Global Department for Social Development CHANGE - MAKERS EMPOWERING YOUTH FOR INCLUSIVE SOCIETIES Sonya M. Sultan  ·  Sabina A. Espinoza  ·  Shughla Hellali © 2024 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Chan- ge-Makers – Empowering Youth for Inclusive Societies. © World Bank.” Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; email: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover design: Alejandro Espinoza, Sonideas based on a photo by © Salahudin Drik. World Bank. Further permission required for reuse. iii Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies  Contents Abbreviations vi Acknowledgments 1 Executive summary 2 CHAPTER 1 Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today 5 1.1. What is youth inclusion? 8 1.2. Access to markets 10 1.3. Access to quality services 12 1.4. Access to social, cultural, and political spaces 16 1.5. Adolescence and young adulthood: a decisive decade 18 1.6. Conclusion 19 CHAPTER 2 Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? 20 2.1. Age as a driver of exclusion 21 2.2. Context matters for inclusion 23 2.3. Young people’s life chances are shaped by identity and social affiliation 29 2.4. What does this mean for fostering youth inclusion? 35 Table of Cover contents iv Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies  CHAPTER 3 Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming 39 3.1. Preparing youth for jobs 40 3.2. Targeted youth employment programs for marginalized youth 43 3.3. Youth entrepreneurship programs 47 3.4. Youth interventions focusing on civic engagement 48 3.5. Youth employment and reintegration in fragile, conflict-affected and violent settings 53 3.6. Programs to help youth take advantage of digital opportunities 57 3.7. How to help governments mainstream youth inclusion across sectors 60 3.8. Key take-aways from the World Bank portfolio review 64 CHAPTER 4 The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment 65 4.1. Leave no youth behind 66 4.2. Increase funding for targeted programs to support young women 68 4.3. Greater focus on civic engagement and building social cohesion 68 4.4. Recognize and support youth as agents of change 69 4.5. Consciously make digital investments work for excluded groups 71 4.6. Measure youth inclusion and well-being in WB-funded initiatives 72 References 74 Boxes Box 1. Concepts of youth well-being that consider identity, dignity, and mental health 9 Box 2. NEET rates by region 10 Box 3. Shaping Future Generations—WDR 2007 on youth and human capital formation 13 Box 4. The specific challenges young women face 15 Table of Cover contents v Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies  Box 5. International & national migration—youth as mobile, global citizens 26 Box 6. Which youth are at risk of exclusion? 37 Box 7. Racial inclusion for peacebuilding in Brazil 38 Box 8. Overview of the WB’s engagement on youth employment 42 Box 9. Click on Kaduna Digital Jobs Project in Nigeria. 44 Box 10. Examples of projects with tailored interventions for women and girls 46 Box 11. Youth power in action—insights from Chile’s Jóvenes por el Futuro Network 51 Box 12. Engaging youth through sports 53 Box 13. Engagement on youth in Kosovo—a combination of economic support and civic engagement in a post-conflict setting 54 Box 14. The Innovative Approaches to Prevent and Respond to Gender-Based Violence in Peru Project 56 Box 15. Youth-led online platforms 59 Box 16. Inclusion of indigenous youth in higher education in Costa Rica using ESF tools 63 Box 17. The new World Bank Group scorecard FY24–30 67 Box 18. Measuring youth inclusion and well-being 73 Graphics Figure 1.1: Youth inclusion in markets, services, and spaces 8 Figure 1.2: A mismatch between aspirations and the distribution of workers at different skills levels 11 Figure B3.1: The interlocking concepts behind WDR 2007 13 Figure 2.1: Equity versus equality 21 Figure 2.2: Factors that affect youth inclusion and empowerment 22 Figure 2.3: Working poverty rates in age groups 15–24 and 25+, by region, 2000–2020 25 Figure B8.1: Lending on youth employment by GP 42 Tables Table 3.1: A Typology to organize the youth programming landscape 41 Table 3.2: How the Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) can be used to promote youth inclusion 60 Table 4.1: Typology of youth engagement platforms 70 Table of Cover contents vi Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Abbreviations Abbreviations AI Artificial Intelligence ID Identification Documents CIRCLE Center for Information and Research IDA International Disability Alliance on Civic Learning and Engagement IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring CIVIC Civil Society and Social Innovation Centre Alliance IDP Internally Displaced Person CV Curriculum Vitae IEG Independent Evaluation Group DEDF Djibouti Economic Development IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Fund Development DYS Digital Youth Summit IMF International Monetary Fund EAP East Asia and Pacific IPs Indigenous Peoples ECA Europe and Central Asia IPF Investment Project Financing ESF Environmental and Social Framework ITU International Telecommunication ESS Environmental and Social Safeguard Union EU European Union KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture LAC Latin American and Caribbean Organization LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and FCV Fragility, Conflict and Violence Transgender FCVS Fragile, Conflict-affected and Violent LGBTIQ+ Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Settings Intersex and others FI Financial Intermediary MENA Middle East and North Africa GBV Gender-based Violence MER Ministry of Racial Equality Brazil GDS Global Disability Summit MSMES Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises GPSA Global Partnership for Social Accountability MYAN Multicultural Youth Advocacy Network GRM Grievance Redress Mechanism NA North Africa ICR Implementation Completion Report NEET Not in Education, Employment or ICT Information and Communications Training Technology Table of Cover contents vii Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Abbreviations OECD Organization for Economic UNDESA United Nations Department of Co-operation and Development Economic and Social Affairs OPD Organization of Persons with UNESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Disabilities Asia and the Pacific PAMOJA Project for Advancing Gender UNFPA United Nations Population Fund Equality in Tanzania UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlements S4YE Solutions for Youth Employment Programme SAR South Asia UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees SME Small and Medium Enterprises UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund SNSA Social Norms Specialized Agency UNPFII UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous SOGI Sexual Orientation and Gender Issues Identity UNWOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender SOGIESC Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Equality and the Empowerment of Gender Expression, and Sex Women Characteristic VDP Village Development Plans SPJ Social Protection and Jobs WB World Bank SSA Sub-Saharan Africa WDR World Development Report STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics WHO World Health Organization SWB Soccer Without Borders YiA Youth in Action Table of Cover contents 1 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Acknowledgments Acknowledgments Great thanks are due to Robin Mearns (Global Director, Global Depart- ment for Social Development) and Nik Myint (Practice Manager, Global Department for Social Development) for their generous support and overall guidance. Special thanks are also due to the peer reviewers of the report who provided invaluable insights and feedback on earlier iterations of the report, including Lisa Schmidt, Erik Caldwell John- son, Najm-Ul-Sahr Ata-Ullah, Michelle Rebosio, Oneall Marcy Fenesh Massamba, and Ajay Yadav. The report greatly benefited from many discussions with colleagues inside and outside the World Bank, inclu- ding – but not only – the members of the Community of Practice on Youth Inclusion. The authors also thank Ana Paula Fialho Lopes, Asli Gurkan, Charlotte Vuyiswa McClain-Nhlapo, Clifton John Cortez, Daniel Alberto Sumala- via Casuso, Debbie Mei Si Bong, Deepti Samant Raja, Dianna Piza- rro, Dominik Koehler, Francisco Winter, Hatem Zayed, Huong Lan Vu, Kimie Velhagen, Lelav Ahmed Amedi, Lorena Levano Gavidia, Mayra Lucia Hoyos Benitez, Melike Egilmezler, Najat Yamouri, Paola Marcela Ballon Fernandez, Razilya Shakirova, Ruchi Kulbir Singh, and Zara Binta Goni for valuable data and inputs prepared to inform the report. Last but certainly not least, the report was inspired by many conversations with young activists, leaders, youth parliamentarians and other young changemakers and the authors owe special thanks to them for their generous and insightful feedback and comments. Table of Cover contents 2 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies  Executive summary W orldwide, the year 2024 has already seen several large-scale youth protests—a reminder, if one was needed, that youth want to be heard, want change, and have the power to bring it about. The status quo offers them scant hope for the future. They are willing to organize and protest to bring about changes not just for themselves, but also for society at large. They are leading the fight for more accountable governments, more peaceful and just societies, asking for opportunities for the many, not just the few. The question, therefore, for development agencies is how to support and engage with youth and remain relevant in the future they are envisioning. The World Bank’s (WB) new mission statement (2023) puts youth at the forefront of successful development, committing to track impact for young people through a new corporate scorecard (2024). For youth to achieve their full potential and lead lives of dignity and opportunity, they need to participate and engage in all spheres of life—including economic activity, access to quality social services, and cultural and political spaces. They are looking for opportunities to chart their own paths and make their own choices, in a world where the life trajectories of previous generations are no longer available, because of climate change, conflict, technological change, or job markets that do not generate enough jobs for the large number of youth coming of age in the coming decades. Life for all young people (across all income groups and in most countries) is becoming more uncertain. Yet, there are large segments of the youth population globally that face systemic disadvantages in accessing or participating in existing economic markets, social services, and political spaces. Twenty percent of youth globally are currently neither in education nor employed (NEET), of whom two thirds are young women. Approximately 85 percent of the world’s youth reside in low- and middle-income countries and 600 million young people are living in fragile or conflict-affected settings (Selva and Negro, 2021). Independently of, or in addition to their poverty status or location, certain youth are at greater risk of exclusion due to social identities such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability status, religion, migrant status, and race, among others. This paper presents a review of global evidence and World Bank operational experience and distills lessons to support the empowerment of youth. The review of global literature reveals three fundamental principles: (i) interventions that seek to promote jobs and economic empowerment of youth are more effective when they account for the specific barriers and circumstances that young people face; (ii) voice and agency are crucial, the more so because young people today face challenges that are not easily solved by conventional development initiatives focused on education or jobs alone; and (iii) young people can—and must be enabled to—catalyze greater cohesion and development for their communities. Table of Cover contents 3 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies  The operational review analyzed Bank operations focusing on youth over the past 20 years and identifies good practices that apply these principles across sectors and regions. In doing so, it highlights the significant operational knowledge on this subject at the Bank and identifies recu- rring challenges, including balancing the opportunity to reach large numbers of young people with reaching the most excluded youth. It unpacks how teams have resolved these tensions and opportunities for scaling up good practices. The paper offers six main recommendations for development practitioners: 1. Design tailored, comprehensive support programs for youth at risk of exclusion. This recommendation is a key part of the ‘leave no one behind’ agenda of the Sustainable Deve- lopment Goals (SDGs). Not all young people face the same challenges: gender, ethnic or racial background, sexual orientation, whether young people have a disability, what religion they are, whether they are migrants or refugees—all these factors can have a strong bearing on the opportunities open to them, and to what extent they can benefit from development interventions. Unlocking opportunities for them will require tailored interventions to access services, markets and social spaces: young people with disabilities may need accessible locations or tailored training content to join skills and employment programs, young girls may need safe transport or childcare options, and confidence building interventions to take up more leadership positions. 2. Increase funding for targeted programs to support young women. Youth is an important time of transition for boys and girls, and decisions taken at this age are likely to significantly affect their long-term life trajectories. Yet, for girls and young women, this period of transi- tion can be particularly challenging: they may face the pressure to marry and have children, to drop out of school and work, are vulnerable to gender-based violence and may have limited ability to make their own decisions. Constraints associated with social norms accu- mulate over women’s life cycles leading to limited career options, lower earnings, and less profitable enterprises. Targeted programs for young women which recognize their unique and multiple needs, whether it be access to reproductive health, education, employment opportunities or safe transport, are needed. Young women’s lives are multi-sectoral, and programs for them need to be as well. 3. Invest more in youth programs focusing on civic engagement and building social cohe- sion. In contexts of fragility, or high unemployment, programs that invest and promote the civic engagement of young people as well as their general well-being can be effec- tive in promoting stronger communities, while preparing young people for the future. Governments can support youth to stay engaged with their communities in a positive way, give them a sense of purpose, and build their skills for future endeavors. Strategies include youth empowerment programs, volunteer initiatives, arts and sports interventions, and youth leadership focused projects such as councils and parliaments. Table of Cover contents 4 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies  4. Recognize and support youth as agents of change. Central to the concept of youth inclu- sion put forward in this paper is supporting youth voice and agency, recognizing that youth actively contribute to and shape their community and wider society. Not only are partnerships with youth critical for young people themselves, but also for the successful implementation of development policies. Furthermore, youth inclusion does not begin or end with youth involvement in youth-focused projects. Youth, and youth leaders, should be actively consulted and sought as partners for most of our development interventions— whether in agriculture, climate action, digital development, or energy investments. Youth voice, leadership and partnerships can be fostered by the WB in several ways; such as by (i) having regular dialogue and engagement with youth groups, (ii) ensuring youth have leadership roles in the design and implementation of WB-funded projects and programs, or (iii) supporting youth to establish their own organizations and providing funding for youth-led or youth-focused organizations. 5. Make new digital opportunities and Artificial Intelligence (AI) work for traditionally excluded groups. Digital spaces can reproduce existing inequalities and divisions, unless a very conscious effort is made to develop digital spaces and AI in a way that is inclu- sive and considers the specific needs of different groups. Many of the social norms and exclusionary practices of the real world can be at play in the digital world as well; the rise in technology-facilitated gender-based violence in the digital realm being a particularly poignant example. The report recommends seeing the digital space as more than just a realm that young people are expected to “join”. The WB should seek to support a more diverse group of youth to create tools and spaces that work for young people from different backgrounds, including young people from marginalized communities, and help improve their quality of life. 6. Start measuring youth inclusion and overall well-being in development initiatives. In keeping with younger generations, who define success and well-being in constantly evol- ving and more complex ways, the international development sector also needs to look beyond simply counting the number of young beneficiaries per project, or traditional measures of success such as income, employment status, and economic prosperity. Youth protests at different times in history have shown that even when economic indicators showed no reason for discontent, young people have organized to express their unha- ppiness with the status quo and demanded change. This report puts forward a range of indicators that could be used to measure youth inclusion and well-being, including dimen- sions such as voice, mental-health, ability to make informed and independent decisions, and feeling part of the community. The report also recommends disaggregating beyond the category of ‘youth’ —for instance, identifying young persons with disabilities or young people from ethnic or religious minority backgrounds— since this will allow more accurate assessments of which youth are being reached through WB-funded programs. Table of Cover contents 5 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today C hapter 1 Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today T he World Bank’s new mission statement (2023) puts youth at the forefront of successful development, committing to track impact for young people through a new corporate score- card (2024). This requires a paradigm shift in the way youth challenges are understood, how policy makers engage with them, and in the way governments design interventions that meet a young person’s needs and aspirations. The tenet that investing in the next generation is a key part of development was well-established through the World Development Report (WDR) 2007. That report focused on how to foster human capital and deploy it (for more details see Box 3).1 This paper argues that a youth inclusion framework will help the Bank consider the overall well-being of youth, how to reach different groups of youth to make sure no one is left behind, and to work toward more inclusive societies that are welcoming of and value all youth.2 Today, the goal for World Bank interventions should not only be to catalyze the creation and extension of jobs and services for youth, but also to promote youth well-being, inclusion and empowerment. The sheer scale of the problem warrants urgent action by governments and development agen- cies. With over 1.2 billion young people worldwide, the majority residing in developing countries, there’s a pressing need to address the limited opportunities they face: • Youth unemployment rates are over 300 percent higher than the unemployment rates for adults (Datta et al. 2023); • Globally, more than one in five people ages 15–24 are Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET); • Of these NEETs, 67.5 percent are young women, outnumbering men two to one; • Youth are underrepresented in social, political, and cultural spaces, with only 2.8% of parlia- mentarians worldwide being 30 or younger (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2023); 1 This WDR was followed by a wealth of research around youth and development, in particular in the areas of health, jobs and skills, and education. 