Policy Research Working Paper 11128 Assessing Workplace Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills in Africa The ESTEEM Framework Vic Marsh Clara Delavallade Smita Das Léa Rouanet Tricia Koroknay-Palicz Dawn McDaniel Africa Region Gender Innovation Lab May 2025 Policy Research Working Paper 11128 Abstract Social, emotional, and behavioral skills are critical for suc- diverse cultural and linguistic contexts (English, French, cess across life domains, yet research is constrained by a Hausa, Swahili, and Yoruba). The results confirm the psy- lack of internationally validated measures for adult pop- chometric validity of the scales, supporting their utility ulations. Existing tools often assess isolated skills and are in both research and practice. The framework categorizes predominantly validated in Western, school- aged samples. skills as intrapersonal or interpersonal, awareness or man- To address these limitations, this study developed and vali- agement, and agentic or communal, providing a robust tool dated the Effective Socio-emotional skills To gain Economic to unpack which skills matter for employment and earnings EMpowerment framework, comprising 14 distinct social, and how this differs by gender. By enabling exploration of emotional, and behavioral skills with prior demonstrated social, emotional, and behavioral skills in underrepresented relevance to economic outcomes. The framework’s self-re- and cross-cultural contexts, use of the Effective Socio-emo- port scales were tested among adults in six Sub-Saharan tional skills To gain Economic EMpowerment self-report African countries (Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, the Republic of scales advances theoretical and practical understanding of Congo, Rwanda, South Africa, and Tanzania), spanning social, emotional, and behavioral skills in adult populations. This paper is a product of the Gender Innovation Lab, Africa Region. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at cdelavallade@worldbank.org. The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Produced by the Research Support Team Assessing Workplace Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills in Africa: The ESTEEM Framework Vic Marsh, Clara Delavallade, Smita Das, Léa Rouanet, Tricia Koroknay-Palicz,Dawn McDaniel1 Keywords: noncognitive skills; soft skills; socioemotional skills; social and emotional learning; Africa; psychological assessment; content validation; agentic skills; communal skills; awareness skills; management skills; generalized self-efficacy; empirical; measurement; gender; social role theory; reliability; validity 1 Marsh: MIT, vmarsh@gmail.com; Delavallade: World Bank, cdelavallade@worldbank.org; Das: Innovations for Poverty Action, World Bank, sdas@poverty-action.org; Rouanet: World Bank, lrouanet@worldbank.org; Koroknay- Palicz: World Bank, tgonwa@worldbank.org; McDaniel: Independent researcher, dr.dawnmcdaniel@gmail.com. For contributions in developing this research, we thank the World Bank’s Africa Gender Innovation Lab and Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA). We thank participants in the GIL seminar, the Global Youth Economic Opportunities Summit, IPA and CIES conferences, World Bank webinars, the G-Lab at the University of Toronto Rotman School of Business’s Gender and the Economy (GATE) Institute, and the M.I.T. Economic Sociology Working Group for useful suggestions, with special thanks to Ezra Zuckerman Sivan for his insights on this research. We also thank Josephine Tassy for insightful research assistance. We thank Diego Bazaldua, Rachel Cassidy, Aidan Clerkin, Ayodele Fashogbon, Steven Glazerman, Nathanael Goldberg, Markus Goldstein, Christopher Gonzales, Meredith Gould, Julian Jamison, Hillary Johnson, Angui Kacou, Elijah Kipchumba, Julietha Komba, Estelle Koussoube, Victoria Levin, Samantha de Martino, Mona Mensmann, Emeka Nweke, Wale Ogunleye, Sreelakshmi Papineni, Shauna Sweet, Munshi Sulaiman, Catherine Thomas and Diego Ubfal, as well as Alkimia and EDRC for substantial inputs either to the design of the measures or their field testing. This work was funded by the Wellspring Philanthropic Fund and the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank Group, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 2 Introduction The ‘ability to deal with people’ has not been satisfactorily measured. - Thorndike & Stein, 1937 Labor market success is shaped not only by one’s constraints and endowed opportunities but also by the various skills one hones over time. Skills are people’s practice-related capacities to perform in a situation, a person’s “knowing how” to use their “toolkit” for action when needed (Stanley & Williamson, 2001; Swidler, 1986). One set of skills – social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills – “capacities to maintain social relationships, regulate emotions, and manage goal-directed behaviors” (Soto et al., 2024) have been linked positively to adult economic outcomes, such as employment and income. So far, scholars have found that youth with higher levels of SEB skills achieve beneficial economic outcomes later in life. SEB skills, also known as “soft” or “non-cognitive” skills, have been a fruitful target for theoretical and empirical reviews in sociology (Downey & Gibbs, 2020; Fligstein, 2001); economics (Campos et al., 2017a; Díaz et al., 2012; Dinarte Diaz et al., 2022; Heckman et al., 2006), genetics (Demange et al., 2021), and management (Ferris et al., 2001a; Kwon & Adler, 2014). Scholars argue that SEB skills positively predict higher wages (Algan et al., 2022; Goldsmith et al., 1997; Heckman et al., 2006; Murnane et al., 2001), self- employment/entrepreneurship (Obschonka et al., 2015) and intergenerational social mobility (García et al., 2021). Beyond promoting these positive outcomes, SEB skills measured in childhood appear to prevent negative life events and outcomes in adulthood: such as unemployment or the need to use public benefits (Falch et al., 2014; Lindqvist & Vestman, 2011). There is widespread agreement that SEB skills – from self-management abilities like emotional regulation to interpersonal capacities such as collaboration skills – are at the core of modern service economy job demands (Deming, 2017; Dickerson & Green, 2004; Evans et al., MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 3 2024; Green et al., 2001). Yet as the opening epigraph notes, skill measurement has remained a challenge. Although SEB skills have received considerable scholarly attention, particularly in childhood, their relevance across adulthood remains unpersuasive due to the lack of validated measures for diverse adult populations (Brunello & Schlotter, 2011). Most studies on SEB skills are limited in demographic diversity, with a strong focus on U.S. students – approximately 95% of such studies, according to a recent literature review (Hayashi et al., 2022, p. 748). Research on the economic returns of SEB skills in adults has similarly concentrated on specific populations located in countries with rich administrative data, such as military-age young men in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Sweden (Andrisani & Nestel, 1976; Brunello & Schlotter, 2011; Goldsmith et al., 1997; Lindqvist & Vestman, 2011; Osborne, 2000; Weinberger, 2014). Efforts to apply scales developed in North America to other regions, such as Africa, Latin America, and Asia, have yielded “sobering” results, primarily because these measures were not validated for broader populations (Laajaj et al., 2019, p. 1292). The absence of measurement that is validated across populations and earnings contexts poses a challenge that needs addressing: without valid measures, scholars might significantly over- or under-estimate peoples’ skill levels and the true effects of their skills on economics outcomes. First, a lack of direct measurement can lead to overgeneralized claims about the economic importance of SEB skills. For instance, in economics, Bowles and colleagues argue that SEB skills are more critical than cognitive skills for labor market outcomes, attributing all unexplained variance in adult earnings – after controlling for childhood cognitive test scores – to SEB skills (Bowles et al., 2001; Bowles & Gintis, 1976). Similarly, Heckman and colleagues posited that labor market disparities not accounted for by cognitive test scores reflect the WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 4 influence of SEB skills (Heckman et al., 2000; Heckman & Rubinstein, 2001). However, these influential studies did not include direct measures of SEB skills, making it implausible to substantiate their claims about SEB skills’ role in predicting earnings. We join other scholars who have cautioned against such inferences, noting that relying on unexplained variance to infer the importance of SEB skills “…likely overestimates their [SEB skills’] effects” (Farkas, 2003). Second, even when directly measured, methodological limitations can understate SEB skills’ economic importance. Longitudinal studies often rely on measures originally developed to assess extreme delinquency in childhood (Jesness & Wedge, 1983; Kovacs, 1985; Lacourse et al., 2002; Tremblay et al., 1992), which are later repurposed to predict adult economic outcomes using administrative data. Over time, researchers shorten these measures, with teacher-rated delinquency questionnaires condensed and transformed into self-report scales (Laajaj & Macours, 2021, pp. 1291 and Appendix C-2). This process likely introduces bias, underestimating the impact of SEB skills on labor market achievements (Algan et al., 2022 Appendix D). Scholars across disciplines – including economics, psychology, and management – have emphasized the need for validated self-report instruments, with repeated calls for future research to address this gap (Almlund et al., 2011, p. 48; Ferris et al., 2001b, p. 1081; Heckman et al., 2023, p. 30). Third, careful estimation of both the levels and economic impact of SEB skills is critical to an ongoing debate in economics with significant implications for public sector foreign aid investments. Without robust measurement as a foundation, it is premature to either endorse (Bischoff et al., 2020; Campos et al., 2017a; Frese, 2000) or reject (Blattman, 2015; Blattman & Ralston, 2015) investments in SEB skills training programs in Africa. A key justification for MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 5 such aid is the policy commitment to advancing women’s economic empowerment, yet it remains unclear whether certain skills have disproportionate benefits for women’s economic outcomes. As scholars working on program evaluation continue to address these issues (Ajayi et al., 2022; Cassidy et al., 2024; Das et al., 2023), valid and reliable measurement must underpin future efforts. Finally, the literature on SEB skills exhibits a bias toward self-management skills (e.g., personal initiative) and agentic “get ahead” skills (e.g., negotiation), while largely neglecting communal “get along” skills (e.g., collaboration), despite increasing employer demand for the latter (Evans et al., 2024). This imbalance limits scholars’ ability to evaluate whether the economic returns to SEB skills are influenced by social roles, a critical consideration in both gender roles and research on the workplace rewards for agentic versus communal social skills (Blickle & Hogan, 2020; Eagly & Wood, 1991, 2012; J. Hogan & Holland, 2003). To address these limitations (see Table 1), we developed 14 SEB skill measures validated among diverse participants aged 15 to 70 years across employment statuses. Our work spans six Sub-Saharan African countries (Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, the Republic of Congo, Rwanda, South Africa, and Tanzania) and a gender-balanced population (50% men, 50% women), with skills questionnaires reported in English, French, Hausa, Swahili, and Yoruba. Our parsimonious framework, ESTEEM (Effective Socio-emotional skills To gain Economic EMpowerment), integrates elements from established models such as those provided by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2020) and Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence (Boyatzis et al., 1999; Goleman, 1998), while emphasizing economic relevance to adults. Each skill has some evidence of positive correlations with economic outcomes, but these prior results were mixed with different studies using different WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 6 measures of the skills (see Table 2 in Supplement Appendix A-4). A self-report scale was developed for each of the 14 skills in this framework (ESTEEM-SR). By testing reliability, content validity, and dimensionality across urban and rural wage-earners, entrepreneurs, unemployed post-secondary students, and populations not in education, employment, or training (i.e., NEET populations), we provide a versatile resource for assessing SEB skills’ labor market impact. This work advances research by creating cross-contextual, theoretically grounded measures that connect self-awareness, self-management, other-awareness, and other- management skills to labor market outcomes, gender research, and economic policy debates. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 7 Table 1 Studies that Predict Income-Generating Outcomes from Measures of Social, Emotional, and Behavioral (SEB) Skills a Reference Field Region Work Measures & Target Group Type No direct measurement. SEB skills estimated by Anderson N. Self- Management counting participant behaviors after a natural disaster. (1977) America employed Sample: USA only. N. Jencks Economics SEB skills directly measured. Agentic measures only America Wage (1979) (Labor) (industriousness, perseverance). Sample: USA only. Duncan & N. Economics No direct measurement. SEB skills estimated by goal Duniforn America Wage (Labor) achievement. Sample: USA men. (1998) SEB skills directly measured. Mix of agentic and Economics N. communal skills. No content validation for new skill Filer (1981) Wage (Labor) America constructs (i.e., ascendancy, masculinity, sociability, friendliness, thoughtfulness). Sample: USA only. Heckman No direct measurement. SEB skills estimated by & Economics N. variance in income that remains unexplained by Wage Rubinstein (Labor) America cognitive test scores, between two types of high school (2001) dropouts. Sample: USA sample only. SEB skills directly measured. Agentic measures only. Ferris et al. N. Management Wage No content validation. Sample: USA software (2001, JAP) America engineers, 30 % women. Measurement of child delinquency. SEB skills defined Algan et al. Economics N. Both Wage by low scores on a teacher-rated diagnostic (i.e., (2002) (Labor) America & Self disruptiveness in kindergarten classes). Sample: USA boys and men. Measurement of child delinquency. SEB skills defined Groves Economics N. Wage by low scores on diagnostics for child delinquency (2005) (Labor) America (i.e., aggression, withdrawal). Sample: USA only. SEB skills directly measured. Agentic and self- Frese et al. Self- management measures only (proactive planning, need Psychology Africa (2007) employed for achievement). Samples: Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Linz & Economics SEB skills directly measured. Agentic measures only. Semykina Russian Wage (Labor) Samples: Russia. (2007) Federation Measurement of child delinquency. Intervention: Blattman et Political Both Wage random selection into talk therapy. Sample: Liberia, Liberia al. (2023) Science & Self specifically boys and men at highest risk of crime and violence. NOTE. a These are illustrative examples. For a full literature bibliography, see Appendix A-2 in the online supplement. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 8 DEFINING SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL (SEB) SKILLS Skills Are Capacities to Act Skills are malleable abilities that answer the question: “What can someone do in a given situation?” The motivation for the development of these scales is their policy relevance, which is driven by this malleability. Unlike traits, which reflect consistent behaviors across situations (Soto et al., 2024), skills are situational and more influenced by experience. For example, while an agreeable salesperson (trait) may generally avoid confrontation, they might learn to negotiate assertively when needed (skill). Skills gain predictive importance over traits as individuals accumulate situational experience: If a person has a great deal of experience in a given situation, temperament [traits] will not be very predictive…but if a person is new to a situation and has not learned much about it, temperament [traits] should be a more important predictor (Buck, 1991). However, existing longitudinal studies on SEB skills often focus on traits, preferences, and attitudes rather than abilities (Heckman et al., 2023; Jones, 2024). By emphasizing skills over traits, this research addresses gaps in understanding the situational and developmental nature of SEB skills and their economic outcomes, particularly in low- and middle-income country contexts. Simplifying Constructs for Measurement Complex constructs, such as emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), often aggregate multiple dimensions, making it difficult to define measurement targets (Edwards, 2011; Howell et al., 2007; Jarvis et al., 2003; Thompson & Bolino, 2018; Van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013). For example, omnibus measures like “social skill” conflate self- and other- awareness (Ferris et al., 2001; Hochwarter et al., 2006), obscuring possible effects of skill types. