What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 1 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province @2022 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20422 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................... 6 LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................. 7 ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................ 9 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................ 11 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................................... 13 1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 16 1.1. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY........................................................................................................................... 17 1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY............................................................................................................................... 19 1.3. STUDY AREAS............................................................................................................................................................... 19 1.3.1. Tam Giang – Cau Hai Lagoon, Thua Thien Hue province............................................................ 20 1.3.2. Quang Ninh province........................................................................................................................................ 23 2. METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................... 26 2.1. ECOSYSTEM EXTENT ACCOUNTS................................................................................................................ 28 2.2. ECOSYSTEM CONDITION ACCOUNTS.................................................................................................... 30 2.3. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES VALUATION........................................................................................................... 32 2.3.1. Provisioning services........................................................................................................................................... 32 2.3.2. Coastal protection services............................................................................................................................. 37 2.3.3. Carbon storage and sequestration values ............................................................................................. 39 2.3.4. Cultural services.................................................................................................................................................... 40 2.4. ASSESSMENT OF COST-EFFECTIVENESS.................................................................................................... 44 What Is It Worth? 4 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province 3. RESULTS.................................................................................................................... 47 3.1. ECOSYSTEM EXTENT AND CONDITION ACCOUNTS................................................................. 48 3.1.1. Quang Ninh province........................................................................................................................................ 48 3.1.2. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon, Thua Thien Hue province.............................................................. 57 3.2. ECOSYSTEM VALUATION.................................................................................................................................... 69 3.2.1. Provisioning services........................................................................................................................................... 69 3.2.2. Carbon storage and sequestration values ............................................................................................. 73 3.2.3. Coastal protection values................................................................................................................................ 79 3.2.4. Cultural services.................................................................................................................................................... 80 3.3. COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS.................................................................................................................... 82 4. POLICY IMPLICATIONS.......................................................................................... 87 ANNEXES....................................................................................................................... 91 A. MANGROVE FOREST AREA DISTRIBUTION IN COASTAL PROVINCES (2017)................ 91 B. BIOMASS AND BIOMASS INCREMENT OF MANGROVE FORESTS ACROSS ECO-REGIONS IN VIETNAM......................................................................................................................................... 93 C. CARBON STORAGE AND SEQUESTRATION ESTIMATES FOR QUANG NINH............... 96 D. CARBON STORAGE AND SEQUESTRATION ESTIMATES FOR THUA THIEN HUE... 108 E. CATEGORIZED MANGROVES AREAS IN QUANG NINH PROVINCE IN 2015 AND 2018............................................................................................................................................................................... 112 F. MANGROVE AND SEA DIKES IN QUANG NINH PROVINCE IN 2018................................... 113 G. KEY POLICIES THAT RECOGNIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VALUING THE SERVICES FROM NATURAL ASSETS (INCLUDING IN COASTAL AREAS)........................................................ 123 H. LIST OF INTERVIEWED EXPERTS IN THE VALIDATION FIELD TRIPS.................................... 127 REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 129 What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 5 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Study area in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon, Thua Thien Hue.....................................................21 Figure 2. Study area in Quang Ninh province...........................................................................................................24 Figure 3. Example of mangrove forest plot overlay on Sentinel 2 NDVI.................................................. 30 Figure 4. Example of mangrove forest plot overlay on Sentinel 2 image (natural color)..................31 Figure 5. Example of plot-based mangrove forest cover (%)............................................................................31 Figure 6. Mangrove and sandy forest in Quang Ninh province...................................................................... 48 Figure 7. Forest change map 2015 - 2018.....................................................................................................................53 Figure 8. Quang Ninh mangrove forest coverage in 2015 and 2018........................................................... 55 Figure 9. Wetland ecosystem map of Tam Giang – Cau Hai, Thua Thien Hue province................ 60 Figure 10. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon coastal forest, 2018............................................................................61 Figure 11. Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon forest function, 2015....................................................................... 63 Figure 12. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon forest function, 2018........................................................................ 64 Figure 13. Forest change map of Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon, 2015 – 2018....................................... 67 Figure 14. Carbon value share (%) among the coastal forest types in Quang Ninh (left) and Thua Thien Hue (right).................................................................................................................................................... 78 Figure 15. Coastal protection value in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue.............................................. 80 Figure 16. Mangroves and sea dikes in Quang Ninh province........................................................................ 83 Figure 17. Total economic value in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue...................................................... 89 What Is It Worth? 6 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Production value structure by administrative unit............................................................................... 22 Table 2. Ecosystem services valuation methodology............................................................................................ 33 Table 3. Input data for the valuation of provisioning services.......................................................................... 36 Table 4. Estimates of protective values for 1 ha of coastal forests............................................................... 38 Table 5. Input data for the valuation of tourism value...........................................................................................43 Table 6. Input data for the cost-effectiveness analysis.......................................................................................... 45 Table 7. General characteristics of coastal forests of Quang Ninh province........................................... 49 Table 8. Quang Ninh mangrove forest area reported by province (ha).................................................... 50 Table 9. Quang Ninh mangrove forest area by district.........................................................................................51 Table 10. Change in forest land to other land use in Quang Ninh in 2016-2020 land use planning...................................................................................................................................................................................... 52 Table 11. Sandy forest area with Casuarina plantation........................................................................................ 52 Table 12. Forest cover change matrix in Quang Ninh province..................................................................... 54 Table 13. Mangrove areas in relation to sea dikes in Quang Ninh................................................................ 56 Table 14. Length of sea dike in relation to mangrove forest in Quang Ninh.......................................... 57 Table 15. Area of ecosystems in Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon in 2018......................................................59 Table 16. Coastal forest in Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon................................................................................... 62 Table 17. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon coastal forest area by forest function....................................... 63 Table 18. Distribution of planted mangrove species and their volume in Thua Thien Hue........... 65 Table 19. Distribution of planted sandy forest species and their volume in Thua Thien Hue....... 66 What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 7 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 20. Forest cover change matrix in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon..................................................... 68 Table 21. Some statistics of capture fisheries in the mangrove areas of Quang Ninh province.. 70 Table 22. Some statistics of capture fisheries in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon...................................... 72 Table 23. Some statistics of aquaculture production in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon..................... 73 Table 24. Coastal forest area in study provinces in 2018....................................................................................74 Table 25. Estimated average carbon stock and increment of coastal forests......................................... 75 Table 26. Carbon stock of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue....................................76 Table 27. Estimated values of coastal forests carbon storage and sequestration................................. 77 Table 28. Annual protective values of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue......... 79 Table 29. Types of visitors’ costs in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon.................................................................81 Table 30. Changes of mangrove areas in Quang Ninh province from 2015 to 2018.......................... 82 Table 31. Sea dike protected by mangrove forest in Quang Ninh................................................................ 84 Table 32. Private net benefits and social net benefits of mangrove............................................................. 85 Table 33. Estimated natural asset values of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and wetland in Thua Thien Hue....................................................................................................................................................................... 89 What Is It Worth? 8 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province ABBREVIATIONS COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease CO2 Carbon Dioxide DARD Department of Agriculture and Rural Development DONRE Department of Natural Resources and Environment DPI Department of Planning and Investment FCPF Forest Carbon Partnership Fund FORMIS Vietnam Forestry Sector Management Information System FPD Forest Protection Department GCF Green Climate Fund GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographical Information System GIZ German Corporation for International Cooperation GRDP Gross Regional Domestic Product GSO General Statistics Office ha Hectare IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISPONRE Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resource and Environment km Kilometer LCU Local Currency Units m Meter MARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 9 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NFIS National Forest Inventory and Statistics SEEA UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting SEEA-EEA UN SEEA—Experimental Ecosystem Accounting TC Travel Costs (Z)TCM (Zonal) Travel Cost Method tCO2e Tons of Carbon Dioxide equivalent TDM Total Dry Matter TEV Total Economic Value TGCH Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon UN United Nations USD United States Dollars VND Vietnamese Dong VNFOREST Vietnam Forestry Administration VR Visitation Rate WTP Willingness-to-pay What Is It Worth? 10 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Inclusive and environmentally sound sustainable development requires managing natural resources that societies depend on for the long term. In the context of marine and coastal resources which provide an important source of income for large numbers of households and revenue for countries, this implies balancing the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of the use of the natural resources in marine and coastal areas. The term “blue economy” is increasingly being used to describe this balanced approach. For coastal countries such as Vietnam, the importance of its marine economy is well known. The country has used the goods and services provided by the natural assets in its near-shore and coastal areas – including fisheries, mangroves, wetlands, lagoons, and sandy beaches – for tourism, production of seafood, and controlling climate events that cause erosion and weathering. It has also used offshore resources such as petroleum and minerals for revenue generation. Vietnam’s 12th Party Central Executive Committee has recognized the importance of sustainable development of the marine economy and has approved ambitious growth and revenue targets in the strategy for the sustainable development of Vietnam’s marine economy by 2030, with a vision to 2045 (herein referred to as the Marine Strategy), promulgated in Resolution No. 36-NQ/TW in 2018. In Vietnam, the World Bank is actively supporting the Government of Vietnam with the coastal development agenda by informing its policy and investment decisions regarding integrated coastal area management, marine economy (including fisheries, energy, tourism, logistics, and coastal city development), resilience to climate change, and institutional strengthening. This support aims to strengthen the development of sustainable and climate smart economic activities in coastal areas in an integrated way, in other words, to facilitate a blue economy growth agenda in Vietnam. This report is part of a series of World Bank-led studies that aim to contribute to Vietnam’s efforts to boost its marine/coastal economy in a sustainable and climate resilient manner. This report focuses on testing a practical approach to assess and value natural assets in select coastal areas of Vietnam. The content of the report was developed in close coordination with the provinces where the work was conducted and involved collection of primary data (during the time of COVID). The intention of this report is to provide practical example of the type of data that can be collected and compiled to estimate the extent and value of key natural assets and inform decision making. These examples also informed the drafting of guidance valuing natural assets (another report that is part of this series). This report has been prepared under the oversight of Diji Chandrasekharan Behr (Senior Natural Resource Economist) and Thu Thi Le Nguyen (Senior Environmental Specialist) from the World Bank Vietnam office in Hanoi. The expert team that conducted the work involved staff from the Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment (ISPONRE) and other What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 11 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province experts including Kim Thi Thuy Ngoc, Vu Tan Phuong, Hoang Viet Anh, Nguyen Hoang Nam, Dang Thi Phuong Ha, and Le Thi Le Quyen. The work and findings were consulted with government representatives in Thua Thien Hue province: Nguyen Thi Kim Anh, Hau Han Ny, Nguyen Thi Thanh Thuy, Nguyen Quoc Hung, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thanh, Nguyen Thi Thu, Nguyen Van Bao, Tran Minh Tan, Le Van Anh, Le Thanh Dung, Luong Quang Doi, and Quang Ninh province: Pham Truong Son, Doan Manh Phuong, Duong Thuy Trang, Nguyen Thanh Khuong, Ngo Duc Hau, Duong Van Hiep, Nguyen Van Thanh, Dam Minh Phong, Vu Huy Bat, Pham Van Cung, Nguyen The Teo, Chu Thi Hoang Yen, Tran Thu Ha, Tran Thanh Phong, Ngo Thanh Trinh, Nguyen The Anh. The financing of this work was provided by the Wealth Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services (WAVES) Trust Fund. WAVES is a World Bank-led global partnership that aims to promote sustainable development by ensuring that natural resources are mainstreamed in development planning and national economic accounts. WAVES is now part of the broader World Bank umbrella initiative, the Global Program for Sustainability (GPS). What Is It Worth? 12 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Vietnam, with over 3,200 kilometers of shoreline, 28 coastal provinces, and more than half of its major cities on the coast, is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. It is also a country undergoing rapid development in its coastal provinces. The government (both central and provincial) is aware of the importance that addressing climate change and environmentally sustainability play in its development. However, the planning process in Vietnam has been mixed in how effectively it integrates considerations regarding the use of natural assets in coastal areas into subnational decision-making and planning processes (for example, how to buffer the coast against weather impacts). This study aims to test a replicable approach for estimating the value of select natural assets in coastal areas of Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue provinces to inform planning activities and investment design.1 The study focuses on the services presented in the table below using the proposed methods. Services Quang Ninh TGCH lagoon Type of value Valuation method 1. Provisioning a. Aquaculture a. Aquaculture Direct use Market price services production production value method b. Capture b. Capture Direct use Market price fisheries fisheries value method 2. Regulating a. Carbon a. Carbon Indirect use Benefit transfer and supporting sequestration sequestration and value method and services and storage storage market price method b. Coastal b. Coastal Indirect use Benefit transfer protection protection value method 3. Cultural a. Tourism Direct use Travel cost services value method 1 The study has been carried out by the Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment (ISPONRE) in collaboration with JBA Consulting with financial support and guidance provided by the World Bank during 2019-2020, in special context of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic in Vietnam starting from February 2020 onwards. The World Bank financing was provided by the Wealth Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services program. What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 13 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province The focus of this study is mangrove forests in the coastal communes of Quang Ninh province in the North of Vietnam and Tam Giang – Cau Hai (TGCH) lagoon in Thua Thien Hue province in Central Vietnam.2 These locations currently have notable growth rates and face pressure (including political) to increase growth while promoting more sustainable growth (and for Thua Thien Hue, promoting the blue economy). The natural systems reviewed were selected because of their associated provisioning and regulating services and the importance of reflecting these kinds of services in plans, the determination of coastal setbacks, and investment design. The findings highlight the importance of considering ecosystem services for enhancing coastal resilience and supporting local livelihoods. The valuation of coastal forests in Quang Ninh (21, 973 hectares of mangroves) and TGCH Lagoon in Thua Thien Hue (21,600 hectares of water surface area) revealed that the total monetary value of the mangrove forests for Quang Ninh is close to 31 million US Dollars (USD). Of this, the regulating services of coastal protection and carbon storage and sequestration account for 53 percent and 41 percent of total value, respectively, while the provisioning services of capture fisheries and aquaculture support account for 6 percent of total value. In the TGCH lagoon, the total value of the lagoon’s ecosystem services is USD 96.446 million, of which 87 percent is for direct use value from the provisioning services of capture fisheries and aquaculture support. These estimated natural asset values of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and wetland in Thua Thien Hue are summarized in the table below. Coastal types Quang Ninh Thua Thien Hue mangrove ecosystem wetland ecosystem   Value Share (%) Value Share (%) 1. Provisioning services (capture fisheries 1,836,226 6% 85,993,469 87% and aquaculture support, USD/year) 2. Carbon storage (USD) 11,763,305 39% 6,315,645 7% 3. Carbon sequestration (USD/year) 603,885 2% 264,075 0% 4. Coastal protection (USD/year) 15,934,703 53% 3,029,140 3% 5. Cultural services (tourism, USD/year) 0 0% 847,178 1% Total (USD) 30,138,119 100% 96,449,506 100% 2 Mangroves have been widely studied in the south of Vietnam (in the Mekong Delta) and other key areas, including a few locations in the northern part of Vietnam. The purpose of selecting the two different case studies was an effort to generate information in provinces where growth is rapidly occurring. Data on ecosystem services is especially useful for decisions in such a context. What Is It Worth? 14 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Regulations and policies regarding forest/wetland management and conservation should account for the benefits from coastal assets. The result from valuation of Quang Ninh’s mangroves and TGCH wetlands in Thua Thien Hue should also be incorporated into the planning processes in these two provinces. To ensure that provinces preserve wealth while growing, natural capital accounts should be fully analyzed in terms of loss-damages and impacts associated with a development plan. This includes impacts from conversion of natural ecosystems (including coastal forest ecosystems) for urbanization, industrial zones and infrastructure development. The fee for conversion activities would then be estimated based on its impacts and the value of ecosystem services lost. Photo: Phuong D. Nguyen - shutterstock.com What Is It Worth? Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of 15 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Photo: Nguyen Quang Ngoc Tonkin - shutterstock.com 1. INTRODUCTION What Is It Worth? 16 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province 1.1. Rationale for the study Vietnam, with over 3,200 kilometers of shoreline, 28 coastal provinces, and more than half of its major cities on the coast, is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. While the government (both central and provincial) are aware of the importance of addressing climate change, the issue is yet to be given due attention in Vietnam’s planning process, limiting, as a result, how effectively natural assets are used to adapt to climate change. The Government of Vietnam has historically invested in physical structures to build resilience of its coastal areas. Approximately 1,400 km of dikes are directly exposed to the sea in 28 provinces and cities across the country. Historically, sea dike development has been focused on Northern and Central Vietnam, which are the areas most exposed to typhoons. These sea dikes are meant to protect 630,000 ha of agricultural land and about 8.7 million inhabitants. The effectiveness of these systems has declined over the years due to limited maintenance and increase in severity of storms. At the same time, the infrastructure creates a false sense of security, resulting in investments in their vicinity. Afforestation and reforestation of coastal forests, especially mangroves, has proven to be a complementary (and in some locations, alternative) measure which can notably reduce the cost of dike maintenance while improving coastal resilience and livelihoods. Globally, coastal forests, in particular tropical and sub-tropical mangrove forests, are considered an important ecosystem for human coastal communities due to their provision of goods and ecosystem services, such as timber and fuelwood (Palacios & Cantera, 2017), fisheries (Benzeev et al., 2017; Goecke & Carstenn, 2017), sediment trapping (Kamal et al., 2017), coastal defense (including erosion control) (Doughty et al., 2017; Sheng & Zou, 2017), and carbon storage (Donato et al., 2011; Kelleway et al., 2016). Nevertheless, coastal forests and mangrove forests are considered one of the most threatened ecosystems across the tropics (Duke et al., 2007). Since 1990, the area of mangroves has decreased by 1.04 million hectares (ha) with a rate of change that more than halved over the period 1990–2020, from 47,000 ha per year in the period 1990–2000 to 21,000 ha per year over the last ten years (FAO and UNEP, 2020). There are a range of drivers for mangrove degradation and destruction. These include clearing for aquaculture, settlements, infrastructure and industrial development. This threat has increased significantly with the expansion of tourism, shrimp aquaculture, and salt farms. Other key causes include overharvesting of the mangroves for wood, changes in water regime due to upstream dams and irrigation infrastructure, pollution and climate change.3 The last three are also threats to lagoons. Conversion of mangroves has been the most frequent cause of land cover change in mangrove forests over the period 1996–2010, particularly in Southeast Asia where two-thirds of mangrove forest are located (Thomas et al., 2017; Richards et al., 2016). The coastal forests in Vietnam are currently distributed across its 28 coastal provinces and cover an area of about 274,000 ha, accounting for 2 percent of the country’s total forest area. Of those forests, the coastal protection forest area is approximately 138,000 ha, accounting for 3 percent of total protection forest4 area, of which about 86 percent is mangrove protection forest (Ministry 3 For more information, see: https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/oceans_practice/coasts/mangroves/mangrove_threats/. 4 Forest in Vietnam are classified into three main groups: special use forest, protection forest and production forest in accordance with Circular No. 34/2009/TT-BNNPTNT of June 10, 2009, on criteria for forest identification and classification. 1. Introduction 17 of Agriculture and Rural Development [MARD 2019]). In the context of climate change, coastal forests can contribute to buffering against storm surges and windstorms as well as help reduce coastal erosion. While several policies emphasize the need to manage coastal forests in a sustainable manner, in practice there are increasing threats and pressures on these forests. One example is the increasing demand for land from other sectors, including aquaculture, infrastructure and tourism. Vietnam’s other significant natural asset in coastal areas are its wetlands. In Vietnam, wetlands include coastal lagoons, seagrass beds, coral reefs and marine areas (with a depth not exceeding six meters [m] at low tide) as well as numerous nearshore islands. Lagoons are present mainly along the coastline of central Vietnam, from Thua Thien Hue to Ninh Thuan, and have a total area of about 44,770 ha. The biggest lagoon is the Tam Giang – Cau Hai system, which is more than 67 km in length with an approximate area of 21,600 ha. Seagrass beds, although covering a relatively small area (recorded at 12,380 ha in 2009-2010) have high biological productivity and their species richness may be two to eight times higher than that found in other coastal habitats. There have been increased efforts to integrate ecosystem services into planning. The planning law which became effective in 2019 requires that all master plans (provincial, regional and national) reflect the spatial development distribution during the plan formulation process and ensure consistency across development of infrastructure, land allocation, environment protection, and ecosystem services. Similarly, the contents of the marine spatial plan should determine environmental protection and ecosystem conservation in the coastal areas of Vietnam. Integrated planning requires the consideration of cross-sectoral issues and natural resources for adjustments in the planning and decision making processes, as well as institutional and technical capacity to handle multi-sectoral collaboration and to mediate conflicting interests. However, the lack of systematic evidence on the value of ecosystem services has led to the underestimation of these and their limited integration into decision making processes. This is especially the case with natural assets in coastal areas. Incorporating the value of natural assets into planning processes would require putting into place a suitable natural asset accounting system. This would help tackle the limited awareness about the value and contribution of coastal assets to different sector objectives. Such accounts also would augment understanding of the opportunities natural assets create for implementing an integrated approach that supports economic growth and wealth. To more systematically be able to use ecosystem values in planning, it would be optimal to have an integrated statistical framework for organizing biophysical data, measuring ecosystem services, tracking changes in ecosystem assets and linking this information to economic and other human activity.  This is what the United Nations (UN) System of Environmental-Economic Accounting—Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EEA) allows a country to do. Vietnam currently has a system of national accounts which does not include the SEEA. It also does not conduct Experimental Ecosystem Accounting. The lack of suitable national accounting makes it challenging for provinces and the national government to effectively integrate ecosystem values into their planning processes, and raises questions related to the capacity in country to carry out such work. What Is It Worth? 18 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province 1.2. Objectives of the study The study aims to test the use of a practical and replicable approach to estimating the value of ecosystem services from coastal forests and lagoons while generating useful information for planning processes and investment design. For the policy and investment processes, the aim is to estimate the potential contribution of the ecosystem services from these assets for enhancing coastal resilience and generating revenue for coastal communities. The focus of this work will be on coastal forest assets (specifically mangroves5) and lagoons, and their associated provisioning and ecosystem services. More specifically, the study: ● Provides evidence to the Government of Vietnam regarding the contribution of select natural assets in coastal areas to income generation and addressing climate change (both by sequestering carbon and mitigating the impact of storm surges, etc.) ● Offers an application of methods that are in line with the development of satellite ecosystem accounts (recommended by the UN-led efforts on preparing SEEA-EEA), which can then be used to prepare guidance for valuing natural assets in coastal areas. ● Informs ongoing discussions between the World Bank and different administrative levels of the Government of Vietnam (provincial and central levels) on their specific master plans, and potential opportunities to enhance coastal resilience. 1.3. Study areas The study uses the commune boundary as the primary administrative unit for study area selection. This allows linking ecosystem service data with socioeconomic data in the analytical framework. It is widely known that administrative boundaries seldom align with the boundaries of natural ecosystem services – for example, provision of erosion control in a watershed. For purposes of this study, which focuses on services that are linked to the coast (e.g., erosion control), this remains a challenge. To effectively tackle coastal erosion, it is important to consider dynamics at the scale of a coastal cell – the unit at which it is important to restore the overall sediment balance. These are the coastal compartments that contain the complete cycle of erosion, deposition, sediment sources and sinks, and the transport paths involved. In these cells, mangroves help form a buffer zone between the land and the sea, containing sediment reservoirs. In contrast, to mitigate climate change, coastal forests can sequester carbon dioxide (CO2). While the unit assessed for CO2 sequestration can be examined at a landscape or administrative unit, any negative externality outside of the administrative unit, however, would not be measured. Similarly, for wetlands, the provision of ecosystem services require understanding the hydrography, drainage areas, channels, surface terrain, and rainfall response among other things, often in a fragmented landscape. 5 In coastal areas of Vietnam, a noteworthy difference when assessing the value of coastal assets such as mangroves is that often mangroves are often planted or managed on the sea side of dikes. This makes the estimation of benefits from coastal mangroves different from the conventional estimation of the impact of mangroves on flood protection and erosion control. Mangroves, in some locations, are also planted to augment accretion in an area and further expand the land side following adequate accretion. 1. Introduction 19 For the purposes of this study, in order to obtain the value of natural assets, a set of communes were selected that align with the ecosystem services to the extent possible. In Thua Thien Hue province, 45 communes have been selected that belong to five districts and are connected to TGCH lagoon area. In Quang Ninh province, 103 coastal communes have been selected that belong 11 districts. 1.3.1. Tam Giang – Cau Hai Lagoon, Thua Thien Hue province Located along the coast of Thua Thien Hue province in central Vietnam and covering an area of 21,620 ha, Tam Giang – Cau Hai (TGCH) is considered the largest coastal lagoon system in Southeast Asia. The lagoon system runs parallel to the East Sea for about 70 km and includes diverse habitat types, from river deltas to estuaries with inlets surrounded by sand dune barriers as well as shallow open waters and seagrass beds. There are two main outlets to the East Sea, the Thuan An opening to the north and the Tu Hien opening to the south. The Huong, Dai and O Lau rivers all feed into this lagoon system. Tam Giang – Cau Hai is an extremely dynamic system characterized by high levels of diversity due to spatial and temporal variation in ecological conditions across the lagoon complex, particularly differences in salinity levels and between dry and rainy seasons. Under the Ramsar wetlands classification systems, TGCH is classified as a brackish coastal lagoon (J type) comprising four major wetland habitat types: (i) vegetated wetlands, that consist mainly of marshes/swamps; (ii) non- vegetated wetlands, that comprise mudflats and sandflats; (iii) permanently submerged wetlands, some of which support seagrass beds; and (iv) artificial wetlands, comprising aquacultural ponds and rice fields. Thua Thien Hue has a small area of mangroves (47 ha) and the mangroves are mainly distributed in Lap An and TGCH lagoons and Bu Lu estuary (Pham Ngoc Dung 2015).6 Overall, mangroves in Thua Thien Hue cover a small area and density ranges from 1,500 to 10,000 trees/ha. In this area, most mangroves are not more than five meters in height. 6 In Lap An lagoon in Thua Thien Hue, main woody mangroves species include: Lumnitzera racemosa (Coc vang), Rhizophora apiculata (Duoc doi), Avicennia marina (Mam bien), Aegiceras corniculatum (Su), and Excoecaria agallocha (Gia), which account for about 60 percent of mangroves. The density is about 1,500 tree/ha. In Tan My, the main mangrove species are: Aegiceras corniculatum (Su), Bruguiera sexangular (Vet khang), Excoecaria agallocha (Gia) and Lumnitzera racemosa (Coc vang), which account for about 86 percent of mangroves, with a density of 10,000 tree/ha. In Huong Phong commune, the predominant species are: Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata and Dolichandrone spathacea (Quao nuoc), which account for about 87 percent, with a density of 1,800 trees/ha. In Bu Lu estuary, main mangrove species include: Rhizophora apiculata, Avicennia marina, Bruguiera sexangular and Lumnitzera racemosa. What Is It Worth? 20 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Figure 1. Study area in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon, Thua Thien Hue In terms of species richness, 921 species have been documented in TGCH so far, including 287 phytoplankton species and 223 fish species7. The lagoon is an important nursery area for both inland and marine fish species and is also important for birds8. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon is in the administrative boundaries of four districts: Phong Dien, Quang Dien, Phu Vang, Phu Loc and Huong Tra town. Of these, 33 communes and towns are close to the lagoon's water bodies. The total population of coastal lagoon communes is approximately 265,000 people, accounting for nearly 44 percent of the total population of the four districts and towns along the lagoon (Statistical Yearbook in 2017). The population density of communes along the lagoon is quite high (381 people/km2), much higher than the population density residing in the whole province (229 people/km2) (Statistical Yearbook in 2017). 7 The species include one species that is endemic to Vietnam, Cyprinus centralis, and six that are recorded in the Red Book of Vietnam, which lists nationally threatened species. 8 The area attracts many birds, as 73 species of waterfowl have been recorded here, including 34 migratory species and one species, the Asian Dowitcher, (Limnodromus sesmipalmatus), a migratory wader that is near-threatened globally and nationally endangered. 1. Introduction 21 Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon is an extremely productive and intensively used lagoon system. Aquaculture, fisheries and agriculture are the main sources of local livelihoods, with some seasonal and full-time employment in the trade, construction and services sector. The varied ecological conditions across the lagoon complex have also resulted in a diversity of economically useful, naturally occurring fish species and other aquatic resources. Capture fisheries are of a small-scale artisanal nature using many different types of fishing gear in line with location, season and target species. Capture fisheries take place mainly in the lagoon, but communities living near rivers and closer to the sea also engage in fishing these areas. Some 17,700 ha of land is cultivated around the lagoon, 64 percent of which consists of rice and other food grains. Other crops include cassava, potato, peanut, green melon, chilli and coriander. Soil suitability for agriculture varies around the lagoon and agriculture is concentrated in areas where soil is not affected by salinity or high levels of aluminum. The industry structure has changed a lot as the proportion of non-agricultural sectors has increased, while the port and seafood processing services also attract a lot of labor. Tourism activities have recently developed in Thuan An beach area. The industry/construction and service sectors account for a high proportion in the economic structure, approximately 38 percent and 39 percent, respectively, while the agriculture, forestry and fishery sector accounts for approximately 23 percent. However, the economic structure among districts and towns is not homogeneous due to geographical location and natural resources of each locality. In general, the economy of the project area has tended to shift from agriculture to services and industry in the past five years. This is consistent with the economic development orientation of districts and towns in particular and Thua Thien Hue province in general. However, the production values of some economic sectors, such as agriculture, forestry and fishery, have not yet developed their full potential to make major contributions to the province's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) structure. Table 1. Production value structure by administrative unit No. Administrative Agriculture, Industry and Service units forestry and construction (%) (%) fishery (%) 1 Phu Loc 6.8 34.1 59.1 2 Phu Vang 25.7 31.7 42.6 3 Huong Tra 13.7 48.8 37.5 4 Quang Dien 43 18 39 5 Phong Dien 25 58 17 Average 22.8 38.1 39.1 Source: Report on Implementation of Socio-Economic Development Mission in 2017 and Socio-Economic Development Plan 2018 of Quang Dien, Phong Dien, Phu Loc, Phu Vang, and Huong Tra Town What Is It Worth? 22 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province It is estimated that around 100,000 people depend directly on the lagoon and engage in capture fishery and/or various forms of brackish water aquaculture.9 Aquaculture was introduced in the 1980s, as the lagoon was identified as ideal for such production, particularly in areas near the two openings to the sea and in areas connected to muddy low-lying swamps10. Large areas of the land along the edge of the lagoon have been converted to aquaculture ponds along with farming cages. Other households also engage in a combination of coastal agriculture (mainly rice cultivation) and part-time or occasional aquaculture and capture fishery as well as some animal husbandry. 1.3.2. Quang Ninh province Located in the Northeast of the country, the onshore area of Quang Ninh province exceeds 6,000 km2, similar to its sea area. Quang Ninh province has 120 km of coastline and more than 2,000 islands. In 2019, Quang Ninh province had four cities, one township, and 10 district towns classified as urban category IV and V. Quang Ninh province’s urbanization rate is 55 percent.11 In 2020, the urbanization rate is expected to reach 65 percent. The population in 2018 was approximately 1.3 million people. The urban population makes up approximately 64 percent of the populace while the rural population is approximately 36 percent. Quang Ninh province is an international border gate (at Mong Cai) with the People's Republic of China. Quang Ninh has access to many inland waterways and marine transport routes, including Cai Lan, the only deep-sea port in Northern Vietnam. Quang Ninh province also has an important role in regional socioeconomic development because of its proximity to two of the biggest cities of Hanoi and Haiphong. Quang Ninh province recently has shown strong local economic development. The average economic growth rate as measure by Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) during 2015-2018 was close to 10 percent, more than 3 percentage points higher than the national average growth rate (6.7 percent). The agriculture, forestry and fishery sector increased by 4 percent from the previous year; while the manufacturing and construction sector increased by nearly 11 percent compared to the previous year. The GRDP at current price in 2018 reached 152,250 billion Vietnamese Dongs (VND). In 2018, the economic composition for the province was six percent for agriculture, forestry and fishery, approximately 49 percent for manufacturing and construction, and approximately 33 percent for the service sector. 9 The aquaculture practices are mainly intensive and semi-intensive tiger shrimp cultivation and some other shrimp, fish, mollusk and crab culture. 10 Extensive areas of soft substrate combined with shallow water are especially favorable for aquaculture. 11 This rate is higher than the national level of 32 percent. 1. Introduction 23 Figure 2. Study area in Quang Ninh province Eighty percent of Quang Ninh province is mountainous, with forest accounting for 64 percent of that total and agricultural land accounting for 8.26 percent, of which about half is used to grow paddy. There are 15 main ecosystems in Quang Ninh province, grouped into three main categories: mountain, hilly and coastal. The coastal area is around 121,717 ha with three main ecosystems: mangrove, seagrass and coral reefs. The mangroves species in Quang Ninh are quite diverse. According to Sam et al. (2005), there are 16 “true mangroves species”12 distributed across the coastal area of the Northeast region, particularly in Quang Ninh. 12 Of these mangrove species, the following are the predominant species: Avicennia marina (Mam bien), Kandelia obovata (Trang), Rhizophora stylosa (Duoc voi), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Vet du), and Aegiceras corniculatum (Su). What Is It Worth? 24 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Photo: Wirestock Creators - shutterstock.com 1. Introduction 25 Photo: Wirestock Creators - shutterstock.com 2. METHODOLOGY What Is It Worth? 26 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Valuation of natural assets has underpinned much of the work on environmental economics. It is important in the practice of cost-benefit analysis and used increasingly to estimate natural resource damage assessments as well as cost-benefit analyses of environmental restoration, waste management activities, and so on. The data that is used for conducting valuation of natural assets is often wide-ranging, making it difficult to replicate over time. In this report, we present an approach that involves compiling information equivalent to what is found in the UN System of Environmental- Economic Accounting (SEEA)13 — Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (EEA)14 for the physical accounts of the natural assets (see Box 1). The SEEA-EEA provides a consistent way of compiling physical accounts that, if systematically compiled by the Government, would assist with valuing the country’s natural assets in planning processes. The estimation of monetary accounts is more complex because often the market prices (or exchange values) for the assets are missing. While not all aspects of nature can be meaningfully captured in monetary terms, there are methods that can be used to impute the values. This section describes the methods used to compile and analyze data on natural assets. Box 1: What is the UN SEEA-EEA? The UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting — Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EEA) is composed of physical and monetary accounts and uses a classification of ecosystem types and ecosystem services. This information feeds into information on the ecosystem condition and ecosystem service supply as well as documenting the ecosystem service use and benefits. The data used for this method includes official statistics, spatial data, and remote sensing data. The monetary accounts rely on valuation techniques to put a value on the ecosystem services and uses provided by natural assets. 