2 The UN and the World Program of Action for Youth highlight the many priorities for youth well-being. The UN youth strategy for 2030 suggests five areas to invest in: (i) Engagement, Participation and Advocacy; (ii) Education and Health Care; (iii) Economic Empowerment through Decent Work; (iv) Youth and Human Rights; (v) Peace and Resilience Building (UN 2018). Table of Cover contents 6 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today • Around 600 million youth reside in conflict-affected regions, facing limited social and economic prospects; and • Globally, it is estimated that one in seven adolescents (ages 10–19) experiences depression, anxiety, behavioral disorders, or other mental health problems (WHO 2021). This chapter explains how the youth inclusion framework proposed in this paper will facilitate clearer understanding of the different challenges—as well as opportunities—faced by young people today. Youth development, to date, has often been regarded primarily as a matter of supporting young people in their transition into economically productive adulthood. As chapter 3 will draw out in more detail, this has been reflected in most interventions for youth focusing on education, skills and labor markets. This approach is perfectly reasonable, to the extent that the transition into employment and economic self-sufficiency remains an important aspect of youth inclusion, and the proposed framework does indeed feature “markets” as a key dimension of youth inclusion. However, many of the challenges that young people face today cut across other dimensions of their lives: notably, access to, and quality of, services that young people are offered, as well as the extent to which young people have space to assert their voice and make their own decisions as they transition into adulthood. The transition from childhood to adulthood is changing in many contexts, with new opportu- nities arising from greater education, better health, and new technologies. Recent years are marked by an impressive expansion in education globally, with many developing countries having outpaced the historical performance of today’s high income countries. The average years of schooling completed more than tripled in developing countries between 1950 and 2010, from 2.0 to 7.2 years, a rate that is historically unprecedented (WB 2018). Young people today also benefit from significant advances in health: the global adolescent birth rate in 2021 was 43 births per 1,000 girls in this age bracket, reflecting a sharp decrease from 65 birth per 1,000 girls in 2000 (WHO 2024b). Education and learning raise aspirations—there is a wealth of evidence that young people today have aspirations that often outstrip the opportunities they are offered. High aspirations can be a powerful propeller of development: they can motivate individuals to achieve better educatio- nal, labor market, and other outcomes and in this way, can play a role in contributing to greater prosperity (Fruttero et al. 2023). An emerging generation of young leaders are agents of change and innovation, driven by a strong sense of social justice, who actively craft creative solutions, (Maharani and Suryadi, 2023). They have the potential to shift mind-sets on critical issues, such as harmful gender norms, social inequity, and climate change. Investing in them amounts to the most effective means of ensuring and fostering a sustainable long-term future (UNFPA 2005). Nevertheless, higher aspirations do not automatically lead to better outcomes. There is a real risk that when aspirations are not matched by better opportunities, they can lead to frustrations that herald worse outcomes at the individual and aggregate level (Fruttero et al. 2023). The Tunisian Revolution, for instance, a series of street protests in 2010–11, can be regarded as an outgrowth of higher aspirations, due to better education, colliding with stagnating job oppor- tunities (Campante and Chor 2012, cited by Fruttero et al. 2023). Chile saw similar discontent in 2012 when increased access to universities had raised expectations that were then met with unchanged social mobility, a stagnant labor market, and poverty (Urzúa 2012, Flechtner 2017, Table of Cover contents 7 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today cited by Fruttero et al. 2023). More recently, there have been similar protests by Bangladeshi university students (July 2024) due to the lack of opportunities they see in the public-sector job market and in the private sector (Chowdhury 2024). Youth also face new challenges given rapidly changing realities—from climate change and conflict to unprecedented advances in technology and changing gender roles and identities. What this means is that the trajectories taken by previous generations may no longer be rele- vant, that it might be even more difficult for youth to transition into sustainable jobs or liveli- hoods against a backdrop of AI advances or the creation of green jobs. It thus makes increasing sense—when programming for youth—to invest in skills that go beyond specific jobs and instead empower young people to confidently navigate their changing realities and project their own voice. Chapter 3 will delve deeper into what such programming can look like. The current chapter focuses on outlining the complexity of the challenges and opportunities faced by young people today, setting the scene for an assessment of what has and has not worked well in preparing youth for this complex reality. ͫ Young Woman in Guatemala. © World Bank. Table of Cover contents 8 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today 1.1. What is youth inclusion? Youth inclusion is the process of improving the terms on which young people take part in society—in markets, services, and cultural and political spaces. The objective is for all youth, including those typically disadvantaged, to play a more active role in society and to improve their ability, opportunities, and dignity.3 This paper adopts the World Bank’s definition of youth: as individuals aged 15 to 24. This defi- nition aligns with the World Health Organization’s categorization, which combines adolescents (ages 10–19) and youth (ages 15–24). However, it is important to note that the definition and age range of youth can vary based on cultural and social contexts. Youth represents the transition from dependency to independence, involving shifts from education to employment, new living arrangements, and forming relationships beyond the family. Social norms and expected age thresholds for these transitions vary greatly, hence the complexity of any attempt to establish a strict definition of youth.4 While acknowledging cultural sensitivities, this paper utilizes the World Bank’s definition for practical purposes.5 Figure 1.1: Youth inclusion in markets, services, and spaces • Social protection • Jobs • Youth friendly services • Skills • Electricity • Entrepreneurship • Transport Housing • Education • Credit Markets Services • Health Taking part • Water in society • Political • Social • Cultural • Youth spaces Spaces Ability Opportunity Dignity 3 This definition is adapted to youth from “Inclusion Matters – The Foundation for Shared Prosperity”, (World Bank 2013), which defines social inclusion in general. 4 The UN defines youth as individuals ages 15–24 for statistical purposes and without prejudice to other UN member states. The OECD and ILO define youth as ages 15–29. In fact, many UN agencies refer to young people between ages 18–29 as youth, and in some cases, even include people older still, given that the transition to adulthood has been extended in many contexts. Countries and organizations tend to choose an age range to reflect the changes when young people experience rapid physical, cognitive and psychosocial development. 5 Where the paper cites data based on different definitions of youth, this will be clearly marked in the source reference. Table of Cover contents 9 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today Youth exclusion manifests in three domains: markets ( jobs, entrepreneurship, housing, credit), services (education, health), and political, social, and cultural spaces. Achieving full potential and dignity requires active engagement in all these spheres, as they are interconnected (World Bank 2013). For instance, migrant youth lacking official Identification Documents (ID) struggle to access services like health care or vocational training, impacting their ability to compete for quality jobs and housing. Just changing one element—for example their access to credit, or to quality health care—will have only a limited impact. Social inclusion emphasizes voice and empowerment alongside material benefits and recog- nizes the importance of relationships. Other aspects of well-being for young people that are increasingly considered in industrialized countries but often overlooked in development work are mental health, or social and emotional skills and well-being (Box 1). Neglecting mental health concerns can render adolescents and young adults more susceptible to exclusion, stigma, and engagement in risky behaviors, including suicide, as coping mechanisms, impeding their educa- tional and employment outcomes. Box 1. Concepts of youth well-being that consider identity, dignity, and mental health The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO 2014). Another definition used by UN agencies for adolescent well-being is “Adolescents have the support, confidence, and resources to thrive in contexts of secure and healthy relationships, realizing their full potential and rights.” (Ross et al. 2020). These place more emphasis on relationships (with family, friends, mentors) and connections within the wider community (feelings of being recognized, included, valued, and making contributions), developing social identity, as well as culture (recognizing the importance of specific cultural roots, for example, black communities, indigenous communities, religious groups) (Daly et al. 2024). Gen Z (those born ~ 1997–2012) are moving away from defining themselves exclusively through their jobs and economic prospects. They choose other identities, especially in contexts where good jobs are scarce (Lamont 2023). Social movements and activism by youth on issues such as race, sexual and gender identities, or cultural differences demand increased recognition, dignity, and respect for various groups, irrespective of economic status. These trends highlight the value and contributions of young people to their societies in other ways than achieving economic independence. They seek to protect public goods, such as fighting for the environment (youth climate activists), advocating for peace (for example, demonstrations around the world showing solidarity with those affected by conflict in the Middle East, centered in Gaza) and calling for fair and transparent institutions, as seen in Bangladesh. The growing mental health crisis among youth also highlights the need to embrace broader defini- tions of youth well-being (Marquez et al. 2024; Daly et al. 2024; Aspen Institute and Fresh Tracks 2023). Globally, one in seven persons ages 10–19 experiences a mental disorder, accounting for 13 percent of the global burden of disease in this age group. The most excluded groups often suffer from more stres- sors that cause mental health problems, and the mental health issues in turn can make them feel even Table of Cover contents 10 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today more excluded and vulnerable. Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death in the 15–29 age bracket, with some groups being at particular risk. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex youth, for example, are more than four times as likely to attempt suicide than their heterosexual, cisgender peers. Unless mental health concerns are addressed, adolescents and youth can become more vulnerable to exclusion, take up risky behaviors as a coping strategy, and find it increasingly difficult to do well in education or the job market. Multi-sectoral interventions are urgently needed to address the various dimensions of youth well-being, with aims conceived—and success measured—in a deeper and more nuanced way than solely tracking the number of jobs created (Coffey et al. 2024). 1.2. Access to markets A persistent challenge for youth has been the transition into economic self-sufficiency, especially in the many Box 2. NEET rates by region countries still seeing growing youth populations. The demand for jobs and skills training continues to outstrip NEET (in WBG region NEET rate supply, as is recognized by the Sustainable Development millions) Goals that emphasize supporting youth ages 15–24 with MENA 58% 30.9 education and skill training to transition to employment. In 2020, 22 percent of that age group were NEET, with SAR 53% 130.1 two thirds of NEET being women, highlighting a signi- ficant challenge. The problem is more pronounced in SSA 53% 82.1 certain regions, with 130 million youth out of education LAC 49% 36.8 and unemployed in South Asia, and 82 million in Sub-Sa- haran Africa. In MENA, NEET youth make up more than ECA 39% 28.7 50 percent of the population (see Box 2). NEET youth are NA 36% 12.3 more likely to experience social and economic exclusion; the impact varies depending on the circumstances, but EAP 35% 73.6 is usually long-term, and it is likely to affect not only indi- Source: OECD (2024), Youth not in employment, education or training (NEET) (indicator). doi: 10.1787/72d1033a-en (Accessed on 08 April 2024) viduals, but an entire generation. Creating decent jobs or livelihoods for the rapidly growing global youth population has been challenging. Across various countries, there is a notable discrepancy between the number of university graduates and formal job opportunities. For example, in 2018, 833,000 students were awarded their degrees in Peru while the formal sector only generated 187,000 jobs. Similarly, in 2018/2019, universities in Pakistan and Egypt produced 604,200 and 341,525 graduates respecti- vely, whereas formal job availability fell—by 815,400 positions in Egypt, and approximately 347,700 in Pakistan.6 6 The sources for university graduates in each country are as follows: 1) Peru – II Biennial Report on the University Reality in Peru; 2) Egypt – Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) 2019 Factbook on Graduate and Undergraduate Students; 3) Mexico – OECD. Stat and 4) Pakistan - Higher Education Commission. Meanwhile, the sources for data on formal job creation in each country are as follows: 1) Peru – Central Reserve Bank of Peru and 2) Egypt, Mexico, and Pakistan – ILOSTAT Explorer. Table of Cover contents 11 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today Figure 1.2: A mismatch between aspirations and the distribution of workers at different skills levels 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Countries average Benin Congo Egypt Liberia Madagascar Malawi Tanzania Togo* Uganda Zambia Countries average Benin Congo Egypt Liberia Madagascar Malawi Tanzania Togo* Uganda Zambia Countries average Benin Congo Egypt Liberia Madagascar Malawi Tanzania Togo* Uganda Zambia Low-skilled occupations Medium-skilled occupations High-skilled occupations (ISCO 9) (ISCO 4-8) (ISC 1-3) Reality Desire Note: Data are missing for Tunisia. *Estimations for Togo do not account for sampling weights as they are missing ni the data. Source: Own calculations based on ILO School-to-Work Transition Surveys 2012-15. Source: OECD 2021. Too often, the job opportunities offered to young people fail to align with their aspirations. In many countries, youth feel increasingly alienated from—or simply unable to sustain livelihoods in—traditional sectors like agriculture. This shift is influenced by various factors, including higher education levels, increased awareness of alternative career paths, and challenges such as climate change or conflict that impact the sustainability of certain livelihoods. For instance, a baseline survey in Sikkim (India), (World Bank internal, 2023), revealed that both young male and female respondents expressed a strong preference for working in sectors like information technology (IT) and tourism over traditional occupations. Similarly, in Africa, over 80 percent of students aspire to work in high-skilled professions, with few expressing interests in intermediate-skilled occupations (such as clerical support, services, sales or crafts) or agriculture (OECD 2021). Only 35 percent of youth report satisfaction with their current jobs, indicating a significant disparity between career goals and reality (OECD 2021). Beyond the scarcity of formal sector jobs, addi- tional challenges such as skills mismatch, poor-quality education or training, and suboptimal conditions for the school-to-work transition exacerbate the issue, particularly in developing countries (World Bank 2007). Securing and maintaining decent work is even more challenging for vulnerable and marginalized youth, including young women, youth with disabilities, migrant youth, and LGBTIQ+ youth (United Nations 2008). Table of Cover contents 12 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today ͫ Youth groups are accessing health care in community. © World Bank. 1.3. Access to quality services Although access to education, health care, clean water, and electricity have improved over recent years, young people still often face poor quality services. The role of educational access and quality was a key theme in the World Development Report (WDR 2007) on youth and human capital (see Box 3 below). In 2018, the World Bank World Development Report on Education (Learning to Realize Education’s Promise) stressed that global progress toward better access to schooling for children was not translating into successful learning in classrooms—leaving young people ill-equipped to transition into job markets. The COVID-19 pandemic dealt another serious blow to the quality of education, with around a billion children having their education interrupted for more than a year globally (World Bank 2023b). Similarly, while there have been improvements made over the past decades in child health and survival, there remain significant challenges about healthy development during adolescence and young adulthood. For instance, more than a fourth of girls and women in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot access family planning services, fueling unplanned pregnancies and maternal, infant and child mortality and morbidity. Adolescent and young women’s access to services and resources continues to be unequal, except for sectors such as education, where there has been a long-term and concerted effort to close the gender gap, and now the focus is shifting to keeping more boys in school (Box 4). WHO reports that the leading cause of death among adolescent girls was the lack of access to health services, and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), while for boys, it was road traffic incidents. Among every 100,000 adolescent girls, 554 girls are iron-deficient and 274 do not have access to safe water sources (WHO 2019). Similarly, access to services is even more challenging for adolescent girls and young women in rural areas. An ILO (2015) study revealed that 45 percent of rural girls and women ages 15–49 consider distance to health facilities to be the biggest barrier to accessing health care, compared to just 19 percent of their urban counterparts. Table of Cover contents 13 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today Box 3. Shaping Future Generations—WDR 2007 on youth and human capital formation The World Development Report (WDR) 2007 “Development and the Next Generation,” underscores the pivotal role of youth in shaping socio-economic landscapes and influencing future development trajectories. It emphasizes the importance of accumulating and utilizing human capital among youth for sustainable development and poverty reduction. It outlines five areas of focus—learning, working, healthy living, family formation, and civic engagement. Educational access and quality are pivotal for learning, while skill development and job market support are crucial for meaningful employment. Health promotion focuses on wellness and prevention, while family planning empowers informed decisions. Civic engagement fosters community and responsibility, enhancing economic inclusivity and public services. To tackle youth challenges, three policy strategies were proposed: expanding opportunities, enhancing capabilities, and providing second chances. Expanding opportunities entails developing the human capital of youth with better education and health services, and a smooth transition into the labor market. Enhancing capabilities highlights treating young people as informed decision-makers with access to necessary information and resources. Providing second chances underscores targeted support for those affected by setbacks like conflict, criminal activities, or substance abuse, helping them reintegrate into society productively. Figure B3.1: The interlocking concepts behind WDR 2007 Learning Working Civic Life Opportunities Capabilities Policies Second chances Forming Living families healthily Table of Cover contents 14 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today ͫ Two indigenous young women in the desert of La Guajira, Colombia. © Getty Images. The rapid advancement of digital technology presents both unique opportunities and challen- ges for youth. Since 2007, when the last WDR on youth was published, internet access has surged, with 79 percent of youth ages 15–24 globally now using the internet, compared to 48 percent of the total population (ITU 2021). This digital landscape has transformed communication, job requirements, and access to services, enabling flexible work arrangements, global job markets, and easier access to finance and education.7 If youth have access to the required technology and can access affordable connectivity, they may well have opportunities for online education, more flexible forms of employment, and access to a wider social and economic network. Connectivity can help access new types of jobs, enable remote work, and new digital platforms that enable small businesses to sell their goods—whether online food delivery, transportation, or rental markets for housing and holiday lets. 7 Internet access varies greatly based on the relative wealth of each country. High-income countries have a much higher rate of internet access at home, with 87 percent of children and young people connected, while only six percent of those in low-income countries are connected. Rural areas also experience a significant disparity in internet access, with only 25 percent of children and young people having access compared to 41 percent of those in urban areas. Also, the ability to access the Internet is influenced by factors such as a household’s wealth, income, and living standards. Therefore, one of the important steps toward enhancing youth civic participation is to bridge the digital gaps between and within the youth communities (UNICEF & ITU, 2020). Table of Cover contents 15 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today Box 4. The specific challenges young women face One of the key determinants of the risk of exclusion is gender. Across the globe, young women seem to face more challenges than young men, and equally important—young men and young women face very different challenges, hence ‘gender neutral’ programming is not very effective (Buvinic and O’Donnell 2019; Maitra and Mani 2014). Constraints associated with social norms accumulate over women’s life cycles leading to limited career options, lower earnings, and less profitable enterprises. In March 2024, the labor force participation rate for young women globally was 57.6 percent (compared to 68.0 percent for men). The International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates show that women’s participation rates are usually lower than men’s, with marked variations across countries. Some of these statistics hide the even higher actual underemployment rates for women. The “jobs gap” calculation by the ILO considers that many young women stop actively looking for work or cannot take up new employment at short notice, and therefore are left out of the unemployment statistics. In 2023, globally, the jobs gap for women was 21.3 percent compared to 14.3 percent for men (ILO 2023; ILO 2018; Gomis 2024). Another way to assess the limited opportunities for women to transition to paid work is the fact that young women are three times more likely than men to be out of education and trai- ning (NEET rates). Another key set of issues for young girls between the ages of 15 and 24 is the pressure to marry and have children. As of 2021, the estimated global number of child brides was 650 million. These girls, who are forced into marriage, are at increased risk of pregnancy because they have limited autonomy to influence decision-making about delaying child-bearing and contraceptive use. Globally in 2022, an estimated 13 per cent of adolescent girls and young women give birth before age 18 (this proportion was 10 percent in South Asia but more than double in sub-Sa- haran Africa). Early childbearing, or pregnancy and delivery during adolescence, can derail girls’ otherwise healthy development into adulthood and have negative impacts on their education, livelihoods, and health. Many girls who are pregnant are pressured or forced to drop out of school, which will impact their educational and employment prospects and opportunities. Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to the health consequences of pregnancy and delivery as their bodies may not be physically ready. Globally, maternal conditions are among the top causes of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and death among girls ages 15–19. And even without early marriage, adolescent girls and young women are particularly vulne- rable to gender-based and sexual violence. A WHO report published in 2020 estimates that 120 million girls below the age of 20 were subjected to sexual violence by someone other than a partner. This abuse affects more girls than boys, although many boys do not escape it. Table of Cover contents 16 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today However, not all youth have equal access to these opportunities, owing to inadequate digital infrastructure, high costs of devices and internet access, or lack of digital literacy (WB 2021a; Ananda-Jan and Qasim 2023; Datta et al 2023). About 29 percent of youth worldwide, around 346 million individuals, are not online. African youth are the least connected. Around 60 percent are not online, compared with just four percent in Europe. There is also a digital gender divide— globally, 12 percent more men than women used the internet in 2017. In India, the Fifth National Family and Health Survey data shows that only 43% of women have ever used the internet, compared to 62% of men (WB 2022b). Moreover, the rise of AI and gig work may reshape labor markets, potentially leading to job losses and requiring more specialized digital skills (Cazzaniga et al. 2024). To take advantage of new jobs or economic opportunities created in the digital sector, young people need to have job-relevant digital skills. In surveys carried out by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the gap in digital skills is also a major barrier to employment in this new sector. In 40 percent of the countries surveyed, fewer than 40 percent of individuals reported having carried out an activity which requires basic digital skills in the last quarter of 2021. And only 15 percent of the countries could boast more than 10 percent of individuals who had written a computer program using a specialized programming language in the last quarter of 2021 (ITU 2023). 