FEBRUARY 2025 2025/138 A KNOWLEDGE NOTE SERIES FOR THE ENERGY & EXTRACTIVES GLOBAL PRACTICE Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa: Which works when—and why? The bottom line. Different private sector-led and government-led approaches to the development of solar hybrid mini grids are found around the world. Five approaches used in Africa are reviewed here. Each works better in some contexts than in others; each has advantages and disadvantages. In private sector-led approaches, private developers choose mini grid sites based on their own criteria; in government-led approaches, governments conduct competitive procurements to award individual sites or zonal concessions. In a variant of the government-led approach, utilities help private companies create and operate mini grids that are later absorbed into the utility’s power system. All approaches involve capital subsidies. Bernard Tenenbaum is an independent energy What is at stake here? and regulatory consultant. He is a co-author of Rapid expansion of access to electricity depends on a 2024 book on undergrid mini grids from which finding the best way to promote mini grids in countries this Live Wire is drawn. with different starting conditions Chris Greacen helps ESMAP develop renewable Solar hybrid mini grids can be a cost-effective way to expand energy mini grids in Sub-Saharan Africa and access to electricity as well as reduce carbon emissions.1 At Southeast Asia. He is an adjunct professor in the present, solar hybrid mini grids consist of (i) electricity gen- Energy Systems Management program at the eration through solar panels, battery storage, and a small University of San Francisco. diesel backup generator, and (ii) distribution via poles, wires, Authors and meters. ESMAP estimates that a cumulative 1.2 billion Ashish Shrestha is an energy specialist at the tons of CO2 emissions can be avoided if the global address- World Bank. He co-leads the Bank’s electrification able market of 217,000 mini grids are built by 2030 (ESMAP programs in Nigeria and provides support for mini 2022, p. 52). grid development through the ESMAP Global Facility on Mini Grids. 1. Grid extension, solar mesh grids, and solar home systems may also be important options to consider in a comprehensive energy access approach. James Knuckles is a senior energy specialist It is best to take a technology-neutral approach. at the World Bank in Nairobi. He co-leads a regional energy-access financing facility under the World Bank-supported ASCENT project, as well as components of World Bank-supported energy-access projects in Madagascar and the Democratic Republic of Congo. 2 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa To fulfill mini grids’ full potential, a government’s strategy choices will be constrained by: the nature of its legal system to promote them must recognize the limits created by (e.g., civil versus common law system), existing in-coun- the country’s conditions. But a government does not have try options to finance new mini grids, available technical to choose a single approach; different strategies can be capacity, the competence of the national regulator and deployed in parallel in the same country at the same time. rural electrification agency, the main grid’s existing reach, the geographic distribution of the population, the existence To date, the five most common approaches used in Africa and capabilities of private sector operators, the political and have been: security context in the country, and the size of the unserved population, among other factors. 1. Sites selected and developed by private developers 2. Competitive procurement for groups of individual sites The task of selecting an approach is especially relevant since selected by the government the April 2024 announcement by the World Bank and the 3. Competitive procurement for zonal concessions selected African Development Bank of a major new initiative to bring by the government electricity to 300 million people in Africa by 2030. If this 4. Utility outsourcing of the construction and initial opera- ambitious goal is to be reached, national governments will tion of new mini grids for eventual takeover by the utility have to choose strategies that can produce on-the-ground 5. Government- and donor-gifted mini grids to communi- results. A successful strategy must combine both speed and ties, including those operated by cooperatives. affordability with technical and commercial sustainability. The choice depends on the fit between a country’s socioeco- Figure 1 shows the five approaches currently being pursued nomic circumstances and goals, on the one hand, and the in 11 Sub-Saharan African countries. Ten of the countries have features of each strategy, on the other.  2 The government’s decided to pursue concurrent approaches, though the dif- ferent approaches may not always be pursued with equal 2. This note focuses on mini grid promotion strategies implemented by effort or commitment. individual countries. A proposed multi-country approach is now under early discussion for a group of smaller countries in West Africa. Figure 1. Different government strategies to promote mini grids in Sub-Saharan Africa Madagascar Sierra Leone Tanzania Rwanda Ethiopia Uganda Nigeria Liberia Kenya Niger DRC Approach 1: Sites selected and operated Developer- by private developers selected sites Individual sites tendered in lots Approach 2: Competitive procurement Developers for individual sites selected by government and private investors Government- own selected sites Approach 3: Competitive procurement Mini grid for zones selected by government development Single metro model areas or zones Utility owns Approach 4: Outsourcing by main grid utilities of construction and initial operation and maintenance of mini grids Community owns Approach 5: Community-owned mini grids Note: “Developer-selected” has also been described as a “private sector-led” or “bottom-up” approach. “Government-selected” is usually described as a “top-down” or “government-led” approach. DRC = Democratic Republic of Congo. Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 3 Let’s dive in. What are the hallmarks of the To enhance project viability, developers may receive perfor- first approach? mance-based grants from the national rural electrification agency or other entities, often funded by development Sites are selected and operated by private developers finance institutions as loans or grants to the national gov- Mini grid developers, both domestic and foreign, choose ernment. Grants are typically allocated on a first-come, locations based on likelihood of profitability. They often use first-served basis and are subject to meeting technical and geospatial data financed by governments and donors to financial criteria. Disbursement is tied to specific milestones, assess the socioeconomic and physical characteristics of usually some combination of preconstruction measures sites. Usually developers must obtain concessions, licenses, (proof of purchase orders, arrival of equipment at the site) and or permits to establish the mini grids. Regulatory approval postconstruction measures (commissioning of the mini grid, for tariffs charged must also be secured. Approvals can be connection of customers, and evidence of reliable service to granted individually or for clusters of similar mini grids. Box 1 connected customers after the mini grid is commissioned). contains a discussion of the differences between concessions and licenses. Box 1. Underlying legal systems Mini grid developers will need to comply with a country’s legal system regardless of the strategy a government pursues. The two most widespread legal systems in Sub-Saharan Africa are civil law and common law. In civil law countries, typically French-speaking, concessions are issued by a government authority. In contrast, common law countries, usually English-speaking, require licenses or permits issued by regulators. These two legal approaches differ significantly. First, a concession is a contract between the government (usually signed by a ministry or a rural electrification agency) and a private mini grid developer. In contrast, a license or permit is simply an approval or authorization from a government regulator. It is not an enforceable