Country Gender Assessment Serbia 1 SERBIA COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT Country Gender Assessment Serbia 2 May 2024 © 2024 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, D.C. 20433 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved Printed and manufactured in Washington, D.C. First Printing: [May 2024] This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be at- tributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to mem- bers of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting por- tions or all this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encour- ages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 3 CONTENTS Acknowledgements  4 Abbreviations5 1. Introduction  6 2. Legal and institutional framework  7 3. Endowments  13 3.1 Health 13 3.2 Education  19 4. Economic opportunities  25 4.1 Labor market participation and employment status  25 4.2 Need and provision of care 31 4.3 Labor market segregation  33 4.4 Wage gap  35 4.5 Entrepreneurship and financial inclusion  36 5. Voice and agency  41 5.1 Attitudes towards women  41 5.2 Political participation  41 5.3 Violence against women  46 6. Conclusions  47 7. References  48 Country Gender Assessment Serbia 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is one of six Western Balkans Country Gender Assessments (CGAs) prepared by a team led by Anna Fruttero and comprising of Chiara Broccolini, Armanda Car- cani, Alexandru Cojocaru, Roxanne Hakim, Olivera Kovacevic, Sanchi Kumal, Sel- ma Ljubijankic, Leonardo Lucchetti, Trang Nguyen, Ana Maria Oviedo, Ifeta Smajic, Bekim Ymeri, Zurab Sajaia, Marija Bashevska (North Macedonia), Bergin Kulenovic (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Juna Miluka (Albania and Kosovo), Jelena Žarković and Marko Vladisavjevic (Montenegro and Serbia), Dominik Koehler (SOGI), Emilia Ga- liano and Isabel Santagostino (WBL), Adela Llatja (GIZ), and Ermira Lubani (UN Women, Gender Responsive Budgeting). Designed by Human Indeed Studio. The team thanks Daniel Halim, Daniel Kirkwood, Lisa Kolovich (IMF), Miriam Muller and Will Seitz for their peer review; and Lundrim Aliu, Samra Bajramovic, Odeta Bulo, Besart Myderrizi, Mjellma Recaj, Jasminka Sopova, Evis Sulko, Sanja Tanic, Eranda Toque, and Dragana Varesic for support with the organization of consultations. The team is also grateful for guidance and support from Varalakshmi Vemuru (Practice Manager, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), Ambar Narayan and Sal- man Zaidi (Practice Managers, Poverty and Equity), Massimiliano Paolucci (Coun- try Manager, Kosovo and North Macedonia), Nicola Pontara (Country Manager, Serbia), Emanuel Salinas (Country Manager, Albania), Christopher Sheldon (Coun- try Manager, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro), Richard Record and Ind- hira Santos (Program Leaders). The team undertook consultations with and benefited from insights from various agencies of governments, civil organizations, donors, and international organiza- tions. The team thanks the many stakeholders who shared their knowledge and helped shape the contents of these Country Gender Assessments. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 5 ABBREVIATIONS CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere EU European Union EUROSTAT The statistical office of the European Union EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions GRS Government of the Republic of Serbia HCI Human Capital Index GEGI Gender Employment Gap Index ILOSTAT International Labor Organization Statistics ISCED International Standard Classification of Education LFP Labor Force Participation LITS Life in Transition Survey MISCS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training NGO Non-Governmental Organization OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. PISA Programme for International Student Assessment SORS Sexual Offense Resource Services STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNFPA United Nations Population Fund WBL Women, Business and the Law WHO World Health Organization Country Gender Assessment Serbia 6 1. INTRODUCTION Promoting gender equality and enhancing women’s involvement in the econo- my are crucial for Serbia’s growth trajectory. It’s vital to actively engage, culti- vate, and fully utilize the diverse skills and potential of the population, especial- ly those currently inactive in the workforce, to reduce poverty and foster shared prosperity. Over the past decade, Serbia has made strides in gender equality, evident in reduced educational disparities, improved life expectancy for women, increased political engagement among women, and lower birth rates. However, significant gaps persist in areas such as employment, business ownership, wage disparities, gender-segregated jobs, unpaid domestic work, and instances of gender-based violence. This Country Gender Assessment provides empirical evidence and analyzes gen- der equality in Serbia. Methodologically, the report adopts the Gender Assessment framework proposed by the World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development (WDR 2012). Through this framework, the report examines recent progress and ongoing challenges across three critical dimensions: Endowments, Economic Opportunities, and Voice and Agency. Extensive research was conduct- ed, drawing from various data sources to assess indicators such as health, educa- tion, labor market dynamics, and gender-based violence, among others.1 This report updates and complements past work on gender equality in Serbia, relying primarily on data from sources such as the WDI, the 2021 Labor Force Survey (LFS), the 2023 Life in Transition Survey, the 2019 Enterprise Survey, the 2021 Global Findex and other available through the World Bank Gender Data portal, as well as various secondary sources. The analysis highlights significant gender disparities in human capital and access to economic opportunities. Key findings include: • Serbia could achieve substantial economic benefits by reducing gender gaps, with the Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI) estimating a potential in- crease in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates be- tween genders. • Gender disparities persist in economic opportunities, with women’s labor force participation notably lower than men’s. Women are disproportionately 1 This note focuses on gender disparities specifically hindering the well-being and economic welfare of women in BiH. However, gender gaps can arise in the outcomes and opportunities enjoyed by females and males across several dimensions. (WDR 2012). In many instances, men—rather than women—may suffer as a result of gender disparities. Regardless of whether these inequali- ties create disadvantages for men or for women, gender equality matters intrinsically, as well as instrumentally, to foster economic efficiency and development outcomes (WDR 2012). Country Gender Assessment Serbia 7 engaged in part-time employment, and