13 The UN SEEA is a framework that integrates economic and environmental data to provide a more comprehensive view of the linkages between the economy and the environment and how changes in the stocks of environmental assets affect benefits derived from these assets. 14 The testing and use of the SEEA-EEA is a complementary effort to the SEEA central framework and aims to create coherent ecosystem accounting. 2. Methodology 27 Box 2: Classifications of forest functions The Law on Forestry defines the forest functions as: ● Special use forests: used mostly to conserve natural forest ecosystems and genetic resources of forest organisms; carry out scientific research; preserve historical/cultural relics, beliefs, and places of scenic beauty associated with ecotourism; provide hospitality and entertainment, except for strictly protected sub-zones of reserve forests; and provide forest environmental services. These areas include: (a) national parks; (b) nature reserves; (c) species/habitat reserves; (d) landscape protection areas (including forests used for preserving historical/cultural relics, beliefs and places of scenic beauty) and forests protecting the environment of urban areas, industrial parks, export-processing zones, economic zones and high-tech zones; and (e) forests used for scientific research or experimentation, national botanical gardens, and national forest nurseries. ● Protection forests: used mainly to protect water resources and soil, prevent erosion/ landslides/floods, combat desertification, limit disasters, regulate climate, contribute to protection of the environment and national security associated with ecotourism, hospitality and entertainment, and provide forest environmental services. These areas are classified according to their importance, including: (a) watershed protection forests, forests protecting water resources for communities bordering protection forests; and (b) wind/sand shielding protection forests as well as protection forests for tide shielding or sea encroachment prevention. ● Production forests: used primarily for provision of forest products; combined forestry- agricultural-fishery production and trade; ecotourism, hospitality and entertainment; and provision of forest entertainment services. 2.1. Ecosystem extent accounts Ecosystem extent accounts record the stocks of natural capital within an ecosystem accounting area, with information about different ecosystem assets usually grouped to show a summary for the different ecosystem types. The most accessible way to assess the extent of natural capital assets within the study area is to measure the extent of spatial units, typically major land use categories, including habitat types. Under the study, the change of forest as natural capital from 2015 to 2018 has been applied to observe the change of forest stocks over time. The study focuses on coastal forest, classified by forest function (i.e., special used forest, protection forest or production forest – see Box 2) and forest type (i.e., mangrove forest or forest on sandy soil). The main data source is Vietnam’s Forestry Sector Management Information System (FORMIS). FORMIS data is based on the National Forest Inventory and Statistics (NFIS), a nationwide program What Is It Worth? 28 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province that produces forest resource data for the whole country.15 The inventories in the NFIS were carried out during the period of 2013-2016. The inventory covers each province throughout the whole country, including forest land and non-forest land. The NFIS method is based on a two- step inventory. The first step is satellite image classification conducted by three national research institutes (the main types of images used are VNREDSAT, SPOT 5 and SPOT 6). The second step is forest inventory implemented by provincial Forest Protection Departments (FPDs). In this step, the information about the forest owner, plantation species, and forest function are confirmed at the commune level. The NFIS map is produced at the 1/10 k scale at commune level, 1/50 k scale at district and 1/100 k scale at provincial level. The objective of the inventory is to get nationwide information of the area, volume and quality of the forests and the potential forest lands. The NFIS data is intended to serve the planning, management, guidance and monitoring of forest development and protection plans from the central to local level. The FORMIS data is maintained by Vietnam Forestry Administration (VNFOREST) and updated annually by provincial FPDs. FORMIS provides the following data that is relevant for this study: a. Forest type: the classification system in Circular 33 has 98 forest types. However, it is a compound classification scheme, which means that forest type also includes ecological forest type (broad leaf, conifer, deciduous), site condition (e.g., mountain forest, saline water forest, sand dune forest); and forest quality (rich, medium, poor). Therefore, for each province there are only a limited number of forest types that are relevant. b. Forest function: protection forest, special use forest or production forest c. Forest origin: natural or plantation d. Tree species: only applies for plantation forest e. Standing volume: this data is indicative and should be used as reference only. For this study, the FORMIS data for 2015 and 2018 was obtained from the provincial FORMIS database and converted to ESRI Shapefile format for further analysis. In Vietnam, coastal forests (especially mangrove forests) are often planted or managed on the sea side of dikes. Accordingly, the contribution of the services from mangroves is linked to the dike system. Recognizing this, the following data was obtained on sea dike vector data (although it is not required according to the SEEA-EEA approach for estimating ecosystem extent). The vector data was obtained from provincial Departments of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) and double-checked with various sources, including topographic maps and the Vietnam Disaster Management Authority (VDMA) dike management system data. The dike vector layer was then overlaid with the commune boundary and mangrove forest layers to obtain the following statistics: ● Length of dike per commune ● Length of dike with and without mangrove association 15 The FORMIS data standard is guided by Circular No. 33/2018/TT-BNNPTNT prescribing forest survey, inventory and forest transition monitoring. 2. Methodology 29 ● For dike with mangrove, the data was broken down into dike with mangrove outside and mangrove inside ● Area of mangrove associated with sea dike. 2.2. Ecosystem condition accounts Each ecosystem asset will also change in condition over time. Measurements of ecosystem condition reflect the overall quality of an ecosystem asset. This data is structured to record the condition at specific points in time and assess the changes in condition over time. In producing an account of the condition of the natural capital asset units identified (from the extent account), the likely impact on the flow of ecosystem service benefits can be analyzed. Under the study, the mangrove forest coverage in Quang Ninh has been evaluated, although the calculations do not apply for Thua Thien Hue province. The study has used forest coverage at plot level as a proxy to evaluate the mangrove forest quality in Quang Ninh. The satellite-based coverage provides additional assessment of mangroves and is used to calculate vegetation coverage for each plot from satellite imagery. The coverage will have a value from 1-100 percent, with a value close to 100 percent representing dense mangrove forest plot, while values below 50 percent represent mangrove plot with gaps and sparse vegetation cover. Figure 3. Example of mangrove forest plot overlay on Sentinel 2 NDVI What Is It Worth? 30 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Figure 4. Example of mangrove forest plot overlay on Sentinel 2 image (natural color) Figure 5. Example of plot-based mangrove forest cover (%) 2. Methodology 31 The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used as a proxy for forest cover assessment. Landsat 8 was used for 2015 and a Sentinel 2 image was used for 2018. For each year we used a single mosaic of images taken in June and July as representative of the year. The NDVI threshold of 0.4 was used to identify mangrove forests from non-forest areas within a plot (e.g., water, soil, sparse vegetation). For each mangrove forest plot (available from the FORMIS map), the actual mangrove area was calculated from the NDVI threshold and then the coverage percentage of the plot. For example, for a plot of 10 ha mangrove on the map, if the mangrove area calculated from the satellite image is 8 ha, then the coverage is calculated as 80 percent. 2.3. Ecosystem services valuation There are a range of ecosystem services that are provided by the coastal assets considered in this report. These are explained below and those that are included in the valuation are summarized in Table 2, along with the methods used for their valuation. 2.3.1. Provisioning services Provisioning services include the tangible products that are obtained from ecosystems. The provisioning services from mangroves estimated in this study include capture fisheries and aquaculture support. A global meta-analysis on the linkages between mangroves and fisheries found a strong link between fisheries and mangroves with a relatively significant effect size, although there was substantial heterogeneity (Carrasquila Henao and Juanes, 2017). These findings also apply to parts of Vietnam where the leaves and detritus from mangroves form a key part of the marine food chains that supports fisheries at all levels of the food chain. Mangroves also provide nutritionally rich nurseries and shelter from predators because of their root structure (Hutchison et al., 2014). In the case of aquaculture, mangroves help lower pond temperatures, lower pond salinity, limit the need for groundwater pumping, and provide a sediment trap that helps to maintain the elevation of the land (Collaborative Partnership on Forests, 2018). Mangrove forests also create spawning and nursery grounds for aquatic species, which contribute to the productivity of aquaculture.16 16 It is important to note, however, that aquaculture is often planned and implemented at the expense of mangroves. In Vietnam, the expansion of aquaculture has been a significant cause of conversion of mangrove forest. If mangrove expansion is expected, the extent of aquaculture (which would occur only within mangrove-aquaculture integrated practices) will be reduced, limiting the benefits derived from mangrove forests for aquaculture. What Is It Worth? 32 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 2. Ecosystem services valuation methodology Services Quang Ninh TGCH lagoon Type of value Valuation method17 1. Provisioning a. Aquaculture a. Aquaculture Direct use Market price services production production value method b. Capture b. Capture Direct use Market price fisheries fisheries value method 2. Regulating and a. Carbon a. Carbon Indirect use Benefit transfer supporting services sequestration & sequestration & value method and storage storage market price method b. Coastal b. Coastal Indirect use Benefit transfer protection protection value method 3. Cultural services a. Tourism Direct use Travel cost value method Market price method is used for the valuation of provisioning services. A standard approach of this method is measuring the net benefits of a good or service through examining the market price, consumer surplus and producer surplus in the market. The total economic value (TEV) of the good or service is then derived as the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. However, as the focus of this study is the benefits that mangrove ecosystems and wetland ecosystems provide for local people, only producer surplus is estimated. The formula of the producer surplus is as follow. NV = ρ ∑(Pi Qi ― Ci ) Where: NV = net value of the ecosystem (USD) Pi = price of good or service i from the ecosystem (USD) Qi = amount of product i being collected (unit, e.g., tons) Ci = costs involved in collection of product i (USD) ρ = correlation parameter of mangroves/capture fisheries or mangroves/aquaculture (a correlation estimate between the area under mangroves and volume of fisheries over time). 17 Some of the methods are based on exchange value, and some on welfare value, which are different concepts of value, and result in estimates that cannot be added together. For comparison with other values in national accounts, exchange values are preferred. However, welfare value is useful for decision making. For purposes of this report, both values are reported, as suggested by La Notte et al. (2017). 2. Methodology 33 This formula is applied only for the value of provisioning services of mangrove ecosystems in Quang Ninh province. For the wetland ecosystem in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon, correlation parameter ρ cannot be determined, since there is no literature on such correlation in wetlands available and there was insufficient data on the increased amount of aquaculture in the wetland or the increase in price of fish captured in the wetland. Therefore, the values in TGCH lagoon are estimated based on the net incomes generated for local people in the wetland. For example, the aquaculture-support value of wetland is measured by the aquaculture incomes of local people in the wetland, minus the costs of aquaculture production. The correlation parameter ρ, as noted in Table 3. Input data for the valuation of provisioning services Table 3, is derived from various studies. The correlation parameter of mangroves/capture fisheries is derived from the estimated linkage provided from a large-scale study by the World Bank, which found that a loss of 100 ha of mangroves would cause the yield of capture fisheries to fall by 70 tons (World Bank, 1996, p. 57). Thus, the correlation of mangroves/capture fisheries is assumed at 0.7, meaning that one hectare of mangroves could increase the inland fish stocks/resources by 0.7 tons (Nguyen, 2015). The value of this parameter was validated in a field trip and through expert interviews for the mangrove areas of Quang Ninh province. The correlation parameter for mangroves/aquaculture was estimated to be 0.5 (Do & Bennett, 2006). The validation process, however, concluded that there is very little correlation between mangroves and aquaculture products in Quang Ninh province. This is because most aquaculture production in the province is intensive farming and semi-intensive farming, which involve intensive artificial-farming environments and do not rely on mangrove areas. The contribution of mangroves to aquaculture production was, therefore, considered to be negligible. A mangroves/aquaculture correlation parameter value of zero was used for Quang Ninh province. The absence of correlation was confirmed through expert interviews. The valuation is based on secondary data, including data from Vietnam’s General Statistics Office (GSO), provincial reports and literature.18 The data was validated with a field trip to each research site – confirming that key parameters (e.g., the correlation of mangroves/capture fisheries) and data were consistent with current local practices. The validation field trips include direct meetings and discussion with local authorities19 and some local farmers. In addition, some expert20 interviews were conducted for the same validation purpose (see Annex H for details on experts). The details of input data, data sources and which input data is validated as shown in Table 3. 18 The team had to deal with restricted mobility due to the ongoing pandemic and travel restriction orders during the time of this study. This constrained the feasibility of carrying out a proper survey for primary data collection. 19 This included Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Department of Agricultural and Rural Development, Department of Industry and Trade, Department of Investment and Planning, Commune People’s Committee. 20 The experts were primarily local experts on aquaculture activities, aquaculture management and forest managers. What Is It Worth? 34 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Photo: Nguyen Quang Ngoc Tonkin - shutterstock.com 2. Methodology 35 Table 3. Input data for the valuation of provisioning services Input data Data source Quang Ninh TGCH lagoon Volume of capture fisheries Thuy et al.(2019) Institute of Strategy and Policy (i.e., small crabs, clam, shrimp, on Natural Resource and fish) Environment (ISPONRE, 2017) Market prices of fisheries GSO (2019); GSO (2019); Validated in the field trip Validated in the field trip and and expert interviews expert interviews Labor cost of capture fisheries GSO (2019); GSO (2019); ISPONRE (2017) Validated in the field trip Validated in the field trip and and expert interviews expert interviews Volume of aquaculture GSO (2019) GSO (2019) production Correlation parameter ρ World Bank (1996, p. No correlation parameter used. 57); Nguyen (2015); Do & Bennett (2006); Validated in the field trip and expert interviews Validated in the field trip and expert interviews State of mangroves (including FORMIS FORMIS area and quality) What Is It Worth? 36 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province 2.3.2. Coastal protection services Vietnam, with its long coastline is exposed to sea level rise, extreme weather events, and storm surge. Some of the physical factors that cause coastal erosion include strong waves and currents (associated with the two monsoon seasons), and tropical cyclones. The increase in temperatures also causes loss of coral reefs and vegetation along the dunes, further accelerating erosion (Pham et al., 2018). A robust Geographical Information System (GIS) analysis can be helpful to estimate the extent of coastal protection services. The GIS data can be used to determine the spatial characteristics of the area – including the width of the beach (if any) and density of backshore assets. In addition to estimating the extent of short-term shoreline retreat, it is necessary to have information on the initial profile of the area, offshore wave conditions and sediment size, and to feed these into hydrodynamic sub-models, sediment dynamic sub-models and morphological sub-models to get a final profile. The resolution at which spatial data was accessible and the classification used were too broad for what the study was aiming to do – capture the change in mangrove area and the impact of change in the coastline on urban and industry infrastructure or aquaculture. As a result, a benefit transfer approach was used. Benefit transfer is applied to estimate coastal protection values for study sites. The transfer of values is done by considering the similarity of mangrove biomass and carbon stock by comparing tree species, biophysical conditions using available data and experts’ judgement. These sources of information inform how the transferable values are adjusted. The expert judgement considered forest quality (species and distribution), site conditions, and potential impacts of climate change. The “value transfer” uses more conservative estimates to avoid overestimates of such values. The five key steps for benefits transfer are as follows: (i) identify similar studies; (ii) analyze similarities; (iii) evaluate quality and transferable values; (iv) adjust transfer value; and (v) estimate total value.21 The literature review was based mainly on published articles and includes research reports, articles, doctoral theses and statistical data in both Vietnamese and English. The review focuses on: (i) coastal forest distribution and features (area and species composition by eco-regions and provinces, functions, etc.), information for which is adapted from analysis of ecosystem extent; and (ii) coastal protection values (forest types, locations, valuation method, results, etc.). The review prioritizes publications with clear and reliable methods and results. There are a number of studies on valuing coastal forests in Vietnam, particularly mangrove forests, that qualified. However, most of studies focus on direct use values. Of the 30 papers reviewed, there are seven studies reporting the protective values of mangroves and other coastal forests. Those studies used a cost-based method22 to estimate protective values, including erosion control of coastline and protection for agriculture production, houses, health and shrimp farming (see Table 4). 21 For more information, see https://www.ecosystemvaluation.org/benefit_transfer.htm. 22 The cost-based method involves avoided costs and replacement cost methods for estimating the coastal protection value of the mangroves. This value only refers to costs of erosion prevention of the coastline. The estimated costs of erosion damages are collected in mangroves and non-mangrove areas. The information used for calculating avoided costs and replacement costs includes the historical records of damage costs and interviews at the time of implementing the studies. 2. Methodology 37 Table 4. Estimates of protective values for 1 ha of coastal forests ID Study location Forest Report Reported Protection Sources types year protection value at 2020 value (discount (USD/ha/ rate 10%, year) USD/ha/ year)23 1 Xuan Thuy NP, Mangroves 1998 231.7 1,886.5 [1] Nam Dinh 2 Xuan Thuy NP, Mangroves 2010 26.5 68.7 [2] Nam Dinh 3 Nam Dinh Mangroves 2007 52.7 181.9 [3] 4 Can Gio, Ho Chi Mangroves 2012 3,896.5 8,352.6 [4] Minh City 5 Ca Mau Mangroves 2012 504.6 1,081.6 [5] 6 Ca Mau Mangroves 2013 3,335.0 6,499.0 [6] 7 Ca Mau Mangroves 2015 728.2 1,172.8 [7] 8 Kien Giang Mangroves 2012 366.4 785.4 [5] 9 Ninh Thuan and Forest on 2012 301.3 646.0 [5] Binh Thuan sandy areas Sources: [1] Tri, N.H et al., 1998; [2] Truong, D.D., 2010; [3] Phuong et al., 2007; [4] Tuan, V.Q. and C. Kuenzer, 2012; [5] Phuong et al., 2012; [6] Vo Quoc Tuan, 2013; [7] Nam Hoang Nguyen, 2015. 23 This value is the value in the previous column adjusted to a common year. The studies that were reviewed for the data focus only on coastline erosion and there is no separation for damages caused by natural disaster events specifically. In some studies, (e.g., Xuan Thuy, Nam Dinh), the studies used historical data for the past 15-20 years. It is inferred that the estimation includes damages caused by natural hazards in that period and reflects average value. It is noted that there are 10- 12 typhoons hitting Vietnam every year and that extreme climates may come in 20 or 30-year cycles. What Is It Worth? 38 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province The overall average protective value of mangrove forests in Nam Dinh is 712.2 (68.7–1,886.5) USD/ha/year, while the average value for mangroves in the South (Cau Mau and Ho Chi Minh City) is 3,578.3 (504.6–3,896.6) USD/ha/year. The protection value of coastal forest in sandy area is estimated to be 646.0 USD/ha/year (with a range of 645.9–800.7 USD/ha/year). The mean protective values of mangroves in Nam Dinh and forests on sandy areas in Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan are considered the most suitable for transferring values to respective forest types in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue provinces.24 2.3.3. Carbon storage and sequestration values Mangroves are important carbon sinks. Along with sea grasses and salt marshes, mangroves are natural systems along coasts that "capture and hold" carbon. While these coastal systems are much smaller in size than the planet's forests, they sequester carbon at a much faster rate, and can continue to do so for a very long time.  