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 9 Simplified, unidimensional constructs offer greater clarity and validity for measuring skills in diverse multilingual contexts, avoiding the recurring problem wherein “a self-concept scale would not turn out to be an [English] reading test in disguise” (Messick, 1978). This approach mitigates cognitive demands on respondents and ensures linguistic and cultural applicability in settings where English is not the primary language. This concern is relevant in studying SEB skills, where complex definitions and taxonomies are the norm (Cieciuch & Strus, 2021; Jones, 2024). To address these challenges, we developed and validated distinct measures for individual SEB skills, such as separating perseverance from the multidimensional "grit" (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) and breaking "empathic-active listening" (Bodie, 2011) into empathy and active listening. A companion paper compares these self-reported SEB measures with behavioral measures of the same skills, and their relationship with gender and economic outcomes (Delavallade et al. 2025). By focusing on simple constructs (see Table 2), this framework enables the granular analysis of individual skills and their theorized aggregate effects on economic outcomes. For example, in psychology, socio-analytic theory has posited that economic success stems primarily from agentic actions one takes to “get ahead” rather than communal behaviors that enable one to “get along” with others – a proposition we test in this research. The ESTEEM Framework The ESTEEM framework categorizes SEB skills along two axes: awareness versus management and intrapersonal versus interpersonal (CASEL, 2020; Goleman, 1998). This structure highlights the situational context of skills and their distinct impacts. In theory, when examining SES in a labor economics context, intrapersonal and interpersonal awareness skills WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 10 are expected to matter for the development of preferences, aspirations, and setting achievable goals based on expected returns; intrapersonal management skills are expected to matter for bridging the inaction-action gap and planning; while intrapersonal and interpersonal management skills are central to key behaviors tied to economic empowerment: developing networks, obtaining support and accessing resources in the household and community, finding and utilizing opportunities, and overcoming obstacles tied to skill and capital acquisition, mobility, and social norms. Each of the fourteen skills was selected based on evidence of its relevance to labor outcomes (see Appendix A-4 for a table with this literature). Intrapersonal awareness. Understanding one’s own emotions and experiences (e.g., self-awareness, see: Church, 1997; e.g., mindfulness, see: Feldman et al., 2007; e.g., reflectiveness, see: Grant et al., 2002; Young & Dulewicz, 2007) has been linked to job performance and to leadership development (Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, 2012), but remains underexplored for broader economic outcomes. Interpersonal awareness. Skills like empathy and listening have long been studied in the consumer behavior literature and are deemed critical for roles such as sales (Aggarwal et al., 2005) but require further investigation into their impact in non-wage-earning settings / entrepreneurship. Intrapersonal management. Active self-regulation skills, including emotion regulation and perseverance, predict outcomes such as employment success and income growth in Western populations (Frese et al., 1997; Lindqvist & Vestman, 2011; Roberts et al., 2007) and in African entrepreneurial contexts (Bischoff et al., 2020; Campos et al., 2017b), but might have a different relevance for wage-earners. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 11 Interpersonal management. Skills to shape social interactions in “political” organizations have long been linked to income in management research (Judge & Bretz Jr, 1994); yet there are several more interpersonal management skills studied heavily in other contexts (e.g., child development and autism literatures, see: Trevisan et al., 2021) that remain untapped for economic outcomes research. Overview of Studies Weidman et al. (2017) proposed three principles for validating emotion-related constructs: (1) measures should build on established theory and research, (2) surveys should incorporate lay knowledge across diverse populations to capture dimensionality, and (3) measures should evaluate the content of whole phrases rather than single words (several of the child delinquency scales of prior research ask teachers to rate students on single adjectives). Our study adheres to these principles through a four-phase process designed to develop and validate new SEB skills measures. Phase 1: Item Generation: We employed both expert knowledge (literature reviews) and lay knowledge (cognitive interviews) to generate initial survey items. Our literature review focused on existing self-report scales of SEB skills, particularly those validated in Western contexts. This was critical given the theoretical gap in emotion-related research among entrepreneurs—48% of empirical studies on entrepreneurs' emotions lack a theoretical foundation (Portocarrero et al., 2019). To adapt these scales for African contexts, we conducted focus groups that addressed challenges in directly exporting Western measures (Laajaj et al., 2019; Laajaj & Macours, 2021). Cognitive interviews further refined items by capturing participants’ thought processes while interpreting draft survey questions, enabling adjustments for clarity and relevance (Geiselman et al., 1985). WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 12 Phase 2: Dimensionality and Reliability. We assessed the dimensionality of the revised items through pilot surveys, employing exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFA and CFA) across Western, Central, and Eastern Africa. Data collection utilized both in-person enumerators to reduce the survey participants’ cognitive load and cope with literacy challenges (Messick, 1978) and remote phone-based surveys to navigate challenges posed by the COVID- 19 pandemic. Reliability was assessed using alpha and omega reliability measures (Cortina et al., 2020; Cronbach, 1971). Phase 3: Content Validation. We improved content validity by having the tools reviewed by subject-matter experts, such as those psychologists and education assessment experts with experience in measurement, and those who had developed SES curricula. We later tested the content validity of survey items using online surveys conducted among South African residents. Participants evaluated whether items effectively represented their respective skill definitions, following established item validation procedures (Colquitt et al., 2019). This phase included multiple rounds of item reduction to ensure precision and alignment with theoretical constructs, leveraging the cost-efficiency of online questionnaires. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 13 Table 2 The ESTEEM Framework: A Typology of 14 Simple Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills Intrapersonal Interpersonal Awareness and Management of Oneself Awareness and Management of Others Awareness Skills (Target: the self) Awareness Skills (Target: others) • Emotional Self-Awareness: the ability to • Empathy: understand another’s viewpoint or identify and evaluate one’s emotions, accurately. thoughts and have emotional concern for another’s situation or experience. • Self-Awareness: the ability to identify, interpret, and to evaluate one’s strengths and • Listening weakness. o Listening (Actively): the ability to attend to what other people are saying, ask clarifying questions, and show others that you are attending to them. o Listening (Respectfully): The ability to listen to others in a courteous way, to understand their needs and views, to avoid interruptions if appropriate. Management Skills (Target: the self) Management Skills (Target: others) • Emotional Regulation: maintaining or • Expressiveness: explaining ideas in a way that changing one’s own emotions by controlling others will understand and openly expressing one’s one’s thoughts and behavioral response. opinion. • Self-Control: focusing one’s attention, staying • Interpersonal Relatedness: the ability to build trust on task, breaking habits, restraining impulses; and benefit others, initiate and maintaining self-discipline. relationships, and behave respectfully, and show one’s caring for others. • Personal Initiative: developing long-term goals, to seek opportunities to improve one’s o Relatedness (Networking): the ability to self and to be motivated to put these plans and build trust and initiate relationships. goals into action. o Relatedness (Maintenance): the ability to • Perseverance: sustaining effort despite benefit others, behave respectfully, and setbacks. show caring to maintain relationships. • Problem Solving & Decision-Making: • Influence: the ability to communicate in a manner approaching a challenge by gathering that changes other’s perspectives, to adapt one’s information, generating a number of solutions behavior in situationally-appropriate ways to sway and evaluating the likely consequences of those others. solutions before acting. • Negotiation: the ability to identify one’s own and other’s interests during a disagreement and to change one’s own behaviors as a strategy for resolving problems and achieving one's goals. • Collaboration: the ability to consider different perspectives in groups of two or more people, to identify situations involving group-level decisions, and to coordinate with team members to create shared plans/goals. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 14 Phase 4: Hypothesis Testing. To demonstrate the measures’ utility, we tested hypotheses derived from social role theory (Eagly & Wood, 1991, 2012) and socio-analytic theory (Blickle & Hogan, 2020; J. Hogan & Holland, 2003). Specifically, we examined the differential impact of agentic and communal skills on income and employment outcomes for men and women, consistent with expectations about gender role congruence with skill type. These analyses confirmed the measures’ ability to refine the applicable scope of theoretical propositions that have been presumed to apply universally, providing directions for future research. Transparency and Openness All research materials, data, and multi-language questionnaires are available in the World Bank Group’s freely accessible Microdata Library. This project was a collaboration between the Africa Gender Innovation Lab at the World Bank Group and Innovations for Poverty Action. While the design and analyses were not preregistered, transparency in reporting supports replicability and future research. The final set of multi-language questionnaires are provided in the online supplement (Appendix A-1). MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 15 Phase One: Item Generation Phase 1a: Literature Review 1a. Procedure We conducted a review of social, emotional, and behavioral skills research across five domains: (1) child development, (2) workforce development, (3) industrial/organizational psychology and management, (4) labor and development economics, and (5) personality psychology. This review included 621 theoretical and empirical papers (see Figure 1 and bibliography in Appendix A-2 of the online supplement) and consultations with subject-matter experts. We decided to formally include 81 papers in our item generation (see online supplement Table 1 in Appendix A-3a and the final reference list in Appendix A-3b), prioritizing measures that had been validated in low-income settings. Our objectives were to guide skill inclusion, conceptualization, and measure development, with a focus on identifying constructs relevant to economic outcomes and gender differences. Prior research findings on whether economic returns to skill depend upon gender are in the online supplement (Appendix A-4). 1a. Results From the review, we identified 81 records containing survey scales relevant to our 14- skill framework (see Table 1, Appendix A-3a). The results of this phase established the foundation for skill item-specific cognitive interviews in Sub-Saharan Africa. Phase 1b: Cognitive Interviews 1b. Participants & Procedure Cognitive interview participants were recruited as part of a collaboration between the World Bank’s Africa Gender Innovation Lab and Innovations for Poverty Action. In Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and Tanzania, 16 participants per country were recruited from large populations participating in GIL and IPA randomized controlled trials testing SEB training WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 16 interventions. Each interview subject pool was balanced by gender (50% men and 50% women), with diverse educational attainment backgrounds. The sample consisted of adults aged 15 and older. Cognitive interviews followed established methodologies (Geiselman et al., 1985; Schuman, 1966). Trained enumerators presented draft survey items, asking participants to verbalize their interpretations of what each item meant. Follow-up probing questions clarified meaning and identified potential issues with item wording, cultural relevance, and linguistic nuances. Using findings from cognitive interviews and input from field staff in Sub-Saharan Africa, items were eliminated based on irrelevance, redundancy, expert review, and participant insights. 1b. Results Key findings from cognitive interviews are summarized in Table 3, which outlines representative participant feedback captured in enumerator field notes, identified issues, and resulting revisions. Examples of addressed issues include: Complex Language: Items with overly complex wording were simplified to ensure accessibility without altering meaning. Colloquial Language: Culturally specific terms, such as the verb phrase “to size up,” were replaced with more universally understood phrases (e.g., “observe”). Reverse-Worded Items: Many reverse-scored items were removed due to participant confusion, though a few were retained based on satisfactory performance. There is a longstanding debate among measure developers about the utility of reverse-scored items (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Schmitt & Stuits, 1985; Schriesheim & Eisenbach, 1995). While we eliminated such items from most of our 14 scales, we retained these in the context of the self- MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 17 control skill, which in later phases achieved appropriate dimensionality and reliability results but suffered in content validation / content adequacy evaluation. Unintended Connotations: Words like “temptation” were replaced to avoid unintended interpretations, ensuring alignment with theoretical constructs. Missing Context: Instructions and context for certain items were clarified to improve comprehension. While some participant suggestions, such as measuring humor, cheerfulness, and obedience, could not be accommodated due to scope and resource constraints, feedback significantly informed the final item pool. Phase One Discussion Impact on Scale Development: Cognitive interviews highlighted critical deficiencies in the initial item pool, with most issues resolvable through item-level revisions. This iterative process ensured that the scales were culturally and linguistically appropriate for diverse African populations, improving their reliability and validity in subsequent phases. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 18 Figure 1. Literature Review NOTE. Although presented in the standardized format for systematic literature reviews, this search was driven by the authorship team and is not a systematic database-based literature review. The full original bibliography is available (Appendix A-2), and the final 81 items are presented in two forms: as a map from each publication to the 14 ESTEEEM skills (see supplement Table 2, Appendix A-3a) and in the final reference list (Appendix A-3b). MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 19 Table 3. Cognitive Interviewing and Focus Group Participant Feedback Representative Issue Raised in Research Team Illustrative Examples of Item- Field Note Participant Decision Level Changes Feedback (Resolution) 1. Items 1. Inappropriate Addressed I am good at resisting temptation considered (Items Revised) [eliminated]. entertaining People would say that I have very strong self-discipline. 2. Translation 2.1 - Colloquial Addressed I actively “attack” problems ➔ I seems “off” to language (Items Revised) actively “tackle” problems. participants I reflect on my “performance” after I make mistakes ➔ I analyze my “behavior” after I make mistakes. 2.2 - Reverse- Addressed I refuse things that are bad for me, Keyed Items (Items Revised, even if they are fun. [new item] Items Added) My behavior often puzzles me. ➔ I understand why I act the way I do. 2.3 – Confusion Addressed Admitting when you are wrong ➔ from Missing (Items Revised) When I work with others, I admit Context when I am wrong and apologize for my mistakes. I show others that I am listening by my body language (e.g., head nods) ➔ When I am listening to someone, I show them that I am open to their ideas. 3. Skills 3. – Potentially 3.1 – Addressed Missing Idea Resolution participants said missing categories (Scales Added, Manner of approach. Items: were not captured Items Added) Influence that we should “Packaging” / Publicity Items: have asked them Influence about. 