caregiving responsibilities predomi- nantly fall on women, hindering their workforce participation and career ad- vancement, exacerbated by limited formal care services. • While women outnumber men in tertiary education enrollment, men have higher overall educational attainment. However, recent improvements are observed among younger age groups. Girls outperform boys in reading, sci- ence, and digital skills, yet fewer women pursue STEM fields. • A phenomenon known as the motherhood penalty is observable in Serbia. Young men and women experience different transitions to adulthood, lead- ing to divergence in employment rates at the onset of family formation. Advancing gender equality presents significant opportunities beyond fairness, es- sential for fostering inclusive growth and poverty alleviation. Enhancing women’s economic prospects, improving resource access, and bolstering their voice and in- fluence are critical steps in addressing key challenges in Serbia, including enhanc- ing labor productivity, stimulating private sector growth, and building resilience. The structure of the report is as follows. Section 2 delves into the legal and insti- tutional framework. Section 3 assesses gender equality from the perspective of human endowments. Section 4 discusses progress and challenges in economic opportunities. Section 5 focuses on issues related to voice and agency. 2. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK The progress towards achieving gender equality has been notable, with legisla- tion aligning with international and EU standards. Over the last 15 years, Serbia has established a comprehensive legal and policy framework. However, despite improvements in public policies and programs, full implementation has been hindered by the low institutional capacity within government structures and en- trenched societal gender norms. As a result, progress toward gender equality has been slow and continuous, as noted by the Gender Equality Index in 2021. Serbia’s legislative framework for gender equality has made significant strides, garnering an overall score of 93.8 out of 100 in 2023 in the World Bank’s Women, Country Gender Assessment Serbia 8 Business, and the Law 1.0 index (WBL 1.0). This marks a notable improvement from 2 1975 (Figure 1). In the 1970s and 80s, a typical woman in Serbia had just two-thirds of the legal rights of men in access to economic opportunities (WBL 1.0 index of 67.5). The late 1990s and early 2000s showed improvements in the legal environ- ment in the labor market, and by 2015, the WBL 1.0 index was 93.8. Serbia has moved at a slower pace compared to the EU-27 average (97 in 2023) but is the country with the highest WBL index in the Western Balkans. The articles of the Labor law primarily delineate the legal framework governing the labor market in Serbia.3 Wage taxation and social security contribution are out- lined in the Laws on Income Taxation3F4 and Contributions to Mandatory Social Insurance45, while provisions for retirement are regulated by the Law on Pension and Disability Insurance6. Measures to prevent harassment and discrimination in the labor market are regulated by the Laws on Prevention of Harassment at Wor7 and Anti-discrimination Law8, as well as the Law on Gender Equality.9 Serbia has consistently performed well in various aspects related to gender equal- ity, including freedom of movement, laws influencing women’s decisions to work, working after having children, pay equity, marriage-related constraints, entrepre- neurship opportunities, and gender disparities in property and inheritance, achiev- ing a perfect score in 2023 (Figure 2). However, concerning laws affecting the size of women’s pensions, Serbia could explore further reforms to enhance legal equality for women. Notably, one of the lowest scores pertains to laws impacting the size of women’s pensions. Law on Pension and Disability Insurance establish- 9F10 es a lower length of service for women compared to men (35 versus 40 years old). However, to equalize pensions, women’s pensions are increased by 6 percent 2 The WBL 1.0 index assesses how laws and regulations impact women’s economic opportunities across various areas, including Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. The score is calculated by taking the average of each index, with 100 being the highest possible score. The index is based on the analysis of the domestic laws and regulations, updated to October 2023. 3 Employment Act, Off. Herald of RS, Nos. 24/2005,61/2005, 32/2013, 75/2014, 13/2017 Decision of the CC, 113/2017 and 95/2018 4 Individual Income Tax Law, Off. Herald of RS Nos. 24/01 of 12 April 2001, 80/02 of 26 November 2002, 80/02 of 26 November 2002 (other law), 135/04 of 21 December 2004, 62/06 of 19 July 2006, 65/06 of 28 July 2006 (Corrigendum), 31/09 of 30 April 2009, 44/09 of 9 June 2009, 18/10 of 26 March 2010, 50/11 of 8 July 2011, 91/11 of 2 December 2011 (Decision CC), 93 /12 of 28 September 2012, 114/12 of 4 December 2012 (Decision CC), 47/13 of 29 May 2013, 48/13 of 31 May 2013 (Corrigendum), 108/13 of 6 December 2013, 57/14 of 30 May 2014, 68/14 of 3 July 2014 (other law), 112/15 of 30 December 2015, 113/17 of 17 December 2017, 95/18 of 8 December 2018, 86/19 of 6 December 2019, 153/ 20 of 21 December 2020, 44/21 of 29 April 2021, 118/21 of 9 December 2021 and 138/22 of 12 December 2022 5 Law on Contribution for Mandatory Social Insurance Službeni glasnik RS, Nos. 84/04 of 24 July 2004, 61/05 of 18 July 2005, 62/06 of 19 July 2006, 5/09 of 22 January 2009, 52/11 of 15 July 2011, 101/11 of 30 December 2011, 47/13 of 29 May 2013, 108/13 of 6 December 2013, 57/14 of 30 May 2014, 68/14 of 3 July 2014 (other law), 112/15 of 30 December 2015, 113/17 of 17 December 2017, 95/18 of 8 December 2018, 86/19 of 6 December 2019, 153/20 of 21 December 2020, 44/21 of 29 April 2021 and 118/21 of 9 December 2021 6 О ПЕНЗИЈСКОМ И ИНВАЛИДСКОМ ОСИГУРАЊУ Сл. гласник РС», бр. 34/2003, 64/2004 - одлука УСРС, 84/2004 закон, 85/2005, 101/2005 - др. закон, 63/2006 - одлука УСРС, 5/2009, 107/2009, 101/2010, 93/2012, 62/2013, 108/2013, 75/2014, 142/2014, 73/2018, 46/2019 - одлука УС, 86/2019 и 62/2021 7 Law on Prevention of Harassment at Work, Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/10 of 28 May 2010 8 Law on Proibition for Discrimination, Službeni glasnik RS, Nos. 22/09 of 30 March 2009 and 52/21 of 24 May 2021 9 Law on Gender Equality Službeni glasnik RS, No. 52/21 of 24 May 2021 10 See Zakon o penzijskom i invalidskom osiguranju (paragraf.rs) art. 69 Country Gender Assessment Serbia 9 compared to men to ensure that women who retire with 35 years of service have the same pension as men with 40 years of service.11 According to the new WBL 2.0 legal frameworks index,12 women in Serbia have 82.5 percent of the legal rights of men. This update offers a deeper insight into the legal underpinnings of gender equality compared to the previous WBL 1.0 index (Figure 3). It highlights how critical areas such as entrepreneurship