contract between the government and the private mini grid developer. Second, concessions are generally broader in their coverage. In the case of a mini grid, a concession contract will establish the average tariff, determine adjustments over time, set the service requirements (e.g., reliability and stability of voltage and frequency), and define the other rights and obligations of the government and the operator. In addition, the concession may also cover land acquisition and permitting, options for the mini grid developer when the main grid arrives, political risk, and force majeure. In contrast, a license or permit is usually limited to tariff setting and service standards. Mini grid investors generally prefer concessions over licenses since concessions are a contractual obligation of the sovereign government that can be potentially backed by guarantees from the World Bank’s Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency or similar entities. Guarantees are designed to provide greater certainty that the government and the national regulator will honor the commitments of the concession document. In contrast, governments in common law countries may be unable or unwilling to offer such commitments. Recently, the AFUR mini grid regulatory project (AFUR 2024) began exploring the feasibility of creating simplified contractual arrangements (called mini grid project agreements) in common law countries. Creating individual agreements for each mini grid would be costly, but an umbrella agreement covering a developer’s portfolio could be viable. (The Nigerian regulator already does this by issuing licenses and tariff approvals for the mini grid port- folios of a single developer.) They could boost developer and financier confidence in regulatory and government commitments, potentially backed by MIGA’s breach of contract guarantees to reduce financing costs. 4 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa If a local power distribution company holds exclusive rights MW. On average, the grants covered about 60-65 percent in the area, the mini grid developer may need approval from of projected capital costs. The average requested tariff for the current license holder or franchisee to build and operate the first group of grant recipients was around $0.40 per kWh the mini grid in its service area. In countries that issue existing at the time of the grant application. Most of the 57 develop- utilities exclusive licenses for service territories, the mini grid ers that have submitted applications for grants are Nigerian will usually need the regulator’s approval to become a sub- companies, but at least five have some foreign ownership. franchisee or sublicensee of the existing franchise or license The fact that these mini grids have been commissioned is no holder.3 Regulators typically require sublicensees to adhere guarantee that they will be commercially sustainable. to the original licensee’s obligations (except for tariff levels, which are likely to be higher for mini grids). Mini grids between 100 kW and 1 MW must apply for a permit from the national electricity regulator, the Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission. The permit is issued for “The leading example of a private-developer- five years, with the possibility of renewal. (In contrast, most mini grid concessions are good for 25 years.) The permit led approach is the performance-based grant gives the developer the exclusive right to provide mini grid program of the Nigeria Electrification Project electricity to consumers in the specified geographic area. But the permit does not give the developer a legal monop- (NEP) financed by the World Bank.” oly to supply electricity with other distributed technologies like solar home systems and mesh DC grids.5 Other entities Nigeria. The leading example of a private-developer-led can freely compete with the mini grid developer to provide approach is the performance-based grant program of the small-capacity and lower-cost electricity supply options Nigeria Electrification Project (NEP) financed by the World within the mini grid service area. Bank. NEP became operational in June 2019. As of November 2024, 173 mini grids serving more than 100,000 connections NEP ended on December 31, 2024, but a new, even had been commissioned. Additionally, developers have more ambitious project—the Distributed Access through signed grant agreements with Nigeria’s Rural Electrification Renewable Energy Scale-Up (DARES) project—was approved Agency (REA) for another 215 mini grids. These projects are at by the World Bank in December 2023 and became opera- various stages of development under the existing regulatory tional in November 2024. DARES will provide close to $200 and grant systems.4 The commissioned projects generally million in performance-based grants for bottom-up isolated range in size from 50 to 100 kW of installed capacity. The total and interconnected mini grids. The proposed parameters for installed capacity of the 173 commissioned plants exceeds 13 non-interconnected mini grids will be: (i) commissioning of the mini grids and connection of the targeted customers, and (ii) 3. Neither of these approvals is needed in India, where the mini grid reg- achieving an average minimum consumption per customer ulatory system has two important features. First, the Indian mini grids are to achieve a consumption target. After commissioning, cus- unlicensed. India’s 2003 Electricity Act prohibits state electricity commis- tomers that have received a DARES grant will be expected sions from requiring private mini grids in designated rural areas to apply to consume at least 30 kWh per year. Developers that fail for a license. Second, state commissions are not allowed to set retail tariffs to achieve this consumption threshold may be ineligible for for mini grids because they are unlicensed entities. Taken together, Indian mini grids in rural areas are essentially deregulated. In recent years, more 5 Mesh grids are typically DC powered grids that can distribute electric- than 600 private-led mini grids have been developed and are operating in ity at lower voltages (50 to 60 volts) with lower-cost cables to dispersed India’s Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh states. More information can households. The cost per connection is significantly lower than if an AC be found in Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Shrestha (2024). mini grid were built to serve the same households. The DC electricity can 4. These projects were the implemented by Nigeria’s Rural Electrification be converted to AC electricity when it reaches the customer’s premises. Agency and the national electricity regulator. The 2023 Electricity Act now Mesh grids, which have been described as the “middle child” between gives state governments the right to perform some of these functions at mini grids and solar home systems, are explored in a recent episode of the the state level. It is too early to know the effects of this potential transfer of /podcast.inensus. Inensus The Mini Grid Business podcast availabe at: https:/ regulatory and grant-giving authority. com/2233651/episodes/16115066-dc-mesh-grids. Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 5 Box 2. Novel grid-interconnected approaches in Nigeria Traditionally, mini grids have been viewed as off-grid solutions built and operated solely for isolated communities without prior formal electricity supply. Nigeria has pursued this conventional approach with considerable success (173 commissioned mini grids and 215 in the pipeline). Nigeria will continue to pursue electrification of isolated rural communities through mini grids and other technologies (mesh grids and solar home systems), but it will also test two novel approaches. The first approach, under the new Distributed Access through Renewable Energy Scale-Up (DARES) project, involves mini grids serving communities that are also interconnected to and doing business with local distribution companies (Discos). These interconnected mini grids are designed to produce “win-win-win” outcomes for the Disco, the mini grid operator, and their customers. The developers and operators of a first round of 40 intercon- nected mini grids—at sites selected by seven Discos and prioritized by RMI (formerly the Rocky Mountain Insti- tute)—will be chosen through an ongoing competitive tender. As of November 2024, two previously commissioned interconnected mini grids were operational in Nigeria. The second approach, independent of DARES, will focus on commercial and industrial locations that intend to replace onsite diesel generation with solar panels and batteries. The generating systems will be located behind the customers’ meters and can either be connected to or disconnected from the local Disco. To date, most com- mercial and industrial entities in Sub-Saharan Africa have opted to be disconnected. RMI is now working with several Discos and their customers to determine whether onsite interconnected solar hybrid generating systems would be a better option than non-interconnected systems. A first project, an interconnected solar hybrid system at a furniture factory in Abuja, Nigeria, is expected to help the factory save 44 percent on its energy costs and 76 percent on its carbon emissions. The Disco has now reconnected the previously off-grid customer and is gaining additional revenue. To support and scale these initiatives, RMI has created a toolkit for interconnected mini grids and other types of interconnected distributed energy resources. The toolkit provides curated, standardized resources and templates for key documents for project preparation, development, and implementation. /rmi.org/insight/ To learn more about novel interconnected approaches being piloted by RMI visit https:/ scaling-utility-enabled-distributed-energy-resources-in-nigeria/ the last 20 percent of the grant. For interconnected mini and operate new mini grids. The first is access to a new, grids, instead of an average customer consumption target, sophisticated geospatial platform known as VIDA, which an average hours-of-supply target (that is, a measure of merges satellite imagery and existing databases and will reliability rather than consumption) will need to be met. The help developers improve site selection. Hosted by the REA, interconnected mini grids may be deployed either through a the platform contains detailed information on more than 25 competitive tender process for sites selected by the govern- socioeconomic characteristics for more than 10,000 settle- ment or through a separate track for sites jointly selected by ments in Nigeria. the distribution company (Disco) and the developer. A second improvement is a new system of differentiated The new DARES project has three improvements that should performance-based grants ranging from $350 to $600 per help developers locate communities where they can build connected customer. Mini grids serving communities with 6 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa weaker socioeconomic attributes will receive higher per-con- on average 475 consumers (2,375 people). Under the spon- nection grants than communities with better attributes, such taneous (developer-led) approach, developers select their as higher densities and higher income levels. (In contrast, sites and sign a 25-year contract with ADER for generation the earlier NEP program offered a single grant of $450 per and distribution, while seeking tariff approval from the verified customer connection, regardless of the community’s regulator, ORE, which bases its decision on the developer’s characteristics.) The third improvement is separate smaller business plan and financial model. The concession contract grants of $300 per connected customer to install less costly cannot be approved by ADER until ORE approves the mini DC mesh grids. Grants for standalone solar solutions for grid’s tariffs. Tariffs average approximately $0.50 per kWh, households are also available but are not discussed in detail with operators permitted to propose their own tariffs. This here. Box 2 offers details on two other innovations being flexible tariff regulation, combined with a relatively simple tested in Nigeria. and efficient process for contracting with ADER, has enabled the rapid expansion of mini grids over the past few years: one of the leading mini grid developers in the country recently “A major advantage of the private sector-led developed 120 mini grids over 12 months. model is that developers can move quickly Kenya. Under proposed rules, the Kenyan electricity regula- once the regulatory and grant systems are tor, EPRA, will allow bottom-up development of mini grids at sites selected, owned, and operated by private developers in place. The chief disadvantage is that outside a 15-kilometer zone surrounding existing medium developers will choose bigger and more voltage lines. As of December 2022, EPRA’s data showed 82 operational mini grids with a total installed capacity of 2.14 prosperous communities.” MW, serving 15,700 customers (Ogeya and Lambe 2025). The 15-kilometer-wide buffer zone would seem to eliminate the Madagascar. The developer-led approach has driven the possibility of interconnected (or even non-interconnected) recent expansion of private sector mini grids in Madagascar. undergrid mini grids, like the ones that exist in Nigeria. In Almost 30 private mini grid operators have collectively April 2021, final rules were issued by EPRA, but they have not built some 220 mini grids that serve more than 50,000 been officially published in the government gazette. connections (more than 250,000 people), though only six developers have built a portfolio of five or more mini grids. Advantages of the private sector-led model. Developers Of the mini grids in operation by November 2024, more than can move quickly once the regulatory and grant systems are three-quarters were developed through unsolicited (spon- in place. They can replicate a basic mini grid design in numer- taneous) proposals for sites chosen by developers in a pro- ous locations to achieve lower capital costs. Regulations on cess managed by ADER (Madagascar’s rural electrification retail tariffs usually allow for cost recovery if the mini grid is agency), in parallel with a government-led tender-based built and operated by a private company. Private developers approach. ADER did not provide results-based grants to mini will have a strong incentive to undertake programs to stimu- grids developed under either approach. Instead, developers late electricity consumption by their customers—households, sought grants directly from other donor programs or from businesses, and agricultural operations—since the develop- development partners in coordination with ADER. ers bear the demand risk and know that operating subsi- dies after commissioning are unlikely. Developers’ initiatives More than 95 percent of the private mini grids are pow- to stimulate demand increase the likelihood that the mini ered by renewable energy—either hydro or solar-hybrid. The grid will improve socioeconomic conditions in the com- average capacity is 261 kW for hydropower plants and 202 munity. Positively, the failure of any one developer will not kW for PV-powered mini grids. The total installed capacity compromise the larger effort to electrify the country. Finally, is about 21.5 MW, of which 9.5 MW are from solar, 8.4 MW this model is more likely to accommodate the presence of from hydro, and 3.6 MW from diesel. Each mini grid serves domestic mini grid developers. Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 7 Husk non-interconnected mini grid in Akura community, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Disadvantages. If developers are free to choose where they The number of developer-led mini grids constructed in will develop mini grids, they will understandably choose big- Nigeria and Madagascar is larger than anywhere else in ger and more prosperous communities. Hence, they will gen- Sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, it took off rapidly once the erally not target poorer and more isolated communities that regulatory and grant systems were in place. But the num- are a priority for the government. Recognizing this natural bers are still small compared what is possible; the Global economic incentive, the DARES project in Nigeria is planning Electrification Platform indicates a potential of more than to give higher per-connection grants to developers who 3,000 mini grids in Madagascar, and Nigeria has a poten- choose to build and operate mini grids in communities with tial of around 8,500 mini grids viable with partial subsidy, weaker socioeconomic characteristics (World Bank 2023, p. as estimated during preparation for the DARES project. 