3.2 – Not Addressed Missing Ideas (did not address) in this measurement Humbleness paper Humor Preparedness, organization, detail- oriented Grooming one’s physical appearance Truthfulness / honesty Obedience / loyalty / submission NOTE. n = 48 participants in cognitive interviews (16 participants each in: Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and Tanzania) WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 20 Phase Two: Scale Reliability and Dimensionality In prior research we observed in our literature review, most pre-existing scales for these skills were developed using internet samples, K-12 age groups, and college campus samples. In terms of methods, the measurement anchors also differed considerably from skill to skill (e.g., instructions to rate which is “most like me” in some cases, versus instructions to simply rate one’s “agreement” with a statement in others). Furthermore, the populations studied were usually heavily male, especially when labor outcomes were studied with military age populations using administrative data. Taken all together, it is hard to understand if prior work produced such conflicting results simply as a matter of measurement method choice or due to fundamental differences in the different samples that prior research studied. To help resolve this uncertainty, we piloted our scales primarily through in-person, household-based data collection using Computer Assisted In- person Interviewing (CAPI) with low-literacy populations and large samples, which reduces the cognitive burden on participants. Trained enumerators read each item to respondents; respondents looked at a single set of pictorial Likert-type five-point response scales (see Figure 2) and responded verbally or pointed at their response; and enumerators recorded their responses on a tablet. By standardizing our method, we hope to set the stage for judging our subsequent analyses substantively, rather than carrying over the literature’s uncertainty about the role of method versus population factors in driving their hypothesis testing results. In a further contrast to prior literature, all Phase 2 samples were gender balanced (with approximately 50% women). Procedures Back-Translation (two linguists per language): Before administering our surveys in a new language, we began with a back-translation procedure (Brislin, 1970). This entailed MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 21 recruitment of an interpreter translating forward from English into the target languages, matched with an interpreter taking those initial translations as inputs and reinterpreting them backward into English. Disagreements in meaning were few and reviewed by a trained psychologist. In the cases of the Nigerian (English, Hausa, and Yoruba) and Ivorian (French) samples, co-author Dr. Dawn McDaniel, a psychologist, served this role of reviewing the final step back-translation. In Tanzania (Swahili), a Tanzanian psychologist contracted by Innovations for Poverty Action reviewed the final step back-translation. For Congo and Rwandan English and French-speaking samples, we used the English versions already back-translated in Nigeria and the French version already back-translated in Côte d’Ivoire. Data Collection: Survey takers used tablet computers and household-based surveys. Participants answered all items in a Likert-type response which ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Each surveyor carried laminated representations of a 5-anchor Likert-type response scale, which ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. During the pilots we received positive feedback for the use of this pictorial representation. We found that this format allowed respondents to understand response options without a literacy requirement and helped them remember the full range of responses without continuous repetition or relying on memory or cognitive ability. Finally, having participants point to responses resulted in faster data collection. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 22 Figure 2 Pictorial 1-5 Likert-type Agreement Scale from Household Surveys strongly disagree disagree neither agree agree strongly agree nor disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Data analysis and criteria for item retention and elimination: For all four pilots (EFA-1, EFA-2, EFA-3, and EFA-4), to examine the items, we used an EFA with maximum- likelihood estimation and an oblique (Oblimin) rotation. We did this separately for inter- and intra-personal items. We then eliminated or revised items with high cross-loadings (above .35) and low intended-construct loadings (below .40). Throughout Phase 2, we used the following criteria for item retention. Given the limited range of the 5-anchor scale, we first utilized polychoric correlation tables to gauge the relationships between items within the same scales, for all the 14 SEB skills, using the polycorr package in STATA (version 15). Next, to reduce the risk of multicollinearity concerns, we dropped items whose correlations were consistently above 0.80 within scales. To reduce the risk of reductions in convergent validity, we also removed or revised items whose correlations within-scale were consistently below .30, a common rule of thumb (Ferketich, 1991). MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 23 Group 1: Multiple Languages Samples 1 and 2: Nigeria Putting our SEB skills measures to their first test in Nigeria was ideal, as we could target linguistic diversity directly while controlling for national and institutional confounds. Using separate translators to translate measures from English to an approximation in the local language and then to take that interpretation back to English (i.e., “back-translation” procedure, see: Klotz et al., 2023), we tested each of the 14 SEB skill scales on diverse language communities within Nigeria, including English, Hausa, and Yoruba speakers, representing both major cultural regions (north versus south). Participants & Procedure Samples 1 and 2. The first sample in Nigeria consisted of 196 individuals aged 18-70, with 91% employed, primarily in agriculture. The second sample included 497 individuals aged 18-70, with 92% employed, also primarily in agriculture. Educational attainment varied, with the first sample split evenly between those who had completed secondary education and those who had not, while the second sample had a 50-50 split between those who had completed primary education and those who had not. Both samples were split evenly between the cities of Ibadan in the south and Bauchi in the north. The surveys were administered in person by enumerators using tablet computers to record respondents’ verbal answers to each item. Results - Group 1 Findings: As expected, the 14 SEB skills related positively to one another (see Appendix B-1). Scales exhibited internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega consistently above 0.7 (see Table 4). However, scale-by-scale confirmatory factor analysis yielded mixed results, with CFI and SRMR indicating acceptable model fit and RMSEA values suggesting suboptimal fit (see Appendix B-7). At the pilot stage, we required additional items WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 24 across many of the SEB skills constructs to supplement scales where poorly-performing items had been dropped. Specifically for listening skills, we learned in this sample that listening skills items loaded on two different facets of listening – one capturing active listening behaviors (e.g., paraphrasing others, body language cues to your attention, etc.), and the other capturing respectfulness (e.g., not interrupting inappropriately, etc.), the latter of which included only reverse-framed items. We re-analyzed the items assuming 15 (rather than the initial 14) total facets. Discussion – Group 1 A great number of items in this round did not meet our retention criteria. We therefore generated anew or re-worded additional items in order to better capture the intended constructs, especially interpersonal management items. During the transition from Nigeria (Pilot) to Côte d’Ivoire, we introduced several new items aimed at capturing specific aspects of interpersonal skills, while removing items that either demonstrated high cross-loadings or did not contribute meaningfully to the construct. For example, new items focused on emotional regulation were added, such as “When I feel sad, I know how to take my mind off my problems” (emoreg53a), while redundant or underperforming items like “I control my temper when people are angry with me” (emoreg54) were dropped. To ensure at least three items per dimension of a construct, we added new items such as those for the cognitive version of empathy, wherein someone understands the fact that others are experiencing an emotion. Group 2: Multiple Entrepreneurial Contexts An enduring tension in entrepreneurship research in developing countries revolves around challenges in understanding self-employment in labor markets where informal employment MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 25 predominates (Foo et al., 2020). Our study leverages valid measurement of SEB skills to enable future scholarship to detect patterns of returns to skills in formal versus informal entrepreneurial contexts. Samples 3 and 4: Côte d’Ivoire We surveyed young adults aged 15-24 in Côte d’Ivoire with an emphasis on young entrepreneurs (our selection criterion for skills training randomized controlled trials organized in the ProJeunes Project). Both our Ivorian samples were drawn from French-speaking communities. The first sample (#3) consisted of 1,125 individuals, equally split between those who were engaged in entrepreneurship full time, versus those unemployed. The second sample included 2,688 individuals with the same employment distribution. See Appendix B-2 for descriptive statistics for the sample. By mixing engaged versus aspiring (unemployed) entrepreneurs, we are not conditioning our discovery of agentic versus communal skills on success in pursuing self-employment. Educational attainment was also evenly split between those who had completed secondary education and those who had not. The surveys were administered by census enumerators using tablet computers. Procedure - 2 Because data was collected over the phone to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic, this sample did not have access to the pictorial version on a tablet, as in prior household surveys. Results-2 Findings: Within sample 3, the measure for interpersonal “relatedness” emerged with two distinct facets. One relatedness subgroup reflected abilities associated with initiating relationships or networking skills (e.g., “I am good at building relationships with people I don’t know,” etc.). A second group of items appeared to relate to maintaining relationships (e.g., WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 26 “When others are sad, I try to comfort them,” etc.). We re-worded the interpersonal relatedness items to make this distinction clearer than originally planned, and with that distinction were able to begin item reduction in a subsequent sample within country. Additionally, perseverance and personal initiative also loaded onto the same factor. While the two constructs can be construed as distinct, our earlier literature review found an overlap between the two constructs – both are associated with exerting effort. While ‘personal initiative’ is expending effort in an early stage or “starting up,” the concept of ‘perseverance’ is about exerting effort over a long duration or “staying up.” In Phase 3 of research, we used content validation techniques to confirm the difference between the closely-related constructs. Here, scale-by-scale model fit using confirmatory factor analysis proved satisfactory across both cohorts of the sample (see Appendix B-7). Reliability improved between the two cohorts, with changes to the instrument. However, Cronbach’s alpha was low for influence at 0.60, and low for the networking dimension of relatedness when not combined with the “maintaining” dimension of the construct (see Table 4). Discussion-2 Group 2 Discussion: These findings represent challenges to the dimensionality or consistent sub-facet patterns; however, in Phase 3 (content validation), we confirm that each skill that shared a factor unintentionally was still viewed by participants as highly distinct and highly consistent with the skills’ own definitions. In this second transition (from Côte d’Ivoire samples from one region to another), a net gain in items occurred, with more items added than removed. We introduced items like “If I get feedback on ways I can improve, I immediately try to do better” (persint24a), reflecting the need to strengthen constructs around personal growth initiative dimension of personal initiative. Redundant items, such as “I am constantly trying to MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 27 improve myself by learning new skills” (persint23), were removed due to high cross-loadings with other skills. As we transitioned to Group 3 (the Republic of Congo and Rwanda), lessons learned in Group 2 (Côte d’Ivoire) involved a more substantial reduction of items. Items like “I plan tasks carefully” (psdm12a) were dropped due to poor performance across multiple samples, while others, such as “When work is difficult, I keep up my effort” (persev27a), were eliminated due to redundancy. Only a few additions, such as “I know how to calm down when I am feeling nervous” (emoreg53), were made based on face validity assessments and the desire to retest with slight rewording. Group 3: Multiple Education Levels Scholars have showed a deep interest in multiple education level populations in Sub- Saharan Africa – from those trained formally by their employers (Debrah & Ofori, 2006; Ferreira & van Antwerpen, 2011; George et al., 2016, p. 384; Ukandu & Ukpere, 2011), to those who rely on their formal primary and secondary education alone. To inform future analyses of these various education-related sub-groups, we propose that a critical missing step is the measurement of SEB skills in populations with varying levels of formal training. Therefore, we examined the reliability of SEB skill measures across contexts with different levels of formalized educational attainment, starting with a 50-50 split of secondary school attainment in Côte d’Ivoire (above), moving to 100% secondary school attainment in the Republic of Congo. We followed this with a sample of tertiary education graduates in Rwanda, contrasted next with a Tanzanian sample that was extremely different – made up exclusively of people not in full-time employment, education, nor training (NEET). The same skill questions achieved acceptable omega and alpha reliability in these varied training attainment contexts (see Table 5). WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 28 Sample 5: The Republic of Congo (Brazzaville) Moderate / Mixed Education Attainment: This sample was drawn from the Republic of Congo, targeting young adults aged 17-35 years. In this sample, educational attainment was relatively high, as all respondents had completed at least secondary school, and 57% were employed. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, enumerators administered the surveys via phone calls to ensure participants’ and enumerators’ safety. Findings (Congo): The previously-established 2-facet structure for interpersonal relatedness (maintaining old relationships versus networking to create new relationships) held in this new sample. Similarly, the two aspects of listening skills (active listening versus respectful manner of listening) were upheld in this new sample. Here, internal consistency was demonstrated across scales (see Table 4). While CFI and SRMR indices indicate acceptable or excellent model fit, RMSEA values are above acceptable levels for some scales, particularly emotional awareness (0.12) and influence (0.15) (see Appendix B-7). Sample 6: Rwanda High Education Attainment: The Rwandan sample consisted of 895 young adults aged 19-30, all of whom had recently graduated from tertiary education within the previous two years. This unusually highly educated sample (within the Sub-Saharan Africa context) was selected to explore the development and application of SEB skills among young professionals entering the workforce. At the time of the survey, 40% of the sample was employed (35% wage-earners and 5% self-employed). The surveys were conducted in English. The surveys were administered in person by enumerators using tablet computers or laminated picture-based Likert scales. Findings (Rwanda): Here, both internal consistency (see Table 4) and model fit based on confirmatory factor analysis (see Appendix B-7) met acceptable thresholds across individual scales. The two-facet dimensions for interpersonal relatedness, and listening skills were retained MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 29 yet again, suggesting that the scales’ dimensions were ready for final confirmatory analysis in a new sample. In Rwanda, we retained many of the core items from the previous sample but focused on refining emotional and interpersonal skills. For instance, “I examine my own abilities to better understand myself” (selfaw38) was reintroduced to enhance self-awareness measures, while less impactful items, like “I try to notice my thoughts without judging them” (emoaware65), were eliminated. Transitioning to Tanzania, this phase saw the reintroduction of several key items, such as “I take action immediately even when others don’t” (persint16), which was deemed crucial for measuring initiative. Redundant or problematic items, such as “I say inappropriate things” (secon43), were removed to improve the psychometric properties of the scale. Sample 7: Tanzania (low education) Low Education Attainment: This sample, composed of 4,750 individuals from Tanzania who were not in employment, education, or training (NEET), were aged 16-27, with 40% employed part-time (none were full-time workers). The same sample was surveyed 15 to 18 months later, though only the control group of the sample was included in analysis. Tanzania I to Tanzania III – Discussion. A significant number of new items were added in this phase to expand the coverage of emotional regulation and self-control skills. For instance, “When I am upset, I ask others for emotional support” (emoreg57a) was added, while items that were too specific or underperforming, such as “I can explain complicated ideas in a clear way” (express97), were removed. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated acceptable or excellent model fit across scales (see Appendix B-7). Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega were found to be above acceptable thresholds for Tanzania I, though they were low for the respectful listening facet of listening (0.61) for Tanzania III (see Table 4). WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 30 Results – Phase Two Descriptive Statistics and Dimensionality Skill level item means, standard deviations, and the polychoric correlations among scales for each country can be found in the online supplemental material (Appendices B-1 to B-6 Descriptive Statistics). We conducted four exploratory factor analyses (EFA) to determine each scale’s dimensionality, with an EFA conducted for each quadrant of the ESTEEM framework: inter-intrapersonal X awareness-management skills. Analyses were conducted in R, using the psych package. With one exception, all items achieved a .40 or greater loading on the intended skill construct, with less than a .35 loading on other constructs. For self-management skills, perseverance and personal initiative were an exception to the clean loading, as they loaded on the same factor, necessitating further analysis in Phase Three. In subsequent studies, we ensured that the content of each scale’s items (content adequacy / content validation) was distinct at two levels of comparison: distinct from each other (perseverance vs. personal initiative) and also distinct from the two orbiting constructs (self-esteem and Machiavellianism) against which all other skills were tested. Reliability Skill reliability, by country, is presented in Table 4, with items finalized by the content analyses in Phase Three. Both the Cronbach’s alpha reliability, and the methodological literature’s preferred omega reliability (Cortina et al., 2020) measures are within recommended ranges in the majority of countries, with the exception of the interpersonal awareness respectful listening skill (French version), whose measure alpha reliability is 0.47 in one French sample (Congo), but achieves good alpha reliability of 0.93 in the other French sample (Côte d'Ivoire). MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 31 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Procedures We examined the factor structure for the 14 skills using lavaan package, cfa commands in R (version .6-19, Rosseel, 2012), with each CFA automatically scaled to the estimated latent variable loading (std.lv = true) and models estimated using maximum likelihood (“fiml” estimator). There was one exception. Because the data for the cognitive abilities items were either correct or incorrect, the models for these variables use the weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted (“WLSMV”) estimator which is more appropriate for non-continuous data (Flora & Curran, 2004). Measures: Orbiting Constructs for CFA Having defined social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills as capacities to maintain social relationships, regulate emotions, and manage goal-directed behaviors (Soto et al., 2024), we used a series of CFAs to differentiate these skills from five related yet distinct constructs: anxiety, fluid intelligence, and locus of control. These constructs overlap conceptually with SEB skills but differ in focus, scope, and measurement. Anxiety (GAD-7): Anxiety, measured through the Generalized Anxiety Disorder self- report scale (i.e., the GAD-7, see: Spitzer et al., 2006), captures intense worry and emotional distress about life events, often assumed to vary negatively with SEB skill levels. SEB skills emphasize effective emotional regulation, while anxiety highlights dysregulation. Participants were asked: “Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems?” Sample items include: “…feeling nervous or anxious;” and “…becoming easily annoyed or irritable.” Cognitive Ability (Raven’s Test): Fluid intelligence, assessed using the Raven Progressive Matrices (Raven, 2003), refers to abstract reasoning and problem-solving in novel WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 32 situations. SEB skills and fluid intelligence both involve problem-solving but differ in application: SEB skills are specific to social and emotional contexts, while fluid intelligence operates context-free. An individual may excel at solving abstract problems yet struggle with brainstorming and selecting ideal options for discrete problems. Sample items are pictorial in nature. Given the prior labor economics literature focus on comparing cognitive intelligence and SEB skills, we included both in the same CFA to allow transparent factor analysis of both concepts simultaneously. Locus of Control (Levenson Measure): Locus of control captures beliefs about whether outcomes are driven by internal factors or external forces. While locus of control and SEB skills both involve goal-directed behaviors, SEB skills emphasize the capacities, while locus of control reflects attributional style. Participants were asked to rate the extent internal (self) versus external forces were responsible for their outcomes. Sample items include: “I feel like what happens in my life is mostly determined by powerful people;” and “When I get what I want, it’s usually because I am lucky.” Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Results Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics for skill measures, including item means, standard deviations, and polychoric correlations among scales in the confirmatory sample are presented in Table 5. Skill Dimensionality We examined the factor structure of skill measures using confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) conducted in the lavaan R package (version 0.6-19, Rosseel, 2012). Analyses were performed on the Tanzania-III sample, modeling skills both individually and in conjunction with orbiting constructs. Results are summarized in Table 6. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 33 Skills Modeled Alone When modeled as unidimensional constructs, each skill demonstrated strong fit indices. Comparative fit indices (CFI) ranged from .982 (problem-solving and decision-making) to nearly 1.0 (self-control and emotional self-awareness). Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) values ranged from .017 (emotional self-awareness) to .082 (collaboration). Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) values ranged from .012 (emotional self- awareness) to .053 (problem-solving and decision-making). Skills and Orbits Modeled Together (Discriminant Validity) We conducted CFAs to assess the discriminant validity of skills relative to orbiting constructs, including cognitive ability, locus of control, and anxiety. For each comparison, we evaluated the hypothesized model (where skills and orbiting constructs load onto separate factors) against a one-factor alternative (where skills and orbiting constructs load onto a single factor). In all cases, the hypothesized models provided significantly better fit (see Table 6). For example, when modeling emotional self-awareness with cognitive ability, the one- factor model demonstrated poor fit: χ²(27) = 2934.28, CFI = .724, RMSEA = .151, SRMR = .112. In contrast, the two-factor model, which allowed skills and orbiting constructs to load separately, showed a substantially better fit: χ²(26) = 137.73, CFI = .989, RMSEA = .030, SRMR = .041. Notably, this improvement came at the cost of only one additional degree of freedom. Similar improvements were observed for all other skills and orbiting constructs, with model comparisons consistently favoring the hypothesized structures. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 34 Table 4. Reliabilities for each Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skill (all studies) Tanzania III Nigeria Côte d'Ivoire II Congo (control) Rwanda Côte d'Ivoire III Tanzania I (control) No. Item s alpha omega alpha omega alpha omega alpha omega alpha omega alpha omega alpha omega Emotional Awareness 5 0.79 0.79 0.66 0.66 0.81 0.81 0.74 0.75 0.66 0.66 0.70 0.70 0.68 0.68 Self-Awareness 8 0.85 0.86 0.73 0.73 0.86 0.86 0.80 0.80 0.74 0.73 0.82 0.82 0.78 0.79 Emotional Regulation 9 0.81 0.82 0.67 0.67 0.89 0.89 0.78 0.78 0.72 0.72 0.76 0.76 0.79 0.80 Self Control 7 0.82 0.83 0.77 0.77 0.91 0.91 0.82 0.82 0.78 0.78 0.80 0.80 0.86 0.86 Perseverance 8 0.82 0.82 0.72 0.72 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.71 0.71 0.65 0.66 0.76 0.75 Personal Initiative 10 0.87 0.87 0.75 0.75 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.81 0.74 0.74 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.83 PSDM 13 0.89 0.89 0.70 0.70 0.91 0.91 0.80 0.81 0.76 0.72 0.83 0.83 0.85 0.85 Listening (Respectfully) 3 0.84 0.84 0.47 0.55 0.93 0.93 0.74 0.75 0.70 0.70 0.81 0.81 0.61 0.62 Listening (Actively) 4 0.83 0.83 0.69 0.70 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.69 0.69 Empathy 7 0.84 0.84 0.71 0.71 0.89 0.89 0.76 0.76 0.69 0.70 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.75 Expressiveness 9 0.85 0.85 0.59 0.59 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.82 0.82 Relatedness (Maintain) 6 0.89 0.89 0.79 0.79 0.89 0.89 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.77 0.77 Relatedness (Network) 4 0.74 0.74 0.64 0.64 0.81 0.81 0.76 0.76 0.62 0.62 0.71 0.71 0.67 0.68 Influence 5 0.82 0.82 0.58 0.60 0.76 0.76 0.73 0.74 0.60 0.60 0.71 0.71 0.73 0.73 Negotiation 6 0.83 0.83 0.73 0.73 0.89 0.89 0.73 0.74 0.71 0.71 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 Collaboration 5 0.85 0.84 0.81 0.81 0.89 0.89 0.75 0.75 0.82 0.82 0.79 0.79 0.71 0.71 Comparison construct Generalized Self-Efficacy 10 0.87 0.87 0.65 0.65 0.87 0.87 0.79 0.79 0.65 0.65 0.72 0.72 0.77 0.77 Note: PSDM=Problem-solving and decision-making MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 35 Table 5 Descriptive Statistics for the Confirmatory Sample (Tanzania-III) Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8a 8b 9 10 11a 11b 12 13 14 1. Emotional 4.123 0.419 Awareness 2. Self-Awareness 4.163 0.371 0.542 3. Emotional 4.085 0.383 0.608 0.587 Regulation 4. Self Control 2.927 0.888 -0.124 -0.042 -0.152 5. Perseverance 4.128 0.417 0.476 0.533 0.487 -0.145 6. Personal 4.174 0.382 0.528 0.590 0.543 -0.103 0.720 Initiative 7. PSDM 4.125 0.382 0.478 0.554 0.503 -0.111 0.643 0.732 8a. Listening 4.141 0.448 0.412 0.397 0.454 -0.116 0.446 0.445 0.423 (Respectfully) 8b. Listening 4.141 0.434 0.436 0.427 0.489 -0.095 0.398 0.427 0.407 0.588 (Actively) 9. Empathy 4.144 0.382 0.617 0.588 0.615 -0.110 0.529 0.602 0.580 0.502 0.483 10. Expressiveness 4.108 0.406 0.565 0.489 0.544 -0.185 0.568 0.580 0.551 0.548 0.575 0.640 11a. Relatedness 4.174 0.390 0.515 0.581 0.592 -0.011 0.500 0.549 0.528 0.508 0.502 0.673 0.611 (Maintain) 11b. Relatedness 4.006 0.582 0.402 0.349 0.364 -0.164 0.425 0.406 0.403 0.362 0.361 0.444 0.576 0.443 (Network) 12. Influence 4.098 0.416 0.529 0.506 0.545 -0.081 0.509 0.538 0.522 0.505 0.501 0.616 0.721 0.660 0.515 13. Negotiation 4.115 0.417 0.505 0.478 0.527 -0.121 0.446 0.497 0.456 0.637 0.614 0.573 0.665 0.595 0.468 0.618 14. Collaboration 4.133 0.403 0.519 0.500 0.514 -0.072 0.528 0.555 0.532 0.560 0.537 0.594 0.675 0.611 0.425 0.632 0.664 Comparison construct 15. Generalized 4.106 0.360 0.541 0.576 0.544 -0.136 0.766 0.734 0.860 0.456 0.446 0.597 0.598 0.542 0.444 0.532 0.478 0.569 Self-Efficacy Control variables Age 22.491 2.807 Education 10.086 2.464 Marital status 0.152 0.359 Gender 0.500 0.500 Dependent variables Employment 3.011 2.322 Income 0.657 0.475 NOTE: All correlations above .03 are significant at the p < .01 level. PSDM = Problem-Solving & Decision-Making. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 36 Table 6 Model Comparisons for Confirmatory Factor Analyses (Tanzania-I and Tanzania-III Samples) Orbiting Constructs Model comparison Cognitive Ability Locus of Control Anxiety and (Tanz-I) (Tanz-III) (Tanz-III) Samples Modelled Modelled Modelled Modelled Modelled Modelled Skill Modelle separately separately Modelle separately separately Modelle separately separately modelled Fit d with uni- with two d with uni- with two d with uni- with two alone together dimensiona dimension together dimensiona dimension together dimensiona dimension (Tanz-III) l skills al skills l skills al skills l skills al skills Skill Listening χ2 5,939.78 1,951.64 184.505 5,575.09 1,509.18 1,466.66 5,919.32 810.75 770.17 df 54 53 51 104 103 101 77 76 74 CFI 0.585 0.866 0.991 0.599 0.897 0.9 0.678 0.96 0.962 RMSE 0.151 0.087 0.023 0.106 0.054 0.054 0.128 0.046 0.045 A SRMR 0.165 0.124 0.034 0.094 0.043 0.043 0.123 0.024 0.024 Inter- personal χ2 8,183.84 1,546.84 356.579 7,333.76 2,259.19 7,775.28 1,546.50 Relatedness df 77 76 74 135 134 1,678.74 104 103 967.58 CFI 0.994 0.781 0.96 0.992 0.531 0.862 132 0.615 0.928 101 RMSE 0.054 0.149 0.064 0.028 0.107 0.058 0.899 0.126 0.055 0.957 A SRMR 0.037 0.179 0.055 0.033 0.101 0.048 0.05 0.131 0.035 0.043 Emo Self- χ2 2,934.28 137.73 2,508.29 1,311.66 0.043 1,986.64 671.84 0.025 Awareness df 27 26 65 64 44 43 CFI 1 0.724 0.989 0.743 0.869 0.863 0.956 RMSE 0.017 0.151 0.03 0.09 0.065 0.097 0.056 A SRMR 0.012 0.112 0.041 0.068 0.046 0.068 0.026 Self- χ2 7,388.30 624.29 7,353.07 1,542.72 8,399.37 865.65 Awareness df 77 76 135 134 104 103 CFI 0.994 0.864 0.99 0.547 0.912 0.598 0.912 RMSE 0.057 0.141 0.039 0.107 0.048 0.131 0.048 A SRMR 0.036 0.177 0.037 0.112 0.043 0.143 0.043 Emotional χ2 6,797.52 415.62 6,470.95 1,578.79 6,550.28 909.56 Regulation df 65 64 119 118 90 89 CFI 0.993 0.778 0.988 0.549 0.896 0.655 0.956 RMSE 0.053 0.148 0.034 0.107 0.052 0.124 0.45 A SRMR 0.034 0.18 0.036 0.103 0.044 0.126 0.026 Self-Control χ2 4,932.66 231.92 8,897.53 3,356.65 18,833.32 2,662.26 df 54 53 152 151 119 118 CFI 0.999 0.63 0.986 0.672 0.88 0.4 0.918 RMSE 0.041 0.138 0.027 0.111 0.068 0.184 0.068 A MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 37 SRMR 0.014 0.173 0.04 0.111 0.059 0.213 0.043 Perseveranc χ2 3,810.63 251.14 3,337.08 1,503.54 3,122.90 973.16 e df 44 43 90 89 65 64 CFI 0.996 0.693 0.983 0.693 0.866 0.8 0.941 RMSE 0.048 0.134 0.032 0.088 0.058 0.101 0.055 A SRMR 0.026 0.132 0.039 0.073 0.042 0.083 0.031 Personal χ2 6,743.73 481.09 6,395.17 1,522.22 6,823.23 864.76 Initiative df 65 64 119 118 90 89 CFI 0.994 0.807 0.988 0.563 0.902 0.645 0.959 RMSE 0.056 0.147 0.037 0.107 0.051 0.127 0.043 A SRMR 0.037 0.18 0.037 0.099 0.042 0.129 0.025 PSDM χ2 7,668.83 987.85 7,333.49 1,801.59 10,975.00 1,135.31 df 104 103 170 169 135 134 CFI 0.982 0.842 0.982 0.614 0.912 0.531 0.957 RMSE 0.067 0.124 0.043 0.095 0.046 0.131 0.04 A SRMR 0.053 0.155 0.037 0.098 0.038 0.158 0.025 Empathy χ2 6,241.77 438.50 5,674.67 1,552.13 6,001.64 879.9 df 65 64 119 118 90 89 CFI 0.992 0.761 0.986 0.593 0.895 0.675 0.957 RMSE 0.056 0.141 0.035 0.1 0.051 0.119 0.044 A SRMR 0.034 0.17 0.038 0.093 0.043 0.12 0.027 Expressive- χ2 7,184.41 836.72 6,765.35 1,588.66 9,644.00 862.41 ness df 90 89 152 151 119 118 CFI 0.987 0.788 0.978 0.619 0.917 0.563 0.966 RMSE 0.066 0.129 0.042 0.097 0.045 0.131 0.037 A SRMR 0.045 0.159 0.038 0.096 0.038 0.152 0.021 Influence χ2 6,940.33 381.42 7,240.34 2,045.65 9,708.99 1,372.70 df 65 64 152 151 119 118 CFI 0.996 0.767 0.989 0.592 0.891 0.562 0.943 RMSE 0.056 0.149 0.032 0.1 0.052 0.132 0.048 A SRMR 0.03 0.183 0.035 0.097 0.042 0.148 0.029 Negotiation χ2 6,472.22 195.09 5,406.64 1,354.33 5,966.89 736.45 df 54 53 104 103 77 76 CFI 0.994 0.76 0.995 0.61 0.908 0.675 0.964 RMSE 0.063 0.158 0.024 0.105 0.051 0.128 0.043 A SRMR 0.034 0.192 0.033 0.093 0.04 0.125 0.022 Collabora- 5,470.0 5,763.0 χ2 6,883.36 1,576.65 848.61 tion 498.36 5 9 df 54 53 104 103 77 76 CFI 0.993 0.789 0.986 0.601 0.877 0.683 0.957 RMSE 0.082 0.163 0.042 0.105 0.059 0.126 0.047 A SRMR 0.042 0.196 0.04 0.094 0.046 0.122 0.026 WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 38 Discussion – Phase Two In this phase, we focused on establishing the dimensionality and reliability of the SEB skills measures. Surveys were administered to large, low-literacy populations using in-person data collection methods, incorporating pictorial Likert-type response scales on tablets. This approach addressed limitations of prior scales, which were often developed for internet samples, younger populations, or college students, and employed varied measurement anchors. By implementing a uniform response format across diverse contexts, our methodology ensured greater accessibility for low-income populations and aligned with practices commonly used in program evaluations and randomized controlled trials. Key Findings The results underscore the robustness of the SEB skills measures across varied linguistic and educational contexts. Dimensionality analyses consistently supported key constructs such as listening and interpersonal relatedness, while minor revisions improved the clarity and reliability of more complex constructs, including self-control and influence. These refinements enhanced the psychometric validity of the measures, ensuring their applicability in diverse populations. Discriminant Validity Confirmatory analyses demonstrated strong discriminant validity for the skill measures. When modeled independently, the measures exhibited excellent fit indices, affirming their structural validity. Comparisons with related orbiting constructs further supported the theoretical distinction between skills and these constructs, with significant improvements in fit indices reinforcing the hypothesized factor structures. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 39 Implications The findings from this phase advance the measurement of SEB skills by addressing methodological gaps in prior research and demonstrating the feasibility of implementing robust, context-sensitive tools in low-literacy and multilingual populations. By ensuring the validity and reliability of these measures, this work provides a foundation for future studies examining the impact of SEB skills on economic and social outcomes. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 40 Phase Three: Item Content Validation Content validation is critical for ensuring that survey items align with intended constructs and distinguish themselves from related constructs. Following guidance from Colquitt et al. (2019), we assessed two aspects of content validity: Definitional Correspondence: The degree to which an item’s wording reflects the researcher’s intended conceptual meaning. Distinctiveness: The ability of a construct to stand apart from related constructs, providing unique value to the psychological literature. Participants and Procedure Samples 8-11: South Africa (Online Studies) A total of 1,368 participants, primarily self-identified as Black South Africans (76%), completed the study via the Prolific platform. Participants were 82% employed (82% full-time, 18% part-time) and evenly split between students and non-students. All surveys were administered in English using Qualtrics. To measure definitional correspondence, participants reviewed items from each scale (both intended and unintended constructs) and rated the extent to which each item corresponded to the provided skill definition. Ratings used a 7-point scale (1 = Extremely Bad, 7 = Extremely Good). For unintended items, participants reviewed unrelated constructs (e.g., Machiavellianism items under the definition of empathy), per the content validation procedures outlined by Colquitt and colleagues (2019). MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 41 Orbiting Constructs: Self-Esteem and Machiavellianism Distinctiveness was assessed by comparing each skill with two orbiting constructs: self- esteem (Rosenberg, 1965) and Machiavellianism (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Self-esteem served as a foundational concept for intrapersonal behaviors, while Machiavellianism represented an extreme form of interpersonal behaviors. Evaluation Metrics We used two metrics for content validity: Hinkin-Tracey Convergence (HTC): Calculated as the average participant rating divided by 7 (the number of rating anchors), indicating internal alignment with construct definitions. Hinkin-Tracey Distinctiveness (HTD): Assessed the degree of differentiation between items and orbiting constructs, normed into a distinctiveness index ranging between 0 and 1. Results – Phase Three Of the 16 skill facets assessed, 14 achieved at least moderate definitional correspondence, meeting the threshold for hypothesis testing (see Tables 7–10). Listening and relatedness skills, which included two facets each (e.g., active vs. respectful listening; maintaining vs. networking interpersonal relationships), consistently demonstrated strong convergence. The results affirm the content validity of the SEB skills measures. These findings support the theoretical robustness of these scales and their applicability in future research in Africa. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 42 However, self-control, which relied entirely on reverse-coded items, presented challenges. This result may stem from confusion in associated reverse-coded items with a definition, as some respondents may have considered items to be the opposite of the definition. This would be consistent with the item reductions that occurred in early versions of the instrument, where polychoric correlations and EFA results in inability of the team to include reverse-coded and positively-coded items in the same scale, despite several attempts. It may also stem from definitional inconsistencies across literatures (e.g., developmental, personality, and clinical psychology) or cultural differences in interpreting the concept. Future research should explore whether self-control requires redefinition or adaptation for non-Western contexts. On distinctiveness, empathy clearly stood apart, underscoring its value beyond orbiting constructs. In contrast, the conceptual overlap between influence, self-esteem, and Machiavellianism suggests the need for alternative orbiting constructs to fully capture the unique contributions of influence. This issue may reflect the procedural rigor of our design, which intentionally set a high bar for distinctiveness. These findings advance the measurement of SEB skills by providing validated tools that are both theoretically grounded and culturally sensitive, addressing critical gaps in cross-cultural psychology. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 43 Table 7. Content Validity Analysis 1 of 4: Interpersonal (Social) Awareness Skills Convergence to Participant Ratings Distinctiveness from Definition (1-7 scale) Orbiting Constructs Intended Skill Match Unintended Match Focal Self Machiavelli Focal Skills (Final No. Items) HTC Rating -esteem -anism HTD Rating Skill Empathy (7) .85 moderate 5.93 3.66 2.78 .45 very strong Listening (Actively) (3) .86 moderate 6.02 3.86 3.32 .39 very strong Listening (Respectfully) (3) .88 strong 6.13 3.79 3.20 .44 very strong NOTE. N = 532. Responses were made on a scale ranging from 1 ( item does an EXTREMELY BAD job of measuring the skill concept) to 7 (item does an EXTREMELY GOOD job of measuring the skill concept). All ratings come from the Colquitt et al. (2019) norming across 112 scales previously reported in applied psychology journals 2010-2016. Table 8. Content Validity Analysis 2 of 4: Interpersonal (Social) Management Skills Convergence to Participant Ratings Distinctiveness from Definition (1-7 scale) Orbiting Constructs Intended Skill Match Unintended Match Focal Self Machiavelli Focal Skills (Final No. Items) HTC Rating -esteem -anism HTD Rating Skill Expressiveness (9) .84 moderate 5.87 4.90 3.75 .26 moderate Relatedness (Networking) (4) .85 moderate 5.94 4.39 3.52 .33 strong Relatedness (Maintaining) (6) .89 strong 6.23 4.31 3.14 .42 very strong Influence (10) .76 weak 5.33 4.45 4.67 .13 weak Negotiation (6) .84 moderate 5.86 4.13 3.28 .36 very strong Collaboration (6) .84 moderate 5.91 4.28 3.23 .36 very strong NOTE. N = 532. Responses were made on a scale ranging from 1 ( item does an EXTREMELY BAD job of measuring the skill concept) to 7 (item does an EXTREMELY GOOD job of measuring the skill concept). All ratings come from the Colquitt et al. (2019) norming across 112 scales previously reported in applied psychology journals 2010-2016. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 44 Table 9. Content Validity Analysis 3 of 4: Intrapersonal (Self) Awareness Skills Convergence to Participant Ratings Distinctiveness from Definition (1-7 scale) Orbiting Constructs Intended Skill Match Unintended Match Focal Self Machiavelli Focal Skills (Final No. Items) HTC Rating -esteem -anism HTD Rating Skill Emotional Self-Awareness (3) .84 moderate 5.90 4.10 2.77 .41 very strong Self-Awareness (8) .87 strong 6.06 5.45 3.57 .26 moderate NOTE. N = 523. Responses were made on a scale ranging from 1 (item does an EXTREMELY BAD job of measuring the skill concept) to 7 (item does an EXTREMELY GOOD job of measuring the skill concept). All ratings come from the Colquitt et al. (2019) norming across 112 scales previously reported in applied psychology journals 2010-2016. Table 10. Content Validity Analysis 4 of 4: Intrapersonal (Self) Management Skills Convergence to Participant Ratings Distinctiveness from Definition (1-7 scale) Orbiting Constructs Intended Skill Match Unintended Match Focal Self Machiavelli Focal Skills (Final No. Items) HTC Rating -esteem -anism HTD Rating Skill Emotional Regulation (7) .85 moderate 5.94 4.48 3.07 .36 very strong Self-Control (9) .64 weak 4.38 2.61 2.51 .30 strong Personal Initiative (7) .84 moderate 5.85 4.97 3.66 .26 moderate Perseverance (5) .86 moderate 6.01 5.14 3.57 .28 strong Problem Solving & Decision-Making (10) .84 moderate 5.89 4.69 3.22 .32 strong NOTE. N = 523. Responses were made on a scale ranging from 1 (item does an EXTREMELY BAD job of measuring the skill concept) to 7 (item does an EXTREMELY GOOD job of measuring the skill concept). All ratings come from the Colquitt et al. (2019) norming across 112 scales previously reported in applied psychology journals 2010-2016. The results for Perseverance and Personal Initiative reflect a comparison to the two orbiting constructs (as with the other skills), but additionally a comparison to each other in the HTD column. During exploratory factor analyses, these two constructs had some high cross-loadings; therefore, we investigated a stricter test of their distinctiveness from each other and from the orbits used for other constructs. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 45 Phase Four: Hypothesis Testing Employers across sectors and regions consistently report unmet demand for socio- emotional and behavioral (SEB) skills, highlighting their potential importance for labor market success (Cunningham & Villaseñor, 2014). However, empirical findings on the economic value of SEB skills remain mixed, with studies reporting positive (Bohlayer & Gielnik, 2023; Campos et al., 2017b), null, and even negative outcomes (Alibhai et al., 2019; Ubfal et al., 2022). This inconsistency likely stems from challenges in measurement validation (Laajaj et al., 2019, p. 1292). In this phase, we used the validated ESTEEM framework to evaluate the relationship between SEB skills and two economic outcomes: employment and income. Drawing on socio- analytic theory (SAT) (R. Hogan, 1983, 1991) and social role theory (SRT) (Eagly & Wood, 1991, 2012), we investigated the role of agentic (e.g., assertiveness, influence) and communal skills (e.g., collaboration, empathy) in predicting labor market success, with a particular focus on gender differences. SAT posits that agentic and communal skills align with distinct labor market demands and that agentic skills might be more rewarded (compared to communal skills) at workplaces in general, while SRT suggests that societal expectations reinforce gendered roles, potentially making the economic returns to agentic/communal skills depend significantly upon the worker’s gender. Figure 3 combines these two theories into one framework for gender analysis. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 46 Figure 3. The expectations of integrating two theories: socio-analytic and social role theory. Table 11. Aggregate Skill Groups Included in Regression Analyses (Phase Four) Communal Skills Aggregate (no. items) Agentic Skills Aggregate (no. items) (get along) (get ahead) Collaboration (5): the ability to consider different perspectives Expressiveness (9): explaining ideas in in groups of two or more people, to identify situations a way that others will understand and involving group-level decisions, and to coordinate with team openly expressing one’s opinion. members to create shared plans or goals. Influence (5): the ability to Empathy (7): understand another’s viewpoint or thoughts and communicate in a manner that changes have emotional concern for another’s situation or experience. others’ perspectives, to adapt one’s own behavior in situationally-appropriate Listening Actively (3): the ability to attend to what other ways to sway others. people are saying, ask clarifying questions, and show others that you are attending to them. Negotiation (6): the ability to identity one’s own and others’ interests during a Listening Respectfully (3): the ability to listen to others in a disagreement and to change one’s own courteous way, to understand their needs and views, to avoid behaviors as a strategy for resolving interruptions if appropriate. problems and achieving one’s goals. Maintaining Relationships (6) (a communal form of Networking (3) (an agentic form of Interpersonal Relatedness): the ability to benefit others, behave Interpersonal Relatedness): the ability to respectfully, and show caring to support continuing build trust and initiate new relationships. relationships. Personal Initiative (7): The ability to seek opportunities to improve one’s self and to put these plans into action. Note. We included nine ESTEEM framework skill facets that clearly match either an agentic or communal designation. In one case, interpersonal relatedness, we classified the two facets of a skill differently, because the networking sub-scale (agentic) differs from the relation-maintenance sub-scale (communal). MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 47 Participants and Procedure For these hypothesis tests, we analyzed all prior data from study participants in Phase Two of the research. For ease of interpretation, all socioemotional skill scores were standardized by subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation for each sample, such that regression results would be comparable across skills within a given sample. We utilized the following regression specifications, where Y denotes the outcome variable, S denotes the social, emotional, or behavioral skill, M denotes a binary variable indicating if the individual is male, X denotes the set of control variables which includes age, educational attainment, and a binary variable indicating if the individual is married or cohabitating. =+++ =+++(x)++ This regression was run separately for each of the samples and each of the 14 socioemotional skills (16 total facets) and their 11 aggregate skills and allows for an analysis of the gender-disaggregated results. Measures Independent Measures. We used two aggregate measures totaling 47 items. Specifically, we analyzed the final, validated scale items for each SEB skill that could be characterized as either agentic or communal (see Table 11). The agentic skills aggregate included four scales for expressiveness, influence, negotiation, and networking skills (23 items). The communal skills aggregate included items from collaboration, empathy, listening, and the scale for maintaining relationships (24 items). Dependent Measures. Employment is measured as a dichotomous variable (yes, employed = 1). Income was self-reported by participants, then we used the inverse hyperbolic WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 48 sine (IHS) transformation, following prevailing practice in economics (Bellemare & Wichman, 2020; Burbidge et al., 1988; Pence, 2006) in order to address the presence of extreme outliers and skewness in income data, enabling more reliable statistical analysis while retaining meaningful distinctions across the income distribution, including for observations with low or negative values. Control Variables. For sex, we used a dummy variable (male = 1). Age is measured in years. Education is measured in years of school completed. Marital status is a dichotomous variable (yes = 1). Results – Phase 4 Table 12 presents descriptive statistics (by gender) for each of the SEB skills. Table 13 presents the mean scores for each SEB skill by gender and by country. Online supplement Appendix D-1 presents all employment outcome results in Tables 22-23 and Appendix D-2 presents all income outcome results in Tables 24-25. In all cases “Panel A” represents aggregates of skills (e.g. agentic vs. communal skills, or interpersonal vs. intrapersonal skills, etc.), while “Panel B” shows results from each disaggregated SEB skill. In the analyses, we find a large variation in results for both employment and income with patterns bounded by sample rather than by the agentic versus communal skills distinction. Main Effects No cross-national main effect pattern was observed. In Nigeria, agentic and communal skills were positively associated with employment and income, particularly among women. For women, a one-standard-deviation increase in overall SEB skills was associated with a 6.3 percentage-point increase in employment and a 28.7% increase in income (Tables 22a and 16a, MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 49 Panel A). In Côte d’Ivoire, communal skills were positively related to income for women, with a one-standard-deviation increase in these skills corresponding to an 18.6% increase in income (Table 23a, Panel B). Employment effects were not significant. In the Republic of Congo, perseverance and personal initiative showed significant positive associations with income and employment for men, with a 4-percentage-point increase in employment and an 18.9% increase in income (Table 25a, Panel B). Gender Interactions Across all samples, gender interactions yielded mixed results. In Nigeria and the Republic of Congo, both agentic and communal skills predicted employment and income, but with gendered patterns. Women in Nigeria showed stronger returns to communal skills, while men in the Republic of Congo exhibited higher returns to agentic skills (Tables 22a and 24a). In Côte d’Ivoire, communal skills were more strongly associated with income for women, while men showed no significant advantage for agentic skills. Results in Rwanda and Tanzania did not reveal significant associations between SEB skills and labor outcomes (Tables 22b and 24b). Discussion Despite considerable attention to SEB skills, their measurement and impact on adult economic outcomes remain incompletely understood due in part to measurement issues, and an imbalanced research focus on agentic over communal skills. This study addressed these gaps by developing and validating the ESTEEM framework, providing a comprehensive tool to measure agentic and communal SEB skills in diverse African populations. These scales enable more accurate investigations into the relationship between SEB skills and economic outcomes, such as WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 50 employment and income, opening the opportunity for deeper understanding about policies designed to invest in these skills. Theoretical Implications This research advances the theoretical understanding of SEB skills in several ways. First, it resolves longstanding concerns about measurement validity by introducing scales specifically designed for theory-grounded, cross-cultural research applicable to economic (rather than educational outcomes) contexts. This contribution builds on socio-analytic theory by offering precise operationalizations of agentic and communal skills and it supports social role theory by empirically examining if the expected pattern of gendered returns (more returns for agentic skills for men, and more returns for communal skills for women) actually attains. Second, the study highlights the opportunity to learn more about country-level effects of SEB skills on labor market outcomes, finding that communal skills, such as empathy and relationship maintenance, have differential returns depending on gender and the sample context. For example, communal skills showed higher economic returns for women in certain countries, challenging traditional assumptions that prioritize agentic skills for economic success. These findings suggest that economic empowerment policy strategies must account for gendered nuances more so in some country contexts than in others – focusing the intervention theoretical toolkit on samples rather than whole continents. Finally, this research bridges gaps in existing literature by offering evidence-based insights into the interaction of SEB skills, gender, and economic outcomes. By integrating theoretical frameworks, the study establishes a foundation for future research to explore how skill development might align with or depart from cultural expectations in ways that skew economic results. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 51 Practical Implications The ESTEEM scales provide a valuable tool for practitioners, particularly in workforce development and education sectors. Employers can use these measures to identify skill gaps and compare what they believed they needed to what the available labor force has. Policy implications are also likely in the context of international development. Policy analysts can use these scales to serve as one outcome measure in randomized control trial causal designs. Indeed, the sampled countries in this study are major partners for a wide variety of non- profit and international financial institution policy evaluation efforts. Investments in SEB skills training programs can be more effectively evaluated and optimized using the ESTEEM framework. Moreover, this research underscores the need for country-sensitive approaches to gender analyses, ensuring that programs do not perpetuate existing disparities but instead empower women to succeed across diverse national contexts. Limitations This study has several limitations that provide avenues for future research. First, while the scales demonstrated strong psychometric validity across diverse African contexts, their applicability to non-African settings remains untested. Future studies should evaluate the generalizability of these measures in other regions. Second, the reliance on self-reported data for income and skill levels introduces potential biases. Although statistical interaction tests for the gender moderation hypothesis should mitigate these issues to some extent (Siemsen et awl., 2010), incorporating additional objective measures, such as employer evaluations or administrative data, could enhance the robustness of findings. Finally, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits causal inferences about the relationship between SEB skills and economic outcomes. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine how these skills develop over time and influence economic trajectories. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 52 Directions for Future Research Building on the findings of this study, future research should explore the mechanisms underlying the differential returns to agentic and communal skills. For instance, how do workplace norms and organizational cultures mediate the relationship between SEB skills and economic outcomes? Additionally, studies could investigate whether interventions that challenge traditional gender roles enhance the economic value of underutilized skills. Longitudinal research is particularly critical to understanding the development and stability of SEB skills across the life course. Such studies could illuminate how early interventions in skill development impact long-term economic success. Furthermore, comparative analyses across regions and industries would provide deeper insights into the contextual factors shaping the rewards for SEB skills. Conclusion This research represents a significant step forward in understanding social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills and their economic implications. By addressing critical gaps in measurement and theory, the ESTEEM framework enables more nuanced and actionable insights into the conditions under which these skills contribute to economic success. As scholars and practitioners continue to grapple with the complexities of women’s economic empowerment as a policy goal, this study provides a foundation for advancing both theory and practice. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 53 Table 12 Mean Skill Rating (1-5 scale) for 16 Skill Facets and 1 Comparison Construct (by Gender) in all studies Note. PSDM = Problem Solving & Decision Making. WORKPLACE SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS IN AFRICA 54 Table 13 Mean Skill Rating (1-5 scale) for 16 Skill Facets and 1 Comparison Construct (by Sample and by Gender) Note. PSDM = Problem Solving & Decision Making. MARSH, DELAVALLADE, DAS, ROUANET, KOROKNAY-PALICZ,McDANIEL 55 References Aggarwal, P., Castleberry, S. B., Ridnour, R., & Shepherd, C. D. (2005). Salesperson empathy and listening: Impact on relationship outcomes. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 13(3), 16–31. Ajayi, K., Das, S., Delavallade, C., Ketema, T., & Rouanet, L. (2022). 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Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22, 465–478. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710757191 1 Assessing Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills in Africa: The ESTEEM Framework (Online Supplement) Table of Contents Phase One: Item Generation (Literature Review) Appendix A-1: Final Items Appendix A-2: Bibliography of 621 Research Papers Consulted in the Literature Review Appendix A-3a: Final 81 Publications Mapped to 14 SEB Skills Appendix A-3b: Bibliography of Final 81 Sources Used to Generate Items Appendix A-3a: Evidence on Gender and the Economic Returns to SEB Skills Phase Two: Scale Reliability and Dimensionality Appendix B-1: Nigeria Descriptive Statistics Appendix B-2: Côte d’Ivoire Descriptive Statistics Appendix B-3: Congo Descriptive Statistics Appendix B-4: Rwanda Descriptive Statistics Appendix B-5: Tanzania-I Descriptive Statistics Appendix B-6: Tanzania-III Descriptive Statistics Phase Three: Content Validation Appendix C-1: Methods: Participants, Measures, and Procedures Appendix C-2: Results: Studies 08 to 20 Phase Four: Hypothesis Testing Guide to Results Tables for Employment and Income Appendix D-1: All Employment Results Appendix D-2: All Income Results Appendix D-3A: Nigeria Regressions – Employment Appendix D-3B: Nigeria Regressions – Income Appendix D-4A: Côte d’Ivoire Regressions – Employment Appendix D-4B: Côte d’Ivoire Regressions – Income Appendix D-5A: Congo Regressions – Employment Appendix D-5B: Congo Regressions – Income Appendix D-6A: Rwanda Regressions – Employment Appendix D-6B: Rwanda Regressions – Income Appendix D-7A: Tanzania-I Regressions – Employment Appendix D-7B: Tanzania-I Regressions – Income Appendix D-8A: Tanzania-III Regressions – Employment Appendix D-8B: Tanzania-III Regressions – Income Appendix D-9A: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Employment Regressed on SEB Skills Appendix D-9B: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Employment Regressed on SEB Skills, with Gender x Skill Interaction Predictor Appendix D-9C: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Income Regressed on SEB Skills Appendix D-9D: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Income Regressed on SEB Skills, with Gender x Skill Interaction Predictor List of Supplemental Tables Table 1: Map of 14 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills to 81 Research Publications, Using Constructs from 5 Fields of Study Table 2: Evidence on Gender Similarities and Differences in SEB Skill Levels and the Economic Returns to SEB Skills 2 Table 3: Nigeria Descriptive Statistics Table 4: Côte d'Ivoire Descriptive Statistics Table 5: Congo Descriptive Statistics Table 6: Rwanda Descriptive Statistics Table 7: Tanzania-I Descriptive Statistics Table 8: Tanzania-III Descriptive Statistics Table 9: Content Validation Results: Emotional Self Awareness Table 10: Content Validation Results: Self Awareness Table 11: Content Validation Results: Emotional Regulation Table 12: Content Validation Results: Self Control Table 13: Content Validation Results: Personal Initiative & Perseverance (combined SEB skills and orbits) Table 14: Content Validation Results: Problem Solving & Decision-Making Table 15: Content Validation Results: Empathy Table 16: Content Validation Results: Listening Actively and Listening Respectfully Table 17: Content Validation Results: Expressiveness Table 18: Content Validation Results: Interpersonal Relatedness (Networking) Table 19: Content Validation Results: Interpersonal Relatedness (Maintaining Relationships) Table 20: Content Validation Results: Influence Table 21: Content Validation Results: Collaboration & Negotiation Table 22a Panel A: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Aggregates (3 samples) Table 22b Panel A: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Aggregates (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 22a Panel B: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (3 samples) Table 22b Panel B: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 23a Panel A: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Aggregates of SEB Skill (3 samples) Table 23b Panel A: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Aggregates of SEB Skill (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 23a Panel B: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (3 samples) Table 23b Panel B: Regressions of Employment Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 24a Panel A: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Aggregates (3 samples) Table 24b Panel A: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Aggregates (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 24a Panel B: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (3 samples) Table 24b Panel B: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 25a Panel A: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Aggregates of SEB Skill (3 samples) Table 25b Panel A: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Aggregates of SEB Skill (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 25a Panel B: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (3 samples) Table 25b Panel B: Regressions of Income Outcomes on Each Disaggregated SEB Skill (continued, remaining 3 samples) Table 26: Nigeria Employment Outcomes Table 27: Nigeria Income Outcomes Table 28: Côte d'Ivoire Employment Outcomes Table 29: Côte d'Ivoire Income Outcomes Table 30: Congo Employment Outcomes Table 31: Congo Income Outcomes Table 32: Rwanda Employment Outcomes Table 33: Rwanda Income Outcomes Table 34: Tanzania-I Employment Outcomes Table 35: Tanzania-I Income Outcomes Table 36: Tanzania-III Employment Outcomes Table 37: Tanzania-III Income Outcomes Table 38: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Employment Regressed on SEB Skills Table 39: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Employment Regressed on SEB Skills, with Gender x Skill Interaction Predictor Table 40: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Income Regressed on SEB Skills Table 41: Analysis Controlling for Enumerator: Income Regressed on SEB Skills, with Gender x Skill Interaction Predictor 3 Phase One: Item Generation Appendix A-1: Final Items A-1a: English Problem Solving & Decision Making 1. When I have a problem, I can find several ways to solve it. 2. I solve most problems if I put in the necessary effort. 3. I can find creative solutions to unplanned problems. 4. I can always solve difficult problems if I try hard enough. 5. When making a decision, I analyze my options and their consequences before I act. 6. When making a decision, I look for as much information as I can before I decide what to do. 7. I compare all my options before making a decision. 8. If my first solution does not work, I can come up with another way to solve my problem. 9. I come up with solutions that are unique. 10. I develop new solutions to problems that surprise other people. Appendix A2: Swahili Personal Initiative 1. I actively tackle problems. 2. Whenever there is a chance to get actively involved, I take it. 3. I take action immediately even when others don’t. 4. I am quick to take advantage of opportunities to reach my goals. 5. I seek opportunities to learn more. 6. I look for opportunities to improve myself personally and professionally. 7. If I get feedback on ways I can improve, I immediately try to do better. Perseverance 1. I finish whatever I begin. 2. Setbacks don’t discourage me. 3. When work is difficult, I keep up my effort. 4. If someone is against me, I keep working to fix the problem until I get what I want. 5. I am confident that I could deal appropriately with unexpected events. Self Awareness 1. I understand my own behaviors 2. I am aware of my thoughts 3. I monitor my thinking to ensure it is accurate 4. I know the skills I have that other people do not have 5. I assess my strengths and weaknesses in new situations. 6. I examine my own abilities to better understand myself. 4 7. I review how I am thinking when I make a mistake 8. I have a clear sense of who I am Self Control 1. I say inappropriate things. 2. Pleasure and fun sometimes keep me from getting work done. 3. I do things that feel good in the moment, but I will regret later on. 4. Sometimes I can’t stop myself from doing something, even if I know it is wrong. 5. I often act without thinking through all the alternatives. 6. I have trouble concentrating. 7. I am easily distracted. 8. Sometimes I cannot focus on the present moment 9. It is difficult to pay close attention to one thing for a long period of time. Emotional Regulation 1. When I feel nervous, I know what to do to feel more relaxed. 2. When I feel sad, I know how to take my mind off my problems. 3. I control my temper when people are angry with me. 4. When I’m faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps me stay calm. 5. I control my emotions by changing the way I think about my situation. 6. When I want to feel better, I do something I enjoy. 7. When I want to feel hopeful, I change my thinking so I am more positive. Emotional Awareness 1. I know why my feelings change from one moment to another. 2. I recognize what I am feeling. 3. I can usually describe what I am feeling at the moment in great detail. 4. I am able to accept the thoughts and feelings I have. Empathy 1. I try to understand the perspective of others before making a decision that affects them. 2. When I’m upset at someone, I usually try to imagine myself in their situation to better understand them. 3. Before judging somebody, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place. 4. I ask questions to understand the other person's position on a given issue. 5. I always try to understand the feelings of people I trust 6. If I see someone is hurt, I feel upset 7. I feel good when I help someone in need 8. If others are happy, I feel good. 9. I can quickly sense when someone in the group is uncomfortable. Interpersonal Relatedness (Networking – Forming New Relationships) 1. I am good at building relationships with people I don’t know. 5 2. I am able to introduce myself to people I don’t know well (e.g., strangers, new or unfamiliar people). 3. I am good at getting to know people. 4. I stay connected with people who are important to me. Interpersonal Relatedness (Maintaining Relationships) 1. When others are sad, I try to comfort them. 2. I listen patiently when people tell me their problems. 3. When I see that someone is going through a difficult time, I help out the best I can. 4. I give my friends and family encouragement when they need it. 5. I support my friends and family by praising them. 6. I am able to forgive my friends and family if they do something that frustrates me. Influence 1. I can communicate my ideas in a way that convinces people to agree with me. 2. Other people do what I ask them to do. 3. When someone disagrees with me, I know how to adjust my argument to change their opinion 4. I am good at getting people to help me when I need it. 5. People pay attention when I express my ideas. 6. People trust what I say. 7. I can motivate people to do what I ask. 8. I evaluate social situations to decide the best way to act. 9. I observe social situations carefully before deciding how to present an idea to others. Expressiveness 1. I share my opinion with others without hesitation 2. I can explain complicated ideas in a clear way. 3. I ask for what I need when I need it. 4. I think it's good to ask for what I want 5. Others understand my thoughts when I express them 6. I find it easy to explain my perspective to others 7. I share my thoughts even if others do not agree with them. 8. I directly communicate what I need from others. 9. I openly express my ideas on a topic. 10. I find simple ways to communicate complex ideas. 11. I communicate in a way that others will understand. Collaboration 1. When I work with others, I admit when I am wrong and apologize for my mistakes. 2. When I work with others, I tell others my ideas and ask for theirs in return. 3. When I don’t know a solution to a problem, I can brainstorm with a group of people to get better ideas. 6 4. When my team is having difficulty making a decision, I know what to do to help the team work together more effectively. 5. When I work with others, I clarify the problem we are trying to solve. 