support, pen- sions, and women’s safety still require further improvements. The Serbian government adopted the Gender Equality Strategy for the period from 2021-2030. It aims to bridge the gender gap and achieve gender equality, seen as a precondition for the development of society and the improvement of the lives of all individuals. The vision is for a gender-equal Republic of Serbia, where individuals of all genders have equal rights and opportunities for personal devel- opment, contribute equally to the sustainable development of society, and share equal responsibility for the future.13 Figure 1. WBL Index 1.0. (1975-2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 90 80 70 60 50 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 SRB ALB BIH XKX MNE EU27 MKD 11 Law on Pension and Disability Insurance of 2 April 2003, Arts. 19 and 19a, Law on Pension and Disability Insurance of 2 April 2003, Arts. 19b, 19c, 70a and 70b. The pension indicator shows a decrease between 2014 and 2015 due to a change in the regulation that established that men and women cannot retire with partial pension at the same age. (see World Bank Women, Business and the Law dataset) 12 The new WBL 2.0. index includes two additional indicators – Safety and Childcare – and new and revised questions under the original WBL indicators. The analysis continues to be based on domestic laws and regulations. The new Safety indicator expands the measurement legislation on violence against women. Previously, WBL 1.0. addressed only two forms of violence: sexual ha- rassment in employment (under Workplace indicator) and domestic violence (under Marriage indicator). The new Safety indicator now covers two additional forms of violence against women: child marriage and femicide. The new Childcare indicator assesses childcare services offered in center-based settings to children from birth to two years and 11 months. 13 GRS (2021). Country Gender Assessment Serbia 10 Figure 2. WBL 1.0. Score by Indices (1975-2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 60 40 20 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Workplace Mobility Pay Marriage Parenthood Entrepreneurship Assets Pension In Serbia, various institutional mechanisms oversee the promotion of gender equality at the national level. The Coordination Body for Gender Equality, estab- lished in 2014, plays a pivotal role in this regard. Additionally, the Ministry of Hu- man and Minority Rights and Social Dialogue, established in 2020, has assumed responsibilities related to anti-discrimination, gender policy, and gender equality from the Ministry of Labor, Employment, Veterans, and Social Affairs. Since 2003, the National Assembly has housed the Committee on Human and Minority Rights, which reviews draft laws and other general acts from a gender aspect. Moreover, a women’s parliamentary network, comprising female MPs from all parliamentary groups, focuses on key objectives such as women and family health, combating violence against women and children, economic empowerment of women, wom- en’s education and knowledge promotion, and enhancing women’s participation in political and public life. Additionally, one of the deputies of the Protector of Citizens oversees children’s rights and gender equality. Furthermore, there is the Commissioner for the Protection of Equality. At the local government level, Gender Equality Councils also play a crucial role in promoting gender equality. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 11 Figure 3. WBL 2.0. Legal Score by Indices (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 WBL 2.0 legal score, EU-27 average 80 60 40 20 0 Mobility Workplace Pay Marriage Parenthood Assets Childcare Entrepreneurship Pension Safety Even with equal laws in place, achieving women’s rights and opportunities still faces significant challenges due to inadequate implementation and weak enforce- ment. WBL 2.0 supportive frameworks assesses the disparity between laws in the- ory and their application in practice (de jure vs de facto). It encompasses various instruments aimed at facilitating the implementation of laws, including national policies, plans and programs, services, budget, special procedures, and sanctions for noncompliance with certain standards. Data for Serbia indicate that the sup- portive frameworks necessary for the implementation of laws could be strength- ened across all the indicators, except on legislation on marriage (Marriage Indi- cator). In particular, supportive frameworks could be more robust in critical areas such as laws affecting occupational segregation and the gender wage gap (Pay Indicator), laws affecting the size of a woman’s pension (Pension Indicator), the legal frameworks governing the provision of childcare (Childcare Indicator) and legislation on violence against women (Safety Indicator). They should be created for the laws affecting women’s ability to start and run a business (Entrepreneur- ship Indicator) (Figure 4). Figure 4. WBL 2.0. Supportive Frameworks Score (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 WBL 2.0 supportive framework score, EU-27 average 60 40 20 0 Marriage Mobility Workplace Parenthood Assets Pension Safety Childcare Pay Entrepreneurship Country Gender Assessment Serbia 12 SPOTLIGHT 1 – Gender-Responsive Budgeting Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) is an approach to budgeting that seeks to promote gender equality by ensur- ing that public policies and expenditures are designed and implemented in ways that take into account the different needs and priorities of women and men. It is an important tool to improve the transparency, accountability, effective- ness, efficiency, and equity of public expenditure. GRB brings into focus issues that are frequently overlooked within budget analysis and decision making. These issues include the role that unpaid work plays in economic and social outcomes, especially the unequal distribution of and responsibility for unpaid work that is placed on women and the extent to which women can voice their needs and participate in decision-making on budgets. GRB not only assists governments in innovating when it comes to the resources for financing the SDGs but also allows them to track allocations for gender equality and to assess the extent to which they are making this information publicly available and transparent. In Serbia, GRB has been an integral part of the Budget System Law since 2015 and institutions at all governmental levels are included in its implementation, while the entire process is governed by the Ministry of Finance, Provincial Secretariat of Finance, and the Coordination Body for Gender Equality, with the support of UN Women. The grad- ual introduction of this practice in creation, financing, implementation, and monitoring of public policies has so far yielded great results: 71 institutions at national and provincial level have included gender perspective in 104 budget programs (82% of the total number of budget programs), 369 budget