Most of the carbon taken up by these ecosystems is stored below ground, meaning the carbon found in coastal soil is often quite old. However, measuring soil carbon in these systems requires significant resources and time. Accordingly, data is more readily available for above-ground carbon stocks in mangroves and coastal systems. The estimation of carbon storage and sequestration follows the estimated average carbon stock of coastal forests (mangroves and forest on sandy areas) and its sequestration rate. Market-based valuation is applied to estimate carbon values in monetary terms. The estimation is based on estimated carbon stock25 in the study site and the selected carbon price. The carbon stock is estimated using relevant information from 16 papers and reports on mangrove biomass and carbon stock estimates across Vietnam. As the estimation of biomass for mangroves varied significantly by region and depending on the method and data sources used, the mangrove biomass values for Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue were selected based on the following parameters: (i) similar species and plant dominance; (ii) characteristics of eco-region; (iii) a conservative estimate; (iv) medium to high accuracy assessment results; and (v) a carbon fraction of 0.47 to convert biomass to carbon stock.26 The carbon price used in this valuation, is 5 USD/ton of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). This is the carbon price that is applied in transactions with the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF). The price for carbon can be wide-ranging. The selected price is justified because it is currently the price Vietnam has agreed to in its emissions reduction purchase agreement with the Carbon Fund. 24 Nam Dinh is selected for transferring protective values provided by mangroves because the mangroves and other site conditions are comparable to Quang Ninh. Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan are two provinces with the largest coastal forests that serve as wind- and sand storm-breaks. 25 This requires information on biomass, which is largely influenced by bio-physical conditions and forest management regimes. 26 Several studies report biomass (tons of dry matter per ha), while others show carbon stock. To harmonize these, the team used a default value from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines for conversion from biomass to carbon stock. Following this, the team made the conversion from carbon (C) to CO2 using the formula: 1 CO2 = 1 C* 44/12. Total carbon stock by forest type was then determined as: (Area of forest type [ha])* (carbon stock [in tCO2e/ha]). 2. Methodology 39 Carbon stock estimates for study sites are estimated as follows: n TC = ∑ Ai * Ci 1 Where: TC = total carbon stock (in tCO2e) Ai = area of forest stratum i Ci = carbon stock of forest stratum i (tCO2e/ha). Area data (ha) of forest systems are derived from Vietnam’s FORMIS database (2018). The carbon stocks of mangrove forests and other coastal forests are transferred from existing scientific literature with consideration for the biophysical conditions and experts’ judgment on transferability of data. The estimation of the carbon stock of coastal forests includes only the carbon in the living biomass of trees (both above ground and below ground). 2.3.4. Cultural services The cultural services estimated in this study include recreation, landscape, and biodiversity conservation for tourism – namely tourism values. However, preliminary analysis shows that there is no official tourism in mangrove forests in Quang Ninh province and, therefore, no data on tourism is available (e.g., number of visitors). Therefore, this valuation is conducted only in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon of Thua Thien Hue province. In this study, we employ a Zonal Travel Cost Method (ZTCM) following a 4-step procedure. Step 1: Questionnaire and sample size The questionnaire was designed according to the ZTCM so that visitors could respond within 15 minutes and was structured into two parts: ● Part A: The collection of general information about visitors’ activities and the actual expenses that the visitor incurs during the whole trip. ● Part B: The collection of general information about age, gender, etc. The sample size was determined according to the formula in Scott Smith (2013) as follows: Z2p(1-p) n (total > 50,000) = c2 What Is It Worth? 40 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province n (total > 50,000) n (indentified total < 50,000) = n (total > 50,000) ― 1 1+( ) Pop Where: Z = parameter interval p = the probability of making a choice c = the margin of error, chosen at 0.95 Pop = the identified total population. In 2019, the number of visitors to TGCH lagoon reached 100,000 people (data reported by the Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism during our validation field trip in Thua Thien Hue province in September 2020). Accordingly, the sample size needed is 383, at a confidence level of 95 percent and a margin of error of 5 percent. Thus, a survey of 385 samples is conducted in this study. Step 2: Calculate the visitation rate for each departure zone The travel cost of a visit to TGCH lagoon was used as a proxy for the price of access, which was comprised of the following three costs: ● Transportation cost: This includes the costs of fuel, car/motor’s insurance and depreciation, and road charges, when taken for a round trip. The transportation cost per visitor is determined by multiplying the total cost by the number of vehicle occupants. This cost is separated from the cost visitors are charged for those traveling on a tour. ● Opportunity cost: Visitors to TGCH lagoon have to take time off from other jobs, whether for a long or short visit. If individuals are giving up working time in order to visit a site, the wage rate is the correct opportunity cost and since the wage rate reflects the opportunity cost of time, it can be used as an approximate shadow price of time (Anex, 1995; Bellu & Cistulli, 1997; Fezzi, Bateman, & Ferrini, 2014; Fleming & Cook, 2008; Iorgulescu et al., 2011; Pearce, Atkinson, & Mourato, 2006; Prayaga, Rolfe, & Sinden, 2006; Ward & Beal, 2000). Therefore, appropriate ways to estimate the value of time (full wage rate) were used. ● Additional charges at the site: In the TCM method, the cost for visitors includes travel cost only and does not include expenditures on accommodation, food, etc. However, since there are no entrance fees or parking fees in TGCH lagoon, the additional charge is zero. From gathered data, the Visitation Rates (VR) per 1,000 of population for each zone was calculated using the following equation: ( Vi ) x N x 12 x100 n VRi = P 2. Methodology 41 Where: VRi = Visitation Rate for zone i (visitors/1,000 of population /year) Vi = the number of visitors from zone i (person) n = sample size (person) N = the total number of visitors per year (person) P = population of zone i (thousand people). Based on the calculated Travel Costs (TC) and VR for each zone, the zones are identified by GIS. Step 3: Constructing the demand function Demand function was then derived by re-estimating the number of visitors from each zone over a range of hypothetical travel costs or willingness-to-pay (WTP). This was done by simply making a linear interpolation of the increased costs on the basic demand function (VR & TC). This provides sets of estimated number of visitors corresponding to changes in travel costs, which generates a demand curve. The function for the number of estimated visits is regressed against the hypothetical increase in travel costs using the following equation: V = β * ΔTC + e Where: V = the number of visitors to TGCH lagoon when travel costs increase ΔTCVND (person) ΔTC = the travel cost of visitors increased per visit (VND) β = the coefficient of estimation (the slope), when the independent variable (ΔTC changes one unit, the corresponding value of the dependent variable changes |β| unit e = the intercept, stands for the other factors, not mentioned in the model. When the independent variable (ΔTC equals 0, the corresponding value of the dependent variable (VR) equals e unit. After that, the results of the regression analysis (V and ΔTC) can be used to calculate the total recreational value of TGCH lagoon by the area under the demand curve between the number of visitors and the cost axis, which can then be expressed mathematically as: TWTP = 1/2 * TC­ max * Vmax­ (VND) TWTP = the total recreational value of TGCH lagoon per year (VND) Where: TCmax = the point where demand is choked off (i.e., the price at which no more visitors are willing to travel to TGCH lagoon) Vmax = a ‘choke visit’ which represents that maximum number of visits for which estimated travel cost falls to zero (person). What Is It Worth? 42 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Step 4: Calculating the value of tourism The value of tourism can be expressed as: Value of tourism = Expense + Consumer surplus Some of the input data needed for this valuation is shown in Table 5. Table 5. Input data for the valuation of tourism value Input data Data source Number of visitors GSO (2019) Expenditure per visitor Survey Tourism value of similar sites Literature, including ISPONRE (2017) As discussed, there are two phases to the derivation of the demand functions. First, the basic demand function was calculated using the corresponding average travel costs and the visitation rates per 1,000 of population. The method of ordinary least square (OLS) was used for the estimation of the linear regression model. The linear function was constructed as follows: VR = –0.000204 * TC + 118.72 The linear function has: a = - 0.000204 <0. The negative sign of this variable’s coefficient suggests a downward slope of the demand curve. In other words, visitors make fewer visits per 1,000 of population as travel costs increase, which is consistent with theory and practice. b = 118.72 stands for the remaining elements not mentioned in the model. The correlation coefficient R2 = 0.8978 shows that the independent variable explained 89.78 percent of the dependent variable value. Error caused by other factors (interference) was 10.22 percent. The P-value ≈ 0.05. This implies that the assumption of the linear function was appropriate and the confidence interval of this model (between TC and VR) was found to be 95 percent. With travel costs of visitors in the current four zones, the total number of visitors is V = 344,375. Based on the estimated VR function, if TC of all zones change in an amount of ΔTC, the number of visitors to TGCH lagoon was then estimated using the following equation: 2. Methodology 43 4 4 V = ∑VRi * Pi = ∑[―0.000204 * (TCi + ΔTC)] + 118.72 * Pi i=1 i Where: V = the number of visitors to TGCH lagoon when the travel cost of zones simultaneously change in an amount of ΔTC (person) VRi = the visitation rate of zone i/1,000 of population TCi = the travel cost of zone i (VND) ΔTC = the level of increased travel cost of visitors per visit (VND) Pi = the population of zone i i = zone number (4 zones). According to the above formula, the number of visitors to the National Park equals the total number of visitors from each zone. If the number of visitors from a certain zone is negative number, it means that there are no visitors from that area to the National Park (the actual travel cost exceeds the demand choke off price, so the number of visitors from the zone is equal to 0, not negative visits). If the current TC is landmark, increased level of ∆TC represents the relationship between the increased costs and the number of visitors to TGCH lagoon, which is the relationship between price and quantity demanded. In other words, the function that expresses this relationship is the function for visits to TGCH lagoon. Ordinary least square regression method was used to establish this demand function: V = –2.4923 * ∆TC + 320105.6 The linear function has the correlation coefficient R2 = 0.9796, which shows that the independent variable explained 97.96 percent of the dependent variable value. The error caused by other factors (interference) was 2.04 percent. The P-value ≈ 0.000<0.01. This represents the assumption that the linear function was appropriate and the confidence interval of this model, between the travel cost and visitation rate was 95 percent. 2.4. Assessment of cost-effectiveness The assessment of cost-effectiveness in this study serves to illustrate the economic feasibility and the meaningfulness of mangrove forest protection and development in some areas of Quang Ninh province. A standard cost-effectiveness analysis often aims at comparing two things that have the same results or benefits. For the purposes of this study, a comparison is made of the maintenance costs in situations where mangroves are on the sea side of the dike (not including the mangroves on the land side, which are of interest in the valuation) with those required when mangroves are absent. What Is It Worth? 44 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Due to the lack of historical data, this study can only compare the years of 2015 to 2018 for accounting purposes. Over the short period, there was a minor change in mangrove area and sea dike structures (e.g., length, height). Nevertheless, it is observed in Quang Ninh province that if mangroves are grown outside of a sea dike, the annual dike maintenance cost is significantly reduced. In fact, for the period of 2015 to 2018, many parts of the sea dike that have mangrove forest on the sea side have not required maintenance.27 In other words, the mangrove forest on the sea side provides the same benefit compared to the cost of sea dike maintenance. Thus, our cost-effectiveness analysis compares the costs of dike maintenance and the cost for mangroves (i.e., mangrove reforestation, mangrove protection and management) to analyze the cost-effectiveness of the investment in mangroves during the period of 2015-2018. This analysis is only conducted in Quang Ninh province, as there are no dikes in TGCH lagoon for comparison. Table 6. Input data for the cost-effectiveness analysis Input data Data Source Sea dike area change from 2015 to 2018 GSO, 2019; Sea dike construction cost in a year Database of Vietnam Sea dike Disaster management Sea dike maintenance cost in a year authority; provincial reports on dikes construction and maintenance costs Cost of damages by coastal disasters in a year GSO, 2019; Thuy et al., 2019; The cost for mangroves (i.e., Validated in the field trip; Mangroves mangrove reforestation, mangrove provincial reports on protection and management) in a year mangrove reforestation, protection and management 27 While maintenance costs also likely depend on multiple factors, the dikes with mangroves and the ones without mangroves are in the same province, exposed to the same frequency and severity of storms, and managed by the same authorities. The difference in maintenance costs, therefore, is illustrative of benefits of having mangroves on the sea side of dikes. 2. Methodology 45 The expenses associated with restoring and maintaining mangrove forests can be grouped into two broad categories: (i) direct costs (such as planting and restoration labor, seeds, etc.); and (ii) opportunity costs (the forgone income from alternative uses) (Hawkins et al., 2010). While there is no clear estimate of the actual opportunity costs, they are expected to be high given the profitability of aquaculture and fishing (Ngo and Vo, 2012). The government set of cost norms for mangrove restoration and conservation is therefore designed to cover the direct expenses of this activity, while the opportunity cost could be compensated through better and more clearly defined land use rights that benefit the communities managing and conserving the mangrove forest. Quang Ninh’s natural and restored mangrove forest is considered a “qualified” forest when the tree density surpasses 2,500 trees per hectare. Quang Ninh’s mangrove area is classified as low density (2,500–3,500 trees per ha) and medium density (3,500–5,000 trees per ha) (MARD, 2017). The investment or cost norms for mangrove afforestation and rehabilitation for Vietnam’s Northern coastal region are therefore dependent on forest density for each planting option and site condition for planting type (good, difficult, or very difficult), to which the cost is assigned based on the sum of the costs of seeding, materials, labor, transport, and management. Photo: Trieu Tuan - shutterstock.com What Is It Worth? 46 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Photo: Nguyen Quang Ngoc Tonkin - shutterstock.com 3. Results 3. RESULTS 47 3.1. Ecosystem extent and condition accounts 3.1.1. Quang Ninh province Figure 6. Mangrove and sandy forest in Quang Ninh province In this report we only considered two types of coastal forest in Quang Ninh: mangrove forest and coastal sandy forest. From the forest status map obtained from the FORMIS database, the area of the mangrove forests increased by 352 ha from 21,621 ha in 2015 to 21,973 ha in 2018, equivalent to a 2 percent increase. Sandy forest area increased by 81 ha from 361 ha to 442 ha, equivalent to 22 percent growth.28 At the district level, the mangrove forests are mainly distributed across Mong Cai, Tien Yen, Van Don, Quang Yen, Hai Ha, and Dam Ha districts. The sandy forests are mainly distributed across three districts and cities, including Co To, Mong Cai city, and Van Don. 28 It should be noted that the change in area in Dam Ha and Ha Long districts is due to the method used to update the forest area. Areas of new plantations are not included as they need to reach an age of five years to be considered forested land. As a result, in some years there will be a sharp increase in forest area in some districts as the previously planted areas are now classified as forested land. For the whole province, the change in three years is only 2 percent. What Is It Worth? 48 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 7. General characteristics of coastal forests of Quang Ninh province District Mangrove Mangrove Sandy Sandy 2015 2018 2015 2018 Cô Tô 118.4 117.5 108.4 100.4 Đầm Hà 2519.4 2535.3 0 0 Hải Hà 2027.1 1543.4 1.8 47.4 Hoành Bồ 698.4 566.7 0 0 Quảng Yên 2043.2 2400.2 0 0 Thành phố Cẩm Phả 925.8 1035.3 0 0 Thành phố Hạ Long 290.7 631.5 0 0 Thành phố Móng 7036.2 6655.7 172.1 167.9 Cái Thành phố Uông Bí 133.8 133.8 0 0 Tiên Yên 3519.1 3859.6 0 0 Vân Đồn 2309.8 2494.2 78.7 126.6 Grand Total 21621.9 21973.2 361 442.3 Source: FORMIS Although the total mangrove area has slightly increased, there was a significant change in forest function zoning29: from 2015 to 2018, a total of 1,866 ha of mangrove forest has been changed from protection to production forest – a reduction of approximately 9 percent in protection forest. Special use forest that is mangrove forest was reduced by 20.6 ha, which is approximately a 41 percent reduction in special use forest area compared to 2015. Quang Ninh is a core of the ‘Northeast economic growth pole’. Accordingly, in the period of 2016-2020, there were several large-scale ‘green field’ projects, including Van Don airport, Van Don industrial park, and Dam Nha Mac industrial zone. These projects require forest conversion, so ‘functional re-zoning’ was done to meet this requirement in the government decision. 29 Prime Minister Decision No. 15 / NQ-CP in 2018 on Adjusting Land Use Planning to 2020 and Final Land Use Planning (2016-2020) of Quang Ninh province issued by the government is available at: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Bat-dong-san/Nghi-quyet-15-NQ-CP-2018-dieu-chinh-quy-hoach-su-dung-dat-Quang- Ninh-den-2020-374981.aspx. It should be noted that the decision is for the land use planning of the whole province, not just forest areas, so there is no direct explanation of the reasons for the change in the decision. 3. Results 49 Table 8. Quang Ninh mangrove forest area reported by province (ha) Forest type 2015 2018 Change 2015 - 2018 Special use 50.6 30 -20.6 Protection 20841.9 18976 -1865.9 Production 729.5 3409.7 2680.2 Total mangrove forest 21622 22415.7 793.7 Source: FORMIS data The reclassification (change in forest function planning) from protection forest to production forest is most signification in Quang Yen, Ha Long, Tien Yen and Dam Ha districts. The change in special use forest occurred in Van Don district. Photo: Trieu Tuan - shutterstock.com What Is It Worth? 50 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 9. Quang Ninh mangrove forest area by district District 2015 2018 Special Protec- Produc- Special Protec- Produc- use tion tion use tion tion Cô Tô 118.4 214.2 3.6 Đầm Hà 2498.1 21.3 2049.7 485.4 Hải Hà 1622.2 405.0 1336.7 254.3 Hoành Bồ 698.4 517.1 49.6 Quảng Yên 2043.3 1005.7 1394.7 Thành phố 917.5 8.2 948.8 86.5 Cẩm Phả Thành phố 290.7 384.7 246.8 Hạ Long Thành phố 7036.2 6467.8 355.8 Móng Cái Thành phố 133.8 127.2 6.6 Uông Bí Tiên Yên 3276.0 243.3 3419.6 440 Vân Đồn 50.6 2207.4 51.8 30 2504.5 86.4 Grand Total 50.6 20841.9 729.5 30 18976 3409.7 Source: FORMIS 3. Results 51 The change in forest function results from the Prime Minister Decision No. 15/NQ-CP regarding the administration of land use planning to 2020 and the latest land use planning document (2016-2020) of Quang Ninh province. In this plan, the area of protection forest is planned to be reduced by 1,714 ha and production forest reduced by 20,207 ha. In the same plan, 21,168 ha of unused land30 is allocated to forest land to make the total planned forest area reduced by only 839 ha. The plan did not provide specific areas where this change will occurr or the type of forest, but it provides clear evidence that about 20,207 ha of forest will been converted to other land use. Table 10. Change in forest land to other land use in Quang Ninh in 2016-2020 land use planning  Change in forest land Protection Special use Production Total 1. Forest to non-agriculture land31 1,259 86 18,779 20,124 2. Forest to agriculture land 455 1,428 1,883 Total (1+2) 1,714 86 20,207 22,007 3. Unused land to forest land 15,792 839 4,537 21,168 Change after adjustment 14,078 753 -15,670 -839 Source: Decision No. 15/NQ-CP For sandy forest, due to poor site conditions, there is only one species that can be used to establish plantations on sandy areas, Casuarina equisetifolia. Of the total 449 ha of sandy forest, 371 ha is Casuarina equisetifolia. The remaining sandy soil forest did not have tree species information on the map. Table 11. Sandy forest area with Casuarina plantation District Area (ha) Cô Tô 100.4 Thành phố Móng Cái 167.9 Vân Đồn 103.3 Grand Total 371.6 30 According to the Land Law 2013, Article 10: unused land includes land types for which land use purposes have not been determined. This land can include land with trees and forest. 31 In the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) land use categories system, non-agricultural land is land that is neither forest nor used for agriculture. This land could be residential or used for industry or transportation. What Is It Worth? 52 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province A matrix of forest change between 2015 and 2018 in the study area was used for a change assessment, which considered only coastal forest changes, not all changes in other forest categories. Figure 7. Forest change map 2015 - 201832 32 Forest type codes: 42 - Natural rehabilitation secondary mangrove forest; 62 - Plantation mangrove; 64 - Plantation on sandy soil; 74 - New plantation mangrove; 80 - Regeneration on mangrove; 82 - Open land on hill land; 83 - Open land on rocky mountain; 84 - Open land on saline wetland; 88 - Agricultural crop on hill land; 90 - Agricultural crop on saline wetland; 92 - Other freshwater wetland; 93 - Other lands. 3. Results 53 Table 12. Forest cover change matrix in Quang Ninh province 2018 42 62 64 74 80 84 86 90 Total 42 16742 214 0 19 0 56 0 7 17038 62 0 692 0 0 0 0 0 0 692 64 0 0 344 0 0 0 0 0 344 2015 74 0 0 0 34 0 0 0 0 34 80 0 0 0 10 427 0 0 0 437 84 0 0 0 3 0 2241 0 0 2244 86 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 16742 906 344 65 427 2297 1 7 20789 Forest change Color on Area (ha) Description map Restoration   0 Change from existing coastal forest to a forest with better condition, e.g., from newly planted forest to closed canopy forest Reforestation   0 Change from non-forest to coastal forest, e.g., new plantation Degradation   214.0 Change from existing coastal forest to a forest with poorer condition, e.g., from average forest to regrowth forest Deforestation   82.5 Change of sandy forest to other land use type Stable forest   17,777.8 Stable forest Stable non   2,715.0 Stable non-forest forest Total What Is It Worth? 