1.4. Access to social, cultural, and political spaces The critical importance of engagement, voice and agency was highlighted in the Youth WDR 2007. However, as the review of WB programming for youth shows, this is an area where there has been least progress. Governments alone cannot bring about the changes youth seek. It will require families, communities, civil society, and the private sector to engage with youth diffe- rently. Young people frequently feel that they are not listened to or respected during processes of policy formulation, planning, or priority setting (Weston 2022). Consequently, young people are commonly not valued on equal terms compared to adults, limiting their possibilities to actively participate in society and through formal political channels (Lucio and l’Anson 2015). With limited opportunities for formal political participation and growing disillusionment with established institutions, youth-led movements have emerged as an alternative (Collins et al 2016; Generation Unlimited 2020; Ortiz et al 2022; Afrobarometer 2023; Gasch and Retic- ker-Flynn 2019).8 Movements such as the student protest movement in Bangladesh that toppled the government in August 2024, or Gen Z protests against the Kenyan government, or the Arab uprisings in 2011, anti-corruption rallies in India in 2011, political rights demonstrations in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and economic justice protests in Brazil, Chile, or Spain, reflect youth’s desire for greater agency and societal change. Movements like climate 8 Data from the Afrobarometer illustrates this in the African regional context. Overall, young Africans have negative perceptions of their governments and how they tackle their key concerns, and perceptions have been worsening over the past decade. Less than a fifth of youth in Africa approve of government efforts to create jobs, while 25 percent and 41 percent, respectively, are satisfied with the gover- nment’s performance on economic management and improving basic health services. Overall, youth satisfaction rates are around 3–5 percentage points lower than among the oldest respondents (Afrobarometer 2023). Table of Cover contents 17 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today change activism also mobilize youth globally, highlighting their collective voice and demand for meaningful action. Today, student-led protests across the world calling for a ceasefire in Gaza also highlight how young people are trying to influence not only universities and their investments, but also governments. The rapidly evolving digital space has the potential to increase access to social, cultural, and political spaces—connecting young people, and making them more aware of the opportunities they might be denied. This applies particularly for young women, youth with disabilities, or those living in remote rural areas who face greater barriers accessing traditional public spaces. Digital platforms may make it easier to connect or voice their opinions. Platforms such as Facebook have helped with social and political activism; online activism has allowed youth voices to come to the fore on topics such as climate change or the #MeToo movement. At the same time, the digital world poses new risks as cyberspaces replicate or exacerbate different types of violence or discrimination. As noted by the United Nations High Commissio- ner for Human Rights, the violence and misogyny that women and girls face offline can easily migrate into the digital space, women and girls disproportionately face a backlash for speaking out, and there are entities that are using online petitions or tools to push back against the rights of women and girls, particularly around sexual and reproductive health. Digital tools have not only been used to share useful information: there has also been a significant growth of hateful content which can be used to intensify the stigma vulnerable communities already face. Growing research also shows that excessive digital exposure is linked to decreased happiness and mental health issues among youth (Haidt 2024). In other words, it must be remembered that new digital opportunities will not automatically be a force for inclusion, and that youth interventions which seek to foster digital jobs and digital connectivity for young people need to be mindful of associated risks that are extremely difficult to preclude. Table of Cover contents 18 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today 1.5. Adolescence and young adulthood: a decisive decade UN Agencies and the WB have adopted a life-cycle approach—a framework that recognizes the importance of each stage of a person’s life, from early childhood to adolescence and into adul- thood, and how these stages are interconnected. The approach emphasizes that interventions at each stage can have significant impacts on an individual’s long-term development and well-being (Scales et al 2015; Wood et al. 2017). The life-cycle approach means focusing on the unique needs and opportunities that arise during adolescence and young adulthood.9 This is a critical period of rapid physical, cognitive, and social development and critical life choices. Some authors have described this as the “decisive decade” for understanding the trajectories of different groups of young people: “The opportunities and challenges facing young adults in the decisive decade between the ages of 14 and 24 shape their long-term health, family, education and work outcomes. Young adults face a myriad of firsts and opportunities: Making independent decisions, landing a job; navigating adult relationships; having children and attending school. These factors set the stage for their future opportunities. At the same time, this period is also marked by widening opportunity gaps by race, class and gender as young people face varying levels of support and access to resources that can enable or impede their progress.” (Reeves and Smith 2024) The life-cycle approach highlights that adolescence and young adulthood is a critical period to make investments in young people that can help them take up more positive life trajectories. Factors such as family support, access to quality education, mental health resources, and posi- tive peer networks play a crucial role in shaping the outcomes of this decisive decade (Shultz et al. 2019). If certain interventions or support are not provided during this critical period, long-term nega- tive consequences ensue, and ‘course correction’ in later life may be much more difficult . For example, dropping out of school, or getting pregnant because of lack of information about reproductive health, are major life events which cannot be easily ‘undone’. Addressing inequities and unequal access to resources and opportunities at this point in their life can prevent these differences and disadvantages from becoming entrenched and widening further into adulthood and even being passed down across generations (Elder et al. 2003). 9 “Emerging adulthood is considered to be the volitional years , as it offers the most opportunity for identity exploration in the areas of love, work, and worldviews (Arnett 2000). During this time, individuals begin to develop the characteristic qualities necessary for becoming self-sufficient, engage in mature, committed relationships, assume more adult roles and responsibilities, and obtain a level of education and training that sets the foundation for work during the adult years. Characterizing emerging adulthood as a stage in the life course has proven to be beneficial to explain the social, cognitive, and psychological development that occurs during this stage. Research demonstrating continued brain development into the late 20s provides further justification for viewing emerging adulthood as a stage in the life course (Spear 2000)”. (Wood et al. 2017). Table of Cover contents 19 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Understanding the aspirations & challenges of youth today 1.6. Conclusion This chapter introduced the youth inclusion framework and outlined some of the key challenges and opportunities for youth today. Youth, as a broad category, experience disadvantages and forms of exclusion due to age, such as increasingly competitive job markets, limited educational opportunities, a mental health crisis, and limited voice and agency. It is therefore important to target youth as a distinct category in development programming (bearing in mind that not all youth experience exclusion from markets, services and spaces to the same degree). Yet, the inclusion framework stresses that the barriers stopping young people fully participating in society are rarely simple. To date, many development interventions for youth have focused on the transition into paid employment; and while this remains an important dimension of youth inclusion, there are two main messages to take away. The first of these is that socio-economic disadvantage tends to play out across different areas of life simultaneously—those who are least likely to have quality education or access to good jobs are often the same people who have least access to quality services, or to social spaces and decision-making. Disadvantage in one area reinforces disadvantage in another: interventions are therefore more likely to be successful if they tackle multiple dimensions of exclusion. Chapter 3 will discuss in more detail the implications this has for successful programming for youth. The other key message of this chapter is that youth voice—or the participation of young people in social and political space— needs greater attention. Enabling young people to have their voices heard and being able to take decisions for themselves and their communities matters for multiple reasons: it matters because young people clearly care about their world, they get involved in social movements, they voice their concerns, and they can be a powerful force for social change. It also matters because young people today face huge uncertainty—due to conflict, displacement, climate change, artificial intelligence, among other reasons. In many industriali- zed countries, growing inequality also means that this may also be the first generation of young people who will not do as well as or better economically than their parents, with many facing stagnant or declining incomes (Lamont 2023). In this context, skilling or preparing youth for specific jobs may be more elusive than ever—and what success means or looks like may have to be re-evaluated. In such contexts, the kinds of skills that young people need are increasingly those that prepare them to adapt to change, to be innovative and to forge their own paths. Before Chapter 3 presents some examples of how development interventions can promote broader youth well-being, and how they can put a greater emphasis on civic engagement and leadership, Chapter 2 offers a discussion on identifying the young people most likely to be exclu- ded from the economy and society, and some of the structural factors that keep them excluded. Table of Cover contents 20 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? C hapter 2 Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? T he last chapter looked at the challenges that youth face today and emphasized that efforts to promote youth inclusion should cut across different domains or sectors. Access to labor markets as well as quality services need to go hand in hand with involving young people in social and political space—in other words, enabling youth to have voice and take decisions for their own lives and in their communities and society at large. This chapter delves more deeply into the causes or drivers of the exclusion they experience. It highlights the importance of understan- ding the different types of barriers that can prevent young people from taking up opportunities in the labor market, from benefiting from quality services, from having voice and taking part in decision-making. Because some of these barriers are structural and historic, they cannot be overcome through individual effort alone. Beyond their age, many other factors affect a young person’s options and opportunities. This chapter stresses that, like any other social group, “youth” are not a homogenous group. Young people share their age—and age will to an extent determine what young people can or cannot do, how they are perceived and treated in their communities and societies. However, age inter- sects with a number of other social and economic characteristics to determine an individual’s opportunities. An important determinant of opportunity for young people is where they live—whether they find themselves in a context of conflict, fragility and violence, whether they experience poverty, and what the broader macro-economic context is. Globally, youth in rural areas have consistently had more limited access to services and opportunities than their urban counterparts. Beyond such contextual factors, young people’s experiences and chances can be vastly affected by who they are, and what social group they may belong to or identify with. Young women face different constraints compared to young men. Ethnic or racial background, social orientation, and Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sex Characteristic (SOGIESC), whether they have a disability, what religion they are, whether they are migrants or refugees, can all have a strong bearing on the opportunities open to young people. In many instances, the forms of social disadvantage, discrimination, or stigma that young people face is best understood from a historical perspective. Table of Cover contents 21 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Many structural drivers of youth exclusion are intertwined with deep-rooted social norms and institutional factors. Such drivers cannot be addressed through a single youth program, but require the changing of laws, norms, behaviors. In other words, tackling some of the most power- ful determinants of youth inclusion require concerted public policy engagement, in addition to specific projects and programs, over the longer term. A project or program that ensures “equal opportunities” today is unlikely to serve as a comprehensive counterweight to historical discri- mination against and subjugation of certain groups. To move toward more equitable outcomes, and begin to level the playing field, additional, targeted support may be needed for certain groups. Furthermore, a critical complement to youth programs must be engagement on national youth policies that address youth concerns across the whole of government, and all social spheres. 2.1. Age as a driver of exclusion Age is a driver of exclusion that prevents youth from fully exercising their rights. Through an adult-centric approach, young people are often depicted as partial citizens, dependent and with limited capacities, unable to demand their own rights and exercise them (Lúcio and I’An- son, 2015). Consequently, young people are commonly not valued on equal terms compared to adults, limiting their possibilities to actively participate in society and have equal access to Figure 2.1: Equity versus equality Source: Interaction Institute for Social Change | Artist: Angus Maguire. Table of Cover contents 22 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? opportunities, services, and spaces (Weston 2022). Social norms and expectations can limit their autonomy in choices regarding education, career paths, marriage, and family planning. Defying these norms—for instance, the attainment of milestones such as school completion, or starting a family at a certain age—may lead to censure and rejection by the young person’s community and family members (World Bank 2020c). Existing laws and policies in many countries restrict access to services, markets, or spaces for young people. Minimum age regulations can dictate whether they are able to make their own decisions regarding their health, marriage, or financial credit. In some countries, minimum age regulations can contradict each other or be inconsistent. In more than half of countries around the world, the legal age of majority is 18 years while the global average age of criminal responsi- bility is 12.1 years. In many countries, young girls/women are allowed to marry before they have the ability to make independent health choices before 18 (UNICEF 2017). Traditional and formal channels of political engagement often exclude youth. Most countries set the voting age at 18; others at 21. In a third of countries, the law requires people to be 25 or older to be eligible to run for parliament. Persons under the age of 35 are seldom seen in official political leadership roles (UNDP 2015). This highlights that legal minimum age legislation can be contentious, contextual and contradictory. Young people often face stereotypes rooted in a prejudicial attitude to age, which can signi- ficantly influence how they are perceived and treated in society. Social norms and attitudes toward youth and children have been generally rooted in adult-centrism, giving priority to adults in social dynamics. This leaves youth in a “not-yet-adult” status, seen more as passive than Figure 2.2: Factors that affect youth inclusion and empowerment Historical Economic precedents conditions Personal The atributes economy (gender, health, and Youth etc.) inclusion and empowerment Public Family policies environment Community norms and values Table of Cover contents 23 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? active participants with agency (Alminde 2024). This outlook can lead to perceptions of youth as immature, irresponsible, and without agency (Hines and Paulson, 2006; Buchanan and Bruton, 2016). Consequently, young people encounter limitations in social engagement and shaping their own lives. Additionally, their opinions and perspectives are frequently dismissed on the assumption that they lack knowledge and life experience. The fact that older generations do not fully understand the aspirations of youth has been highlighted in many surveys (Lamont 2023). Aspirations—and their frustration—matter because they play an important role in driving the decisions that young people take around education, employment, family planning, and so on (Appadurai 2004; Ray 2006; Sen 1985). In this way, aspira- tions can have a real impact on poverty and broader welfare outcomes (Lybbert and Wydick 2018; Dalton et al. 2016). A Youth Speak survey by the global student organization AIESEC indicated that family, purpose in life, love and friends, were motivating factors that ranked higher than financial reward or achievement for many young people (ILO 2020). Understanding these aspirations is therefore an important part of developing youth policies and programs. 2.2. Context matters for inclusion Young people who grow up in poverty have fewer opportunities, and often cannot develop to their full potential. The intergenerational transmission of poverty perpetuates this cycle, closing off positive pathways for children and youth from low-income backgrounds or margi- nalized social identities. These individuals may leave school prematurely, receive substandard education, and lack social support networks, leading to unemployment or precarious employ- ment (Bird 2010; d’Addio 2007; Torche 2013; Hobcraft 1998). Working poverty is prevalent among youth, with roughly half a billion young people living on less than US$ 2 a day, particularly in regions with extensive informal economies (e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa). Many young people in these areas are relegated to insecure, low-paid, and informal sector jobs, which limits their financial stability and personal development. Poverty also isolates youth socially, hindering their participation in cultural and political activities and causing feelings of exclusion and loneliness (Delahey 2013). 2.2.1. Rural youth versus urban youth, and youth living in lagging regions In many developing countries, more than half of the agricultural workforce (and more than half of the agri-food workforce) is aged 15–35 (FAO 2023). Despite the gradual shift in youth employment away from the land, agriculture remains the primary industry in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Region. Young people in rural areas mostly take seasonal and temporary employment (ILO 2024a). Rural youth also tend to exercise less personal autonomy than do urban youth, especially young rural women who are constrained by social norms and the expectations of their immediate families (ILO 2024a). In Afghanistan, for example, women’s mobility is restric- ted in many rural areas owing to Interim Taliban Administration and increasingly conservative social norms. Table of Cover contents 24 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? ͫ Young farmers in Malawi supported with agriculture commercialization matching grants. © World Bank. The ability of rural youth to successfully transition from youth to adulthood is significantly influenced by various structural determinants. In many countries, poverty and limited basic services are much more common in rural areas; conversely, children and youth enjoy more opportunities in urban areas (UNICEF 2018). For example, access to quality secondary education varies significantly between rural and urban areas. However, as that UNICEF report highlights, the situation is not always as simple as it first appears, since there is often vast inequality within urban areas, such that the poorest in urban areas (typically the residents of urban slums) may face worse outcomes than comparatively affluent households in rural areas (Burger et al. 2020).10 Many countries also have lagging regions where historically there have been poorer develo- pment outcomes and fewer opportunities for youth. Regions such as Casamance in Senegal, Northern Ghana, Northern Nigeria, Upper (South) Egypt, Papua in Indonesia, Mindanao in the Philippines, or Northeast Brazil, have histories of widespread poverty, inadequate services and fewer economic opportunities, leading at times to conflict and secessionist movements.11 10 For example, the poorest urban children in one in four countries are more likely to die before their fifth birthday than the poorest children in rural areas. And the poorest urban children in one in six countries are less likely to complete primary school than their counterparts in rural areas. This reversal of the ‘urban advantage’ is called the ‘urban paradox’.” 11 For example, a total of 84 percent of Nigerians living below the poverty line in 2018–19 lived in rural areas, with 76 percent living in the North Central, Northeastern, or Northwestern regions (WB 2020a); in the Philippines there is a higher incidence of hunger among Indi- genous Peoples (IPs) and Muslims. Around 15 percent of IP households and 17 percent of Muslim households reported hunger prior to 2019, compared to nine percent of non-IP households. Table of Cover contents 25 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Figure 2.3: Working poverty rates in age groups 15–24 and 25+, by region, 2000–2020 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ 15-24 25+ es As rn ro n be d Af ern ro n cifi a ia Af aran Pa Asi ib an Eu ster Eu her As e at ia pe an a pe c a st rth St ar ca ric ric h rn t he rn rn Ea Ea te ou Sa No e C ri ab d t te he th Ame es rn, S b- an Eas Ar ut Su So d W he h- tin an ort ut La So N 2000 2010 2020 Source: UN 2020, World Youth Report The regional differences are also often proxies for ethnic, linguistic and religious differences, and the lagging regions are often more remote, or less urbanized. Geographic targeting of deve- lopment and youth programs for these regions is increasingly common, and often has several objectives: to appeal to dissident groups, create more local opportunities, and reverse outward migration. 