱ theoriesȱ ofȱ learning.ȱ Inȱ theȱ 2000s,ȱ thisȱ visionȱ startedȱtoȱchangeȱwithȱtheȱintroductionȱofȱtheȱnewȱcurriculumȱandȱtheȱgrowingȱ demandȱ fromȱ teachersȱ askingȱ forȱ guidelinesȱ onȱ howȱ toȱ assessȱ theirȱ studentsȱ inȱ theȱcontextȱofȱtheȱnewȱcurriculum.ȱItȱalsoȱstartedȱtoȱchangeȱwithȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ 26 ȱPersonalȱcommunicationȱwithȱMinistryȱofȱEducationȱstaff.ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 17ȱ ȱ theȱliteratureȱofȱassessmentȱforȱlearningȱandȱtheȱtechnicalȱleadershipȱprovidedȱbyȱ staffȱatȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱEducation.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ factorȱ thatȱ hasȱ workedȱ againstȱ aȱ strongerȱ enablingȱ contextȱ forȱ classroomȱ assessmentȱ isȱ aȱ visionȱ whereȱ theȱ stateȱ interferesȱ asȱ littleȱ asȱ possibleȱ withȱschoolȱprocesses.ȱAccordingȱtoȱthisȱvision,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱthatȱtookȱpowerȱ inȱ 2010ȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ pushingȱ towardȱ fewerȱ guidelinesȱ andȱ lessȱ supportȱ andȱ supervisionȱforȱclassroomȱassessment.ȱ LessonsȱLearnedȱ Theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ Chile’sȱ assessmentȱ systemȱ requiredȱ puttingȱ inȱ placeȱ theȱ rightȱ enablingȱ context,ȱ whichȱ includedȱ theȱ necessaryȱ policies,ȱ institutions,ȱ andȱ fiscalȱandȱhumanȱresources.ȱWhatȱareȱtheȱmainȱfeaturesȱofȱtheȱenablingȱcontext?ȱ Throughȱ whichȱ mechanismsȱ itȱ hasȱ evolved?ȱ Whatȱ driversȱ allowedȱ forȱ theseȱ changesȱtoȱtakeȱplace?ȱTableȱ1ȱsummarizesȱtheȱanswersȱtoȱtheseȱquestions.ȱȱ ȱ ȱ Tableȱ1.ȱKeyȱfeaturesȱofȱtheȱenablingȱcontext,ȱmechanismsȱofȱchange,ȱandȱdriversȱforȱ changeȱofȱChile’sȱstudentȱassessmentȱsystemȱȱ Enabling Context Large-scale assessment: Chile has a highly stable and institutionalized large-scale assessment program (SIMCE) that has been operating on a yearly base since 1988. A law mandates the assessment, and ensures its regular funding. The law also specifies the governance and institutional arrangement of the assessment office. Stakeholders generally support the assessment. The program has a stable, sufficient, and qualified staff. The program has a public, stable, and sufficient yearly budget that reached US$26 million (0.26 percent of the education budget) in 2012. University entrance examinations: A highly stable and institutionalized examination program has existed in Chile since 1967. There is no national policy recognizing the examinations; instead, autonomous universities recognize them in their admission policies. The examination scores are trusted, but they are perceived as unfair because lower-income students get systematically lower scores than higher-income students, and therefore have lower chances to get into university. The examinations are governed by an autonomous board; however the board does not represent most of the universities in the country. The examination office is located within a host university, and is accountable to both the university and the governing board. The examination office has stable, sufficient, and qualified staff. The host university funds the examination office with stable and sufficient budgets. In 2011, the examination office had a yearly budget of US$6.6 million. Students had to pay around US$50 to take the examinations. Classroom assessment: This activity has existed since the school system was established in the nineteenth century. It is highly embedded in the teaching culture. The Ministry of Education has no institutionalized quality assurance mechanisms to supervise and support classroom assessment activities in schools. There are policy documents and assessment guidelines for teachers, but very weak implementation. The Ministry of Education has no staff and no funding exclusively devoted to support classroom assessment. Despite weak practices, classroom assessment is not a topic of public concern. (Tableȱcontinuesȱonȱnextȱpage)ȱ ȱ 18ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ ȱ Tableȱ1ȱ(continued)ȱȱ Mechanisms of Change Large-scale assessment program: The assessment program started as a pilot in a university with uncertain funding and future. A law allowed for the institutionalization and transfer of the program into the Ministry of Education. A new law yet to be implemented will transfer the program to an autonomous