54 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province The pilot-based forest coverage was estimated from Sentinel 2 images in 2015 and 2018. The result is presented in Figure 8. Uong Bi city Quang Yen city Ha Long city Cam Pha city Mong Cai city Van Don district Tien Yen district Hoanh Bo district Hai Ha district Dam Ha district 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 Values Cover % 2018 Cover % 2015 Figure 8. Quang Ninh mangrove forest coverage in 2015 and 2018 Spatial relations between sea dike and mangrove forest The total area of mangroves in the whole province of Quang Ninh is 19,426 hectares, including mangroves on the sea side of dikes, inland of dikes, and areas of mangroves that are not associated with any dikes. Of the total mangroves, those in seaside dike areas represent 3 percent, inland dike areas constitute 35.3 percent, and areas of mangroves not associated with dikes make up 61.7 percent. There are a total of 7,432 ha of mangroves that are associated with dikes. Of these, the mangroves located on the sea side of dikes make up approximately 92 percent of the total area while the mangroves planted inland of dikes represent close to 8 percent. There is an even larger area of mangroves, equivalent to 11,994 ha, that are not situated in locations with dikes. Van Don district has the largest area with mangroves located inland of dikes (see Table 13), while there are no mangroves in six other districts and cities (specifically, in Mong Cai, Cam Pha, Uong Bi, Tien Yen, Quang Yen, and Co To). Tien Yen district has the largest area of mangroves planted on the sea side of dikes, followed by Mong Cai city. 3. Results 55 Table 14 also shows that mangroves in locations without dike systems are still of critical importance. These areas appear in all districts and cities, ranging from 118.3 ha in Co To to 3,714.2 ha in Tien Yen. The area of mangroves that are protected by sea dikes are presented in Table 13 and Table 14. Table 13. Mangrove areas in relation to sea dikes in Quang Ninh District Mangrove area (ha) Inland of Sea side of Not associated Total dikes dikes with dikes Thành phố Hạ Long 1.1 133.4 513.9 648.4 Thành phố Móng Cái 1,912.5 1,781.1 3,693.6 Thành phố Cẩm Phả 44.5 1010.0 1,054.4 Thành phố Uông Bí 224.3 224.3 Tiên Yên 1,936.4 1,777.8 3,714.2 Đầm Hà 14.3 880.1 1,624.3 2,518.7 Hải Hà 152.2 1,084.4 101.2 1,337.8 Vân Đồn 279.7 259.1 2,057.9 2,596.7 Hoành Bồ 129.6 604.8 26.9 761.3 Quảng Yên 2,758.2 2,758.2 Cô Tô 118.3 118.3 Total area 576 6855 11,994 19,426 Total % 3% 35.3% 61.7% 100% What Is It Worth? 56 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 14. Length of sea dike in relation to mangrove forest in Quang Ninh District Length of dike Length of dike Length of Total with mangrove with sea side dike without (km) forest inland mangrove forest mangrove (km) (km) forest (km) Cô Tô 0.0 0.477   0.0 0.4 Đầm Hà 0.0 11.0 1.7 12.7 Hải Hà 6.2 21.1 5.3 32.6 Hoành Bồ 0.0 23.5 2.3 25.8 Tiên Yên 1.9 13.6 2.6 18.0 Vân Đồn 7.1 4.0 1.8 12.7 Quảng Yên 53.0 31.2 8.6 92.7 Thành phố Hạ Long 3.8 3.1 3.4 10.3 Thành phố Cẩm Phả 0.0 8.4 1.1 9.4 Thành phố Móng Cái 1.9 15.9 19.1 36.7 Thành phố Uông Bí 4.2 8.1 8.7 20.9 Total 78.0 140.3 54.5 272.8 3.1.2. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon, Thua Thien Hue province The Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon wetlands system covers an area of approximately 22,000 ha that follows the coastline for approximately 70 km along the coast of Thua Thien Hue Province. Through its role in mitigating against coastal flooding, the survival of over one million inhabitants in the Thua Thien Hue region is attributed to the lagoon. The lagoon ecosystem has a significant role in the socioeconomic development of the region. It played a significant part in the development of the Hue Capital in the past and, today, is recognized as important for the development of Hue City (Thanh, T.D. et al., 1997). 3. Results 57 The lagoon system includes three main lagoons. ● Tam Giang lagoon: the lagoon occupies the area from O Lau estuary to Thuan An bridge, connecting with the East Sea through the Thuan An estuary, with a length of 25 km and a width of 0.5 to 4 km. The depth of the lagoon in the dry season is commonly between 1 to 1.5 m and, near Thuan An estuary, up to 4 to 6 m. The water surface area is around 52 km2. ● Thuy Tu lagoon: includes An Truyen, Thanh Lam (Sam), Ha Trung and Thuy Tu lagoons and extends from Thuan An bridge to Con Trai over a length of 33 km. The width of the lagoon varies from 0.5 to 5 km. The common lagoon depth is from 1.5 to 2 m and the water surface area is about 60 km2. ● Cau Hai lagoon: extends from Con Trai to Rui estuary with a length of 9 km and from Truoi river estuary to Vinh Phong mountain, a distance of nearly 13 km. The average depth is about 1.4 km and the water surface area is about 104 km2. Cau Hai lagoon connects with the East Sea through Tu Hien gate. The topography of Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon can be divided into two types: ● The coastal terrain: where the elevation usually does not exceed 10 m. This includes the area where there is deposition from the river (originating from the sea) and formation of a sandy plain with an altitude of 4 to 10 m. ● The delta plain: with an elevation ranging from 3 to 6 m. In more recent delta river estuaries along the lagoon, there is a swampy terrain with a common elevation of less than 1 m corresponding to a type of wetland grass swamp where sometimes a single-crop of rice is grown. On the edge of the lagoon, the topography of the intermittent shelf shape is over 1 m and it is often flooded during the rainy season, causing island-like accretion south of Thuy Tu lagoon. Biodiversity Thanh, T.D. et al., (1997) estimated that there are 921 species belonging to 444 genera and 237 families. This includes seven species of seagrass, seven species of mangroves, 230 species of fish and 73 of species waterfowl, which have all been recorded in the lagoon. The water-based flora in TGCH lagoon consists of 171 species of phytoplankton, 54 species of phytobenthos, 43 species of algae, 18 species of watergrass (hydrophytes), among which are 7 species of seagrass and 11 species of fresh-water grass, and 31 species of plants, including the seven species of mangroves. Among the 73 bird species, 28 species are hunted and considered to have a high economic value. Thirty species are also included in the European Union’s list of strictly-protected birds (Ramsar Conservation Bureau, 1997) and one is included in Vietnam's Red Book (Limnodromus semipalmatus). Ecosystem type The Tam Giang - Cau Hai development plan up to 2030 (ISPONRE, 2019) provides an ecosystem mapping that classifies the study area into six ecosystem categories for the lagoon and eight categories for the adjacent ecosystems (Table 15, Figure 9). The data from the ecosystem type dataset which had information on lagoons was complemented with data on forests from FORMIS. What Is It Worth? 58 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Many habitats/sub-ecosystems can be found in the lagoon. These include small estuaries, grass marshes, mangrove swamps, lagoonal tidal flats, freshwater grass and seagrass beds, and soft muddy soils.33 The small estuaries and grass marshes are also the waterfowl grounds in winter for over 20,000 individual birds (Thanh, T.D. et al., 1997). Table 15. Area of ecosystems in Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon in 2018 Ecosystems Area (ha) Lagoon system Sea grass 4,226 Aquaculture 6,051 Beach 4,451 Mangrove 190 Lagoon 15,35334 Sand dune 8,387 Other systems Natural forest 2,895 Annual crop 2,181 Grass and shrubland 4,119 Plantation forest 28,33 Residential 13,220 River 3,527 Urban 2,213 Paddy 27,954 Grand Total 97,604 Source: Profile of Tam Giang – Cau Hai Protected Area, 2018 (p. 29 of the revision) 33 The freshwater grass and seagrass beds are composed of 18 species of hydrophytes. The most ecologically significant species are: Valisneria spiralis, Ceratophyllum demersum, Najas indica (fresh watergrass), Halophyla ovalis, H. beccarii, Halodule pinifonia, H. uninervis, Cymodocea rotundata, and Ruppia maritima (seagrass). The mangrove swamp is characterized by Kandelia candel, Bruguiera gymnozhina, Annona glabra, Excoecaria agallocha, Clerodendrum inerme and Ipomoea pescaprae. 34 It is not clear whether the total area includes sea grass (this was not indicated in the source). It is assumed it does. 3. Results 59 Figure 9. Wetland ecosystem map of Tam Giang – Cau Hai, Thua Thien Hue province Coastal forest extent In Thua Thien Hue province, the sandy forest was mostly stable from 2015 to 2018 (4,611 ha in 2015 and 4,613 ha in 2018) while mangrove forest increased by 37 percent (from 50.2 ha in 2015 to 68.8 ha in 2018) (Table 16). This change in mangrove area is due to areas being planted before 2015 and being counted as forested land in 201835. 35 Areas of new plantation are only counted as forested land after five years. What Is It Worth? 60 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Source: FORMIS data Figure 10. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon coastal forest, 2018 Compared to Quang Ninh, where mangroves are the dominant coastal forest, the coastal forest of TGCH lagoon is mainly sandy forest. In 2018, within the 4,682 ha of coastal forest, there was only 68.8 ha of mangrove forest, accounting for 1.4 percent. Despite its relatively small area, the mangrove forest is attractive for tourism. In 2019, the mangrove area of Thua Thien Hue was increased to 125 ha (ISPONRE, 2020). 3. Results 61 Table 16. Coastal forest in Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon District Mangrove Mangrove Sandy 2015 Sandy 2018 2015 2018 Hương Trà 13.1 13.1 186.6 186.6 Phong Điền 0 0 2649.9 2651.8 Phú Lộc 0 0 246.2 246.3 Phú Vang 1.4 1.4 849.7 849.6 Quảng Điền 35.7 54.3 678.7 678.9 Grand Total 50.2 68.8 4611.1 4613.2 Source: FORMIS There are no special use forests in the area of TGCH lagoon. In terms of changes in forest classification, from 2015 to 2018: ● Protection forest area decreased by 785 ha, equivalent to 38 percent ● Production forest area increased by 806 ha, equivalent to 30 percent. The change in forest zoning classification from protection to production forest mainly occurred in Phong Dien, Quang Dien and Phu Vang districts. The protection forest on sandy soils forms an important green layer shielding coastal residents and infrastructure from storms and sandstorms. The reduction of more than one-third of sandy forest classified as protection forest could reduce the protection function of this system. What Is It Worth? 62 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 17. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon coastal forest area by forest function 2015 2018 District Protection Production Protection Production forest forest forest forest Huong Tra 199.7 199.7 Phong Dien 1,061.3 1,588.5 513.9 2,137.9 Phu Loc 78.5 167.8 66.6 179.6 Phu Vang 563.6 287.5 318.9 532.1 Quang Dien 144.3 570.1 162.8 570.3 Grand Total 2,047.4 2,613.8 1262.0 3,419.9 Source: FORMIS Figure 11. Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon forest function, 2015 3. Results 63 Figure 12. Tam Giang - Cau Hai lagoon forest function, 2018 Coastal forest species There are three main mangrove species planted in Thua Thien Hue province. What Is It Worth? 64 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 18. Distribution of planted mangrove species and their volume in Thua Thien Hue District Latin name Local name Area Volume (ha) (m3/ha) 2015 2018 2015 2018 Quảng Điền Kandelia candel Trang N/A 18.6 N/A 0 (L.) Druce Quảng Điền Sonneratia Bần chua 35.7 20 caseolaris (L.) Engl. Phú Vang Rhizophora Đưng 1.4 1.4 10.01 10.1 mucronata Lam. (Đước bộp) Hương Trà Rhizophora Đưng 8.7 8.8 15 18.8 mucronata Lam. (Đước bộp) Hương Trà Others Loài khác, mọc 4.1 0 nhanh Hương Trà Cocos Dừa 4.1 N/A 0 N/A In total 14.2 68.6 25.01 48.9 3. Results 65 Table 19. Distribution of planted sandy forest species and their volume in Thua Thien Hue District Latin name Local Area Volume name (ha) (m3/ha) 2015 2018 2015 2018 Hương A. aulacocarpa Keo lá 82.8 82.8 35.8 36 Trà bạc Casuarina equisetifolia Phi lao 103.8 103.8 169 82.2 Phong A. aulacocarpa Keo lá 546.9 120.6 250.2 241.4 Điền bạc Casuarina equisetifolia Phi lao 144.4 141.1 306.2 306.2 Phú Lộc A. aulacocarpa Keo lá 1.6 1.6 81 81 bạc Casuarina equisetifolia Phi lao 76.8 65 199.1 199.3 Phú Vang A. aulacocarpa Keo lá 76.7 28.3 310.9 216 bạc Casuarina equisetifolia Phi lao 385.4 266.5 Co 415.6 Quảng A. aulacocarpa Keo lá 32.2 32.2 113.7 108.6 Điền bạc Casuarina equisetifolia Phi lao 36.1 36.1 153.4 153.4 In total 1486.7 878 What Is It Worth? 66 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Coastal forest change matrix A matrix of forest change between 2015 and 2018 in TGCH lagoon was used for the change assessment. The area of change and type of change is presented in Table 20. The key trend in TGCH lagoon is that most of the forest land remained unchanged. Of the total 6,336 ha coastal land, 94 percent was unchanged land, which included 54 percent stable forest and 40 percent stable non- forest. There were 172 ha of forest restoration, equivalent to 3 percent of the total area, and 170 ha of forest degradation,36 equivalent to 3 percent. Deforestation accounted only for 0.1 percent of the area. The main area of forest degradation was in Quang Dien district and the coastal area of Phong Dien district. The degradation is indicated in forest monitoring data, which is mainly designed to monitor forest area. Further primary data is required to confirm the change in forest quality. Figure 13. Forest change map of Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon, 2015 – 2018 (upper map displays both change and stable forest; lower map displays only change area) 36 Degradation in the change matrix means that forest with higher quality changed to lower quality. This change could be due to the correction of the map in 2018 to reflect the true class rather than an actual decrease in forest quality. 3. Results 67 Table 20. Forest cover change matrix in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon 2018 2015 42 62 64 74 77 85 86 87 88 92 93 Total 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 64 0 0 2502 0 170 0 3 0 0 2 2677 74 0 36 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 77 0 0 137 0 889 0 3 0 0 0 0 1029 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 86 0 0 1 0 0 0 446 0 0 0 0 447 87 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 455 0 0 0 456 88 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 7 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 0 44 93 0 0 2 19 0 0 1 0 0 0 1604 1626 Total 0 45 2642 23 1059 0 453 456 7 44 1606 6335 Forest change Color Area (ha) Description on map Restoration   172 Change from existing coastal forest to a forest with better condition, e.g., from newly planted forest to closed canopy forest Reforestation   21 Change from non-forest to coastal forest, e.g., new plantation Degradation   170 Change from existing coastal forest to a forest with poorer condition, e.g., from average forest to regrowth forest Deforestation   8 Change of sandy forest to other land use type Stable forest   3405 Stable forest Stable non forest   2557 Stable non-forest Total 6,336 What Is It Worth? 68 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province 3.2. Ecosystem valuation 3.2.1. Provisioning services Capture fisheries The value of capture fisheries in mangrove ecosystems in Quang Ninh province can be measured based on the value of fish, shrimp, crab, clam, Sipunculus nudus, sesarmidae and other aquatic products caught by local people. Such value was estimated for the year of 2005 at VND 4.54 million, equivalent to USD 285.44 per hectare of mangrove area per year (USD 367.18/ha in 2018 dollars) (Sam DD et al., 2005). To date, this is the only valuation of capture fisheries that has been conducted in Quang Ninh province. Thuy et al. (2019) conducted focus group discussions and found a large number of households frequently enter mangrove areas to harvest aquatic products (i.e., at least one family member goes to the mangrove forest daily). In fact, 68-83 percent of the communes’ households near mangrove areas reported benefiting from capture fisheries. Most noticeably, capture fisheries and aquaculture contributed 20 percent of these households’ total income. According to the focus group discussions, the mean revenue from the capture fisheries (e.g., small crab, small-scale clam, shrimp, fish, seaworm, sesarmidae and Sipunculus nudus) was VND 200,000 per day per person. This income is equivalent to 40 percent of a typical wage for unskilled labor in the area (of VND 500,000 per day).37 However, it is noteworthy that a majority of the catchers (roughly 80 percent) are women. They often spend half a day on catching and the rest of the day on housework. The capture fisheries, therefore, are not only an important source of income for them but also an ideal job that they can flexibly do while being able to manage housework. The validation for our study, conducted by interviews with the People’s Committee and community in Dong Rui commune38 of Tien Yen District, finds that 500 people (or one person from each household, on average) out of 1,700 workers in the total population of 2,860 (715 households) are usually involved in the capture fisheries. In other words, 500 households out of the commune’s 715 households (equivalent to 70 percent of households) usually benefit from the mangrove forest. This validation is aligned with the finding of 68-83 percent in Thuy et al. (2019). However, we also found that those 500 people do not go on a daily basis to the mangrove forest for capture fisheries. In fact, it is reported that there are usually only 200 people a day on average in the mangrove forest. Thus, the percentage of people benefiting daily from capture fisheries in a commune is 200/2860 ≈ 7 percent.39 37 Information was provided by local DARD officers. 38 Dong Rui commune in Tien Yen district is a typical commune with mangrove forest in Quang Ninh province. The People’s Committee of Dong Rui charged a fee per person harvesting fish in the mangrove forest. Through this arrangement, they knew that there were roughly 500 people in the mangrove forest on a regular basis. A similar situation can be observed in many other communes, where the People’s Committees have reliable information about people harvesting from the mangroves. In Dong Rui, the fee is no longer applied, as the People’s Committee explained that they could not find an appropriate way to fit the fee into the financial administrative system. Thus, they cannot use the money and as a result they stopped charging. 39 While certain aquatic products are only available in some months of the year, so called “catching season”, there are many types of aquatic products with different catching seasons in the mangrove forest. Therefore, local people can find some products to catch in the mangrove forest at any time of year. This has been confirmed in the expert interviews during our validation field trip. 3. Results 69 Accordingly, another key piece of information needed for our valuation is the number of people in communes that have mangrove forest. This is, in fact, the total population living in communes that have mangrove forest. This number is calculated based on FORMIS data on forestry and the data on population from the Quang Ninh Statistics Office (Quang Ninh Statistics Office, 2019). The resulting calculation estimates that the number of people living in communes with mangrove forest is 372,018.40 In terms of the mean revenue from capture fisheries, our validation also finds that it is no less than VND 200,000 per day per person. It is also noteworthy that on average, a person only works 15-20 days per month. In order to avoid overestimation, we choose the lower bound value of 15 days per month for the valuation (Table 21). In terms of costs, the cost of labor in Quang Ninh province is approximately VND 2.8 million per month per person (Quang Ninh Statistics Office, 2019). Capture fisheries in mangrove forests in Quang Ninh province require some simple hand tools, such as flashlights, hooks and sticks, many of which are made by the local people themselves. The cost of equipment, therefore, is fairly low at VND 50,000 per person per month on average. Table 21. Some statistics of capture fisheries in the mangrove areas of Quang Ninh province # Statistical data Year of 2018 1 AVGDAILYREV: Average revenue from capture fisheries in mangrove 200,000 area (VND/day/person), 15 days per month 2 POPULATION: Number of people in communes that have access to 372,018 mangrove forest 3 PERCENTUSERS: Percentage of daily benefited people from capture 6.99% fisheries in a commune 4 COSTLABOR: Cost of labor (minimum wage in Quang Ninh 2,760,000 province) (VND/month/person)41 5 COSTEQUIPMENT: Cost of equipment (VND/month/person) 50,000 6 Correlation parameter ρ (of mangroves - capture fisheries) 0.7 7 Total mangrove area (hectare) 21,973 8 Exchange rate (Local Currency Units [LCU] per USD, period average) 22,602.05 Source: Author’s calculation based on data by General Statistics Office of Vietnam [GSO] (2019), Quang Ninh Statistics Office (2019) and expert interview 40 This value has been scaled by the number of commune households near mangroves. 41 According to Decree 141/2017/NĐ-CP, also presented by the Quang Ninh Statistics Office (2019) What Is It Worth? 70 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Accordingly, the value of capture fisheries in mangrove areas in Quang Ninh province is estimated by applying the formula presented in Section 2.3.1, or taking the following calculation from data in Table 21. ρ *[AVGDAILYREV*15 – COSTLABOR – COSTEQUIPMENT]*POPULATION*PERCENTUSERS*12 = = 3.46 Billion VND per month = 41.502 Billion VND per year Thus, the value of mangrove ecosystems in capture fisheries is VND 41.502 billion per year, equivalent to USD 1.84 million per year. On average, one hectare of mangrove generates a net benefit of VND 1.89 million per hectare per year, equivalent to USD 83.57 per hectare per year. In Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon, capture fisheries production includes shrimp, fish, crab, oyster, squid and some seasonal aquatic products. Of these, shrimp and fish are the most dominant and stable sources of income for local households. It is noteworthy that our study only estimates the value of capture fisheries within TGCH lagoon, and therefore does not include the sea catch (see Table 22). Focusing only on shrimp and fish, Tuan et al. (2009) conducted a large survey of 1,189 households and estimated that the capture fisheries created a net benefit of VND 10 million/household/year42 for the year of 2005. The net benefits were determined by subtracting costs of catching (e.g., fuel, equipment depreciation and labor obtained from household surveys) from benefits (measured by the market price of fish and shrimp). Note that the ratio of cost/benefit of capture fisheries was 0.31. Using a similar method, ISPONRE (2017) found the value of capture fisheries to be VND 43.78 million/household/year for the year of 2016,43 (equivalent to VND 47.13 million/household/year for the year of 2018), with 1,635 households involved in the capture. The total net benefit from the capture fisheries was then estimated at VND 71,587.31 million or USD 3.204 million in 2016 prices. This value is equivalent to VND 8.34 million (or USD 357.11) per ton of inland capture fisheries in 2016. In addition, the ratio of cost/benefit of capture fisheries was 0.42. Our study employs the results from ISPONRE (2017) for the most up-to-date statistics. The validation field trip of our study confirms that although productivity may reduce at times, the ratio of cost/benefit of capture fisheries tends to increase gradually. Nevertheless, it is no more than 0.45 in the year of 2018. In addition, some statistical data in 2016 and 2018 are presented in Table 22 below. 42 This value is an average benefit obtained by the households that participated in capture fisheries. The net benefits from capture fisheries can vary from year to year, although the fluctuations may not be as substantial as with crops because natural fisheries adapt to the natural conditions. The result from ISPONRE (2017) provide the best basis for our estimation as it was not possible to conduct household surveys due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The difference in market conditions are partly accounted for with the GDP deflators. 