EMPOWERING GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SOUTH SUDAN Disclaimer: This note is a product of the staff and consultants of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in the note do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the gov- ernments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this note do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Cover Images Attribution: 1. “AH-SS100929_7091” Flickr photo by World Bank Photo Collection, Arne Hoel / World Bank https://flickr.com/pho- tos/worldbank/5930973133 shared under a Creative Commons (BY-NC-ND 2.0) license. Victoria Michael (38) visits a clinic run by the Norwegian People’s Aid. Victoria receives a bednet and her baby is vaccinated, South Sudan. 2. “Faces of South Sudan” Flickr photo by www.j-pics.info https://flickr.com/photos/j-pics_info/13669787483 shared under a Creative Commons (BY-NC-SA 2.0) license. Women/Girls working at a construction site - they are doing all physically demanding work - the men are looking after the animals. Ikwoto County, Eastern Equatoria. 3. “South Sudan 013” Flickr photo by Steve Evans https://flickr.com/photos/babasteve/5746297686 shared under a Creative Commons (BY-NC 2.0) license. About this Document This Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA) study to inform future World Bank-financed operations, in focuses on the empowerment of South Sudanese terms of design and expected achievements. girls and women. Although there are several recent data on girls and women in the education, health This report also integrates information from a and social protection and jobs sectors in South Su- consultation and knowledge sharing workshop. A dan, to date, the information on whether, and if so, workshop with policy makers, development part- to what extent these are used to empower women ners, and NGOs was organized in Juba, South Sudan is lacking. Using a cross-sectoral framework called on April 20, 2022. The goals of the workshop were 4E Framework, this report focuses special attention to (a) discuss the findings of this ASA, (b) promote on gender issues that related to empowering edu- a national dialogue on the importance of girls’ and cating, enhancing, employing and enabling girls and women’s empowerment through an evidence-based women in South Sudan. approach; (c) gather insight on initiatives that can be implemented toward the empowerment of girls The report provides a cohesive overview of the and women; and (d) garner contributions to build on barriers to empowering girls and women in South and finalize the recommendations based on the ev- Sudan, as well as evidence-based programs and idence. strategies that have been successful in the coun- try and other similar fragile contexts. Focusing on This ASA aligns with the World Bank’s Coun- both global and country-specific evidence, which try Engagement Note (CEN) for South Sudan for has been informed by a desk review, the report also 2021/22–2022/23), recognizing that closing the focuses on successful strategies and programs to gender gap and promoting girls’ and women’s em- understand what is being done and what works powerment is vital for South Sudan’s economic worldwide for women and girls. This approach helps growth and human development (HD). The CEN fo- identify what is missing and understand what more cuses on three areas: (a) laying the groundwork for remains to be done, such that entry points to em- institution building, (b) continuing support for basic powering girls and young women in South Sudan public service delivery, and (c) promoting resilience could be identified and addressed. and livelihood opportunities, with a cross-cutting principle of social inclusion, mainly related to youth This ASA embarks on collecting data in South and gender. Sudan to substantiate findings that include in- formation from the desk review, among others, This ASA builds on several programs currently in in the specific context of South Sudan. Interviews place for South Sudan, providing synergies across with various stakeholders, including but not limited various sectors. Specifically, it created synergies to officials from the Government of South Sudan, in terms of knowledge sharing and logistics with nongovernment organizations (NGOs), development another human development ASA, “Stunting and partners (DPs), and focus group discussions (FGDs) Learning Poverty in South Sudan: Strategies for with girls, women, boys, men and other South Suda- Addressing Truncated Child Development in a Fra- nese citizens were conducted, with the goal of bet- gile State” (P177697). This other ASA will provide ter understanding the mechanisms for empowering strategies to support young children’s mothers (and adolescent girls and young women in South Sudan. fathers) in reducing stunting and learning poverty Based on findings from the desk review and data and improving parenting skills. As such, this ASA will collection, the report proposes recommendations not focus on that group, and similarly, will not main- for actionable ways to empower girls and women in tain a focus on early childhood education (ECE). Ad- South Sudan, and can be used as a basis upon which ditional ASAs that supports the work of that group Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan I and early child development include: South Sudan facilitate this. Further, the South Sudan Women’s Enhanced Gender-Based Violence (GBV) Preven- Social and Economic Empowerment Project might tion, Risk Mitigation, and Response through Social benefit from the findings and recommendations Safety Nets (P176571),1 the South Sudan Provision from this ASA, especially from an economic perspec- of Essential Health Services Project (P168926),2 the tive, as it embarks on implementation and seeks to Enhancing Community Resilience and Local Gover- empower women in South Sudan. nance Project (P169949),3 and the South Sudan In- tegrated Service Delivery for Human Development This work will be an input for South Sudan, as it (P175225).4 pertains to assessing, designing, planning, and executing reforms, strategies, interventions, and Instead, the findings from this ASA will be par- programs to empower girls and women, and it ticularly impactful for an emerging operation in aims to constitute a resource for dialogue on the South Sudan that focuses on the empowerment of way forward with various stakeholders that include women. Specifically, this ASA will create synergies the Ministry of Health (MOH), the Ministry of Gen- with the South Sudan Women’s Social and Econom- eral Education and Instruction (MOGEI), the Minis- ic Empowerment Project (P176900), given that its try of Gender, Child and Social Welfare (MOGCSW), target population is also girls and women. This re- the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Tech- port will attend to proposed strategies to empower nology (MOHEST), the Ministry of Agriculture and women from the social and economic perspective Food Security (MOAFS), development partners, and and its support to the institutional environment to NGOs. 1. The ASA’s desk reviews were used to inform research questions under this workstream. 2. The lessons learned from the project (which is currently closed) regarding response services for GBV were integrated into this report. 3. Challenges in working with community groups through this project were also considered. 4. The assessment of service delivery challenges across South Sudan’s health, education and social protection sectors were included in the desk review, as well as its evidence-based recommendations for improving service delivery. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan II EMPOWERING GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SOUTH SUDAN MAY, 2022 Acknowledgments The ASA was prepared by the global practices of ASA, assisting with the conduct of FGDs in Rumbek, Education, Health and Nutrition, and Social Protec- Maban and Bor and with the organization of the FGD tion and Jobs at the World Bank, by a team head- for the Positive Deviant group at the Save the Chil- ed by Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali (Practice Manager, dren office on March 14, 2022. The team is especial- Education Practice) and comprised of Lauren Mar- ly grateful for the support provided by Mohammed ston (Team Task Leader, Education Specialist, Ed- Alshamaa, Nasir Khan Yousaf Zai, Caden James and ucation Practice); Lianqin Wang (Lead Education other Save the Children members who participated Specialist, Education Practice); Francisco Haimovich in the conduct and documentation of FGDs. (Senior Education Specialist, Education Practice); Abeyah Al-Omair (Public Health Specialist, Health The team also appreciates the support provided by and Nutrition Practice); Ananda Paez Rodas (So- Ministry of General Education and Instruction (MO- cial Protection Extended Consultant, Social Protec- GEI) and the Ministry of Gender, Child and Social tion and Jobs Practice); Vania Salgado (Education Welfare (MOGCSW), and the willingness of mem- Economist Consultant, Education Practice); Manal bers from other ministries, nongovernment orga- Kahla (Education Consultant, Education Practice); nizations (NGOs) and development partners (DPs) Sheila Carrette (Public Health Consultant, Health throughout data collection and in the preparation and Nutrition Practice); Alejandro Welch (Program and conduct of the workshop. Special thanks to Assistant, Education Practice) ; Joyce Wani Gamba Esther Akumu Achire (Director General, Gender and (Team Assistant); and Zewditu Banteyehun Haile Inclusive Education, MOGEI) and Betty Kiden Eluzai (Operations Officer). The team would also like to rec- (MOGCSW). The team would also like to acknowledge ognize the contributions from John Garang Ayii Riak the participation of the following additional persons and Medakpwe Irene in Juba, South Sudan, who in interviews conducted for this ASA: Regina Ossa conducted FGDs with women, girls, boys, men and Lullo (Director Gender, Gender Unit, MOGCSW); Em- other South Sudanese citizens. The team also ex- manuel Ladu Laku (Agriculture Director, MOGCSW); tends gratitude to the following peer reviewers: Di- Peter Mazedi (Project Coordination Unit (PCU) In- ana Jimena Arango, (Global Lead Gender-based Vio- terim Programme Director, MOAFS); Dr. Leju George lence, HGNDR), Kavita P. Watsa (Senior Operations (MOAFS); Sunday Imunu (Department of Sexual and Officer, HAEH1), and Laura Campbell, (Social Protec- Reproductive Health, Ministry of Health (MOH); Bu- tion Specialist, HAES1) who provided guidance and chay Othom Rago (MOH); Glory Makena (Women contribution at the various stages of this ASA. Protection and Empowerment Coordinator, Interna- tional Rescue Committee (IRC); Daniel Musa (Eco- Other organizations were helpful to the comple- nomic Recovery and Development Coordinator, IRC); tion of this ASA. The team is especially thankful to Taban Michael (Education Project Manager, Plan In- UN Women for contributing to the planning of the ternational); Wongani Grace Taulo (Senior Education workshop and outreach program, and for providing Advisor, UNICEF South Sudan); Edfas Mkandawire assistance with data collection. Special thanks to (Economic Empowerment, UN Women); Ponny Tekila Paulina Chiwangu, Edfas Mkandawire, and Luelbai (Gender Advisor, Save the Children); and Louise Leak Macuei Paul in particular. Save the Children was also (Education and Child Protection Programming (Save instrumental to the data collection process for this the Children). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan IV Table of Contents Acknowledgments�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������IV Acronyms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� VII Abstract�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Brief Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2 Executive Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4 1. Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 2. Methodology and Data������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14 3. Context��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17 3.1. Country Context �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 3.2. COVID-19 Impact����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18 4. Analytical Framework: The 4Es Framework���������������������������������������������������������������� 21 4.1. Empower��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22 4.2. Enhance ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23 4.3. Educate���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24 4.4. Employ and Enable���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26 4.5. Target Population ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28 5. Findings: Girls’ and Women’s Empowerment in South Sudan��������������������������������� 29 5.1. Empower���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29 5.2. Enhance ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 5.3. Educate����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40 5.4. Employ and Enable��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46 6. Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55 7. Recommendations ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 58 7.1. Recommendations to “Empower”��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 7.2. Recommendations to “Enhance”���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62 7.3. Recommendations to “Educate”���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 7.4. Recommendations to “Employ and Enable”������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70 Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan V References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������74 Annex 1: Definition of Empowerment�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79 Annex 2: Organization of Focus Group Discussions������������������������������������������������������� 80 Annex 3: Focus Group Discussion Protocols�������������������������������������������������������������������� 87 Annex 4: Key Informants����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110 Annex 5: Key Informant Interview Protocols������������������������������������������������������������������111 Annex 6: Consent Forms����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121 Annex 7: List of GBV-Related Resources Provided to Participants���������������������������125 Annex 8: Workshop Participants������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126 Annex 9: Lessons Learned from the Participatory Approach in South Sudan������ 129 Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan VI Acronyms ASA Advisory Services and Analytics BRiCE Building Resilience in Crisis through Education CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CEN Country Engagement Note CFR Council on Foreign Relations COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019 DFID Department for International Development DP Development Partner ECE Early Childhood Education EU European Union FCDO Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office FCV Fragility, Conflict, and Violence FGD Focus Group Discussion GBV Gender-Based Violence GDP Gross Domestic Product GESS Girls’ Education South Sudan GRM Grievance Redress Mechanism HCI Human Capital Index HD Human Development HDI Human Development Index HFPS High-Frequency Phone Survey HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HMS Household Monitoring Survey ID Identification Document IDP Internally Displaced People IRC International Rescue Committee ISR Implementation Status and Results Report JMEC Joint Monitoring and Evaluation Commission KII Key Informant Interview LAYS Learning Adjusted Years of Schooling LIPW Labor-Intensive Public Works MIS Management Information System Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan VII MOAFS Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security MOGCSW The Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare MOGEI Ministry of General Education and Instruction MOH Ministry of Health MOHEST Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology MPA Multiphase Programmatic Approach MTR Mid-Term Review NAP National Action Plan NER Net Enrollment Rate NGES National Girls‘ Education Strategy NGO Non-Government Organization OOSC Out-of-School Children PCN Project Concept Note PCU Project Coordination Unit PEP Postexposure Prophylaxis PPE Personal Protective Equipment PSEA Prevention of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse PTR Pupil-to-Teacher Ratio R-ARCSS Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan R-NDS Revised National Development Strategy SDG Sustainable Development Goal SSSNP South Sudan Safety Net Project SWEDD Sahel Women’s Empowerment Demographic Dividend TLM Teaching and Learning Materials TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UN United Nations UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WFP World Food Programme WPS Women Peace and Security Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan VIII Abstract Girls and women in South Sudan face a myriad of contribute to empowering girls and young women challenges stemming from entrenched patriarchal in South Sudan?” Three endeavors were sequentially social norms, worsening economic conditions and conducted, namely, (i) a desk review and secondary systemic infrastructure deficits that combine to data analysis; (ii) semi-structured key informant continue a cycle of poverty and disempowerment. interviews (KII) and FGDs; and (iii) a validation and Adopting the ‘4E’ framework—an integrated ap- knowledge sharing workshop with key stakeholders. proach to empowering girls and women with a view Findings indicate a number of barriers which prevent to harness the demographic dividend and accelerate girls and women from accessing quality health, edu- the development of human capital—this ASA inter- cation and social protection and jobs services, which twines four components, the 4Es—Empower, Ed- are further compounded by their being in a patriar- ucate, Enhance and Employ and Enable—and ap- chal society with harmful norms and which subor- plies a cross-sectoral lens across education, health, dinate them first to their father and brothers, and social protection, and jobs to analyze the barriers then to their husbands. Building on these findings as that women and girls face and offer recommenda- well as local and international experiences, the ASA tions for empowering them. It utilizes a qualitative proposes both short- to medium-term and medium- and participatory methodological approach to an- to long-term recommendations for empowering swer the key research question: “To what extent, girls and women in South Sudan across the 4Es. and in what ways, can investments in health, edu- cation and the social protection, and jobs sectors Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 1 Brief Summary Girls and women in South Sudan face a myriad of challenges stemming from entrenched patriarchal Enhance social norms, worsening economic conditions, and (access to health services) systemic infrastructure deficits that combine to continue a cycle of poverty and disempowerment. Given South Sudan’s dire need for increased engage- Poor infrastructure and a lack of resources severe- ment and productivity from all citizens who can ly impacts girls’ and women’s access to and provi- work, there is enormous value to moving away from sion of health services in South Sudan. The lack of traditionally prescribed gender roles that limit the skilled healthcare workers among the insufficient participation of women in the economy. This report health workforce, and the disapproving social norms highlights barriers to the empowerment of girls and around seeking services also serve as primary barri- women in South Sudan and identifies entry points ers to providing health services to girls and women. for intervention through the ‘4Es’ Framework (Em- These barriers impose significant supply and de- power, Educate, Enhance and Employ and Enable). mand limitations on women’s and girls’ health care. The methodological approach of the study employs a qualitative and participatory approach using desk research, KIIs and FGDs. Educate Empower Quality education for girls in South Sudan is often inaccessible, unaffordable, or deemed unnecessary Traditional gender roles and cultural expectations due to poor infrastructure and limited public fund- have historically relegated women in South Sudan ing. Difficult travel to school, the relatively high cost to subservient positions in a primarily domestic ca- of schooling and harmful societal perceptions of pacity, diminishing the importance of girls’ educa- women’s role in society keep families from educat- tion and limiting female participation in civic and ing girls. In addition, teachers are paid poorly, if paid economic activities. This disparity of empowerment at all, and many schools’ physical environments are for women and girls is self-perpetuating, as few unfavorable, affecting the quality of the education women complete sufficient education to effectively services and entrenching the idea of girls’ education serve their community, limiting their ability to be- as being “unnecessary.” come role models or government officials that can support and improve conditions for the next genera- tion of women. Moreover, these cultural norms have Employ and Enable established pervasive institutional sexism through the formal recognition of customary law as part of a dual legal system preserving practices that violate human and women’s rights. The lack of education and skills limits women’s ability to access the job market, and when they do, the limited skills often results in their overwhelm- ingly working in low-productivity sectors. Nearly 91 Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 2 percent of employed women in South Sudan are   Educate: Educate communities, parents, and considered to have “vulnerable employment,” par- household members on the importance of girls’ ticularly in agriculture or own-account employment education, equip schools with the necessary in the informal economy. Women’s employment in materials and resources to enhance students’ low productivity sectors in South Sudan is a conse- success, enhance teacher management, incen- quence of cultural norms related to girls’ education tivize teachers (especially female teachers) in and a woman’s place in society. Thus, social protec- both urban and rural areas and introduce inno- tion and job interventions are critical to addressing vative models to increase literacy and improve women’s constraints, particularly through social girls’ skills and school performance; assistance and productive inclusion/labor market interventions.   Employ and Enable: Mainstream gender em- powerment in the design of social protection Looking Ahead and jobs interventions and facilitate women’s access to financial capital to increase their This study outlines multisectoral recommendations economic opportunities. with a scope that covers the required investments to address impediments and ways of addressing The second set of recommendations has medium- implementation and service delivery roadblocks. to long-term objectives and includes: The phased recommendations are informed by the study’s findings as well as local and international   Enhance: Strengthen and map referral sys- experiences, and are divided into two categories. tems as the necessary infrastructure develops; The first set is short- to medium-term recommen-   Educate: Increase the provision of cash trans- dations for empowering girls and women in South fers and/or scholarships for girls’ education, Sudan and includes: improve school infrastructure, make schools safer for girls and advocate for GBV awareness   Empower: Introduce legal and societal change and prevention; to end harmful customary laws and promote women’s participation in public life and peace   Employ and Enable: Increase social protection agreement processes; coverage among the poor and vulnerable to strengthen their resilience to shocks and fo-   Enhance: Raise awareness about women’s cus on agriculture sector jobs, livelihoods, and health and family planning services and pro- market links interventions.  mote their use, improve the health care service provision, incentivize and build the capacity of the health workers and ensure the availability of the women’s health care supplies; Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 3 Executive Summary Introduction and women’s empowerment in South Sudan, pro- vided an understanding of what works and what Girls and women in South Sudan face a myriad of is needed to empower them, and conveyed lessons challenges stemming from entrenched patriarchal learned from local and international experiences. social norms, worsening economic conditions, and Second, semi-structured KII and FGDs with the rel- systemic infrastructure deficits that combine to evant stakeholders, including the government, de- continue a cycle of poverty and disempowerment. velopment partners, and NGOs in South Sudan, was As in other male-dominated cultures, the shift to- conducted. These KIIs and FGDs have helped to hone ward acceptance of women in economic activities in on critical barriers and refine recommendations and public life has been gradual, and interventions based on local experience. Third, the study conduct- to speed this development along have been chal- ed a validation and knowledge sharing workshop lenged by narrowly circumscribed gender roles that with the stakeholders which presented findings, have been long-established at the national and local helped finalize recommendations, secured agree- community levels. Given South Sudan’s dire need for ments and buy-ins, and promoted dialogue across increased engagement and productivity from all cit- the relevant entities. izens who can work, there is enormous value to mov- ing away from traditionally prescribed gender roles Context that limit the participation of women in the econo- my. Beyond the fundamental dimension of respect South Sudan has spent the majority of its history for human rights and gender equality, empowering since gaining independence in 2011 in a state of women in South Sudan through education and im- civil war, leading to massive casualties, underde- proved access to health care will expand the avail- veloped infrastructure, and an atmosphere of vio- able pool of skilled labor in the country and increase lence. The compounded impact of decades of armed the utilization of human capital. conflict and climate shocks has rendered South Sudan one of the most poverty-stricken countries This report highlights barriers to the empow- globally, with development indicators lagging behind erment of girls and women and identifies entry comparator countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. The points for intervention through the 4E Framework. country’s instability combined with cultural norms This framework is an integrated approach to em- accepting gender-based violence (GBV) and discrim- powering girls and women with a view to harness ination has fostered a hostile environment for wom- the demographic dividend and accelerate the de- en and girls, further exacerbating and perpetuating velopment of human capital. This approach inter- gender disparities in empowerment indicators. The twines four components, the 4Es—Empower, Edu- cultural perspective of the role of women in society cate, Enhance and Employ and Enable—and applies and the protection of their rights is a consistent a cross-sectoral lens across education, health, so- theme when analyzing the challenges women face cial protection, and jobs to analyze the barriers that in advancing the social agenda for empowerment. women and girls face, and offer recommendations for empowering them. The COVID-19 pandemic has substantially im- pacted South Sudan’s economy and created signif- The methodological approach for this study is qual- icant barriers, particularly for women and girls, to itative and participatory. It is composed of three access to quality health care services and educa- endeavors that were sequentially conducted. First, tion. Following two waves of the disease spreading a desk review and secondary data analysis were in the country, the already fragile and inadequate completed which outlined the main barriers for girls’ health system was overburdened, and public health Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 4 measures to stem the spread of disease, such as Sudan and the statutory law support greater pro- a national curfew and closure of schools and non- tections for women and girls, customary practices essential businesses, led to immediate job loss and that govern the majority of disputes in the country interruption of education. Less than a third of re- are often out of step with the statutory law. spondents surveyed in a high-frequency House- hold Monitoring Survey (HMS) reported previously enrolled children engaged in any form of distance Enhance learning, which was notably lower in rural versus ur- (access to health services) ban households. Job loss and interruption of educa- tion are closely linked in times of crisis, as many poor households elect to eschew schooling their children, particularly girls, due to the relatively high cost. The poor infrastructure and lack of resources se- verely impact the accessibility to and provision of Findings health services to women and girls in South Sudan. The health care system in South Sudan is affected by the disparities in distribution and availability of services, requiring long and difficult travel or exten- Empower sive delays in delivery of care, both of which are ex- acerbated by the physical insecurity of the country. The lack of skilled healthcare workers among Traditional gender roles and cultural expectations the insufficient health workforce, and the dis- have historically relegated women in South Sudan approving social norms around seeking services to subservient positions in a primarily domestic also serve as primary barriers to providing health capacity, diminishing the importance of girls’ ed- services to women and girls. Inappropriate behav- ucation and limiting female participation in civic iors by the limited number of health care workers, and economic activities. Harmful gender stereo- including breaking confidentiality, seeking illegal types and differential expectations are perpetuat- payments for services, and displaying judgmental ed at relational and societal levels. Families weigh or biased attitudes towards patients, are discourag- the economic cost of educating daughters against ing for women and girls in need of services. Cultural the financial incentive of receiving customary bride perceptions of seeking family planning services or wealth payments, particularly as marrying daugh- treatment of injuries suffered through GBV further ters off earlier can fetch a greater payment. reduce motivation to seek services, as the necessi- ty for treatment is often outweighed by the stigma Women’s political participation in South Sudan is attached to it. As a result, preventable or treatable limited, but their participation in legislatures is of- conditions often do not receive appropriate care, ten associated with common ground identification leading to unwanted pregnancies and continued risk among diverse political views, and more policies of future domestic and gender-based violence. supporting education, health, gender equality, and penalties for domestic violence, rape and sexual ha- rassment. Despite these benefits, women in South Sudan have trouble ascending to positions of au- Educate thority. Institutional sexism persists through the formal recognition of customary law as part of a dual le- Quality education for girls in South Sudan is often gal system preserving practices that violate hu- inaccessible, unaffordable, or deemed unneces- man and women’s rights, particularly regarding sary due to poor infrastructure and limited public women’s property rights and acceptance of child funding. As with health services, disparities in the marriage and GBV. Although the leadership of South distribution of educational services create barriers Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 5 to access for girls in South Sudan, as long, difficult those affected by conflict and displacement, who travel to school is demotivating for families. For mo- represent at least a third of the population. Young bile pastoral communities and internally displaced women and girls, particularly those living in fe- people (IDP), the continuity of girls’ education is male-headed households, are highly vulnerable and disrupted by their frequently changing physical lo- as such are in dire need of social protection and job cation. In addition, the availability of qualified staff interventions. and quality services are negatively impacted by economic conditions. For example, many schools Nearly 91 percent of employed women in South lack appropriate gender-specific washrooms, and Sudan are considered to have “vulnerable employ- school staff may not be regularly paid, leading to ment”, particularly in agriculture or own-account high turnover or avoidance of the teaching profes- employment in the informal economy. Vulnerable sion by talented individuals. employment refers to own-account workers and contributing family workers. It is often character- The high cost of schooling and harmful societal ized by inadequate earnings, low productivity, and perceptions of a woman’s role in society keep fam- difficult conditions to work that undermine workers’ ilies from educating girls. The relatively high cost of fundamental rights. Women overwhelmingly tend schooling in the context of widespread poverty and to pursue low-productivity and low-wage activities. anachronistic customary practices lead families to The bulk of South Sudanese women work in the ag- prioritize the preparation of daughters for marriage ricultural sector, which remains highly vulnerable to and domestic servitude over furthering their daugh- external shocks, increasing the likelihood of perpet- ters’ education as families may receive significant uating the cycle of poverty. The earnings differential financial benefits from marrying their daughters between men and women in South Sudan is minimal. off. These perverse incentives contribute to a rela- However, this is likely due to the low earnings for the tive paucity of women who have completed higher general population, which further adds to women’s education, in turn fostering harmful stereotypes of vulnerability. In addition, women contribute more women as less capable of educational achievement than men to household work and childcare, which and providing fewer educated female role models. creates economic value that is generally overlooked. Vulnerable jobs continue to be a barrier for women in South Sudan in the context of South Sudan’s youth bulge, as the fragile economy is unable to absorb all Employ and Enable new entrants into the labor market. Social protection and jobs interventions are crit- ical to address the constraints women face, par- The lack of education and skills limits women’s ticularly through social assistance and productive ability to access the job market, and when they inclusion/labor market interventions. Social as- do, the limited skills often result in women over- sistance interventions are aimed at supporting the whelmingly working in low-productivity sectors. poor and vulnerable, and mitigate negative coping Access to social protection and employment for mechanisms to shocks that disproportionately af- young women in South Sudan has been affected by fect young women. Productive inclusion/labor mar- their compounded vulnerability driven by conflict, ket interventions address constraints to access poverty, and constant exposure to shocks. Women to employment opportunities and productivity by are affected by a lack of education, low productivity supporting self-employment and the development livelihoods, family dynamics, and limited access to of more and diversified sources of livelihood, access opportunities. While the number of women involved to land and links to agriculture and other promis- in economic activity is high, access to high-earning ing sectors, and strengthening financial inclusion, economic opportunities or diversification in sources among others. of livelihoods is low. The situation is compounded for Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 6 Conclusion also ways of addressing implementation and ser- vice delivery roadblocks. These are categorized into Interventions through investment in health, edu- short-to-medium-term and medium-to-long-term cation, social protection, and job sectors are ur- recommendations, prioritized by their urgency and gent to empower women and girls in South Sudan, recognizing that some changes necessary for sus- but significant hurdles exist. These stem from the tainable empowerment cannot be quickly facilitat- challenges revealed through the 4Es Framework, ed, require multiple steps to implement, or will only which include poor infrastructure, pervasive pov- become feasible through transformative leadership erty, and social norms of the patriarchal culture. from within South Sudanese. South Sudan is one of the poorest countries in the world. In this context, the limited funding for institu- These recommendations include the following: tions and civil infrastructure presents a differential challenge for equal access to education and health services among urban, rural, IDP, and pastoral com- munities, particularly for women and girls. This un- Empower equal access to quality services is further exacer- bated by poverty where people are often unable to afford even the nominal cost involved, such as the cost of education. Short-to-medium-term recommendations The limited access to education and health ser- 1. Introduce legal and societal change to end vices limits women’s and girls’ empowerment and harmful customary laws. This could include en- must be addressed to build resilient communities. couraging societal change regarding views on However, enhancing girls’ education and improving customary laws by conducting awareness cam- the health of women and girls need significant long- paigns and engaging men and young boys in term effort. This is to develop societal acceptance these activities; pursuing a legal reform to pro- and prioritization above customary perceptions of tect women and girls, such as enacting laws to a woman’s value being limited primarily to domes- criminalize rape; and prioritizing displaced com- tic servitude. Also, to implement the required leg- munities, particularly IDPs and, if possible, refu- islation. In the shorter term, social protection and gees. The responsible agency for this recommen- jobs programs could help tackle gender disparity in dation could be the Ministry of Gender, Child and human capital development. Programs enhancing Social Welfare (MGCSW). women’s economic empowerment need to be sen- sitive to the local context of widespread poverty 2. Promote women’s participation in public life among both women and men as well as a nascent and peace agreement processes. This could economy with limited absorption capacity in the include ensuring that at least 1 of 5 South Su- short-to-medium-term. Strategic approaches are dan’s vice presidents is a woman and achieving needed to foster local community buy-in and ad- the gender quota (at least 35 percent) in the na- dress practical concerns relating to safety, unequal tional legislature and state institutions; embed- access, and cultural norms. ding rights that protect women and youth in the constitution covering all spheres of influence, Recommendations such economic, political, and cultural. Besides, conducting awareness campaigns and training The study recommendations address the key bar- sessions on the importance of women’s represen- riers women and girls face in South Sudan and tation, targeting staff in national and state gov- build on local and international experiences in sim- ernments, policymakers, and parliamentarians. ilarly fragile contexts. These recommendations are The responsible agency for this recommendation multisectoral with a scope that covers not only the could be the executive branch of government. required investments to address impediments but Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 7 The responsible agencies for this recommenda- Enhance tion could be the MOH, development partners, (access to health services) and NGOs. Medium-to-long-term recommendations Short-to-medium-term recommendations 5. Strengthen and map referral systems. This should include services to support women and 1. Raise awareness about women’s health and girls affected by GBV, so that they can access family planning services and promote their the appropriate service providers, including those use. This could include conducting multifaceted providing mental health and psychosocial sup- education campaigns to educate both women port services. The services should also cover all and men about the various methods and bene- facilities where mothers may receive antenatal fits of family planning, raising women’s and girls’ and postnatal care and where women can get awareness of GBV services and their locations, access to family planning methods and address educating women on the importance of maternal other health needs. In addition, the referral sys- health and the risks associated with childbirth, tems mapping should be conducted in a multi- and encouraging women to seek antenatal and sectoral manner so that health, education, and postnatal care at facilities while providing infor- social protection and jobs mapping exercises are mation on how to access these services. The re- combined and routinely updated to ensure the sponsible agency for this recommendation could availability of relevant information to those seek- be the Ministry of Health (MOH). ing services. The responsible agencies for this recommendation could be the MOH, the Ministry 2. Improve the health care service provision. This of General Education and Instruction (MOGEI), could include building the capacity for the clini- MOGCSW, DPs, and NGOs. cal management of rape and provision of post- exposure prophylaxis (PEP) kits and mama kits to aid with healthy deliveries, ensuring that the facilities have the infrastructure and resources Educate required for effective operation and service pro- vision, and focusing on persons from displaced communities, particularly IDPs and, if possible, refugees. The responsible agencies for this rec- Short-to-medium-term recommendations ommendation could be the MOH, the Ministry of Water Resources & Irrigation (MWRI), NGOs, and 1. Educate communities, parents, and household development partners (DPs). members on the importance of girls’ education. This could include conducting awareness cam- 3. Incentivize and build the capacity of the health paigns particularly targeting religious and tradi- workers. This could include developing and im- tional leaders in rural and IDP areas and directly plementing an incentive scheme to increase the involving young boys and men. The responsible number of health workers and improve their agencies for this recommendation could be the geographical distribution in the country, and MOGEI and the MOGCSW. strengthening and expanding the Boma Health Initiative to support the training and deployment 2. Equip schools with the necessary materials of local midwives, nurses, and community health and resources to enhance students’ success. workers, particularly in rural areas. The responsi- This could include providing performance-based ble agency for this recommendation could be the grants or school improvement grants to provide MOH. schools with additional resources if they have completed some prerequisites. This could help 4. Ensure the availability of the women’s health ensure the inclusion of persons from displaced care supplies. This could include prepositioning communities, particularly IDPs and, if possible, women’s health supplies during the dry season. refugees. The responsible agency for this recom- mendation could be MOGEI. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 8 3. Enhance teacher management and incentivize teachers (and especially female teachers) in Employ and Enable both urban and rural areas by making the career path more equitable and attractive. This could include decentralizing teachers’ deployment and allocation and developing incentive strategies to Short-to-medium-term recommendations make postings more attractive in rural and hard- to-reach areas. The incentives could include the 1. Mainstream gender empowerment in the design construction of teacher housing, the disburse- of social protection and jobs interventions. This ment of transportation allowances, and childcare could include utilizing social protection programs for female teachers in particular. The responsible as platforms for women’s empowerment, includ- agency for this recommendation could be MOGEI. ing skill training in the gender-transformative programmatic approaches to support women’s 4. Introduce innovative models to increase liter- access labor market opportunities; and embed acy and improve girls’ skills and school perfor- awareness-raising messaging in all community mance. This could include producing storybooks and household engagement activities to ensure based on strong female and male roles to improve gender sensitivity. Also, select projects and pay- literacy skills and foster gender transformative ment sites with consideration for distance and teaching through cohesion between gender. The safety issues; develop strong grievance redress responsible agency for this recommendation and monitoring and evaluation systems that could be MOGEI. could contribute to women’s increased access to services and networks; and embed GBV preven- Medium-to-long-term recommendations tion, mitigation, and response mechanisms into the project cycle. The responsible agencies for 5. Increase the provision of cash transfers and/or this recommendation could be MOAFS, MGCSW, scholarships for girls’ education. This could in- development and humanitarian partners, and clude the provision of cash transfers to students NGOs. in need to encourage their school attendance and participation and scholarships for girls to reduce 2. Facilitate women’s access to financial capital school costs which act as a barrier to their edu- to increase their economic opportunities. This cation. The responsible agencies for this recom- could include providing financial capital to wom- mendation could be the Ministry of Agriculture en to support the diversification of sources of and Food Security (MOAFS) and MOGEI. livelihoods; supporting programs that increase access to networks for women through the for- 6. Improve school infrastructure, make schools mation of business groups, savings groups, or safer for girls, and advocate for GBV awareness even women’s groups; building the capacity and and prevention. This could include building, re- skills around topics such as financial literacy and constructing and/or upgrading classrooms and basic business planning; and raising awareness providing schools with adequate girl-friendly wa- to support women’s right to own assets, particu- ter, sanitation, and health (WASH) facilities. In larly land, and to ensure that women are respect- addition, introduce school programs and conduct ed at the community-level. The responsible agen- campaigns to challenge gender stereotypes from cies for this recommendation could be MOAFS, the end of primary and secondary education, and MGCSW, development and humanitarian part- work with parents, teachers and communities to ners, and NGOs. challenge norms that lead to the use of violence against women and girls, which could help reduce GBV. The responsible agency for this recommen- dation could be MOGEI. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 9 Medium-to-long-term recommendations 4. Increase the focus on agriculture sector jobs, livelihoods, and market links interventions 3. Increase social protection coverage among the given that women comprise a significant poor and vulnerable with a focus on strength- proportion of the labor force in this sector and ening resilience to shocks and bolstering social its potential growth for South Sudan’s econo- protection delivery systems. This could include my. This could include building the capacity and introducing interventions, such as “cash-plus” skills related to climate change resilience and training and livelihoods and economic inclu- improving efficiency; providing agricultural as- sion-related programs; investing in service sys- sets and financial capital to invest in agricultural tems, such as MIS and grievance redress to in- activities; and establishing links with agricultur- crease social protection coverage; prioritizing al extension programs, livestock, and veterinary displaced communities and IDPs, and if possible, support. The responsible agencies for this recom- refugees. The responsible agencies for this rec- mendation could be MOAFS, MGCSW, develop- ommendation could be MOAFS, MGCSW, devel- ment and humanitarian partners, and NGOs. opment and humanitarian partners, and NGOs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 10 1. Introduction South Sudan ranks in the bottom third of coun- waged and salaried workers (38 percent compared tries for the life-course gender gap and women’s to 46 percent). Instead, they are disproportionately empowerment in the Human Development Index limited to roles as helpers in household income-gen- (HDI).5 Adolescent girls and young women in the erating activities (Von der Goltz and Harborne, 2021). country face many barriers to health, education, Overall, women and girls in South Sudan have fewer and social protection and jobs. The maternal mor- choices and opportunities over their lives than men tality ratio of 1,150 per 100,000 live births is one of and boys and less agency and options for self-deter- the highest in the world (World Bank, 2020, October mination (UNDP, 2018). 4; United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF], n.d.a). Stark gender disparities exist in education and ac- Patriarchal norms compounded by conflict, pover- cess to employment and livelihood opportunities. ty, and unequal power relationships within house- According to the United Nations, in 2019, years holds remain primary drivers of violence against after independence in 2011, a South Sudanese girl women and girls (De Silva et al., 2020). The sign- was still more likely to die in childbirth than finish ing of the Peace Agreement7 in 2018 instilled hope. school (International Crisis Group, 2021). In fact, However, the cumulative effects of years of conflict, more than 2.8 million children, or over 70 percent, violence, protracted and repeated displacement, are out of school in South Sudan, with the largest layered on top of preexisting development challeng- group of out-of-school children (OOSC) being girls es, has translated into sustained poverty, periods of (UNICEF South Sudan, 2021; the Republic of South famine, persistent protection concerns, and a lack Sudan, 2018). Perhaps unsurprisingly, therefore, in of livelihoods and access to essential services, with 2018, only 29 percent of adult females were found women and girls being disproportionately affected to be literate. In 2010, 52 percent of women were (IOM, 2019). Furthermore, the conflict and war have married before age 18 (UNICEF, n.d.a), and in 2019, resulted in increased violence against women. In an the adolescent fertility rate was high with 62 births already patriarchal society, such displays of vio- per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19 (United Nations De- lence against women have exacerbated preexisting partment of Economic and Social Affairs [UNDESA], unequal gender relations, increasing the propensity 2019). These figures are worse than the average of for girls’ and women’s exploitation, and hindering the African region and low-income countries.6 Fur- their access to economic opportunity and job mar- ther, women in South Sudan are less likely than men kets (UNICEF, 2020a). In addition, the conflict and to be employed as waged and salaried workers, de- displacement in South Sudan have altered women’s spite bearing a disproportionately heavy burden of roles in families and communities. Women have now familial responsibility. In 2020, the proportion of become responsible for providing for their fami- women working as contributing family workers was lies, with some turning into household heads, while 48 percent, compared to 17 percent of men. Despite men were mobilized in the armed conflict, and then this, they are less likely than men to be employed as these men subsequently migrated, seeking better 5. The life-course gender gap of the HDI compiles 12 indicators that analyze gender gaps in choices and opportunities across the lifespan, including education, labor and work, political representation, time use, and social protection. The women’s empowerment dashboard of the index compiles 13 woman-specific empowerment indicators in three categories: reproductive health and family planning, violence against women and girls, and socioeconomic empowerment. 6. Average rates for Sub-Saharan Africa are as follows: 34 percent for women (ages 20–24 years) married before age 18 (UNICEF, n.d.b), 39 percent of adolescent out-of-school girls in 2018 (United Nations Children’s Education Fund, 2020), and adolescent fertility rate of 99.6 births per 1,000 women ages 15–19 (World Bank, 2019). 7. See South Sudan Peace Agreement (2018). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 11 economic opportunities. However, despite this sustainable development objectives, such as elimi- change in gender roles, patriarchal norms persist. It nating extreme poverty and fostering shared pros- is possible as well that some resentment may exist perity (De Silva et al., 2020). among men who feel that humanitarian assistance efforts have focused on women, potentially leading Investing in the empowerment of girls and women to further GBV. is a crucial process for developing human capital. Supporting their health, education, and socioeco- In light of these considerations, empowering girls nomic opportunities is essential to accelerate Afri- and women becomes a necessary endeavor to help ca’s demographic transition, which is key for sus- them to live the lives they want. Empowerment tainable economic growth. Women are not only an can be defined as “achieving control over one’s life essential component of the labor force, but they also through expanded choices” (Oxfam and EU, 2017). It determine the health and education outcomes of entails a process of change in which one expands on their children, contribute to their children’s economic a previously denied ability and makes strategic life perspectives and the peacebuilding of their nations, choices (Kabeer, 1999). Making choices implies the and strengthen social networks and institutions in possibility of alternatives, the ability to have chosen their communities. For this, Africa requires human otherwise, regarding first-order life choices that are capital development policies that accelerate the re- critical for people to live the lives they want, such as duction in child mortality, help couples to achieve choice of livelihood, whether and who to marry, or a smaller family size, empower girls and women by whether to have children, etc. Empowerment can be improving their health, education and skills, and pro- understood as the ability to exercise choice in terms vide them with better economic opportunities and of resources or preconditions, agency or processes, decision-making power at home and in their com- and achievements or outcomes. See annex 1 for de- munities (Canning, Raja, and Yazbeck, 2015). tails on these dimensions. Another concept of em- powerment is offered by Amartya Sen who refers to Unfortunately, the COVID-19 pandemic threatens “functioning achievements” as the particular ways to wipe out socioeconomic gains, and emphasis of “being and doing”, valued by individuals who have should be put on promoting the empowerment of the “capabilities” or potential to live the lives that girls and women to harness their human capital people want, and achieve their valued ways of being potential. Sub-Saharan African countries, includ- and doing (Sen, 1985). ing South Sudan, are facing a decreased capacity to provide reproductive, maternal, and child health The empowerment of girls and women is crucial services, increasing the risk of higher maternal and at the individual level, for self-development and under-5 mortality (Roberton et al., 2020). School enabling full participation in civic and economic closures due to the pandemic and inequities in ac- life and, at the societal level, for a more prosper- cessing education programs are widening the learn- ous and peaceful South Sudan. When women are ing crisis and increasing the already high risk for girls empowered, healthy, educated, and have improved to drop out of school.8 Moreover, women are being financial security, other aspects of life improve not adversely impacted by financial distress, and dis- only for themselves but also for their children. They ruptions to essential services and labor markets are can more easily afford health services and send resulting in increased early child-marriages, teen- their children to school. They are also more like- age pregnancies, and gender-based violence (GBV) ly to assume leadership roles in their communities (Mamta et al., 2021). The World Bank is therefore and become agents of change. Women’s increased committed to promote the empowerment of girls participation in their local life facilitates social co- and women through the 4E Framework, which is an hesion and effective dispute resolution (World Bank, analytical framework used in this study and refers 2021a), benefit communities and societies more to the following: empowering women, enhancing ac- largely. The empowerment of girls and women is cess to reproductive health services, educating girls also essential for attaining the Sustainable Devel- and women, and employing and enabling women. opment Goals (SDGs) (Goal 5 in particular) and other 8. There are 2.6 million African girls at risk of not returning to school with the COVID-19 pandemic (Mamta, Ghanem, and Diagana, 2021). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 12 The purpose of this study is to identify entry This report is organized into 7 chapters, with the points for empowering adolescent girls and young first 3 focused on outlining the background, the women through human development policies and second 3 presenting the core work done, and the program in the fragile context of South Sudan. The final chapter offering recommendations. Chapter 1 report’s overall goal is to contribute to the analysis introduces the topic and defines the specific purpose of what more remains to be done to empower girls of this study. Chapter 2 highlights the main and sec- and women in South Sudan through investments in ondary research questions, and the methodological human capital, particularly health, education and approach adopted to answer these questions, while social protection, and jobs. It focuses on providing a Chapter 3 presents the context in South Sudan coherent cross-sectoral diagnostic of the situation regarding the overall factors that help to situate of girls, adolescents, and young women. It will do so this study, including the conflict situation and the with the objective of better understanding the sit- COVID-19 pandemic. Chapter 4 explains the analyt- uation in South Sudan and providing valuable rec- ical framework that was used to guide the analysis, ommendations for government officials and policy- data collection and discussion in this report—the 4E makers, DPs, NGOs, and citizens on how to empower Framework. Chapter 5 presents the findings of the adolescent girls and young women. desk review intertwined with findings from the con- ducted interviews and FGDs, while Chapter 6 details this study’s conclusions and next steps. The final chapter, Chapter 7, highlights relevant recommen- dations resulting from this work. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 13 2. Methodology and Data This is a case study of girls’ and women’s empow- academic papers; gray literature comprised of re- erment in South Sudan, aiming at answering the ports from international organizations and NGOs; key research question: “To what extent, and in administrative or government documents on pro- what ways, can investments in health, education grams, policies, and strategies; and online articles and the social protection, and jobs sectors con- from a variety of organizations, all focused on the tribute to empowering girls and young women in empowerment of girls and women in South Su- South Sudan?” The three follow-up questions de- dan and other relevant international experiences. rived from this main research question: In addition, the desk review informed the planning for the FGDs and KIIs and the design of their proto-   What are the barriers to empowering girls and cols. The FGD protocols were not piloted due to time women? constraints. However, two local consultants of both genders and the Save the Children local team, who   What works to empower girls and women? are familiar with the local context, reviewed the pro- tocols, which were adjusted accordingly. As for KIIs   What more is needed, in terms of policies, pro- and FGDs notes analysis, it was based on descrip- grams, and institutions, to empower girls and tive and comparison analytical methods. women for both the short term and long term? A variety of stakeholders were interviewed or participated in the FGDs, with the support from To answer these questions is qualitative and par- UN Women and Save the Children. The task team ticipatory in nature, and the selected approach virtually conducted fourteen interviews with key includes three sequential endeavors. First, a desk development partners, NGOs, and national author- review and secondary data analysis were conducted ities. With the support of development partners, to report on the main barriers for the empowerment twenty-nine FGDs were conducted with girls, wom- of girls and women in South Sudan. It also focused en, young boys, men, traditional or religious leaders, on what works and what is needed to empower teachers, and health staff. The FGDs took place in them, by identifying lessons learned from useful urban and rural areas, as well as in IDPs and refugee international experiences. Second, semi-structured communities. The urban FGDs were conducted in KIIs and FGDs with relevant stakeholders were done. Munuki, Buluk, and Hai Game areas in Juba, Central Third, a validation and knowledge sharing workshop Equatoria State, and Rumbek Town, Lakes State. was conducted with key stakeholders to discuss the The rural FGDs were carried out in Jebel and Gum- report findings, helping to finalize policy recommen- bo-Sherikat areas in Juba, Central Equatoria State, dations to empower girls and women, as well as to and Bor Town, Jonglei State. As for the IDPs commu- promote a dialogue on the subject. The report find- nities, FGDs took place in Mapau Camp in Sherikat, ings are based on the desk review, the KIIs and FGDs, Mangateen Camp in Miya Saba, and Jondoru Camp and the feedback from the validation workshop. in Jebel, all located in Juba, Central Equatoria State, and other IDPs communities situated in the rural ar- The desk review enabled a broad understanding of eas of Bor Town, Jonglei State. Regarding the refu- girls’ and women’s empowerment issues in South gees, FGDs were conducted in communities located Sudan and informed the KIIs and FGDs proto- in Maban County, Upper Nile State. cols. The desk review was based on an analysis of Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 14 Moreover, a positive deviant FGD was organized provides strict norms to conduct research with hu- to collect information from girls previously iden- man subjects, and the Starter Toolkit on Community tified by Save the Children as being “empowered”. Engagement and Capacity Building Plan developed This approach can be used to understand the path by the World Bank to support the implementation of these girls took, identify success factors for em- the South Sudan Safety Net Project.9 powerment, and reveal potential hidden resources that can be reinforced to address their challenges The primary ethical principles considered in de- and empower them in a sustainable and internally signing and conducting the FGDs included: in- owned manner. It can be described as follows: formed consent and voluntary participation, an- onymity, and risk of discomfort and mitigation   The positive deviance (PD) approach assumes measures. These principles were applied in filing that every community has individuals or groups consent agreements from adult participants (annex whose uncommon behaviours and strategies en- 6). This agreement provided the participants with able them to find better solutions to problems information about the study and the objective of the than their peers although everyone has access discussion. It assured them of their right to leave to the same resources and challenges. Howev- the discussion at any point and not to answer any er, these people and groups are ordinarily invis- questions they were uncomfortable with. Also, it in- ible to others in the community, and especial- formed the participants on how the discussion notes ly to expert change agents. These implausible would be stored and treated. Attention was given to outliers are deviants because their uncommon preserving anonymity by not taking pictures and behaviours are not the norm; they are positive registering attendance. Two local facilitators were deviants because they have found ways to ef- hired (female and male) to moderate the discussion fectively address the problem, while most others to improve participants’ comfort. have not (Singhal 2013, 29). Additional measures were considered in the design Details on the organization of the FGD are available and implementation of FGDs to address the sen- in annex 2, the FGDs protocols in annex 3, the key sitivity of the GBV topic. Questions pertaining to informants list in annex 4, and KIIs’ protocols in an- GBV were phrased to address the audience indirect- nex 5. ly by asking about their general knowledge of GBV in South Sudan, including that of experiences of others The FGDs focused on understanding the opinions, around them. The female facilitator moderated the beliefs, and attitudes of the different groups about FGDs for women and girls, while the male facilita- empowerment of women and girls and highlight- tor took notes. However, girls and women were given ing their voices. The team considered diversifying the option to exclude him from the discussion if they the participants in each group to the extent possible felt uncomfortable. Participants were provided with to gather information from People of different ages, a list of resources and support available to address ethnic groups, religious beliefs, and physical capa- GBV in South Sudan (annex 7). bilities. However, ethnic FGDs were not formulated, and ethnicities were not factored in the FGDs analy- A validation and knowledge sharing workshop took sis. Since South Sudan is home to 64 ethnic groups, place in South Sudan on April 20, 2022, gathering conducting and analyzing FGDs across ethnic groups a variety of stakeholders in person and virtually. might reveal differences in opinions and beliefs. This The workshop gathered relevant stakeholders, in- area could be the scope of future studies. cluding South Sudanese authorities, DPs, and NGOs (see annex 8 for a list of workshop participants). Strict research protocols were deployed from the The objectives of the workshop were to discuss the initial stages of designing the FGDs protocols and findings and recommendations from this ASA and throughout the implementation of the FGDs. The engage stakeholders in conversations around the task team followed guidelines of the United States necessary policy recommendations. Ultimately, Department of Health and Human Services that it sought to promote a national dialogue on the 9. This toolkit includes a collection of instruments designed to support the implementation of the South Sudan Safety Net Project (SSSNP) through building the capacity and engaging the target communities and local governance. See details: Starter Toolkit on Community Engagement and Ca- pacity Building Plan. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 15 importance of empowering girls and women through as a problem for girls and women to fix. Overall, the an evidence-based approach, and build consensus objective of the engagement was to raise aware- on initiatives that can be implemented for this pur- ness as to the different factors that affect women pose.10 and girls’ access to health, education, incomes and livelihoods, factors that affect human capital de- This study also benefited from the support of velopment in South Sudan, and allow them to con- UN Women in delivering a radio show program to tribute to shaping solutions to the challenges. Such engage adolescent girls and women, and other engagement was particularly important for further South Sudanese citizens. In order to have a larger including the experiences and opinions of girls and outreach due to limitations posed by the COVID-19 women, and for creating a platform upon which they pandemic, the decision was made to forego one of could be heard and share with one another. Import- the workshops and instead collaborate on a radio ant in this endeavor as well, was their suggestions of show program. The program engaged media houses supports and resources that they found particular- to host talk shows with selected women and girls, ly helpful, such that other girls and women in South allowing other citizens to call in and contribute their Sudan might similarly benefit. It was also a crucial thoughts. There was a clear intention to include oth- step for ensuring that girls and women were not er South Sudanese citizens, including boys, men and merely passive beneficiaries of this ASA’s activities religious and traditional leaders, to ensure that em- and/or the deliverables this study.  powering girls and women was not framed merely 10. Annex 9 provides a summary of the lessons learned from the implementation of the participatory approach in an FCV context like South Sudan. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 16 3. Context seasonal floods, and desert locusts, damaging the 3.1. Country Context agriculture production that accounts for approxi- mately 15 percent of GDP and employs 80 percent of the population. As a result, people experience the compounded disadvantage of conflict and natu- ral disasters, pushing them into periods of famine South Sudan remains a fragile and conflict-affect- and widespread poverty. It is estimated that 4 out ed country, having recently transitioned out of its of 5 people in South Sudan were living in poverty in most recent civil war. As of 2020, South Sudan had 2020. About 6.4 million South Sudanese experience a population of approximately 11.2 million, of which food insecurity, nearly 10 percent of children die be- an approximate 41 percent are children ages 0–14 fore the age of 5, and almost 30 percent of children (World Bank (2020, October 4). The country gained under 5 are malnourished (De Silva et al., 2020). independence from Sudan in 2011, with much op- timism for the future after civil war periods from The lack of a durable peace and limited invest- 1955–1972 and 1983–2005. These wars left the ment in essential services have highly affected country underdeveloped, and the 2013 civil war led human development in South Sudan, and this dis- to widespread violence and decreased oil production proportionately affects women and girls. Indeed, that plunged the country into an economic crisis. the country’s development indicators are some of Nearly 400,000 people have died between Decem- the lowest in the world. Specifically, it ranks 185 ber 2013 and April 2018 due to the conflict, and 3.9 out of 189 countries in the United Nation’s (UN) million had been displaced as of April 2020, repre- HDI (UNDP, 2020) and 172 out of 174 countries in senting about a third of the population, with roughly the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index (HCI) 85 percent of internally displaced persons (IDPs) be- (World Bank, 2020a). According to the HCI, a child ing women and children (UNHCR, 2021). Despite the born in South Sudan today will only be 31 percent as hope instilled by the signing of the Peace Agreement productive when she grows up as she could be if she in September 2018, some conflict remains with po- enjoyed complete education and total health (World larizing ethnic divisions and intercommunal violence Bank, 2020a). This is lower than the average for at the national and local levels, leading to the devas- Sub-Saharan Africa (40 percent) and lower-income tation of the social and economic fabric of the coun- countries (37 percent). Some of the HCI components try, and widespread poverty and hunger. are worst for girls than boys, such as the expect- ed number of years of schooling (3.9 years for girls Decades of war combined with external shocks compared to 5.4 for boys), which stresses not only have made South Sudan one of the poorest coun- the need to focus on girls and women outcomes, tries in the world. In addition to the economic impact but also the role that mothers can have in children of war, revenues from oil exports, which represented learning, and the other HCI components focused on one-third of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and more health and nutrition. than 90 percent of government revenues, fell due to the collapse of global oil prices (African Development Women and girls are also among the most vul- Bank, 2021), reducing GDP from US$1,111 per capita nerable people in a conflict, and studies confirm in 2014 to less than US$200 in 2017 (World Bank, the normalization of GBV and its acceptance in 2021, September 22). Furthermore, the country has South Sudan, exacerbating a culture of violence. been affected by climate shocks, such as droughts, About 65 percent of women and girls in South Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 17 Sudan have been subject to GBV at some point in responsibilities and have often borne the brunt of their lives, and the majority of them have experi- negative coping strategies such as having to drop enced GBV before age 18 (UNICEF, 2018, as cited in out of school or being forced into early marriage. De Silva et al., 2020). Most male respondents (77 percent) and female respondents (73 percent to 93 COVID-19 poses a substantial threat to South percent) in a study thought that violence was jus- Sudan’s already fragile health system. The rapid tified in cases such as a woman going out without spread of COVID-19 in South Sudan was complicat- telling her husband, neglecting their children, argu- ed by the country’s weak health system, low water ing with her husband, refusing to have sex, or even supply coverage, poor hygiene and sanitation ser- burning dinner (World Bank, 2019, as cited in De Sil- vices, as well as the challenge of maintaining key va et al., 2020). This was confirmed in other studies, humanitarian supply chains throughout the coun- indicating that domestic violence was largely and try, especially in the areas where there are security socially accepted by both men and women, and that challenges or they have been experienced flooding. GBV increased during times of crisis (Oxfam and EU, Unfortunately, due to capacity constraints and oth- 2017). GBV is not however generated in a vacuum. er compounded challenges, the COVID-19 response The generalized violence exacerbates prejudices, was affected by the inadequate provision of life-sav- and gender discrimination (Ensor, 2019). In turn, a ing services, provisions, and a limited number of culture of violence and impunity has emerged from health workers. For example, a Ministry of Health re- decades of conflict in South Sudan (De Silva et al., port states that the country faced shortages of es- 2020), resulting in not only sexual violence, rape, sential supplies like personal protective equipment murder and torture committed against men and (PPE) in all states (South Sudan Ministry of Health, women, boys and girls, as an act of war, but also COVID-19 situation report, 2020). With humanitar- provoking a violent behavior toward women outside ian operations interrupted due to COVID-19-related and inside their homes (UNICEF, 2018, as cited in De movement and other restrictions, health care deliv- Silva et al., 2020). Unfortunately, survivors often re- ery was also affected nationwide. In addition, the frain from reporting an incident of rape or other sex- pandemic created additional barriers for all genders ual violence out of fear (Ensor, 2019), and these GBV to access quality health services. In particular, these incidents are resolved through customary mech- barriers were acutely felt by pregnant women and anisms that prioritize patriarchal notions of social the youth as a majority of the health centers require cohesion over the individual welfare of survivors. many people to travel long distances for care, are poorly equipped, and have long queues. COVID-19 showed a multifaceted impact in South 3.2. COVID-19 Impact Sudan, and the pandemic followed the two other shocks of floods and the locust infestation that had already weakened the country’s systems and resilience. The pandemic was associated with an in- As of March 1, 2022, South Sudan had registered crease in the prices of basic commodities and sup- 16,973 COVID-19 cases and 137 deaths, which ply chain disruptions. During the first months of the worsened the economic crisis. South Sudan record- pandemic, the price of staple grains rose rapidly, ed its first COVID-19 case in April 2020 and its first amounting to an increase of between 20 percent death in May. In response to this, several measures and 40 percent (Finn, Von der Goltz, Mira, and Am- were adopted by the government including the clo- bika, 2020). COVID-19 was also associated with job sure of educational institutions and nonessential loss. For example, 13 percent of households reported businesses. A second pandemic wave was experi- having lost all income from their main employment enced at the start of 2021, rapidly increasing the activity since April 2020 (World Bank, 2020b). In numbers of new cases and deaths, and instituting addition, the sourcing of inputs and goods became new lockdown measures. As a result, the COVID-19 more difficult, as transport costs increased. Howev- pandemic worsened the economic crisis, with a con- er, the first World Bank Household High-Frequency traction of -6.6 percent in the GDP real growth rate Phone Survey (HFPS) (Finn, Von Der Goltz, Fatima, for FY2020/21 (IMF, 2022). In addition, the impact and Ramasubbaiah, 2020) conducted in June 2020 of COVID-19 has disproportionately affected young across urban and rural areas in the ten states of women who have taken on additional caretaking South Sudan showed signs of recovery. For instance, Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 18 22 percent of households that had lost their main such measures by levels of household income; (3) an activity due to COVID reported that they had start- intermediate one, where schools closed for 7 months ed a new activity. By this time, traders were also and mitigation measures were 10 percent effective; twice as likely to report that on balance the num- and (4) a pessimistic one, where schools closed for ber of traders in the market had increased rather 7.5 months and mitigation measures were 5 percent than decreased since April. In addition, though the effective; and (5) a very pessimistic scenario, with hiring rate had substantially slowed compared to schools closing for 8 months, or more, and had a 5 pre-COVID times, there was a modest increase in percent of effectiveness in mitigation measures. the number of workers that traders and businesses reported employing since April 2020. Before the pandemic, learners in South Sudan would expect to complete 2.5 LAYS. According to The COVID-19 crisis has heavily disrupted the the estimation, this number is expected to drop learning process in South Sudan, with only a one- up to 1.7 LAYS in the most pessimistic scenario, third of children engaging in any distance learn- indicating a learning loss of 35 percent. This was ing modality during the school closure period. Be- estimated based on a school closure of 14 months, tween March 2020 and May 2021, schools in South considering the usual academic break, and ineffec- Sudan remained closed for a total of 14 months tive mitigation measures due to the low coverage of (UNICEF, 2021, May 4) including one month of ac- the distance learning programs, especially in rural ademic break from January to February 2021 (Gov- areas, where the majority of people live. This means ernment of South Sudan, 2012). During this time, that students were already learning very little be- learners have had extremely limited opportunities fore the COVID-19 pandemic, which lowers even of at-home instruction. MOGEI’s efforts of putting more their education attainment expectations. This in place a radio instruction program for primary ed- also means that they will hardly be able to catch up ucation have been far from effective given the limit- for the months lost during the pandemic, given that ed network coverage across the country and the low the education system was already not supporting adoption of at-home instruction compared to tradi- student learning. tional instruction, already leaves out of education a substantial proportion of students. According to the Female learners are more vulnerable as a result World Bank high-frequency HMS, which collected of COVID-19 and school closures, as can be seen data from 1,213 urban and rural households in June by the increased cases of early and forced mar- 2020, 32 percent of children who were in school be- riage, GBV and teen pregnancy. A study indicated fore the pandemic engaged in any distance learn- that girls faced an increase in domestic chores as ing. In rural settings, this figure was only 20 percent they were not attending school (UN Women; Min- (Finn, Der Goltz, Fatima, and Gupta, 2020). School istry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare; Ministry closures have also had a greater impact on children of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management; who rely on school feeding programs. DEPO; and RWDSS, 2020). In a qualitative study conducted by Oxfam (2021). in 10 schools across 5 The impact of COVID-19 in South Sudan can be es- areas in South Sudan, female learners reported that timated in terms of the expected learning loss due during this time they lost access to their social sup- to school closure using a World Bank’s simulation port mechanisms, aggravating their psychological tool (Azevedo et al., 2020). The tool expresses the distress. The financial burden stressed by COVID-19 loss in terms of Learning Adjusted Years of School- has made it harder for families to pay school fees ing (LAYS) and estimates the effects using five and has led to early and forced marriage as a way to scenarios: (1) the baseline, where no school closure collect dowry from their daughters. Girls who refuse took place; (2) an optimistic scenario, where schools are threatened with being beaten, and those who were closed for 3 months and mitigation measures run away are vulnerable of intercommunal violence. to counteract for the school closures, for instance, Teen pregnancy is also a challenge. In schools sup- through distance learning programs, were 14 per- ported by the Building Resilience in Crisis through cent effective, due to the differentiated access to Education (BRiCE),11 the number of pregnancies had 11. This is a four-year (2018–2022) European Union intervention implemented in Greater Kapoeta, Torit, Ikwotos, and Juba in South Sudan, managed by a consortium of NGOs, led by Oxfam. See details: https://globalcompactrefugees.org/article/education-life-project-uganda-and-south-sudan Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 19 almost doubled during the pandemic compared with from their household’s main income source, with 11 the previous year. This situation threatens to exac- percent reporting a complete stop in income from erbate gender inequality and risk girls’ education their main income source. Moreover, 80 percent of access and attainment. respondents were worried about not having enough food to eat and almost three quarters reported go- The vulnerability context within South Sudan’s so- ing without food for an entire day. A second round cial protection sector has also been exacerbated by of HFPS (Fatima and Li, 2021) conducted between the COVID-19 pandemic, putting additional pres- October and November 2020 showed a gradual re- sures on already vulnerable households across the covery of living standards, albeit from a very low country. The COVID-19 pandemic had substantial baseline. Further, income losses were higher among negative socioeconomic impacts for many house- the poor, with 41 percent of poor farming households holds across the country, disproportionately im- reporting reduced earnings, compared to 38 percent pacting the poor, and worsening already high levels of the non-poor. Food insecurity levels remained ele- of vulnerabilities. According to the first World Bank vated, with nearly 3 out of 4 households (73 percent) HFPS (Finn, Von Der Goltz, Fatima, et al., 2020), half experiencing food price increases in October 2020. of the respondent households reported a reduction Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 20 4. Analytical Framework: The 4Es Framework This section presents the 4E Framework for the em-   Educate girls and keep them in school (at least powerment of girls and women and human capital until secondary school) and ensure their access acceleration that guide this report. It is a framework to a quality education, increasing female educa- that is useful for the analysis of girls’ and women’s tion; empowerment issues, enabling the adoption of a holistic approach to identify policies, programs, and   Enhance girls’ and women’s access to reproduc- actions to empower girls and women. tive health services that can reduce infant and maternal mortality; and The 4E Framework is an integrated approach to empowering girls and women to harness demo-   Employ and enable women in a way that pro- graphic dividends and boost human capital accel- motes gender equality, protects female employ- eration. The following perspectives are used in the ment, and enables women to provide for their approach to analyzing the challenges and opportu- households. nities of girls and women (figure 1. 