institution. The assessment office was successfully revamped in a relatively short time spam (five years). The revamping was triggered by the need to align the assessment to a new national curriculum. A more professional work culture was developed by hiring more professional staff, by tripling the staff size, and by training staff. The program budget increased more than 10 times in two decades. University entrance examinations: The university entrance examination program was created in 1967 for one university, but ended up being adopted by all other universities, and eventually became a national examination program. New universities have voluntarily adopted the examination in their admission policies. The governance and institutional arrangement of the examination have remained essentially the same over time, leading to weaker representation and legitimacy. Examination staff have benefited from a training program provided by a leading assessment center in the United States. The budget of the examination office more than doubled between 2000 and 2011. Classroom assessment: There has been no clear development of classroom assessment activities. The main change has been the publication of pedagogical guidelines online. A small team existed in the Ministry of Education, but it only lasted a few years. A small budget allocated to the team was eliminated. Drivers for Change Large-scale assessment: Technical and political leadership from both academia and the Ministry of Education allowed for the creation, institutionalization, and revamping of the assessment program. Making education a national priority created the need for stronger indicators of education quality. Political stability, economic growth, and consensus building allowed for long-term planning and additional funding. Curricular reform triggered the revamping of the assessment office and the alignment of the tests with the new curriculum. Social pressures pushed for the transfer of the assessment office into a semi-autonomous quality assurance agency (yet to be implemented). The assessment staff greatly benefited from hands-on training provided by international large-scale assessments. University entrance examinations: The examination program was created in response to the expansion of the university system. Academia provided technical leadership for its development. Pushes for reform in governance have failed, despite that fact that most universities are not represented on the examination board. Student protests pushed for the introduction of state subsidies to register for the examinations. Between 2000 and 2011, the yearly amount of money collected from the examination fee grew around US$9.6 million, whereas the examination yearly budget increased only US$3.8 million. It is not clear that the fees reflect the real cost of the examinations. Classroom assessment: Two factors have worked against the development of stronger institutional support for classroom assessment in Chile: (i) a perception of classroom assessment as a control and bureaucratic tool, rather than as a tool to support learning; and (ii) a vision where the state has to interfere as little as possible with school processes, including classroom assessment. Nevertheless, these visions have been changing as a consequence of curricular reforms, teachers’ demands for assessment guidelines, and the international literature on assessment for learning. ȱ TheȱmainȱlessonsȱthatȱcanȱbeȱextractedȱfromȱtheȱChileanȱexperienceȱforȱotherȱ countriesȱaimingȱtoȱsetȱtheȱrightȱenablingȱcontextȱforȱdevelopingȱtheirȱassessmentȱ systemȱareȱasȱfollows:ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 19ȱ ȱ Ensuringȱ economicȱ andȱ politicalȱ stability.ȱ Thisȱ wasȱ aȱ necessaryȱ conditionȱ forȱ consensusȱbuilding,ȱlongȬtermȱplanning,ȱandȱforȱsecuringȱincreasedȱresourcesȱforȱ theȱnationalȱassessment.ȱȱ ThinkingȱforȱaȱlongȬtermȱprocess.ȱDevelopingȱanȱassessmentȱsystemȱtakesȱtime.ȱ Countriesȱ shouldȱ notȱ expectȱ toȱ putȱ inȱ placeȱ inȱ twoȱ toȱ threeȱ yearsȱ whatȱ tookȱ othersȱ decades.ȱ Inȱ Chile,ȱ bothȱ theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ andȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinationsȱ wereȱ pilotedȱ severalȱ yearsȱ beforeȱ theirȱ institutionalization.ȱ Implementingȱ gradualȱ changes.ȱ Implementingȱ anȱ assessmentȱ programȱ isȱ anȱ extremelyȱ challengingȱ task.