43 This is partly explained by the price increase and increase in fish capture. 3. Results 71 Table 22. Some statistics of capture fisheries in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon # Statistical data Year of Year of Source 2016 2018 1 Production of inland 8,583 7,994 Thua Thien Hue Statistics capture fisheries (ton) Office (2019), validated in the meeting with Department 2 Production of sea catch 30,700 23,400 of Agriculture and Rural (ton) Development 3 Value of capture fisheries 8.34 ISPONRE (2017) (million VND/ton) 3 GDP deflator 147.415 158.625 World Bank (2020a) 4 Ratio of cost/benefit of 0.42 0.45 ISPONRE (2017), validated in capture fisheries the meeting with Department of Agriculture and Rural 6 Water surface area of the 21,600 Development lagoon (hectare) 7 Exchange rate (LCU per 22,602.05 World Bank (2020b) USD, period average) Source: Author’s calculation based on data from the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO, 2019); Thua Thien Hue Statistics Office (2019); World Bank (2020a); and validation field trip Accounting for the value of capture fisheries in 2016 using a GDP deflator to deal with the difference in price, the value of capture fisheries in 2018 is estimated at VND 8.97 million per ton. Given that the production of inland capture fisheries in 2018 is 7,994 tons, the total value of capture fisheries in 2018 in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon is VND 71,706.18 million, equivalent to USD 3.17 million in 2018. Aquaculture support Aquaculture farming inside mangrove forests is not as popular in Quang Ninh province. There is a lack of official data on the production of such farming in the area, in contrast to data on aquaculture farming that has converted mangroves. To date, only 60 intensive aquaculture farms are found in mangroves. This is over an area of 301.27 hectares of Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen District. The production generated from these farms was 357 tons with a net benefit of VND 13.06 billion in 2018 (Quang Ninh PPC, 2019), which is equivalent to USD 1,885 per hectare (this value is in What Is It Worth? 72 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province the same range as was estimated by Pham et al., 2019). Our expert interviews determined that the production cost of aquaculture farming includes both direct costs (seeds, feeds, electricity, chemicals), which often account for 85 percent of the total costs, and the depreciation cost of ponds. The average production cost is approximately VND 150 million per hectare of farm. As discussed in Section 2.3.1, we find that correlation parameter ρ of mangrove-aquaculture in Quang Ninh province is zero (meaning no correlation, or that mangroves do not contribute to the aquaculture products). Accordingly, the value of aquaculture support of mangroves is VND 0. ISPONRE (2017) conducted a survey in Tam Giang – Cau Hai and estimated the aquaculture support of the lagoon at VND 235.89 million per ha in 2016. Using the GDP deflators, the aquaculture support value of the lagoon in 2018 is estimated at VND 253.82 million per hectare per year, equivalent to USD 11,200 per hectare of aquaculture per year. Table 23. Some statistics of aquaculture production in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon # Statistical data Year of Year of Source 2016 2018 1 GDP deflator 147.415 158.625 World Bank (2020) 2 Area of aquaculture 6,799 4,200 ISPONRE (2017), validated in (hectare) the meeting with Department of Agriculture and Rural Development 3 Exchange rate (LCU per 22,602.05 World Bank (2020b) USD, period average) Source: Author’s calculation based on data by Thua Thien Hue Statistics Office (2019); World Bank (2020a); and validation field trip With the total area for aquaculture in the lagoon of 7,375 ha in 2018 (Thua Thien Hue Statistics Office, 2019), the total value of aquaculture support in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon is estimated at VND 1,871.9 billion, or USD 82.82 million. 3.2.2. Carbon storage and sequestration values In Quang Ninh, the total area of coastal forests is 22,416 ha, of which 21,973 ha (98 percent) is mangrove forests that are designated as protection forests. Unlike in Quang Ninh, the majority of coastal forest in Thua Thien Hue is comprised of forest on sandy areas dominated by Acacia species. Only a small area of 69 ha is mangrove forests (see Table 24). 3. Results 73 Table 24. Coastal forest area in study provinces in 2018 Coastal forest types Quang Ninh (ha) Thua Thien Hue (ha) 1. Mangrove forests 21,973 69 1.1. Natural forests 17,610 0 1.2. Planted forests 4,363 69 2. Forest on sandy area 442 4,613 2.1. Natural forests 0 0 2.2. Planted forests 442 4,613 Total 22,416 4,682 Source: FORMIS 2018 The estimated carbon stock for common mangrove and other coastal plant species is shown in Table 25. The estimated carbon stock and increment for Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue is as follows: Photo: Fuu J - shutterstock.com What Is It Worth? 74 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 25. Estimated average carbon stock and increment of coastal forests # Species Applicable Average SD Biomass SD province total carbon carbon increment stock (tC/ha/yr) (tC/ha) 1 Protection Quang Ninh 29.0 N/A 1.7 N/A mangroves 2 Production Quang Ninh 25.0 N/A 1.1 N/A mangroves 3 Special use Quang Ninh 22.0 N/A 1.6 N/A mangroves 3 Kandelia obovata Thua Thien Hue 34.12 16.64 3.15 1.22 4 Senneratia caseolaris Quang Ninh 66.04 52.88 6.35 4.79 and Thua Thien Hue 5 All mangrove species Quang Ninh 33.08 12.5 1.5 0.25 and Thua Thien Hue 6 Casuarina Quang Ninh 45.0 34.7 2.8 1.2 equisetifolia and Thua Thien Hue 7 Acacia crassicarpaa Quang Ninh 37.2 13.1 3.4 1.1 and Thua Thien Hue Sources: The values provided in this table are averages that were generated from numerous documents (see Annex B): [1] Tri, H.N, 1986; [2] Tan, D.T, 2002; [3] Vu Tan Phuong et al., 2012; [4] Nguyen Thi Ha, 2017; [5] Vien Ngoc Nam 2010; [6] Binh, C.H and Nam, V.N, 2010; [7] Ha Thanh Nguyen et al., 2004; [8] Okimoto, Y. et al., 2013; [9] Tien Dat Pham et al., 2016; [10] Vu Manh Hung et al., 2015; [11] Luu The Anh et al., 2020; [12] Tien Dat Pham 2018; [13] Vu Tan Phuong et al., 2012; [14] Tien Dien Vu 2014; [15] Blanca et al., 2019; [16] Nguyen Thi Lieu 2017. 3. Results 75 In Quang Ninh, total carbon stock for existing coastal forest in 2018 is 2.3 million tCO2e, of which carbon stock in mangrove forests accounts for 99 percent of total carbon stock. The annual carbon sequestration is 120,777 tCO2e (see Table 26). Details of carbon stock distribution by communes and districts in Quang Ninh is shown in Annex C. In Thua Thien Hue, total carbon storage of coastal forest is 1.2 million tCO2e, of which 45 percent is from mangrove forests. Annual carbon sequestration is 52,815 tCO2e, with 995 tCO2e of that from forest on sandy areas (see Table 26 and details in Annex D). Table 26. Carbon stock of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue 44 Coastal forest types Quang Ninh Thua Thien Hue (tCO2e) (tCO2e) 1. Carbon storage by forest types 2,352,661 1,263,129 1.1. Mangrove forests 2,332,757 567,920 1.2. Forest on sandy area 19,904 695,209 2. Carbon storage by forest function 2,352,661 1,263,129 2.1. Protection mangroves 2,017,781 153,084 2.2. Production mangroves 312,556 414,835 2.3. Special use mangroves 2,420 0 2.4. Protection forest on sands 19,904 695,209 3. Annual sequestration 120,777 52,815 3.1. Mangrove forests 118,167 378 3.2. Forest on sandy area 2,610 52,437 44 See Annex C and D for details by communes and district level. What Is It Worth? 76 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Carbon values of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue The estimation of coastal forest carbon values is made based on the estimated carbon stock, sequestration and carbon price. In Quang Ninh, total carbon storage value of coastal forests is USD 11.7 million, with an annual carbon sequestration value of USD 0.6 million. In comparison, these figures for TGCH lagoon in Thua Thien Hue are USD 6.3 and 0.3 million, respectively (see Table 27). In Quang Ninh, the highest carbon value is recorded in protection mangrove forests (86 percent), followed by production mangrove forests (13 percent), and forests on sandy areas (1 percent). However, in Thua Thien Hue, the highest carbon value is generated by protection forests on sandy areas (55 percent), followed by production mangrove forests (33 percent) and protection mangrove forests (12 percent) (see Figure 14). Table 27. Estimated values of coastal forests carbon storage and sequestration Coastal forest types Carbon value in Carbon value in Thua Quang Ninh (USD) Thien Hue (USD) 1. Carbon storage by forest types 11,763,305 6,315,645 1.1. Mangrove forests 11,663,785 2,839,600 1.2. Forest on sandy area 99,520 3,476,045 2. Carbon storage by forest function 11,763,305 6,315,645 2.1. Protection mangroves 10,088,905 765,420 2.2. Production mangroves 1,562,780 2,074,175 2.3. Special use mangroves 12,100 0 2.4. Protection forest on sands 99,520 3,476,045 3. Annual sequestration 603,885 264,075 3.1. Mangrove forests 590,835 1,890 3.2. Forest on sandy area 13,050 262,185 3. Results 77 0% 1% 13% 33% 55% 33% 86% 0% Protection mangroves Special use mangroves Production mangroves Protection forest on sandy areas Figure 14. Carbon value share (%) among the coastal forest types in Quang Ninh (left) and Thua Thien Hue (right) Similar to the effectiveness of coastal protection, the carbon stock of mangrove forests largely depends on biophysical conditions, specific mangrove species, stand age and silvicultural measures (such as density and spacing). The average biomass (above and below) carbon stock of mangroves used for Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue (33.08 tC/ha or 70.2 total dry matter [tdm]/ha) is a “conservative estimate” based on the most reliable study results. This value is a bit lower than that used in the REDD+ national reference level (35.2 tC/ha or 74.9 tdm/ha) (Phuong et al. 2015). The higher average mangrove carbon stock value estimated in the REDD+ reference level used a weighted average value calculated based on mangrove area of three eco-regions (Northeast, North Central Coast and South Central Coast). Compared to other countries in the Southeast Asia region, biomass and carbon stock of mangroves are much lower in the North of Vietnam, while the values for mangroves in the South of Vietnam are quite similar to those in other Southeast Asian countries. Guangcheng et al. (2013) provides a global estimate of average mangrove biomass for greenhouse gas inventories, indicating that the values of above-ground biomass of mangroves for tropical wet, tropical dry and sub-tropical regions are 192 (8.7-384) tdm/ha, 92 (3.2-201) tdm/ha and 75 (3.9- 129) tdm/ha, respectively. This means that the biomass of mangrove forests varies greatly among countries and regions. With regard to the biomass increment, the estimated values for Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue are 10.3 (6.7-13.5) tdm/ha/year. The global average above-ground biomass increment values are 9.9 (0.1-27.4) tdm/ha/year for tropical wet regions, 3.3 (0.1-7.5) tdm/ha/year for tropical dry regions and 18.1 (5.3-29.1) tdm/ha/year for subtropical regions (Guangcheng et al. 2013). What Is It Worth? 78 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province 3.2.3. Coastal protection values The estimated results indicate that annual protective value of coastal forests for Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue is 12.9 million USD and 3.0 million USD respectively. Such values are much higher than annual carbon sequestration (see Table 28). Table 28. Annual protective values of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue Coastal forest types Quang Ninh Thua Thien Hue (USD) (USD) 1. Mangrove forests 15,649,171 49,142 1.1. Natural forests 12,541,842 0 1.2. Planted forests 3,107,329 49,142 2. Forests on sandy area 285,532 2,979,998 2.1. Natural forests 0 0 2.2. Planted forests 285,532 2,979,998 3. Total annual values (USD) 15,934,703 3,029,140 Photo: CravenA - shutterstock.com 3. Results 79 Figure 15. Coastal protection value in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue 3.2.4. Cultural services As discussed, the valuation of cultural services in this study focuses only on the value of tourism in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon of Thua Thien Hue Province. According to the survey, the types of visitors’ expenditures in TGCH lagoon are classified as: transportation cost, opportunity cost (time cost), and other costs (including expenditures on food, drink, accommodation, etc.). Detailed expenditures of visitors are shown in Table 29. What Is It Worth? 80 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 29. Types of visitors’ costs in Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon Zone Average Travel Transportation Time cost Other costs distance (km) time cost (VND) (VND) (VND) (days) 1 <60 km 1.49 104,103 290,550 343,570 2 From 60-120 km 1.22 180,370 283,040 150,500 3 From 120-150 km 1.00 225,500 250,000 102,500 4 From 150-180 km 1.00 255,945 245,000 100,000 Table 29 illustrates that the farther the departure zone is from the site, the greater the transportation cost. The analysis results also showed that time cost, additional charges at the site, and other costs do not depend on distance or location. The total value of tourism in TGCH lagoon is measured by the whole area under the demand curve for visits to the lagoon and above the horizontal axis. This area is also the area below the demand curve and above the original TC, so this is also the consumer surplus of visitors. Accordingly, the total consumer surplus of visitors is estimated at VND 20.56 billion per year. With 100,000 visitors in 2018, the consumer surplus of each visitor is VND 120,800. Given that the average travel cost of a visitor is VND 458,627, the total annual value of tourism in TGCH lagoon is VND 458,627*100,000 + VND 20.56 billion = VND 66.42 billion. In other words, the lagoon has provided supporting services for tourism with a total value at VND 66.42 billion per year, equivalent to USD 2.844 million per year. Given that the total area of TGCH lagoon (including water surface area and area of 33 communes surrounding the lagoon) is 99,789 hectares (Thua Thien Hue Statistics Office, 2019), the value of tourism is VND 665,640 per hectare per year, equivalent to USD 29.45 per hectare per year, on average. Nevertheless, the tourism value is not isotrophic, as some areas might attract tourists more than others. Accordingly, the value of tourism is illustrated on the value map later in this report. As discussed elsewhere, for the conventional national accounting purpose, we also estimate the exchange value of tourism in TGCH lagoon. It is, in fact, the total travel cost of tourism, excluding opportunity cost. The average opportunity cost of tourists is estimated at VND 267,147.5 per visit. Thus, when excluding opportunity cost, the average travel cost of a visitor is VND 194,479.5 per visit. With 100,000 visitors in 2018, the exchange value of tourism in TGCH lagoon is VND 19.15 billion per year, equivalent to USD 847,177.6 per year. 3. Results 81 3.3. Cost-effectiveness analysis The assessment of cost-effectiveness for the contribution of mangroves to climate resilience is done by analyzing the worthiness of mangrove forest conservation in Quang Ninh province. The cost-effectiveness analysis is conducted by examining the mangroves on the sea side of dikes. This does not include the mangroves on the inland side as was done in the valuation part of the exercise. The cost-effectiveness analysis compares the investment in mangrove protection on the sea side of the dikes with the investment in dike maintenance. Both investments enhance the durability of a dike. In this analysis, it was not possible to compare the option of a stronger dike against the use of mangroves due to the absence of data. This is because dike construction and maintenance is done based on past experience, compliance with dike levels according to Vietnam’s Standard Book (Government of Vietnam, 2014) and government cost norms, rather than on a climate-proofing analysis with a detailed analysis of the risk probability. Table 30 describes the state of mangrove areas in Quang Ninh in 2015 to 2018. Table 30. Changes of mangrove areas in Quang Ninh province from 2015 to 2018 District Mangrove area in 2015 (ha) Mangrove area in 2018 (ha) Co To 118.4 117.5 Dam Ha 2,519.4 2,535.3 Hai Ha 2,027.1 1,543.4 Hoanh Bo 698.4 566.7 Quang Yen 2,043.2 2,400.2 Cam Pha City 925.8 1,035.3 Ha Long City 290.7 631.5 Mong Cai City 7,036.2 6,655.7 Uong Bi City 133.8 133.8 Tien Yen 3,519.1 3,859.6 Van Don 2,309.8 2,494.2 Total 21,621.9 21,973.2 Source: FORMIS What Is It Worth? 82 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province As shown in the table, the mangrove area has been depleted in the last three years in Hai Ha, Hoanh Bo and Mong Cai City. Although most of this reduction has occurred in the production forest, there is concern about the conservation of mangroves in Quang Ninh province. Firstly, the forest reclassification (change in forest function planning from protection forest to production forest) could exaggerate the depletion, since production forest is not strictly protected. Secondly, Hai Ha district and Mong Cai City, where mangroves are experiencing depletion, are also facing serious issues of sea dike erosion (Trung Thành, 2018). Figure 16. Mangroves and sea dikes in Quang Ninh province 3. Results 83 Table 31. Sea dike protected by mangrove forest in Quang Ninh District Sea dike protected by Mangrove area on the sea mangrove forest (km) side of the dike (ha) Co To 0.477 - Dam Ha 11.012 880.1 Hai Ha 21.099 1,084.4 Hoanh Bo 23.504 604.8 Quang Yen 31.195 - Cam Pha City 8.394 44.5 Ha Long City 3.101 133.4 Mong Cai City 15.855 1,912.5 Uong Bi City 8.087 - Tien Yen 13.610 1,936.4 Van Don 3.955 259.1 Total 140.287 6,855.1 Our study examines in greater detail the protective value of mangrove forest to the sea dike in Quang Ninh province. Our meetings with local authorities from the Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DONRE) and Department of Planning and Investment (DPI) in the validation field trip confirmed that since the state budget for sea dike maintenance and repair is often less than VND 7 billion per year, only the most eroded parts of sea dike would be chosen for investment. These parts are always the parts with no mangroves on the sea side (so no protection value of mangrove). The cost of maintenance and repair is VND 1.2 billion per kilometer and the dike should be repaired again after 10 years. The dike parts that have mangrove on the sea side do not cost the province any maintenance. In terms of the cost for mangroves on the sea side of the dike, we examine two options: mangrove conservation and mangrove development (planting of new mangroves). In the case of mangrove conservation, the costs involve all activities that maintain the existing quality of the mangrove ecosystem. These activities include protection against deforestation by lumberjacks, erosion, and routine work such as tree care and forest patrol. However, detailed data on the cost of mangrove conservation in Quang Ninh province is unavailable. Therefore, it is assumed that the What Is It Worth? 84 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province conservation cost is equal to the cost norm45 for coastal forest management and protection of VND 450,000 per hectare per year (equivalent to USD 19 per hectare per year), which is regulated by Decision No. 3812/QĐ-UBND (Quang Ninh PPC, 2018). In Quang Ninh province, this cost is often paid by the local government with support from the central government and some foreign organizations (e.g., the World Bank, Dutch government agencies). This payment might benefit the local people who conserve mangroves in return for their labor and the equipment cost of conservation. For simplicity, it is assumed that the payment is just sufficient to cover such private costs. Thus, the cost of mangrove conservation in Quang Ninh province is a social cost rather than private cost. As can be seen in Figure 16, one kilometer of sea dike is protected by 68.19 ha of mangroves on average. Accordingly, we will compare the maintenance and reparation cost of one kilometer of sea dike to the cost of 68.19 ha of mangroves. In the case of mangrove development, the cost includes both mangrove planting and mangrove conservation. The cost norm for mangrove planting on the sea side of dikes in Quang Ninh province is VND 200 million per hectare. Nevertheless, the mangrove planting has not been successful at this cost and mangroves have died after plantation.46 Therefore, the time frame for which the VND 200 million can be applied is unknown. The detailed costs are summarized in Table 32 below. Table 32. Private net benefits and social net benefits of mangrove Cost (VND) Time frame (year) Sea dike maintenance and 1,200,000,000 per km 10 repair Mangrove conservation 450,000 per ha per year 1 Mangrove development 200,000,000 per ha The timeframe for the planting (mangrove planting cost) + cost cannot be specified as 450,000 per ha (mangrove noted above. The mangrove conservation) conservation costs are per year 45 While there can be shortcomings to using cost norms (e.g., underestimating the actual cost), in Vietnam, the cost norms are the most reliable source for identifying the investment costs that are available in every province. This is important for ensuring the method is transferable for a later application, even if cost norms are set by the local government and provinces may have different cost norms. 46 An important reason for this is that many mangrove plantation projects in Quang Ninh province consist of “replacement afforestation” for mangrove forests that are repurposed/converted to other land use. The areas that are naturally suitable for the afforestation are, in fact, very limited. As mangroves are very sensitive to the environment, they might die quickly when planted in a “new” area where no mangroves have existed before. In order to create a suitable environment for mangroves, some soil improvement should be done, which will increase the cost of plantation. Also, there is still a probability that the “improved” environment is not good enough for mangroves to develop. The appropriate cost for mangrove planting is not identified clearly in the practices of Quang Ninh province. 3. Results 85 According to the data in Table 32, the cost of mangrove conservation is 450,000 per hectare per year. The mangrove conservation required is estimated to include 68.19 ha per kilometer of sea dike, with 13.710 ha of mangroves on the sea side of the dike, for a total of VND 30.69 million per year. In 10 years, the present value of the cost for mangrove conservation could reach VND 188.55 million, at a discount rate of 10 percent per year. This cost would help avoid the cost of sea dike maintenance and repair in 10 years. Compared to the estimated cost of sea dike maintenance and repair of VND 1,200,000,000 for 10 years, mangrove conservation on the sea side of dikes appears to be the better option. In terms of mangrove development, the minimum cost for planting is VND 200,000,000 per hectare. In addition to this cost, the cost of mangrove conservation (once planted and established) is VND 450,000 per hectare per year. According to Vietnam’s Standard Book (Government of Vietnam, 2014), the minimum width of mangrove area on the seaside of a dike is 500 meters. This means that for one kilometer of sea dike, at least 50 hectares of mangroves should be planted. Thus, the total minimum cost would be VND 10.02 billion per km along the dike, which is much higher than the cost for maintaining and repairing 1 km of sea dike. In addition, as discussed above, the time frame of mangrove development in Quang Ninh province in unknown. If a one-year time frame is used, the cost of mangrove development would be VND 10 billion + VND 22.5 million = VND 10.0225 billion, which is much higher than the VND 1.2 billion of dike maintenance and repair. If a 10-year timeframe is used (i.e., the planted mangroves survive for 10 years), the cost will then be VND 10 billion + VND 22.5 million*10 = VND 10.2 billion for 10 years. Under either scenario, the cost of protecting 1 km of sea dike on the sea side with mangroves exceeds the cost of dike maintenance and repair of VND 1.2 billion, which can also last for 10 years. The analysis points to the importance of preserving existing mangroves and conserving these in order to also help reduce the cost of sea dike maintenance. In contrast, new mangrove development on the sea side to avoid the cost of sea dike maintenance and reparation might not be economically sensible in Quang Ninh province. What Is It Worth? 