12). Another disadvantage is that, if left entirely to sponta- Most developers, whether domestic or foreign, still struggle neous private sector development, mini grid development to attract commercial financing. The projects built to date may not occur at the government’s desired pace (although have largely relied on grants and concessional capital, which to date the developer-led approach has had the fastest is difficult to scale to the needed levels. pace of mini grid deployment of any of the approaches seen in Africa). 8 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa And now for the second approach. How does (Approach 3, discussed below) is that Approach  2 consists it work? of individual sites in nearby locations, whereas Approach 3 involves tendering for one or more larger metro grids in Governments lead competitive procurements to urban zones and their surrounding area. promote private ownership and operation of groups of mini grids Nigeria. In addition to the developer-led approach described In this approach, the government selects sites, conducts earlier, Nigeria also initiated a top-down, government-led competitive procurement, and awards a license or conces- approach to encourage private investment in mini grids. sion to a private company to build, own, and operate groups In 2017, with support from the World Bank’s NEP, Nigeria’s of mini grids for a set period. The targeted sites are generally Rural Electrification Agency conducted a detailed survey grouped in small- or medium-sized geographic zones to prioritizing more than 200 potential mini grid sites across maximize efficiencies and improve profitability. Developers five states. The selection criteria included (i) sufficient load/ typically bid on either proposed tariffs (less common) or min- density; (ii) potential productive uses of electricity; (iii) flexible imum required subsidies (more common) after prequalifica- loads and daytime loads; (iv) supportive local and state gov- tion based on technical and commercial competency. The ernment; and (v) community engagement and accessibility. main difference between this method and zonal concessions The plan was to bundle these potential off-grid sites into separate lots. Potential bidders were to be prequalified based on their proposed business plans and their technical and financial capabilities. The prequalified bidders would then compete on several factors: the technical merits of their proposals, the prospects for commercial sustainability, and the amount of subsidy required per connection. The winning bidders would design, build, own, and operate the mini grids in their assigned lots. This competitive bidding process was expected to provide market-based information on mini grid capital and operating costs that could be used to develop capital cost subsidies for performance-based grants under the bottom-up approach (Approach 1). While this initiative was intended to jump start private mini grid development in Nigeria, it was never concluded. Significant delays arose in securing approvals from both the World Bank and the Nigerian government owing to the pro- curement’s novel features, especially bidding on the lowest sought subsidy per connected customer rather than on a more typical total cost bid. Ultimately, the bidding process was canceled because of delays, poor site selection, and limited private sector interest. The funds initially allocated for the exercise were redirected to other components of the NEP. In stark contrast, Nigeria’s bottom-up, developer-led approach (Approach 1) has brought 173 mini grids into Ms. Boluwasop Ogboye enjoying e-mobility on an electric operation, with an additional 215 in the pipeline waiting for motorcycle in Idadu, Nasarawara state, Nigeria. replenishment of grant funding in the DARES project. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 9 The AfDB minimum subsidy tender. In February 2023, the Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone’s initial efforts to develop mini REA, with support from the African Development Bank, grids were spearheaded by the Renewable Rural Energy launched a second minimum subsidy tender for the devel- Program, funded by the U.K. Foreign, Commonwealth, opment of 150 solar hybrid mini grids spread across seven and Development Office and implemented by the United states and packaged into seven lots. To avoid the delays Nations Office for Project Services. In its first phase, a gov- encountered in completing the NEP tender just described, ernment steering committee, led by the Ministry of Energy, the second tender was structured as a single-stage procure- selected 54 villages for development, with a primary focus ment (without an earlier prequalification step). The downside on providing electricity to community health centers. To be of a single-stage procurement is that it may lead to many eligible, villages needed to have a health center and land on implausible bids from firms that are technically or commer- which the mini grid could be built. In return for the land, each cially unqualified. As of November 2024, the outcome of this health center received up to 6 kWh per day. All Phase 1 mini tender was pending. grids were completed by 2018. A third minimum subsidy tender. Under the DARES project, In a second phase, private companies were invited to bid the REA (with World Bank support) plans a new attempt at and negotiate agreements with the Ministry of Energy to competitive procurements for portfolios of both intercon- operate the mini grids developed in Phase 1. They were also nected and isolated mini grids. The REA, with assistance invited to co-invest in the electrification of an additional 44 from RMI, has identified around 40 sites for competitive pro- rural communities, with mini grids ranging in size from 36 curements for interconnected mini grids in seven of Nigeria’s kWp to 200 kWp. Under this split-asset model, the govern- eleven Disco territories. The sites were shortlisted from a ment retains ownership of all distribution assets, while the long list of sites proposed by the Discos themselves. These private mini grid developers are responsible for building the interconnected mini grids are expected to rely mainly on a generation assets. This split reduces the capital needs of modified minimum subsidy approach. Bidders are expected private developers because the government finances the to compete based on the lowest subsidy required, either distribution infrastructure. as a percentage of capital cost or in absolute terms, rather than on a per-connection basis. For isolated mini grids, site Prequalified companies were given the opportunity to bid selection will be more focused, targeting communities with on four lots, covering the 54 villages from Phase 1 and the significant productive loads. Both types will benefit from 44 additional villages in Phase 2. The three winning bid- improvements to geospatial planning tools, providing more ders—Winch Energy, PowerGen, and Power Leone—began accurate data that will be shared with prospective bidders. supplying electricity to the Phase 1 communities in the fourth quarter of 2019. Each developer was granted a 20-year license to manage and operate the mini grids, after which all project assets will be turned over to the government. “An advantage of the competitive procurement model is that grouping Uganda. In 2016, the Ugandan government, with the assistance of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale multiple mini grids into lots can lower costs. Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) and with co-funding from A danger is that the process of satisfying the German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), created two rural village clusters (25 the procurement rules of bilateral and in the north and 15 in the south) for mini grid tenders that multilateral donors may introduce delays that would have been expensive to electrify using conventional grid extension. After prequalification, bidders were invited to try developers’ patience.” submit bids based on price per kilowatt-hour to serve all the communities in either the northern or southern group. The 10 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa winning firms would be required to build mini grids powered “To date, competitive tenders for solely by solar PV panels and batteries (no diesel generators provide electricity for more than 16 hours a day). In mid-2019, government-selected groups of mini grids Winch Energy was announced as the winner for both the have been much less successful than northern and southern portfolios after the original southern portfolio winner withdrew. At $0.52 per kWh, the initial bids anticipated.” were deemed to be politically unacceptable, however, so the Ugandan government and the European Union increased subsidies to cover 65–75 percent of the capital costs, low- Disadvantages of competitive procurement. To date, ering the price to about $0.30 per kWh. The government competitive tenders for government-selected groups of mini also financed the distribution systems, following a split-asset grids have been much less successful than anticipated. In model like the one used in Sierra Leone. To further reduce some instances, the tenders have been terminated after costs, the Ugandan electricity regulator streamlined the several years without yielding any operational mini grids. licensing process by issuing a single exemption for genera- Governments may be slow in selecting the communities tion, distribution, and sales. It also waived the requirement and acquiring the necessary land. This has been the case for separate environmental impact assessments for each in Kenya. The lack of success may also reflect the fact many site, allowing a single project brief for all mini grids. All 25 government agencies do not have much experience in con- mini grids in the northern Lamwo district have been oper- ducting tenders for relatively small investments, in contrast ational since their commissioning and installment in June to tenders for a large transmission line or a single hydro- 2022, roughly six years after the project began. The 25 mini electric dam. Also, developers may be discouraged from grids serve more than 2,500 households and 150 businesses. participating because of the detailed procurement rules of bilateral and multilateral donors. Finally, governments may Advantages of competitive procurement. The chief poten- face the risk that a winning bidder may bid an unrealistically tial advantage is that a single tender can trigger the devel- low subsidy on the expectation that they will gain a good opment of many mini grids. The larger tender could attract bargaining position to negotiate a higher subsidy after the developers and financiers who have been on the sidelines. initial bid is selected. This, in turn, could enable more rapid scale-up. A second advantage is that grouping mini grids into lots can lower costs. And the third approach? Data collected on more than 350 mini grids built between The government chooses to award concessions for large 2012 and 2021 (ESMAP 2022) showed that mini grids built mini or metro grids within a specified geographic area as part of a portfolio had substantially lower soft costs than or zone did one-off projects. (Soft costs include project development, general administration, planning, engineering, partnership, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The leading exam- public relations, permits, approvals, licenses, community ples of top-down zonal concessions in Sub-Saharan Africa engagement, logistics, and installation.) While scale advan- are the planned concessions for Mbuji-Mayi and Kananga, tages can also be achieved through developer-led initia- cities in the Central Kasai region of the DRC, with a potential tives, competitive procurement provides a structure to force installed capacity of close to 150 MW and about 200,000 scale site aggregation, which may not happen under the possible connections. The DRC mini grid concessions will developer-led approach. A third potential advantage, com- constitute the first major project of the World Bank Group’s pared with developer-led initiatives, is that the developer Scaling Mini Grid initiative. If these two zonal concessions are has greater assurance that the government-selected sites successful, similar concessions will be considered for DRC’s are at lower risk of takeover by the national grid. Finally, the other provincial capitals. competitive-tender approach provides governments with the flexibility to seek bids for minimum subsidies or tariffs. Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 11 The DRC government is expected to use competitive procure- developer, financiers, and customers. A second advantage is ments to award the concessions. As a first step, it has been that the concession contract, if issued by a national ministry, proposed that technical offers of competing firms should has greater potential to be backed by risk-insurance prod- be evaluated on a pass-or-fail basis. The firms, or consortia, ucts from the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency whose technical qualifications are deemed acceptable will (or another insurer) to reduce the level of risk for private then compete based on the amount of subsidy requested. developers and their investors. A third advantage is that the To encourage realistic subsidy bids, it is anticipated that the financing needs of “metro grids” will be larger. It has been tender proposal specify a ceiling average tariff. The DRC’s estimated that the planned zonal concessions will need Ministry of Hydraulic Resources and Electricity, or provincial financing of $50 million or more. This larger ticket size is likely governments, will award the concessions and act as the to attract international entities that would not otherwise government guarantor, ensuring that concession agree- invest in mini grids. ments be implemented as written. It is also anticipated that a detailed tariff-setting formula with automatic adjustment Disadvantages of the government-led zonal concession provisions will be included. None of the targeted cities have approach. A disadvantage of the approach is its complexity. ever been connected to the national grid. Several had been It requires extensive site preparation and studies, documen- supplied with electricity by the national utility using diesel tation, and buy-in from many separate domestic and inter- generators, but these failed due to lack of proper operation national stakeholders. and maintenance. Since the pool of qualified bidders is likely to be dominated The top-down, government-led approach in the DRC dif- by large foreign companies, the zonal concession approach fers from the bottom-up, private sector-led approach used will probably not directly support the advancement of elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa in four major ways. First, domestic mini grid developers. However, it is likely that the size of the DRC mini grids will be much larger than mini some domestic firms will be brought in as minority partners grids elsewhere. The Mbuji-Mayi and Kananga mini grids or contractors. Given the scope of the transaction, buy-in is are projected to have installed capacities ranging from 60 necessary from several government agencies that may not MW to more than 100 MW, which is quite different from always be inclined to cooperate with each other. mini grid projects where the installed generating capacities are usually 1 MW or less. Second, the zonal mini grids are Moving on to Approach 4 … expected to provide service to large numbers of customers In the fourth approach, utilities contract with private (from 50,000 to 3 million inhabitants in the case of Mbuji- companies to build and operate new mini grids with a Mayi and Kananga). Third, early indications are that the DRC transfer back to the utility concessions will attract large, well-capitalized international companies as bidders rather than local firms. Fourth, the In some countries, the national utility may not want to see DRC zonal concessions will include a first-of-its-kind mini- the emergence of retail service competitors because it mum revenue guarantee. If there is a revenue shortfall rela- wishes to retain a monopoly on all retail sales of electricity tive to