2.2.2. Conflict-affected contexts Where populations have experienced intense adversity and stress caused by conflict, prolon- ged violence or forced displacement, the accumulated impacts of such stressful experiences hinder youth’s ability to be integrated into the economy and society. These include missed years of education, unemployment or loss of traditional livelihood opportunities, social rupture, psychological trauma and, particularly for ex-combatants, a loss of status and resources (World Bank 2018). Conflict, violence, and fragility can cause a lack of basic services, such as schools, hospitals, water, electricity. These contexts can also remove opportunities to develop human capital, which in turn will also affect young people’s opportunities to work and earn a livelihood (see previous reference; Hilker and Fraser 2009). This implies that the estimated 600 million young women and men living in contexts characterized by prolonged conflicts or fragility are likely to experience exclusion across several domains (Selva et al. 2021). Table of Cover contents 26 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Box 5. International & national migration—youth as mobile, global citizens Migration levels have been increasing over the past two decades and will continue to do so for a host of reasons such as climate change, conflict, and demographic divergence (McAu- liffe and Oucho, 2024). As the WDR 2023 on Migration highlights, the process can make substantial contributions to economic development and poverty reduction. Migrants often bring skills, dynamism, and resources that strengthen destination economies. Additionally, migrants strengthen the country of origin, offering a lifeline for home communities through remittances. Countries like Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal rely heavily on the remittances from its migrant youth (UN Habitat 2013). Internal migration within a country, both forced and unforced, is also becoming more common among young people and has often accelerated the growth of urban centers. Forced displa- cement has also been increasing (a record 75.9 million at the end of 2023), with the number of IDPs rising because of various conflicts (for example, Sudan) and natural disasters (Türkiye). When migration is driven by the search for jobs and better opportunities, the process can be facilitated by governments of countries of origin (such as the Philippines, or Nigeria), and destination countries (Saudi Arabia, for example, or Qatar). The Philippines has made use of its trained labor force and encouraged overseas migration. Many youths are now global citizens, and their development and opportunities need to be promoted across boundaries. When trying to address the issues faced by Afghan youth, or Palestinian youth, or Nepali youth, we need to consider the diaspora, and the migrant and refugee youth who have been displaced all around the world, and yet remain Afghan, Pales- tinian or Nepali. The WDR highlights the key ongoing and future challenges of supporting, even facilitating, such cross-border movement, and ensuring the protection and dignity of refugees as they pass through dangerous times and places (WB 2023d). Protection of migrants, including economic migrants, is critical in view of the vulnerability of migrants and their potential exploitation and abuse: “Being away from their family and other networks of home communities can have adverse repercussions on young migrants. Frequently the legal status of young migrants remains precarious, which further exposes them to many risks throughout the migration cycle: from pre-departure, during travel/in transit, stay at destination and eventual return. Many of them, especially those working in informal sectors, are excluded from social protection measures. Young female migrants are particularly at risk of exploitation in various forms, including that related to domestic work, which remains a dominant form of employment for many female.” (UN, 2015) Table of Cover contents 27 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Conflict and violence can also create new forms of exclusion, since people may have injuries that lead to disability, or may physically displace people, such that they become Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), refugees or migrants. As highlighted in Box 5, and the discussion of refugee, IDP and migrant youth below, they face a whole host of specific challenges due to their forced displacement. In post-conflict environments, reintegration of ex-combatants and returnees can also lead to exclusion/inclusion challenges. In addition, exposure to violence may result in a loss of trust in political institutions and decreased youth participation in civic activities. While the links between exclusion and conflict have been researched (Hiker and Fraser, 2009; Stewart 2008; UNDP 2016), there is no clear evidence of a causal link. In many cases excluded youth do not turn to violence, and even in conflict-affected countries with a youth bulge, only a small percentage of young men and women participate in violence (Sommers 2008; Hilker and Fraser, 2009). 2.2.3. Economic context The broader economic context of a country significantly influences youth employment oppor- tunities. Certain types of economic growth, such as capital-intensive or extractive industries, may generate revenue but fail to create sufficient employment or improve overall incomes. This is evident in economies heavily reliant on natural resource extraction, where economic growth may not translate into long-term job creation. Furthermore, many economies struggle to generate enough formal-sector jobs to accommodate the growing number of school and university graduates. Consequently, migrant labor becomes common, with families relying on remittances for financial support, as seen in coun- tries like Nigeria, EL Salvador, Guatemala, Lebanon, Nepal and various Pacific Islands (Knomad 2023). Family and community context 2.2.4. The family and community environment in which children and youth are raised play a significant role in shaping their behavior and opportunities beyond economic circumstances. Family dyna- mics can influence youth’s likelihood of engaging in aggressive or violent behavior (Krug et al. 2002). Exposure to community violence, such as crime and drugs, is also associated with increased risk of youth violence (Pratt et al. 1995). Additionally, research suggests that social factors like poverty and racial discrimination contribute to youth violence and risky behaviors (ibid.).12 On the other hand, a supportive and safe family environment, and a high level of education of parents tend to promote youth inclusion (Andolina et al., 2003; Keeter et al., 2002; Ottoni-Wilhelm et al., 2014; Wilson, 2012). Children of professionals are more likely to be active in civic organizations than children of manual workers. Youth from middle-class families are more likely to be encoura- ged to voice their opinions, make their own decisions, and learn to back up their preferences with reasons (Calarco 2018). As a result, the skills developed through these family interactions are not only helpful for academic success but also for taking advantage of opportunities to speak up in school, such as participating in classroom discussions and school councils (Hoskins and Janmaat, 2019). 12 Homeless youth engage in risky behaviors, such as substance use/abuse, at higher rates than housed youth (Owens et al., 2020). Racial discrimination, which undermines young people’s sense of connection to the wider community, has been shown to contribute to youth aggressive behavior and violence (Peterson et al., 2001). Table of Cover contents 28 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? ͫ A young woman with child. © Getty Images. Table of Cover contents 29 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? 2.3. Young people’s life chances are shaped by identity and social affiliation Young people’s experiences and chances can be profoundly shaped by who they are, or what social group they belong to or identify with. As discussed above, young women face different constraints than young men. Ethnic or racial background, social orientation and SOGIESC, whether or not they have a disability, what religion they are, whether they are migrants or refu- gees—all these factors can have a strong bearing on the opportunities open to young people. The specific challenges of each of these social identities is discussed in more detail in this section, including the issue of intersectionality, where the experience of exclusion or discrimination is compounded and deepened due to multiple identities. Understanding the historical context of certain forms of discrimination, and the legacy they leave behind, is critical to an understanding of current patterns of disadvantage. Whether it is understanding why Afro-descendants in Brazil face much higher rates of unemployment or why 95 percent of Roma youth have witnessed or experienced discriminatory behavior, it is important to fully recognize the long history of systematic discrimination against these groups. Even if some of the more formal drivers of exclusion has now been addressed through legal and policy reforms, social norms do not change as quickly. Critical race theory highlights how several generations of enslavement and mistreatment have had deep-rooted negative effects, which may take as long to undo (Wilkerson 2020; Payne and Pane 2020; Kendi 2019). Intersectionality, or the overlap of different identities that can cause exclusion, leads to a signi- ficantly deeper experience of exclusion and marginalization. For example, young women and girls with disabilities have a higher likelihood of suffering sexual and physical violence compared to other women (Garcia et al. 2019). Youth with disabilities are twice as likely to be NEET. The Digital Jobs for Youth with Disabilities report shows that young women constrained by gender norms are three times more likely than men to be out of education and training. 2.3.1. Gender identity and sexual orientation While there are no global statistics about the number of young people who identify as LGBTIQ+, there is consensus that Gen Z are more likely to identify as transgender, nonbinary, nonconfor- ming, or gender fluid, and gender and sexual identity is an important issue around which many have mobilized. “The Global Sex Survey which included 29,000 respondents across 36 countries from January to April 2024, reveals that 44% of global participants aged 18 to 24 consider them- selves ‘not fully straight‘ which is a trend that reflects the broader acceptance and recognition of diverse sexual identitiesby the younger generation. This is no longer a small minority, and the extent of discrimination against LGBTIQ+ youth is often more extreme than against other groups.13 13 Globally, around 76 countries currently criminalize same-sex relations and five countries impose the death penalty on people caught engaging in same-sex activities. In every region of the world, transgender individuals face significant human rights violations. Table of Cover contents 30 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? A focus on social well-being is particularly important when addressing the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth. Marginalization due to sexual orienta- tion and gender identity has been linked to higher rates of suicide (Di Giacomo et al., 2018), mental health disorders (Russell & Fish, 2016) substance use (Day et al. 2017; Kelly et al. 2015) and exposure to violence (Espelage, Merrin, & Hatchel, 2018) among LGBTQ youth (Garcia et al 2020). LGBTIQ+ persons often experience aggression, bullying and harassment. This plays out in different contexts, such as at work, in accessing health care services or in higher risks of police aggression or brutality. The failure to implement existing laws and regulations frequently and profoundly hinders LGBTIQ+ individuals seeking support and protection, and their overall access to justice (Keifer and Arshad 2016; Lesta 2021). Other factors, such as family and community/peer pressure, can also increase the vulnerabili- ties of LGBTIQ+ youth. The most common reason for homelessness among LGBTIQ+ youth of color, who make up a high percentage of homeless youth, is that they were forced to leave or run away from home due to their sexual orientation or gender identity/expression (Lesta 2021). As highlighted above, some youth experience multiple forms of exclusion based on different social identities (intersectionality) and that leads to much more negative outcomes across different dimensions of well-being. The specific challenges faced by adolescent girls and young women are discussed in Box 4. Table of Cover contents 31 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? ͫ Young person in a wheelchair playing basketball with friends in Serbia. © Getty Images. 2.3.2. Youth with disabilities Estimates suggest that there are around 240 million youth with disabilities worldwide, 80 percent of whom live in low- and middle-income countries. Youth with disabilities consistently face multiple barriers to participation across all aspects of society. Being stigmatized can make youth feel ashamed and continues to drive discrimination against people with disabilities (Bond Disability and Development Group 2017; WHO 2010a; Jones et al. 2012). For instance, prejudice and misconceptions often result in people with disabilities being deprived of opportunities, such as employment, expression of their opinions, and participation in social events (WHO/UNFPA 2009). They are frequently excluded from education, economic participation and community partici- pation, with little representation at national, regional, and international levels. This exclusion of young people with disabilities has significant social and economic impacts on these individuals, their families, and the wider society. Table of Cover contents 32 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? For youth with disabilities, transition into the formal labor market can be challenging both due to lower educational and social exposure than their peers without disabilities, as well as discrimination in hiring and job retention based on their disability. Youth with disabilities are often placed in skills training programs in segregated settings where the curriculum is not linked to labor market requirements, and these programs are often predicated on limiting assumptions about persons with disabilities, making them less marketable to employers (S4YE, 2021). Consultations and ongoing engagement with youth with disabilities and their representative organizations will help develop improved policies. The global disability rights community has identified youth as key drivers of change. In February 2022, the Global Disability Summit (GDS) Youth Summit was held for the first time to ensure the inclusion of youth in the GDS. The GDS Youth Summit launched a call for action, recognizing youth with disabilities as active contributors and agents of change in the disability rights arena. The International Disability Alliance (IDA) established a Youth Committee which consists of youth representatives from organizations of persons with disabilities (OPDs) around the world.14 This reinforces the common call by most marginalized youth groups to be included as partners, and for others to recognize their voice and agency. 2.3.3. Indigenous youths or youth from ethnic minority groups Indigenous youth regularly struggle to be taken seriously, not just by governments but also within their own communities. They are particularly vulnerable to displacement, violence, human rights abuses, and the adverse effects of commercial development and business activities. Indigenous youth face several challenges affecting their access to education, mental health, and sense of belonging. They also face significant threats to their cultural identities, including the erasure of traditional names (WB 2023c). Indigenous youth are subjected to bullying and discrimination because of their ethnicity or culture (Martínez-Santiago et al. 2023). Indigenous girls are suscepti- ble to gender discrimination, violence at school, and gender-based violence (UNICEF et al. 2013). In Ecuador, six in 10 women have experienced violence, with Indigenous women making up 68 percent of them (Orozco et al. 2021). Frequently, education systems fail to meet the needs of Indigenous students. Indigenous youth in rural areas may be isolated from essential services, whereas those in urban environments may feel detached from their family, culture, and community. For students from remote communities, the transition to life in a big city or on a university campus can be overwhelming. Indigenous youth also face challenges with language and cultural connection in urbanized, post-colonial settings (WB 2023c). 14 IDA works to identify youth leaders and provide opportunities for mentorship and leadership within the disability movement. Leonard Cheshire’s 2030 and Counting is a global initiative to connect and amplify the voices of youth with disabilities through technology-ena- bled, citizen-generated data collection. Youth with disabilities are trained on leadership and citizen reporting, to monitor the Sustainable Development Goals in their country by collecting stories and recording their experiences on their mobile phones. In collaboration with OPDs, youth with disabilities share their stories and data trends with policy- and decision-makers to ensure disability-inclusive policies are implemented. Table of Cover contents 33 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? ͫ Indigenous woman wearing traditional clothing, Guatemala. © Pexels Photos. Table of Cover contents 34 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Many indigenous youths have migrated to larger cities or towns due to lack of education and job opportunities in their communities (UN 2024). However, they then often encounter racism and discrimination, and may feel compelled to hide their culture to survive. Historically traumatic events, cultural loss, and insufficient access to culturally sensitive mental health services have all contributed to high rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide among Indigenous youth (O’Keefe et al. 2021). For example, the suicide rate among Inuit youth in Canada is one of the highest in the world, at 11 times the national average (Konefal 2021). In Australia, for young Aboriginal people ages 15–35 years suicide is the leading cause of death, while for Māori youth in New Zealand, suicide rates are significantly higher than for non-Māori youth.15 Refugee or IDP youth 2.3.4. Getting official recognition of refugee/IDP status can be a challenging and protracted process for youth. Even when it has finally been secured, that status does not guarantee them access to basic services, housing, safety and protection, let alone economic opportunities. Globally, there has been an estimated 230 per cent increase in the number of forcibly displaced children both within countries and across borders, from 15.9 million in 2010 to 36.5 million in 2021. As of Decem- ber 2021, 11.4 million young people (ages 15–24) were living in internal displacement (IDMC, 2022). For these young people, the trauma of forced displacement affects their social, emotional and physical development, and the loss or disruption of family life can affect attachment behaviors and the ability to form meaningful and supportive relationships. The loss of a home, culture and critical relationships can also negatively affect their sense of identity and belonging. “Although young people show increased integration with time in resettlement countries, they also report higher levels of discrimination and racism, as they spent more time in host countries. Racism can be an ever present reality for many children and youth, manifesting as implicit or explicit experiences, and can have a detrimental impact on a young person’s sense of identity, belonging, physical and mental health.” (UNHCR 2024) Although girls comprised 49 per cent of displaced children under 18 years, they are more likely than boys to have their education interrupted and be at risk of gender-based violence and exploi- tation (IDMC, 2022). Several countries are now investing in more participatory research with migrant or refugee youth to help facilitate the process of relocation and improve policies for refugee integration. Examples include “Becoming a Londoner”, a collaboration between a refugee youth organization and the Mayor of London’s office (Refugee Youth, 2009). Another example is a guide on how to engage with young people from refugee and migrant backgrounds entitled “Not Just Ticking a Box”, by the Multicultural Youth Advocacy Network in Australia (Myan 2018). 15 Data from high-income countries highlights a significant mental health burden among specific subgroups, notably Indigenous peoples. Studies conducted in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, consistently show higher suicide rates among Indigenous populations, with considerable disparities when compared to non-Indigenous populations. Table of Cover contents 35 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? ͫ Youth apprentices in Nigeria. © World Bank. 2.4. What does this mean for fostering youth inclusion? This chapter has argued that while all youth are potentially at risk of exclusion due to age, different young people may face very distinct barriers that prevent them from taking up oppor- tunities and participating fully in society. Different regions and countries make use of specific markers of marginalization and exclusion they prioritize. Governments recognize the need to identify vulnerable youth, given limited public spending, and design tailored approaches. For instance, Nigeria targets NEET youth, those on the streets, youth with special needs, and those engaging in risky behaviors, as well as those in armed conflicts, crime (whether incarcerated or not), substance abuse; and radicalized youth (Federal Republic of Nigeria 2019). Nepal’s strategy prioritizes marginalized communities such as Dalits, ethnic minority youth, youth with disabilities, and conflict victims (Government of Nepal 2015). Additionally, some countries focus on lagging regions to reach vulnerable youth. A systematic first step in designing effective solutions for youth is to correctly identify the challenges that different young people face, and to tailor solutions for different contexts or groups of youth.16 Some interventions are helpful for all youth seeking employment— such as skill training, coaching and mentoring; certain groups, such as women, or youth living in fragile, 16 The Social Development Global Department (previously called Social Sustainability and Inclusion Global Practice [SSI GP]) has led a lot of the analytical work exploring the specific drivers of exclusion for youth in different contexts (a list of some of the analytical work done to examine the specific vulnerabilities and needs of different youth groups is provided in Annex 2). Table of Cover contents 36 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? conflict-affected and violent settings (FCVS) will need more intensive and additional tailored support (for example, childcare, safe transport, psychosocial support). Youth suffering from multiple and overlapping disadvantages—such as young persons with disabilities in contexts of fragility, conflict and violence—will likely need even more intentional targeting, and tailored support. For example, the Klick on Kaduna experience (see Box 9) — is seeking to help women develop digital skills and find digital employment opportunities—is a comparatively intensive process, and is harder to deliver at scale, because it tries to bridge a wide gap, and bring digital opportunities to some of the most deprived women in Nigeria. While standardized programs with universal access are valuable, they may not reach or benefit all youth. Global evidence shows, for instance, that women tend to have lower uptake and higher attrition rates in skills training programs when they are not designed with women’s constraints in mind, including (but not only) childcare or distance to training sites (Buvinic and Furst-Nichols 2014; Buvinic and O’Donnell 2017; Maitra and Mani 2014). Women have historically been exclu- ded from networks that provide them with market information, peer support, and other crucial foundations for growing businesses, increasing agricultural productivity, or transitioning from education to high-quality employment (Carranza et al. 2018; Buvinic and O’Donnell 2019). The next chapter continues to explore how the tradeoffs between scale and reaching those most at risk