86 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Photo: Nguyen Quang Ngoc Tonkin - shutterstock.com 4. Policy implications 4. POLICY IMPLICATIONS 87 The Government of Vietnam is aware of the importance of natural resources and natural assets. The Government has issued several policies related to biodiversity conservation, green growth, and development of ecosystem services that recognize the importance of valuing natural assets (including in coastal areas). These include the Biodiversity Law of 2008, the Land Law of 2013, the Forestry Law of 2017, the Planning Law of 2017, the National Strategy on Climate Change, National Strategy on Natural Disaster Prevention, Response and Mitigation to 2020, and several others (Annex G provides a summary of the legal documents governing these various policy instruments). Systematic inclusion of the value of natural capital in decision making has been limited despite the positive intentions of the wide-ranging policy instruments. As Vietnam continues to work towards becoming an upper middle-income country, it is imperative to promote sustainable growth. This is especially true considering the increased effort to operationalize Resolution 36/NQ-TW of the Eighth Party Conference the Central Executive Board Term XII on the Strategy for Sustainable Development of the Marine Economy of Vietnam until 2030, vision to 2045. Similar to what upper middle-income countries and high-income countries have done, Vietnam should account for the natural wealth of the country. Such accounts of natural capital would ensure investment decisions on Vietnam’s coastal areas are based on robust evidence and analysis and do not have unintended or irreversible impacts. Although the benefits provided annually by the forests, particularly coastal forests, are notable, they currently are not fully accounted for and evaluated in the economy. As a result, government decisions to resolve conflicting land uses and invest in suitable measures to buffer against extreme weather events and climate change tend to prioritize hard infrastructure (grey infrastructure). These investments, if designed and implemented without consideration for natural capital, often degrade the ecosystem services or destroy the ecosystem (e.g., by cutting off replenishment of water to specific ecosystems or conversion of coastal forest areas for other land use, such as industrial development). The absence of information on the value of coastal forest assets also explains the shortcomings in the management and use of these forest assets in coastal areas. To reverse such situations, it is necessary to address the need for reliable and replicable methods for accounting for and valuing ecosystem services. The valuation of natural accounts of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and TGCH lagoon in Thua Thien Hue reveals that the total monetary value of the coastal forests for Quang Ninh is approximately USD 30.14 million (of which approximately USD 18.4 million is derived per year). The value is derived from carbon storage and sequestration, which accounts for 41 percent, and coastal protection, which accounts for 53 percent of the total value. The direct use value (from capture fisheries and aquaculture support) is 6 percent of the total value. In TGCH lagoon, the total value of the ecosystem services from the lagoon USD is 96.4 million. Of that, significant value is recorded from capture fisheries and aquaculture support, accounting for about 87 percent of the total value (see Table 33). What Is It Worth? 88 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Table 33. Estimated natural asset values of coastal forests in Quang Ninh and wetland in Thua Thien Hue Coastal types Quang Ninh Thua Thien Hue mangrove ecosystem wetland ecosystem   Value Share (%) Value Share (%) 1. Provisioning services (capture fisheries 1,836,226 6% 85,993,469 87% and aquaculture support, USD/year) 2. Carbon storage (USD) 11,763,305 39% 6,315,645 7% 3. Carbon sequestration (USD/year) 603,885 2% 264,075 0% 4. Coastal protection (USD/year) 15,934,703 53% 3,029,140 3% 5. Cultural services (tourism, USD/year) 0 0% 847,178 1% Total 30,138,119 100% 96,449,506 100% Figure 17. Total economic value in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue Not accounting for the ecosystem services provided by coastal forests in the study sites implies that significant economic values are disregarded and lost as these natural ecosystems are converted to other uses (urbanization, road construction, etc.) or are poorly managed. Furthermore, considering for example, the dependence among the less well-off families on the lagoon for livelihoods, decisions that negatively impact the ecosystem services of the lagoon also have a distributional impact, which the benefits of alternative land uses (such as increased urbanization) may not be able to overcome. 4. Policy implications 89 Another consideration is that a natural system (e.g., mangroves) often generates multiple ecosystem services (e.g., coastal protection and habitat for fish). One type of physical alternative cannot replace all of those ecosystem services – dikes, for instance, can provide coastal protection but cannot provide habitat for fish. And lastly, the contribution of natural assets and the contribution of physical assets cannot be compared based on a common unit of measure because certain ecosystem services require a minimum size of the ecosystem to generate the service. The analysis associated with the two case studies point to the opportunity of using a systematic approach to estimate the value of natural assets in coastal areas like mangroves and lagoons. Using the methods for developing satellite ecosystem accounts, it is possible to determine the ecosystem extent and ecosystem condition in a replicable manner that could, over time, be compiled by both provincial and central statistical departments. In addition to the methodology that could be used, the analysis of existing legal frameworks and the accounting of the natural assets in Quang Ninh and Thua Thien Hue provinces reveal that to ensure the value of ecosystem services are duly considered, it is important to do the following: ● Develop and issue regulations and guidelines on the integration of natural assets into planning and plan development. Consideration of natural assets is mandatory for the process of plan preparation and requires consultation and participation of line sectors, management agencies, research organizations and socio-civil organizations. The German Corporation for International Cooperation (GIZ) has provided guidance for the process to be carried out to value natural resources.47 Complementing the GIZ product, it would be important to also have a systematic approach for estimating the value of these assets in a manner that is useful for informing decision making. ● Build capacity on valuation of natural assets for line management agencies and organizations that are responsible for planning, plan preparation, and monitoring these plans during the implementation phase. ● Ensure consistency and transparency in the inclusion of information on natural ecosystems in the development of plans, through the establishment of a data platform with open information access. ● Fully assess natural asset accounts and use them for estimating loss-damages and impacts associated with the development plan, particularly from the conversion of natural ecosystems (including coastal forest ecosystems) for urbanization, industrial zones and infrastructure development. Where payment for any conversion activities is required, it should be based on their impacts and the loss value of ecosystem services. ● Include, in the development of plans, measures for minimizing the possible damages and impacts on natural ecosystems and on local communities that are dependent on these natural ecosystems. ● Include effective management of disaster risk and adaptation to climate change as part of a set of plan indicators that will be used to assess effective implementation of plans by provinces and sectors. ● Prepare robust monitoring plans for the implementation of plans with adequate stakeholder participation. The monitoring plan should cover the different impacts on natural ecosystems, livelihoods, and natural disaster mitigation, and they should be addressed in the implementation of the master plan. 47 The note was prepared in 2018 for the Department of Planning Management in the Ministry of Planning and Investment. What Is It Worth? 90 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province ANNEXES A. Mangrove forest area distribution in coastal provinces (2017) ID Province Eco-region Area (ha) Share (%) 1 Ca Mau Southwest 65,469 39.75 2 Ho Chi Minh City Southeast 32,442 19.70 3 Quang Ninh Northeast 19,426 11.79 4 Tra Vinh Southwest 8,043 4.88 5 Dong Nai Southeast 6,881 4.18 6 Soc Trang Southwest 5,494 3.34 7 Kien Giang Southwest 4,782 2.90 8 Bac Lieu Southwest 4,435 2.69 9 Ben Tre Southwest 3,581 2.17 10 Thai Binh Red River Delta 3,209 1.95 11 Hai Phong Red River Delta 2,601 1.58 12 Nam Dinh Red River Delta 2,568 1.56 13 Ba Ria - Vung Tau Southeast 2,054 1.25 14 Thanh Hoa North Central Coast 968 0.59 15 Tien Giang Southeast 808 0.49 16 Ha Tinh North Central Coast 661 0.40 Annexes 91 ID Province Eco-region Area (ha) Share (%) 17 Ninh Binh Red River Delta 512 0.31 18 Nghe An North Central Coast 341 0.21 19 Binh Dinh South Central Coast 92 0.06 20 Long An Southwest 90 0.05 21 Khanh Hoa South Central Coast 60 0.04 22 Thua Thien Hue North Central Coast 47 0.03 23 Quang Nam South Central Coast 46 0.03 24 Quang Tri North Central Coast 36 0.02 25 Phu Yen North Central Coast 22 0.01 26 Quang Binh South Central Coast 17 0.01 27 Binh Thuan South Central Coast 13 0.01 28 Quang Ngai South Central Coast 3 0.00  Total 164,701 100.0 Source: MARD, 2018 What Is It Worth? 92 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province B. Biomass and biomass increment of mangrove forests across eco-regions in Vietnam Annexes # Species Eco- Forest Age n Average SD Biomass SD Accu- Refer- region type (year) total increment racy ence biomass (tdm/ha/ level (total dry yr) matter [tdm]/ha) 1 Rhizophora apiculata Southwest Planted 5-35 6 266.2 110.5 15.8 3.7 High [1], [2], (SW) [3],[4] 2 Rhizophora apiculata Southeast Planted 4-32 3 171.4 108.3 10.5 2.8 High [5] (SE) 3 Avicennia alba, A. SW Planted 5-20 4 200.0 67.5 25.1 9.5 High [3], [5], officinalis [6] 4 Senneratia caseolaris SW Planted 20 3 252.3 12.0 12.6 3.6 High [5] 5 Kandelia obovata Red River Planted 5-15 5 134.1 68.6 11.9 0.8 High [7], [8] Delta (RRD) 7 Senneratia caseolaris RRD Planted 5-23 4 140.5 112.5 13.5 10.2 Medium [9], [10], [11] 8 Rhizophora stylosa RRD Planted N/A 1 6.4 N/A N/A  N/A Medium 9 S. caseolaris, K. RRD Planted N/A 1 48.7 43.5 N/A N/A Medium [11] avata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (mixture) 93 94 # Species Eco- Forest Age n Average SD Biomass SD Accu- Refer- region type (year) total increment racy ence biomass (tdm/ha/ level (total dry yr) matter [tdm]/ha) 10 K. ovata and S. RRD Planted 16 1 108.7 N/A 6.8 N/A Medium [12] caseolaris (mixture) 11 Kandelia obovata North Planted 5-15 3 72.6 35.4 6.7 2.6 Medium [8] Central Coast (NCC) 12 All mangrove NE, NCC, N/A N/A 1 74.9 N/A N/A N/A Medium [13] South Central Coast (SCC) 13 All mangrove SW, SE N/A N/A 1 137.0 N/A N/A N/A Medium [13] 14 All mangrove National N/A N/A 1 123.4 N/A N/A N/A Medium [13] 15 All mangrove Northeast N/A N/A 1 53.13 N/A N/A N/A Medium [14] (NE) (Quang Ninh) 16 All mangrove – RRD, Planted < 20 1 40.4 N/A 1.1 N/A [15] FORMIS data NCC Medium 17 Production forest NE N/A N/A 1 53.2 N/A 2.3 N/A [15] (Quang Medium Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? Ninh) # Species Eco- Forest Age n Average SD Biomass SD Accu- Refer- region type (year) total increment racy ence Annexes biomass (tdm/ha/ level (total dry yr) matter [tdm]/ha) 18 Protection forests NE N/A N/A 1 61.7 N/A 3.6 N/A [15] (Quang Medium Ninh) 19 Special use forest NE N/A N/A 1 46.8 N/A 3.4 N/A [15] (Quang Medium Ninh) 20 Production forest Northern N/A N/A 1 112.8 N/A 1.9 N/A Low [15] Vietnam (VN) 21 Protection forests Northern N/A N/A 1 68.1 N/A 0.9 N/A Low [15] VN 22 Special use forest Northern N/A N/A 1 34.0 N/A 1.7 N/A Low [15] VN 23 Casaurina SCC Planted 6-34 1 349.7 110.9 20.7 4.5 Medium [12] equisetifolia 24 Acacia crassicarpaa NCC Planted 10-12 1 290.5 47.9 26.5 4.7 Medium [16] Sources: [1] Tri, H.N, 1986; [2] Tan, D.T, 2002; [3] Vu Tan Phuong et al., 2012; [4] Nguyen Thi Ha, 2017; [5] Vien Ngoc Nam, 2010; [6] Binh, C.H and Nam, V.N, 2010; [7] Ha Thanh Nguyen et al., 2004; [8] Okimoto, Y. et al., 2013; [9] Tien Dat Pham et al., 2016; [10] Vu Manh Hung et al., 2015; [11] Luu The Anh et al., 2020; [12] Tien Dat Pham, 2018; [13] Vu Tan Phuong et al., 2012; [14] Tien Dien Vu, 2014; [15] Blanca et al., 2019; [16] Nguyen Thi Lieu, 2017. 95 96 C. Carbon storage and sequestration estimates for Quang Ninh ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 1 Thành phố Hà Khánh 38,695 880 0 0 39,575 2,009 0 2,009 Hạ Long 2 Thành phố Hà Phong 2,212 2,356 0 0 4,568 250 0 250 Hạ Long 3 Thành phố Hà Khẩu 0 3,144 0 0 3,144 184 0 184 Hạ Long 4 Thành phố Cao Xanh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 5 Thành phố Giếng Đáy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 6 Thành phố Hà Tu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 7 Thành phố Hà Trung 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual Annexes in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 8 Thành phố Hà Lầm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 9 Thành phố Bãi Cháy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 10 Thành phố Cao 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long Thắng 11 Thành phố Hùng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long Thắng 12 Thành phố Yết Kiêu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 13 Thành phố Trần 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long Hưng Đạo 14 Thành phố Hồng Hải 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 15 Thành phố Hồng Gai 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 97 98 ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 16 Thành phố Bạch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long Đằng 17 Thành phố Hồng Hà 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 18 Thành phố Tuần 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long Châu 19 Thành phố Việt Hưng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hạ Long 20 Thành phố Đại Yên 0 16,243 0 0 16,243 953 0 953 Hạ Long 21 Thành phố Ninh 4,275 0 0 0 4,275 216 0 216 Móng Cái Dương 22 Thành phố Trà Cổ 38,971 0 0 50 39,021 1,965 6 1,972 Móng Cái 23 Thành phố Hải Đông 104,749 403 0 0 105,152 5,321 0 5,321 Móng Cái Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual Annexes in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 24 Thành phố Hải Tiến 64,183 0 0 0 64,183 3,246 0 3,246 Móng Cái 25 Thành phố Hải Yên 94,594 248 0 0 94,842 4,799 0 4,799 Móng Cái 26 Thành phố Quảng 90,266 541 0 0 90,807 4,596 0 4,596 Móng Cái Nghĩa 27 Thành phố Hải Hoà 50,019 14,520 0 0 64,539 3,381 0 3,381 Móng Cái 28 Thành phố Hải Xuân 6,986 0 0 0 6,986 353 0 353 Móng Cái 29 Thành phố Vạn Ninh 176,886 11,018 0 0 187,904 9,592 0 9,592 Móng Cái 30 Thành phố Bình Ngọc 15,705 2,466 0 3,830 22,001 481 502 983 Móng Cái 31 Thành phố Vĩnh 36,472 3,153 0 1,580 41,205 1,841 207 2,048 Móng Cái Trung 99 100 ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 32 Thành phố Vĩnh Thực 4,636 266 0 2,097 6,999 0 275 275 Móng Cái 33 Thành phố Cửa Ông 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả 34 Thành phố Cẩm Sơn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả 35 Thành phố Cẩm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả Đông 36 Thành phố Cẩm Phú 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả 37 Thành phố Quang 3,339 0 0 0 3,339 169 0 169 Cẩm Phả Hanh 38 Thành phố Cẩm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả Thịnh 39 Thành phố Cẩm Thủy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual Annexes in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 40 Thành phố Cẩm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả Thạch 41 Thành phố Cẩm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả Thành 42 Thành phố Cẩm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả Trung 43 Thành phố Cẩm Bình 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cẩm Phả 44 Thành phố Cộng Hòa 96,700 7,929 0 0 104,629 5,356 0 5,356 Cẩm Phả 45 Thành phố Cẩm Hải 851 0 0 0 851 43 0 43 Cẩm Phả 46 Thành phố Yên 7,890 605 0 0 8,495 435 0 435 Uông Bí Thanh 47 Thành phố Phương 32 0 0 0 32 2 0 2 Uông Bí Nam 101 102 ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 48 Tiên Yên Đông Ngũ 6,986 8,846 0 0 15,832 872 0 872 49 Tiên Yên Đông Hải 86,119 15,446 0 0 101,565 5,262 0 5,262 50 Tiên Yên Hải Lạng 55,304 3,538 0 0 58,842 3,005 0 3,005 51 Tiên Yên Tiên Lãng 35,271 2,521 0 0 37,792 1,932 0 1,932 52 Tiên Yên Đồng Rui 179,937 9,983 0 0 189,920 9,686 0 9,686 53 Đầm Hà Tân Bình 52,454 10,542 0 0 62,996 3,272 0 3,272 54 Đầm Hà Dực Yên 0 1,705 0 0 1,705 100 0 100 55 Đầm Hà Đầm Hà 43,522 7,682 0 0 51,204 2,652 0 2,652 (Xã) 56 Đầm Hà Tân Lập 24,340 13,081 0 0 37,421 1,998 0 1,998 57 Đầm Hà Đại Bình 97,635 11,486 0 0 109,121 5,612 0 5,612 58 Hải Hà Quảng Hà 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual Annexes in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 59 Hải Hà Quảng 5,030 92 0 0 5,121 260 0 260 Thành 60 Hải Hà Quảng 11,495 3,126 0 27 14,647 761 4 765 Thắng 61 Hải Hà Quảng 17,747 92 0 0 17,839 903 0 903 Minh 62 Hải Hà Đường 20,108 101 0 0 20,208 1,023 0 1,023 Hoa 63 Hải Hà Quảng 80,154 9,185 0 14 89,353 4,590 2 4,592 Phong 64 Hải Hà Quảng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Trung 65 Hải Hà Phú Hải 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66 Hải Hà Quảng 0 5,363 0 0 5,363 315 0 315 Điền 103 104 ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 67 Hải Hà Tiến Tới 6,816 733 0 0 7,549 388 0 388 68 Hải Hà Cái Chiên 787 4,620 0 2,093 7,499 60 274 335 69 Vân Đồn Cái Rồng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 Vân Đồn Đài Xuyên 114,734 248 0 0 114,981 5,817 0 5,817 71 Vân Đồn Bình Dân 60,344 0 0 0 60,344 3,052 0 3,052 72 Vân Đồn Vạn Yên 1,765 257 0 0 2,022 104 0 104 73 Vân Đồn Minh 946 477 2,420 198 4,041 213 26 239 Châu 74 Vân Đồn Đoàn Kết 11,856 220 0 0 12,076 613 0 613 75 Vân Đồn Hạ Long 0 963 0 347 1,309 15 45 60 76 Vân Đồn Đông Xá 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 77 Vân Đồn Bản Sen 10,006 312 0 0 10,318 524 0 524 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual Annexes in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 78 Vân Đồn Thắng Lợi 532 0 0 0 532 27 0 27 79 Vân Đồn Quan Lạn 57,282 3,236 0 3,051 63,569 2,722 400 3,122 80 Vân Đồn Ngọc 8,847 2,209 0 2,102 13,158 326 276 601 Vừng 81 Hoành Bồ Trới 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 82 Hoành Bồ Vũ Oai 0 1,018 0 0 1,018 60 0 60 83 Hoành Bồ Thống 43,533 3,529 0 0 47,062 2,409 0 2,409 Nhất 84 Hoành Bồ Lê Lợi 11,452 0 0 0 11,452 579 0 579 85 Quảng Yên Quảng 1,319 0 0 0 1,319 67 0 67 Yên 86 Quảng Yên Đông Mai 0 248 0 0 248 15 0 15 87 Quảng Yên Minh 383 7,682 0 0 8,064 470 0 470 Thành 105 106 ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 88 Uông Bí City Điền 5,604 0 0 0 5,604 283 0 283 Công 89 Quảng Yên Sông 0 3,208 0 0 3,208 188 0 188 Khoai 90 Quảng Yên Hiệp Hòa 0 2,301 0 0 2,301 135 0 135 91 Quảng Yên Cộng Hòa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92 Quảng Yên Tiền An 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 93 Quảng Yên Hoàng 2,488 35,860 0 0 38,348 2,230 0 2,230 Tân 94 Quảng Yên Tân An 0 1,943 0 0 1,943 114 0 114 95 Quảng Yên Yên Giang 2,478 394 0 0 2,872 148 0 148 96 Quảng Yên Nam Hoà 7,156 0 0 0 7,156 362 0 362 97 Quảng Yên Hà An 18,364 14,758 0 0 33,122 1,795 0 1,795 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Com- Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total mune storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual Annexes in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 98 Quảng Yên Cẩm La 691 0 0 0 691 35 0 35 99 Quảng Yên Phong Hải 3,147 0 0 0 3,147 159 0 159 100 Quảng Yên Yên Hải 3,381 788 0 0 4,170 217 0 217 101 Quảng Yên Liên Hòa 15,301 3,575 0 0 18,876 984 0 984 102 Quảng Yên Phong 38,408 8,140 0 0 46,548 2,419 0 2,419 Cốc 103 Quảng Yên Liên Vị 5,030 44,156 0 0 49,185 2,845 0 2,845 104 Quảng Yên Tiền 8,794 4,794 0 0 13,588 726 0 726 Phong 105 Cô Tô Cô Tô 2,552 0 0 324 2,876 91 42 133 106 Cô Tô Đồng 19,980 330 0 4,091 24,401 541 536 1,077 Tiến 107 Cô Tô Thanh Lân 245 0 0 104 348 0 14 14 Total 2,017,781 312,556 2,420 19,904 2,352,661 118,167 2,610 120,777 107 108 D. Carbon storage and sequestration estimates for Thua Thien Hue ID District Commune Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 1 Hương Trà Hải Dương 22,633 0 0 28,121 50,754 0 2,121 2,121 2 Hương Trà Hương 1,589 0 0 0 1,589 72 0 72 Phong 3 Phong Điền Điền Hải 0 23,240 0 28,874 52,114 0 2,178 2,178 4 Phong Điền Điền Hòa 6,501 25,605 0 39,890 71,997 0 3,009 3,009 5 Phong Điền Điền Hương 10,977 23,519 0 42,844 77,340 0 3,232 3,232 6 Phong Điền Điền Lộc 9,861 27,946 0 46,973 84,780 0 3,543 3,543 7 Phong Điền Điền Môn 22,233 32,167 0 67,589 121,989 0 5,098 5,098 8 Phong Điền Phong Bình 7,302 4,803 0 15,040 27,145 0 1,134 1,134 9 Phong Điền Phong 4,100 117,885 0 151,559 273,544 0 11,431 11,431 Chương Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? 10 Phong Điền Phong Hải 1,371 4,148 0 6,857 12,376 0 517 517 ID District Commune Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total Annexes storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 11 Phú Lộc Lộc An 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Phú Lộc Lộc Bổn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Phú Lộc Lộc Bình 0 315 0 392 707 0 30 30 14 Phú Lộc Lộc Điền 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 Phú Lộc Lộc Sơn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 Phú Lộc Lộc Trì 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 Phú Lộc Lộc Vĩnh 0 10,189 0 12,659 22,847 0 955 955 18 Phú Lộc Lăng Cô 0 509 0 633 1,142 0 48 48 19 Phú Lộc Phú Lộc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Phú Lộc Vinh Giang 0 667 0 829 1,496 0 63 63 21 Phú Lộc Vinh Hải 1,686 0 0 2,095 3,781 0 158 158 22 Phú Lộc Vinh Hiền 2,159 388 0 3,180 5,727 0 240 240 109 110 ID District Commune Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 23 Phú Lộc Vinh Hưng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 Phú Lộc Vinh Mỹ 4,233 9,716 0 17,331 31,279 0 1,307 1,307 25 Phú Vang Phú An 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 Phú Vang Phú Đa 0 1,892 0 2,351 4,243 0 177 177 27 Phú Vang Phú Diên 9,643 0 0 11,981 21,623 0 904 904 28 Phú Vang Phú Hải 1,504 0 0 1,869 3,373 0 141 141 29 Phú Vang Phú Mỹ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 Phú Vang Phú Thuận 1,710 0 0 2,125 3,835 0 160 160 31 Phú Vang Phú Xuân 5,555 5,713 0 14,000 25,268 0 1,056 1,056 32 Phú Vang Thuận An 2,280 0 0 2,622 4,902 8 198 205 33 Phú Vang Vinh An 6,441 17,199 0 29,356 52,996 0 2,214 2,214 34 Phú Vang Vinh Hà 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? ID District Commune Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Total Annual Annual Total Annexes storage storage storage storage carbon carbon carbon annual in pro- in pro- in spe- in sandy storage seques- seques- carbon tection duction cial use forests in coast- tration tration seques- man- man- man- (tCO2e) al forest in man- in sandy tration in groves groves groves (tCO2e) groves forests coastal (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e) (tCO2e/ (tCO2e/ forest year) year) (tCO2e/ year) 35 Phú Vang Vinh Phú 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 Phú Vang Vinh Thanh 4,027 8,745 0 15,869 28,641 0 1,197 1,197 37 Phú Vang Vinh Xuân 7,520 31,015 0 47,862 86,397 0 3,610 3,610 38 Quảng Điền Quảng An 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 Quảng Điền Quảng Công 7,447 4,585 0 14,949 26,982 0 1,128 1,128 40 Quảng Điền Quảng Lợi 6,586 30,178 0 37,494 74,258 299 2,828 3,127 41 Quảng Điền Quảng Ngạn 5,725 15,065 0 25,830 46,620 0 1,948 1,948 42 Quảng Điền Quảng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Phước 43 Quảng Điền Quảng Thái 0 19,346 0 24,037 43,383 0 1,813 1,813 44 Quảng Điền Quảng 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Thành 45 Quảng Điền Sịa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 153,084 414,835 0 695,209 1,263,129 378 52,437 52,815 111 E. Categorized mangroves areas in Quang Ninh province in 2015 and 2018 District 2015 2018 Special use Protection Production Special use Protection Production Cô Tô 227 214 4 Đầm Hà 2,498 21 2,050 485 Hải Hà 1,623 406 1,664 462 Hoành Bồ 698 517 50 Quảng Yên 2,043 1,006 1,395 Thành phố Cẩm 918 8 936 87 Phả Thành phố Hạ 291 161 113 Long Thành phố 7,185 23 6,468 356 Móng Cái Thành phố 134 127 7 Uông Bí Tiên Yên   3,276 243 716 101 Vân Đồn 55 2,264 70 30 2,505 86 Grand Total 55 21,156 772 30 16,363 3,145 Note: In Quang Ninh province, mangrove species include Ban chua (Sonneratia caseolaris), Trang (Kandelia obovata), Vet du (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), Mam bien (Avicennia marina) and Su (Aegiceras corniculatum) (Thuy et al., 2019). Source: FORMIS map What Is It Worth? 