ȱ Countriesȱ shouldȱ notȱ attemptȱ toȱ implementȱ theȱ assessmentȱprogramȱallȱatȱonce,ȱbutȱratherȱtoȱimplementȱitȱstepȱbyȱstep.ȱOnȱdoingȱ so,ȱcountriesȱwillȱdevelopȱlocalȱcapacityȱtoȱrunȱtheȱassessment,ȱandȱwillȱevaluateȱ whichȱassessmentȱoptionsȱworkȱbetterȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱForȱinstance,ȱinȱChileȱtheȱ nationalȱassessmentȱstartedȱasȱaȱregionalȱpilotȱstudy.ȱInȱsubsequentȱrounds,ȱtheȱ assessmentȱwasȱgraduallyȱbroughtȱtoȱnationalȱscale.ȱȱ Havingȱstrongȱleadership.ȱTechnicalȱandȱpoliticalȱleadershipȱwereȱessentialȱforȱ successfullyȱ developingȱ theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ programȱ inȱ Chile.ȱ Thisȱ leadershipȱallowedȱforȱtheȱlaunchingȱaȱpilotȱassessmentȱprogram,ȱitsȱtransferȱintoȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Education,ȱ andȱ theȱ revampingȱ ofȱ theȱ assessmentȱ officeȱ aroundȱ yearȱ2000.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱleadershipȱandȱvisionȱhasȱjeopardizedȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinationsȱ andȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱReformsȱtoȱtheȱexaminationsȱhaveȱbeenȱdrivenȱmoreȱasȱaȱreactionȱtoȱ externalȱ pressuresȱ ratherȱ thanȱ byȱ aȱ clearȱ visionȱ andȱ leadership.ȱ Reformsȱ toȱ classroomȱassessmentȱdoȱnotȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱpermeatedȱteachingȱpractices.ȱ Ensuringȱfairȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱexaminations.ȱNoȱstudentȱshouldȱbeȱdeniedȱtheȱrightȱ toȱtakeȱtheȱexaminations,ȱandȱtheȱexaminationȱfeeȱshouldȱreflectȱtheȱrealȱcostsȱofȱ theȱ examinations.ȱ Chile,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ otherȱ countries,ȱ hasȱ putȱ inȱ placeȱ fundingȱ mechanismsȱtoȱpayȱforȱtheȱexaminationȱfeeȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱcannotȱaffordȱtoȱpayȱit.ȱ However,ȱmoreȱinformationȱisȱneededȱtoȱjudgeȱifȱtheȱfeeȱreflectsȱtheȱrealȱcostsȱofȱ theȱexaminations.ȱ Adaptingȱtoȱtheȱexpansionȱofȱsecondaryȱandȱtertiaryȱeducation.ȱ Manyȱdevelopingȱ countriesȱ areȱ currentlyȱ witnessingȱ aȱ welcomeȱ expansionȱ inȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ studentsȱ finishingȱ secondaryȱ educationȱ andȱ aimingȱ toȱ continueȱ theirȱ studiesȱ atȱ university.ȱ Thisȱ expansionȱ willȱ pushȱ theȱ countriesȱ toȱ developȱ moreȱ fairȱ andȱ efficientȱ examinationsȱ forȱ universityȱ selection.ȱ Itȱ willȱ alsoȱ pushȱ theȱ countriesȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ allȱ studentsȱ canȱ takeȱ theȱ examinations.ȱ Itȱ isȱ importantȱ thatȱ theȱ countriesȱ anticipateȱ theseȱ socialȱ changes,ȱ puttingȱ inȱ placeȱ universityȱ selectionȱ systemsȱthatȱareȱperceivedȱasȱfairȱandȱvalidȱbyȱstakeholders.ȱ Havingȱ theȱ rightȱ policies.ȱ Theȱ legalȱ mandateȱ recognizingȱ theȱ largeȬscaleȱ assessmentȱ wasȱ essentialȱ forȱ itsȱ institutionalȱ developmentȱ andȱ sustainability.ȱ Policyȱ documentsȱ andȱ assessmentȱ guidelinesȱ haveȱ alsoȱ beenȱ importantȱ toȱ supportȱ classroomȱ assessment.ȱ However,ȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ universityȱ entranceȱ examinations,ȱ noȱ legalȱ mandateȱ wasȱ required.ȱ Universitiesȱ voluntarilyȱ adoptedȱ ȱ 20ȱ MaríaȬJoséȱRamírezȱ the  examination  and  recognized  it  in  their  admissions  policies.  A  national  policy  mandating  the  examination  would  not  be  appropriate  in  a  country  that  has  a  strong tradition of autonomous universities.  Ensuring  that  stakeholders  are  represented.  Because  of  the  high�stakes  nature  of  the examination, stakeholders should be represented in the examination board to  ensure  the  legitimacy  and  political  viability  of  the  tests.  In  Chile,  this  was  the  case  when  the  university  entrance  examinations  were  created.  In  the  coming  decades, new universities were created in the country. Today, the board excludes  from  its  members  these  newest  universities.  The  governance  and  institutions  supporting the examination should be able to adapt to new scenarios.  Finding  the  right  institutional  arrangement.  Different  institutional  arrangements  are  possible  for  the  assessment  office:  a  university  center,  within  the  ministry  of  education,  or  a  semi�autonomous  institution.  In  Chile,  the  large� scale  assessment  program  has  explored  all  three  types.  