objectives and 732 gender responsive of their 2022 budgets. Source: UN Women Country Gender Assessment Serbia 13 3. ENDOWMENTS Serbia has made several advancements in improving health outcomes of its pop- ulation, including increases in life expectancy and reductions in infant mortality. However, certain areas of public health still lag behind those of peer countries. While women have achieved notable progress in education, even closing the gen- der gap in enrollment, men are falling behind in educational attainment. Gender segregation persists in educational fields. According to the 2020 Human Capital Index,14 a girl born in Serbia will only achieve 70 percent of her potential produc- tivity as an adult due to limitation in education and health, compared to 66 percent for a boy. These figures align with the regional average for girls in European and Central Asia but are lower than the average for boys in the region, which stands at 60 percent. They also fall short of the averages for EU-27, where the rates are 75 percent for girls and 71 percent for boys (Figure 5). Figure 5. Human Capital Index (2020) Source: World Bank, 2020 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 SERBIA ECA EU-27 Women Men 3.1 HEALTH In Serbia, women typically live longer than men. In 2021, the average life expec- tancy was 75.6 years for women and 70 years for men. Since 2019, life expectancy for both genders has been decreasing (Figure 6). This increase has led to a rise in 14 Source: World Bank (2020b). The HCI calculates the contributions of health and education to worker productivity. The final index score ranges from zero to one and measures the productivity as a future worker of child born today relative to the benchmark of full health and complete education. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 14 the old-age dependency ratio from 23.6 to 32.4 percent. However, despite these improvements, life expectancy for both genders still trails behind that of the EU by approximately 8 years. In 2021, the average life expectancy in Serbia was slightly lower than in Montenegro and North Macedonia but notably lower than in Albania. Figure 6. Life Expectancy at Birth by gender (years), (1995-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 12, 2024 85 80 75 70 65 60 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men Figure 7. Maternal Mortality Rate (per 100,000 live births) (2000-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group, and UNDESA/Population Division, World Health Organization, 2023. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 EU-27 SERBIA While access to prenatal care and institutional births remain high in Serbia, mater- nal, and infant health outcomes present a mixed picture and fall below EU levels. In 2019, 96.6 percent of pregnant women received prenatal care with a minimum of four visits,15 and skilled health attendance during births has been nearly univer- 15 Source: World Bank Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, Childinfo, and Demographic and Health Surveys. Accessed: January 12, 2024. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 15 sal over the past two decades (99.9 percent in 2018).16 The infant mortality rate is higher for male than for female infants (5.4 and 4.5 per 1,000 live births, respec- tively). Despite a slight decrease in maternal mortality over the last twenty years, in 2020, it was almost twice as high as the EU average (Figure 7). Infant mortality rates have significantly decreased for both genders over the same period, narrow- ing the gender gap, although it remains higher than in the EU (Figure 8).17Although the infant mortality rates18 have decreased since 2000, at 4.3 for girls and 5.2 for boys, they are still above the EU level of 2.9 for girls and 3.4 for boys. In terms of health conditions related to unhealthy behaviors, Serbia lags behind. The use of tobacco remains high among women, and the prevalence of obesity is increasing for both genders. Female smoking prevalence in Serbia, though lower than that among men, is significantly higher than the EU average (Figure 9). Obe- sity rates, especially among men, have seen a notable rise, with approximately with approximately 11 percent of men and 15 percent of women in Serbia consid- ered obese in 2016, a significant increase from 2000, particularly for men – rising from 6.7 percent (Figure 10). High smoking and obesity rates likely contribute to poorer health outcomes and a higher prevalence of non-communicable diseases and deaths in the Serbian population compared to the EU. Mortality due to suicide among men dropped from 33 per 100,000 men in 2000 to 17 per 100,000 men in 2019. The suicide rate has been consistently consistently higher for men than for women (Figure 11). 16 Births attended by skilled health staff are the percentage of deliveries attended by personnel trained to give the necessary super- vision, care, and advice to women during pregnancy, labor, and the postpartum period; to conduct deliveries on their own, and to care for newborns Source: World Bank Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, Childinfo, and Demographic and Health Surveys. 17 While infant mortality continues to be more prevalent among boys than girls, this might be in line with sex differences in genetic and biological conditions, with boys being biologically weaker and more susceptible to diseases or premature death. 18 Infant mortality rate is the number of infants dying before reaching one year of age, per 1,000 live. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 16 Figure 8. Infant Mortality Rate by Sex (per 1,000 births) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population Division) at www.childmortality.org. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men Figure 9. Prevalence of Current Tobacco Use (percent of population 15 years old and over) (2000-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 SRB 2000 SRB 2020 EU-27 2000 EU-27 2020 Women Men Figure 10. Prevalence of Obesity (percent of population 18 years old and over) (2000-2016) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization (WHO): Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Serbia 17 Figure 11. Suicide Mortality Rate (per 100,000 population) (2000-2019) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January12,2024. 