of exclusion can best be managed by governments. Governments should consider more targeted and tailored interventions. These can be at scale for groups identified in the middle blue oval below (see Box 6), namely youth in FCVS, NEET youth, young women and are likely to lead to better outcomes than programs offering universal access. The evidence for this will be discussed in the next chapter. Finally, governments and development agencies also need to consider young people shown in the right-hand oval—representing inter- sectionality—who are likely to be the most at risk of exclusion and discrimination. These groups will need more intensive support just to enable them to enjoy the same opportunities as other more privileged youth, and to achieve equitable outcomes. Groups at risk of exclusion account for a significant amount of the population in most countries (Cuesta et al. 2022). Another message from this chapter is that systems, institutions and policies that reproduce exclusion and discrimination for certain groups need to change. Such systemic change needs to complement youth programs focused on improving outcomes at the level of the individual. National youth policies are critical because many issues cannot be addressed through a single program, or a sectoral intervention. Government and community leadership are needed to change norms and values surrounding appropriate age of marriage, for example, or to put in place legislation to regulate the gig economy and thereby protect young people. Globally, two-thirds of countries have adopted national youth policies that emphasize comprehensive, multi-sectoral approaches to address youth inclusion and development. These aim to create more supportive social, cultural, political and economic environments for young people, and need to be supported with appropriate funding, technical skills and with strong political leadership to be successful. The box below describes an example from Brazil highlighting why high-level policy intervention is essential to tackle the historical challenge of racial discrimination, address social norms, and work across ministries to tackle violence affecting Afro-descendant youths disproportionately. Table of Cover contents 37 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Box 6. Which youth are at risk of exclusion? The analysis of key drivers of exclusion helps identify significant groups that need to be targeted because of the high probability that they will face exclusion on various fronts. This includes large numbers of youth that are: I. living in poverty; II. are currently neither in education nor employed (NEET); III. currently living in an FCVS or have been displaced because of conflict (IDPs and refugees); IV. young women because of negative gender norms and values. The most at risk of exclusion are youth who suffer from intersectionality – they suffer from multiple and often compounding sources of exclusion. This can be young NEET Afro-descendants in Brazil or women with disabilities living in a FCVS. To promote their Youth Inclusion Youth Ability Dignity Youth in: intersecting with: FCVS, poverty Gender, disabilities, Opportunity All youth specific national SOGI, indigenous, groups, and ethnic minorities NEET youth youth, IDPs, and To take part of: refugee youth Markets Services Spaces Universal Societal/Community Individual level levels The next chapter explores further the kinds of solutions available for tackling different drivers of youth exclusion, as well as experience in targeting support to young people who encounter deeper, sometimes intersectional, forms of discrimination or disadvantage. Table of Cover contents 38 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Which groups of youth are most likely to be excluded and why? Box 7. Racial inclusion for peacebuilding in Brazil This World Bank project aims to promote the inclusion of Afro-descendant youth, women, and Quilom- bola communities (see below) to reduce the high levels of violence affecting Afro-descendants in the country. The statistics tell an alarming story: over the past decade, 298,602 youth ages 15–29 were murdered in Brazil; that is, 63 persons per day, of whom 76 percent were black. The Bank is therefore supporting the institutional strengthening of the Ministry of Racial Equality (MER), the first of its kind both nationally and internationally, as well as the launch of two flagship policies. The first, the Black Youth Alive Plan, aims to reduce the high rates of violence and homicide affecting young Afro-descendants. It promotes increased cross-sectoral interventions across 18 ministries. The Bank supported this plan by helping organize nationwide consultations with Black youth, creating a violence monitoring index among Black youth, and designing a governance and monitoring framework. The second policy focuses on the territorial and environmental development of Quilombolas, margina- lized rural communities descended from runaway slaves. The project assists in mapping at-risk Quilom- bola communities through a digital platform, centralizing conflict data and fostering intergovernmental cooperation to prevent conflicts in Quilombola territories. This project builds on over a decade of research, in partnership with civil society, Afro-descendant youth, and academic institutions. It has drawn heavily on the WB flagship report on Afro-descendants in Latin America, which highlights stark disparities in access to education and labor markets (Freire et al. 2018; WB 2023a). ͫ Students on the campus of Gaston Berger University (UGB) in Saint Louis, Senegal. ©World Bank. Table of Cover contents 39 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming C hapter 3 Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming T his chapter presents key findings from a review of youth programs and global evidence on fostering the inclusion of young people in development. It is important to note that while the World Bank’s engagement in youth development spans various departments, with different sectoral focuses, this review primarily focuses on youth operations led by the Social Develop- ment Department.17 Governments typically support youth development through youth policies, aiming for coor- dinated interventions across sectors like health, education, agriculture, and digitalization. Additionally, targeted youth programs provide specific support to young people. For this review, a “youth program” or “youth project” is defined by a clear focus on supporting young people as primary beneficiaries. Social Development projects fall into four broad categories: (i) preparing marginalized youth for work, (ii) interventions targeted at improving economic opportunities for young women; (iii) youth interventions in FCV settings, which combine economic opportunities with peacebuilding objectives; and (iv) community-level interventions focused on youth civic engagement and acti- vities to build cohesive and resilient communities. There are projects which combine all these elements, so these categories should not be seen as mutually exclusive. More details on the World Bank projects mentioned in this report are available in Annex I. The review specifically tried to assess how governments have addressed some of the issues brought to light in the analysis provided in chapters 1 and 2. It reviewed whether youth opera- tions encompass all three domains of youth exclusion tackled by the inclusion framework, namely, markets, services, and spaces; secondly, how effective youth interventions have been in reaching more marginalized groups; and finally, the review also considered the extent to which projects measure their success by assessing overall youth well-being, rather than simply assessing access to jobs and services. 17 For a recent overview of the WB’s youth programming—with a focus on employment—see Box 8 below, drawing on a review conducted by the Solutions for Youth Employment (S4YE) team. Table of Cover contents 40 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming A strong focus of youth interventions across the globe has been on improving the participation of young people in labor markets or in setting up their own businesses. These range from educa- tion and skills development for the job market ( job readiness), to public works targeted at youth, and programs that support young people in setting up their own enterprises. Another significant category of youth-focused activities involves fostering youth participation in civic endeavors. This includes establishing or supporting youth groups, facilitating volunteer opportunities, and promoting community development initiatives. Table 3.1 provides further details on the different types of programs that have commonly been employed to promote youth development. 3.1. Preparing youth for jobs Programs that prepare youth for jobs start from the premise that jobs are available, but that youth are not well-equipped to access those jobs, for lack of education, skills, work experience or connection to would-be employers. Such programs focus on addressing youth unemployment when this is at least partly caused by a mismatch between the supply and demand for youth labor.18 However, as highlighted in Chapter 1, only a small share of youth face this ‘mismatch’ problem, and in many cases, there are simply not enough new jobs in the formal sector. Mainstream job-readiness programs often overlook the complex barriers disadvantaged youth face in transitioning to formal employment. While these programs typically emphasize technical and business skill-building, evidence indicates that such training may not adequately address the diverse challenges marginalized youth encounter (Datta et al. 2018; Buvinic and O’Donnell 2019). A recent independent evaluation shows that such interventions are rarely designed specifically to address the constraints of young women. Interventions are also rarely designed to reach individuals and groups who face marginalization on grounds beyond gender (IEG 2024).19 Job-readiness programs are more effective for youth (particularly youth at risk of exclusion, including women) when they integrate multiple interventions to address various barriers faced by youth in their transition to work (Kluve et al 2016). Combining soft skills or life-skills training with hard technical or vocational training has shown promising results (Goodspeed 2016).20 Supplementing training with personalized counseling and customized job search assistance is associated with successful labor market outcomes for youth (Honorati and McArdle 2013, Almeida et al. 2012, World Bank 2013). For young women, provision such as such as access to other social services (health, safety nets, childcare services), gender-based violence prevention, and support measures such as making it easier and safer for women to access programs, can help 18 Mismatches between labor supply and demand can arise at multiple levels: discrepancies between competencies of young jobseekers entering labor markets and the skills or experience employers value; a disconnect between career aspirations and economic opportuni- ties available; information asymmetries whereby applicants’ job search process is hindered by a lack awareness about job markets and employer needs; as well as a lack of work experience. 19 IEG 2024 finds that while there was an increase in the proportion of jobs-relevant projects that sought the participation of youth and women and of projects specifically seeking to increase youth employment, interventions that specifically sought to improve women’s employment remained rare in the portfolio. 20 The Jóvenes en Acción project in Colombia provided classroom and on-the-job training to unemployed urban youth. Ten years later, trainees were significantly more likely to be employed in the formal sector and had higher formal earnings, especially women who partici- pated (Blattman 2015). Similarly, the World Bank’s Kenya Youth Empowerment project, which provided three months of classroom-based technical training followed with a three-month internship for out-of-school and/or unemployed youths was successful in placing youth in paid jobs as well as providing positive effects on wage earnings, especially among female and older male participants. Table of Cover contents 41 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Table 3.1: A Typology to organize the youth programming landscape Employment Youth Civic Youth employment & Program Preparing readiness Youth Engaging in engagement of reintegration objectives youth for jobs for marginalized entrepreneurship the Digital Youth In FCVS youth Space When to use To reduce When there are To reduce high When youth In post-conflict To help youth this type of high youth high unem-ploy- youth underemploy- are at risk of settings, to help with access digital intervention under-em- ment rates ment or unemploy- anti-social ‘re-integra-tion’ of services and ployment or among certain ment when jobs are behaviors, ex-combatants. platforms, unemployment. groups of youth. limited. in FCVS, where and to help there is risk of them prepare violence and for jobs that high unem- require digital ployment. skills. What It assumes It addresses When there are not It provides It reduces risk of It addresses a constraint there are negative expe- enough jobs for avenues for renewed conflict, lack of digital does it enough jobs, riences due to all youth seeking youth to promotes social skills, or lack address? but youth poor life condi- employment. engage with cohesion, builds trust of access to are not well tions, exclusion, community. between youth and digital spaces. equipped to discrimination. government or between apply due different ethnic/ reli- to lack of gious/indigenous/ skills or work regional groups. experience. Target Group First-time At risk, disad- Unemployed NEET youth Youth in FCV contexts, Youth who jobseekers or vantaged youth youth interested in seeking to gain ex-combatants. have not been unemployed e.g. young setting up their own experience, exposed to youth who are women, poorer business. build skills, digital skills no longer in youth, refugee wanting to through education or youth, youth in volunteer. formal training. rural or lagging education. areas. Program Skills train- Job readiness Entrepreneurship Youth groups, Workforce development Digital skills types ing; Links to or livelihood promotion, credit volunteer programs, peacebuilding training; employers; support with and skills training opportunities, activities, counseling Preparing Internships or additional and business devel- collective and awareness sessions youth for the apprenticeships; components opment support. engagement, to counter trauma, gig economy. Employment such as mento- community access to cultural intermediation; ring, coaching, development. spaces, GBV services. Wage subsidies. transport, child- care, etc. Table of Cover contents 42 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Box 8. Overview of the WB’s engagement on youth employment In the past decade, the World Bank has invested almost US$ 17 billion in youth employment, through 175 operations in 71 countries, led by 12 Global Practices. In the area of youth employment, the largest lending portfolio was being implemented by the Social Protection & Jobs Global Practice (SPJ GP). Figure B8.1: Lending on youth employment by GP Social Protection & Jobs 58 4,984 Education 27 2,836 Agriculture and Food 23 2,525 Finance, Competitiveness and Innovation 24 2,413 Environment, Natural Resources 5 1,185 Macroeconomics, Trade and Investment 3 903 Social Sustainability and Inclusion 15 820 The Social Protection & Jobs GP commi ed $5B in lending across 58 Digital Development 5 446 youth employment operations, while the Education GP commited $2.88 in lending Urban, Resilience and Land 11 349 across 72 operations. Transport 2 300 Governance 100 1 Health, Nutrition &Population 1 Average 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 Commitment amount (in $M) Investment Project Financing arrangements (IPFs) were the most commonly used financing instrument to promote youth employment; and investment in youth employment operations sharply increased during the pandemic period. In WB youth employment programming, gender is commonly addressed, but other markers of exclu- sion are seldom explicitly tackled. A review by the Solutions for Youth Employment (S4YE) team at the WB found that 88 percent of all investments in youth employment integrated gender components. (The numbers in the graph indicate the number of projects operationalized, against the specified indicator.) Source: Solutions for Youth Employment (S4YE) team. 2024. What is the World Bank doing on youth employment? A portfolio review of World Bank operations: 2013–2023, Washington, D.C: World Bank. Table of Cover contents 43 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming overcome stigma or social norms that discourage women’s employment. Confidence-building measures seem to boost the effectiveness of training programs, especially for less empowered women (Buvinic and O’Donnell 2019; Maitra and Mani 2017). For example, the Liberia Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women project trained young women in either a Job Skills track or a Business Development track, followed by a six-month job placement and one-to-one follow-up support. The evaluation of the project showed that it increased employment by 47 percent and earnings by 80 percent. Similarly, a 2016 impact evaluation of Noncognitive Skills Development Training in Togo demonstrated that women who received innovative entrepreneurial training—focused on personal initiative—saw profits increase by 40 percent, compared with five percent for those who had received traditional business training. This intervention has since been replicated in projects in Ethiopia, Mauritania, and Mozambique (cited from IEG 2024). 3.2. Targeted youth employment programs for marginalized youth Targeted support for marginalized youth is more effective in helping them to transition to work opportunities compared to programs with universal access. Over 50 percent of Social Deve- lopment projects have as their main objective providing improved economic opportunities for targeted, marginalized youth and provide a range of supporting services and activities to help these youth take full advantage of the economic opportunities being provided. Projects such as the PNG Urban Youth Employment Project have been positively evaluated and helped marginalized urban NEET youth transition to waged jobs, as well as providing some work experience through Public Works Programs (WB 2020b). It provided technical and soft skills, nonformal adult literacy classes, help with opening of bank accounts, and links with priva- te-sector employers. The project was also perceived to have a positive impact in reducing crime and violence in urban centers. The subsequent PNG Urban Youth Employment Project Phase II continues these interventions. In Kaduna State, Nigeria, the Click on Kaduna Digital Jobs Project in Nigeria supports young, medium- and high-skilled unemployed or underemployed Nigerians and SMEs to enter the virtual economy. To enhance female participation, the program included a dedicated women’s pathway (see box 9, below). Table of Cover contents 44 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Box 9. Click on Kaduna Digital Jobs Project in Nigeria. This project (US$ 1 million, FY19) launched by World Bank, Kaduna State Government, Natview Technolo- gies, and IBM Digital Nation Africa, aims to support 1,260 young, medium- and high-skilled unemployed or underemployed Nigerians and SMEs to enter the virtual economy. In Kaduna State, a pilot initiative addressed the low education levels and lack of marketable digital skills among youth. Comprising three components—job matching and facilitation; an intensive six-month bootcamp; and a digital incubation component—the program aimed to train youth in freelancing and entrepreneurship. The initiative provided practical training workshops on freelancing platforms; the six-month bootcamp offered technical and soft skills training; and a tailored digital incubation program that offered grants for business ideas. To enhance female participation, the program included a dedicated women’s track, providing daycare services, and confidence-building soft skills sessions to overcome cultural barriers. Over 900 participants from various sectors attended the main three-day event; of the 150 pilot partici- pants, 128 completed 411 paid tasks, earning over US$ 4,110, with 232 jobs rated as Very Satisfactory and 83 as Satisfactory. A year later, project participants collectively earned over $50,000 through Upwork (digital employment platform), with 87 percent of these earnings attributed solely to Click-On Kaduna & Upwork pilot participants (S4YE 2019). ͫ A mother holds her baby during the Click-On Kaduna Workshop held recently in Northern Nigeria. © World Bank. Table of Cover contents 45 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming 3.2.1. Interventions for young women’s economic empowerment Women and girls need more tailored interventions that recognize their unique disadvantages. Job readiness interventions that did not specifically target women have had limited reach or impact among women for many decades (Katz 2013). This has led to the design of more tailored interventions for women recently. Examples include the Northern Areas Reduction-of-Poverty Initiative: Women’s Economic Empowerment and the Economic Acceleration and Resilience for NEET in Bangladesh, Generating Growth Opportunities and Productivity for Women Enterprises in Uganda, the Sikkim: Integrated service provision and innovation for Reviving Economies Opera- tion, and the Nigeria for Women project. These projects go beyond economic empowerment, providing skills, knowledge, mentoring and coaching as well as significant components addres- sing GBV, childcare, and safe transport to work, all key factors that have previously prevented women from joining the workforce (see Box 10 for more details). There are also several interventions targeting adolescent girls, recognizing that this is a critical period for young girls and women, as there is a risk of them dropping out of school, being forced to marry, and start families. For example, the South Sudan Adolescent Girls Initiative targeted adolescent girls and young women ages 15–24 and tried to build confidence and encourage greater independence. In addition to skills development, the project included leadership trai- nings, conflict resolution skills, and community sensitization programs. The project intended to holistically empower adolescent girls for personal and economic growth. The impact evaluation report from Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women project in Liberia mentioned earlier also highlights a successful intervention targeted at adolescent girls. ͫ A student in Hanoi does research at the Vietnam Development Information Center in Hanoi, Vietnam. © World Bank. Table of Cover contents 46 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Box 10. Examples of projects with tailored interventions for women and girls The Nigeria for Women Project combines support for livelihood development and financial inclusion with interventions to address gender-based violence (GBV). The project aims to empower women not only economically, but also in the social and cultural spaces. It employs strategies like community enga- gement and safe women’s groups, focusing on GBV awareness and prevention, by promoting gender dialogue and training community members as GBV first responders. Similarly, the Uganda GROW Project tailors its efforts to the unique challenges faced by women entrepre- neurs, especially in the post-COVID-19 context. By offering financial assistance, business development services, and childcare support, the project specifically targets barriers that hinder women’s business growth. It focuses on skill enhancement, networking, and access to gender-sensitive financial products. The EARN Project in Bangladesh represents a comprehensive effort to assist NEET youth, with a signi- ficant focus on women and youth. It is integrating various components such as skills development, secondary education support, support for wage and