112 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province F. Mangrove and sea dikes in Quang Ninh province in 2018 Annexes District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Cô Tô Cô Tô 704.487 24 16.9 7.2 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cô Tô Đồng Tiến 1922.9 187.9 97.8 90.2 0.477 0.000 0.477 0.000 Đầm Hà Đại Bình 2711.56 918.2 918.2 0 1.475 0.000 0.693 0.782 Đầm Hà Đầm Hà (Xã) 2059.48 409.3 409.3 0 4.185 0.000 3.245 0.940 Đầm Hà Tân Bình 3459.69 493.3 493.3 0 7.699 0.848 6.852 0.000 Đầm Hà Tân Lập 1565.27 228.9 228.9 0 0.223 0.000 0.223 0.000 Hải Hà Đường Hoa 4055.94 191.5 191.5 0 5.664 0.650 2.217 2.797 Hải Hà Phú Hải 115.616 0.089 0.000 0.089 0.000 Hải Hà Quảng Điền 894.238 65.6 65.6 0 2.761 0.000 2.761 0.000 Hải Hà Quảng Hà 145.147 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hải Hà Quảng Minh 888.13 197.7 197.7 0 4.219 0.000 4.219 0.000 113 114 District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Hải Hà Quảng Phong 3827.77 857.6 857.6 0 9.650 0.000 7.175 2.475 Hải Hà Quảng Thắng 1097.92 186 185.3 0.6 5.005 4.680 0.325 0.000 Hải Hà Quảng Thành 3162.11 55.4 55.4 0 1.804 0.000 1.804 0.000 Hải Hà Quảng Trung 182.56 0.278 0.000 0.278 0.000 Hải Hà Tiến Tới 248.713 108.3 108.3 0 2.486 0.000 2.415 0.071 Hoành Bồ Lê Lợi 3997.25 107.7 107.7 0 10.914 0.000 10.499 0.416 Hoành Bồ Thống Nhất 8143.42 409.4 409.4 0 13.163 0.000 13.005 0.158 Hoành Bồ Trới 1254.72 1.898 0.000 0.165 1.733 Hoành Bồ Vũ Oai 5217.6 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Cẩm La 459.804 6.5 6.5 0 2.235 2.235 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Cộng Hòa 759.404 897.2 897.2 0 8.588 0.000 8.394 0.194 Quảng Yên Đông Mai 1690.64 1.651 0.000 0.000 1.651 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with Annexes (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Quảng Yên Hà An 2324.65 172.7 172.7 0 11.521 3.876 7.644 0.000 Quảng Yên Hiệp Hòa 946.354 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Hoàng Tân 2914.84 23.4 23.4 0 25.018 10.479 11.438 3.101 Quảng Yên Liên Hòa 832.561 143.9 143.9 0 4.598 4.598 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Liên Vị 3085.24 47.3 47.3 0 3.302 3.302 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Minh Thành 3401.88 3.6 3.6 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Nam Hoà 924.609 67.3 67.3 0 6.284 6.284 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Phong Cốc 1330.93 361.2 361.2 0 0.060 0.060 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Phong Hải 585.927 29.6 29.6 0 4.684 4.684 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Quảng Yên 538.319 12.4 12.4 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Sông Khoai 1871.73 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Tân An 1419.55 1.473 0.496 0.978 0.000 Quảng Yên Tiền An 1173.38 0.748 0.528 0.220 0.000 115 116 District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Quảng Yên Tiền Phong 1813.27 82.7 82.7 0 7.281 7.281 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Yên Giang 398.634 23.3 23.3 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Quảng Yên Yên Hải 1445.78 31.8 31.8 0 4.937 4.937 0.000 0.000 Thành phố Cẩm Bình 191.237 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Đông 696.763 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Hải 1585.58 7.2 7.2 0 0.910 0.000 0.000 0.910 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Phú 1021.99 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Sơn 1200.89 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Thạch 433.952 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Thành 131.326 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? Cẩm Phả District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with Annexes (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Thành phố Cẩm Thịnh 661.43 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Thủy 282.587 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cẩm Trung 185.299 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cộng Hòa 7933.5 897.2 897.2 0 8.588 0.000 8.394 0.194 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Cửa Ông 1235.41 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Quang Hanh 5711.14 31.4 31.4 0 0.361 0.000 0.000 0.361 Cẩm Phả Thành phố Bạch Đằng 138.447 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Bãi Cháy 1500.86 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Cao Thắng 242.576 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long 117 118 District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Thành phố Cao Xanh 680.466 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Đại Yên 4288.98 4.622 2.696 1.127 0.799 Hạ Long Thành phố Giếng Đáy 553.553 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hà Khánh 3236.6 122.8 122.8 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hà Khẩu 1273.99 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hà Lầm 405.625 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hà Phong 1914.15 23.2 23.2 0 1.417 0.000 0.000 1.417 Hạ Long Thành phố Hà Trung 539.367 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hà Tu 1343.69 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? Hạ Long District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with Annexes (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Thành phố Hồng Gai 102.043 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hồng Hà 329.252 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hồng Hải 290.185 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Hùng Thắng 564.046 10.2 10.2 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Trần Hưng 59.6716 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Đạo Thành phố Tuần Châu 563.395 1.140 1.140 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Việt Hưng 2756.98 4.7 4.7 0 2.664 0.000 1.809 0.855 Hạ Long Thành phố Yết Kiêu 159.737 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Hạ Long Thành phố Bình Ngọc 1221.2 147.7 85.8 61.9 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Móng Cái 119 120 District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Thành phố Hải Đông 5286.16 985.1 985.1 0 8.763 0.000 2.670 6.092 Móng Cái Thành phố Hải Hoà 3117.81 470.4 470.4 0 1.808 0.000 0.000 1.808 Móng Cái Thành phố Hải Tiến 4790.44 603.6 603.6 0 7.371 0.722 6.008 0.641 Móng Cái Thành phố Hải Xuân 1667.19 65.7 65.7 0 0.127 0.000 0.000 0.127 Móng Cái Thành phố Hải Yên 4948.58 889.6 889.6 0 1.098 0.000 1.098 0.000 Móng Cái Thành phố Ninh Dương 1128.87 40.2 40.2 0 2.354 0.000 0.000 2.354 Móng Cái Thành phố Quảng Nghĩa 6065.68 848.9 848.9 0 3.803 0.000 1.145 2.658 Móng Cái Thành phố Trà Cổ 781.685 366.5 365.4 1.1 1.156 1.156 0.000 0.000 Móng Cái Thành phố Vạn Ninh 7124 1663.5 1663.5 0 6.026 0.000 4.103 1.923 Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? Móng Cái District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with Annexes (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Thành phố Vĩnh Thực 1940.18 43.6 0 43.6 1.218 0.000 0.000 1.218 Móng Cái Thành phố Vĩnh Trung 2218.94 343 342.4 0.6 3.071 0.000 0.831 2.240 Móng Cái Thành phố Điền Công 1175.67 52.7 52.7 0 14.796 4.304 8.887 1.604 Uông Bí Thành phố Phương Nam 2168.77 0.3 0.3 0 7.708 0.822 2.250 4.635 Uông Bí Thành phố Quang Trung 1392.73 5.982 2.786 2.028 1.169 Uông Bí Thành phố Yên Thanh 1729.47 74.2 74.2 0 8.032 0.523 5.837 1.672 Uông Bí Tiên Yên Đông Hải 4521.82 286.7 286.7 0 4.361 0.000 4.361 0.000 Tiên Yên Đông Ngũ 5517.42 5.3 5.3 0 1.644 0.000 1.644 0.000 Tiên Yên Đồng Rui 4923 225.8 225.8 0 1.367 0.000 1.367 0.000 121 122 District Commune Area Total Man- Sandy Total Dike Dike with Dike with (ha) coastal groves forest sea without mangrove no man- forests forest (ha) dike mangrove on the sea grove on (ha) (ha) (km) on the sea side (km) both sides side (km) (km) Tiên Yên Hải Lạng 8164.43 3.4 3.4 0 5.744 0.000 4.924 0.820 Tiên Yên Tiên Lãng 4141.35 194.5 194.5 0 4.965 1.900 1.313 1.751 Vân Đồn Bản Sen 7030.43 94.1 94.1 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vân Đồn Bình Dân 3465.61 567.5 567.5 0 2.002 0.000 1.137 0.865 Vân Đồn Cái Rồng 328.331 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vân Đồn Đài Xuyên 10306.2 1079 1079 0 1.953 1.365 0.588 0.000 Vân Đồn Đoàn Kết 3953.74 111.5 111.5 0 2.322 0.316 2.005 0.000 Vân Đồn Đông Xá 1570.46 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vân Đồn Hạ Long 2307.61 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vân Đồn Minh Châu 5288.87 38.9 35.8 3.1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Vân Đồn Quan Lạn 5178.69 538.7 498.5 40.3 2.965 2.965 0.000 0.000 Vân Đồn Vạn Yên 10178.8 16.6 16.6 0 0.659 0.000 0.224 0.435 Source: FORMIS Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of What Is It Worth? G. Key policies that recognize the importance of valuing the services from natural assets (including in coastal areas) Biodiversity Law 2008 (Law No. 20/2008/QH12) deals with biodiversity conservation and financial sources for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, including environmental services related to biodiversity. (Point c, Article 73). The Law on Forestry 2017 (Law No. 16/2017/QH14) is a legal document that regulates forest environmental services in detail (Section 4, Chapter VI). Types of forest environment services are specified in Article 61, including the following five types of ecosystem services: (i) protecting soil, limiting erosion and sedimentation of lake, river and stream beds; (ii) regulating and maintaining water resources for production and social life; (iii) forest carbon sequestration and storage, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, ensuring sustainable forest management and green growth; (iv) protecting and maintaining the beauty of natural landscapes, conserving biodiversity of forest ecosystems for tourism services business; and (v) providing spawning grounds, food sources, natural seed, water resources from the forest and environmental factors, and forest ecosystems for aquaculture. This Law also details the principles of payment for the following: (i) forest environmental services (Article 62); (ii) beneficiaries, forms of payment, management and use of forest environmental services (Article 63); (iii) rights and obligations of users of forest environment services (Article 64), and; (iv) rights and obligations of providers of forest environmental services (Article 65). Payment for environmental services has been implemented since 2011 for three types of environmental services: (i) soil protection, erosion and sedimentation limitation of lake, river and stream beds; (ii) regulating and maintaining water resources for production and social life, and; (iii) protecting and maintaining the beauty of natural landscapes, and conserving biodiversity of forest ecosystems, for tourism service business. Total revenue from forest environment services in 2018 reached VND 2,900 billion, of which over 98 percent of revenue was from hydroelectric plants (MARD, 2019). Details guiding the implementation of payment for forest environmental services are provided in Decree No. 156/2018/ND-CP. Land Law 2013 (Law No. 45/2013/QH13) requires preparation of land use plans and plans from the central to local levels (Article 35). Land use planning is conducted for a period of 10 years and a land use plan is prepared for a period of five years (Article 37). The law also regulates the implementation of land use planning and plans for three levels: national, provincial and district (Articles 37 and 38). Rules on the basis of planning and planning land use at national levels (Points 1, 38), provinces (Points 1, 39) and districts (Points 1, 40) are mainly based on information on socioeconomic development, development of sectors, fields, and current and potential land conditions. Lower-level planning and plans ensure compliance with higher-level land use planning and plans. The biggest limitation at present is that regulations on land use planning and plans have not addressed and considered environmental issues such as environmental services, protected areas, or specific concepts and guidance on mainstreaming ecosystem service values. Annexes 123 Planning Law 2017 (Law No. 21/2017/QH14) provides comprehensive planning relating to various levels (national, regional and provincial), sectors and fields, including socioeconomic activities. National defense and security are associated with infrastructure development, resource use and environmental protection in a defined territory in order to efficiently use the country's resources for sustainable development. This law also mentions consideration for issues related to climate change and environmental protection in national, regional and provincial planning. At the national level, the planning issues related to climate change and environmental protection include: ● National infrastructure planning (Section 3, Article 25): Land use allocation orientation for the development of the national infrastructure sector, environmental protection and response to climate change, and conservation of nationally ranked ecology, landscape and monuments (point e, Section 3, Article 25) ● National resource planning (Section 4, Article 25): Orientation on environmental protection, response to climate change, and natural disaster prevention and response (point g, Section 4, Article 25) ● National planning for environmental protection (Section 5, Article 25): Assessment of (i) current situation and developments in environmental quality, natural landscapes and biodiversity; (ii) waste situation and forecast; (iii) impacts of climate change; (iv) status of environmental management and protection (point a, Section 5, Article 25); (v) environmental zoning; (vi) conservation of nature and biodiversity; (vii) waste management, and; (viii) environmental monitoring and warning (point c, Section 5, Article 25); ● Biodiversity conservation planning (Section 6, Article 25): Includes high biodiversity areas, important ecological landscapes, nature reserves, biodiversity corridors, and biodiversity conservation facilities (Point c, Section 6, Article 25). At the regional level, the planning considerations related to climate change and environmental protection include: ● The direction of (i) construction, including defining urban and rural systems; (ii) the economic sector; (iii) industrial zones, export processing zones and high-tech zones; (iv) tourist areas; (v) research and training areas; (vi) sports and exercises areas; (vii) conservation areas, areas that need to be preserved/restored, and restored historical/cultural relics, scenic spots and relic inventory objects, and; (viii) concentrated production areas (Point d, Section 2, Article 26) ● Orientations for environmental protection, exploitation and protection of water resources in river basins, natural disaster prevention and response, and response to climate change in the region's territory (Point e, Section 2, Article 26) What Is It Worth? 124 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province At the provincial level, the contents considered in planning related to climate change include: ● Important industry development directions in the area and choosing a plan for organizing socioeconomic activities (Point c, Section 2, Article 17) ● Social infrastructure development plans, including national, regional and inter-provincial social infrastructure projects identified in the national and regional planning in the area, cultural institutions, sports, tourism, commercial centers, fairs, exhibitions and other social infrastructure works of the province (Point k, Section 2, Article 27); ● Plan for environmental protection, exploitation and use, protection of natural resources and biodiversity, natural disaster prevention and response, and response to climate change in the locality (point n, Section 2, Article 27). National Strategy on Climate Change (Decision No. 2139/QD-TTg dated December 5, 2011). Activities related to climate change adaptation include sustainable forest management and forest restoration to reduce damage caused by natural disasters and land degradation, as well as enhanced protection and development of forests and wetland ecosystems to reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon sequestration. The goals related to forestry and land use sectors are: (i) increasing forest cover by 45 percent; (ii) sustainably manage 16.24 million ha of forest land, including 8.1 million ha of production forest land, 5.8 million ha of protection forest land and 2.1 million ha of special-use forest land, and; (iii) developing and implementing programs and projects to reduce emissions and enhance carbon sequestration and sustainable forest management. National Green Growth Strategy (Decision No. 1393/QD-TTg dated September 25, 2012). The strategy aims to reduce emissions, develop green environmentally friendly technologies, and apply clean technology in production. The main targets related to forestry include: (i) reducing emissions by 8-10 percent compared to 2010 for the period 2010-2020; (ii) increasing forest cover to 45 percent by 2020; and (3) improving forest quality and enhancing carbon sequestration. National Strategy on Natural Disaster Prevention, Response and Mitigation to 2020 (Decision No. 172/2007/QD-TTg dated November 16, 2007). The overall goal of the strategy is to mobilize all resources from now to 2020 to effectively implement prevention, control and reduction of natural disasters in order to minimize the loss of life and property, and limit the destruction of assets. Natural resources, the environment and cultural heritage make an important contribution to the sustainable development of the country, ensuring national defense and security. Tasks related to coastal forest management in coastal provinces include: (i) implementing a program of restoration and upgrading of sea dikes; (ii) planting of breakwater trees, coastal protection forests and grass to prevent dike body erosion, and (iii); building works to prevent and combat erosion. The strategy sets out specific actions to prevent, combat and mitigate natural disasters. With regard to coastal areas, actions include: (i) planning and updating land use plans and other planning, and; (ii) afforestation and forest protection. Annexes 125 National Strategy on Environmental Protection to 2020, Vision to 2030 (Decision No. 1216/QD-TTg dated September 5, 2012 of the Prime Minister). This strategy aims to reduce natural resource degradation, biodiversity and greenhouse gas emissions, especially through the development of a low-carbon, green economy and sustainable development. It also emphasizes the need and assigns tasks for sustainable management and use of natural resources, with strict control of the conversion of special-use and protection forests to other uses. The strategy aims to strengthen management of protected areas; integrating conservation and development of ecotourism and forest environment services to create financial resources for biodiversity conservation. National Plan to Adapt to Climate Change 2021 - 2030, Vision to 2050 (Decision No. 1055/QD-TTg dated 20/7/2020 of the Prime Minister). The key measures and tasks are: (i) improving the effectiveness of climate change adaptation through strengthening state management on climate change and promoting the integration of climate change adaptation into strategies, policies and development plans; (ii) enhancing resilience and adaptive capacity of communities, economic sectors and ecosystems to be prepared to adapt to climate change through investment in adaptation actions, science and technology; and (iii) reduction of disaster risks and climate change impacts as well as preparations to respond to natural disasters and climate extremes that increase due to climate change. Improving climate resilience includes a need to synchronously deploy solutions related to capacity building for forecasting and early warning of natural disasters and climatic and extreme weather conditions. Additional measures include improving disaster risk management systems to reduce vulnerability and increase preparedness to respond to extreme climate events, as well as implementing timely and effective adaptation measures to minimize damages caused by the short, medium and long-term impacts of climate change in the future. In summary, the current legal framework emphasizes the significance of natural ecosystems in mitigating natural disasters and the negative impacts of climate change. Specifically, it requires the consideration and integration of climate change related issues into the development plan, including biodiversity conservation, enhancement of ecosystem services generated by forest ecosystems, and sustainable forest management. However, detailed guidelines for integration of ecosystem services into planning and policies is lacking and recognition of ecosystem services values is not fully considered and/or underestimated. What Is It Worth? 126 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province H. List of interviewed experts in the validation field trips # Name Organization In Quang Ninh province 1 Phạm Trường Sơn Deputy Head of Construction Management Division, DARD 2 Đoàn Mạnh Phương Director of Irrigation Department, DARD 3 Dương Thùy Trang Fisheries Office, DARD 4 Nguyễn Thanh Khương Deputy Director of Forest Protection Office, DARD 5 Ngô Đức Hậu Deputy Head of Forest Use Office, DARD 6 Dương Văn Hiệp Deputy Head of Engineering – Environment Office, DARD 7 Nguyễn Văn Thanh Forest Protection Branch Office, DARD 8 Đàm Minh Phong Forest Protection Branch Office, DARD 9 Vũ Huy Bật Land Registration Office, DONRE 10 Phạm Văn Cung Sea and Islands Office, DONRE 11 Nguyễn Thế Tẽo Remote Sensing and Mapping Office, DONRE 12 Chu Thị Hoàng Yến Water Resource-Minerals-Climate Change Office, DONRE 13 Trần Thu Hà Water Resource-Minerals-Climate Change Office, DONRE 14  Trần Thanh Phong Department of Planning and Investment (DPI) Annexes 127 # Name Organization 15 Ngô Thành Trinh Vice Chairman of Dong Rui Commune People's Committee 16 Nguyễn Thế Anh Land Official, Dong Rui Commune People's Committee In Thua Thien Hue Province 1 Nguyễn Thị Kim Anh Fisheries office, DARD 2 Hầu Hàn Ny Fisheries office, DARD 3 Nguyễn Thị Thanh Thúy Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Branch Office, DONRE 4 Nguyễn Quốc Hùng ​​ Sea Island and Lagoon Office, DONRE 5 Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Thanh Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Branch Office, DONRE 6 Nguyễn Thị Thư Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Branch Office, DONRE 7 Nguyễn Văn Bảo Land Management Branch Department, DONRE 8 Trần Minh Tân Tourism Department 9 Lê Vân Anh DPI 10 Lê Thanh Dũng Department of Construction 11 Lương Quang Đối Hue University of Sciences What Is It Worth? 128 Testing a Practical Approach to Assess and Value Natural Assets in Coastal Areas of Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Wetland in Thua Thien Hue Province REFERENCES • Alongi, D.M. 2002. 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