4E.): This framework was conceived for the first World   Empower girls and women in their roles in soci- Bank’s Sub-Saharan Women’s Empowerment and ety, or through the laws and policies that affect Demographic Dividend Project, SWEDD (P176693). female empowerment; Figure 1. 4E. Framework for Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan ‘4 Es’ to h rn ss th d mo r phic divid nd nd boost hum n c pit l in South Sud n Emplo Enh nc Educ t oun wom n irls’ nd wom n’s irls k pin in hi h r-incom cc ss to th m in school jobs nd improv hi h-qu lit nd incr s fin nci l inclusion. h lth s rvic s. f m l duc tion. wom n & irls throu h nh nc d qu lit nd nc Empow r in soci t nd und r th l w, s w ll s fr dom from ll sorts of viol nc . Source: Team’s diagram, based on the Project Concept Note (PCN) for the first Africa Regional Girls’ and Women’s Empowerment Multiphase Programmatic Approach (MPA) [P176693], for the proposed new phase of the SWEDD. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 21 Importantly, the framework identifies the necessity Security (WPS) Index (GIWPs and PRIO, 2021), of working across the various sectors—Education, measuring women’s inclusion, justice, and security Health and Social Protection and Jobs—to empower ranked South Sudan as the third worst country for girls and women, as well as recognizing the impor- the overall status of women. tance of having a strong systematic and societal foundation that facilitates such progress. While the South Sudan has customary laws that can be framework thus calls for progress within the individ- harmful to women and girls because they function ual sectors, it also acknowledges various cross-cut- as social and traditional barriers that marginalize ting themes, including but not limited to GBV, child girls and women and impede their empowerment marriage and pregnancy, cash transfers, customary individually and socially. These customary laws are laws and the non-implementation of national and ruled by customary regimes in South Sudan, which international laws and treaties. Thus, this report en- is home to around 64 ethnic groups.12 Some of these deavors to focus on the various, individual facets in- customary laws have survived for centuries, and are dividually, as well as the interactions between them, used to handle the vast majority of criminal and civil particularly in discussions regarding the barriers to disputes in the country. Ninety percent of judiciary empowering girls and women, and what works and cases are handled by customary courts (Akechak what more remains to be done in removing these Jok, Leitch, and Vandewint, 2004). An example of barriers. customary laws can be seen in child marriage; girls may legally marry after they begin menstruation. Today, 40 percent of girls in the country marry be- fore they are 18 years old (UNFPA, 2018), and about 4.1. Empower one third of them become pregnant before turning 15 (UNICEF, 2020, October 5). Pregnancy at this young age come with important health and educational risks, including the loss of their lives. Also, the cus- While the three Es of the framework (educate, en- tomary laws reflect traditional norms and attitudes hance, and employ and enable) all contribute to toward girls and women, for example, when they are girls’ and women’s empowerment, the “empower” traded as a commodity for a bride wealth payment, facet focuses on all of three Es; it provides analysis which is paid by the future husband to the bride’s of all the contextual factors that affect a process family. Therefore, it is crucial to address patriar- of change. Empowerment refers to people’s ability chal norms and GBV, which hinder gender equality, to make strategic life choices when they had been if lasting empowerment for girls and women is to be previously denied the opportunity to do so (Kabeer, achieved. 1999) (see annex 1 for a technical definition). The 4E Framework thus starts by analyzing the diminished Empower covers both the personal and relational status of women in society, given the patriarchal so- or societal aspects of empowerment. On one hand, ciety in which they live, where girls and women are empowering girls and women refers to the personal subordinated first to their father and brothers, and empowerment of each person. On the other hand, then to their husbands. They mainly have a role in relational and societal empowerment are also key the private space of family, through childbearing. In parts of empowerment and to the situation of wom- addition, girls and women are subject to a culture en in the broader societal context. Relational em- of violence, resulting from many decades of conflict, powerment refers to beliefs and actions concerning which expose them to a heightened risk of GBV, es- others, and societal empowerment to the situation pecially for displaced women. Sixty-five percent of of women in the broader societal context. Both per- women and girls been subject to GBV at some point sonal and interpersonal aspects are important to in their lives of physical and sexual violence (UNICEF, understanding how women’s empowerment may be 2018, as cited in De Silva, 2020). Overall, wom- developed and achieved. Kabeer (1999) considers en in South Sudan have a difficult life perspective that in a context where cultural values constrain just for having been born. The Women Peace and women’s ability to make strategic life choices, 12. The largest groups include Dinka in Southern Sudan, the Nuer in the East Upper Nile Province, and the Shilluk in the West Bank of the Nile (Ake- chak Jok, Leitch, and Vandewint, 2004). Other groups include the Zande, the Toposa, the Fertit, the Luo, Anyuak, Latuka, Bari, Maridi, and many more. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 22 structural inequalities cannot be addressed by individuals alone. Some individual women can and 4.2. Enhance do act against the norm, but their impact on en- trenched structures is likely to be limited, beyond the high price they can pay for their autonomy. Women’s empowerment is also dependent on col- While this ASA focuses on various means of en- lective solidarity in the public arena, as much as in- hancing the empowerment of girls and women dividual assertiveness in the private sphere. Wom- more generally, in the case of the 4E framework, en’s organizations and social movements have thus the “enhance” factor focuses on the health sector, an important role to play in creating the conditions and specifically, on enhancing girls’ and women’s for change, reducing the costs for individual wom- access to maternal and reproductive health ser- en, and creating relational and societal areas of em- vices and related resources. It focuses not only on powerment. reducing barriers that prevent women and girls from having access to these services, but also increasing The 4E Framework also focuses on opportunities the utilization of available services. In order to en- for change for girls and women. It is only recently hance access, it is also important to mitigate GBV that women have started to occupy a place in the practices that negatively impact health outcomes public sphere, which remains limited, due in large for women and girls. part because of the lack of role models. An important benchmark has been the 25 percent quota stated in South Sudan’s health system faces particular- the 2011 Transitional Constitution of South Sudan ly complex challenges that have resulted in poor for women’s representation in political life, which health outcomes, particularly for women and chil- has been used as a baseline in women’s lobbying dren. The challenges in large part stem from South for their participation in the Revitalized Agreement Sudan’s war which began in 2013 and ended in 2020. on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of Not only did many in the population require treat- South Sudan (R-ARCSS). Through their participa- ment from injuries sustained as a direct result of the tion in the R-ACRSS negotiations, women secured war’s violence, but the war damaged health facili- a provision of at least 35 percent representation in ties, threatened the security of health workers, dis- the Executive and transitional justice institutions. rupted medical and pharmaceutical supply chains, increased population movement, and escalated GBV Human rights, defended by some South Sudanese (Medecins San Frontieres, 2021, July 16). leaders and women’s champions, have exerted pressure for changing laws and cultural values. South Sudan’s health outcomes for women and Some of these changes to human rights include children are among the worst in the world. Cur- the ratification of the Convention on the Elimina- rently, under‐five mortality is 96.2 per 1,000 live tion of All Forms of Discrimination against Women births, neonatal mortality is 62.4 per 1,000 births, (CEDAW), or the presidential pledges to eliminate and maternal mortality is 1,150 per 100,000 births. child marriage. Certain aspects of customary laws Just 4 percent of women have family-planning are in contradiction with human rights, and South needs met by modern family planning methods (UN Sudanese society must be able to find a solution on Women, n.d.). These indicators are in large part the how to solve the duality in their legal system, and result of barriers to access of key health services, to translate human rights and statutory laws into a often resulting in lower utilization of the services lasting change to empower girls and women, at the that are essential for the health of women and girls. individual and collective levels. For example, in a nationwide assessment conducted by the Ministry of Health, in facilities that provided emergency obstetric and newborn care services, 38 percent of facilities were only partially functioning (Belaid et al., 2020). Utilization of functioning facil- ities is low, as it estimated that only 19 percent of deliveries take place at health facilities (Mugo et al., 2018). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 23 The health outcomes for women are further exac- erbated by the increase in GBV across the country 4.3. Educate that resulted from the war and ongoing communal violence. A breakdown in community level law has occurred since the onset of the most recent conflict (GWU, 2017). Up to 33 percent of women reported In the 4E Framework, “educating” girls by keep- experiencing sexual violence during their lifetime ing them in school and increasing their education, from non-partners (GWU, 2017). This does not in- skills, and knowledge is crucial for the empower- clude those experiencing intimate partner violence. ment of girls and women. In South Sudan, many One report describes the mass rape of women and barriers limit girls’ and women’s access and ability girls occurring in certain areas with up to 20 per- to acquire quality education and are thus imperative petrators at a time (Medecins San Frontieres, 2021, to address. July 16). This leads to an increase in physical trau- ma, mental illness, and sexually transmitted illness, Enrollment rates in South Sudan are low and suf- including Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) fer from substantial gender disparities. Approx- (UNICEF, 2021). imately 2.8 million children (60 percent of school- age children) were out of school as of 2021 (UNICEF, Child and forced marriages, often resulting in GBV, 2020a). Girls and young women are much less like- are also prevalent in the country, and have been ly than young men to be enrolled in school and are exacerbated by the economic strain caused by also more likely to be absent from school and drop COVID-19. Up to a quarter of females in one study out of education than boys (World Bank, 2014). As reported that they had no choice in the decision to a result, they get approximately 30 percent fewer get married while over half of women aged 20–24 years of schooling than boys (USAID, 2018). Spe- reported being married or in a union before age 18 cifically, the net enrollment rate (NER) for primary (UNICEF, 2021). Wife inheritance, also a contributor education is 36 percent for boys and 28 percent for to both physical and psychological abuse, has re- girls, with only 18 percent of girls and 33 percent of sulted in over 60 percent of widowed women being boys completing their primary education (De Silva remarried to one of their former husband’s relatives et al., 2020). Therefore, nearly three-quarters of pri- (UNICEF, 2021). Further, the COVID-19 pandemic has mary-school-age girls in South Sudan do not receive led to economic deterioration. This has contributed a primary level education, inhibiting their ability to to increases in GBV, forced and child marriage, and acquire basic numeracy and literacy skills,13 with the adolescent pregnancies(UNICEF, 2021). Nationally, gap widening in secondary education. Indeed, South almost 1 in 3 adolescent girls have begun childbear- Sudan’s secondary NERs are the lowest in Africa, at ing, which has negative impacts on physical and 6 percent for boys and 4 percent for girls (De Silva mental health, like obstetric fistula and the stig- et al., 2020). ma associated with it (UNICEF, 2021). In fact, the leading cause of mortality in girls aged 15–19 year Girls’ education has also been negatively impacted is from complications related to early childbearing by the lack of capacity, coordination, and account- (UNICEF, 2021). These factors further emphasize the ability mechanisms at different government lev- need to enhance services for women and girls in the els. These have exacerbated the educational supply country. challenges for girls’ education. Despite the drafting of the Girls’ Education Strategy 2015–2017 by the MOGEI in collaboration with key stakeholders, which provides a framework for removing the barriers pre- venting girls from obtaining an education, there has been little evidence of their implementation to date. 13. Most South Sudanese adults are illiterate (over 70 percent and 84 percent are women), and 42 percent of civil servants have no more than a primary education. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 24 Box 1. Gender transformative teaching to improve literacy skills Oxfam (2019), with funding from DANIDA, produced a storybook showcasing powerful stories of South Sudanese women leaders, titled The Girl Who Fought for Freedom and Other Stories of Courage, by South Sudanese poet and writer Bigoa Chuol. The storybook is about the story of Poni Hellen, a girl who escaped a forced marriage, fought to complete her education, and is now studying to be a lawyer. It also highlights the story of Juan Cicily Wurube, a teacher who teaches girls to dream. The storybook is being distributed in schools and is being used as material to improve reading skills through gender transformative teachings. Furthermore, when girls do attend school, educa- Sudan, 70 percent of teachers are untrained, and tion quality is also low. A child who starts school most teach at the preprimary and primary levels at age 4 in South Sudan can expect to complete (MOGEI, UNESCO, UIS, GPE, and UNICEF, 2018). Low 4.7 years of school by age 18, but when factoring in and irregular teacher salaries result in high teacher what children learn, the adjusted years of school- turnover and abandonment of the profession. The ing is only 2.5 years (World Bank, 2020a), making system thus turns to untrained volunteer teachers, South Sudan the lowest-ranking country in the who are often secondary school dropouts. Teacher world for quality of education, which impacts girls’ absenteeism rates are high for both teachers and future outcomes (De Silva et al., 2020). Decades of volunteers and are among the highest in the region civil conflict,14 poor school infrastructure, untrained (De Silva et al., 2020). Regarding female represen- teachers, and management challenges complicate tation across the teaching workforce, among the girls’ educational attainment (De Silva et al., 2020). estimated 53,500 teachers16 across all education Likely tied to insufficient funding, only 11 percent levels in 2018, only 13 percent were female (Uni- of the government budget was allocated to educa- versalia, Results for Development and ITAD, 2019), tion in FY2020/21, and the execution rate is also with a range of 8 percent in Jonglei to 25 percent low (Universalia, Results for Development and ITAD, in Central Equatorial (MOGEI, Save the Children, 2019). Inadequate public investments are reflect- South Sudan Education Cluster, and UNICEF, 2018). ed in schools’ poor infrastructure, including but not Female teacher representation is only larger (55 per- limited to a lack of classrooms, equipment, teaching cent) in ECE in urban areas (Malik, 2019), pointing and learning materials (TLM),15 and services, includ- to a negative cycle whereby cultural norms discour- ing water and sanitation facilities which are signif- age girls from getting an education, girls do not go icant for girls’ education. Primary and secondary on to become teachers, and thus there exists a lack schools are insufficient in number and are located of female role models which further represses girls’ at a long distance from children. The latter factor education. This is particularly important given that acts as a particular barrier to education for girls be- female teachers promote girl-friendly school envi- cause many are exposed to sexual abuse on the way ronments and act as positive role models and advo- to schools. cates for girls in schools. Moreover, South Sudan has insufficient teachers, particularly female teachers, resulting in large pu- pil-to-teacher ratios (PTRs) and in the system’s de- pendency on untrained volunteer teachers. In South 14. Almost 31 percent of schools have suffered attacks since 2013, with a quarter became nonfunctional by 2016 (De Silva et al.,2020). 15. As a result, the pupil-to-classroom ratio is high, and textbook availability depends on donor funding. 16. This figure was estimated to be 63,490 by a MOGEI official, including 1,490 teachers in ECE, 57,000 in primary education, and 5,000 in second- ary education. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 25 ence required in the labor market that remain unmet 4.4. Employ and Enable for most women. Indeed, South Sudanese youth are significantly less educated than older generations, suggesting that the challenge will continue to exac- erbate as population growth translates into more youth entering the labor market (Finn et al., 2020). In the 4E Framework to empower girls and wom- Though access to education has increased for girls in en, to “employ and enable” women and building South Sudan in recent years, only 37 percent of stu- systems is to offer them protection and support. dents are girls and the gap between girls and boys Crucially, in South Sudan, this requires a focus on widens further after primary school. As such, many financial inclusion and structural interventions to South Sudanese women are illiterate or function- increase opportunities for women to access high- ally illiterate. It is therefore more difficult for wom- er-paying jobs which traditionally are less available en to develop the skills necessary to successfully to them. Given the unique characteristics of South participate in the economy. Limited employment Sudan’s economy, where most employment is either prospects for women may also impact households’ self-employment or in agriculture, there needs to willingness to invest in their education, thus creat- be a focus on increasing productivity and income in ing a cycle of poverty and vulnerability for women. the informal economy in order to improve welfare. However, it is important to note that skills develop- To “enable” these women to care for and invest in ment will likely be crucial to improving employment themselves and their households, social protection opportunities in the medium term. Given the current interventions have been implemented and utilized economic context in the country, it is not a priority in South Sudan, as will be discussed, empowering in the short term. This is primarily because the econ- women to invest in human capital development and omy’s absorptive capacity is extremely low and as build resilience in their households and communities. such improvements in the short term must focus on However, social protection coverage remains low high-potential sectors. and most interventions are humanitarian in nature. Disproportionate access to financial services and Access to social protection and employment for access to opportunities also affect women and young women in South Sudan has been affected girls. Women in South Sudan have significantly by their vulnerability to conflict, poverty, and con- lower access to financial services and digital tech- stant exposure to shocks. Young women and girls, nology than their male counterparts with only 5 particularly those living in female-headed house- percent owning a bank account compared to 13 holds, are highly vulnerable and as such are in dire percent among men (World Bank, 2019). GBV is need of social protection and job interventions. In also a key constraint to women which affects their South Sudan, where there are few productive jobs mobility and access to productive, high-income op- and sources of livelihoods, women overwhelmingly portunities. An Africa-wide study suggests that work in activities characterized by low wages/in- women consistently report preferring to work in come and low productivity, particularly in the infor- female-dominated industries or in what would be mal economy (Finn et al., 2020). In addition, women classified as vulnerable jobs, to prevent sexual ha- in South Sudan are also more likely than men to be rassment and abuse in the workplace (Filmer and own-account workers, further increasing their likeli- Fox, 2014). Access to legal land ownership and un- hood of lower productivity (Finn et al., 2020). equal inheritance laws also affect women, many of whom are own-account workers that face increased Young women face a number of constraints to uncertainty and insecurity (De Silva et al., 2020). employment opportunities, decent working con- This is particularly important given that the bulk of ditions and productivity. Gender dynamics play a livelihoods in South Sudan is agricultural in nature. crucial role in the lives of young women, often de- Women in South Sudan also disproportionately take termining their access to employment and skills de- on caretaker responsibilities, which limits their ac- velopment. South Sudanese women and girls have cess to opportunities in the labor market. An Afri- significantly lower access to education than their ca-wide study on time use suggests that women do male counterparts, and those that do attend school not have additional hours available to dedicate to tend to have lower performance (Oxfam and EU, employment, causing women to increasingly require 2017). This translates into a gap in skills and experi- flexible working arrangements which are associated Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 26 with lower productivity and wages (Filmer and Fox, providing access to land and links to agriculture and 2014). The impact of COVID-19 has thus dispropor- other promising sectors, and strengthening financial tionately affected young women who have taken inclusion, among others. Existing social protection on additional caretaking responsibilities and have programs in South Sudan, though limited in reach, often borne the brunt of negative coping strategies are likely already making some contributions to hu- such as dropping out of school or being forced into man capital development by increasing household early marriage. access to health and education services as well as raising awareness of key issues like gender dynam- Social protection and jobs interventions are well ics, child nutrition and hygiene (World Bank, 2021b). equipped to address the constraints women face, Globally, cash transfers alone have been shown to particularly through social assistance and pro- reduce early marriage, empower young women to ductive inclusion/labor market interventions. So- avoid risky sexual behaviors, and reduce GBV (Over- cial assistance interventions are aimed at support- seas Development Institute [ODI], 2016). Further, ing the poor and vulnerable, and mitigate negative social protection interventions increase demand coping mechanisms to shocks that disproportion- for investments in human capital, namely health ately affect young women. Productive inclusion/ and education. Cash transfers have been shown to labor market interventions address constraints to increase school attendance and health outcomes, access to employment opportunities and productiv- while “cash plus” interventions, which have a human ity by supporting self-employment and the develop- development focus, have even higher impacts on ment of more and diversified sources of livelihoods, health, education and nutrition. Box 2. Safety Nets in South Sudan The South Sudan Safety Net Project (SSSNP) and its predecessor Safety Net and Skills Development Project (SNSDP) have shown positive results of safety nets in South Sudan. These projects provid- ed temporary income opportunities to poor and vulnerable households through Labor-Intensive Public Works (LIPW) and Direct Income Support (DIS) for labor-constrained households. The majority of pri- mary beneficiaries for both programs were women. Both projects were shown to be associated with an increase in household consumption and welfare. SNSDP showed that group-based activities such as LIPW lead to increased social cohesion which is particularly important given South Sudan’s FCV context. SSSNP included “cash plus”-activities, mainly training on Financial Literacy; water, sanitation, and health (WASH); and early childhood development and nutrition. Preliminary findings from SSSNP suggest that “cash-plus”-activities are associated with an increase in positive behaviors such as sav- ing, exclusive breastfeeding and safe water hygiene practices. Further, through awareness raising ac- tivities on gender, an improvement in women’s empowerment has also been observed. For instance, some households reported transitioning to joint management of resources. Even in cases where the pri- mary beneficiaries were male, they reported giving project money to their female spouses to manage. By strengthening community networks and building capacity on financial literacy and human devel- opment, women have also become more economically and socially empowered. Indeed, many reported using their project transfers to invest in livelihoods activities.17 17. See the SSSNP PAD & Mid-Term Review (MTR) Aide Memoire. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 27 The social protection system in South Sudan re- mains overwhelmingly humanitarian, with hu- 4.5. Target Population manitarian actors providing temporary sup- port and responding to shocks such as drought, floods, or insecurity. As such, most interventions constitute noncontributory social assistance such Against this background, this study focuses on the as cash transfers and food distribution. There are empowerment of girls and women in South Sudan. small-scale economic inclusion programs targeting As previously explained, girls start facing health, primarily female youth that encourage the diver- education, social protection, and job barriers that sification of income sources and development of worsen during adolescence and puberty while tran- livelihood activities. Evidence of these interventions sitioning from primary to secondary education. At in South Sudan remains limited though the gener- this time, many girls drop out of school, are forced ation of knowledge pieces and lessons learned has into early marriages, pregnancies and child labor, increased in recent years. Overall, the government and carry family responsibilities when they should of the Republic of South Sudan lacks the capacity be developing their individual and personal interests. and resources to coordinate social protection in the This is particularly worrisome in rural and pastoral- country. The Ministry of Gender, Child and Social ist communities with less access to essential public Welfare (MGCSW), which holds the social protection services and customary laws that impose tradition- mandate, faced serious capacity constraints and al roles on women. For these reasons, empowerment its Social Protection Unit has been understaffed for of girls and women empowerment should focus on years. Therefore, there is limited government own- interventions that start early and before the gen- ership in the social protection sector which raises der gap increases. While this study recognizes the concerns around sustainability. Indeed, most inter- importance of empowering girls younger than age ventions are focused on reacting to shocks, rather 13, given that girls face additional challenges once than developing a shock-responsive system that they enter adolescence, it provides a specific focus could help vulnerable households build resilience to on girls 13 and older. At this developmental age, girls such crises over time. There are also no compre- start developing their voice and agency, thinking hy- hensive delivery systems in the sector. With inter- pothetically and self-reflectively, which allows them ventions being siloed and with limited coordination, to generate ideas about the future, and understand payments, monitoring and evaluation, and griev- society, justice and rights, and have judgment. In- ance systems operate independently of each other. terventions in girls of 13 years old and young women To support capacity-building, the World Bank, in have thus a high potential of success with intergen- cooperation with key development partners includ- erational and longer-term impacts. ing the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), is supporting the development of a ministry-wide The target population in this study’s FGDs include Management Information System (MIS). The World adolescent girls (of age 13 and older) and young Bank is developing a capacity-building action plan women, while the scope of the desk review included to handover the MIS to the Ministry of Gender over girls of all ages. While this report covers girls of all time. In addition, the World Bank has funded three ages, the interviews and discussions focus on girls consecutive safety net programs18 and is preparing aged 13 and older, given that, as mentioned above, a third social protection program in the country, in their developmental stage suggests a heightened addition to analytical work in the sector. While these ability to engage in interactions with researchers. constitute important government contributions to Particular attention will be given to marginalized social protection in the country and their coverage is girls and women with the lowest access to quality increasing overtime, they still only represent a small education, health, and social protection systems, portion of social protection interventions in South those who have or are at risk of dropping out of Sudan. school, and those from remote, rural, pastoralist or IDP areas, who face the most significant challenges. 18. These programs are SNSDP, SSSNP and ELRP. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 28 5. Findings: Girls’ and Women’s Empowerment in South Sudan   Female representation in the workplace is very 5.1. Empower low, around 20 percent, and this can be self-per- petuating in that the workplace is not seen as a woman’s place as so few women are employed, so women feel encouraged to focus on marriage, keeping the gender disparity high. Diminished Status of Women in a Patriarchal Society In general, women and girls in South Sudan seem to accept the patriarchal culture. The power dynam- South Sudan is a patriarchal society that has ics appear at an early stage where the first born is traditionally relegated women to the private and expected to be a boy and the birth to only girls could family sphere, with little participation in public lead to abandoning the wife and marrying a new life. South Sudanese’s patriarchal society is char- wife who could give birth to boys. The upbringing of acterized by pronounced gender inequalities with girls prepares them for marriage. Women and girls embedded beliefs regarding gender roles that con- are aware of this unfairness. However, they think of fer females of all ages to a lower status and place themselves as helpless partly due to their feeling of women mainly in private spaces (Ensor, 2019). The economic insecurity because of their economic de- social pattern gives males the role of heads of the pendency on their husbands and limited ownership family and females the role to cement family ties and control over assets, such as land.19 through childbearing. This view considers women mainly in relation to their families, as daughters, The nonacceptance of girls and women intro the and then wives, and in this private space, girls and patriarchal structure of the country can in part women lack decision-making power in their house- be attributed to the lack of role models to inspire holds. They tend to make certain decisions only in them and provide them with confidence. Female the absence of their husbands, such as the decision role models are necessary to help women and girls to send their daughters to school when men were think what they can achieve, and gain confidence to fighting during the conflict (Oxfam and EU, 2017). meet their aspirations. Studies have shown that the Women have a limited participation in political life, lack of representation of powerful female role mod- public decision-making, and leadership overall; and els in media and stories is associated with girls less those who take such public roles are not taken se- likely to feel brave, confident and heard, compared riously, or face backlash (Pelham, 2020). Such so- to their male counterparts (Oxfam, 2019). One area cietal views surrounding gender roles are learned at to highlight is the lack of female teachers to en- a young age. At the same time, women’s and girls’ courage girls and their families to continue their ed- involvement in wartime, as combatants, army sup- ucation, instead of dropping out early from school port personnel, or heads of household in the absence and getting married. In fact, they lack role models of men, calls upon rethinking such traditional gender in all professions and activities, as reflected by the roles (Ensor, 2019). For instance, according to infor- low numbers of female applications for any giv- mation gathered from KIIs with government, devel- en position (Calderbank, 2013, September 25). The opment/humanitarian agencies, and NGOs: girls’ FGDs revealed the absence of role models as a 19. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 29 Box 3. Springboard Women’s Development, empowering women in South Sudan and many other countries Springboard Women’s Development is a self-development program that provides personal and work development opportunities for women, challenging public perceptions of their role and contribution to society. Women assess themselves, set goals and develop practical interpersonal skills and self-confi- dence, necessary to achieve success in their lives. The program is delivered through an extensive net- work of licensed trainers and has been used by over 230,000 women in 43 countries, such as Nigeria, Australia, Saudi Arabia, and the United Kingdom. In South Sudan, the program was piloted with 15 women in the police and security sector in South Sudan, and then deployed in the form of a three-day workshop for 30–40 local women from a range of public organizations and NGOs. The program encouraged young women to play a role in building the country, whether in civil society, the government, unions or business, as well as to help women think about what they can achieve, what things they value and what things they want to change. Women were given profiles of other South Sudanese women as role models to show them that they can take control of their lives and relationships with their partners, families, communities, and workplaces. This program was endorsed by the Ministry of Gender, Child, and Social Welfare (MOGCSW). A recent impact study shows that Springboard has the potential to enhance the quality of education to promote women’s access to opportunities and resources, as well as challenging social and cultural norms around the role of women in societies by leading to debates within families and workspaces. Source: Calderbank (2013, September 25); and British Council (n.d.). common barrier to girls’ empowerment in urban, with the countries with the greatest WPS Index rural, and IDP areas. The girls indicated that they disparities between host country and displaced have few female teachers who can advise and assist women as also being the countries with the largest them in school. poverty gaps between these two groups of women, such as in South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Sudan (GIWPs Internally displaced and refugee women have a and PRIO, 2021). The punishment of wives and sis- worst status than other women in the country, ters is culturally acceptable and seen as a form of particularly regarding the risks of violence, which discipline, not necessarily for misbehaving, and while poverty compounds. While the WPS Index ranks women and girls oppose it, they often feel helpless in South Sudan as the third worst country for the preventing GBV. Among the forms of domestic vio- overall status of women (GIWPs and PRIO, 2021), lence toward girls that appeared in the FGDs were results also show that displaced women score about beatings, forced drownings, and food deprivation.20 42 percent worse than host country women, partic- ularly regarding the different risks of violence. For One of the women in the FGDs said: instance, 27 percent of host women experienced in- timate partner violence in the last 12 months, while   It is not acceptable at all, but we cannot prevent displaced women were almost double (47 percent), it. It is mostly done during disagreements over a rate higher than any country in the world, and daughters’ marriage, delaying in the market, or four times higher than the global average (12 per- failing to care for children. cent) (GIWP and PRIO, 2021). A study provides ev- idence that poor shelters increase women’s risk of GBV (Oxfam and EU, 2017). The index also shows the compound effect of displacement and poverty, 19. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 30 Customary Laws and Harmful Gender boyfriend, she can be beaten to death (Sommers Norms, including Child Marriage and Schwartz, 2011, as cited in Ensor, 2019). Gov- ernment officials explained that attempting elope- South Sudan operates a dual legal system, where a ment without paying bride wealth is a serious of- formal legal system comprised by statutory laws fence, often punishable by a long prison sentence, operates side by side with a customary legal sys- brutal beating, or even death (Ensor, 2019). As seen tem that helped to maintain social order during the in these examples, customary laws perpetuate pa- war. Customary laws21 have survived through oral triarchal regimes, subordinating women to a lower tradition for centuries, and are used among 50 to status in society (UNDP, 2012), and like children, 62 ethnic groups (UNDP, 2012). They are estimated are seen as the property of men. Mothers, fathers, to be the major source of justice, handling up to 90 and the religious/ traditional leaders in the FGDs percent of all disputes in the country (Chivusia and acknowledged the contradiction between most cus- Gordon, 2006, as cited in Akechak Jok, Leitch, and tomary laws and laws pertaining to women’s rights. Vandewint, 2004). Customary law courts have wide The women highlighted those customary laws deny powers to deal with both criminal and civil cases, their rights. Whereas the fathers, particularly in IDP ranging from marriage, divorce, custody of children, areas, perceived promoting human rights as a cause land tenure and transaction, inheritance, theft, and for women’s disobedience during FGDs23: incest. During the civil war, customary laws were the principal source of social order and stability in the   We fathers are forced by the government and country, and were deemed to have a restorative and NGOs not to beat our wives and children. This peacemaking function, as these laws encouraged made girls and women against us, and they no consensus-building to maintain amicable relations longer listen to us as it was before. These human between community members (UNDP, 2012). The rights issues became too much for us and even 2011 transitional constitution of South Sudan rec- became human wrong, simply because our cul- ognized customary laws as a source of legislation. tures are diminishing because of human rights policies. Customary laws, however, do not align with human rights, particularly regarding those of women and The rural fathers called for the government and children. South Sudan ratified in 2013 the African NGOs to align the customary laws with the statuto- Banjul Charter of Human and People’s Rights that ry laws related to women’s rights while considering establishes the groundwork for the promotion and their customs24: protection of human rights in Africa.22 This makes various aspects of customary laws to be in contra-   The problem is that our customary laws are con- diction with human rights, especially in the area of tradicted by statutory laws. We need the gov- family law, regarding the treatment of women and ernment and NGOs to respect our customs, and children. For instance, a customary law court ruled we will respect their laws if these two laws are that according to Dinka customary laws, wife beat- harmonized. ing is allowed, and in many communities in Eastern Equatoria, girls are often used as “blood compensa- The religious/ traditional leaders echoed this opin- tion”, or currency of compensation in murder cases ion. For example, during the FGD, one of the chiefs (UNDP, 2012). The Wanhalel Laws allow children re- said: sulting from a rape to be redeemed as payment and belong to the biological father. These laws also ob-   [We] need to harmonize customary and statutory jectify women by making a wife, or wives, along with laws to give uniformity because they contradict children and property, the subjects of succession, themselves… [T]he customary laws especially and who “can be taken over by the male members Wanhalel is totally against girls and women, of the family, as they think fit” (Fadlalla, 2009). In [whereas] the statutory or constitution give ev- other cases, if a girl is found with a boyfriend, her eryone rights. family can kill her, and if she is impregnated by a 21. Customary law is an embodiment of rules originating from the customs and traditions of a given group of people who have willingly accepted those rules to guide their conduct (UNDP, 2012). 22. See details here: https://www.achpr.org/legalinstruments/detail?id=49. 23., 24. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 31 Customary laws rule the traditions around cus- The resulting child marriage is a flagrant violation tomary marriage and bride wealth, which is fueled of human rights and a life-threatening practice, by poverty, and relegate women to the status of deeply rooted in gender inequality. Forty percent property. Marriage under the customary law sys- of girls in the country marry before age 18 (UNFPA, tem involves the payment of bride wealth, which is 2018), between ages 15–18 (MOGEI, 2015). Based an amount, traditionally cattle, paid by the groom on data from the 2020 National Household Health and his relatives to the family of the bride. Marriage Survey, child marriage is the most commonly cit- is regarded primarily as a collective transaction; it ed form of GBV at the national level (LATH, 2020). is primarily an alliance between two kinship groups, Many customary law systems admit child marriage and only secondarily, a union between two individu- is deeply rooted in gender inequality. For instance, als (Pillips, 1953, as cited in Akechak Jok, Leitch, and the Wanhalel Laws state that a girl can marriage Vandewint, 2004). The existence of bride wealth has at the beginning of maturity, marked by menarche resulted in social and traditional customs treating (her occurrence of menstruation), which on average girls and women as a commodity. This is particular- begins at age 12 (Fadlalla, 2009). Nevertheless, this ly pronounced in poor families, where girls are mar- practice has a significant negative impact on the ried early, so the bride wealth can be collected by human rights of girls and women, including their the bride’s family (UNICEF, 2020, October 5). Pov- rights to health and education, physical integrity erty was cited in a study by girls and their family and the right to marry when they are able and will- members as a driving factor to marry girls young; ing to give their free consent (HRW, 2013, as cited in for poor families with few resources to afford food Ensor, 2019). Child marriage is a flagrant violation and basic necessities, marrying off their daughter of human rights; it denies girls the right to choose early represents an economic coping strategy (Ox- when to marry and to whom. More worrisome, are fam and EU, 2017). In some cases of poor families, the life-threatening aspects of early marriage which it is expected that the investment made in girls’ is associated with low education outcomes. Girls education is repaid as part of the bride wealth, or who are married early often drop out of school and girls are not simply offered the opportunity to go to become pregnant as adolescents, which increases school, like their male siblings. A girl in the FGDs in pregnancy and childbirth complications that can an IDPs community said: end with their lives. They are also exposed to sexual- ly transmitted diseases, including HIV, especially in   My friend’s father wanted her to get married, and polygamous marriages (UNFPA, 2018). In addition, the man to marry was suggested by him. As a children born by girls and adolescents are more like- friend, I told her: if your father is forcing her to ly to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, marry, run away to an aunty or uncle and stay which predisposes them to lifelong health conditions there so that you can continue your studies. She (UNICEF, 2020, October 5). is waiting for her results to join senior one. This was just because the man is rich, and he wanted Nascent Participation of Women in Po- to give out his daughter to become wealthy. litical Life and Peace Agreements The religious/ traditional leaders argued that they Women’s political participation in South Sudan is invest in protecting women and girls and ensure that limited, despite the benefits of their participation they are not harmed. However, the community is not on state and peacebuilding. Women’s political par- cooperating.25 One of the religious leaders said: ticipation in post-conflict states is associated with a decreased risk of conflict relapse, civil war, and hu-   [Spiritual leaders] tried to protect girls and wom- man rights abuses. In addition, women’s participa- en but the community dictates us because they tion in legislatures is often associated with common say: our girls are our resources, and no one should ground identification among diverse political views, dictate us on them. and more policies supporting education, health, 25. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 32 gender equality, and domestic violence, rape and lobbied to address the needs of IDP and returnees sexual harassment penalties (Council on Foreign Re- (Pelham, 2020). lations [CFR], 2020). Despite these benefits, wom- en in South Sudan have trouble ascending to power. Human Rights and Policies Supporting South Sudan scored 29 out of 100 in the political Change in Favor of Women parity score of the Woman’s Power Index, calculated by the CFR, reflecting an aggregate measure of the At the same time, South Sudan leaders have com- representation of women in a country’s government. mitted to end the discrimination against women More specifically, in South Sudan, women’s repre- and child marriage, putting pressure on address- sentation in Parliament accounted for only 27 per- ing harmful customary laws. The country ratified cent in 2018, and 33 percent in the executive cabi- the CEDAW27 in 2015, an international bill of rights net positions, among other factors considered. This for women, which means a commitment toward absence in political participation by women should incorporating the principle of equality of men and not be neglected, given the overall societal expec- women in their legal system, abolish all discrimina- tations that place women in the private sphere of tory laws, and adopt appropriate ones, to prohibit family. discrimination against women. In 2015, it also rati- fied the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Women’s participation in the Revitalised Agree- the Child,28 an international legal framework to pro- ment on the Resolution of the Conflict in the tect children who are human beings and individuals Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS) was a key with their own rights and not objects belonging to success to showing the value of women in peace- their parents. In addition, in 2018, government lead- building. Greater gender equality in political life has ers at central and state level, including the current been achieved through women’s participation in the President Salva Kiir Mayardit, along with tradition- R-ACRSS negotiations, an agreement signed in Sep- al and religious leaders, development partners and tember 2018, as the culmination of peace talks after NGOs, have pledged to eliminate child marriage. This the 2016 resurgence of the civil war. In the R-ARCSS, pledge is being supported by UNICEF, so the coun- women secured a provision of at least 35 percent try can implement a Strategic National Action Plan representation of women in the Executive and tran- (NAP) (2017–2030) to end child marriage in South sitional justice institutions,26 as well as at least 1 out Sudan (UNFPA, 2018). of 5 female vice presidents (Pelham, 2020). With the previous experience of the ARCSS signed in August, South Sudanese leaders have also designed pol- 2015, women organizations were better prepared, icies oriented toward protecting and supporting increasing the number of women participating in women, and have ratified conventions protecting the R-ARCSS from 12 percent in 2015 to 39 percent IDPs. In 2013 they launched the National Gender in 2017. In total, 7 of the 17 (41 percent) stakeholder Policy, addressing gender equality in policies and group signatories were women representing civil so- programs of government, private sector, and civil ciety, youth, and other women’s organizations (Pel- society, based on CEDAW framework (JICA, 2017). ham, 2020). In particular, women introduced strat- In 2015, government created the WPS NAP, as a egies to encourage dialogue and continuing peace roadmap to protect women from GBV, increase their talks; sustained pressure to push for cessation of participation in the post-conflict peace-building and hostilities and the signing of the peace agreements; state-building, and maintain peace and security and lobbied for a gender-sensitive process, such as (Pelham, 2020). In 2019, the country has also rati- appointing a Senior Gender Advisor in the Joint Mon- fied the African Union Convention for the Protection itoring and Evaluation Commission (JMEC) to ensure and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in gender-sensitive monitoring of the agreement, and Africa (Kampala Agreement),29 a regional commit- establishing a hybrid court to investigate and pros- ment to protect IDP rights, but it has yet to pub- ecute serious war crimes, including GBV. They also lish a related national action plan (GIWPs and PRIO, 26. Although the 35 percent quota has not yet been met in the transitional mechanisms, it is a significant move toward women’s representation in decision-making spaces, provides a benchmark for political party nominations, and is a reference in the lobby efforts for women’s groups (Pelham, 2020). 27. See details: https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/daw/cedaw.htm. 28. See details: https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention. 29. See details: https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-protection-and-assistance-internally-displaced-persons-africa. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 33 2021). However, the influence of these policies ap- role in the family life, village community, and in the pears diminished due to limited implementation and society more broadly. The results indicated that lack of enforcement mechanisms.30 women increased their participation in village gov- ernance and decision-making, community life, and The human rights movement can be helpful to add economic activities. However, the program produced pressure to government, but a real change must no change in entrenched female roles linked to in- come from bottom to top. It seems that there is tra-family decision-making, or attitudes toward the consensus by leaders around the need to change general role of women in society. The authors also customary laws that discriminate against women found that the effect of the program was stronger and children. The signing of human rights conven- with more educated and younger men and women. tions puts pressure on government to abolish cus- This suggests that the program was driven not only tomary laws that deny women’s and children’s hu- by resources, but other elements which need to be man rights, but this may be insufficient, as gender considered, such as household restrictions that may inequality is embedded in culture and traditions. A constrain the effect of a development intervention, real change must come from within South Sudanese and deep social changes that require longer than a society and at a pace acceptable to people with- two-year exposure time. out destabilizing society (Akechak Jok, Leitch, and Vandewint, 2004) and removing the order that such On the contrary, some FGDs participants believe laws brought during war times. that the legal system and women’s protection or- ganizations fall short of safeguarding GBV survi- Similarly, international aid supporting women em- vors. This is due to the limited enforcement of the powerment programs can be useful, but a societal existing policies and the little support provided by change requires long-term interventions. Interna- the government to women’s protection organiza- tional aid interventions may be helpful to change the tions, particularly in rape cases where the perpetra- decision frameworks and governing rules by infusing tor is a politician, military officer, soldier, or wealthy resources, but changing the attitudes toward the individual. As a result, survivors could be intimidat- general role of women in society require long-term ed by the perpetrator, and the perpetrator could go interventions. This was concluded in an experiment unpunished. Therefore, survivors mistrust the sys- in Afghanistan, one of the most dangerous countries tem, which discourages reporting GBV cases, as in the world for women, where Beath, Christia, and evidenced from one of the statements taken from Enikolopov (2013) conducted a randomized field ex- FGDs: periment across 500 Afghan villages to examine the effects of a development program that mandated   If a rape survivor takes action against a perpe- gender balance in a village council, to see if women’s trator and it happens that the perpetrator is re- participation would lead to improve women’s status, lated to a chief, the chief can justify the criminal as well as economic, social, and political outcomes. and let him go unpunished. However, if you take They surveyed 13,000 male and female respondents action against the chief/judge, people become from these villages after two years, investigating very annoyed and think you are working against the outcomes and attitudes pertaining to women’s their whole clan and tribe. 30. Based on the girls’ positive deviant FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 34 immunization rates for children are still extremely 5.2. Enhance low, with only 42 percent of children receiving their DPT3 vaccination (World Bank, 2020). The inability to provide these services is debilitating to the coun- try’s maternal health outcomes since only 4 percent of women use modern contraception (as of 2019) Weak Health Service Provision is a and most adolescent girls in South Sudan have a Barrier for Meeting Reproductive and high unmet need for contraceptives and cannot de- Maternal Health Needs lay their first pregnancy into adulthood due to child marriages and sexual abuse and exploitation. Weak provision of health services is one of the many barriers facing women and girls in South The lack of skilled health care workers also serves Sudan. Delivery of health care in South Sudan has as one of the primary barriers to providing health been highly impacted by lack of resources, poor services to women and girls. It is estimated that infrastructure, insufficient health workforce, and there are only 7.6 core health workers per every continuous disruptions caused by ongoing conflict 10,000 people in South Sudan. This translates to and natural disasters. Global evidence shows that just one doctor for every 65,000 people and one enhanced access to facility-based services from midwife for every 50,000 people, and very few of skilled birth attendants during pregnancy, delivery these health workers are female. Though these num- and post-delivery, can significantly improve mater- bers affect populations across the country, they are nal health outcomes (Ayele et al., 2019). of special impact to women and girls because of Box 4. World Bank provision for essential health services project in South Sudan In response to the service delivery challenges in South Sudan, in 2019, the World Bank developed a project that focused on increasing access to an essential package of health services in the country. With a strong focus on rural areas, the project focuses on vulnerable populations including women, chil- dren, and those affected by conflict and violence. The World Bank partnered with UNICEF and ICRC, as implementation partners, to ensure that services reached low-access areas where they are otherwise not provided. The services provided include antenatal care, postnatal care, skilled birth attendants, neonatal care, family planning, and psychosocial support for GBV survivors, among other services. Not only are these services available at health facilities and hospitals, but through community outreach and mobile health services to ensure access for populations in more remote areas. Thus far, the ongoing project has proven successful as all indicators have either been met or are on track to be met. Source: World Bank (2021). Weak service provision is often the result of sub- the lack of female health workers. Further, the standard services, frequently stemming from a majority of the health workers are not specialty lack of resources. This makes reaching women, trained in fields like gynecology and obstetrics. There adolescent girls, and their children, with quality re- is just one obstetrician/gynecologist per 200,000 productive, maternal, neonatal, and child health people and virtually no pediatricians in the country services, a major challenge in South Sudan. Once (World Bank, 2019). The problem is even worse in women and girls become pregnant, high-quality rural areas where there are almost no skilled health maternal care and health facilities are often not workers for the nearly 80 percent of the population accessible for safe delivery, with only 11 percent in South Sudan who reside there. One community of pregnant women receiving four antenatal care health worker said the following during an interview: visits and 19 percent delivering in a health facility (Sami et al., 2020). When children are born, mothers   Many women are dying during pregnancy and at are unable to access health and nutrition services delivery, we need help. that help children survive to age 5. For example, Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 35 There are a variety of factors that influence health Weak service provision also results from accessi- worker shortages in the country. First, the safety bility challenges due to the country’s naturally dif- of health workers is of significant concern. Over ficult terrain and long rainy season. It is estimated the past few years, there have been widespread re- that only 25 percent of the population live within a ports of health facility attacks and looting. These one-hour walk of a health facility (Macharia et al., indiscriminate attacks have often resulted in health 2017). This was further emphasized by health work- worker deaths and a pause in health operations ers in the FDGs, particularly in rural areas, who in- (World Bank, 2022). Moreover, there are just 24 dicated that long distances to health care facilities health institutions where workers can be trained. served as a barrier for women seeking health ser- Not only is this number insufficient for the country’s vices. One survey showed that over 60 percent of needs, but the institutions often lack proper over- mothers did not take their children for vaccination sight and require updated curricula (World Bank, because of long distances to reach health facilities 2021c). Additionally, due to low levels of education (UNICEF, 2018). During the rainy season, it is diffi- in the country, many are ineligible to begin a health cult to travel, as roads often become impassable. training curriculum. Further, once trained, because This challenge can become particularly burdensome health expenditure was just 2 percent as of 2015, for women in cases where a pregnant mother may health worker salaries are low, and often inconsis- need to reach a facility, a woman needs to travel tent, providing little incentive for workers to remain to receive treatment for an infant, or a survivor of in rural areas that are difficult to reach and often abuse does not have the physical strength to make affected by conflict. As evidence, some of the health it to a facility. These long rainy seasons may also care workers in the FGDs said: contribute to pharmaceutical and supply shortages. Again, while these shortages affect the entire pop-   We are not satisfied with our remuneration and ulation. They may specifically impact women as in- incentives. We are working here just to help our consistencies in access to family planning methods people, not for what we get. may cause an increase in unplanned pregnancies. The prepositioning of supplies has been suggested   I am ready to do my work in this small clinic, but within the health service delivery context by hu- what about my family’s sustainability? I may be manitarian agencies on the ground (World Bank, forced to get another work. 2021c). This is often difficult and must be planned in advance due to the short time period to move sup-   If you need service to be improved, then the gov- plies during the dry season. ernment should first increase our salary and provide insurance services, transportation and Supply-side issues are one of the main obstacles feeding allowances, and social benefits. to enhancing access, specifically to family plan- ning services. This is especially problematic in ru- ral areas, where stock-outs of contraceptives are frequent. Even when contraceptives are available, qualified staff may not be present to provide ade- quate counseling or to administer some long-term contraceptive methods. These issues are due to the low density of midwives and other personnel skilled in reproductive health, including community-based health workers. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 36 Box 5. Prepositioning of sexual and reproductive health supplies In 2015, UNFPA began a prepositioning initiative in the Asia-Pacific area. With the risk of volcanoes, typhoons, earthquakes, and more, this region is the most disaster-prone area in the world. By preposi- tioning supplies in multiple regional hubs, UNFPA has been able to provide women and girls with dignity kits, emergency reproductive health kits, clean delivery kits, and other sexual and reproductive health commodities, immediately following a variety of different natural disasters. This same strategy has been used in Yemen amid conflict, famine, and disease outbreaks. Using UN humanitarian hubs across the country, UNFPA was able to develop partnerships with local businesses to deliver essential repro- ductive health supplies. Due to the extensive seasonal variations, conflict, and physical access barriers, prepositioning supplies has also proven useful in South Sudan, ensuring that they are available in otherwise difficult times. UN- FPA has set up five humanitarian hubs across the country to specifically preposition reproductive and sexual health supplies when disruptions occur. A variety of partners are used to transport reproductive health kits and other supplies from the hubs to health facilities. The prepositioning of these supplies helps to reduce transportation costs and increases the timeliness of supply availability during difficult times. Using a different mechanism, UNICEF has developed a three-phased approach for delivering supplies. Supply needs are calculated from July through September; these supplies are procured from September through January; and from January through June, the supplies are delivered. This mecha- nism is one of the strategies used by UNICEF as part of the emergency preparedness and response por- tion of the World Bank Essential Health Services project and is essential for getting necessary supplies and medicine to women and children in times when transporting these supplies is difficult or nearly impossible. Source: UNICEF (2020, June 25); UNFPA (2018). Social and Cultural Norms Adversely Im- is 4.5 births per woman, and most women’s desire to pacting the Demand for Reproductive space or limit births has been fairly slow to increase Health Services in South Sudan. Evidence suggests that this is due to insufficient knowledge and understanding of In many cases, the demand for reproductive health contraceptive methods and reproduction; gender services, family planning methods, and other wom- norms31 and practices that encourage women to en’s health services are low. During FGDs, several maximize fertility and begin childbearing at an early participants highlighted the cost of health services, age; and a narrow set of opportunities, including ed- long waiting times, limited privacy in some health ucational and economic, that are available to wom- care facilities, lack of medical supplies, and overall en and girls. poor service availability as key factors discourag- ing women and girls from seeking access to health Men also have cultural beliefs that reduce wom- services in urban, rural, and IDP areas. Because of en’s ability to seek family planning methods, and the challenges, many feel like it is better to handle many perceive family planning as intervening in health concerns, including childbirth, in the home. God’s plan.32 In many areas in South Sudan, and even across the East Africa region, it is believed Overall, social norms play a large part in the low that women should have as many children as possi- demand for services. As it relates to family plan- ble (USAID, 2022). For this reason, many women do ning methods, due to cultural norms, there are in- not seek family planning services for fear that their stances where larger families are highly valued, ne- husband will retaliate or that his family will demand gating the need for family planning methods. For the return of the bride price should they find out this reason, although fertility rates have declined, it that contraceptives are being used. This norm is of 31. See details: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-016-3839-6. 32. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 37 particular concern for adolescent girls who have women. Although health care is free at primary begun menstruation since, in many parts of South care facilities, since supplies are not always avail- Sudan, it is believed that once menstruation be- able, women have at times been asked to purchase gins, girls are ready to have children despite the fact supplies such as soap, cloth and medicines for their that the physical strain of pregnancy on a young delivery (Kane, 2018). There have also been many girl’s body often leads to health problems for both reports of requests for informal payments to health the mother and the child. Further, some believe that care workers. Women often fear embarrassment family planning methods interfere with the replace- if these payments cannot be made. It is estimated ment of men and women lost at war (USAID, 2022). that up 79 percent of total health expenditure comes from household out-of-pocket expenditures (World Women from the FGDs generally had two view- Bank, 2019). For many, these costs are enough to points on family planning. One viewpoint is that forego services. Some women also fear encounter- women would like to use family planning methods ing a male provider, which can become a source of to limit frequent pregnancies but are prevented embarrassment as well. by their husbands. The other opposed using family planning methods as, in some people’s perception, Women have also reported that biased practices it could cause complications, infertility, and even within clinics also deter them from seeking ser- death.33 In other reports, family planning methods vices in health facilities. For example, in facilities have been associated with sex work and sex outside that do have functioning services, recipients often of marriage, so these methods have been reject- have reports of discrimination based on socioeco- ed by women (Casey et al., 2015). Moreover, there nomic status, and even toward neonates delivered have been multiple incidents of husbands attack- at home or on the way to the health facility (Bayo et ing health care workers for providing their wives or al., 2020). Discrimination and even denial of services daughters with family planning methods. This has have occurred when women have been unable to led to health care workers many times requesting make unofficial payments for health services or sup- the husband’s written consent to provide family plies. Interventions to stop unofficial patient pay- planning methods or to not provide these methods ments to health providers and discrimination based at all.34 Below are some experiences from women in on socioeconomic status and to increase access to the FDGs that have used family planning methods: antenatal care, delivery services and postnatal care have worked in other contexts (GWU, 2017). Addi-   Yes, I use the pills inserted in my skin. This was tionally, due to some cultural norms, some provid- after a lot of consultation to understand that ers show bias when certain services are requested it won’t make me barren. The health facility and some have reported they are not comfortable charges a lot of money on pills. providing specific services, such as family planning methods for adolescents and married women (Ca-   I use pills to protect myself from unnecessary sey et al., 2015). pregnancies. I insert this from private clinic to avoid my husband from knowing because he was Other beliefs and social norms also contribute to against use of any contraceptives. the low demand for services. For example, seeking health care is seen as a sign of weakness in some   My husband will beat me and send me back to our regions. Some believe that healthy women do not home when he learns of me using contraceptives. need a facility or skilled birth attendant to have a His family members will even support him say- baby. Instead, it is believed that only sick and un- ing, what is the use of me getting married if I do healthy women need to seek services for a success- not want to give birth. ful delivery (Mugo, 2018). These social norms reduce demand and serve as barriers for women seeking In seeking out other women’s health services, fear services. of embarrassment at the health care facility also contributes to the low demand for services among 33. Based on the FGDs. 34. Based on the findings of the interviews with government officials. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 38 While it is imperative to increase the demand for the intent of taking their virginity so that they health care services, this has been difficult due to can marry them. In the FGDs, girls highlighted the lack of community outreach programs and dif- the water wells’ sites and schools in the ear- ficulty in training and retaining community health ly morning are associated with an increased workers (CHWs). There has been a recent increase risk of sexual assault. This is in addition to the in programs developed to train CHWs, however this trip to the water wells and schools, as quotes training is often not standardized across different re- from some adolescent girls during the FGDs35: gions and refresher trainings were unavailable many times due to limited resources (Lutwama, 2021). Coming very early to school always scares me CHW supervision is often limited, and payments or because you do not know whom you will find on stipends often vary across regions. In some cases, the way. You could be raped or shot dead. medical supplies and medication have been supplied by NGOs and given directly to the CHWs for use, The lifetime prevalence of sexual violence from without supervision from the local health facilities intimate partners ranges from 44 percent in the or MOH. This has resulted in some reports of mis- Juba area to 50 percent in Rumbek (GWU, 2017). use of supplies and medications (Lutwama, 2021). This high level of sexual violence leads to women Further, more female CHWs are needed since many experiencing physical bodily trauma, forced and women would prefer to work with a female health unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted infec- worker. However, the low literacy rates among wom- tions, including HIV, psychological trauma, and neg- en in South Sudan makes training difficult and often ative social stigma, all increasing the need for ser- results in women not being selected as CHWs for vices among a population in which the barriers are their communities. already so high (UNICEF, 2021). Widespread Gender Based Violence In addition to sexual violence, women in South Su- dan often experience physical violence and emo- A study showed that 41 percent of females report- tional abuse. Many women from FDGs reported be- ed having experienced GBV within the last year ing beaten or having heard of women being beaten (Oxfam and EU, 2017). Violence took place in 33 per- and physically abused. Many women reported feel- cent of cases during military raids, by a non-partner, ing like property as men engage in both physical while in 51 percent of cases by their intimate part- and emotional abuse. Some have reported that the ner. In addition, in some cases, GBV is perpetrated by abuse has gotten worse since the beginning of the members of the national police, military, or security COVID-19 pandemic as a result of men being home services (UN Security Council Report, 2021). A mil- more often. For example, one of the participants in itarized environment, with armed men everywhere the mothers FGDs said: and civilian law enforcement almost absent, places women and girls at a heightened risk of GBV (Ensor,   Beating degrades us in front of our children and 2019). In South Sudan, human rights violations in- neighbours. Men are not respecting us thinking cluded rape (sometimes with an object), gang rape, we are just property to them with the few cows abduction, sexual slavery, labor exploitation, forced they paid as bride price. abortion, and mutilation have been reported. As for child marriages, in addition to its being a   Up to 33 percent of women reported experienc- flagrant violation of human rights, it often leads to ing non-partner sexual violence during their other forms of GBV. It is estimated that 52 percent lifetime (GWU, 2017). Women and girls in South of all girls in South Sudan are married before the age Sudan are commonly at risk of rape in areas of 18 (UNICEF, 2020). Determining if a girl is ready such as toilets or bath houses, and in spaces for marriage is associated with aspects such as the where they engage in common livelihood ac- first period, body size, and molar teeth. For example, tivities like farming and firewood collection one of the participants in the religious/ traditional (GWU, 2017). Also, community workers in FDGs leaders FGDs said: reported that some men rape young girls with 35. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 39   Locally is believed that, if girl’s molar teeth are all 2021). Despite the existing inequality, South Suda- out, she is ready to marry. Which is a myth. nese women have participated in leadership and the community peace process in South Sudan (UNICEF, About one-third of all girls are pregnant by age 15. 2021). Because this strategy has been used in the These early pregnancies have led to health concerns past, it can be explored as a mechanism to address such as low birthweight and even and high maternal GBV within the community and across communities. mortality at 1,150 per 100,000 births. Related to GBV, many women have cited embar- rassment as a reason for not accessing health ser- 5.3. Educate vices. Culturally, it often important that a woman’s pregnancy be dignified and esteemed by a man. For women who do not have a man with them, for ex- ample, a woman who has been raped or one who A Lack of Parental Education and Limi- has fled an abusive husband, going to a facility can ted Household Finances Infringes on be an embarrassing experience (Kane et al., 2018). Girls’ Education This can also be problematic for adolescents seek- ing necessary services. For those who do report GBV In South Sudan, a lack of parental education and cases, in the FDGs, some community health workers the societal expectation for girls to perform do- reported that these cases are often taken for grant- mestic chores infringes on girls’ education. Due to ed and the criminals are not punished. Additional- their own limited education, parents are often un- ly, there is a great fear of retaliation if cases are aware of the importance and benefits of education reported. for girls, and often view bride price and dowry as the only financial benefits that can be gotten upon girls If health services are needed as a result of GBV, the completing their education (Garang, 2020). Impor- stigma of being a survivor is often a barrier to ac- tantly, therefore, there exists a need to inform par- cessing these services. Some of this stigma arises ents as to the numerous benefits of an education. from laws and mandates that serve as barriers to women and girls seeking health care services. For The FGDs and the KIIs revealed that women serv- example, Form 8 requires survivors of physical and ing leadership roles were supported by their parents sexual violence to report to the police prior to re- and families, who encouraged them to pursue their ceiving health services (GWU, 2017). When a woman education. For example, when the interviewed fe- does choose to file a police report, there are often male government officials were asked how they got fees associated with filing the report. In many cases, to their current positions, they highlighted their pa- even if a woman does have the money to report, she rental perspective on the significance of education. may not trust the police to keep the report confi- Another piece of evidence is a quote from a female in dential. These barriers often lead to untreated sex- the traditional/ religious leadership FGDs. She said: ually transmitted infections, including HIV (UNICEF, Box 6. Promote s multisectoral approach to address sexual violence in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) In 1999, the Panzi Hospital was founded in DRC with intentions of serving pregnant mothers in need of maternal health services. However, similar to South Sudan, DRC was in a time of conflict where many women were seeking services at the facility, not for childbirth, but as a result a conflict related to rape and sexual violence. The hospital’s focus then shifted to holistic care for survivors of sexual violence. This not only included medical services for gynaecological and physical injuries and psycho- logical counselling, but legal support and socioeconomic assistance. Because of the facility’s success, the World Bank now partners with Panzi Hospital to provide services in the community. As part of this project, mobile clinics are also provided to reduce access barriers for those who live in areas where the clinics are geographically difficult to access. Source: World Bank Group (2020, December 9). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 40   I am very proud of myself because my father sent surrounding girls’ education (MOGEI, 2017); MOGEI, me to school, and now it is me taking care of my UNESCO, UIS, GPE, and UNICEF, 2018), this often re- family, relatives, and husband’s family. If I were sults in “son preference”, whereby they choose to ed- not working, I would not be able to support. ucate their sons as opposed to their daughters. This preference was affirmed during traditional/religious In addition to this, there exists strong cultural bias- leader FGDs. One of the leaders said: es in communities against girls’ education, and as such, the burden of domestic chores, such as caring   The mentality in the community is that it is use- for siblings/parents, heading the household, selling less to educate a lady because she will leave the and buying, being involved in agricultural activi- paternal home. Hence it is better to educate a ties, often falls onto daughters as opposed to sons boy. This is a primitive way of thinking which (Calderbank (2013); MOGEI, UNESCO, UIS, GPE, and needs to be changed. UNICEF (2018). As a result, girls spend ample time on domestic chores in the morning, afternoon, and In addition, the girls’ FGDs across urban, rural, and evening, which leave them with little time to do their IDP areas revealed that parents prioritize sending homework and affect their attendance or cause boys to schools when financial resources are limited. them to arrive late to school—key factors that af- The son preference for going to school seemed nor- fect their educational performance.36 This was af- malized for some girls. They believe an educated boy firmed by participants during FGDs: will bring pride to the family and expand its powers:   She goes to the market to buy food, she does   The brothers will be able to help their family in the the washing and cleaning of the compound, and future and solve their sisters’ problems in case of more. This does not give enough time to read. marriage problems with their husbands. Instead, girls know that having an educated brother will   Domestic work delays girls from going to school show that there is a strong man who can defend in addition to other personal issues that prevent their home and provoke fear in outsiders. If there them too. is an educated boy in a home, it is regarded as a sense of pride in the entire community in South Given that the decision to keep girls at home in order Sudan, which will help the boys to marry good to complete domestic chores is also culturally situ- wives from other powerful families, like a chief’s ated, a mix of approaches might need to be consid- daughter, which will expand the family or the ered, including but not limited to distance education clan. models and other alternatives that would allow girls to both complete their chores, and receive quality To reduce these demand-side barriers, the Foreign schooling. Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO)37 Girls’ Education South Sudan (GESS) program pro- The high cost of schooling and limited household vided cash transfers for all girls from primary 5 to finances also forces some girls to drop out of secondary 4 in not-for-profit schools in 2013 (Uni- school. Poverty is a major factor preventing par- versalia, Results for Development and ITAD, 2019), ents from sending and keeping their girl children in and findings indicate increased female enrollment of school (MOGEI, 2017). The economic crisis and rise around 2 percent, despite the prevalence of ongoing of all goods including those related to schooling have conflict (Crawfurd, 2016). To additionally help with made it impossible for some girls to attend school additional finances, the MOGEI, FCDO and the World since their parents experience difficulty paying fees Food Programme (WFP) also provided school feed- and are unable to pay for uniforms, exercise books ing for all students, with “take home food” for girls and other school-related costs and TLMs (MOGEI, as an additional incentive to retain them in school 2017). In fact, household income is found to be one (MOGEI, 2017). Hence, the continuation and expan- of the primary reasons for girls’ dropout, compelling sion of the cash transfer initiative has the potential parents to have to choose which child to educate to contribute to further increases in girls’ enroll- (Garang, 2020). Given the negative cultural beliefs ment, and should to the best extent possible, strive 36. Based on the FGDs. 37. Formerly the Department for International Development (DFID). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 41 to become more cost-effective and efficient in the and cultural norms which support early marriage execution of payouts, and be targeted to the most (Garang, 2020); MOGEI, 2017). In actuality, nearly vulnerable households. Scholarships for high-per- half of girls are married before the age of 18 (Pel- forming girls to reduce the costs of schooling might ham, 2020). Girls can be betrothed at an early age also be considered. (typically from ages 8–10), by a bridegroom who comes with either a ring or bead to be put on girl’s Societal Expectations and Attitudes To- neck and one or a number of cows, which are given ward Girls’ Education are Harmful, and to the bride’s parents as a sign of early betrothing or Customary Laws Often Take Precedence “booking”. Once this occurs, girls are often kept home Over National Laws to Protect Girls to be taught about household activities and how to “keep a household” before going to her new family A lack of public and comprehensive community (Garang, 2020). As such, some parents view girls’ awareness is particularly harmful to girls’ edu- education as offering no advantage and consider it cation. A negative attitude toward girls’ education as a “waste of time,” money and girls’ years for mar- exists, and as a result, there is limited advocacy riage, which becomes an area of priority once girls and awareness to address this (Malik, 2019). Fur- reach adolescence, according to the National Girls‘ ther, a lack of education brings a lack of awareness Education Strategy (NGES) (2018–2022) (Garang, about the law and legal rights (Calderbank, 2013). 2020). Instead, in some states, such as Lakes, War- Perhaps unsurprisingly then, uneducated girls and rap, and Northern Bahr el Gazal, parents view their women often do not distinguish between consti- daughters as a source of wealth (MOGEI, 2017). They tutional laws which protect girls’ education versus see the gifts being offered for marriage, such as the their communities’ customary laws which they are provision of cows and the payment of a dowry, and familiar with, and which communities use to cover often elect for these over their daughter’s education. their interests against girls’ right to education (Ga- rang, 2020). For instance, the Wanhalel Customary While adolescent boys, particularly in rural and law document denies girls’ right to education and IDP areas, believe that girls have the right for edu- the right to choose when to marry and to whom, in- cation, they suggest that girls only finish the pri- fringing on girls’ rights and contribution to dropping mary school. In their opinion, attending secondary out of school (Garang, 2020). schools would affect their marriage opportunities as they will be old, and her education will be an intim- Despite these efforts, more is needed to enhance idation factor,38 as evidenced by some quotes from awareness as to the importance of girls’ education, FGDs: including but not limited to special advocacy and community engagement activities.   Girls has right to education but if someone come for marriage she can be married, and she will Early marriages are one of the leading causes complete her education later at her family. of girls’ dropping out of school in South Sudan. Though unlawful before age 18, according to nation-   After primary 8, ladies should get married and al laws and girls’ policies and ratified international complete the other part in their husband’s home. laws, this law is ignored due to economic difficulties We suggest this because they study up to senior four, they will get old. Box 7. “Our School” In order to inspire communities to support the education of girls and students with disabilities, the GESS implemented a local language radio program “Our School”, which is broadcast weekly, includes real-life stories (interviews with girls, parents, school managers and community members), highlights the benefits of girls staying in school, and addresses negative cultural attitudes and practical challeng- es, such as travelling to school safely and budgeting for school fees, that can affect a girl’s education. Source: Girls’ Education South Sudan, 2020, p. 2. 38. Based on the FGDs. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 42   According to me, senior year 4 is enough for girls and their children’s health and lives, for instance, by because if the girls is highly education, she can practicing “child spacing” (World Vision, 2021). overlook men. Long Distances to Schools and Poor Aca- On the bright side, urban adolescent boys believe demic Facilities Create Unhealthy School that girls’ education can bring long-term wealth to Environments For Girls’ Learning the family compared to dowry: Geographical long distances to schools and lack of   I want my sister to study until she finishes her all-season roads create a number of problems for university level because it has been said that, girls on their way to schools. Indeed, the distance educating woman mean educating the nation. to schools is a key factor causing girls to drop out of schools, as girls can experience violence or even “be   We need our sisters to study until they finish uni- eloped” on the way to/from school (Garang, 2020). versity because educated lady has a lot of bene- Girls therefore sometimes choose to restrict their fits, she can bring both cows and money. movement due to the prevalence of crime, and to avoid in particular, sexual violence. Further, the lack Similarly, early pregnancy is another barrier to of good roads (especially during rainy seasons when girls’ education in South Sudan. Together, pregnan- roads/bridges are flooded) makes girls’ travel to cy and marriage account for 25 percent of female school difficult, as do the snakes which disturb them dropouts (Government of the Republic of South Su- and put them at higher risk (Garang, 2020). There dan, 2015); MOGEI, 2017), with some girls becoming has been a call for the construction of additional pregnant or marrying as early as ages 15–17 (Malik, schools and classrooms to reduce the distance girls 2019). Information from an interview with an SCI of- have to travel to schools (MOGEI, UNESCO, UIS, ficial indicates that generally speaking, girls would GPE, and UNICEF, 2018); Universalia, Results for De- prefer to delay childbearing: velopment and ITAD, 2019). However, insecurity has in some cases prevented construction or made it   Most girls really want to stay in school, they costlier (Malik, 2019), and as a result, communities, want to delay having a child until they’re older. and particularly conflict-affected areas have been And they don’t want to take that risk because advised to use locally available materials where re- they see it as a clear black and white scenario: sources41 became available, to build, re-construct if they’re in school, they’re safe. They’re safe and/or upgrade classrooms (Universalia, Results for physically, they’re safe for their futures. The al- Development and ITAD, 2019). ternative is to be pregnant and to have your fu- ture basically ruined. So, most girls see a very Unhealthy school environments lacking in proper stark divide, black and white, like in school, I’m infrastructure and resources also contribute to safe and protected, the school will care for me. girls’ dropping out. Inadequate WASH facilities are My future is looked after. Out of school, I will be common across many schools (Garang, 2020). In- pregnant, and I will have no opportunities. That’s deed, while most schools have toilets (85 percent) the most common kind of view. only 54 percent have separate toilets for males and females, resulting in girls having to share toilets with To empower girls to understand their options, the boys, limiting both their privacy and safety (MOGEI, MOH and World Vision have offered a number of 2017). This was affirmed by some of the girls partic- family planning sessions in schools (World Vision, ipating in the FGDs: 2021). These consisted of FGDs and community out- reach activities for women and men, led by moth-   When you’re in the menstrual period, there is er-to-mother support groups39 and male champion no privacy to bathe if your skirt is stained with groups,40 and aimed to empower those who attend- blood which makes girls ashamed. In addition, ed and improve their ability to take charge of their this makes us miss classes during the menstru- 39. Groups consisting of trained mothers who meet with other mothers to encourage them to make positive decisions for their and their children’s lives. 40. Groups consisting of males who come together to encourage positive attitudes towards girls and women, towards enhance gender equality. 41. Such as the Constituency Development Fund (CDF). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 43 al period because most girls also experience ab- In addition, many of the essential inputs required dominal pain, making them unable to concen- for the provision of equitable, quality education trate. are in extremely limited supply in South Sudan (MOGEI, UNESCO, UIS, GPE, and UNICEF, 2018). Further, fewer than half of primary schools have More specifically, there exists a scarcity of teachers access to water (32 percent), a health center (9 (particularly, qualified and female teachers), text- percent), and only 58 percent have a playground books and learning materials, and support services (MOGEI, 2017). Findings from UNICEF in South Su- in schools for children with disabilities (MOGEI, UN- dan indicate that, only 45 percent of South Sudan’s ESCO, UIS, GPE, and UNICEF, 2018), among others. 3,349 basic primary schools have access to safe water, and a mere 17 percent have adequate san- However, it is worth mentioning that targeting girls itary toilets for both girls and boys, exposing their only in cash transfers created the perception of girls risk to diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diar- being better off than boys: rhea (UNICEF, n.d.c).   Here girls are treated well more than boys. You Beyond physical infrastructure, there exists a need see agencies distributing cash to some. Others as well to ensure that girls are safe at schools. are given bags and some items like shoes, soaps, etc. Box 9. Making schools safer for girls “Born to Lead” is an example of a campaign and school club promoted by eight South Sudanese wom- en’s rights organizations, advocating for the protection of the rights of women and girls, and for their greater role and influence in decision-making at all levels. The campaign also included mentorship ac- tivities with girls from a school in Rumbek on leadership. After the session, the girls requested more such activities, including the creation of “Born to Lead” school clubs. It provided a safe space for girls to just talk and share their personal stories. At the end of the session, campaign organizers indicated that participating girls seemed more confident, and no longer afraid of speaking. Such clubs have proved to be effective in transforming harmful gender norms. Source: Oxfam, 2019. Box 10. Provision of capitation grants To improve the quality of schools’ service provision, the FCDO’s GESS also provided nationwide capita- tion grants to schools, together with the MOGEI and later, the European Union (EU) and provided sani- tary pads to female learners, to improve their educational environments (Girls’ Education South Sudan, 2020). As a necessary step, schools were required to have a school governance body and development plan and budget in place to be eligible (Girls’ Education South Sudan, 2020). To date, there is evidence to suggest that the capitation grants, cash transfers and school feeding in selected areas contributed to improvements in gender equality and enrollment overall. Source: Universalia, Results for Development, and ITAD, 2019. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 44 Perhaps then, cash transfers could be extended to   We have limited female teachers to teach us in students living in poverty, with a special attention schools. Hence, there is nobody to encourage us on girls, to ensure that they too, are able to attend to continue with our education. school more. Findings indicate that female teachers are more Moreover, teacher turnover is high, especially likely to be absent than male teachers (Karamper- among female teachers, leaving students with idou, Brossard, Peirolo, and Richardson, 2020). This inconsistent and underqualified teachers, and fe- is unsurprising considering that more male teachers male students in particular, with few female lead- reported receiving cash and noncash benefits as ers in schools to serve as positive role models. In- compared to female teachers (65 percent versus 50 security, fear for safety and poverty are a few of the percent and 61 percent versus 38 percent, respec- reasons for high teacher turnover in South Sudan tively) and more male than female teachers consid- (Garang, 2020). For teachers who do stay, a vicious er their salary sufficient to cover monthly household cycle is created whereby low salaries and delays of expenses (62 percent versus 28 percent) (Karam- teachers’ renumerations and incentives results in a peridou et al., 2020). Qualified teachers often opt lack of motivation and poor teaching quality, leading for other jobs with better pay, leaving unqualified to these teachers no longer receiving any payment. teachers to fill their roles. As a result, students are This also contributes to teachers arriving to school taught by teachers who lack competency, and more late and high rate of absenteeism, resulting in a loss ought to be done to ensure that both male and fe- of motivation among students, and especially girls, male teachers are fairly paid and incentivized, and who often travel long distances to get to school (Ga- in a timely manner. rang, 2020). The teachers’ FGDs across urban, rural, and IDP areas affirmed the absence of incentives to Discrepancies also exist in schools across urban ensure the supply of teachers where they are need- and rural areas, with the latter paying lower sal- ed. Some teachers said: aries and lacking female teachers Karamperidou et al., 2020). In an effort to remedy this, the GESS   We have no means of transportation, and we provided teachers with school-based, practical and travel very long distances from home to school. contextualized professional training, and girls in Sometimes on foot. Also, there is no accommo- secondary and select primary schools with a men- dation around the schools to avoid traveling long toring program to encourage them to stay in school distances from home to school. and train them in life skills (Girls’ Education South Sudan, 2020). While such in-school activities are   The few motorcycles available here are very ex- important, more is needed to increase the number pensive. We cannot afford to get them daily be- of qualified teachers and retain female teachers by cause the cost can be three times compared to making the career path more equitable and attrac- our salary or the incentive, we receive monthly tive. For instance, by developing incentive strategies to make postings in rural and hard-to-reach areas   There are no benefits. If one retires from work more attractive, more could be done to decentralize later, he/she will go home empty-handed. the deployment and allocation of teachers as well as the construction of teacher housing and provision of childcare, especially for female teachers. Females account for a very small share of teachers in South Sudan, occupying only 14 percent of teach- Political and Societal Laws and Conflicts ers in primary and 11 percent in secondary (MO- Matter for Girls’ Education GEI, 2017), which means that female students have fewer female teachers to aspire to, motivate them A high percentage of children, especially girls, are and encourage them to stay in school. This was pro- forced to discontinue their primary education be- nounced in the FGDs. For example, one of the girls fore acquiring basic numeracy and literacy skills said: due to conflicts such as war and intercommunal Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 45 fights. These have led to high external and internal displacement and migration, with subsequent clos- 5.4. Employ and Enable ing down of schools and lack of available teachers for the students left behind (Garang, 2020). Further, when safety and security is a concern parents are more unlikely to send their children, especially girls, to school. This reluctance is exacerbated if their chil- This section focuses on how social protection and dren have to travel long distances to school (MOGEI, jobs interventions can help enable and employ UNESCO, UIS, GPE, and UNICEF, 2018). women in South Sudan. Multiple factors contrib- ute to the levels of protection and employment of A lack of law enforcement and implementation women. Given the context in South Sudan, women of national girls’ education policies have resulted continue to face multiple barriers, but opportunities in a lack of sensitization and a reliance on tradi- may also increase as South Sudan’s peace process tional instead of national laws. Some communities is strengthened. in South Sudan follow customary laws which deny girls’ rights to an education instead of abiding by Girls and women in South Sudan are constitutional laws which protect girls’ education highly vulnerable (Garang, 2020). For example, Dinka people settle all their cases according to customary traditions, and South Sudan is prone to being affected by a num- the Dinka traditional laws, known as the Wanhalel ber of shocks including climate-induced shocks, Customary law document, denies girls’ rights to ed- insecurity and economic instability that particu- ucation or to choose when she marries and to whom larly affect women and make them highly vulner- (Garang, 2020). able. Vulnerability refers to three types of concern: exposure, susceptibility and absorptive capacity. This privileging customary laws over national ones Exposure describes the degree to which a person or has been made possible by the overpowering of civ- location can be affected by a hazard. Susceptibility il authorities by community leaders. While the gov- refers to how individuals or groups might be affected ernment was focused on the war and conflict fac- by a shock. This is driven by context-specific demo- ing the country, people listened to their local chiefs graphic factors that often interact with each other over government authorities (Garang, 2020). Due to such as gender, age and socioeconomic status. Ab- this newfound status gained within their commu- sorptive capacity refers to actions that can be tak- nities during this time, some chiefs now have more en to reduce risk and thus increase resilience. By vir- power than government authorities in meting out tue of their gender in South Sudan’s fragile, conflict, justice, including policies on girls’ rights and educa- and violence (FCV) setting, women are highly vulner- tion (Garang, 2020). Likewise, community members able because of their exposure and susceptibility to feel protective of the girls in their communities, and shocks. Moreover, women’s absorptive capacity is often standby the decisions of their local leaders, lower than men’s due to their limited support struc- often contributing to high rates of dropout among tures and virtually no safety net to fall upon when girls. Therefore, strong political support, leadership faced with shocks. and commitment to national laws are necessary; committed action is needed from the government The vulnerability of women in South Sudan is mul- and its partners in order to ensure that citizens feel tifaceted, but it is generally driven by the follow- obligated to comply with national laws, especially ing determinant factors: education, livelihoods, laws against child or forced marriages. family composition, access to social protection and access to capital. In South Sudan, education- al outcomes are positively correlated with poverty status and consumption expenditure. Yet women have lower access to education and are thus more likely to be trapped in a cycle of poverty. FGDs of different groups including girls, boys, mothers, fa- thers and teachers all showed that boys’ education is systematically prioritized over that of girls as Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 46 boys are considered the family heirs and future pro- impacts their opportunities. Family composition de- viders. Lack of skills limits women’s ability to access termines both susceptibility and absorptive capac- the job market and when they do, limited skills often ity. For instance, labor-constrained households are result in women overwhelmingly working in low-pro- more likely to be vulnerable and lack the resources ductivity sectors. This was confirmed during FGDs to respond to shocks. Typically, larger families with by women across the country who all felt that their more economically active adults are less poor and limited education and skill set prevented them from have access to a larger social network which can having stable livelihoods: prove vital to absorptive capacity. Limited access to social protection in South Sudan means that vul-   I finished senior three and dropped out of school nerabilities are likely to be sustained and even en- when I got pregnant. This brought me a lot of trenched over time with little possibility of building regrets because, I have forgotten most of the resilience among the poor and vulnerable. Similarly, things I have learned, and my level cannot get lack of access to capital limits the ability to access me a decent office job. This was a big lesson in and diversify sources of livelihoods, invest in educa- my life, most of my classmates are now […] earn- tion, or prioritize human capital development. ing good money because of this. Displaced women, particularly refugees and IDPs, The urban-rural divide also plays an important role face additional vulnerabilities and often rely heav- in access to education, with many children in rural ily on humanitarian support. Persistent waves of areas having limited access to schools and econom- conflict, violence and natural disasters have led to ic opportunities. Women in rural areas feel that their large scale displacement of South Sudanese. As of urban counterparts have more opportunities. As one October 2021, there are 1.6 million IDPs in the coun- woman stated during FGDs: try representing roughly 14 percent of the population (World Bank, 2021). A majority of IDP households are   We are just housewives and did not get time to re- headed by women, bringing women empowerment alize our full potential like the town women who issues to the forefront for this group (IOM South Su- work in big offices and manage their salaries. dan, 2020). FGD participants who had been affected by displacement and were currently residing in refu- In addition to this, social protection coverage in gee and/or IDP camps mentioned: South Sudan is extremely limited. Given the coun- try’s FCV context, the vast majority of support is   The conflict has displaced us so many times and funded and implemented by humanitarian organi- moved to different refugee camps in the neigh- zations or NGOs. A social protection system as such bouring countries. In this process girls dropped is not developed in South Sudan, and humanitarian out of school, got married and do casual work. interventions remain unable to meet the high levels of need in the country. According to OCHA, in 2021, Most displaced households face limitations to their while there were 8.4 million people in need of hu- mobility, including lack of identification documents manitarian assistance, only 5.7 million received as- (IDs) and security concerns. Displaced households sistance, leaving a gap of at least 2.7 million without confront an increase in food insecurity and loss of humanitarian support (Global Humanitarian Over- income during the COVID-19 pandemic, with re- view and UN OCHA, 2022). ports indicating that 48 percent of IDP households in Juba are borrowing to buy food. South Sudan also Livelihood diversification is strongly associated hosts 333,673 refugees, primarily from Sudan, who with welfare, consumption, and food security. Ac- mostly reside in highly remoted and isolated areas cess to resources and assets for livelihood diversifi- of the country that are prone to natural disasters cation are key determinants of a household’s ability such as floods. They have limited livelihood oppor- to strengthen its resilience to shocks. Lack of such tunities and rely on humanitarian assistance, which diversification markedly increases vulnerability such is short term and unpredictable, making it difficult that if a single source of livelihood is compromised, for them to improve their resilience to shocks over a household’s absorptive capacity is affected. This time. While displaced households may benefit from was emphasized during FGD’s, where across groups humanitarian support, social protection support to and genders, participants highlighted the limited these households remains extremely limited. access to resources that women face and how that Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 47 Box 11. Support to refugee and host communities under the proposed South Sudan Productive Safety Net for Socioeconomic Opportunities Project (SNSOP) The SNSOP is an upcoming government-implemented and World Bank-funded project. It is expected to be active in Maban and Pariyang, which are the two largest refugee hosting counties in South Sudan. The project will support 7,000 refugee households and 10,500 host community households. Under SN- SOP, the majority of primary beneficiaries will be women, and women’s active participation is encour- aged throughout the project cycle. The following social protection support will be provided to refugee and host community households: 1. Provision of temporary income opportunities through LIPW that will provide income for 15 days a month for 18 months. LIPW will also contribute to strengthening community infrastructure and climate change resilience as communities will select sub-projects that reflect local priorities and needs. 2. Provision of direct income support (DIS) to labor-constrained households who are unable to partici- pate in LIPW. DIS households receive the same cash transfer amount as LIPW households. 3. LIPW and DIS households will receive light-touch “cash-plus” messaging on key topics regarding financial inclusion, WASH, early childhood development and nutrition. 4. An economic opportunities pilot will be implemented with a subgroup of households in one location. The potential package of interventions, which will be adapted after an in-depth and context specific market assessment, include life and business skills training, coaching, income generating activity grant, savings groups and links to relevant services. Vulnerability can be addressed through social pro- Women Often Lack Access to Capital tection and jobs interventions aimed at strength- ening resilience over time. Evidence suggests that Women in South Sudan lack access to capital, long-term, predictable cash transfers help improve which can be defined as assets of monetary value food security and investment in human capital with as well as access to networks, informal safety nets, long-term returns. When paired with “cash-plus” and education and skills development opportunities. activities that build household capacity, these may Even for women who participate in the economy, a also lead to increased savings which can act as a number of factors including limited opportunities cushion in times of shock. Similarly, livelihoods and and limited mobility, results in a reduced network of economic inclusion programs have been found to in- peer entrepreneurs compared to male counterparts. crease the diversification of sources of livelihood and Such networks can prove essential to gaining infor- improve household welfare. Indeed, social protection mation, informal skills and support. Yet in countries interventions increase demand for human capital like South Sudan, such networks are more difficult investments such as health and education. Building to form and access for women. social protection systems at a national level is also important to creating resilience among the poor and While women do have limited access to capital in vulnerable. Systems like MIS can be employed to the traditional sense, particularly those operating rapidly expand social protection programs in times in the informal sector, overall, financial inclusion of shock in order to increase absorptive capacity. among women in South Sudan is extremely low and there are few opportunities for women to access capital. Furthermore, lower asset and land owner- ship and unequal inheritance practices among wom- en add an additional barrier. There are also unequal Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 48 Box 12. Social protection interventions increasing health, education and economic opportunities outcomes among adolescent girls in Kenya A randomized controlled trial (RCT) of the Adolescent Girls Initiative-Kenya assessed the impact of different social protection packages on health, education, and wealth outcomes among adolescent girls in Kibera, Nairobi and Wajir county. The study looked at the impact of “cash-plus” interventions given that health, wealth and awareness activities were paired with cash transfers. The RCT tested four different packages: 1. Community dialogue on the role and value of girls 2. Community dialogue on the role and value of girls + cash transfer conditional on school enrollment (education transfer) 3. Community dialogue on the role and value of girls + cash transfer conditional on school enrollment (education transfer) + weekly group meetings on health and life skills training (health training) 4. Community dialogue on the role and value of girls + cash transfer conditional on school enrollment (education transfer) + weekly group meetings on health and life skills training (health training) + financial literacy training and savings activities It was found that the education transfer itself led to an increase in school enrollment, primary school completion and grade attainment. When combined with other interventions as in packages 3 and 4, it was also found to increase transition of adolescent girls from primary to secondary school. The health training improved knowledge on sexual and reproductive health as well as condom self-efficacy. Mean- while, the financial literacy training and savings activities increased saving behaviors among girls in both locations. Source: Austria, Karen et al. “Impacts of two-year multisectoral cash plus programmes on young adolescent girls’ education, health and economic outcomes”. 2021. inheritance rights that was raised as an issue among patriarchal and as such control of the use of mon- mothers and religious/traditional leaders during the ey may lead to conflicts within households. Some FGDs. To cite an instance, one of the religious/tradi- studies have also shown that often family members tional leaders said: lay claim to women’s money, making it difficult to differentiate between business and family money.   Traditionally, a boy inherits the land of the father, This often results in less capital being invested in not the girl. female-led livelihood activities compared to those that are led by men. Women who are employed in Indeed, this was also confirmed during KIIs: the formal sector and earn wages appear to face similar barriers, with family members contesting   Women are unlikely to own property or other the use of these resources (Jayachandran, 2019). fixed assets that can be used to guarantee a loan One of the most relevant themes that emerged from as the title to property is more often in the name the data collected, as well as across FGDs and KIIs, of their husbands when married. was how the lack of access to capital affects wom- en’s empowerment opportunities. Different groups When women do obtain access to capital, it has also of men, women, girls and boys, including those in been found that they often face external pressures IDP areas, all emphasized how the lack of access to to use that capital in different ways that may not financial capital, networks, land and skills develop- match their preferences or self-interest. In South ment opportunities significantly limit women’s and Sudan, control over monetary resources is still very girl’s access to opportunities. To quote one FGD: Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 49   [Women] have capacity to engage in econom- prevent them from doing so. GBV also undermines ic activities, but it is limited. Limited access to the objectives of safety nets and social protection financial services reduces access to capital for more broadly by increasing the vulnerability of wom- growth. Limited education and literacy lead to en and girls and eroding human capital (Botea et al., reduced employment opportunities. Limited 2021). GBV may also limit participation in social pro- ownership of land diverts profit from labor activ- tection programs if women and girls are exposed to ities and constrains growth of activities. harassment or violence during project activities or when traveling to them. For instance, after receiving   Ownership of property [among women] is limit- cash transfer payments, it is common for women to ed, and it is not uncommon that married women be concerned for their safety when they travel home receiving income from economic activities will with their money. hand over whatever money they earn to their husbands to control. As such, leveraging social protection and live- lihoods programs as platforms to raise aware- However, it is important to note that in the South ness and foster the prevention, mitigation, and Sudanese context, lessons learned from SSSNP response to GBV can play a pivotal role in South suggest that conflict over the use of resources was Sudan. Evidence suggests that overall the impact extremely rare. At the start of the project, approxi- of social protection, and particularly social safe- mately 3 percent of beneficiaries reported that their ty nets, on GBV is positive. Globally, safety net in- households faced conflict over the use of project terventions have been associated with a reduction resources. In later rounds of data collection, this in GBV and IPV that affect both women and girls. number went down to 0 percent. Qualitative evi- According to the World Bank’s Safety First Toolkit, dence also suggests that male beneficiaries began there are three direct pathways through which safe- more actively engaging women on decision-making ty nets have an impact on the prevalence of GBV: regarding the use of resources, including entirely reducing poverty and food insecurity, empower- handing over cash to their female spouses (Botea et ing women, and increasing women’s social capital al., 2021). (Botea et al., 2021). Poverty and food insecurity are associated with elevated levels of stress within There exists limited safety for girls and households and as such, high likelihood of violence. women Social safety nets provide a regular and predictable source of income which can help households cov- Women’s concerns over their safety constitute a er immediate needs and improve both consump- barrier to both their participation in social protec- tion and well-being. By addressing poverty-related tion programs as well as livelihoods opportunities. stressors, social safety nets may lead to a reduction A majority of women and girls in South Sudan re- in GBV. Social safety nets also empower women by port experiencing sexual violence in their lifetimes. engaging them directly as beneficiaries and provid- Recent studies suggest that 51.5 percent of wom- ing them with resources, skills, access to networks, en ages 20–25 were married or in a union before and income-generating opportunities. Most safety the age of 18, and adolescent pregnancy is on the net programs prioritize the selection of female bene- rise. Given the FCV context in South Sudan, safety ficiaries given their pivotal role in investing in human is a constant concern for women that affects their capital development. This has led to an increase in freedom of movement, mobility and even access women’s decision-making power within households. to opportunities. Studies across Africa show that Women’s social capital is increased by improving fear of sexual harassment during journeys or in the access to services, strengthening networks within workplace can influence women to opt for informal communities (particularly for group-based activi- arrangements or to work in female-led industries ties), and imparting knowledge and skills to women. which are associated with lower productivity. It is These help to reduce exposure to GBV by increasing also important to note that beyond the risk that women’s standing in the community and making it women face for themselves, they often face pres- more accessible for them to receive GBV prevention, sure from their households who may be concerned mitigation, and response services. Many of these about their safety. In many cases, though women interventions are designed to involve communities may prefer to pursue certain opportunities, fear for and foment group cohesion, which lends itself well their safety among other household members may to raising awareness about gender issues and GBV Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 50 beyond women and girls. Such interventions have through which safety nets may reduce GBV could been found to successfully change gender attitudes also be associated with an increase in the risk of of both men and women. In fact, interventions that GBV. Changing household dynamics and the in- engage men, including male spouses or male cham- troduction of new resources could lead to conflict. pions, have been found to have great potential. Fur- Furthermore, attitudes and behaviors toward gen- ther gender and GBV-mainstreaming across social der and GBV issues in South Sudan vary greatly be- protection networks and jobs interventions may tween regions as well as between men and women help increase access to opportunities and support within each location (LATH South Sudan, 2020). As for women in South Sudan. In the FGDs, mothers ac- such, it is imperative to design context-specific in- knowledged the benefits of the social protection in- terventions that respond to the different attitudes tervention. However, one of the participants stated: of each community. Interestingly, on a national lev- el, men report slightly lower tolerance toward GBV   The current ongoing social protection programs compared to women, indicating the importance of do not consider the most marginalized commu- engaging both male and female champions effec- nities, instead many organizations concentrate tively (LATH South Sudan, 2020). Therefore, social on the areas where access is possible. protection programs must be designed to mitigate these risks and focus on leveraging opportunities for At the same time, it is important to be cautious of GBV prevention, mitigation, and response. potentially negative impacts of social protection on GBV and mitigate these risks through GBV- sensitive project design. The same pathways Box 13. Gender and conflict sensitive communication approach in Pakistan Pakistan’s Temporarily Displaced Persons Emergency Relief Program adopted a gender and conflict sensitive communication approach and focused on engaging community leaders and referencing cul- tural norms to sensitize communities on gender issues. The program also aimed to encourage women’s participation. Community leaders mobilized and encouraged women’s participation and access to the program’s benefits. The following strategies were adopted by the program: 1. Hiring of female community mobilizers in order to gain access to women’s domestic sphere and en- courage their participation. 