self-employment, community engagement, career counseling, and leadership development. A key activity of the project is collaborating with and providing technical assistance to the Social Norms Specialized Agency (SNSA), with the objective of positively changing social norms to benefit NEET youth. Lastly, the Sikkim INSPIRES Project in India places a strong emphasis on economic inclusion for women in the nonfarm sectors by improving state systems, employment linkages, and service delivery. In a more targeted approach, the project supports mental health care services and addresses young women’s care burdens. Other examples of targeted interventions include setting up an exclusive online marke- tplace for handicraft products from women’s enterprises, and support to set up homestays by women entrepreneurs. ͫ A young woman participating in the Nigeria for Women project. © World Bank. Table of Cover contents 47 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming 3.3. Youth entrepreneurship programs Youth entrepreneurship can help when there are few formal job opportunities and is often embraced by governments. While there is no internationally agreed definition of entrepreneur- ship, youth entrepreneurship can be defined as self-employment among youth. It spans a broad range of businesses, ranging from own-account workers and micro-enterprises to large compa- nies; from necessity-driven, subsistence and informal businesses to highly profitable and inno- vative formal enterprises (OECD 2017a). The micro-finance industry has relied on a model where limited inputs such as a small loan, and minimal training, have allowed people to improve their livelihoods. In general, but especially for youth at risk of exclusion, access to capital and skill-training components combined produces better results than standalone training or finance initiatives (Cho and Honorati 2013). Interventions focused on financial access and inclusion, coupled with supplemental training in financial literacy and management, are particularly effective for disad- vantaged youth and social enterprises. Complementary interventions can address constraints such lack of social networks, social norms, and lower levels of education; and work experience enhances program outcomes (Brüderl and Preisendörfer 1998; Greve and Salaff, 2003; Klyver and Hindle, 2007; Larson and Starr, 1993).21 For example, Youth in Action (YiA) by Save the Children and MasterCard Foundation was imple- mented from 2012 to 2018, targeting 40,000 young people in rural Egypt, Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda. The program targeted marginalized young individuals in rural communities located within one to four hours from urban centers and aimed to improve their socio-economic status. This was done by strengthening foundation work-readiness skills, developing business and management capabilities, and creating a space to apply learned skills while supported by family and community (D’Sa 2018). Participants pursued pathways such as launching micro-enterprises, apprenticeships, technical training, securing employment, or returning to school, supported by cash transfers, mentorship, and financial services. After completion of the YiA program, a majority of participants sustained micro-enterprises, increasing savings by about 350 percent (D’Sa 2018). In Egypt, Ethiopia, and Uganda, those establishing micro-enterprises generated income higher than the international poverty line of US$ 1.90 per day, markedly improving their economic status, with an average 20 months of self-employment sustained post-program.22 Another example of an entrepreneurship project providing more tailored interventions to support young women is the WB Project for Advancing Gender Equality in Tanzania approved in March 2024 with US$ 104 million in financing. It aims to strengthen community-based women’s groups in selected areas, using these groups to offer business training and mentoring to young women micro-entrepreneurs and to facilitate market linkages. Specialized Business Development Service 21 Non-training elements of entrepreneurship programs are important to achieve positive self-employment outcomes, such as networks, and intangible resources like knowledge, which is often retrieved through contact with other entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs in general are less likely to know other entrepreneurs than men (Kelley et al. 2013). 22 Across all countries, positive outcomes varied: Egypt saw improved literacy and numeracy, Ethiopia showed enhanced financial literacy through collaboration with a micro-finance institution, 75 percent of YiA graduates in Burkina Faso owned businesses (compared to 26 percent before the program), 64 percent of the youth in Malawi had high financial literacy skills (compared to only 22 percent previously), nearly 85 percent of female youth in Egypt were working (compared to only 13 percent). (D’Sa 2018). Table of Cover contents 48 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Providers will deliver training in areas such as group management, financial and digital literacy, and climate risk management. The program will also focus on developing social and emotional learning, and self-efficacy; and pilot community-based childcare training. There are other projects across the Bank that also seek to address barriers youth face in acces- sing finance for business development. The following World Bank projects explore challenges faced by youth: the Djibouti Support for Women and Youth Entrepreneurship Project/Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Business Development Services Project that has offered access to financing to over 2,350 entrepreneurs and has supported the operationalization of the partial credit guarantee fund for SMEs in Djibouti (Djibouti Economic Development Fund—DEDF), which mobilized over US$ 2 million in investments from participating banks, enabling over 150 Djiboutian SMEs to access bank financing and continue growing their businesses; and the Türkiye Socially Inclusive Green Transition Project to improve economic opportunities and facilitate job creation for women, youth and other vulnerable groups by facilitating access to finance for youth-led micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs). However, it is also important to understand the limitations of this approach. Many young people, particularly those with limited education and skills, may not be well-suited or prepared for entre- preneurship. Empirical evidence suggests that only a small fraction of young entrepreneurs achieve success, with most limited to basic survival activities or self-employment (OECD 2017a).23 The significant failure rate among young entrepreneurs should caution policy makers to carefully consider promoting entrepreneurship as a solution to youth unemployment. To achieve effective policy solutions and interventions along that pathway, it is important to identify young indivi- duals with real entrepreneurial potential. Conversely, those who do not show entrepreneurial flair should receive training and support to help them enter the labor market or public works programs (OECD 2017a). 3.4. Youth interventions focusing on civic engagement This section examines programs that provide opportunities for civic engagement and access to social, cultural, and political spaces for youth. This is relevant in contexts with limited immediate job prospects but is also important to provide alongside more standardized job-focused interven- tions, to promote general health, well-being and to create cohesive and inclusive communities. Governments can support youth to stay engaged with their communities in a positive way, give them a sense of purpose, and build their skills for future endeavors. Strategies include youth empowerment programs, volunteer initiatives, arts and sports interventions, and youth leadership focused projects such as councils and parliaments. 23 According to a study conducted by the OECD (2017a) in four countries–Côte d’Ivoire, Madagascar, Peru, and Viet Nam– the success rate of youth entrepreneurs is only five percent on average. For instance, in Côte d’Ivoire, 86 percent of youth entrepreneurs earn profits below the average wage earned by their peers in salaried jobs. Table of Cover contents 49 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming When youth participate or take on leadership roles within organizations and communities— through initiatives that involve them in governance, organizing, social activism, media, and research—they can encourage positive change by stimulating critical discourse, skill develop- ment, participatory inquiry, and collective action to strengthen local institutions, policies, and programs (Zeldin et al. 2012). Through the experience of participating in such initiatives youth can form soft skills and life-skills outside of a training environment or classroom, thus preparing young people for future employment but also to be informed, active and responsible citizens (Perold 2013; Caprara et al. 2016). 3.4.1. Participation in community activities In Tajikistan’s CASA1000 Community Support Project, youth are actively involved in local gover- nance since they contribute to Village Development Plans (VDPs), manage subgrants and carry out participatory monitoring. Similarly, the Municipalities for Youth in Kosovo Project ensures youth participation in subproject design and implementation, integrating youth services into regular municipal systems. Community Driven Development operations giving youth a prominent role also led to improved services for youth. Other examples of youth-led activities involve national volunteering schemes and youth plat- forms. These interventions focus on youth engagement, organizing and leadership—and squarely address youth inclusion in social and civic forums. Certain World Bank projects have demons- trated positive impacts on youth engagement and empowerment, and have focused on building such skills, rather than focusing narrowly on getting young people employed. The Kazakhstan Youth Jobs Corps had as its objective “to promote young people’s community engagement and life skills through a community-based service learning program, especially for vulnerable youth”. According to the Implementation Completion Report (ICR) for the Youth Jobs Corps program in Kazakhstan 71 percent of participants expressed confidence in contributing to their communi- ties and recognized the significance of social projects. Notably, the proportion of beneficiaries believing they could influence community problem-solving increased from nine percent in 2011 to 58 percent. Moreover, sustainability surveys indicate ongoing engagement, with 96 percent of the 2018 cohort and 98 percent of the 2019 and 2020 cohorts supporting social events and charitable activities post-program. Table of Cover contents 50 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming ͫ Young woman using a megaphone. © Pexels Photos. Promoting youth voice and leadership – access to political 3.4.2. spaces Youth parliaments and social organizations aimed at promoting youth voice have been imple- mented in various contexts, albeit with mixed results. The World Bank is supporting the esta- blishment of youth parliaments in Northern Ghana, which has lagged behind the South on most development indicators. Recognizing participation as a fundamental right, the Ghanaian government, with the support of the Gulf of Guinea Northern Regions Social Cohesion Project and National Youth Authority, has established Youth Parliaments to enable and institutionalize youth engagement in policy making and community development. The Youth Parliaments are being strengthened using digital tools for greater transparency and enhanced participation of youth in local government planning. In Chile, Jovenes por el Futuro Network exemplifies how governments can include youth in policy dialogue and empower them as agents of change on critical issues such as Climate Change. As participants themselves declared, youth are not just the future, but essential stakeholders shaping the present and future of our societies (see Box 11 below). Table of Cover contents 51 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming When formal avenues for political engagement are limited, youth often find alternative methods to organize and mobilize to express their political views. In the Philippines, Wesolve is a non– profit organization dedicated to driving systemic change through youth empowerment and collaborative action. By bringing together diverse groups of young people from various sectors, Wesolve focuses on researching and addressing social issues affecting youth and their communi- ties. For instance, in their Transforming Urban Mobility initiative, Wesolve manages the secretariat for #MoveAsOne, a coalition advocating for safer and more inclusive public transportation.24 Wesolve is also collaborating with government agencies and civil society organizations to address barriers to citizen registration (7.5 million citizens in the Philippines do not have a birth registra- tion certificate). This exemplifies how youth-led organizations like Wesolve play a crucial role in driving social and political change, even in contexts where formal political engagement may be constrained. Box 11. Youth power in action—insights from Chile’s Jóvenes por el Futuro Network Empowering diverse youth voices for a more inclusive future: Chile’s Jóvenes por el Futuro Network (“Youth for the Future”) started working with adoles- cents (2021–2022), and then expanded (2022–2024) to include a wider range of youth, including people from marginalized communities. It has been effective on many fronts: • Youth Voices for more inclusive policy-making: Young leaders were able to make critical contributions to a policy dialogue about the future challenges for Chile and how best to tackle them. Their inputs were reflected in the “Policy Notes for Chile”. Youth participation was encouraged through intergenerational and peer-to-peer interactions. From advocating for robust environmental education to comprehensive sexual rights, youth insights are vital for inclusive policies. • Empowering Youth as Change Agents: The project equips youth with knowledge, skills, and platforms for action. Initiatives like “Diálogos por la Educación Ambiental” empower youth to not only unders- tand environmental issues but also drive collective action and systemic change. The youth then contributed to the National Survey on the Climate Crisis from their distinctive perspective. 24 This coalition boasts 140 organizations and 77,000 signatories. Table of Cover contents 52 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming ͫ Young man with a basketball. © Getty Images. Engaging youth through arts and sports 3.4.3. Many organizations and governments have used sports and arts as an entry point to engage with youth, promote their well-being and community cohesion (see Box 12 for examples). Sports and arts can be instrumental in achieving broader social and economic outcomes including better health; reduced stress and depression; improved confidence and self-esteem; improved learning and academic performance; a reduced likelihood of smoking and illicit drug use; reduced crime; and stronger, more inclusive and cohesive communities (UNICEF 2019b; Yang et al. 2023). Table of Cover contents 53 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Box 12. Engaging youth through sports Soccer Without Borders (SWB) is a nonprofit that works works in Uganda, which hosts over 1.4 million refugees. SWB works with youth, particularly refugees and recent migrants. Through evidence-based program design and trauma-informed coaching, SWB fosters resilience and inclusion among its young participants. With soccer, SWB provides community building and educational support. A significant portion of coaches are former refugees and women. Another example includes the Girl Determined program that initiated a volleyball program in Myanmar, where there is little female sports participation. Local women were trained in basic volleyball skills, then began coaching the participants, with the aim of addressing psychosocial well-being. After a couple years, girls from the program were trained as peer leaders and then junior coaches, gleaning important life-skills along the way. They in turn run summer camps programs for peacebuilding, diversity inclusion, leadership, and media. 3.5. Youth employment and reintegration in fragile, conflict-affected and violent settings 3.5.1. Interventions for youth in conflict or post-conflict settings Chapter 2 highlighted the specific needs of youth who have experienced conflict or are living in FCV contexts—their challenges are often greater than those living in non-FCV settings, and the capacity of the state (or other agencies) to help them is often more limited. It also highlighted that conflict and violence can be a key driver of exclusion. In addition to filling gaps in the loss of education, basic social services, and economic opportunities, youth-focused interventions in FCVS have also sought to address grievances over injustices, the trauma experienced by children and youth, and a generalized distrust in the capacity of the state, and to break the cycle of poverty, hopelessness, and frustration among youth. Just as in the case of the other excluded youth groups that need targeted and tailored interventions, youth in FCVS often need additional support to make standard youth interventions effective. This could, for example, entail cognitive behavior therapy, support for survivors of gender-based violence, or commu- nity-based projects to make receiving villages more receptive to former combatants (Haider 2014). In the Africa Region, the Social Development Practice has piloted many interventions that support the social and economic reintegration of demobilized ex-combatants—including child soldiers— to help them deal with the trauma of conflict. The Reintegration of Ex-combatants Project in the Central African Republic provides former combatants (all ages) with livelihoods/career guidance, counselling, skill training, psychosocial support and medical referral, and sports and recreational activities. Similarly, the Emergency Post-Conflict Assistance Project in Côte d’Ivoire targeted unemployed young female ex-combatants ages 18-30 and provided support and startup assistance that could facilitate self-em- ployment and salaried employment opportunities with private companies and local governments. The project also took into consideration the employment gap and integrated refresher training. Table of Cover contents 54 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Many projects focus on promoting social cohesion in the community by bringing diverse groups of youth together. The Promoting the Inclusion of Conflict-Affected Iraqi Youth Project involves diverse groups of youth from mixed communities in skills training, infrastructure and non-infras- tructure activities, and tests approaches that build cooperation, trust and tolerance and promote teamwork across youth groups from different backgrounds. The Socio-Economic Reintegration Project in Southern Thailand is piloting a socio-economic reintegration process for selected former combatants that provides grants, training, apprenticeships, and livelihood assistance according to their preferences. Besides economic opportunities, health services, such as medical and psychosocial care are also offered by the project. The Bangsamoro Camps Transformation Project in the Philippines targets combatants and their communities, with youth groups a focus for livelihood support, in six Moro Islamic Liberation Front camps. The project aims to stabilize income, enhance food security, promote local empowerment, and reduce the risks associated with natural hazards and climate change, supporting greater resilience against future shocks. All the above projects have successfully reached these relatively inaccessible groups and, remarkably, have managed to implement a project during periods of active conflict. These projects are often small in scale and are piloting the approach in a context where there may be limited Bank or donor engagement in general, but they are impactful, and valued by both govern- ments and local communities, and ensure continued WB engagement through periods of fragility. Box 13. Engagement on youth in Kosovo—a combination of economic support and civic engagement in a post-conflict setting In Kosovo, assessments and dialogue carried out by the Bank during post-conflict reconstruction highli- ghted youth disenfranchisement as a critical economic challenge. A more targeted approach was required to address youth-related issues. The first youth-specific investment was the Kosovo Youth Development Project, with additional financing from 2005 to 2016. The Project aimed to increase social cohesion, interac- tion, and cooperation among young people of different ethnic backgrounds; not only to improve relations- hips among young Albanians and Serbs, but also relationships among young people of other ethnic groups in this multicultural society. The project served 10,000 young people from different ethnic backgrounds. The World Bank was instrumental in the development of the youth center networks across the country and piloted entrepreneurship development services, tailored to disadvantaged youth, that led to the second investment. The Municipalities for Youth in Kosovo Project has since 2019 sought to improve the socio-economic inclusion of disadvantaged youth in poorer communities in Kosovo through civic enga- gement and skills-building activities. Through the project, young people acquired skills that are valuable both for future employment and for positive changes in their communities. The targeted youth included NEET youth, ethnic minorities, persons with disabilities, rural and low-income youth, internally displa- ced persons (IDPs), returnees, and LGBTIQ+ individuals. By December 2023, 3,000 marginalized youth had received training on project management, and 200 youth-driven community initiatives had been completed. This in turn led to more positive interactions between local governments and communities. Sources: WB Kosovo Social Development task team write up, 2024. Table of Cover contents 55 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Youth engagement in communities and cities with high 3.5.2. levels of violence. Violence prevention and reduction among youth is also a critical area of concern among many governments, and often the driving force for youth interventions.25 The ICRs for projects such as the Safer Municipalities Project in Honduras and the Integrated Community Development Project in Jamaica show that involving youth in public safety initiatives and community improve- ment activities tends to reduce their engagement in risky behavior that could potentially lead to crime and violence. The projects targeted at-risk youth through “Violence Interrupter” programs (depending on their needs, youth can be supported in any of several areas: education, health, counseling, or referral to employment) and school-based violence prevention interventions. Other innovative approaches and pilots focusing on conflict-prevention or reducing violence include the Soccer Together project in Colombia and the El Salvador Addressing Youth Violence through Cultural and Music Learning Program. Approaches to prevent and respond to gender-based 3.5.3. violence Youth, particularly young women, are very vulnerable to various forms of gender-based violence. Worldwide, it is estimated around 1 in 5 ever partnered girls between the ages of 15 to 19 years have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner during the last 12 months (WHO 2021). For many young women globally, their first sexual experience is not consensual (WHO 2021). Sexual violence affects a significant proportion of all youth. For example, 1 in 5 girls and 1 in 7 boys report sexual abuse (WHO 2021). Young people are not only more vulnerable to gender-based violence, they are also at a crucial age for prevention. Youth is a time of significant change, when individuals are highly sensitive to their surroundings (UNICEF 2024). It is during this period that they develop crucial interper- sonal and emotional skills and have the flexibility to voluntarily adapt and reshape their percep- tions more than at any other stage of life before or after. This makes it an ideal time to prevent gender-based violence, challenge harmful social norms, and foster relationships based on mutual respect and nonviolence (World Bank 2022). Effective approaches include prevention strategies that use different media platforms to educate, raise awareness, empower economically and socially, and promote nonviolent and gender-equal behaviors (Ellsberg, et al. 2015). These efforts underscore the importance of holistic approaches that not only address economic needs but also prioritize violence prevention and conflict resolution strategies to ensure the well-being and safety of youth. 