pre-agreed business plan projections, the developer throughout the country. But if the national utility has little may submit a claim to the government for the difference. or no experience in building and operating mini grids for In most other mini grid projects, existing and planned, the unserved communities, it may be willing to outsource the developer bears the full risk of revenue shortfalls arising from construction and initial operation of new mini grids to private insufficient demand. companies. To varying degrees, Kenya and Ethiopia have chosen this approach. Advantages of the government-led zonal concession approach. One advantage of the zonal concession approach Kenya. Kenya initially proposed a variation of this top-down is that the concession document can be used to allocate approach for 120 off-grid communities in 14 northern coun- risk more precisely among the different parties: government, ties, using $40 million funding from the World Bank approved 12 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa in July 2017 (World Bank 2017). The government proposed combinations of generation, distribution, construction, and the creation of six service areas, or lots, each consisting of 20 operation for 70 other sites. As of November 2024, EEU had or more contiguous mini grids, with each serving about 100 signed contracts with the selected EPC firms. The original to 700 prospective connections. The 14 counties, catego- target was 201 mini grids, but it has been lowered to 100. rized by the government as marginalized areas, accounted for 72 percent of Kenya’s land area and 20 percent of its population. “In some countries, the government has The original plan was for a public-private partnership in decided that the national utility should be the which the winning private bidders would finance the con- owner and eventual operator of some or all struction of the mini grid’s generation assets. Public funds would be used to finance the mini grid’s distribution facilities. mini grids. But if the national utility has little Separate from the financing, the private company would or no experience in building and operating be responsible for building the mini grid’s generation and distribution systems. Once the mini grid was commissioned, mini grids for unserved communities, it may the winning private company would operate both systems be willing to outsource the construction and for 7–10 years under two contracts with Kenya Power and Light Company (KPLC). The first contract would be a power initial operation of new mini grids to private purchase agreement that obligated KPLC to pay for the companies.” electricity generated by the private mini grid developer. The second would be a customer service contract to compensate the developer for operating the distribution grid during the transition period. During this period, the mini grid’s customers Advantages of the engineering, procurement, and con- would be KPLC customers and would receive their electricity struction approach. On the plus side, the approach allows under the KPLC’s national tariffs. At the end of the transition national utilities to retain full control over electricity distribu- period, all privately owned assets would be handed over to tion in the country, whether provided through the main grid KPLC. or mini grids. Customers in the new mini grid communities will pay the same subsidized tariffs that the national utility In April 2023, the project was restructured. At the request of charges customers connected to the main grid. It is eas- the Kenyan national government, the basic design of the ier to provide cross-subsidies to a mini grid owned by the project was converted from a public-private partnership to national utility than to a mini grid that is privately owned full public ownership, operation, and financing. The tenders and operated. were revised to reflect this major change. As of November 1, 2024, seven years after the project was approved, no mini Disadvantages of the engineering, procurement, and grids had been built. construction approach. Absent considerable pressure from government, national utilities will be reluctant to expand Ethiopia. With World Bank funding of $217 million (World Bank the use of mini grids if they are required to charge the same 2021), the Ethiopian Electric Utility (EEU) will select private retail tariffs charged to their main grid connected customers. companies to undertake the engineering, procurement, and Or if they do serve these customers, there is the risk that the construction of 100 greenfield solar hybrid mini grids and to new mini grid clients will receive poor and unreliable service shoulder the hybridization of EEU’s existing diesel-fired mini from the utility. grids. When the mini grids are completed, it is expected that they will be operated by the developer or a subcontractor for This disincentive to take on new rural customers and serve several months before full handover to EEU. Apart from two them well can be overcome if the main grid utility can be tenders for full construction and operation of 30 mini grids, assured that the government—or the utility’s other custom- EEU is also experimenting with other tenders for different ers—will make up any revenue shortfalls that result from Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 13 building and operating loss-making mini grids. However, operating procedures, regular audits, and compliance with the assurance of being protected from revenue shortfalls regulatory standards. Operational efficiency, supported by unlocks a further potential perverse incentive: oversizing. preventive maintenance, data-driven decision-making, and Many national utilities operate under a regulatory regime remote monitoring technologies, helps ensure reliability. that fixes profits at a percentage return on invested capital. Financial sustainability requires tariffs that provide sufficient Under this cost-plus model, the more utilities spend on assets, revenues for O&M costs and for a maintenance reserve fund the higher their allowed returns. This provides an incentive to for repairs and replacements. In cases where these are firmly overinvest (known as “gold plating” in the regulated utility in place, community-owned mini grids, whether partially or world). In contrast, the one-time, per-customer-connection fully owned by the community, can show successful results. grant model is the opposite of gold plating because it incen- On the other side of the spectrum, problems often emerge tivizes customer connections and stretching generation and when mini grids are installed as a gift by a government or a storage over as many customers as possible. The difference donor and left to the community to figure out how to sustain between these two approaches shows up in the example operations with insufficient attention to the elements of pro- of the first 37 mini grids built by Ethiopia’s EEU, which built fessional management listed above. mini grids with an installed solar capacity of 300 watts per customer, compared to around 100 watts per customer in Liberia. In 2016, NRECA International engaged with the the privately built mini grids in Nigeria. The EEU mini grids leadership of Totota, a town in Bong County, to discuss have struggled to develop load commensurate with their development of an electrification project. In 2018, USAID installed capacity. provided $700,000 to design and build a community-led solar mini-grid system. At the start of the project, local lead- This approach also has the disadvantage of making it more ership—selected by newly registered cooperative members— difficult for private operators to develop mini grids in other established the Totota Electric Cooperative to own and communities because potential customers in these commu- operate the mini-grid generation and distribution system nities will want to be charged the same tariffs as consumers with technical support, training, and mentoring provided by in communities served by mini grids built and operated by NRECA International. Phase 1 was completed in 2018. After an the national utility. So far this approach has yielded some expansion in 2021, the project included a 72 kW solar array, mini grids, but at a much slower pace than what the gov- 120 kWh of lithium-ion