40 30 20 10 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 Women Men The adolescent fertility rate has seen a significant decline since 2000, yet it re- mains higher than in the EU. From 2000 to 2021, the rate dropped from 24.6 to 14.9 children born to women aged 15-19 per 1,000 women in the same age group. Notably, the gap between Serbia and the EU in terms of these rates has also nar- rowed substantially, as the decrease in the EU was less pronounced (Figure 12). The fertility rate decreased at the beginning of the 2000s, but since then, it has been on a slow rise. Currently, fertility levels are similar to those in the EU but be- low the replacement rate of 2.1 births per woman (Figure 13). Compared to other countries in the Western Balkans, Serbia has a higher fertility rate than Albania (1.4), North Macedonia (1.3), and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1.36), and a lower than Kosovo (1.53) and Montenegro (1.75) as of 2021. Figure 12. Adolescent Fertility Rate (births per 1,000 women aged 15 – 19) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects. Accessed: Janyar 12, 2024 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Albania EU27 Montenegro North Serbia Macedonia Country Gender Assessment Serbia 18 Figure 13. Fertility Rate (2001-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Albania EU27 Kosovo Montenegro North Serbia Macedonia Due to the low fertility rate and significant migratory outflows from Serbia,19 the total population is projected to decrease from 6.834 million in 2021 to 6.816 in 2040.20 If this trend continues it will result in a population in 2041 lower than in 2011. Overall, the fertility rate decreased by about 0.1 and has resulted in a de- crease in the child dependency ratio in Serbia from 24.6 to 22.2 percent from 2000 to 2022, indicating a lower average burden in childcare. However, given the reversal of the fertility rate trends, the child dependency ratio in recent years has an increasing trend and it’s projected to increase to 23.1 in 2040. 21 2F Work and fertility decisions are jointly defined, with the compatibility of family and career as a key determinant of fertility.22 In particular, while in most medium and high-income countries, there has been a shift in women’s plans and aspirations, significant disparities still exist in the attainability of simultaneously pursuing a career and a family for women. 19 Serbia started intensively exporting – mostly unskilled – workers to Germany and other Western European countries in the 1960s. The next big wave came in the 1990s, as a result of the political turmoil and economic hardship caused by the dissolution of Yu- goslavia. This time, the structure of the migrant stock was far more diversified, with many high-skilled people leaving the country for a wider variety of destinations. With the return of stability in the early 2000s, emigration continued at a somewhat slower pace, but it has started to pick up again in more recent years. According to conservative United Nations statistics, the total number of migrants from Serbia is some 950,000, which is around 14 percent of the total resident population in the country itself 20 Source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2021 21 Source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2021 22 For an analysis of the relation between fertility and women’s LFP see also Ahan and Mira, 2002, Del Boca 2002, Adsera, 2004. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 19 3.2 EDUCATION While enrollment rates in pre-primary, primary, and secondary education have been approximately equal for both genders in 2000 and 2021, women outnumber men in tertiary education. Enrolment rates in pre-primary, primary and second- ary education both in 2000 and 2021 were approximately equal for both genders (Figure 14). Despite increasing enrollment rates over the past two decades, nar- rowing the gap with EU-27 countries, women dominate tertiary education with a gross enrollment rate of 81.8 percent in 2021, compared to 57.3 percent for men (Figure 15). Moreover, women constitute the majority of graduates from bachelor’s (58.8 percent) and doctoral studies (56.6 percent).23 Dropout rates are low over- all, with boys more likely to drop out of high school. Approximately 1.4 percent of boys entering high schools (ISCED level 4) do not complete this level of education, while the corresponding figure for girls is 0.7 percent. Dropout rates for elementa- ry schools (ISCED 2 and 3) are lower, standing at 0.8 for boys and 0.5 percent for girls in 2020.24 Figure 14. Gender Parity Index for Gross Enrollment Rates by Education Level (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS. Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 1.02 1 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.9 SRB SRB Primary SRB Secondary EU-27 EU-27 Primary EU-27 Pre-Primary Pre-Primary Secondary 2000/01 2020/21 23 Source: Own calculation based on the Women and Men in Serbia, 2021 data. 24 Source: Women and Men in Serbia, 2021 data. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 20 Figure 15. Gross Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Education (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS. Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 100 80 60 40 20 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Serbia Women Serbia Men EU27 Women EU27 Men On average, women exhibit higher rates of tertiary educational attainment than men. In 2022, 28.3 percent for women aged 25 and above had attained tertiary education, compared to 21.4 percent for men in the same age group (Figure 16).25 This gender gap is more pronounced among younger age groups. For individuals aged 25-34 years, 41.4 percent of women have attained tertiary education com- pared to 26.7 percent of men. While the attainment of higher education decreases with age, the gender gap remains in favor of women in the 45-64 years age group, where 19.4 percent of women have attained tertiary education compared to 17.0 percent of men. The proportion of tertiary-educated men and women in Serbia are similar to those in Montenegro and North Macedonia. 25 Eurostat, 2021. The following ISCED levels are included in three levels of education. Primary: Less than primary, primary, and lower secondary education (ISCED levels 0-2); Secondary: Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education (ISCED levels 3 and 4); Tertiary level education (ISCED levels 5-8). Country Gender Assessment Serbia 21 Figure 16. Educational Attainment by Age-group (2022) Source: Eurostat. Accessed: January 12, 2024. FEMALE 25-34 years 35-44 years 45-54 years 55-64 years 0 20 40 60 80 100 Primary and lower secondary Upper Secondary Tertiary Education MALE 25-34 years 35-44 years 45-54 years 55-64 years 0 20 40 60 80 100 Primary and lower secondary Upper Secondary Tertiary Education Girls consistently outperform boys in school, as evidenced by the 2022 PISA scores. Harmonized test results reveal that girls excel over boys in reading and science competency levels, with an overall 20-point gap between 15-year-old girls and boys (Figure 17). The largest gap exists in reading scores, with a 25-point dif- ference, followed by a 3-point gap in science. However, boys outperform girls in mathematics, with a 16-point difference. In Serbia, both boys and girls achieve the highest scores among Western Balkan countries. However, compared to EU coun- tries, Serbian students, both girls and boys, achieve lower results, with significant gaps of 30 points in reading, 34 points in science, and 35 points in mathematics compared to OECD averages for girls. Similarly, there are gaps of 26 points in reading, 33 points in science, and 25 points in mathematics compared to OECD averages for boys. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 22 Women are less likely than men to enroll in STEM26 fields in tertiary education, although these differences are less pronounced than in the EU. The share of wom- en enrolled in STEM fields at the tertiary level in 2021 was 21.6 percentage points lower than men (25.8 vs. 47.4 percent). This trend is also observed in the EU, where the gap is more pronounced at 25.6 percentage points (16.2 percent of women and 41.8 percent of men enrolled in STEM fields). Women are more likely to be enrolled in health, education, and arts and humanities at 34.9 percent, while the corresponding share among men is 18.2 percent. Similar trends can be ob- served in the EU (Figure 18).27 Figure 17. Student Performance 15 years. Source: Harmonized Test and PISA scores (2022) Source: PISA scores, 2022 Harmonized test scores (2020) Science Mathematics 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 SERBIA Girls SERBIA Boys EU-27 Girls EU-27 Boys Figure 18: Women and Men Enrolled in Tertiary Education by Education fields in Serbia and the EU (2021) Source: Eurostat. Accessed: January 12, 2024. SRB Men SRB Women EU-27 Men EU-27 Women 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Health, education and humanities STEM Other 26 Includes ISCED-F group 5 (Natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics), ISCED-F group 6 (Information and Communication Tech- nologies), and ISCED-F group 7 (Engineering, manufacturing, and construction). 27 Data suggests that educational segregation is also present in secondary schools, where girls are significantly less likely to com- plete Machinery and metal processing and Electrical engineering degrees and more likely to complete Economics, health, and social welfare degrees (See SORS database 2019/2020). Country Gender Assessment Serbia 23 Lower-educated women generally exhibit lower levels of digital skills compared to men. Women with low formal education are 14 percentage points less likely than men to possess basic or above basic digital skills, with rates of 25 percent for women and 11 percent for men (Table 1). This disparity is notably higher than in the EU, where the gap is 5 percentage points (36 percent of men and 31 percent of women). However, when considering higher levels of education, the differences in digital skills between genders are less pronounced. Additionally, the gender gap in digital skills persists across both younger and older age groups, while no gap is observed within the prime working age group. Table 1. Individuals with Basic Digital Skills or Above (percent, by sex, age group,andlevel of education) (2023) Source: Eurostat, 2021. Accessed: January, 12 2024.   Kosovo EU-27   Men Women Men Women AGE-GROUPS 16-24 years old 58 40 68 72 25-54 years old 41 44 63 64 55-74 years old 14 10 41 34 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Low formal education 25 11 36 31 Medium formal education 29 28 52 50 High formal education 58 56 81 78 Country Gender Assessment Serbia 24 SPOTLIGHT 2 - School Hours Parents of young children face the daunting task of juggling childcare responsibilities with earning an income. The scarcity of childcare facilities exacerbates this challenge, leaving parents with few options, such as relying on un- trained caregivers, reducing work hours, or even quitting their jobs altogether. This issue extends beyond early childhood care; even when children reach primary school age, parents continue to grapple with the balance between work and childcare due to school hours and breaks. This struggle is amplified for single parents or households where both parents work full-time. Analyzing school calendars in the Western Balkans reveals that children spend only half the working hours of a full- time employee in school annually. This underscores the necessity for accessible and affordable preschool and after- school care. The lack thereof not only impedes parents’ ability to work but also forces them into difficult decisions regarding their children’s care quality. Thus, the shortage of accessible and affordable preschool and afterschool care can have a profound impact on parents and families. It can limit parents’ ability to return to work or force them to make difficult choices about the quality of care their children receive. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 25 4. ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES Although women dominate tertiary education, have fewer children, and live lon- ger, such gains in endowments have not been reflected in gains in economic op- portunities. Serbia continues to face challenges such as the wage gap, gender gap in LFP rates, and high occupational segregation. The Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI),28 which assesses the potential rise in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates between genders, stood at 15.6 percent in 2022. This underscores the economic and social impact of bridging the gender employ- ment gap. 4.1 LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS Since 2010, female labor force participation has shown a gradual increase, al- though it remains notably lower than that of men. In 2021, there was a 13.2 per- centage point difference in the labor force participation rate, with 63.4 percent for women and 76.6 percent for men (Figure 19). Compared to the EU-27, Serbia exhibits wider gender gaps in labor force participation, primarily due to a lower percentage of women participating in the labor force. Meanwhile, male labor force participation levels are similar between Serbia and the EU-27. Over the past two decades, Serbia has consistently maintained a narrower gender gap compared to other Western Balkan countries. 28 Source: Penning (2020). GEGI index measure of gender employment gaps equal to the long-run GDP per capita gains from in- creasing women’s employment rates, so they are equal to men’s. The basic GEGI is defined as the gap between male and female employment as a share of total employment. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 26 Figure 19. LFP Rate (percent population 15-64 years) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: International Labour Organization. “ILO modelled estimates database” ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 12. 2024. 