25 Worldwide, more than 176,000 homicides occur every year among youth 15–29 years of age; that amounts to 37 percent of the total number of homicides globally. Homicide is the third leading cause of death in people in that age group, and most homicides involve male victims. For each young person killed, many more sustain injuries requiring hospital treatment. When it is not fatal, youth violence has a serious, often lifelong, impact on a person’s physical, psychological and social functioning (WHO, 2024a). Table of Cover contents 56 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Box 14. The Innovative Approaches to Prevent and Respond to Gender-Based Violence in Peru Project This project aims to reduce gender-based violence (GBV) among adolescents and youth. In Peru, the prevalence of GBV is alarmingly high, with the 2019 National Survey on Social Relations revealing that 67.6 percent of women have experienced psychological, physical, and/or sexual violence at some point in their lives (Al-Alosi 2020).Three initiatives were undertaken in Peru to tackle GBV: • Mobile Application (Yanapp): A mobile app was developed to establish support networks for GBV survivors with a focus on youth. It has three main components: 1) Information on violence against women and services, including access to various helplines and a chat service; 2) Circle of Trust, which leverages women’s support networks to send real-time help requests and geolocation to up to six trusted contacts via text or WhatsApp; and 3) Emergency services, which locates nearby police stations or Women’s Emergency Centers and facilitates direct calls to emergency services. • Online Course to Prevent Sexual Harassment at Universities: Designed in collaboration with various institutions to foster GBV-free and safe campus environments. The general objective of this course is to empower students and reduce the prevalence of sexual harassment within higher education institutions. The course incorporates evidence-based approaches from gender theory, behavioral sciences, and employs engaging narratives through edutainment and gamification to enhance learning and participation. • Comics for Adolescents: The Ministry of Women and Vulnerable Populations (MIMP) and the World Bank organized an online workshop for over 150 adolescents, focused on online GBV and worked with a subgroup of them on the co-creation of comics based on stories and scripts proposed by the adolescents covering topics such as online harassment and gender stereotypes. Table of Cover contents 57 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming ͫ Youth working at GhanaTechLab and Ghana Innovation Hub. © World Bank. 3.6. Programs to help youth take advantage of digital opportunities Numerous programs highlighted in this report aim to equip youth with digital skills and access to new forms of employment, such as gig work. These initiatives promote digital inclusion for marginalized youth and address the evolving demands of the labor market (see Box 9 on Click on Kaduna, Box 14 on an App to help survivors of GBV and Box 15 below). For example, the Ghana Digital Acceleration Project focuses on the demand and supply side of digital services for persons with disabilities including youth. This includes providing digital skilling opportunities for persons with disabilities, enhancing the employability of youth with disabilities, and addressing the accessibility of digitally provided public services for youth services and online Table of Cover contents 58 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming ͫ Young participants in the Digital Summit in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. © World Bank. training materials, while providing targeted digital skills training and assistive technology, thereby increasing access to digital technologies and the labor market for youth with disabilities. The Sierra Leone Digital Transformation Project has taken a similar approach.26 In Pakistan, efforts to include youth in the digital sector involved policy changes and targeted programs. A significant initiative was the Digital Youth Summit (DYS), which educated youth about technology entrepreneurship and online work. This summit attracted government officials and private-sector interest, leading to the adoption of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Digital Strategy 26 For further guidance on this topic, please refer to thematic note “Digital Jobs for Youth with Disabilities”, 2021, produced by Solutions for Youth Employment (S4YE) Network, which provides examples of programmatic strategies which have been successful in increasing the inclusion of youth with disabilities in digital jobs. The multi-stakeholder coalition, whose Secretariat is housed at the World Bank, also hosts an active thematic working group on Jobs for Youth with Disabilities. Table of Cover contents 59 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming in 2018.27 This was funded through a nonlending technical assistance program focusing on the promotion of youth inclusion in the digital economy in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province of Pakistan, motivated by the concern that high youth unemployment rates in KP could lead to increased discontent. A subsequent project focused on promoting digital economy inclusion for women and youth, Digital Jobs in KP, targeting un- and under-employed individuals. Key actions included investing in infrastructure to attract businesses and supporting initiatives to recruit and train women in digital skills. The project financed additional outreach to recruit women and girls into digital skills training programs, supported the design and operation of gender inclusive public spaces (for example, co-working spaces and community centers), and piloted initiatives to address constraints women face, including help with transportation, childcare and soft skills. Important lessons learned include the need for practical digital skills training, inclusive workspa- ces for collaboration, and investments in digital infrastructure to maximize youth participation in the digital economy. Young people in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa increasingly use technology to access new types of jobs, but do not acquire relevant skills from public sector universities or vocational institutes. Another example of innovative engagement in the digital sector is the youth-led Niajiri Platform in Tanzania, an online job marketplace dedicated to enhancing youth employability by facilitating skill development and job placement (See Box 15 for more details). Box 15. Youth-led online platforms In Tanzania, the youth-led Niajiri Platform was set up by a young person in response to the challenges in looking for employment during the COVID pandemic. It is an online job marketplace dedicated to enhancing youth employability by facilitating skill development and job placement. Niajiri also helps employers identify young talent. Niajiri provides an array of tools, including a skills inventory, a CV builder, a learning management system, and a game-based learning system to help jobseekers to improve their skills, construct professional CVs, and connect with potential employers. It also provides content in various local languages to ensure more inclusive access. A subscription model ensures that young jobseekers have continuous access to its resources. 27 It provided youth with opportunities to interact with leading and emerging innovators, entrepreneurs, startup community leaders, investors and governments. Over time, as the focus shifted toward investing in the province’s digital economy and ecosystem, the list of participants expanded to include key public figures, such as the Finance Minister and Prime Minister of Pakistan, as well as CEOs of major technology companies. It also created a community of young people interested in using digital tools for entrepreneurship and social change. Table of Cover contents 60 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming 3.7. How to help governments mainstream youth inclusion across sectors As highlighted in chapter 2, not all youth exclusion challenges can be addressed through youth-fo- cused programs. Governments, through their national youth policies, have recognized the impor- tance of a cross-sectoral or all-of-government approach to tackle some of the big challenges facing youth—whether it be creating safer cities, more inclusive education, or preventing youth engagement in conflict or violence. Examples such as the creation of an anti-discrimination minis- try in Brazil, or policies to promote social cohesion and employment in Kosovo, or ensuring digital inclusion of marginalized youth in Pakistan, point to the need to use various policy instruments and engage multiple stakeholders to promote youth inclusion across all sectors, and the need to work at various levels (policy and sectoral levels), in addition to targeting projects for youth. The Bank’s Environmental and Social Safeguards (ESS) can play a key role in ensuring projects address youth inclusion, and that benefits reach the most marginalized youth across its port- folio. It provides important avenues for mainstreaming youth inclusion in combination with other identity-based dimensions (indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities, disability, SOGI, gender, and so on). The social assessment that is required provides a tool to carry out the social analysis to identify the youth most at risk of being excluded and barriers to participation. ESS 10 on stakeholder engagement creates space for regular consultations with youth in the project preparation phase as well as during the project’s life cycle. Table 3.2: How the Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) can be used to promote youth inclusion ESS1 – Environmental and This assessment provides an opportunity to identify different youth groups who are vulnerable, Social Impact Assessment and the causes of their vulnerability and exclusion. ESS2 – Labor and Working ESS2 provides multiple standards to provide a safe and healthy working environment for youth: Conditions • Youth, including marginalized youth, should be treated in a fair and nondiscriminatory manner, and enjoy equal job opportunities. • Measures must be provided to protect and address vulnerabilities of young workers (includ- ing women, workers with disabilities, migrant workers, and others). • Measures must be provided to support freedom of association of youth workers—enabling them to express their concerns, voice, and agency. • Easily assessable grievance mechanisms must be provided for young workers. ESS4 – Community Health ESS4 aims to mitigate and manage any potential health, safety, and security risks that may and Safety impact communities affected by the project. • Community health & safety measures should be developed/carried out in consultation with marginalized youth. • Security/Emergency response plans may be developed in consultation with marginalized youth. Table of Cover contents 61 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming ESS5 – Land Acquisition, ESS5 prevents adverse impacts from project-related land acquisition and restrictions on land Restrictions on Land use. Use and Involuntary • Resettlement Plans/Frameworks should provide a detailed account of consultations with Resettlement youth affected by the project, including marginalized youth (women, youth with disabilities, Indigenous youth, migrant youth, and others). • Decision-making processes related to compensation and livelihood restoration should be transparent and generated through consultation with young people in host communities to ensure that their perspectives are taken into account. • A grievance redress mechanism (GRM) should be established to receive and address comments and feedback from youth throughout the implementation of resettlement plans or compensation process or livelihood restoration. ESS6 – Biodiversity ESS6 recognizes the importance of protecting and conserving biodiversity and sustainably Conservation and Sustain- managing living natural resources. able Management of • An Action Plan for Sustainable Forest Management should be developed with meaningful Living Natural Resources participation of project-affected youth, including Indigenous youth. ESS7 – Indigenous Peoples ESS7 provides protection for Indigenous Peoples, who are among the most economically margin-alized and vulnerable groups of the population. • Targeted Social Assessment must be informed by meaningful consultation, and assessment of the Borrower’s capacity to engage with youth belonging to distinct social and cultural groups. • An Indigenous People Plan or Framework must be developed in consultation with affected youth and include a culturally appropriate GRM. Young Indigenous People should be closely engaged in designing project activities, implementation, and monitoring. Project design and implementation plan should take into account Indigenous knowledge, culture, and traditional norms. • Young Indigenous Peoples will be provided accessible information (in languages and chan- nels that are accessible for them) and have equal access to project benefits. • Involving youth representatives from indigenous peoples in project bodies (such as Project Committees, Village Councils, and so forth) ESS8 – Cultural Heritage ESS8 outlines measures to prevent harm to cultural heritage from project activities. • Consultations should involve local youth to assess and identify cultural heritage, project risks/impacts, and access options. Consultations should also be carried out with local youth to identify solutions to mitigate harms to cultural heritage. ESS9 – Financial ESS9 sets out requirements for a Financial Intermediary (FI) to monitor and manage the envi- Intermediaries ron-mental and social risks and impacts of their portfolio. • FI’s Environmental and Social Management System should include grievance redress and youth engagement. ESS10 – Stakeholder ESS10 emphasizes the importance of open and transparent engagement between the borrower Engagement and project stakeholders. • Stakeholder Engagement Plan (SEP) identifies affected youth and specifies methods and timing to achieve meaningful consultation with youth throughout the project cycle. • A grievance mechanism should be established and explained to young people in readiness to receive and respond to their concerns during project implementation. Table of Cover contents 62 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming ͫ Young people at Bianou festival in Niger © Getty Images. For example, SOGIESC youth inclusion can be incorporated within projects through ensu- ring diverse stakeholder engagement in support of project design and implementation. This approach involves mainstreaming SOGIESC considerations within project components while also developing targeted actions to address SOGIESC stakeholder identification, engagement, information disclosure, meaningful consultation, and grievance mechanisms. The Argentine Improving Inclusion in Secondary and Higher Education project ensures inclusive access to scholarships by removing age thresholds for transgender individuals, indigenous communities, and single mothers. In 2022 alone, 8,745 transgender and nonbinary students received scholar- ships through the PROGRESAR program. Table of Cover contents 63 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming Box 16. Inclusion of indigenous youth in higher education in Costa Rica using ESF tools The Costa Rica Higher Education Improvement Project was the first operation to facilitate access to higher education for Indigenous youth in Costa Rica and Central America. Using the safeguard tools, several actions were designed address the multiple barriers that historically prevented these groups from acces- sing higher education. The project promoted access of Indigenous students to universities through the implementation of the Multiannual Indigenous Peoples Plan. Among many activities a few are worth noting: 1. Tutoring Support: Indigenous students face challenges in entrance exams, impacting university admittance. Tutoring sessions have enhanced the students’ skills and knowledge in identified priority areas. 2. Exam Accessibility: New exam locations have been established within or near Indigenous terri- tories to reduce onerous journeys for students. 3. Expanded Admission Opportunities: Indigenous backgrounds are considered in scholarship assessments and quotas are set aside for certain groups. 4. School visits: Annual visits are conducted to schools within indigenous territories to provide information on study options, careers, and enrollment processes. 5. Student Support Services: Guidance is offered to both new and continuing students to facilitate their transition to university life and encourage their integration. 6. Promotion of Coexistence Spaces: Support networks have been established among Indigenous students to foster both academic and personal growth. 7. Involvement of Interested Stakeholders: Participation by regional organizations and enrolled students is encouraged—to share opportunities and to enhance community trust. 8. Cultural Identification and Cohesion: Initiatives such as seminars, and activities that strengthen cultural identity, are promoted, alongside career fairs, and support groups. 9. Awareness and training: Processes have been implemented to raise awareness about indigenous students’ presence, territories, and rights, including courses on Indigenous realities. Overall, these measures aim to address the unique challenges faced by Indigenous students, fostering a supportive environment for their educational journey in higher education. As a result of these actions, Indigenous student enrollment for admission exams has doubled from 468 to 962 in the first two years, and the total enrollment in universities increased from 634 to 792 by 2019. Additionally, 72 percent of Indigenous students have been awarded scholarships. Two critical outcomes have been recognized by Indigenous Peoples: 1) For the first time, higher education is an option for Indigenous Peoples, and 2) the majority of Indigenous students plan to return to their territories to drive development, as evidenced by graduates who are returning as teachers, entrepreneurs, and specialists in other fields. Table of Cover contents 64 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies Lessons learned about inclusive youth programming The WB Transport Global Practice is supporting technical capacity building in several countries. Towards such an end, two operations in Côte d’Ivoire, the Grand Abidjan Project and Abidjan Urban Mobility Project have invested in a new Engineering Master’s Program at the University of Yamoussoukro in Côte d’Ivoire. This program enables skills development for Ivorian young people (men and women), while creating technical capacity to support large scale transport projects and infrastructure in the country in the long term. Similar programs are being developed in West and Central Africa. 3.8. Key take-aways from the World Bank portfolio review This chapter has highlighted that there are numerous interventions available to governments and development agencies seeking to address the different needs of young people and to engage with youth differently—more as partners rather than as recipients of development programming. Not only do youth need interventions that support them in a range of sectors— from health, education, and sport to leadership skills—but youth programs that try to address disadvantage in several domains—such as markets, social and political arena, and services— often prove more effective than programs that address opportunities in a single domain only. Secondly, the interventions highlighted have also shown the importance of targeted interven- tions for the youth groups more likely to face exclusion and discrimination, and the importance of considering the context in which the program is being implemented. Programs designed for urban youth in middle-income countries need to address very different issues than programs designed for rural youth in countries with active conflict. Therefore, while it is important to consider programs that can be cost-effectively scaled up, large-scale programs that provide a standardized package for all youth, and engage with them the same way, can be highly ineffective for some groups. Finally, governments also need to consider carefully how to combine youth-focused programs with the implementation of youth policies that address more systemic challenges to youth development and inclusion. Sometimes it is appropriate to focus attention on a particular group that is facing disadvantage and discrimination, and sometimes it is appropriate to focus on the mainstream policies and institutions that create or perpetuate such discrimination. Societies that are more inclusive—giving young people more opportunities— not only need youth to do their part, but also demand changes from everybody else. Table of Cover contents 65 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment C hapter 4 The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment Y outh movements across the globe show the urgency of listening to youth and changing how we engage with them. Youth-led movements are surging worldwide, from the Global South to the North, addressing a diverse array of issues. Youth are campaigning for broad social change, above and beyond opportunities for themselves; for example: young people in Kenya and Bangladesh demanding legislative reform, insisting that their governments be held accountable and follow the rule of law; and young people showing solidarity with those affected by conflicts around the world. All these movements show the power of youth, their distinctive voice, clear demands for change, and their refusal to be ignored despite harsh countermeasures deployed by state agencies. With an explicit commitment to youth in the World Bank’s updated mission and a new scorecard that seeks to capture impact on youth, this is an opportune moment to formulate future priori- ties for youth inclusion and to consider how we can remain relevant to young constituents. This report has explored strategies for promoting youth inclusion and empowerment, emphasizing the need to treat youth as partners and to address the diverse barriers they face. Current events have shown the necessity to change and adapt to remain relevant to the aspirations and needs of Gen Z, or risk being seen as part of the problem. The report draws insights from academic and policy literature on youth development, along with findings from youth projects and programs, including those funded with World Bank financing. Additionally, it incorporates input from works- hops where youth shared their lived experiences of exclusion.28 Youth face growing uncertainty—due to climate change, conflicts, migration, limited job pros- pects, and technological advancements such as digitalization and artificial intelligence (Cazza- niga et al. 2024; Georgieva 2024). The following sections outline how the World Bank can adapt its approach to effectively promote youth inclusion and remain relevant to the youth population in the countries where it works. There are six main recommendations for change that emerge (sections 4.1 to 4.6 below): 28 The Social Development Global Unit hosted a series of ‘youth dialogues’ in FY2024, organized by the Global Solutions Group on Social Inclusion. The series explored various dimensions of