6. When I work with others, I summarize the information the group has agreed upon. Negotiation 1. When I disagree with someone, I try to manage my anger so I do not make the situation worse. 2. When I disagree with someone, I am able to give up some things I want to solve our disagreement. 3. Even when I disagree with someone, I still listen to them share their thoughts and views 4. When I disagree with someone, I think about the long-term consequence of my actions on the relationship before I do anything. 5. When I disagree with someone, I can come up with as many possible solutions to solve our problems. 6. When I disagree with someone, I can find solutions to the problem that help both me and the other person. Listening (Respectful) 1. When I am listening to someone, I wait to talk until the other person finishes talking. 2. When I am listening to someone, I will not interrupt the other person even if I have something important to say. 3. Even when I want to share my opinion, I can listen to others’ opinions first. Listening (Active) 1. I ask questions to understand the other person’s position on an issue. 2. When I am listening to someone, I make sure they know I am interested in what they are saying. 3. When I am listening to someone, I show them that I am open to their ideas. 7 A-1b: French Problem Solving & Decision Making 1. Lorsque je suis confronté à un problème, je peux généralement trouver plusieurs solutions 2. Je résous la plupart des problèmes si je fais l'effort nécessaire 3. Grâce à mon habileté et à ma créativité, je sais comment gérer les situations imprévues 4. Je peux toujours résoudre des problèmes difficiles si je fais des efforts 5. Lorsque j'ai une décision à prendre, je prends le temps d'essayer de prévoir les conséquences positives et négatives de chaque option possible avant d'agir 6. Lorsque j'ai un problème à résoudre, l'une des premières choses que je fais est d'obtenir autant de faits sur le problème que possible 7. Lorsque j'essaie de résoudre un problème, je pense à autant d'options que possible jusqu'à ce que je ne puisse plus trouver d'autres idées 8. J'aime penser à de nouvelles façons de faire les choses 9. Je trouve de nouvelles façons de faire les choses 10. Je suis un penseur original Personal Initiative 1. Je m'attaque activement aux problèmes 2. Chaque fois qu'il y a une chance de s'impliquer activement, je la saisis 3. Je prends immédiatement des initiatives, même si les autres ne le font pas 4. Je saisis rapidement les opportunités pour atteindre mes objectifs 5. Je profite de chaque occasion pour en apprendre davantage et développer mes compétences 6. Je cherche des occasions de m'améliorer personnellement et professionnellement 7. Item sr24a is missing in the French label column Perseverance 1. Je finis ce que je commence 2. Les revers ne me découragent pas 3. Item sr27a is missing in French label column 4. Si quelqu'un est contre moi, je peux trouver des moyens et des façons d'obtenir ce que je veux 5. Item sr30 is missing in French label column Self Awareness 1. Je comprends mes propres comportements 2. Je suis conscient de mes pensées 3. Je surveille ma pensée pour m'assurer qu'elle est exacte 4. Je connais les compétences que j'ai et que les autres n'ont pas 5. J'évalue mes forces et mes faiblesses dans de nouvelles situations 6. Item sr38 is missing 7. Je revois ma façon de penser lorsque je fais une erreur 8. J'ai une idée claire de qui je suis 8 Self Control 1. Je dis des choses inappropriées 2. Le plaisir et l'amusement m'empêchent parfois de faire mon travail 3. Je fais des choses qui me font du bien sur le moment mais que je regrette par la suite 4. Parfois, je ne peux pas m'empêcher de faire quelque chose, même si je sais que c'est mal 5. J'agis souvent sans réfléchir à toutes les alternatives 6. Item sr48b is missing 7. Je suis facilement distrait 8. Item sr50b is missing 9. Item sr51b is missing Emotional Regulation 1. Je sais comment me détendre quand je me sens tendue 2. Item sr53a is missing 3. Je contrôle mon tempérament quand les gens sont en colère contre moi 4. Lorsque je suis confronté à une situation stressante, je me fais une réflexion qui m'aide à rester calme 5. Je contrôle mes émotions en changeant ma façon de penser à la situation dans laquelle je me trouve 6. Quand j'essaie de me sentir mieux, je fais quelque chose qui me plaît 7. Quand je veux me sentir plein d'espoir, je change mes pensées pour devenir plus positif. Emotional Awareness 1. Je sais pourquoi mes sentiments changent d'un moment à l'autre 2. Je reconnais ce que je ressens 3. Je peux généralement décrire ce que je ressens sur le moment avec beaucoup de détails 4. Je suis capable d'accepter les pensées et les sentiments que j'ai Empathy 1. J'essaie de comprendre le point de vue de chacun avant de prendre une décision 2. Quand je suis en colère contre quelqu'un, j'essaie généralement de me mettre à sa place pour mieux le comprendre 3. Avant de juger quelqu'un, j'essaie d'imaginer ce que je ressentirais si j'étais à sa place 4. Je pose des questions pour comprendre le point de vue de l'autre personne sur une question donnée 5. J'essaie toujours de comprendre les sentiments des gens en qui j'ai confiance 6. Si quelqu'un est blessé, ça me contrarie 7. Je me sens bien quand j'aide quelqu'un dans le besoin 8. Item sr75a is missing 9. Item sr75b is missing Interpersonal Relatedness (Networking – Forming New Relationships) 1. Je suis douée pour établir des relations avec des gens que je ne connais pas 2. Je suis capable de me présenter à des personnes que je ne connais pas bien (par exemple des étrangers, des personnes nouvelles ou inconnues) 3. Je suis bon pour apprendre à connaître les gens 4. Je reste en contact avec les gens qui sont importants pour moi 9 Interpersonal Relatedness (Maintaining Relationships) 1. Quand les autres sont tristes, j'essaie de les réconforter 2. J'ai tendance à écouter patiemment quand les gens me racontent leurs problèmes 3. Quand je vois que quelqu'un traverse une période difficile, j'aide de toutes les façons possibles 4. Je donne des encouragements à mes amis et à ma famille quand ils en ont besoin 5. Je soutiens mes amis et ma famille en les félicitant 6. Je suis capable de pardonner à mes amis et à ma famille s'ils font quelque chose qui me frustre Influence 1. Je peux communiquer mes idées de manière à convaincre les gens d'être d'accord avec moi 2. Quand je demande de l'aide, je la reçois 3. Item sr91n is missing 4. Je suis doué pour obtenir l'aide des gens quand j'en ai besoin 5. Item sr92b 6. Item sr92c 7. Item sr92d 8. Je suis doué pour examiner les situations sociales afin de déterminer comment me présenter correctement 9. J'observe attentivement les situations sociales avant de décider comment présenter une idée aux autres Expressiveness 1. Item sr96 2. Je peux expliquer des idées compliquées de manière claire 3. Je demande de l'aide quand j'en ai besoin 4. Je pense qu'il est normal de demander ce que je veux 5. Les gens comprennent mes pensées quand je les exprime 6. sr100a 7. sr100b 8. sr100d 9. sr100e 10. sr100f 11. sr100g Collaboration 1. Lorsque je travaille avec d'autres personnes, j'admets mes torts et je m'excuse pour mes erreurs 2. Je dis aux autres mes idées et demande les leurs en retour Je dis aux autres mes idées et demande les leurs en retour 3. Lorsque je ne connais pas de solution à un problème, je peux faire un remue-méninges avec un groupe de personnes pour avoir de meilleures idées 4. Lorsqu'une équipe a de la difficulté à prendre une décision, je sais quoi faire pour l'aider à travailler ensemble plus efficacement 10 5. En travaillant avec d'autres, je clarifie le problème que nous essayons de résoudre 6. sr110a Negotiation 1. Lorsque je ne suis pas d'accord avec quelqu'un, j'essaie de gérer ma colère pour que cela n'aggrave pas la situation 2. Pour résoudre un désaccord, je suis prêt à renoncer à une partie de ce que je veux pour trouver une entente avec l'autre personne 3. Même lorsque je ne suis pas d'accord avec quelqu'un, je l'écoute partager ses pensées et ses opinions sur la question sur laquelle nous ne sommes pas d'accord 4. Lorsque je règle un désaccord, je pense aux répercussions à long terme que mes actions pourraient avoir sur la relation avant de faire quoi que ce soit 5. Pour résoudre un désaccord, je peux proposer un certain nombre de solutions possibles 6. Même lorsque je suis en désaccord avec quelqu'un, je trouve des solutions au problème qui sont bénéfiques pour moi et pour l'autre personne Listening (Respectful) 1. Je commence à parler avant que l'autre personne ne finisse de parler 2. Si j'ai quelque chose à dire qui est important, je vais interrompre l'autre personne 3. Je partage mon opinion sans écouter celle des autres Listening (Active) 1. Je pose des questions pour comprendre la position de l'autre personne sur une question 2. sr126a 3. sr126b 11 A-1c: Hausa Problem Solving & Decision Making 1. idan na fusakanci wata matsala, nakan sami hanyoyi da yawa na warwareta. 2. nakan warware matsaloli da dama idan na yi abin da yakamata. 3. Na gode da irin kwazon da nake da shi da zurfin tunani, na san yadda zan tafiyar da abubuwa da kan zo a bazata. 4. Sau da yawa nakan magance matsaloli masu tasanani idan na ba da himma . 5. idan ina bukatar daukar mataki a kan wani abu,nakan dauki lokaci don yin tunani kan alfanu ko rashin alfanun da matakin ke iya janyowa kafin in aikata. 6. idan ina wata matsala da na ke son magancewa, abu na farko da nakan yi shi ne, tattara hujjoji da dama game da matsalar. 7. idan ina so na magance wata matsala, nakan yi nazarin hanyoyi da dama har sai na ji ba na iya tuna wata hanya ta daban. 8. ina son kirkiro sabbin hanyoyi na yin abubuwa. 9. nakan iya kirkiro sabbin hanyoyi na yin abubuwa. 10. ni mutum ne mai son yin nazari Personal Initiative 1. da gaske nake magance matsaloli. 2. da zarar an sami damar yin wani abu nan take nake karba, 3. nakan fara aiwatar da abu ko da sauran mutane sunki. 4. nakan yi amfani da dama cikin sauri don cimma manufa ta. 5. na kan yi amfani da kowace irin dama don cigaban aiyukana 6. na kan nemi dama kowace iri don inganta kaina da aikina. 7. sr24a Perseverance 1. nakan kammala duk abin da na fara. 2. ci baya ba ya karya mini gwiwa. 3. sr27a 4. idan wani baya kaunata , nakan san hanyoyin da zan bi don samin abin da nake so. 5. sr30 Self Awareness 1. Na fahimci dabi’una 2. Ina sane da tunani na 3. Ina la’akari da tunani na don tabbatar da komai na tafiya daidai. 4. Na san irin kwarewar da nake da ita wadda wasu mutane ba su da shi 5. Na gane kwazona da kwarewata idan ina aikata sabbin abubuwa. 6. nakan tuhumi kwazona. 7. Ina nazarin yadda nake tunani bayan na yi kuskure 8. Ina da matukar sanin ko ni wane ne Self Control 1. nakan fadi abubuwan da ba su dace ba. 2. abubuwan jin dadi da shakatawa sukan hana ni yin abin da ya kamata. 12 3. nakan yi abubuwan da ke sani jin dadi da nishadi, amma in yi danasani daga baya. 4. wasu lokuta ba na iya hana kaina aikata wani abu, ko da na san abin nan baya da kyau. 5. sau da yawa nakan aikata abu ba tare da tunanin wasu zabi ba. 6. sr48b 7. cikin sauki ake dauke mini hankali. 8. sr50b 9. sr51b Emotional Regulation 1. na san lokacin da yakamata in huta idan na gaji. 2. Sr53a 3. nakan boye damuwata idan mutane na fushi da ni. 4. idan aka fuskance ni da abubuwa masu wahala, nakan zauna in yi tunani a kansu cikin nutsuwa. 5. nakan danne bacin raina, ta hanyar sauya yadda nake kallon halin da na sami kaina a ciki. 6. idan ina so in inganta rayuwata, na aikata abin da raina yake so ne kawai. 7. Sr59a Emotional Awareness 1. Na san yadda yanayi na ke canzawa lokaci bayan lokaci 2. Ina gane abin da nake ji 3. sau da yawa ina iya bayanin yadda nake ji sosai a halin da ake ciki a takaice. 4. ina iya yarda da the tunanina da kuma yadda nake ji Empathy 1. ina kokari wajen gane hujjar kowa, kafin in yanke hukunci. 2. idan wani ya bata mini rai, sau da yawa nakan dauka kamar ni ne shi, don in kara fahimtarsa sosai. 3. kafin In yanke wa wani hukunci, nakan yi kokarin tunanin yadda zan ji in da ni ne shi. 4. nakan yi tambayoyi don in fahimci matsayin abokin magana na akan abin da ake tattaunawa. 5. kullum nakan yi kokarin sanin yadda mutanen da na yarda da su suke ji. 6. idan aka musguna wa wani, yakan bata mini rai. 7. ina jin dadi idan na taimaki mabukaci. 8. sr75a 9. sr75b Interpersonal Relatedness (Networking – Forming New Relationships) 1. ina da kokari wajen kulla alaka da mutanen da ban sani ba. 2. ina iya gabatar da kaina sosai ga mutanen da ban sani ba kamar(baki, da wadanda ban sani ba) 3. ina da kokari wajen iya sanin mutane. 4. ba na rabuwa da mutanen da suke da muhimmanci a gare ni. Interpersonal Relatedness (Maintaining Relationships) 1. idan ran wasu ya baci, nakan ba su hakuri. 2. nakan saurari mutane cikin nutsuwa idan suna gaya mini matsalolinsu. 13 3. idan na ga wani yana cikin halin damuwa, na kan taimaka gwargwadon iyawa ta. 4. ina bai wa 'yan'uwana da abokaina kwarin gwiwa, idan suna bukatansa. 5. ina karfafa wa 'yan'uwana da abokaina ta hanyar yaba musu. 6. ina iya yafewa 'yanuwa da abokai idan suka yi wani abin da ya bata mini rai. Influence 1. ina gabatar da tunanina ga mutane har su gamsu su yarda da ni. 2. idana na nemi taimako ina samu. 3. sr91n 4. na san hanyoyin da nake bi mutane su taimaka mini, idan ina bukatar taimako. 5. sr92b 6. sr92c 7. sr92d 8. Na kware wajen lura da yanayin harkokin rayuwa don sanin yadda zan gabatar da kaina da kyau 9. ina nazarin harkokin rayuwa da kyau, kafin in yanke shawarar gabatar da wani batu ga wasu. Expressiveness 1. Ina tattauna ra’ayi na da mutane ba tare da jin komai ba 2. Zan iya bayani kan abubuwa masu sarkakiya cikin hanya mafi sauki 3. ina neman gudunmuwa idan ina bukata. 4. Ina ganin ba laifi in tambayi abin da nake so 5. Mutane suna fahimtar tunani na idan na yi bayaninsu 6. Ina iya bayyana wa mutane ra’ayi na cikin sauki 7. sr100b 8. sr100d 9. sr100e 10. sr100f 11. sr100g Collaboration 1. idan ina aiki da mutane, nakan karbi kuskure na idan na yi , kuma sai in ba da hakuri. 2. ina gaya wa mutane manufofina kuma ni ma in nemi su gaya mini nasu. 3. idan ban san yadda za a magance wata matsala ba, nakan tattauna da wasu don samo mafita wadda ta fi cancanta. 4. idan wata kungiya tana kokarin daukar mataki,na san hanyar da zan taimaka musu su yi aiki tare yadda ya dace. 5. idan ina aiki da wasu, nakan fayyace matsalar da ake son warwarewa. 6. Idan ina aiki da jama’a , na kan takaita batutuwan da aka samu yarjejeniya. Negotiation 1. idan na sami sabani da wani, ina kokarin danne fushi na don kada abin ya munana. 2. don a magance rashin fahimta, zan iya barin wasu abubuwan da nake neman daidaito a kai da mutumin. 3. ko da na sami rashin fahimta da wani, nakan tattauna da su mu fahimci ra'ayinsu a kan batun da muka sami rashin fahimta a ciki. 14 4. idan na warware rashin fahimtar juna,nakan dubi alfanun da hakan zai haifar ga dangantaka a nan gaba kafin in aikata komai. 5. don magance rashin fahimtar juna, zan iya kawo mafita daban-daban. 6. ko da na sami sabani da wani, nakan samar da hanyar da za ta amfane mu tare. Listening (Respectful) 1. nakan fara magana kafin wani ya gama nasa maganar. 2. idan ina da wani abu mai muhimmanci da zan fadi, zan iya dakatar da wani. 3. ina yada ra'ayoyina ba tare da sauraron ra'ayin wasu ba. Listening (Active) 1. nakan yi tambayoyi don in fahimci matsayin abokin magana na akan abin da ake tattaunawa . 2. Ina tabbatar wa mutane da ina sauraronsu ta hanyar Magana da baki 3. Ina tabbatar wa mutane da cewa ina yarda da ra’ayinsu 15 A-1d: Yoruba Problem Solving & Decision Making 1. Tí mo bá kojú ìṣòro, mo lè rí oríṣiríṣi ọ̀nà àbáyọ. 2. Mo máa ń le yanjú ọ̀pọ̀ ìṣòro tí mo bá sa ipá tó yẹ 3. Ọpẹ́ fún ìmọ̀ọ́nṣe àti ọgbọ́n àtinúdá mi, mo lè kapa ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ aláìròtẹ́lẹ̀. 4. Mo lè yanjú ìṣòro akaniláyà tí mo bá gbìyànjú dáradára. 5. Tí mo bá ní ìpinnu kan láti ṣe, mo máa ń ṣe àròjinlẹ̀ lórí àbájáde yòówù ti ìgbésẹ̀ kọ̀ọ̀kan yóò mú wá (ní rere tàbí búburú) kí n tó ṣe é. 6. Tí mo bá fẹ́ yanjú ìṣòro kan, ọ̀kan lára ohun tí mo máa kọ́kọ́ ṣe ni láti mọ̀ nípa ìṣòro náà bó ti ṣeéṣe tó. 7. Tí mo bá fẹ́ yanjú ìṣòro kan, mo máa ń ro oríṣíríṣi ọ̀nà alètọ̀ títí tí mi ò fi ní lè ronú nípa ọ̀nà mìíràn mọ́. 8. sr10a (10 and 10a were difficult to track) 9. Mo máa ń ṣàwárí ọ̀nà ọ́tun láti ṣe nǹkan. 10. Mo jẹ́ aláròjinlẹ̀. Personal Initiative 1. Mo máa ń yanjú ìṣòro lóòrèkóòrè. 2. Tí ààyè à ti kópa nínú nǹkan ní kíkún bá yọjú, mo máa ń gbá tìí. 3. Mo máa ń tètè gbé ìgbésẹ̀ kódà nígbà tí àwọn mìíràn kò ṣe bẹ́ẹ̀. 4. Mo máa ń tètè ro nǹkan bó tilẹ̀ jẹ́ pé àwọn mìíràn kò ṣe bẹ́ẹ̀. 5. Mo máa ń fi gbogbo àǹfààní tó bá yọjú fi nímọ̀ àti láti mú kí ìmọ̀ọ́nṣe mi gbèrú si. 6. Mo máa ń wá àǹfààní àlètọ̀ láti ran ara mi lọ́wọ́ gẹ́gẹ́ bí ènìyàn àti gẹ́gẹ́ bí akọ́ṣẹ́mọṣẹ́. 7. sr24a Perseverance 1. Mo máa ń parí ohunkóhun tí mo bá bẹ̀rẹ̀ 2. Ìfàsẹ́yìn kì í mú ìrẹ̀wẹ̀sì bá mi 3. sr27a 4. Bí ènìyàn bá takò mí, mo lè wá ọ̀nà láti rí ohun tí mo fẹ́. 5. Ó dá mi lójú pé mo lè kojú ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ aláìfọkànsì yòówù tó bá ṣúyọ bó ti yẹ. Self Awareness 1. Àwọn ìhùwàsí mi yé mi 2. (Àwọn) Èrò mi yé mi 3. Mo máa ń bójú tó/fọkà sí èrò mi láti ri pé ó gún régé 4. Mo mọ àwọn ìmọ̀ọ́nṣe tí mo ní àmọ́ tí ẹlòmìíràn ò ní. 5. Mo máa ń ṣe ìgbéléwọ̀n okun/agbára àti àìlágbára mi nínú ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ tuntun. 6. Mo máa ń ṣe ìdájọ́/lámèétọ́ nípa ipá àti agbára mi. 7. Mo máa ń ṣe àyẹ̀wò bí mo ṣe ń ronú tí mo bá ṣe àṣìṣe 8. Irú èèyàn tí mo jẹ́ yé mi 16 Self Control 1. Mo máa sọ àwọn ọ̀rọ̀ àsé. 2. Ìgbádùn àti afẹ́ máa ń dí mi lọ́wọ́ àti ṣiṣẹ́. 3. Mo máa ń ṣe àwọn nǹkan tó múnú mi dùn ní àkokò náà àmọ́ mo máa ń kábàámọ̀ tó bá yá. 4. Nígbà mìíràn, mi ò lè jáwọ́ nínú ṣíṣe nǹkan bó tilẹ̀ jẹ́ pé mo mọ̀ pé kò dára. 5. Mo sábà máa ń hùwà láì ronújinlẹ̀ lórí ọ̀nà mìíràn tí mo lè gbà. 6. Sr48b 7. Ọkàn mi tètè máa ń kúrò nínú nǹkan. 