batteries, an 80 kVA diesel generator, ernments initially wanted. It remains to be seen whether the and an eight-kilometer distribution network that provided current tenders under preparation will achieve results any service to up to 400 of the 600 households and businesses. faster. To date, both Kenya and Ethiopia have experienced The project was financially self-sufficient by 2020, meeting significant delays in implementing this approach.. operational costs, amassing a modest cash reserve (Kelly 2020), and generating $438,000 of revenue (Payma 2024) And, finally, Approach 5 … in five years of operation by December 2023. Community-owned mini grids make up the fifth In 2021, the Liberia Electricity Regulatory Commission approach granted the Totota Electric Cooperative its utility license to Community-owned mini grids are still new in Africa (NRECA operate as a service provider. The cooperative is the sec- International 2023). Ownership can range from full com- ond recognized electricity service provider to receive such a munity ownership to minority community ownership in a license. privately owned and operated project. The basic problem for any ownership model is how to ensure competent and Nigeria. A different approach to community-owned mini motivated management and operation after the system grids is being tested in Nigeria (RMI 2023). Instead of the is commissioned. The degree of professionalism in man- full community ownership and operation that exists in the agement strongly predicts whether community projects Totota case, RMI is testing different forms of co-ownership will succeed or fail. Success requires accountability rooted between private developers and the community. In each in clear roles, clear contracts, implementation of standard of the four targeted communities, the original mini grid 14 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa was built and continues to be operated by a private devel- project in the town of Yandohun) (Payma 2024). Totota may oper. However, after the mini grids were commissioned, the embody lessons from these earlier failures. communities were given ownership interests ranging from 11 to 20 percent, sometimes accompanied by voting rights Overall, community-owned mini grids have been slower to in the governance of the mini grid. It is too early to know scale up in Africa than privately owned and operated mini whether these co-ownership arrangements—a private mini grids. They have had more success elsewhere. grid owner and operator combined with minority community ownership—will be successful (RMI 2023). Electric cooperatives have long served most of the United States (56 percent by land area). U.S. electric cooperatives Some empirical evidence about community-based mini benefit from debt financing for their construction and grids. A 2021 statistical study of 105 mini grids in the Americas, expansion, largely through long-term government loans at Africa, and the Asia-Pacific regions found that communi- low fixed interest under the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s ty-based mini grids where “a local community or cooper- Rural Utilities Service, as well as USDA grants and credit ative builds, owns, and operates the mini grid, or in some guarantees. In Bangladesh, more than 80 electric cooper- cases, a donor funds the mini-grid project and gives sole atives serve some 20 million customers; in the Philippines ownership to the community” had lower project costs and 119 coops serve more than 56 million people in 36,000 rural a higher likelihood of success than purely public ownership villages and towns, helping bring the rural electrification (Duran and Sahinyazan 2021). We have not been able to find rate to 95 percent (US International Trade Administration statistics on cooperatively managed projects in Africa as a 2022; NRECAa). The world’s largest rural electric cooperative whole. But in Liberia, just two of nine clean energy mini grids serves more than 600,000 customers in Santa Cruz, Bolivia built (2014–18) with public grants to fund capital costs and (NRECAb). community cooperatives in charge of operations and main- tenance remain operational (Totota, and a pico-hydropower Toto interconnected mini grid in Nigeria. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 15 Advantages of community-owned cooperatives. If financ- grids built under the Nigeria NEP program (with 215 more ing can be secured and professional management provisions in the pipeline) and 220 private mini grids in Madagascar are in place, community mini grids can be viable at sites that constructed and operated by 29 private companies. Similar are more remote, or otherwise less commercially viable, than results have been observed in India, where more than privately owned sites. This is because they do not require a 600  bottom-up, privately owned and operated mini grids return on equity, as the communities are motivated not by have been developed over the last six years in the states of profit but by the benefits that accrue directly from electrifica- Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand. Nigeria is now experi- tion. The construction and operation of community-owned menting with mini grids in peri-urban and urban areas con- mini grids can also provide opportunities for communities to nected to the local distribution company from the outset. develop managerial and technical capacity that is useful for It is also noteworthy that deployments under Approach  1, other local projects in their communities and beyond. remain well below levels needed to reach SDG 7 targets of universal electrification by 2030. Disadvantages of community-owned cooperatives. Finan- cing the scale-up of community-owned mini grids has Speed of development is not the only measure of success: proved challenging. On the one hand, communities them- Operational and commercial sustainability is a must for any selves have limited resources and assets to offer as collateral. mini grid. Unfortunately, data on sustainability is difficult Community-owned mini-grids are generally designed to to obtain. Developers and governments are understand- provide access to affordable energy rather than to generate ably reluctant to draw attention to projects that no longer profits. This social enterprise model conflicts with traditional operate. Our best current estimates are that nearly all the financing mechanisms, which focus on return on investment. 220 private sector-led mini grids deployed in Madagascar Lenders are hesitant to fund projects without clear, pre- continue to operate. Similarly, we estimate that all of the 173 dictable cash flows and profit potential, making it hard for built privately in Nigeria are operational. We do not know, cooperatives to access capital. however, how many of them will prove sustainable over the medium- and long-term. Nor do we know if the successes of Even if subsidized financing becomes more available, another Approach 1 in Nigeria and Madagascar can be replicated in challenge to community mini grids is that communities will other Sub-Saharan African countries. generally require considerable assistance over months or years to develop the managerial capacity to operate at The results of competitive tenders to promote mini grids the level required. This challenge is compounded by the have been a mixed bag. On paper, competitive bidding fact that community members, once trained, may leave the for mini grids is appealing. The approach can jump start community to earn more money elsewhere. Even though it development for many more mini grids. It can also provide seems unlikely that community-owned and -operated mini market-based information on capital and operating costs. grids will be a main pathway to the United Nation’s SDG 7 Competitive bidding has been the standard approach for goal of affordable clean energy for all by 2030, all methods many World Bank–financed electricity projects, transmission are needed, and coops should be encouraged where they lines, and major generating stations. So, it is not surprising appear to be well suited. that it has been recommended for mini grids. We have reached some initial conclusions Unlike these larger projects, however, mini grids are smaller investments at many different locations (except