2. Sensitizing male members of beneficiary households separately on the benefits of women’s partici- pation for the households and community. 3. Delivering trainings to women-only groups to create safe spaces for women. 4. Linking women with civil registration centers to provide them with IDs. Civil registration centres were also adapted to cultural norms so that women’s only counters and privacy barriers in waiting areas were arranged. Source: Botea et al., 2021. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 51 Box 14. GEWEL’s Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) in Zambia The GEWEL project in Zambia employs a GBV-sensitive GRM that is designed to receive and process GBV-related grievances. Though GEWEL is designed to empower women and girls, the project recog- nized the risk of GBV and therefore developed a GEWEL-wide GBV Action Plan to prevent and mitigate the risk of GBV. As part of this plan, a GRM with multiple reporting channels was implemented. The GRM channels include: 1. Complaint boxes were placed in locations selected by the community, particularly women and girls. 2. Female GBV focal points were selected in each community. The focal points received specialized training to address complaints, particularly GBV-related complaints, and lead sensitization efforts. 3. A national GBV hotline, Lifeline/Childline Zambia was used by GEWEL to cover project locations and link grievances to the project GRM. Lifeline/Childline provides counselling over the phone, referral services and case management until cases are closed. 4. The GEWEL GRM had a fund allocated to each district that is designated to address serious com- plaints. Based on established guidelines, these funds can be used to support survivors, for instance, by providing transportation to referral services or access to safe houses as needed. The GEWEL GRM also includes an MIS module that is designed to ensure survivor safety, prioritize and reporting and processing of GBV grievances, and restrict access to users. This includes an information sharing protocol (ISP) in line with the survivor-centric approach. This is accompanied by robust mon- itoring and evaluation (M&E) arrangements to ensure that the system is functioning efficiently and that awareness raising and sensitization efforts are continuous at community level. The M&E module is designed to be flexible and adaptive to each community’s needs as it allows officers at various levels to design and carry out reviews and reports of M&E activities in real time. Women face Vulnerable Employment in In South Sudan, the majority of employment is South Sudan focused in the agricultural sector followed by own-account employment. Though the earning dif- Low productivity jobs are highly correlated with ferential between men and women is minimal, this poverty and exacerbated by displacement and is likely because earnings are already so low for the insecurity, which overwhelmingly affects women general population which further adds to women’s who tend to be poorer. Ninety-one percent of em- vulnerability. In addition, women also contribute ployed women in South Sudan are considered to more than men to household work and childcare have vulnerable employment (World Bank, 2020c). which creates economic value that is generally over- Vulnerable employment refers to own-account looked. Another barrier for women in South Sudan is workers and contributing family workers who are the youth bulge: South Sudan’s fragile economy is less likely to have decent working conditions, ade- unable to absorb into the labor market all of these quate social security, and a voice through effective new entrants. However, data on women’s employ- representation by trade unions or similar organiza- ment opportunities nationwide still remains limited. tions.42 Vulnerable employment is often character- In 2020, 63 percent of South Sudan’s population ized by inadequate earnings, low productivity and was below the age of 25 and unemployment remains difficult conditions of work that undermine workers’ high (UNICEF (2021). Insecurity and economic in- fundamental rights. stability further impact employment opportunities 42. “Decent work” was defined by ILO in 2002 as working conditions that provide adequate legal, social protection and representation rights for workers. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 52 for youth, resulting in a likely increase of vulnerable strengthening of savings groups, social protection jobs for women over time, especially for those work- programs can also increase access to capital. In the ing in the agricultural sector, which is, according to case of South Sudan, this could include leveraging FGDs, where the bulk of women’s economic activity existing informal savings groups structures to de- is, including those who run small businesses. As a velop communal networks and provide further safe- result, given the importance of agriculture in South ty net options in case of shocks. Based on nascent Sudan‘s economy and the willingness of South Su- work on the use of mobile money payments, these danese youth to participate in this sector, there is could also be leveraged in urban areas to encourage an opportunity to focus livelihood interventions to financial inclusion of women by following examples increase access to and productivity in the agricul- of programs that have successfully integrated fe- tural sector. This would allow programs to build on male beneficiaries into the financial system such as existing skills, knowledge and practices while identi- Zambia’s GEWEL. fying avenues to increase women’s access to capital and productivity. Such interventions could further Another avenue that social protection programs be strengthened through social protection links to can leverage is engaging men and boys in women’s agriculture. empowerment which is essential to mainstream- ing gender issues in communities and moving away Despite the challenges faced by South Sudanese from addressing women’s empowerment as “a wom- women and girls, it is clear that there are oppor- an’s problem”. Engaging men and boys at the com- tunities to leverage social protection and jobs in- munal and household levels are critical to support- terventions to increase their opportunities for em- ing women’s empowerment, as suggested by FGD powerment. While engaging with different groups participants who noted that supportive fathers and during both data collection and the validation work- brothers were instrumental in empowering women shop, which took place in Juba, the potential of cash and girls to pursue educational and livelihood goals. transfers was highlighted. During FGDs, girls, wom- This can also include working with male champions en and men noted the positive impact of cash trans- and traditional and religious leaders to raise aware- fers in their households (as program recipients) as ness of the benefits of women’s empowerment and well as their communities more broadly. Cash trans- encourage communities to fight harmful practices. fers were identified as an intervention that could By drawing on lessons learned from projects such help improve women’s empowerment by addressing as Sahel’s SWEDD, the upcoming SNSOP project will key barriers like poverty, food insecurity and lack of engage male spouses through “cash-plus” trainings access to capital. The cash transfer experience in as well as male champions and community leaders South Sudan has been positive, with results showing to increase support for women’s empowerment in an increase in empowerment for women and girls, as beneficiary communities at a more wholistic level. well as increased investment in human capital de- velopment which will benefit future generations. Another key opportunity that was noted by both men and women, is the traditional role of women Further, social protection programs can be lever- as mediators. In FGD’s, men and women noted that aged as avenues to empower women and engage this role could be used to further empower women men to support this change. Various channels can and provide them access to opportunities through be employed to achieve this including “cash-plus” participation in conflict resolution at the household, activities, financial inclusion and actively engaging community and even national levels. Participants men and boys. “Cash-plus” activities, particular- noted that South Sudanese society is characterized ly those focused on human development, can help by being consultative which results in communities beneficiaries develop skills and encourage increased being consulted often on policies, laws and deci- household investment in human capital. Through sions. This could be leveraged to encourage women’s payment systems designed to encourage finan- participation community matters, which is current- cial inclusion of women or the formation and/or ly not the norm. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 53 Box 15. Financial Inclusion in Zambia The GEWEL project in Zambia is a good example of how a social protection program can help increase financial inclusion among women as well as engage men on women’s empowerment issues. GEWEL’s electronic payment system is innovative because it is choice-based. Various payment service providers (PSPs) with mixed coverage are available as part of the payment system and it is the beneficiaries that select the PSP of their choice. As such, PSPs have a strong incentive to increase their coverage and improve service quality to receive as many customers as possible, many of which are women with no previous access to financial inclusion. By employing the PSP of their choice, women are empowered to select the options that best suits their needs and is most aligned with their future goals. This is accom- panied by financial literacy training which includes modules on the use of mobile money and available PSPs, thus resulting in a high increase in financial inclusion among beneficiaries. Box 16. Engaging Men to Support Women’s Empowerment in the Sahel The Sahel Women’s Empowerment and Demographic Dividend Project (SWEDD) aims to improve wom- en’s empowerment in a region where poverty levels are extremely high, and women and girls remain excluded from education, health and livelihoods opportunities. One of the project’s activities are Hus- band and Future Husband Schools through which male spouses are engaged and enlisted to support women’s empowerment in their households and communities. Through these activities, men meet to discuss facilitated sessions on topics including women’s rights, reproductive health, mental health, family planning and hygiene. These schools provide an opportunity for men to discuss their experiences and learn from each other in a safe space. This intervention has been proven to increase male partic- ipation in household work and as well safe sexual and reproductive health practices. In Mauritania for example, religious leaders were engaged to carry out awareness raising activities and training in their communities to reduce child marriage. They have also leveraged radio television programs to spread this message, which over the course of eight months reached 370,000 people. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 54 6. Conclusion Generations of proscriptive cultural expectations efforts have been made at the national level to man- and narrowly defined gender roles have creat- date advancement of women’s rights, these can be ed lasting impediments to progress for women in poorly aligned or outright contravened at the local South Sudanese society. Women have filled a sec- level. ondary role in public and private life, as they have been expected to serve in a domestic capacity to At the family level, the cultural norms are rein- support the family, first as girls in their fathers’ forced and perpetuated by parental expectations homes, then as wives in their husband’s homes. As that daughters continue the same traditions the the archetypal woman lives her life at the direction parents were raised in. From a young age, girls are of a male head of the house, her value is based on expected to take on a larger share of housekeeping service to others, rather than self-determination. As tasks than their brothers and to prepare to be mar- a girl, she is expected to obediently perform house- ried once they reach the age of physical maturity in hold chores and remain chaste to fetch a greater exchange for a bride wealth payment. For families in dowry, and as a wife, she is expected to bear many poverty, financial incentive, and social acceptabili- children and raise them in the customs of the past. ty, the result is these families make decisions that This is at the expense of her individual pursuits, par- deprioritize education for their daughters and effec- ticularly in education and career development, as tively treating them as commodities to be traded these are viewed as unnecessary or in conflict with for necessary financial assistance. This customary the prime directive of being female which is to serve practice and commodification of daughters incen- others as her female forebears have. Deviations tivizes marrying them off at an early age to receive from this model have little societal support at best, bride wealth payments sooner, leading to pervasive and at worst, subject the average woman to stigma- child marriage in the country. tization and increased GBV. There are relatively few role models for girls. With- Barriers to women’s empowerment are multifac- in the community, particularly in the rural areas torial, but most factors can be traced to the root and enclaves of IDPs, there are few women in po- cause of societal views of women being subordi- sitions of authority, such as female teachers, who nate to men, intended only to serve in the private can serve as an example to follow or provide guid- space of the home. The patriarchal norms that ance on making choices, such as alternatives to South Sudanese women live under influence all as- child marriage, that would enable girls to have a pects of gender disparity, including reduced educa- different future. Even if guidance were available, for tional opportunities, limited access to high-qual- girls and women to seek information or make deci- ity health services, and diminished participation sions about their reproductive health or engaging in in economic activities. Entrenched cultural norms sexual activity may not be sought. Adolescent girls are multidimensional and manifest in the differ- anticipate harsh treatment for even inquiring about ent expectations for girls and boys in a family unit, reproductive health, as it is a taboo subject. This is the stigmatization at the community level of non- a reasonable fear; getting caught engaging in these conforming women, and a formally recognized but activities or becoming pregnant can lead to forced variably enforced system of customary laws that marriages (even in nonconsenting circumstances) or uphold traditional values in settling disputes. While violent reactions from the family. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 55 The legal system in South Sudan is a mix of stat- mothers, and their own mothers are not likely to utory laws and formally acknowledged custom- complete their schooling either, which further reduc- ary laws based primarily on oral tradition, and es the motivation of sending a daughter to school. the two often contradict each other on women’s rights. While customary law has been important The detriments to success in education have for maintaining order and incorporating community downstream effects, such as a shortage of skilled values within the legal framework, especially during labor in health care, which combines with poverty conflicts, introducing modern perspectives into the and cultural norms to impede enhancing access law, such as those on child marriage and domestic and utilization of high-quality health services. Of violence, has been difficult. Statutory policy initia- the available health care workers in South Sudan, tives can mandate that child marriage should be the majority are not trained in obstetrics and gyne- outlawed or that gender disparities in the workforce cology, and there is an additional barrier where sex- should be eliminated, but these laws face significant ual and reproductive health services are not being hurdles if they cannot be enforced or respected by sought based on cultural attitudes toward women’s the community that is meant to follow them. The reproductive rights. For an adolescent girl or unmar- conflict between statutory law and customary law ried woman, there is a stigma attached to seeking is particularly important as the latter is the primary sexual or reproductive health care, one that is also mechanism of dispute resolution at the local level. shared by the few available health care providers. As a practical example, a statutory policy to abolish This contributes to a perpetuation of high rates of child marriage needs to overcome the financial in- unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted in- centive to a family in poverty seeking a bride wealth fection, which can also contribute to girls dropping payment. If a community that does not see bride out of school. wealth payments as objectionable enough to report it, and the local legal system supports the practice These are compounding, multifactorial problems despite the government mandate, the statutory law that ultimately prevent more women from devel- will not be effective. Any statutory mandate enact- oping skills to engage in higher paying economic ed without addressing individual family and com- activities. As girls have earlier pregnancies or are munity motivations, mechanisms of enforcement, married off and taken out of school, this perpetu- and the customary law that contradicts it will face ates a cycle of poverty where girls and women are the same hurdles achieving its objectives in a mean- less able to generate income, because they lack the ingful, measurable way. education, skills, and qualifications for higher pay- ing opportunities and if they work, they tend to have Given this context, educational participation for lower productivity livelihoods in the agricultural sec- women suffers from competing priorities fueled tor. Even with government mandates to fill 35 per- by poverty, traditional gender roles, and custom- cent of roles with women, illiteracy and innumeracy ary law. For families in poverty that can scarce- present significant limitations to the available labor ly afford schooling for their children, girls or boys, supply. These objectives of bringing more wom- there is a sort of cost-benefit analysis taking place en into the labor force are further complicated by where a girl, with or without education, can gener- women’s vulnerability to violence, family dynamics, ate a financial benefit to the family in the form of and lack of access to financial services and training. a bride wealth payment. The size of this payment For women engaged in economic activity, insecurity varies and is often staked against factors that prac- in South Sudan leaves them open to violence away tically make a daughter into a depreciating asset: from home, while family dynamics and expectations as girls get older or engage in premarital sexual ac- of fulfilling household responsibilities may create tivity, the payment decreases. Families count on a conflict at home that leads to domestic violence. For bride wealth payment in the legal framework and those women who are pursuing entrepreneurial en- elopement without a bride wealth payment is seen deavors, the customary patriarchal ownership laws as depriving the family of compensation. As a result, create a source of conflict for women because their there is motivation to marry daughters off sooner, husbands controlling their income and they are un- even at the expense of continuing their education. It able to access financial services like loans because is common in the communities for women to serve they do not have ownership of property to use as in private, household roles, and an education is seen collateral. as unnecessary to fulfill their roles as wives and Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 56 The factors affecting women in South Sudan are and economic activities, particularly for rural and mired in the reality that the country is still re- pastoral communities. The availability of govern- covering from violent conflict, has depleted civil ment funding is limited, which has only been exacer- infrastructure, and its economic conditions are bated during the COVID-19 pandemic and austerity suboptimal for the government to invest more ag- measures, and this impairs South Sudan’s ability to gressively in addressing these issues. The conflict address deficiencies in infrastructure improvements has led to extensive internal displacement, which to alleviate these conditions. Ultimately, this is a disrupts livelihoods and continuity of education. The dire situation, and approaches to improving condi- deficiencies in infrastructure provide fewer institu- tions for women in South Sudan therefore need to be tional facilities which requires a greater geographic as multifaceted as the problems they face. distance to travel to access education, medical care, Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 57 7. Recommendations This report recognizes that there are a number of demonstrate a call for transformative political cross-sectoral themes related to the empower- leadership. Crucially, it is only when change occurs ment of girls and women in South Sudan, including at the system-level and trickles down to the others but not limited to GBV, child marriage and pregnan- that South Sudan will really begin to see change on cy, cash transfers, customary laws, and the non-im- this issue, recognizing as well that changing cus- plementation of national and international laws and tomary laws should come from within the South treaties. However, for the purpose of presenting Sudanese society, and at a pace that does not de- recommendations, those linked to cross-sectoral stabilize society. Importantly, this could begin with themes will be presented within respective sectors the honoring of the ratification of treaties and the to outline the specific actions required from each implementation of national and international laws, individual sector. Given the prevalence of GBV, sep- as will be discussed under recommendations to “em- arate recommendations exist for how to address power.” Indeed, the need for politicians, leaders, girls’ and prevent GBV in schools as opposed to in society and women’s advocates, and religious and tradition- more generally. The recommendations strive to in- al leaders to speak out on the importance of girls’ clude a focus on boys and men since they have a role and women’s empowerment, is evident. The recom- in improving the empowerment of girls and women mendations also focus on identifying opportuni- in South Sudan. Many of the recommended inter- ties to support change-makers and leaders within ventions could also benefit them. communities, given their role as the primary drivers of change. The recommendations align with the 4E It should also be recognized that while these Framework (empower, enhance, education and em- recommendations might contribute to change ploy and enable), and include the following: at the sectoral level, findings from this report Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 58 7.1. Recommendations to “Empower” Empower Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Introduce legal and societal change to end Address the duality in the legal system Responsible: MOGCSW the harmful customary laws in which certain customary laws (recog- nized in Article 5 of the Transitional Con- Other(s): Judiciary This can include, but should not be limited stitution) are contradictory to the human institutions, development to: rights of women and children and South partners and NGOs working Sudanese statutory laws. at the community level   Encouraging societal change regard- ing views on customary laws through An important factor to keep in mind is awareness campaigns that particularly that changing customary laws should target religious and traditional leaders in come from within South Sudanese soci- rural and IPDs areas, so statutory laws ety and at a pace that does not destabi- and human rights are respected. lize society.   Engaging men and young boys in socie- tal change activities, which could facil- itate change in societal views (Akechak Jok, Leitch, and Vandewint, 2004).   Pursuing a legal reform to protect wom- en and children by taking the following actions: • Outlaw customary laws that allow child and forced marriages, and honor the ratification of the United Nations Con- vention on the Rights of the Child and as pledged by current President Salva Kiir Mayardit, traditional and religious leaders, development partners, and NGOs • Outlaw customary laws that allow physical abuse of women • Amend customary inheritance laws that prevent daughters from inheriting property from their family • Accord equal status for a woman be- fore courts, honoring the ratification of the CEDAW • Include minimum age of marriage in the permanent Constitution being drafted • Make provision of laws to protect the division of resources in the case of di- vorce or separation Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 59 7.1. Recommendations to “Empower” Empower Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders • Enact laws that criminalize rape • Enact the Affirmative Action Law to monitor the implementation of the 35 percent quota of women in political po- sitions • Implement the prevention of sexual ex- ploitation and abuse (PSEA) policies • Enact an Anti-Gender-based Violence Law (drafted and currently with the Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs) • Prioritizing displaced communities, particularly IDPs and if possible refu- gees given that the situation they face is often worse. This may require adap- tations to the design of interventions to meet their particular needs. Promote women’s participation in public Research shows that women’s participa- Responsible: Executive life and peace agreement processes tion increases the longevity and agenda of government branch peace agreements. Based on an analysis This can include, but should not be limited of 182 peace agreements signed between Other(s): Legislators, to: 1989 and 2011, when women participate judiciary institutions, in agreements, the agreements lasted at development partners, NGOs,   Ensuring that at least 1 of 5 South Su- least 15 years, raised vital issues for sus- and traditional and religious dan’s vice presidents is a woman and at tainable peace, advocated for excluded leaders. least 35 percent of party nominations groups, and prioritized gender equality. and appointments at all levels of govern- Women also build coalitions, bridge di- ment are women, including the national vides, and are less likely to disrupt negoti- legislature and the Council of Ministers, ations (Pelham, 2020). as per the R-ARCSS. The quote has not yet been achieved in the national legis- lature (CFR, 2021) nor any state institu- tion (Republic of South Sudan, 2021).   Enclosing provisions to the permanent Constitution that ensure gender equali- ty and adequately reflect the protection and empowerment of women and youth in all spheres of influence, including eco- nomic, political, and cultural, as per the Revised National Development Strategy (R-NDS) 2021–2024 (Republic of South Sudan, 2021). This starts by ensuring Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 60 7.1. Recommendations to “Empower” Empower Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders the participation of women at all levels of the constitution-making process. It also requires adequate funding signaling commitment from the highest political levels, building capacities to execute such budget, and monitor the R-NDS im- plementation by the civil society.   Carrying out awareness campaigns and training sessions on the importance of women’s representation, targeting staff in national and state governments, poli- cy makers, and parliamentarians. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 61 7.2. Recommendations to “Enhance” Enhance Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Improve the health care service provision Focus group and workshop discussions re- Responsible: MOH, MWRI, veals that one reason that women do not NGOs, development partners This can include, but should not be limited access maternal health services is due to to: poor conditions in the facilities and poor Other(s): Executive branch- experiences with facility staff. community level   Strengthening the service provision, in- cluding building the capacity for the clin- The current centers provide a range of ical management of rape and provision services for women and girls affected by of postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) kits GBV, including medical, psychosocial, le- and mama kits to aid with healthy de- gal, and referral services (UNFPA, 2018). liveries. These centers provide a safe space for girls and women, and services are often   Ensuring that the facilities have the in- located with facilities so that they are not frastructure and resources required for singled out as GBV survivors. However, the effective operation and service provi- sion. This includes access to water, elec- available services provided are insufficient tricity, and necessary supplies in each compared to the scale of violence occur- facility. ring against women and girls (United Na- tions Human Rights Council, 2022).   Ensuring a focus on persons from dis- placed communities, particularly IDPs, and if possible, refugees. This may re- quire adaptations to health care provi- sion to meet their particular needs.   Strengthening the GBV services and en- sure a well-coordinated multisectoral approach on GBV service provision. Incentivize and build the capacity of the Sudan, and further exacerbated by the Responsible: MOH health worker lack of female health workers. Other(s): Development This can include, but should not be limited The few institutions where health workers partners and NGOs to: can be trained are insufficient for the de- mand that exists. Furthermore, updated   Developing and implementing an incen- curricula and proper oversight are needed tive scheme to increase the number of to improve the quality of training. health workers and improve their geo- graphical distribution in the country. In Additionally, health workers often report 2018, the World Bank conducted a sur- low salaries and inconsistent pay sched- vey in Libya among the country’s provid- ules. This makes it even more difficult ers, where over 40 percent would move to a different city in the country for an to provide health services in rural areas, incentive, primarily monetary. Since where majority of the population resides. rural areas have the most difficulty Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 62 7.2. Recommendations to “Enhance” Enhance Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders securing community health workers and providers specializing in women’s health, further incentives should be explored for providers to rotate to rural areas in the country to provide care.   Strengthening and expanding the Boma Health Initiative to support the training and deployment of local midwives and nurses, in addition to community health workers, particularly in rural areas. The initiative should also emphasize wom- en’s health services and provide women with a safe space where they can trust the providers offering services. In 2003 Afghanistan began deploying communi- ty health workers, nearly half of whom were female, as part of its Basic Pack- age of Health Services, with one goal of increasing access to health services in rural communities (Edward et al., 2015). By 2014, over 88 percent of the rural population reported having access to health facilities. Ensure the availability of the women’s One of South Sudan’s unique challenges Responsible: MOH, health care supplies lies in the length and brutality of the rainy Development partners, season. This season not only impacts the and NGOs This can include, but should not be limited terrain, making it is difficult to travel on to: roads which often become impassable, but it floods and destroys health facility   Prepositioning women’s health supplies infrastructure, making it difficult for ser- during the dry season. Special emphasis vices to be received. should be placed on ensuring that sup- plies and medications specific to wom- The season can be of particular burden to en’s and maternal health, including PEP women, particularly in cases where preg- kits, dignity kits, mama kits, and fam- nant mothers may need to reach a facili- ily planning methods are prepositioned so that women may continue to access ty, or women need to travel to a facility to services throughout the rainy season. receive treatment for birth-related com- Due to the difficulties faced during this plications, due to having an ill newborn season, many development and human- infant, or after being raped. itarian partners have turned to preposi- tioning supplies during the dry season Pharmaceutical and supply shortages (World Bank, 2021c). This allows for sup- also result from the rainy season when fa- plies to remain in a hub closer to facili- cilities may not have access to necessary ties so that long trips are not necessary supplies for weeks, or even months. when flooding begins. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 63 7.2. Recommendations to “Enhance” Enhance Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Raise awareness about women’s health Family planning methods have been re- Responsible: MOH and family planning services and promot- jected for a variety of reasons, many of ing their use which are due to cultural norms where Other(s): Development large families are preferable and husbands partners and NGOs This can include, but should not be limited do not approve of external intervention in to: family sizes (Casey et al., (2015).   Carrying out multifaceted education FGDs also revealed that many women do campaigns educating both women and not use family planning methods due to men about the various methods and ben- fear of complications, such as negative efits of family planning. This campaign repercussions from their husbands, in- should not only address misconceptions cluding GBV. about the complications associated with family planning, but it should emphasize the health and financial benefits of using The World Bank’s Sahel Women Empow- these methods. erment and Demographic Dividend Proj- ect successfully engaged religious leaders   Raising women’s and girls’ awareness of to argue in favor of girls’ education, birth the GBV services through multifaceted spacing, mitigating GBV, and other im- education campaigns. These campaigns portant women’s health-related informa- should outline the types of GBV services tion.43 available, and should emphasize the confidentiality of the services provided. The campaign should also outline what constitutes GBV. This should include in- formation about rape and sexual abuse, intimate partner violence, physical abuse, and other forms of GBV.   Educating women (as part of the mul- tifaceted education campaigns) on the importance of maternal health, outline the risks associated with childbirth, and encourage women to seek antena- tal and postnatal care at facilities. The campaign should provide information on where and how each of these services can be accessed and provided. It should also utilize community and religious leaders to communicate information with community members. 43. See hyperlink: World Bank Group (2020). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 64 7.2. Recommendations to “Enhance” Enhance Medium- to long-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Strengthen and map referral systems According to the FGDs, many women do Responsible: MOH, MOGEI, not access services because of the lack MOGCSW, development This can include, but should not be limited of information surrounding access to ser- partners, and NGOs to: vices.   Strengthening and mapping referral systems for women’s health nationwide. This should include services to support women and girls who have been affect- ed by GBV, so that they are able to ac- cess the appropriate service providers, including those providing mental health and psychosocial support services, with- in the appropriate period of time (within 72 hours for survivors of sexual violence).   Strengthening and mapping all facilities where mothers may receive antenatal and postnatal care, and where women can get access to family planning meth- ods and address other health needs. These referral-systems mapping should be conducted jointly in a multisectoral manner so that health, education and social protection and jobs mapping exer- cises are combined and routinely updat- ed to ensure relevant information is al- ways available to those seeking services. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 65 7.3. Recommendations to “Educate” Educate Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Educate communities, parents, and house- More is needed to enhance awareness as Responsible: MOGEI and hold members on the importance of girls’ to the importance of girls’ education. In the MOGCSW education particular, it will be crucial to: get buy-in from religious, community and traditional Other(s): Development This can include, but should not be limited leaders given the importance of custom- partners and NGOs to: ary laws in dictating girls’ rights, includ- ing that to education; and bring boys and   Conducting awareness campaigns par- men into the conversation, so that they ticularly targeting religious and tradi- can be involved in initiatives to empower tional leaders in rural and IPDs areas, girls and women by acting as advocates and community work directly involv- and champions. ing young boys and men (Akechak Jok, Leitch, and Vandewint, 2004).Strength- ening the GBV services and ensure a well-coordinated multisectoral appro- ach on GBV service provision. Support policies and initiatives to improve Girls are more likely to be absent from Responsible: MOAFS, MOGEI adolescent girls’ retention school and drop out of education than boys (World Bank, 2014). Indeed, near- Other(s): FCDO and other This can include, but should not be limited ly three-quarters of primary-school-age DPs/ NGOs to: girls in South Sudan do not receive a pri- mary level education, inhibiting their abili-   Providing free secondary education. ty to acquire basic numeracy and literacy skills, with the gap widening in secondary   Implementing reentry and/ or alterna- education. Therefore, few girls transition tive programs for pregnant girls. from primary to secondary school. For girls who do make it to the secondary lev-   Providing cash transfers, bursaries and/ el, many eventually drop out due to early or scholarships (see above) to cover marriage, pregnancy, and the high cost of schooling costs, including uniform and schooling combined with limited house- shoes, etc. hold finances.   Providing bicycles for girls to get to and from schools, reducing the potential negative impact of distance on their safety.   Providing sanitary products to all ado- lescent girls on an ongoing basis.   Implementing case management sys- tems to support girls who have dropped out. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 66 7.3. Recommendations to “Educate” Educate Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders   Implementing school clubs for boys and girls, and sessions for parents, to be- gin to shift gender norms and increase awareness on sexual and reproductive health issues. Equip schools with the necessary mate- Additional support should be extended to Responsible: MOGEI rials and resources to enhance student’s more schools, to enable them to purchase success the necessary equipment and materials Other(s): Development to support their students. partners, NGOs, and This can include, but should not be limited education staff at the central to: and school level   Providing performance-based grants or school improvement grants to supply schools with additional resources, on the condition that they have complet- ed some prerequisites, including but not limited to a transparent plan for spend- ing the additional finances and which prioritizes the needs of their students.   Ensuring the inclusion of persons from displaced communities, particularly IDPs and if possible, refugees. This may require adaptations to ensure their aca- demic success, including consideration of language and additional materials to ensure their enrollment, attendance and participation. Enhance teacher management and in- The presence of teachers, and especially Responsible: MOGEI centivize teachers (and especially female female teachers, has shown to be import- teachers) in both urban and rural areas by ant for girls’ education, increasing their making the career path more equitable and motivation and encouraging them to stay attractive in school. This can include, but should not be limited For teachers who do stay, a vicious cycle to: is created whereby low salaries and delays of teachers’ renumerations and incentives   Enhancing teachers’ management to im- results in a lack of motivation and poor part learning successfully, and support- teaching quality, leading to these teach- ing initiatives to promote adolescent ers no longer receiving any payment. girls’ retention; Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 67 7.3. Recommendations to “Educate” Educate Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders   Developing incentive strategies to make Discrepancies also exists across urban postings in rural and hard-to-reach ar- and rural areas, with the latter pay- eas more attractive. The incentives ing lower salaries and lacking female could include the construction of teach- teachers. er housing, the disbursement of trans- portation allowances, and provision of childcare, for female teachers in partic- ular.   Decentralizing teachers’ deployment and allocation. Make schools safer for girls and advocat- School programs should raise awareness Responsible: MOGEI ing for GBV awareness and prevention on the value of girls and rights of children and women, risks of child marriage, and Other(s): Development This can include, but should not be limited challenge stereotypes and attitudes con- partners, NGOs, and to: sidering girls as family property. education staff at central and school level   Introducing school programs and con- The importance and effectiveness of in- ducting campaigns to challenge gender creasing GBV awareness toward GBV pre- stereotypes and advocate for girls’ and vention through education is evident. For women’s rights, from the end of primary example, the Good School Toolkit in Ugan- and secondary education. da has been found to be effective in re- ducing violence against children by school   Working with parents, teachers and staff. Further, results from the Right to communities to challenge norms that Play program in Pakistan show significant lead to the use of violence against wom- reductions in several types of violence and en and girls, which could be helpful to preventing and reducing GBV. indicators.45 NGOs should complement such programs, and also target religious and traditional leaders. 45. Findings include: (a) boys’ and girls’ peer-violence perpetration (decreased by 25 percent in boys and 56 percent in girls) and victimization of peer violence (decreased by 33 percent in boys and 59 percent in girls); (b) experience of corporal punishment both at home (decreased by 62 percent in boys and by 77 percent in girls) and in school (decreased by 45 percent in boys and 66 percent in girls) and witnessing of acts of domestic violence (65 percent decrease among boys and a 70 percent decrease among girls) and (c) levels of depression (decreased by 7 percent in boys and by 10 percent in girls) and patriarchal gender attitudes (by 10 percent in both boys and girls). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 68 7.3. Recommendations to “Educate” Educate Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Introduce innovative models to increase Fostering the production of books and Responsible: MOGEI literacy other than textbooks is key to increase literacy skills. This can be done with a Other(s): Development This can include, but should not be limited double objective of portraying encourag- partners, NGOs, writers, to: ing female stories. designers, education staff at central and school level   Producing storybooks based on strong female and male roles to increase liter- acy skills and foster gender transforma- tive teaching through cohesion between genders. Medium- to long-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Increase the provision of cash transfers The continuation and expansion of a Responsible: MOAFS, MOGEI and/or scholarships for girls’ education, cash-transfer initiative has the poten- especially at the secondary level when tial to contribute to further increases in Other(s): FCDO and other most girls drop out girls’ enrollment, and to the best extent DPs/NGOs possible, it should strive to become more This can include, but should not be limited cost-effective and efficient in the execu- to: tion of payouts, and be targeted to the most vulnerable households.   Providing provision of cash transfers and/or bursaries to students in need to Scholarships for high-performing girls to encourage their school attendance and reduce the costs of schooling might also participation. Scholarships for girls to be considered. reduce school costs which act as a barri- er to their education. Improve school infrastructure When girls do attend school, they are Responsible: MOGEI faced with inadequate WASH facilities, This can include, but should not be limited which are common across many of the Other(s): Schools and to: schools. community members, given necessary training,   Building, reconstructing and/or upgrad- Hence, there is a need to build more class- resources and support from ing classrooms. Providing schools with rooms and to upgrade existing infrastruc- the government, NGOs and adequate WASH facilities and ensuring ture within schools. However, insecurity DPs that they are girl-friendly (e.g., gen- has in some cases prevented construction der-specific latrines). and made it costlier (Malik, 2019), as a result, communities, and particularly con- flict-affected areas, have been advised to use locally available materials.46 46. Such as the Constituency Development Fund (CDF). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 69 7.4. Recommendations to “Employ and Enable” Employ and Enable Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Mainstream gender empowerment in the Social protection programs, particularly Responsible: MAFS, design of social protection and jobs inter- social safety net programs, can be lev- MGCSW, development and ventions eraged to mainstream GBV prevention, humanitarian partners, NGOs mitigation and response messaging and This can include, but should not be limited awareness raising. Examples include in- to: corporation of GBV awareness messaging during community engagement or “cash-   Utilizing social protection programs as plus” sessions. GRMs can also increase platforms for women’s empowerment awareness by engaging focal points, male by mainstreaming gender sensitivity champions and the community more and empowerments in program design. broadly to initiate gender-transformative This includes focus on human capital de- dialogue. velopment such as “cash plus” activities and behavioral-nudge interventions. This recommendation could build on the findings of the ongoing ASA titled “En-   Including skill training in the gen- hanced GBV Prevention, Risk Mitigation der-transformative programmatic ap- proaches to support women to access and Response through Social Safety Nets” labor market opportunities, and cash that will develop context-appropriate transfers or credit, so as to increase tools and actionable recommendations women’s control over resources, and to mainstream gender empowerment in manage their own personal and house- safety net interventions. hold finances.   Including awareness-raising messaging in all community and household engage- ment activities to ensure gender sensi- tivity. Also, selecting project and pay- ment sites in consideration of distance and safety issues is also important and can play an important role in risk miti- gation.   Developing strong grievance redress and monitoring and evaluation systems which could contribute to women’s in- creased access to services and net- works.   Embedding GBV prevention, mitigation and response mechanisms into the proj- ect cycle. Ensuring that the design of such interventions are context-specif- ic, given the varying attitudes towards gender and GBV issues in different re- gions of the country (LATH South Sudan, Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 70 7.4. Recommendations to “Employ and Enable” Employ and Enable Short-to-medium-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders 2020). Program design and implementa- tion arrangements must follow in-depth assessments of each location. Facilitate women access to financial Evidence suggests that strengthened and Responsible: MAFS, capital to increase their economic diversified sources of livelihoods increase MGCSW, development and opportunities welfare, consumption and resilience to humanitarian partners, NGOs shocks. This can include, but should not be limited to: By treating capital in a more holistic man- ner rather than just focusing on financial   Providing financial capital to women to capital, interventions can address com- support the diversification of sources pounded challenges that women and girls of livelihoods. Where feasible in urban face. This therefore includes improving areas, it may also involve financial inclu- skills and knowledge given limited ac- sion such as the creation and support of cess to education, to help increase effi- savings groups as well as links to institu- ciency and welfare amount households. tions such as MFIs to increase access to capital in future. Similarly, investments in capital through strengthening women’s networks, which have been shown to contribute to the dif-   Supporting programs that increase ac- cess to networks for women, through ference in business success rates run by the formation of business groups, sav- men and women, will help improve resil- ings groups or even women’s groups. ience and provide women with a support group in times of shock.   Building the capacity and skills around topics such as financial literacy and ba- Further, given the high reliance of the sic business planning to help strengthen South Sudanese economy, on agriculture, economic and livelihoods opportunities particularly by women, it is important to for women. address land ownership and inheritance of women to provide security and key as-   Securing access to assets for women, sets for women’s economic development. particularly land, by addressing harmful customary laws and practices through awareness raising and increased capac- ity to support women and ensure their rights are respected at the communi- ty-level. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 71 7.4. Recommendations to “Employ and Enable” Employ and Enable Medium- to long-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Increase social protection coverage among Social protection can help reduce vulnera- Responsible: MAFS, MGCSW, the poor and vulnerable with a focus on bility by increasing welfare, consumption, development and humanitari- strengthening resilience to shocks and resilience to shocks. It is important that an partners, NGOs strengthening of social protection delivery program designs be based on evidence systems and experiences from South Sudan as well as other similar countries. This can include, but should not be limited to: As women are disproportionately vulner- able to poverty and shocks in South Su-   Introducing interventions that focus dan, increasing social protection coverage on human capital, such as “cash-plus” with a focus on resilience-building can trainings, or programs focused on liveli- help reduce women’s compounded vul- hoods and economic inclusion may also nerability and that of their children. For be considered. instance, long-term, predictable social assistance can have a positive impact in   Investing in the service system in order reducing vulnerability and improving resil- to increase social protection coverage. ience to shocks, with recent findings from This includes prioritizing systems such the SSSNP47 showing that cash transfers as MIS, payments, monitoring and eval- uation, and grievance redress. improved household consumption and welfare during various shocks, including floods and insecurity.   Prioritizing displaced communities, par- ticularly IDPs, and if possible, refugees when increasing coverage. This would The inclusion of human capital-focused involve the prioritization of this group interventions embedded in social assis- during targeting and may require adap- tance, including links to health and ed- tations to program design to meet their ucation, have also shown improvement particular needs. in household and child welfare across a number of indicators. This is another mechanism through which long-term re- silience can be built as women are more likely to invest in their children. Similarly, livelihoods and economic inclu- sion programs have been shown to im- prove consumption, welfare and diversify sources of income which make households more resilient to shocks. Higher coverage of such programs, most of which tend to focus on women in South Sudan, will help address vulnerability and increase empowerment. 47. Results shared in the South Sudan Safety Net Project MTR Aide Memoire and Implementation Status and Results Report (ISR). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 72 7.4. Recommendations to “Employ and Enable” Employ and Enable Medium- to long-term Recommendation Rationale Stakeholders Build on experiences from previous and ongoing social protection programs in South Sudan to leverage lessons learned. This could include experiences from SNS- DP and SSSNP. Upcoming learnings from the implementation of SNSOP in refugee and host communities can also be lever- aged for future consideration. Increase the focus on agriculture sector Given the nature of South Sudan’s fragile Responsible: MAFS, MGCSW, jobs, livelihoods, and links to market inter- economy, a viable sectoral focus is need- development and humanitari- ventions, given the potential of this sector ed for jobs and livelihoods interventions in an partners, NGOs in South Sudan’s economy the short term. This can include, but should not be limited Given the prevalence of informal and to: self-employment, a focus on informal workers is key to help improve productiv-   Building the capacity and skills related ity and welfare. to climate-change resilience and im- proving efficiency; providing agricultural The agricultural sector is identified as one assets, such as seeds, tools, etc.; and with large potential because not only does investing financial capital in agricultural it constitute the bulk of the country’s eco- activities. Where possible, existing infra- nomic activity, but it also remains attrac- structure, such as agricultural training centers, should be leveraged. Estab- tive to a large portion of the population in- lishing links with agricultural extension cluding youth. Indeed, women are heavily programs, livestock, and veterinary sup- involved in agriculture already. port, etc. are also key. 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World Development Indicators, have better choices. https://www.wvi.org/stories/ World Bank Data Bank. https://databank.world- south-sudan/education-and-family-planning-em- bank.org/source/world-development-indicators. power-south-sudans-women-have-better-choices. World Bank. (2020, October 4). World development indi- Yee, V. (2020, March 14). Saudi Law Granted Wom- cators. Population dynamics. http://wdi.worldbank. en New Freedoms. Their Families Don’t Always org/table/2.1. Agree. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com World Bank. (2021a). South Sudan risk and resilience /2020/03/14/world/middleeast/saudi-wom- assessment. World Bank Group. Unpublished man- en-rights.html. uscript. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 78 Annex 1: Definition of Empowerment Empowerment can be defined as “achieving con- measured in both positive and negative ways, e.g., trol over one’s life through expanded choices” (Ox- women’s mobility in the public domain, women’s fam and EU, 2017). It entails a process of change participation in public action, or the incidences of in which one expands on a previously denied ability male violence against women. Third, achievements and makes strategic life choices. It is bound up with refer to what Sen (1985) called “functioning achieve- the condition of disempowerment, referring to the ments”, or the particular ways of being and doing, processes by which those who have been denied the valued by individuals who have the “capabilities” or ability to make choices, who have been disempow- potential to live the lives that they want, and achieve ered, acquire such an ability (Kabeer, 1999). Mak- their valued ways of being and doing. Studies have ing choices implies the possibility of alternatives, measured women’s empowerment on valued func- including the choice of livelihood, whether and who tioning achievements, such as infant survival rates, to marry, or whether to have children, etc. Howev- infant immunization, use of contraception, take-up er, empowerment operates not only through con- of prenatal health care, etc. straints on one’s ability to make choices, but also through one’s preferences and values which reflect Personal empowerment is however only one part of one’s desired outcomes from choices that are made the concept. Relational and societal empowerment (Kabeer, 1999). are also key parts. Relational empowerment refers to beliefs and actions concerning others, and soci- Kabeer (1999) thinks of empowerment as the etal empowerment to the situation of women in the ability to exercise choice in terms of three dimen- broader societal context. Kabeer (1999) considers sions: (1) resources or preconditions, (2) agency or that in a context where cultural values constrain processes, and (3) achievements or outcomes. First, women’s ability to make strategic life choices, struc- resources refer not only to material resources in an tural inequalities cannot be addressed by individ- economic sense, but also to the various human and uals alone. Some individual women can and do act social resources, acquired through social relation- against the norm, but their impact on entrenched ships, family, market, or the community that help structures is likely to be limited, beyond the high exercise a choice, for example, women’s access to price they may pay for their autonomy. Women’s land. Nevertheless, experts recognize the need to empowerment is also dependent on collective soli- go beyond simple access measurements in order to darity in the public arena, as much as individual as- grasp how resources translate into the realization sertiveness in the private. Women’s organizations of choices. Second, agency refers to the ability to and social movements have thus an important role define one’s goals and act upon them, encompass- to play in creating the conditions for change, re- ing one’s motivation and purpose. It tends to mean ducing the costs for individual women, and creat- decision-making, but can also take the form of bar- ing societal empowerment.  gaining, negotiation, or resistance. Agency can be Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 79 Annex 2: Organization of Focus Group Discussions Targeting Methodology T r t Audi nc Girls Positiv D vi nt Group IDP nd Urb n Rur l R fu r s  Moth rs  Moth rs  Moth rs  Girls  Girls  Girls F th rs F th rs F th rs  Bo s  Bo s  Bo s  R li ious/tr dition l l d rs  R li ious/tr dition l l d rs  R li ious/tr dition l l d rs  H lth work rs  H lth work rs  H lth work rs  H d t ch rs/t ch rs  H d t ch rs/t ch rs  H d t ch rs/t ch rs Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 80 FGDs Details Urban No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 1 Mothers 1 12 25-60 a. Tribes: Nuer, Bari, Dinka, Shilluk, Kakwa, Keliko, Madi, and Kuku b. Religious beliefs: 10 Christians and 2 Muslims c. Disability: 0 148 N/A N/A N/A 2 Girls 1 12 14–20 a. Tribes: Bari, Shilluk, Kakwa, Keliko, Dinka, and Nuri b. Religious beliefs: 9 Christians and 3 Muslims c. Disability: 0 149 N/A N/A N/A 3 Positive 1 (Positive 24 13–19 a. Tribes: Bari, Dinka, Achol, Deviant Deviant Group) and Madhi Girls Group b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 1 4 Fathers 1 12 30–55 a. Tribes: Bari, Kakwa, Dinka, Achol, and Madhi b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 5 Boys 1 9 12–17 a. Tribes: Nuer, Kakwa, Dinka, and Bari b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 48. Save the Children team conducted this FGD in Rumbek Town, the capital of Lakes State and the former capital of South Sudan. 49. Save the Children team conducted this FGD in Rumbek Town, the capital of Lakes State and the former capital of South Sudan. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 81 FGDs Details Urban No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 6 Religious/ 1 12 40–70 a. Tribes: Pojulu Bari Didinka traditional Kuku Madi Keliko Dinka leaders b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 4 females and 8 males d. Disability: 0 7 Health 1 9 18–40 a. Tribes: Equatoria and Dinka workers b. Religious beliefs 2 Muslims and 7 Christians c. Gender: 4 females and 5 Males d. Disability: 0 8 Teachers 1 8 25–35 a. Tribes: Bari, Dinka, and Acholi b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 7 males and 1 female teacher d. Disability: 2 e. Appointment type: 7 employed and 1 volunteer Notes: i. A female parent above the age of 19. The mothers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. ii. The fathers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 82 FGDs Details Rural No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 1 Mothers 1 12 20–45 a. Tribes: Dinka, Pojulu, Shilluk, Kakwa, Keliko, Madi, and Acholi b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 150 N/A N/A N/A 2 Girls 1 (in school) 12 15–21 a. Tribes: Dinka, Pari, and Acholi b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 1 (in school) 12 14–19 a. Tribes: Dinka, Bari, Mahdi, and Acholi b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 1 3 Fathers 1 8 30–55 a. Tribes: Pajulu, Kakwa, and Nyanguar b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 4 Boys 1 10 13–19 a. Tribes: Bari, Peri, and Dinka b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 50. Save the Children team conducted this FGD in the rural area of Bor, Jonglei State. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 83 FGDs Details Rural No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 5 Religious/ 1 8 40–70 a. Tribes: Pojulu, Bari, Didinka, traditional Kuku, Madi, Keliko, leaders and Dinka b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 4 females and 4 males d. Disability: 0 6 Health 1 9 25–40 a. Tribes: Equatoria and Dinka workers b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 3 females and 6 Males d. Disability: 0 7 Teachers 1 8 20–35 a. Tribes: Bari, and Dinka b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 2 females and 6 Males d. Disability: 0 e. Appointment type: 6 em- ployed and 2 volunteers Notes: i. A female parent above the age of 19. The mothers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. ii. The fathers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 84 FGDs Details IDPs Areas No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 1 Mothers 1 8 30–55 a. Tribes: Dinka, Nuers, and Shilluk b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 1 2 Girls 1 8 15–21 a. Tribes: Dinka and Mundari b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 151 N/A N/A N/A 3 Fathers 1 8 30–55 a. Tribes: Dinka, Nuers, and Shilluk b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 1 4 Boys 1 12 13–18 a. Tribes: Dinka, Mundari, and Bari b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Disability: 0 5 Religious/ 1 8 30–55 a. Tribes: Dinka and Mundari traditional leaders b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 2 females and 6 males d. Disability: 0 51. Save the Children team conducted this FGD in an IDPs community located in the rural area of Bor, Jonglei State. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 85 FGDs Details IDPs Areas No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 6 Health 1 8 25–40 a. Tribes: Dinka and Equatoria workers b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 3 females and 5 males d. Disability: 0 7 Teachers 1 12 25–35 a. Tribes: Dinka and Mundari b. Religious beliefs: All Christians c. Gender: 2 females and 8 males d. Disability: 2 e. Appointment Type: 8 em- ployed and 4 volunteers Notes: i. A female parent above the age of 19. The mothers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. ii. The fathers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. Refugee Areas52 No. Category No. of groups No. of participants Age group Diversity Characteristics 1 Mothers 1 N/A N/A N/A 2 Girls 1 N/A N/A N/A Notes: i. A female parent above the age of 19. The mothers in this group are not necessarily related to the adolescent girls and boys in the focused groups. 52. Save the Children team conducted these FGDs in a refugee community located in Maban County, Upper Nile State. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 86 Annex 3: Focus Group Discussion Protocols 1. Begin the discussion by welcoming and thanking 6. Indicate that the participants can ask the facil- the participants for attending and introducing itators to repeat or further clarify any question. the facilitators. 7. Ask the participants if they have any questions 2. Engage in a moment of informal “small talk” to before you begin. break the ice. 8. After the discussion session is complete, thank 3. Provide details on the objective of the FGD and the attendees for their participation. the duration of the meeting. 4. Indicate that you will be taking notes. 5. Check the consent forms. If all participants agree to record the meeting, indicate that the session will be recorded for the notes and that the re- cording will be destroyed upon the completion of the project. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 87 FGD Questions Mothers’ Group No. Core Questions Probing Questions Prompts 1 How do you see your role in your   Is this / are these role(s) Facilitators note: Provide the community? fulfilling? following examples to encourage participants to talk if they are not   Did you realize your full or if they have difficulty under- potential? standing the question:   If not, what do you think should   Would you describe yourselves be the ideal role of women in as wives and mothers, or as well society? as workers or professionals, who contribute economically to the family?   Do you think that ideally, wom- en should also participate in the public life of your community, such as becoming politicians, or even contributing to building a peaceful and independent South Sudan, etc.? 2 What women’s rights are you   Are you practicing those rights? aware of in your society/ What prevents you or the community? women in your community from practicing those rights?   Do you think women have the same rights as men?   Do you think it is acceptable that husbands beat their wives? If yes, under what circumstanc- es?   Do you think it is acceptable for husbands to force their wives to engage in sexual activity? If yes, under what circumstances?   Under what circumstances are women engaged in sexual activity outside of married life? What are the reasons? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 88 FGD Questions Mothers’ Group No. Core Questions Probing Questions Prompts 3 Are you familiar with any statu-   If yes, what do you think of Facilitators note: If the parti- tory and/or customary laws that these laws? cipants have difficulty in under- protect women’s rights? standing the term statutory/   What do these laws say about customary laws then the facilita- women’s rights? Or how do tor can help by giving examples. these laws protect women’s For instance, some laws recognize rights? girls’ education.   Do customary laws contradict statutory laws in terms of women’s rights and protection? 4 What are the key challenges   What customary laws state Facilitators note: If the partici- or barriers that confine women about women’s rights, health, pants have not mentioned the fol- from realizing their full potential girls’ education, women joining lowing topics, asked them again in South Sudan, in terms of the the labor workforce? to try to elicit a response: following?   Did COVID-19 aggravate any of   Do women face obstacles in the   Women’s rights these challenges? For example, following areas, and if so, why do you think women have expe- do you think so?   Health rienced more challenges since the beginning of COVID-19? •  Accessing education   Education •  Inheriting land   What do you think about bride- •  Choosing whom to marry   Joining the labor force (having a wealth culture? •  Accessing any health facility paid job) in your community for sexual and reproductive health (child- birth, family planning, etc.) •  Sharing of resources •  Having children custody   Are there harmful actions, such as child marriage, forced mar- riage, pregnancy, abduction, rape discrimination, or violence?   How are women regarded or treated by their husbands and fathers, in the community, or at the workplace? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 89 FGD Questions Mothers’ Group No. Core Questions Probing Questions Prompts 5 What do you wish for your daugh-   What value do you place on Consider these options: ters to achieve in life? What about educating your daughters? your sons?   They go to school until mar-   Do you try to send your daugh- riage ters to school as much as your sons? If not, why?   They go to school and universi- ty even after marriage   Do you think families are forced to choose whom to send to   They find a good husband and school if they have limited re- have many children sources and many children?   They work only in domestic   To what extent have the con- chores, taking care of children flict, floods, customary laws, or family cattle and cost of schooling prevented you from sending your daugh-   They work and contribute ters to school? financially to their families   They become important public figures in the country   Other 6 Have you experienced any health   What are your thoughts about concerns as a result of childbirth? health services offered or health If yes, what concerns? care staff in or around your community/health facility?   Do husbands prevent their wives from attending clinics for delivery? Or do husbands prefer traditional midwives over clinics/hospitals? 7 Do you currently use any modern   If yes, what method are you method for family planning (birth using? Was it difficult for you to control pills, etc.)? obtain access to this method, and what barriers did you face in using this method (husband, health facility, social stigma, etc.)?   If not, would you like to use a modern method for family plan- ning? What is preventing you from using a modern method? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 90 FGD Questions Mothers’ Group No. Core Questions Probing Questions Prompts 8 Has your family faced any unfore-   If yes, what were they, and how   Shocks such as floods, drought, seen difficulties or shocks? well did your family cope with illness, conflict, or death of a them? family member   Do you think girls and women were affected more severely than other family members? 9 How are social protection and Facilitators note: You might need livelihood program benefits spent to use a simple term for social in your households? protection. You can consider using assistant programs, relief programs, or other terms, as ap- propriate to your given context.   For example, on education, nutrition, health?   Are boys or girls prioritized? Do you spend it on yourselves?   Are you able to control these resources, or does it cause conflicts in your home? 10 What would you choose if you could provide additional support to girls and women in your family to help them be safe and have a good life? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 91 FGD Questions Adolescent Girls’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 What would you like to do when   For example, do you want to you become an adult? become a mother and wife? Do you like to go to the university?   Do you want to work, where?   Would you like to become a politician or famous person in your country? 2 Do you support in home chores or   If yes, how often do you help For example, selling tea or food family business? your mom? products   How many hours approximately does this take you in a given day? 3 What are the key challenges or   Are boys and girls treated For example, selling tea or food barriers that girls in your commu- equally in your family? What products nity face in general? about the community? Why?   Have you needed to go to a health facility for health con- cerns? Was there anything that prevented you from going?   Are there differences in health care for boys and girls?   Do families prioritize sending boys to school when resources are limited?   Are you fine with being married to someone your family chooses for you and before you are 18 years old?   Are there harmful actions, such as child marriage, abduction, rape, pregnancy, discrimination, or violence? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 92 FGD Questions Adolescent Girls’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 4 How do your father and brothers   Do your brothers and father treat you? treat you with respect? If girls are working, how are they   Do you think they only look at treated at the workplace? you as bride wealth? Do they hit you sometimes, shout at you, hurt you with bad words, etc.? 5 Have you witnessed violence toward girls in your community? Can you provide examples? 6 What value do you place on going   What do you think you can to school? achieve in life if you are educat- ed, or what barriers prevents you from being able to achieve what you want? 7 Do you wake up feeling like going   What challenges do you face in to school? Why? going to school? or What are your thoughts about   Have you ever faced any girls going to school every day? problem, or are you scared that something could happen to you when traveling to/from your school? What about once you are in school? Please provide details.   Do you feel motivated in your school environment? If yes, how? If not, why?   Do you feel encouraged by teachers to work hard? Do teachers punish students? How?   Does it matter to you whether you have female teachers in your school or not? Are there issues of bullying against girls? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 93 FGD Questions Adolescent Girls’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 7 Do you wake up feeling like going   Are the facilities in good shape? to school? Why? or   Do you think you have every- What are your thoughts about thing you need to learn, includ- girls going to school every day? ing textbooks and materials to write?   What is missing or not work- ing? Please provide details.   Are there any cases of militants occupying the school building? 8 Who do you think are the people   Do you feel that your family   For example, is your family who will help you to achieve your supports you? supportive of your education? future goals, and what kind of Do you receive care when you support do you need to achieve are sick? them? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 94 FGD Questions This FGD seeks to identify uncommon behaviors and/or practices that enable adolescent girls in South Sudan to overcome some of the barriers they face. Also, it identifies hidden resources that could be used to address adolescent girls’ challenges and empower them in a sustainable and locally owned manner. Adolescent Girls’ Positive Deviant Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 What would you like to do when How would you realize that? For example you become an adult?   Do you want to become a mother and wife?   Do you like to go to the univer- sity?   Do you want to work, where?   Would you like to become a politician or famous in your country?   What resources do you have available, or would you use to achieve your goals? 2 Do you support in-home chores or If yes, the following questions   For example, selling tea or food family business? could be asked: products   How often do you help your mom?   How many hours approximately does this take you in a given day?   How do you balance between home chores and doing your homework? 3 Have you faced any challenges in   If yes, what were these chal-   In what ways are girls priori- your community? lenges, and how did you over- tized in the family? come them?   In what ways are boys priori-   Are you fine with being married tized in the family? to someone your family chooses before you are 18 years old?   Are boys and girls treated Why? equally in your family? What about the community? Why? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 95 Adolescent Girls’ Positive Deviant Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 3 Have you faced any challenges in   Are there harmful actions, such   Are there differences in health your community? as child marriage, abduction, care for boys and girls? rape, pregnancy, discrimination, and violence? In your opinion,   Do families prioritize sending what would you do to eliminate boys to school when resources these actions? are limited?   Have you needed to go to a health facility for health rea- sons? Was there anything that prevented you from going? 4 What women’s rights are you Are you practicing those rights? aware of in your society/ community?   If yes, how did you learn about these rights? Please provide details.   If not, what prevents you from practicing those rights? 5 How do your father and brothers If have been mistreated, what did   Do your brothers and father treat you? you do, or what prevented you treat you with respect? from taking action? If girls are working, how are they   Do you think they only look at treated at the workplace? you as bride wealth? Do they hit you sometimes, shout at you, hurt you with bad words, etc.? 6 Have you witnessed violence   If yes, how did you act? toward girls in your community? Can you provide examples? 7 What value do you place on going   What do you think you can to school? achieve in life if you are edu- cated?   Is there anything that could prevent you from doing so? How did you overcome this barrier? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 96 Adolescent Girls’ Positive Deviant Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 8 Do you wake up feeling like going   What challenges do you face in to school? Why? going to school? How do you act upon those challenges? What are your thoughts on girls going to school every day?   Have you ever faced any problem, or are you scared that something could happen to you when traveling to/from your school? What about once you are in school? Please provide details. What did you do?   Do you feel motivated in your school environment? If yes, how? If not, why?   Do you feel encouraged by teachers to work hard? Do teachers punish students? How?   Does it matter to you whether you have female teachers in your school or not? Why?   Have you faced bullying against you because you are a girl? If yes, what did you do?   Are the facilities in good shape?   Do you think you have ev- erything you need to learn, including textbooks and writing materials? If not, how do you cope with these circumstances?   What is missing or not work- ing? Please provide details.   Are there any cases of militants occupying the school building? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 97 Adolescent Girls’ Positive Deviant Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 9 Based on your personal experi-   How did they support you?   Is your family supportive of ence, who has supported you so your education? far?   Do you receive care when you are sick? 10 Who do you think are the people   What kind of support do you who will help you to achieve your need to achieve your goals? future goals? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 98 FGD Questions Fathers’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 What do you think should be the   What do you do to support girls   Is a woman’s role only of a ideal role of women in society? and women in your commu- mother and wife, or should nities, and what else do you women also contribute eco- What do you think is your role as wish to do to be able to support nomically to the family, partic- father and husband in supporting them? ipate in the public life of your their wives and daughters? community, become politicians, or even participate in your country’s peace agreements, etc.? 2 What women’s rights do you   Do you think it is acceptable stand for? that husbands beat their wives? If yes, under what circumstances?   