8. Sr50b 9. Sr51b Emotional Regulation 1. Mo mọ̀ bí mo ṣe lè sinmi/gbafẹ́ tí iṣẹ́ bá wọ̀ mí lọ́rùn. 2. Sr53a 3. Mo máa ń ní sùúrù púpọ̀ tí àwọn èèyàn bá ń bínú sí mi. 4. Tí mo bá kánlu ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ akaniláyà, mo máa ń dàárò lọ́nà tí ó máa ń ràn mí lọ́wọ́ láti fọkànbalẹ̀. 5. Mo máa ń kápa ẹ̀dùn ọkàn mi nípa ṣíṣe àtúnṣe sí ọ̀nà tí mò ń gbà ronú nípa ipò tí mo wà. 6. Tí mo bá ń gbìyànjú àti dára mi lọ́kàn le, mo má ń ṣe ohun tí mo fẹ́ràn. 7. Sr59a Emotional Awareness 1. Mo mọ ìdí tí ìmọ̀sílára mi ṣe máa yí padà. 2. Mo mọ̀ nípa ìmọ̀sílára mi 3. Mo lè ṣàpèjúwe ní kíkún bó ṣe ń ṣe mí ní àkókò kan. 4. Mo le ṣe ìtẹ́wọ́gbà èrò àti ìmọ̀lára tí mo ní. Empathy 1. Mo máa ń gbìyànjú àti mọ èrò gbogbo ènìyàn kí n tó ṣe ìpinnu. 2. Tí inú bá ń bí mi sí ẹnìkan, mo máa ń sábà ‘fi ọ̀rọ̀ ro ara mi wò’ kí ọ̀rọ̀ wọn fi le yé mi. 3. Kí n tó dá ẹnikẹ́ni lẹ́jọ́, mo máa ń fi ọ̀rọ̀ wo ara mi wò láti mọ̀ bí yóò ṣe rí lára mi tí mo bá wà ní ipò o wọn. 4. Mo máa ń bèèrè ìbéèrè láti mọ èrò ẹnìkejì lórí ọ̀rọ̀ kan. 5. Mo máa ń gbìyànjú àti mọ́ bí ọ̀rọ̀ ṣe rí lára àwọn èèyàn tí mo nígbàgbọ́ nínú wọn. 6. Ti okan ènìyàn ba gbogbe , o maa n bi mi ninu 7. Ara mi máa ń yá gágá tí mo bá ran èèyàn tó nílò ìrànlọ́wọ́ lọ́wọ́. 8. Sr75a 9. Sr75b Interpersonal Relatedness (Networking – Forming New Relationships) 1. Mo moo bí a ṣe ń ba awon eniyaǹ dọ́rẹ̀ẹ́. 2. Mo lè ṣe àfihàn ara mi fún àwọn èèyàn tí mi ò mọ̀ dáadáa (b.a., àlejò, èèyàn tí mo ṣẹ̀ṣẹ̀ mọ̀ tàbí tí mi ò fi bẹ́ẹ̀ mọ̀). 3. Mo mọ̀ nípa bí a ṣe ń báni dọ́rẹ̀ẹ́ dáadáa. 4. N kì í fi àwọn tó ṣe pàtàkì sí mi sílẹ̀ rárá. 17 Interpersonal Relatedness (Maintaining Relationships) 1. Tí ọkàn àwọn mìíràn bá gbọgbẹ́, mo máa ń gbìyànjú àti tù wọ́n nínú. 2. Mo máa ń tẹ́tí sílẹ̀ dáadáa tí àwọn èèyàn bá sọ ìṣòro wọn fún mi. 3. Tí mo bá ri pé èèyàn kan ń la ìṣòro kan kọjá, mo máa ń ràn wọ́n lọ́wọ́ ní ọ̀nàkọnà tí mo bá le ràn wọ́n lọ́wọ́. 4. Mo máa ń fún àwọn ọ̀rẹ́ àti ẹbí mi ní ìmúlọ́kànle nígbà tí wọ́n bá nílò rẹ̀. 5. Mo máa ń gbárùkù ti àwọn ọ̀rẹ́ àti ẹbí mi nípa gbígbóríyìn fún wọn. 6. Mo lè dáríji àwọn ọ̀rẹ́ àti ẹbí mi tí wọ́n bá ṣe nǹkan tó pin mí lẹ́mìí. Influence 1. Mo lè ṣàgbékalẹ̀ èrò mi lọ́nà tí mà á fi mú kí àwọn èèyàn faramọ́ èrò mi. 2. Tí mo bá bèèrè fún ìrànlọ́wọ́, mo máa ń ri gbà. 3. Sr91n 4. Mo mọ bí a ṣe ń mú kí èèyàn ràn mí lọ́wọ́ tí mo bá nílò rẹ. 5. sr92b 6. sr92c 7. sr92d 8. Mo mọ̀ bí a ṣe ń ṣe àyẹ̀wò ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ àwùjọ láti mọ bí mo ṣe lè ṣe sí. 9. Mo máa ń ṣe àwòfín ibi tí mo bá wà dáadáa kí n tó pinnu lórí ọ̀nà tí mo fi máa ṣe àgbékalẹ̀ èrò mi fún àwọn mìíràn. Expressiveness 1. Mo máa ń bá àwọn èèyàn jíròrò nípa èrò mi láì ṣiyèméjì 2. Mo lè ṣe àgbékalẹ̀ èrò tó lọ́jú pọ̀ lọ́nà tó já gaara 3. Mo máa ń bèèrè fún ìrànlọ́wọ́ tí mo bá nílò rẹ̀. 4. Mo rò pé ó dára láti bèèrè fún ohun tí mo bá fẹ́ 5. Èrò mi máa ń yé àwọn èèyàn tí mo bá sọ wọ́n jáde 6. Ó rọrùn láti ṣàlàyé ojúwòye mi fún àwọn ẹlòmìíràn 7. sr100b 8. sr100d 9. sr100e 10. sr100f 11. sr100g Collaboration 1. Tí mo bá ń bá àwọn mìíràn ṣiṣẹ́, mo máa ń gbà tí mo bá jẹ̀bi bẹ́ẹ̀ sì ni mo máa ń túbá fún àṣìṣe mi. 2. Mo máa ń sọ èrò mi fún àwọn mìíràn, bẹ́ẹ̀ sì ni mo máa ń bèèrè nípa tiwọn náà. 3. Tí n kò bá ní ojútùú sí ìṣòro kan, mo lè foríkorí pẹ̀lú ọ̀wọ́ àwọn èèyàn kan láti wá ọ̀nà àbáyọ tó dára. 4. Tí ọ̀wọ́ èèyàn àjọṣiṣẹ́ kan bá ń ní ìpèníjà àti ṣe ìpinnu kan, mo mọ ohun tí mo lè ṣe láti mú kí wọ́n jọ lè ṣiṣẹ́ pọ̀ sí i. 5. Nínú ṣíṣe iṣẹ́ pẹ̀lú àwọn mìíràn, mo máa ń ṣàlàyé ìṣòro tí à ń wá ojútùú sí. 6. Tí mo bá ṣiṣẹ́ pẹ̀lú àwọn ẹgbẹ́/ọ̀wọ́ èèyàn kan, mo máa n ṣe ìsọníṣókí àwọn àdéhùn Negotiation 1. Tí mi ò bá faramọ èrò ẹnìkan, mo máa ń gbìyànjú àti kápá ìbínú mi kí ó má ba à sọ ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ náà di yánpọnyánrin. 2. Láti yanjú èdè-àìyedè, mo sẹtán láti yànda ohun tó fa aáwọ̀ náà pẹ̀lú onítọ̀hún. 18 3. Bí mo tílẹ̀ ṣàìfaramọ́ èrò ẹnìkan, mo máa ń tẹ́tí sí wọn láti mọ èrò wọn lórí ohun náà tí a ò fẹnukò lóró. 4. Tí mo bá yanjú aáwọ̀ kan, mo máa ń ro bí ìṣesí mi ṣe nípá lórí ìbáṣepọ̀ mi pẹ̀lú onítọ̀hún kí n tó ṣe nǹkan kan. 5. Láti yanjú aáwọ̀ kan, mo lè ro ọ̀pọ̀ ọ̀nà àbáyọ. 6. Bí mi ò tilẹ̀ faramọ́ èrò ẹnìkan, mo máa ń wá ojútùú tí yóò san èmi àti ẹnìkejì. Listening (Respectful) 1. Mo máa ń já lu ọ̀rọ̀ kí ẹnìkejì náà tó parí tirẹ̀. 2. Tí mo bá ní ọ̀rọ̀ tó ṣe pàtàkì láti sọ, mo máa já lu ọ̀rọ̀ ẹnìkejì. 3. Mo máa ń sọ èrò mi láì tẹ́tí sí èrò ẹlòmìíràn. Listening (Active) 1. 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(2008). Development and validity evidence supporting a teamwork and collaboration assessment for high school students. ETS Research Report Series, 2008(2), i–51. 54 Zweig, D., & Webster, J. (2004). Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Goal Orientation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 36(3), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087233 55 Appendix A-3a: Final 81 Publications Mapped to 14 SEB Skills Supplement Table 1. Map of 14 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills to 81 Research Publications, Using Constructs from 5 Fields of Study Field 1: Child Field 2: Field 5: Development, Field 3: Field 4: Skill Workforce Psychology Social- Psychology (General) Economics Development (Personality) Emotional Learning* Appraisal of emotions, Emotional self- Self-awareness: 1. Emotional awareness, Emotional intelligence. identifying Self-control Awareness (Gignac et al., 2005; Salovey & Mayer, emotions 1990b; Schutte et al., 1998) Managing Insight, Metacognition, Objective self- emotions, awareness, Private self-consciousness, Positive self- Self-monitoring, Self-Other agreement, Self-awareness: concept Self-reflection. (Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, Self-efficacy, Self- 2. Self-Awareness accurate self- 2012; Grant, 2001; Grant et al., 2002; esteem perception Murphy & Alexander, 2000; Schraw & Dennison, 1994; Silvia & Duval, 2001; Snyder, 1974) Self- Big 5: Emotional intelligence, Emotional management: Emotional Managing regulation, Self-regulation. (J. Gross, 3. Emotional regulating one’s stability, emotions, Self- 2015; J. J. Gross & John, n.d.; Matsumoto Self-control Regulation emotions, Neuroticism control et al., 2008; Niven et al., 2011; Palmer et thoughts and SAPI†: Emotional al., 2005; Schutte et al., 1998) behaviors balance Ability to delay Anger management, Attention, Effortful gratification, control, Executive function, Impulse Patience, Present Self- control, Inhibitory control, Mindfulness, bias, Self-control, management: Achieving Self-control, Self-regulation. (Baumeister Time-inconsistent Big 5: 4. Self-Control impulse control, goals, Self- et al., 1994; A. Duckworth & Gross, 2014; preferences. Conscientiousness self-discipline, control A. L. Duckworth & Kern, 2011; Feldman (DellaVigna, 2009; self-motivation et al., 2007; Maloney et al., 2012; Tangney Frederick et al., et al., 2004) 2002; Gul & Pesendorfer, 2001) NOTE. Table 3 is continued on the next page. * The social emotional learning framework comes from the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). † The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI). 56 Table ##. Continued Map of 14 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills to 81 Research Publications in 5 Fields of Study Field 1: Child Field 2: Field 5: Development, Field 3: Field 4: Skill Workforce Psychology Social- Psychology (General) Economics Development (Personality) Emotional Learning* Growth mindset, Action orientation, Assertiveness, Goal Big 5: Achieving Personal orientation, Career initiative, Personal growth Conscientiousness, Self- goals, Self- initiative. initiative, Intentional behavior, Proactive Openness 5. Personal Initiative management: direction, Self- (Campos et al., orientation. (Bateman & Crant, 1993; SAPI†: goal-setting motivation, 2017b; Mensmann & Frese, 2019; Parker et al., 2010; Achievement Self-starting Mensmann & Robitschek et al., 2012) orientation Frese, 2019) Frustration tolerance, Goal orientation, Grit, Initiative, Need for achievement, Persistence, Perseverance, Resilience, Self-control, Self- management. (Datu et al., 2016; Díaz et al., Achieving Grit, Self- 2012; Disabato et al., 2019; A. Duckworth & goals, Self- Perseverance, Big 5: 6. Perseverance management: Gross, 2014; A. L. Duckworth & Kern, 2011; control, Persistence, Self- Conscientiousness self-motivation A. L. Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Frese et al., Hardworking control 1997; Kashdan, 2018; Muenks et al., 2017; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Robertson-Kraft & Duckworth, 2014; Robitschek et al., 2012; Salisu et al., 2020; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001) Responsible Problem Creativity, Fluid intelligence, Cognitive skills, decision-making: solving, Critical Rational/Creative problem solving, Working Higher-order analyzing Big 5 & SAPI: 7. Problem-Solving thinking, memory. (Borghans et al., 2008; D’Zurilla et thinking. situations, Openness Higher-order al., 2004; Lai, 2011; Lewis & Smith, 1993; (Borghans et al., evaluating, thinking Sorsdahl et al., 2017) 2008) reflecting Social Cognitive empathy, Emotional attention, Big 5: awareness: Perspective-taking, Recognizing emotions. Agreeableness 8. Empathy perspective- (Caruso & Mayer, 1998a; Davis, 1980; Kret & SAPI: Empathy, taking, empathy Gelder, 2012; Longmire & Harrison, 2018) Social intelligence Communication Social skills 9a. Listening (Actively) Attention, Active listening, Respectful Big 5: Relationship communication. (Bodie, 2011; Brink & Agreeableness skills: the ability 9b. Listening (Respectfully) Costigan, 2015; Drollinger et al., 2006; SAPI: Warm- to listen well Kourmousi et al., 2017) heartedness NOTE. Table 3 continues on the next page. 57 Table ##. Continued Map of 14 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills to 81 Research Publications in 5 Fields of Study Field 1: Child Field 2: Field 5: Development, Field 3: Field 4: Skill Workforce Psychology Social- Psychology (General) Economics Development (Personality) Emotional * Learning Relationship Assertive communication, Effective skills: the ability communication, Oral Expression. Big 5: 10. Expressiveness to communicate (Arrindell & Van der Ende, 1985; Extraversion clearly Fleishman, 1984; Mitamura, 2018) 11a. Relatedness Affective empathy, Caring, Compassion, Big 5: (Networking) Relationship Emotional attention, Empathetic concern, Agreeableness, skills: Social Empathy, Kindness, Prosocial behavior, Building social Extraversion engagement, Social intelligence. (Baumsteiger & networks, Social SAPI†: Integrity, 11b. Relatedness relationship Siegel, 2019; Boyatzis et al., 1999; Caruso skills, Social support Interpersonal (Maintaining Relationships) building, & Mayer, 1998b; Drollinger et al., 2006; relatedness, teamwork Forret & Dougherty, 2004; Gilbert et al., Warm-heartedness 2019; Pommier, 2010; Strauss et al., 2016) Adaptability, Influence, Interpersonal effectiveness, Leadership, Networking ability, Persuasive communication, Social skills, Political savvy/skill, Self-monitoring, 12 Influence Working with Social astuteness/effectiveness. (Arrindell others, Negotiation, Relationship & Van der Ende, 1985; Doyle, 2020; Teamwork Persuasion, Big 5: skills: conflict Fenstermaker, 2012; Kilmann & Thomas, Persuasiveness, Extraversion resolution, social 1977; Snyder, 1974) Social skills. engagement, Interpersonal negotiation, Perspective- relationship- taking, Conflict styles. (Kilmann & 13. Negotiation building, Thomas, 1977; Selman et al., 1986; teamwork Selman & Demorest, 1984; Yeates et al., 1991) Social problem-solving. (Doyle, 2020; Fenstermaker, 2012; Selman et al., 1986; Big 5: 14. Collaboration Cooperation Selman & Demorest, 1984; Yeates et al., Agreeableness 1991) 58 Appendix A-3b: Final 81 Sources Used to Generate Items (Manuscript Table 3) Bibliography from Manuscript Table #3 Arrindell, W. A., & Van der Ende, J. (1985). Cross-sample invariance of the structure of self- reported distress and difficulty in assertiveness: Experiences with the scale for interpersonal behaviour. 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The development of interpersonal negotiation strategies in thought and action. A social-cognitive link to behavioral adjustment and social status. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 369–405. 63 Appendix A-4: Evidence on Gender Similarities and Differences in SEB Skill Levels and the Economic Returns to SEB Skills Supplement Table 2 Empirical Evidence on Relationship with Economic and Other Skill Gender Differences Outcomes Emotional self-awareness: 1. EMOTIONAL Job performance (+) (Cherniss, 1999; Igbinovia, 2016; Jordan & Emotional self-awareness: SELF- Ashkanasy, 2006; Trejo, 2014; Young & Dulewicz, 2007) M F (Ajayi et al., 2020) Balwanz, 2012; Burnett & Jayaram, 2012; Busso et al., 2011; Guerra et al., 2014; S. Roy et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2014) Income (Earnings, Wages) (+) (Ajayi et al., 2020; Busso et al., 2011; Duncan & Dunifon, 2012; Feinstein, 2000; Fortin, 2008; Goldsmith et al., 1997b; Murnane et al., 2001b) Job performance (+) (Cavallo & Brienza, 2001; Cherniss, 1999; Colquitt et al., 2000) Job offers (+) (Kanfer et al., 2001) Entrepreneurial performance (+) (Jain & Ali, 2013; Luthans & Ibrayeva, 2006; Markman & Baron, 2003) Agricultural output (+) (D. Roy, 2009) Emotional regulation: Emotional regulation: M > F (Ajayi et al., 2020) Income (Earnings, Wages) (+) (Ajayi et al., 2020) Emotional stability: M>F Job performance (+) (Bharwaney et al., 2007; Trejo, 2014) (Costa et al., 2001; Feingold, 3. EMOTIONAL 1994; Hyde, 2005; Lynn & Emotional stability: REGULATION: Martin, 1997; Schmitt et al., Employment (+) (Lindqvist & Vestman, 2009) Maintaining or 2008) Income (Earnings, Wages) (+) (Lindqvist & Vestman, 2009) changing one’s own Biological emotional Positive (job) interviews (+)(Roberts et al., 2007) emotions by Job recommendations (+) (Roberts et al., 2007) reactivity: M=F (McRae et controlling one’s al., 2008) Goal setting (+) (Erez & Judge, 2001) thoughts and Motivation (+) (Judge & Ilies, 2002) behavioral responses Cognitive reappraisal: M=F Low irritability: (J. J. Gross & John, 2003) Employment (+) Expressive suppression: (Lippman et al., 2015) MF task, breaking habits, Goal achievement (+) (Kaur et al., 2010) (Cavallo & Brienza, 2001) restraining impulses Self-discipline: M F term goals and (Ajayi et al., 2020) Achievement, Achievement drive, Positive emotionality-agency, putting these goals Active, Proactive, Motivation into action under Income (Earnings) (+) (Dunifon & Duncan, 1998; Seibert et al., 1999) one’s own volition Job performance (+) (Ashford & Black, 1996; Blickle et al., 2009; Cavallo & Brienza, 2001; Cherniss, 1999; Fuller Jr. & Marler, 2009; A. Grant et al., 2009; Roberts et al., 2003; Schoon, 2008; Seibert et al., 1999; Singh et al., 2009; Thomas et al., 2010; J. Thompson, 2005; J. A. Thompson, 2005; Tornau & Frese, 2013), (mixed) (S. Parker et al., 2019) Top jobs / Resource power / Occupational status (+) (Roberts et al., 2003; Schoon, 2008) Entrepreneurial performance (+) (Collins et al., 2004; Crant, 1995; Markman & Baron, 2003; Rauch & Frese, 2000; Tornau & Frese, 2013) 65 Perseverance / Persistence: Employment / Any income (+) (Ajayi et al., 2020; Lindqvist & Vestman, 2009) Income (Earnings, Wages (+) (Ajayi et al., 2020; Andersson & Bergman, Perseverance: M > F (Ajayi 2011; S. Bowles et al., 2001b; Diaz et al., 2013; Lindqvist & Vestman, et al., 2020) 2009; O’Connell & Sheikh, 2007) Grit: M F 2015, 2015) information, (Ajayi et al., 2020) Income (Earnings, Wages) (+) (Ajayi et al., 2020; Burrus et al., 2013; generating a number Busso et al., 2011; Green, 1999; Ramos et al., 2013) of solutions and Job performance (+) (Bartram, 2005; Bharwaney et al., 2007; R. E. evaluating the Boyatzis, n.d.; Hogan & Holland, 2003b; Mcdaniel et al., 2001; OECD, consequences of 2001; Soland et al., 2013) these solutions before Entrepreneurial Performance (+) (Arasti, 2014) acting Empathy: Empathy: M > F (Ajayi et al., Income (Earnings) (+) (Ajayi et al., 2020) 2020; Willer et al., 2015), Job performance (+) (Aggarwal et al., 2005; Anaza et al., 2018; Cherniss, M F (Ajayi et al., 2020) Expressiveness / Communication skills / Presentation skills: 10. Assertive communication: Income (Earnings, Wages) (+) (Burrus et al., 2013; Dickerson & Green, EXPRESSIVENESS: Level: M>F (Feingold, 1994; 2004b; Green, 1999; Soland et al., 2013) Communicating Leaper & Ayres, 2007), M=F Job performance (+) (Bartram, 2005; OECD, 2001; Papa & Tracy, 1988; information and ideas (Costa et al., 2001; Leaper & Soland et al., 2013) in speaking so others Ayres, 2007; Park et al., 2016) Entrepreneurial performance (+) (Baron & Tang, 2009; Jiyane & will understand, and Expression of emotions: Zawada, 2013; Rauch & Frese, 2000) openly sharing needs Level: M F (Ajayi et al., 2020), MF (Forret & Dougherty, 2001) Influence, Leadership, Social Potency, Persuasiveness 12. Income (Wages, Earnings) (+) (S. Bowles et al., 2001b; Kuhn & INTERPERSONAL Weinberger, 2005; Ramos et al., 2013; Zhang & Arvey, 2009) INFLUENCE: Job performance (+) (Bartram, 2005; Brush et al., 2004; Cavallo & Communicating and Leadership: MF Job performance (No impact) (Greig, 2008) and maximize own (Stevens et al., 1993) Entrepreneurial performance (+)(Artinger et al., 2015; Mazei et al., self interest 2015) ** see also evidence on Social Skills under skill 14. ** see also evidence on Emotional Intelligence under skill 1. Collaboration Entrepreneurial performance (+) Social problem-solving Teamwork: M > F (Ajayi et Youth’s transition into the workforce (+) (Guerra et al., 2014) al., 2020) Team leadership, Ability to work well in a team 14. Cooperation: M=F (Anthony Job performance (+) (Cherniss, 1999) COLLABORATION: & Horne, 2003; Balliet et al., Social skills: Considering different 2011), MF (Balliet et al., Income (Wages) (+) (Busso (Goodman et al., 2015)al., 2011; Lindqvist & establishing common 2011; Van Vugt et al., 2007) Vestman, 2009), (mixed) (Ferris et al., 2001b) ground Collaboration: M