for the In several Sub-Saharan Africa countries, the private metro grids of the DRC described in Approach 3). To date, sector is successfully scaling up deployments of solar the results have been less than impressive. In Nigeria, com- hybrid mini grids (Approach 1) petitive bidding for ownership and operation of 57 mini grids However, we lack clear evidence on their operational and was terminated after two years of preparatory work, though commercial sustainability, because most mini grids built it will be attempted again in an improved form in the new under this approach are relatively new. Examples of rapid DARES project (World Bank 2023). In Kenya, a competitive scale-up observed in Sub-Saharan Africa include 173 mini tender to select contractors to build and initially operate 120+ 16 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa mini grids to be owned by KPLC (the national utility) has yet customer base, private developers should be allowed to offer to produce any mini grids after seven years of preparation. In other services, such as solar-generated electricity for mobile Uganda, it took about six years to commission 25 mini grids phone towers, rental of battery-operated motorcycles, and through a competitive tender. grid-connected solar installations for commercial and indus- trial customers. Finally, where private mini grid companies It is unclear whether these failures or long delays represent have been successful at the individual community level, they early-stage problems or reflect more fundamental issues. should be encouraged to expand their operations to larger geographical areas. This is more likely to happen if the local “Too often, government agencies are distribution company is privately owned and sees a potential insensitive to the impact of long delays on financial win for itself. private companies.” Mini grid customers are likely to benefit from lower tariffs if developers and those who finance projects have more One likely problem is that the tendering process is typically confidence that the regulatory rules will be implemented run by one or more government agencies that must comply as written. Mini grid (and other regulatory) policies may look with complex government (or donor) procurement rules. Too good on paper but may not be implemented as written often, government agencies are insensitive to the impact of (Foster and Rana 2020). Hence, it is understandable that long delays on private companies. The bottom line is that we private developers seek assurances that mini grid policies need to know more about successful and unsuccessful mini and rules are more than words printed in the government grid tenders in Sub-Saharan Africa. gazette. In civil law countries, it is possible to give these assurances by embedding the regulatory rules in a conces- The competitive tenders being proposed in the new DARES sion agreement that can be backed by external guarantees Nigeria project will test whether changes in tender design, issued by the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency including improved targeting of sites through the use of or another guarantee entity. Concessions are generally not geospatial tools to collect data on prospective sites and sim- available in common law countries, but it may be possible plification of procurement processes, may be able to fulfill for those governments to enter legally enforceable contracts the promise of speed and scale of this approach. (rather than full concessions) that support mini grid regula- tions and policies (AFUR 2024). If this hybrid approach were Solar hybrid mini grids are not a “silver bullet.” Solar hybrid to be implemented, it could benefit both the mini grid devel- mini grids are a major technological breakthrough for rural oper and its customers: the developer will be able to tap into electrification. They can provide reliable grid-quality elec- new sources of financing at lower cost, and customers could tricity to isolated rural villages that otherwise would have benefit from lower tariffs. little hope of being connected to a main grid supplier. But while prices are going down for such service, it may still be More systematic monitoring of the pace of mini grid too expensive for poorer rural customers who initially may deployments, mini grid performance, and socioeconomic need only small amounts of electricity. Government policies impacts is needed. Energy access has been described as and regulations must be technology neutral to serve poorer “the golden thread that weaves together human develop- customers at lower cost through a range of renewable ment and environmental sustainability” (IEA 2017). But more energy technologies. Private developers should be given the recent empirical assessments of increased energy access flexibility to mix and match technologies to serve customers have found that its predicted outcomes are not always with more affordable electricity services. Specifically, devel- achieved. However, one important caveat is that most of opers should not be forced to offer only a mini grid solution these studies have been limited to assessing the effects of for all service-area customers when other solutions may be increasing energy access through extension of the main available at lower cost (e.g., solar home systems and DC grid (Lee, Miguel, and Wolfram 2020). In future research, it mesh grids) and may work just as well for disadvantaged would be useful to systematically compare the outcomes and dispersed customers. To spread fixed costs over a larger of different approaches to mini grid deployment in terms Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa 17 of the pace of deployment, performance, and socioeco- government-owned main-grid operators backstopped by nomic impact. Future research should also study the effects continuing subsidies. of access expansion through private mini grids versus main grid expansion. Our expectation is that mini grids developed This Live Wire is based on Mini Grid Solutions for Underserved under the private sector–led model will be deployed faster Customers: New Insights from Nigeria and India (Tenenbaum, and will show a stronger positive local economic and social Greacen, and Shrestha 2024, Appendix A). It benefited from impact. Furthermore, private mini grids generally have stron- numerous suggestions from many colleagues inside and outside ger incentives to expand electricity consumption than do the World Bank Group. References Kelly, Erin. 2020 “Liberia Co-Op Begun by NRECA International Now Self-Sufficient.” January 16. www.electric.coop/libe- AFUR (African Forum for Utility Regulators). 2024. Africa Mini ria-co-op-begun-by-nreca-international-self-sufficient/. /afurnet. Grid Regulation Tool, Pretoria, South Africa. https:/ Accessed 23 Oct. 2024. org/energy-sector/ Kelly, Erin. 2023 “Electric Co-Ops Catching On in Africa.” Bergh, Frank. 2023. Rural Electric Cooperatives: Powering NRECA International, 28 Aug. 2023, www.nrecainternational. Community Resilience. Presentation at the University of the coop/electric-co-ops-catching-on-in-africa/. Accessed 23 Oct. Balearic Islands, April 26–28, 2023. 2024. Duran, Asligul Serasu, and Feyza G. Sahinyazan. 2021. 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Last accessed industry-needs-10-companies-with-10-times-current-scale-to- /www.nrecainternational.coop/ November 5, 2024. https:/ achieve-universal-energy-access-and-sdg7-2/. where-we-work/bolivia/ International Trade Administration. “Philippines’ Rural Ogeya, Mbeo, and Fiona Lambe, “The Political Economy of Electrification Program.” Last modified January 21, Mini-Grid Electricity Development and Innovation in Kenya,” /www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/ 2022. https:/ Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition 6 (2025): philippines-rural-electrification-program. /doi.org/10.1016/j.rset.2024.100092. 100092, https:/ 18 Five government approaches to promote solar hybrid mini grids in Africa Payma, Steven. 2024. Personal communication. Make further connections Roberts, David. 2021. “Rooftop Solar and Home Batteries Live Wire 2015/49. “Promoting Solar Energy through Auctions: Make a Grid Vastly More Affordable.” Volts, May 28, 2021. 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