Do you think it is acceptable for husbands to force their wives to engage in sexual activity? If yes, under what circumstances?   How are women regarded or treated by their husbands and fathers?   Do you think women have expe- rienced more violence since the beginning of COVID-19? 3 Do you think women should have   To what extent has conflict, access to education and health customary laws, and cost of facilities in your community for schooling prevented you from taking care of their sexual and sending your daughters to reproductive health (childbirth, school? family planning, etc.)? Also, what do you think about women who   How can men support economi- are economically active? cally active women? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 99 FGD Questions Fathers’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 4 Are you familiar with any statu-   If yes, what do you think of   Do you prefer to follow custom- tory and/or customary laws that these laws? ary laws in your community protect women’s rights? that may contradict statutory   If no, mention that women have laws that provide rights to rights, protected by South Su- women? danese and international laws, such as accessing education, inheriting land, choosing whom to marry, and that These laws protect girls and women from harmful actions, such as child marriage, discrimination, and violence. Then, ask: what do you think of all these laws? 5 What do you wish for your daugh-   What value do you place on Consider these options: ters to achieve in life? What about educating your daughters? your sons?   They go to school until mar-   Do you try to send your daugh- riage ters to school as much as your sons? If not, why?   They go to school/university even after marriage   Are families forced to choose whom to send to school if they   They find a good family and have limited resources and have many children many children?   They work only in domestic chores, taking care of children or family cattle   They work and contribute financially to their families   They become important public figures in the country   Other 6 What do you think of family plan- ning methods? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 100 FGD Questions Fathers’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 7 Has your family faced any unfore-   If yes, what were they, and how   Shocks such as floods, drought, seen difficulties or shocks? well did your family cope with illness, or death of a family them? member?   Do you think girls and women were affected more severely than other family members? 8 How are social protection and   For example, on education, livelihood program benefits spent nutrition, health? in your households?   Are boys or girls prioritized? Do you spend it on yourselves?   Are you able to control these resources, or does it cause conflicts in your home? 9 What would you choose if you could provide additional support to girls and women in your family to help them be safe and have a good life? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 101 FGD Questions Boys’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 What do you think should be the   Think of a young sister you ideal role of women in society? have. What would you like for What do you think is the role her to become when she grows of a father, brother, and husband up? in supporting his wife and daughters?   Is women’s role only of a mother and wife, or should they also contribute economically to the family, participate in the public life of your community, become a politician, or even participate in your country’s peace agree- ments, etc.? 2 Do you support in home chores?   If yes, how often?   Do you help on this more or less than your sisters? 3 Do you have to work to help your   If yes, are you paid for this? family? 4 What are the key challenges or   Are boys and girls treated   Regarding access to school, barriers that girls in your commu- equally in your family? What health care, and food, for nity face in general? about the community? Why? instance   Are you fine with your sister being married to someone your family chooses before she is 18 years old? 5 How do you treat and support   Do you treat your sisters with your sisters? respect?   Do you help them with their homework?   Do you teach them what you know?   Do you think of them as bride wealth for your family? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 102 FGD Questions Boys’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 5 How do you treat and support   Do you hit them sometimes, your sisters? shout at them, say bad words, etc.? 6 Have you witnessed violence towards girls in your community? Can you provide examples? 7 What value do you place on girls   What do you think girls can going to school? achieve in life if they are educated?   Do you like that they are in school with you?   Until what grade do you think girls should go to school? To what extent is this a reality in your family and your community? 8 Are you aware that girls have the right to be educated? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 103 FGD Questions Teachers’ and Headteachers’/Principles’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 What value do you place on girls’   What do you think girls can education? achieve in life if they are educated?   Do you think they have the po- tential to achieve their goals?   What are key barriers and challenges that prevent them from achieving their goals? 2 Do you think that having more fe-   What can be done to attract male teachers would be beneficial more female teachers? for girls staying longer in school? 3 To what extent are you satisfied   Do you receive any incentives with your remuneration and for working in your current incentives? location? 4 What has been your experience   To what extent and how does   Do you live in teachers’ ac- traveling to schools? this experience affect your commodation or travel daily to teaching? where you live?   What is the commute time?   Is the means of transportation reliable? 5 Do you think you have the teach-   If no, what is missing? ing and learning materials that you need?   What are your urgent needs? 6 To what extent do you think   What discipline methods do you the school is safe for girls and use? Are they effective? conducive to learning? What are the main concerns in terms of the   Do you prefer to teach female school environment? or male students? Why? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 104 FGD Questions Teachers’ and Headteachers’/Principles’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 7 Are the school facilities in good   Are the classrooms crowded? shape?   Do you have access to basic services such as water, electri- city, separate restrooms for men and women?   Is your school fenced? Is it needed? 8 To what extent girls are acquiring   What type of skills are they   Do you think mentorship needed skills in school? acquiring? Is this sufficient? programs would help?   What other skills need to be incorporated?   What suggestions would you provide to enhance girls learn- ing and skills improvement? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 105 FGD Questions Health Workers’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 In your opinion, what are some reasons that women may not come to the health facility for reproductive health needs? 2 Do you treat all women the same   Are there reasons that you when they come into the facility? would treat some differently from others? 3 Do you feel that there is enough   If not, what are the gaps? health staff to address the health needs of women and girls in your   What needs are going community? unaddressed? 4 To what extent are you satisfied   Do you receive any incentives with your remuneration and for working in your current incentives? location? 5 Do you feel that your facility is   What are some things that able to provide adequate health would improve health care care for women and girls? treatment for women and girls at your facility? 6 Where do people most commonly seek help when they are exposed to gender-based violence? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 106 FGD Questions Religious/ Traditional Leaders’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 1 What is the importance   How do these laws protect girls of customary laws for your and women? community?   What do you think of the discrepancies between customary laws and statutory laws regarding the following girls’ and women’s rights? •  Right to girls’ education •  Right to choose whom to marry •  Right to inherit land •  Right to engage in economic activity •  Prohibition of violence against women •  Prohibition of child marriage   To what extent do you think customary laws need to evolve to better address today’s problems? 2 What do you think should be the   How do you personally support   Is their role only of a mother ideal role of women in society? girls and women achieving and wife, or should they also things in their lives (regarding contribute economically to the any aspect of their families, family, participate in the public education, economic activity, life of your community, become or other)? politicians, or even participate in your country’s peace   What else would you wish to be agreements, etc.? able to do for them? 3 What barriers do women and girls   Do you think that Form 8   What do you think prevents in your community face in access- (having a woman report to women and girls in your com- ing health care? the police after an assault) is munity from seeking health necessary before they seek care at facilities? assistance at a health facility? Please explain.   Do you think your communi- ty needs more female health workers to assist with birth and other reproductive health issues women may face? Please explain. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 107 FGD Questions Religious/ Traditional Leaders’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 4 Do you feel that it is acceptable   What does the community, as for a husband to hit his wife a whole, do to protect girls and (wives)? If so, under what women from GBV? circumstances?   What impact do you think GBV has had on the health of women and girls in your community?   Has the problem of GBV in this community gotten worse, bet- ter, or stayed the same in the last two years, since COVID-19? 5 To what extent do you think girls   Do you think that parents need benefit from going to school until to support girls to get educated university? as much as boys?   To what extent do you agree that the following could prevent girls from going to school: •  Forced marriages for girls ages 12–17 (or even earlier) •  Domestic chores such as taking care of siblings or family cattle. 6 What shocks or unexpected dif-   How have families responded to ficulties, such as COVID-19, lack these shocks? of food, droughts, floods, etc., has your community faced in the past   Have girls and women been year? affected more severely?   What can be done for girls and women to be better protected, so that they are not (severely) affected by shocks? 7 How common is it for women to   What type of work do they do? work in your community? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 108 FGD Questions Religious/ Traditional Leaders’ Group No. Core Questions Secondary Questions Prompts 8 What are some of the barriers that women face to be able to work, or to have better employment or business profit? 9 How has your community   What is the role of men in sup- addressed such barriers? porting women to have better employment opportunities or are able to start their own small businesses?   How can supporting women’s employment be improved in your community?   What programs are active in your community to support women?   How can social protection and livelihood programs be leveraged to further empower women? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 109 Annex 4: Key Informants Stakeholder Organization Name   Ms. Regina Ossa Lullo The Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare   Mr. Emmanuel Ladu Laku Ministry of General Education and   Ms. Esther Akumu Achire Instruction   Mr. Peter Mazedi Ministry of Agriculture and Food Government Security   Dr. Leju George   Ms. Sunday Imunu Ministry of Health   Ms. Buchay Othom Rago   Ms. Glory Makena International Rescue Committee   Mr. Daniel Musa NGOs Plan International   Mr. Taban Michael UNICEF South Sudan   Ms. Wongani Grace Taulo UN Women   Mr. Edfas Mkandawire Development Partners Save the Children   Ms. Ponny Tekila   Ms. Louise Leak Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 110 Annex 5: Key Informant Interview Protocols 1. Begin by providing the following introductory 5. Ask for permission to record the interview and in- comments: dicate that the recording will be destroyed upon the completion of the project. a. Welcome and thank the interviewees for vol- unteering to participate. 6. Indicate that you will be taking notes. b. Introduce yourself. 7. Commence the discussion using the key ques- tions as a guide. 2. Engage in a moment of informal “small talk” to break the ice. 8. Wrap up the interview by asking an exit question and thanking the interviewees for their 3. Give a very brief overview of the project, and pro- participation. vide details on the objective and duration of the interview. 4. Confirm that the consent forms have been signed (to be sent before the interview). Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 111 Key Questions Interview protocol for government officials • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. • Indicate whether specific questions refer to central or local level, or a specific ministry. Government Officials Objective Question and prompting Empower Discrepancies between customary What do you think of the discrepancies between customary laws and statutory laws — at central and statutory laws regarding child marriage, violence against and local level women, girls’ education, and women’s economic rights? Do you think that customary laws can evolve? Do you think that the society is evolving toward preferring following statutory and international laws that respect women and children’s rights? Gov. actions to end discrimination Are you aware that South Sudan ratified the Convention on the and violence against women and Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women child marriage — at central and (CEDAW) as well as the United Nations Convention on the Rights local level of the Children in 2015, and that President Salva Kiir Mayardit along with traditional leaders have recently pledged to eliminate child marriage? What are the concrete actions that government is taking to end child marriage and discrimination and violence against women, particularly from their partners? Personal experience navigating As a woman working in government, what can you share about public system — for Esther your personal experience on the drivers or factors that have helped (MOGEI)/Regina (MOGCSW) you to navigate the predominantly male public system and to get at the central level where you are? Actions to achieve the 25 percent What can be done to fill 25 percent of public positions quota for women’s political with women, as committed in the 2011 Transitional participation — at the central level Constitution? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 112 Key Questions Interview protocol for government officials • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. • Indicate whether specific questions refer to central or local level, or a specific ministry. Government Officials Objective Question and prompting Enhance Barriers In your opinion, what are some barriers that prevent women and girls from accessing health facilities for reproductive health needs? In what ways, if any, do you think that COVID-19 has impacted these barriers? Current interventions to enhance What interventions/programs have the MOH implemented access to reproductive health to enhance access to health facilities and reproductive health services services in South Sudan? If there are none, are there future plans to integrate these interventions/programs? Current interventions to reduce What interventions/programs have the MOH implemented to GBV and its impact on women’s reduce GBV and its impact on the health of women and girls? health Are members of the community aware of these services? If there are none, are there future plans to integrate these interventions/ programs? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 113 Key Questions Interview protocol for government officials • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. • Indicate whether specific questions refer to central or local level, or a specific ministry. Government Officials Objective Question and prompting Educate Refugees/IDPs schools What type of schools do refugees and IDPs have access to? Who operates these schools? Do they follow the same national curriculum? Barriers for girls’ education What are the main barriers to bringing girls to school or enhancing retention? Policies and strategies What policies and interventions do you have in place to enhance girls’ access and retention? How effectively is the Girls Education Strategy (2018–2022) being implemented? How do you evaluate its implementation? Additional efforts needed to ensure What are the most urgent needs to improve girls’ access to and quality education for all girls retention in schools? Please prioritize your suggestions. Regulatory framework Is the primary and secondary education compulsory by the statutory laws? What is the impact of the customary law on this? Cost of schooling How much do parents contribute to send their children to schools (direct costs such as fees, and indirect costs such as meals, transportation, uniforms, TLMs,) and in schools’ operation cost (such as teachers’ salaries, water, etc.)? Targeting Which areas have most of the girls who are out of schools, and why? Data availability What gender-disaggregated data you need that is not collected in the school census and would be useful to evaluate the implementation of the girls’ education strategy? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 114 Key Questions Interview protocol for government officials • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. • Indicate whether specific questions refer to central or local level, or a specific ministry. Government Officials Objective Question and prompting Educate The impact of COVID-19 What was COVID-19’s impact on girls’ access to and retention in schools? What interventions were introduced to address the emerging problem? Was it effective? Family and community roles How can grandfathers, fathers, brothers, and husbands become champions of girls’ education in terms of access and retention, especially in traditional communities? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 115 Key Questions Interview protocol for government officials • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. • Indicate whether specific questions refer to central or local level, or a specific ministry. Government Officials Objective Question and prompting Employ and Enable Active social protection What social protection programs are active in the community? How programs—at the local level long have they been active for and what support do they provide? Informal sources of support—at Are there informal sources of support in the community such as the local level the church that help the poor and vulnerable? What type of support is provided? Employment support—at the local Is there any program in this community that helps people find level employment or receive training to find employment? If yes, do women participate in these? How common is it for women to participate? Entrepreneurship Support—at the Are there programs in this community that provide support local level to start or grow small businesses? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 116 Key Questions Interview protocol for development partners • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. Development Partners Objective Question and prompting Empower Effective programs to change social Based on your experience working in South Sudan, what change and gender norms interventions do you think are effective to support social change and gender norms that recognize the important role of women in society (beyond the family and private space)? For example, in the in the political and economic spheres. International aid pressure to re- Do you think that the incentives created by international aid are spect girls’ and women’s rights enough to put pressure on government to respect girls’ and women’s rights, or what else needs to be done, and what can be done by development partners? Enhance Barriers In your opinion, what are some barriers that prevent women and girls from accessing health facilities for reproductive health needs? In what ways, if any, do you think that COVID-19 has impacted these barriers? Current interventions to enhance What interventions/programs has your organization access to reproductive health implemented to enhance access to health facilities and services reproductive health services in South Sudan? If there are none, are there future plans to integrate these interventions/programs? Current interventions to reduce What interventions/program has your organization implemented GBV and its impact on women’s to reduce GBV and its impact on the health of women and girls? health If there are none, are there future plans to integrate these interventions/programs? Educate Barriers to quality education What are the barriers preventing girls in South Sudan from accessing a quality education? Efforts made to improve education What interventions have been tried to ensure that a quality for girls education for girls in South Sudan? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 117 Key Questions Interview protocol for development partners • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. Development Partners Objective Question and prompting Educate Additional efforts needed to ensure What more is needed to ensure a quality education for girls in quality education for all girls South Sudan? Employ and Enable Social protection How do you think that social protection programs provide and empowerment a platform to strengthen women’s empowerment in South Sudan? Opportunities for empowerment How can social protection programs be leveraged to improve women’s empowerment in South Sudan? Social protection and employment How do you think that social protection programs provide a platform to strengthen women’s livelihoods in South Sudan? Opportunities for employment How can social protection programs be leveraged to improve women’s empowerment in South Sudan? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 118 Key Questions Interview protocol for NGOs • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. NGOs Objective Question and prompting Empower Effective programs to change social Based on your experience working in South Sudan, what change and gender norms interventions do you think are effective to support social change and gender norms that recognize the important role of women in society (beyond the family and private space)? For example, in the in the political and economic spheres. International aid pressure to Do you think that the incentives created by international aid are respect girls’ and women’s rights enough to put pressure on government to respect girls and women’s rights, or what else needs to be done, and what can be done by NGOs? Enhance Barriers In your opinion, what are some barriers that prevent women and girls from accessing health facilities for reproductive health needs? In what ways, if any, do you think that COVID-19 has impacted these barriers? Current interventions to enhance What interventions/programs has your organization access to reproductive health implemented to enhance access to health facilities and services reproductive health services in South Sudan? If there are none, are there future plans to integrate these interventions/programs? Current interventions to reduce What interventions/programs has your organization implemented GBV and its impact on women’s to reduce GBV and its impact on the health of women and girls? health If there are none, are there future plans to integrate these interventions/programs? GBV-Help seeking behavior Do women/girls seek help when they experience GBV? Do they tell anyone (family members, other women, health worker, community leader, police/security people/authorities, someone else)? GBV-Barriers to seeking care Are there any barriers in seeking care for GBV survivors? If yes, what particular barriers do women and girls face to report violence, i.e., stigma against survivors, acceptance of violence as normal, logis- tical (cost, distance, hours of operation, etc.), lack of awareness of services, lack of trust in the benefits of services, lack of coordination between services, lack of follow up, or lack of the quality of services? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 119 Key Questions Interview protocol for NGOs • Indicate whether specific questions refer to urban, rural, or IDP/refugee populations. NGOs Objective Question and prompting Educate Barriers to quality education What are the barriers preventing girls in South Sudan from accessing a quality education? Efforts made to improve education What interventions have been tried to ensure a quality education for girls for girls in South Sudan? Additional efforts needed to ensure What more is needed to ensure a quality education for girls in quality education for all girls South Sudan? Employ and Enable Social protection How do you think that social protection programs provide and empowerment a platform to strengthen women’s empowerment in South Sudan? Opportunities for empowerment How can social protection programs be leveraged to improve women’s empowerment in South Sudan? Social protection and employment How do you think that social protection programs provide a platform to strengthen women’s livelihoods in South Sudan? Opportunities for employment How can social protection programs be leveraged to improve women’s empowerment in South Sudan? Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 120 Annex 6: Consent Forms FGDs Consent Form Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan Through Investments in Human Capital (P177736) Consent Form INTRODUCTION Thank you for agreeing to participate in the Focused Group Discussion (FGD) as part of the data collection for World Bank Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA) Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan Through Investments in Human Capital. The ASA seeks to identify entry points for empowering adolescent girls and young women through human development policies and programs in South Sudan. This will be based on a desk review of relevant documents; interviews with government officials, development partners, and NGOs; and FGDs with girls, women, religious leaders, and other South Sudanese citizens (including parents, boys, and men). The FGD will take 90-120 minutes. The World Bank consultants Medakpwe Irene Lawrence Draga and John Garang Ayii will facilitate the discussion. This study involves only minimal risks, which do not go beyond any discomfort you may experience in your daily life. These include dedicating time to participate in the discussion that could be used differently and feeling uncomfortable sharing challenging experiences you have faced. However, the following actions are considered in an attempt to minimize the risks. • You can leave the FGD anytime you wish, without any labor or moral penalty. • You can choose not to answer any question. This consent form is necessary for us to ensure that you understand the purpose of your involvement and that you agree to the conditions of your participation. Would you, therefore, read the accompanying information and then sign this form to certify that you approve the following: FGD-Related Information • The World Bank Project team will analyze the discussion content. • Parts of the FGD, either paraphrased or direct quotations, may be used in the project reports, presentations, and discussion events. Any information from the FGD that will be made available through the World Bank publication, reports, presentations, and the website will be anonymized so that you cannot be identified. - No mention will be made, by name or reference, of the FGD participants. - The FGD notes and summary will be identified by themes. For example, Urban-girls’ Group. • Any variation of the conditions above will only occur with your further explicit approval. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 121 Recording Agreement I understand that the discussion will be recorded only if all participants agree. Noting that access to the interview recording will be limited to the World Bank Project team and the actual recording of the discussion, if any, will be destroyed upon the completion of the ASA. With regards to the discussion recording, please initial next to any of the statements that you agree with: � I agree to record the discussion � I do not agree to record the discussion By signing this form, I agree that. 1. I am voluntarily taking part in this project. I understand that I do not have to take part, and I leave the FGD at any time. 2. The transcribed FGD content may be used as described above. 3. I have read the Information sheet. 4. I have read the Recording Agreement and indicated the statement I agree with. 5. I do not expect to receive any benefit or payment for my participation. 6. I have been able to ask any questions I might have, and I understand that I am free to notify the contacts indicated in this form with any questions I may have in the future. Interviewee Printed Name: Interviewee signature: Date: CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any further questions or concerns about this study, please contact: Name: Manal Kahla Position: Team member, Consultant Email: mkahla@worldbank.org You can also contact: Name: Lauren Justine Marston Position: Task Team Leader, Education Specialist Email: lmarston@worldbank.org Name: Joyce Wani Gamba Position: Team Assistant Email: jgamba@worldbank.org. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 122 KIIs Consent Form Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan Through Investments in Human Capital (P177736) Interview Consent Form INTRODUCTION Thank you for agreeing to be interviewed as part of the data collection for World Bank Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA) Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan Through Investments in Human Capital. The ASA seeks to identify entry points for empowering adolescent girls and young women through human development policies and programs in South Sudan. This will be based on a desk review of relevant documents and interviews with government officials, development partners, and NGOs. The interview will be virtual and will take 60 minutes. This study involves only minimal risks, which do not go beyond any discomfort you may experience in your daily life. These include dedicating time to this interview that could be used differently and feeling uncomfortable sharing challenging experiences you have faced as part of your job. However, the following actions are considered in an attempt to minimize the risks. • You can terminate the interview anytime you wish, without any labor or moral penalty. • You can choose not to answer any question. • You can indicate what information you would not like to be written (anonymously) in the project reports. This consent form is necessary for us to ensure that you understand the purpose of your involvement and that you agree to the conditions of your participation. Would you, therefore, read the accompanying information and then sign this form to certify that you approve the following: Interview-Related Information • The interview will be recorded, and a summary will be produced. • You will be sent the interview summary and given the opportunity to correct any factual errors. • The World Bank Project team will analyze the interview content. • Access to the interview recording and summary will be limited to the World Bank Project team. • Parts of the interview, either paraphrased or direct quotations, may be used in the project reports, presentations, and discussion events. Any information from the interview that will be made available through the World Bank publication, reports, presentations, and the website will be anonymized so that you cannot be identified. - No mention will be made, by name or reference, of the interview participants. - The interview notes, summary, and recording will be identified by numerical code. - The actual recording will be destroyed upon the completion of the ASA. • Any variation of the conditions above will only occur with your further explicit approval. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 123 By signing this form, I agree that. 1. I am voluntarily taking part in this project. I understand that I do not have to take part, and I can stop the interview at any time. 2. The transcribed interview content may be used as described above. 3. I have read the Information sheet. 4. I do not expect to receive any benefit or payment for my participation. 5. I can request a copy of my interview summary and may make edits I feel necessary. 6. I have been able to ask any questions I might have, and I understand that I am free to notify the contacts indicated in this form with any questions I may have in the future Interviewee Printed Name: Interviewer Printed Name: Interviewee signature: Interviewer signature: Date: Date: CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any further questions or concerns about this study, please contact: Name: Manal Kahla Position: Team member, Consultant Email: mkahla@worldbank.org You can also contact: Name: Lauren Justine Marston Position: Task Team Leader, Education Specialist Email: lmarston@worldbank.org Name: Joyce Wani Gamba Position: Team Assistant Email: jgamba@worldbank.org. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 124 Annex 7: List of GBV-Related Resources Provided to Participants Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 125 Annex 8: Workshop Participants In-person Participants Name Title WORLD BANK   Francisco Haimovich Paz Education Specialist lmarston@worldbank.org   Manal M. A. Kahla Consultant mkahla@worldbank.org   Fitsum Zewdu Mulugeta E T Consultant fmulugeta@worldbank.org   Peter Lado Jaden Aggrey Consultant paggrey@worldbank.org   Garang Buk Piol Consultant garangbuk@gmail.com   Moustafa Abdalla Senior Health Specialist mmabdalla@worldbank.org   John Garang Ayii Riak Local Consultant johngarangayii2017@gmail.com   Medakpwe Irene Local Consultant medakpweirene@gmail.com   Joyce Wani Gamba Team Assistant jgamba@worldbank.org UN WOMEN   Edfas Mkandawire Economic Empowerment edfas.mkandawire@unwomen.org   Betty Angasi Program Officer – Gender and Economics betty.angasi@unwomen.org   Jenni Seppanen Program Officer – Conflict Management jenni.seppanen@unwomen.org   Luelbai Macuei Paul Program Officer – Women’s Economic luelbai.paul@unwomen.org Empowerment   Joy Wani Program Officer – Governance joy.zacharia@unwomen.org   Sophie C. Rheault Women, Peace and Security Specialist sophie.rheault@unwomen.org Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 126 Name Title MOGCSW   Emmanuel Ladu Laku M&E Officer and Acting Director of Social loikong21@gmail.com Protection SSSNP Focal Person   Deng Simon Deputy Director for Partners Coordination saikodin306@gmail.com MOH   Sunday Imunu Health of the Department of Sexual and iherelomoro@yahoo.co.uk Reproductive Health (ASA focal point)   Dr. Victoria Anib Undersecretary anibmaj@gmail.com BCSSAC   Abraham Kuch Kuol Acting Director SAVE THE CHILDREN   Ponny Tekila Gender Advisor ponny.tekila@savethechildren.org UNICEF SOUTH SUDAN   Christine Wanjala Education Specialist Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 127 Virtual Participants Name WORLD BANK   Safaa El Tayeb El-Kogali selkogali@worldbank.org   Lauren Marston lmarston@worldbank.org   Vania Salgado vaniasalgado@worldbank.org   Alejandro Welch awelch@worldbank.org   Abeyah A. Al-Omair aalomair@worldbank.org   Sheila Johanna Carrette scarrette@worldbank.org   Ananda Paez Rodas apaezrodas@worldbank.org INTERNATIONAL RESCUE COMMITTEE   Glory Makena glory.makena@rescue.org   Daniel Musa daniel.musa@rescue.org SAVE THE CHILDREN   Nasir Khan Yousafzai nasir.yousafzai@savethechildren.org   James Camden caden.james@savethechildren.org   Louise Leak louise.leak@savethechildren.org UNKNOWN ORGANIZATION(S)   Shakeela Ellahi Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 128 Annex 9: Lessons Learned from the Participatory Approach in South Sudan Lessons Learned from the crucial when embarking on such work. Protocols Implementation of the FGDs should aim to be as sensitively worded as pos- in South Sudan sible, and it is advisable to avoid directly ask- ing participants GBV-related questions. Indeed, questions were worded so as to ask participants 1. Carefully plan the FGDs and prepare an elab- more generally about their knowledge of GBV in orated protocol that provides a step-by-step South Sudan. Also, facilitators should be able guide for the facilitators. This includes how to to ‘read the room’ and refrain from asking ques- start and exit the FGD, the FGD questions, the tions pertaining to GBV if any of the participants group’s composition, the note-taking template, seems uncomfortable. Facilitators should also be and the consent forms. prepared to provide support and resources, as needed, including but not limited to referrals and/ 2. Consider hiring local consultants to facilitate or information for various support mechanisms, the FGDs. Local consultants are expected to have should participants ask or seem as though they entry points/contacts in the community, which might be in need of such assistance. In the con- facilitates recruiting participants. Also, they are text of this study, women and girls seemed open more likely to have situational awareness, which to sharing their thoughts regarding GBV in their is required to facilitate FGDs. However, they could society. Regardless, it is always important to be need capacity-building, guidance, and close mon- aware and sensitive to the potential negative re- itoring during the process. Conducting an orien- percussions of engaging in such conversations. tation session highlighting the objective of the At the same time, it is also crucial to understand FGDs, the protocols, the note-taking templates, the context of GBV in countries, such that appro- the FGDs composition, and the ethical consider- priate interventions and support mechanisms ation is significant for a smooth start. can be designed. 3. Ensure that each FGD is moderated by two fa- 6. Facilitate the work of local facilitators’ by pro- cilitators, at the very least, for effective en- viding access to the internet and printing the re- gagement with the participants and note-tak- quired documents, for example, the FGDs ques- ing. This is particularly important when the FGDs tions and consent forms. are not recorded due to ethical considerations. 7. Collaborate with other organizations in the 4. FGDs might require a facilitator(s) of the same country. Some organizations could have es- gender, especially for FGDs that include women tablished groups and community coordinators, and girls, and when reproductive health and GBV which could facilitate identifying or recruiting topics are discussed. participants. Also, organizations that have field offices can support reaching and conducting 5. Use the local knowledge, experience and ad- FGDs in remote areas. vice of local consultants, teams, organizations, NGOs and DPs to assess the possibility and best 8. Prepare to provide a list of potentially required means of exploring the topic of GBV. Acknowl- resources, mainly when topics such as GBV and edging the intricacies of exploring such a topic is mental and reproductive health are discussed. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 129 9. Avoid promising the participants any future ben- Lessons Learned from Conducting the efits or committing to introducing change, and Validation Workshop in South Sudan clearly highlight the objective of the FGDs. Partic- ipants could join FGDs organized by development agencies seeking humanitarian aid or develop- 1. Have the invitation ready and cleared as soon ment assistance for their communities in fragile as possible. Due to limited connectivity, hard contexts. Promising and underdelivering can ad- copies of the invitation might need to be sent to versely impact the participants’ trust, their en- the invitees. gagement in similar activities in the future, and the reputation of the World Bank. 2. Have a plan B and be prepared for on-the-spot changes. Local conditions might affect the flow of the workshop activities. A contingency plan for Lessons Learned from the each activity and the support of the local team Implementation of the KIIs are crucial in similar situations. in South Sudan 1. Carefully plan for the interview and prepare an elaborate protocol. This includes how to start and exit the interviews, the interview questions, and the consent forms. 2. Establish a relationship with the focal points at each organization to facilitate the identification of interviewees and scheduling of the interviews. An in-person meeting can help establish this con- nection, if possible. Otherwise, a video call could help. 3. Consider the most accessible means of commu- nication to reach the focal points and interview- ees. In contexts where internet connectivity is limited, emails are not the most effective means of communication. Thus, phone calls might be considered. 4. Ask the interviewees to connect from the World Bank office, if possible, if the local internet net- work is poor. This would help improve the audio/ video quality of the conversation and save time. Empowering Girls and Women in South Sudan 130