What  is  important  is  to  ensure  that  the  office  is  accountable  and  has  the  autonomy  to  take  technical  decisions.  Having  a  university  hosting  the  examination  bureau  does  not  seem  to  be  the  most  desirable  arrangement  when  the  examinations  become  a  national  public good.  Capacity  building.  Countries  need  to  develop  local  capacity  to  run  the  assessment.  On�the�job  training  and  short  courses  seem  to  be  the  most  cost� effective  for  capacity  building.  In  Chile,  the  assessment  staff  greatly  benefited  from  the  hands�on  training  provided  by  the  international  large�scale  assessments. The examination staff has mainly benefited from short�term courses  provided by a leading assessment center in the United States. On the other hand,  no capacity seems to have been developed to support classroom assessment.  The  capacity  of  the  countries  to  put  together  the  right  enabling  environment  is  key  for  developing  an  effective  assessment  system.  This  capacity  will  depend,  at least in part, in the countries’ ability to learn from the experience of others. The  Chilean  experience  will  hopefully  shed  light  on  how  to  move  forward  in  the  challenging  task  of  developing  a  strong  assessment  system.  By  doing  so,  countries  would  be  on  the  road  to  improve  their  assessments  and,  most  importantly, to boost student learning.      Developing the Enabling Context for Student Assessment in Chile  21  ȱ Referencesȱ Airasian,ȱ P.ȱ 2005.ȱ Classroomȱ Assessment:ȱ Keyȱ Conceptsȱ andȱ Applicationsȱ (5thȱ Ed.).ȱBoston,ȱMcȱGrawȱHill.ȱ Clarke,ȱMarguerite.ȱ2012.ȱ“WhatȱMattersȱMostȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱSystems:ȱ Aȱ Frameworkȱ Paper.�ȱ SABER–Studentȱ Assessmentȱ Workingȱ Paperȱ No.ȱ 1.ȱ WorldȱBank,ȱWashington,ȱDC.ȱ Comitéȱ Técnicoȱ Asesorȱ Consejoȱ deȱ Rectoresȱ deȱ lasȱ Universidadesȱ Chilenas.ȱ (2010).ȱ Validezȱ diferencialȱ yȱ 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Educación.ȱ Unpublishedȱreport.ȱ Organizationȱ forȱ Economicȱ CoȬOperationȱ andȱ Developmentȱ (OECD).ȱ 2004.ȱ ReviewȱofȱNationalȱPoliciesȱforȱEducation:ȱChile.ȱParis:ȱOECD.ȱSeeȱpp.ȱ158– 60.ȱȱ Ramírez,ȱ MaríaȬJosé.ȱ 2012.ȱ “Disseminatingȱ andȱ Usingȱ Studentȱ Assessmentȱ Informationȱ inȱ Chile.�ȱ SABER–Studentȱ Assessmentȱ Workingȱ Paperȱ No.ȱ 3.ȱ WorldȱBank,ȱWashington,ȱDC.ȱ Wolff,ȱL.ȱ2007.ȱTheȱCostsȱofȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱLatinȱAmerica.ȱWashington,ȱ DC:ȱPREAL.ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DevelopingȱtheȱEnablingȱContextȱforȱStudentȱAssessmentȱinȱChileȱ 23ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Developing a strong assessment system is a priority for many countries. But where should they start? This paper describes the journey experienced by Chile to develop the enabling context (policies, institutions, and human DQG ÀVFDO UHVRXUFHV IRU LWV ODUJHVFDOH DVVHVVPHQW SURJUDP LWV XQLYHUVLW\ entrance examinations, and classroom assessment activities. Countries aiming to develop their assessment system may draw valuable lessons from WKLV FDVH VWXG\ PRVW LPSRUWDQWO\ WKH IROORZLQJ L GHYHORSLQJ WKH ULJKW enabling context is a long-term process that builds on gradual changes; LL VWDNHKROGHUV VKRXOG EH UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH JRYHUQDQFH RI WKH DVVHVVPHQW XQLW LLL ZKLOH GLIIHUHQW LQVWLWXWLRQDO DUUDQJHPHQWV DUH SRVVLEOH IRU an assessment unit, it is important that the unit is accountable and DXWRQRPRXV WR PDNH WHFKQLFDO GHFLVLRQV LY FRXQWULHV QHHG WR GHYHORS ORFDO FDSDFLW\ LQ DVVHVVPHQW DQG Y FRXQWULHV QHHG WR DQWLFLSDWH WKH SUHVVXUH the expansion of the education system will put in the assessment system, especially in the university entrance examinations. Countries that can EHQHÀW IURP WKHVH OHVVRQV ZLOO EH LQ D EHWWHU SRVLWLRQ WR FRQWLQXH RQ WKH journey of strengthening their enabling context for an effective assessment system. María-José Ramírez, Education Specialist, Human Development Network, the World Bank The Russia Education Aid for Development Trust Fund is a collaboration between the Russian Federation and the World Bank that supports the improvement of student learning outcomes in low-income countries through the development of robust student assessment systems. Visit the READ website at www.worldbank.org/readtf for additional information.