80 70 60 50 40 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men Similarly to the labor force participation rate, persistent gaps exist in employment rates between men and women in Serbia. Since 2015, the employment-to-popula- tion ratio for males aged 15-64 or older has consistently exceeded that of females. In 2022, the employment rates for women and men were 57.9 percent and 71 per- cent, respectively (Figure 20). Among Western Balkan countries, Serbia has the lowest gender gap in employment rates, except for Montenegro. Figure 20. Employment to Population Ratio by Sex (percent population 15-64 years old) (2015-2022) Source: See Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 80 60 40 20 0 2015 2017 2019 2021 Women Men There is a noticeable gender disparity in labor force participation among individ- uals without tertiary education. As of 2022, men with medium education have a participation rate of 82 percent, while women with the same level of education have a rate of 66 percent, indicating a significant gender gap (Figure 21). However, this gap decreases considerably among those with tertiary education. Similarly, Country Gender Assessment Serbia 27 gender gaps in employment rates are particularly pronounced among individuals with lower and upper secondary education but diminish among those with tertiary education (Figure 22). Figure 21. LFP Rate by Education Attainment (percent population 15-64 yo) (2022) Source Eurostat. Accessed: January 12, 2024 100 80 60 40 20 0 Medium High Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men Figure 22. Employment To Population Ratio By Sex And Educational Attainment (percent population 15-64 years old) (2022) Source: Eurostat, 2019 100 80 60 40 20 0 Medium High Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men The share of youth not in education, employment, or training (NEET) is roughly equal for both genders, at around 16 percent, and although a gap still persists, it has been converging to the EU levels of 11 percent (Figure 23). The employment rate for individuals aged 20 to 34, within 1 to 3 years after completing their highest level of education, is lower for women than for men by 3.4 percentage points (64.9 percent for women compared to 68.3 percent for men).29 29 Eurostat, 2021 Country Gender Assessment Serbia 28 Figure 23. Share Of Youth Not In Education, Employment, Or Training (percent, population 15-24 years old) (2008-2021) Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: International Labour Organization. “Labour Force Statistics database (LFS)” ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 25 20 15 10 5 0 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Woman EU-27 Men In Serbia, the transition to adulthood differs between young men and women. While young men typically experience a reduction in inactivity rates and an in- crease in employment, young women often transition from school to inactivity (Figures 24 and 25). This pattern corresponds to the early formation of families among women, which continues into their twenties and thirties. During this peri- od, the proportion of inactive men remains steady or decreases, while the rate of women not engaged in employment, education, or training peaks around the age of 30. This trend appears to be linked to the significant caregiving and household responsibilities that women in Serbia often shoulder. It aligns with the globally observed “motherhood penalty,” where the employment trajectories of men and women tend to diverge notably after becoming parents (Kleven et al., 2023). Leb- edinski et al. (2022) find that mothers in Serbia are, all else being equal, less likely than non-mothers to be active in the labor market when their children are very young. However, this effect is temporary, as mothers of older children are more likely to be active than non-mothers, with no similar effect found for fathers. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 29 Figure 24. NEET Rates by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Figure 25. Employment Rates by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men The reasons for inactivity among men are mainly related to market-related factors, such as pursuing education and training or perceiving a lack of available jobs, with nearly 35 percent of men citing these reasons. In contrast, only 15 percent of wom- en attribute their inactivity to market factors. Conversely, 64 percent of women at- tribute their inactivity to personal or family obligations, which is significantly high- er compared to the 32 percent of men who report the same (Figure 26).The share of female part-time workers in Serbia is significantly higher than that of men, at 18.4 percent for women and 13.2 percent for men in 2022 (Figure 27). When con- sidering only formal employment, the share of part-time work decreases further.30 30 World Bank, (2016).  Country Gender Assessment Serbia 30 Figure 26. Reasons for Inactivity by Sex (25-64 years old) (2021) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. Women Men 0 20 40 60 80 100 Care/Family Education Believe no work available Other Figure 27. Incidence Of Part-Time Employment By Sex (2013-2021) Source: ILOSTAT, 2022 25 20 15 10 5 0 2013 2016 2022 Women Men While women have lower employment rates, there are no significant differences in the likelihood of working in precarious jobs compared to men. In 2019, 15 percent of non-agricultural employment in the informal sector 31 was held by men, com- 3 pared to only 11 percent held by women. Additionally, 15.9 percent of women and 22.4 percent of men were in vulnerable employment.32 However, the percentage of vulnerable workers is above the average in European countries (8 percent for women and 12 percent for men) and in line with the average for the Western Bal- kans (20.7 percent for women and 24.3 percent for men). 31 This includes all jobs in unregistered and/or small-scale private unincorporated enterprises that produce goods or services meant for sale or barter. Self-employed street vendors, taxi drivers, and home-based workers, regardless of size, are all considered en- terprises However, agricultural and related activities, households producing goods exclusively for their use, and volunteer services rendered to the community are excluded. Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators database. Estimates are based on data obtained from International Labor Organization, ILOSTAT at https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/. Accessed January 12, 2024. 32 Source: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators database. Estimates are based on data obtained from International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT. Access: January 12, 2024. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 31 4.2 NEED AND PROVISION OF CARE The gender-based division of caregiving responsibilities significantly impacts women’s economic participation in Serbia. Social norms often dictate that women bear a disproportionate burden of caregiving, limiting their ability to engage in paid work or work longer hours. Women’s extensive unpaid care work leaves them time-poor, hindering their educational attainment, job opportunities, and earning potential. Figure 28: Household Chores Performed by Women and Men In Serbia and The EU (2016) Source: EQLS, 2016 100 80 60 40 20 0 Cook and/or do household Care for the children or chores everyday other family members Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men In Serbia, there is a prevailing societal belief that women should primarily han- dle household chores, even if their husbands are not working.33 Consequently, women overwhelmingly undertake the majority of unpaid care activities and do- mestic work. This disparity is starkly evident, with 67.9 percent of women in 2016 engaging in daily domestic tasks compared with only 11.5 percent of men (Fig- ure 28). This gap is higher than the one for the EU where a higher share of men participate in everyday cooking or household chores (33.7 percent). Furthermore, women play a significant role in caring for and educating their children, with a gender gap of 12 percentage points (41.2 percent of women versus 29.5 percent of men). This gap is similar to the EU-27’s average gender gap of approximately 13 percentage points. 