youth inclusion, such as specific issues experienced by refugee youth, youth from ethnic minority groups, attempts by youth to organize their own networks, and attempts to mobilize through formal political channels – such as the youth parliaments. All the youth events in this series had young people between the ages of 19 – 30 as the main speakers, and each event was open to an external audience, particularly youth groups and networks. Table of Cover contents 66 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment 4.1. Leave no youth behind Provide targeted, comprehensive support for youth at risk of exclusion. The analysis of youth exclusion and its drivers in the first two chapters highlighted two critical issues. First, for youth to have opportunities and to live a life with dignity, they must be empowered to participate in markets, services and social and political spaces. Interventions restricted to a single domain can only marginally ameliorate overall youth exclusion. Secondly, there are youth who suffer from multiple intersecting disadvantages, significantly compounding the problems—such as young women with disabilities, or SOGIESC youth living in low-income countries. To ensure equity there is a need to provide more tailored and comprehensive support to the most disadvantaged youth. An internatio- nal commitment already exists, under the Sustainable Development Goals, to leave no one behind, and development agencies such as the World Bank can play a critical role in reaching the last mile. Youth at risk of exclusion are not a small minority (Cuesta et al. 2022). There are 600 million youth living in FCVS, the 20 percent of the global youth population are NEET, and 500 million youth who live on less than US$ 2 a day. There are also 220 million young persons with disability globally, and Indigenous youth who are part of the 476 million Indigenous Peoples worldwide (representing about six percent of the global population) who confront distinct challenges including discrimination, inadequate culturally relevant education, environmental pollution, and forced displacement. Reaching these young people will require significantly scaling up of current youth interventions. The implications of such analysis for World Bank programming are two-fold. First, a more comprehensive, and multi-sectoral package of support for marginalized youth is needed to promote overall well-being. Job readiness and economic empowerment programs are more likely to be successful if other constraints are also addressed: for example, young women need to have safe transport or childcare to be able to take up jobs or skills training. Programs that combine technical skills with soft skills, mentoring and coaching also deliver better results. Many youth programs now also provide psychosocial support for youth in post-conflict settings, and survivors of GBV. Even in cases of less obvious trauma, mental health and well-being are increasingly recognized as being important for youth development. Secondly, more targeted and tailored interventions are needed for specific youth groups at risk of exclusion. The paper has highlighted many examples of targeted and tailored programs such as in the Central African Republic or Democratic Republic of Congo targeting ex-combatants, which also covered GBV and psychosocial support, or those for urban unemployed youth in Sikkim (India), Jamaica, or Papua New Guinea. Having an explicit outreach strategy for the most excluded youth in mainstream programs is one way of better reaching them, such as for example, in the work for digital inclusion in Pakistan where women were mobilized and assisted to join the program, or the work in Liberia on digital inclusion, which focused on reaching persons with disabilities. Reaching the most vulnerable or excluded and providing interventions that have a long-term effect can be more costly than standard youth interventions (Banerjee et al. 2015; Andrews et al. 2021). Assessing the cost of economic inclusion programs is complex as impacts can span across a wide range of outcomes and across time (Andrews et al. 2021). Yet, investing in margina- lized youth makes economic sense for society, since investment today can reduce the need for state support and spending tomorrow (necessitated by future unemployment, or poor health of Table of Cover contents 67 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment babies born to teenage mothers). A life-cycle approach to programming also makes it clear that effective interventions at this point in their life can help improve long-term, future outcomes for these individuals (health, economic, social well-being) and even in due course for their children. “The stability and progress of society at large depend on how any cohort of young adults fares as a whole. The same can be said of each cohort of children and adolescents, but it is the transition to adulthood that reflects the end of trial periods and the beginning of more consequential actions. Young adults’ successful transition to independent and healthy adulthood, entry into the workforce, continued productivity, and successful parenting can help ensure the security and well-being of the nation. A healthy and productive generation of young adults nurtures the next generation and provides the worker replacement needed to support the retiring generation.” (Bonnie et al. 2015) While reaching large numbers is critical, it is important to recognize that there may be trade-offs between achieving scale and designing truly inclusive interventions. Some of the successful interventions presented in this paper had to start small because they were in contexts of fragility, conflict and violence (FCV) where large projects are hard to implement due to limited government capacity (for example, Mindanao, Southern Thailand, or Iraq), or where a more comprehensive package of support (for example, Klick on Kaduna) required greater attention to implementation and more resources. Box 17. The new World Bank Group scorecard FY24–30 The new World Bank Group Scorecard 2024–2030 promotes increased visibility and accountability for youth inclusion by introducing the comprehensive disaggregation of data by age and gender of bene- ficiaries. The Scorecard addresses their inclusion and challenges in two main cross-cutting outcome areas: Gender Equality and Youth Inclusion (Outcome Area 12): This area focuses on accelerating gender equa- lity, enhancing human capital, eliminating gender-based violence, and expanding economic opportuni- ties. It stresses engaging women and youth as leaders and tracks progress on gender equality through the disaggregation of results for both groups. More and Better Jobs (Outcome Area 14): This outcome is dedicated to interventions aimed at crea- ting new or improved employment opportunities, specifically targeting the movement of workers from lower to higher productivity activities. It places a particular focus on women and youth, highlighting the importance of providing them with opportunities that lead to better employment conditions and economic outcomes. While disaggregating indicators by youth is an important starting point, it is not enough to assess impact on inclusion outcomes. Better data on who is benefitting among youth can help better allocation of resources. How this can be done is discussed in more detail in Section 4.6 and Box 18. Table of Cover contents 68 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment 4.2. Increase funding for targeted programs to support young women This report recommends greater investments in multi-sectoral projects aimed at adolescent girls or young women’s socio-economic empowerment. Several projects highlighted in this report can serve as a model for the design of such comprehensive interventions. These include the Adolescent Girls Initiative, the PAMOJA gender equality project in Tanzania or the Sikkim Inspires Project in India. Historically, programming for young women has been fragmented, focusing on seemingly separate aspects like reproductive health or education. However, girls and women undergo multiple transitions simultaneously, often unsupported, especially in conflict-affected areas or with early marriage and pregnancies. Adolescence and youth are critical periods for everyone, but girls and women often face addi- tional decisions about education, marriage, childbearing, and work, that significantly impact their futures. This period is also when they are most vulnerable to gender-based violence and sexual harassment. Managing the physical transition to childbearing can also be problematic, because that physiological transition may occur before young girls/women are prepared or able to make independent decisions about their bodies and their future. To address these challen- ges, it is crucial to support girls and young women in making informed decisions and choices, enabling them to transition smoothly with viable options and agency. This aligns with the World Bank Gender Strategy (2024–2030), emphasizing the importance of empowering girls and women to participate in society with dignity, voice, and agency, rather than solely focusing on traditional roles like motherhood or employability. 4.3. Greater focus on civic engagement and building social cohesion The report has highlighted several interventions that have been successful in terms of creating more cohesive communities, or in developing leadership skills for young people—such as the the community-driven development interventions with youth in Kazakhstan and Kosovo. Even when the employment or business development aspects of the project have not yielded results, there have been notable positive outcomes elsewhere—such as the skills youth learned, or their involvement in local community activities and building stronger ties across the community. While jobs are often important enablers of youth inclusion, the WB increasingly operates in contexts where jobs are not readily available, or where jobs may not be secure over time. In FCV contexts where there are limited employment prospects, interventions that foster social cohesion or that connect youth to their communities can be critical in rebuilding communities and trust and help prepare youth for employment in the longer-term (UNICEF 2019c). Young people can also play a significant role in addressing public concerns such as rising crime (StreetVoice) or climate change (Youth Climate Action movement). Table of Cover contents 69 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment Based on the evidence, the Bank should consider investing more in such youth interventions, as a complement to ongoing efforts to tackle youth unemployment. Investing in building youth leadership skills facilitates active and meaningful participation of youth in decision-making processes regarding programs and projects that directly affect them. Fostering their leader- ship also serves as a catalyst for their personal growth and societal contribution. With these skills, young people are empowered to advocate for social, political, or environmental reforms and spearhead grassroots movements aimed at fostering positive transformations within their communities. The Bank can adopt methodologies that are being used by other development practitioners to calculate the social value of youth interventions (S4YE 2024b). This involves assigning an economic value to the social benefits of youth programs—such as improved health and fitness practices; or increasing participation in volunteer activities; improved mental health, and so forth. This helps to highlight to governments and funding agencies that even when an intervention does not lead to jobs for youth, or increased income from livelihoods, it can lead to improved well-being outcomes for the youth themselves, and many positive social externalities for the wider community, such as greater community cohesion, a reduction in violence, and improved community services through volunteering. 4.4. Recognize and support youth as agents of change Central to the concept of youth inclusion put forward in this paper is supporting youth voice and agency, recognizing that youth actively contribute to and shape their community. Not only are partnerships with youth critical for the youth themselves, but also for the successful implementation of development policies. Furthermore, youth inclusion does not begin or end with youth involvement in youth-focused projects. Youth, and youth leaders, should be actively consulted and sought as partners for most of our development interventions—whether in agri- culture, climate action, digital development, or energy investments. The very visible and powerful youth movements across the world in 2024—in Bangladesh, Canada, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, across Europe, and Venezuela—have shown the urgency of engaging with youth in different and more meaningful ways (Lawal 2024; Mureithi 2024; Chughtai and Ali 2024; Ghosal, 2024). Their demands for accountability are not just directed at their governments, but also at international organizations perceived to prop up the status quo. Youth voice, leadership and partnerships can be fostered by the WB in several ways: • By having regular dialogue and engagement with youth groups. Establishing mecha- nisms that enable local youth in each relevant country to actively contribute to strategic development thinking and WB supported programs in that country. This approach has been successful in cases like the Roma Sounding Board in Romania, where civil society Table of Cover contents 70 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment organizations with expertise in Roma inclusion were consulted on World Bank projects29. Similarly, the Indigenous Peoples Platform in Latin America and the Caribbean (Advisory Support and Analytics for Reducing Extreme Poverty and Fostering Prosperity among Indigenous Peoples and Afro descendants in LCR) fosters structured dialogue with indi- genous communities. Recent reviews of (WB) youth engagement platforms also highlight that despite many efforts to establish mechanisms for more meaningful engagement with youth, these have not always been successful. Objectives are often not clear, and a lack of resources often leads to short-term or ad hoc consultations (Ishii; 2008; Zayed 2024). • A second way is to ensure youth have leadership roles in the design and implementa- tion of WB-funded projects and programs. Some examples highlighted in this paper are the digital youth summit in Pakistan which has encouraged youth to come up with new solutions to public service delivery challenges, (Tas and Ahmad, 2019). Having more youth employed in the World Bank and our partner organizations would be another way to ensure that youth perspectives are brought in, and then given a voice and space to lead. • Supporting youth to establish their own organization and providing funding for youth- led or youth-focused organizations. Given the Bank’s commitment to supporting youth, it will be important to support and invest in youth-led or youth-focused organizations and movements. The WB civil society funding mechanisms—the Global Partnership for Social Accountability (GPSA), and its next iteration, CIVIC—can play a critical role in bringing together, supporting and amplifying the voice of youth as change agents. Table 4.1: Typology of youth engagement platforms Type of groups in network/platform Civil society organizations Informal movements or Youth mobilized or NGOs initiatives (organically by development or formed) government programs Issue-focused, Rise-up Movement Emergency Response Youth Transforming Africa Purpose of platform socio-economic Rooms (ERRs) in Sudan (YTA) Network Fridays for Future Youth political Youth Assembly / CIVICUS “Not Too Young to Run” Youth Parliament in participation, broadly Youth4Parliament, and – Nigeria Ghana the Youth Parliamentary Caucus, Zambia Advisory/Consultation N/A UN Youth Advisory Group on Climate Change Y2Y – World Bank 29 This initiative closed in 2023. Table of Cover contents 71 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment 4.5. Consciously make digital investments work for excluded groups For digital interventions and innovation to be inclusive, and supportive of different groups of youth, a conscious effort will have to be made to target specific groups and tailor interventions to their needs. It has been noted that digital jobs have a great potential to foster youth inclusion as jobs can become accessible across borders and independently of current location. At the same time, digital jobs and the online gig economy, as well as AI, pose a whole new range of challenges that can exacerbate previous inequality or create new forms of exclusion—from online gig jobs that offer no social protection, to certain jobs being swept away by AI, sometimes affecting less qualified youth more significantly than others, and so forth. Just making the digital infrastructure available and bringing down the cost is not enough. There will be a need for specially designed interventions that reach out to women in rural areas who have had no experience with the digital world, as seen in Pakistan, or with the Click on Kaduna project in Nigeria, or a need to design interventions and support services for young persons with disabilities to take advantage of digital skills programs, as seen in Ghana and Sierra Leone. Many of the social norms and exclusionary practices of the real world can be at play in the digital world as well. This is seen in the lower access rates of women and girls to ICT in many developing countries, and lower ownership of mobile phones. Or lower access rates to affordable digital services for youth in Africa compared to OECD countries. The digital space is more than just a realm they are expected to join. It should also be a space they can design and change to suit their needs. The digital space and economy should be harnessed and developed by a more diverse group of youth to create tools and spaces that work for young people from different backgrounds, including young people from marginalized commu- nities, and help improve their quality of life. This has been seen for example with more women entering the digital world and creating Apps that are targeted to women and help improve their life, for example, apps for safety in transport, or to prevent GBV (as seen in Box 14) and period tracker apps. Table of Cover contents 72 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment 4.6. Measure youth inclusion and well-being in WB-funded initiatives The new World Bank Scorecard 2024–2030 promotes increased visibility and accountability for youth inclusion by introducing disaggregation of data by youth. Just as important as tracking how many young people we reach, will be to track whether we are reaching those youth who are at greatest risk of poverty and exclusion—hence disaggregation beyond just age, ensuring that results frameworks also capture other markers of exclusion. Much like other development interventions, a dominant focus in measuring impact and progress on youth inclusion initiatives to date is on counting the number of beneficiaries per project. Currently, these numbers are typically not disaggregated further, making it impossible to track whether more disadvantaged groups are reached. Over the past few years, considerable progress has been made on disag- gregating impact by gender; in a similar vein, youth interventions which are targeted to reach particular groups—for instance, young persons with disabilities or young people from ethnic or religious minority backgrounds—need to ensure that impact monitoring disaggregates along these markers. In addition to disaggregating data to better understand which youth are being reached through WB-funded programs, it will also be important to measure the different dimensions of inclusion, and not simply access to jobs, or social services. Two areas that are often not covered through existing WB indicators are voice and agency of youth, and secondly, how youth are engaged—that is, the quality of the intervention and not simply what services were made available. There are multiple ways of measuring the quality of interventions and to assess to what extent youth have voice in the design and implementation of programs and policies; for example, surveys to evaluate community and youth engagement, or the inclusion of a beneficiary feedback indicator in the results framework of initiatives, so that youth can report back on their experience of participating in programs. Available guidance materials include, for instance, recommenda- tions on how to better engage youth with disabilities, how to use digital tools for better engage- ment, or how to engage in situations of conflict. Indicators can be built around perceptions of youth along a variety of dimensions: to capture their access to information, for instance, their decision-making power, their agency (input) in implementing programs, or whether a program or policy increases transparency. Box 18 below provides further information and guidance on different ways of measuring youth inclusion in development programing. Table of Cover contents 73 Change-Makers: Empowering youth for inclusive societies The role of development agencies in supporting youth inclusion and empowerment Box 18. Measuring youth inclusion and well-being Below are some of the dimensions of inclusion and well-being that programs have tried to evaluate and for which there are existing indicators. Ideally, a program focusing on youth would measure progress along several dimensions of youth inclusion e.g. such as economic opportunities and mental well-be- ing, or access to services and opportunities to engage with the local community, or take up leadership positions in the community. • NEET Rates: NEET Rates provides more nuance than youth unemployment rates, since they also include youth who are not ‘actively looking for jobs’. • Youth Literacy Rates: Literacy rates among young people provide insights into access to basic education and skills development. Low literacy rates can hinder youth participation in the work- force and limit opportunities for social and economic advancement. This involves a move away from simply looking at access to education and assessing what skills youth have gained as a result of education. • Youth Poverty Rates: Poverty rates among young people, especially those living in low-income households, can highlight economic exclusion. Lack of access to resources and opportunities can perpetuate cycles of poverty among youth. • Youth Civic Engagement: Statistics on youth voter turnout, participation in social movements, engagement in civic activities, volunteering, and representation in decision-making processes in the community or wider society. • Digital Inclusion: Statistics on internet access, digital literacy rates, and use of technology among young people can highlight digital exclusion. In an increasingly digital world, lack of access to technology and digital skills can exacerbate existing inequalities. • Youth Crime and Violence: Rates of youth involvement in crime, gang activity, and violence can indicate social exclusion and lack of opportunities for positive engagement. • Gender-based Violence and Sexual Harassment: There are now established indicators measuring rates of gender-based violence, intimate partners violence and instances of sexual harassment that the Bank can use. • Gender Disparities: Gender-specific statistics, such as the gender wage gap, prevalence of child marriage, and access to reproductive health services, can illuminate gender-based exclusion among youth. • Physical, mental and emotional health: Looking at different health outcomes, rather than simply access, and considering physical health, reproductive health, mental health and emotional well-being, especially for young people who are likely to have suffered from trauma (Ross et al. 2020). • Healthy Family and Social Relationships: Measure reduction in child marriages, or maternal mortality rates for young mothers ages 15–24. • Agency and Resilience: Measuring more subjective indicators of well-being is also important to capture how people feel (irrespective of what conventional economic indicators might tell us). 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