33 Source: Life in Transition (LITS) Survey IV, 2023 Country Gender Assessment Serbia 32 Due to increased longevity and population aging resulting from lower fertility rates and higher life expectancy, eldercare needs have become as important as tradi- tional childcare needs in Serbia. This shift places an additional burden on women within households. An important indicator of care needs is the percentage of the population living in households with young children (ages 0-6) and elderly indi- viduals (ages 65+). In Serbia, living with elderly individuals is more common than living with young children. Specifically, 38 percent of the population lives with an elderly person, compared to 31 percent living with young children. While living 34F34 with an elderly person may mean more care work for the other adults in the house- hold, it may also result in less childcare work if the elderly person is providing care for grandchildren themselves. According to Life in Transition Survey (LITS) IV, in Serbia 11.6 percent of the pop- ulation live in a household with only childcare need, 7.2 percent in a household with only elderly care need and 1.5 percent in a household with both (Figure 29). 3 Compared with other Western Balkans countries, Serbia has the second highest level of need for care of any type. Figure 29. Care Need in Households (percent of the population living in households with children, elderly and disabled), by country (2023) Source: LITS IV (2023) Bosnia and Herz. Serbia Albania Montenegro North Macedonia Kosovo 0 10 20 30 40 Only childcare Only elderly care Only disabled care Household members are the primary source of care provision. C are needs are most often met by members of the household rather than institutions or other sources of care (such as nannies, relatives, or friends). Although institutional care is more common for children, institutional care use is almost non-existent for the elderly and disabled needing care. Still, even for children, institutional care is lim- ited due to supply or demand-side constraints. In Serbia, 37.4 percent of house- holds with childcare needs and 94 percent of households with elderly care needs 34 Source: LITS IV (2023) Country Gender Assessment Serbia 33 do not use institutional care facilities. The most common reasons for not using childcare facilities often include relying on household members and issues related to distance. Conversely, when it comes to elderly care facilities, the primary rea- sons for not choosing them are typically caring for elders by household members or opting for live-in support. (Figure 30). Figure 30. Reasons for not Using Care Facilities by Type of Care Needed (2023) Source: LITS IV (2023) A. Reasons for not using childcare facilities (% of the population living in households with childcare needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo Nort Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality Safety concerns All places taken All children cared in the HH Other reasons B. Reasons for not using elderly care facilities (% of the population living in households with elderly care needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo Nort Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality All places are taken Cared for in the family Cared for with live-in support Other reasons 4.3 LABOR MARKET SEGREGATION Men are often overrepresented in industries traditionally seen as male-dominated, although sectoral segregation, while still present, is less pronounced compared to the EU. Women are more likely to work in Education, Health and Social Work, and Trade sectors, and less likely to work in Manufacturing, Transportation, and Country Gender Assessment Serbia 34 Construction. Similar patterns are observed in the EU, with notable differences in shares seen in the Manufacturing and Construction sectors (Figure 31). Occupational segregation is also apparent. Employed women are less likely to hold managerial, craft, plant and armed forced positions but are more likely to work as engineers, professional associates and technicians, and civil and other servants. On average, women have a more favorable occupational structure due to their higher education levels. However, within occupational groups requiring lower skill levels, women are less likely to work as craft workers or plant/machine operators but more likely to work as service and sales workers or in elementary occupations (Figure 32). Figure 31: Gap in the Shares of Sectoral Employment in Serbia and the EU (population 15-64) (2023) Source: Eurostat. Accessed: January 12, 2024. Construction Transportation Manufacturing Agriculture Mining and quarrying Water and waste Electricity and gas IT and communication Arts and entertainment Administrative Services Public administration Real estate Other services Hospitality Profesional activities Finance Household employees Trade Health Education −10 −5 0 5 10 15 Gap EU Gap Serbia Figure 32: Employed by Occupation and Sex, 2019 (percent) Source: Labor Force Survey, SORS, 2019 Armed force Elementary occ. Plant operators Craft/trade workers Skilled agric. workers Service and sales workers Clerical workers Professionals Managers 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Serbia 35 4.4 WAGE GAP In the past decade, nearly every developed nation has implemented regulations promoting the fair treatment of women in the workforce. 35 While strides have been 3 made in reducing the global gender wage gap, it remains a relevant issue across labor markets. According to the ILOSTAT Global Wage Report 2018/19,36 the raw mean gender pay gap was equal to 18.8 percent,37 meaning that for every dollar men earn, women earn 81.2 cents. Notably, Northern, Southern, and Western Eu- rope exhibit a lower raw gap at 13.3,38 positioning the region on a stronger founda- tion in the ongoing efforts to close the gender pay gap. Data from EU-SILC (2020), reveals that Serbia has a negative raw gender gap, with women earning on average 13 percent less than men (Table 2). Compared to other Western Balkans, Serbia has the highest raw gender gap in earnings. Upon con- trolling for individual characteristics, occupation, and industry, the gender wage gap widens further. Specifically, the gap increases to 16.8 percent after controlling for individual characteristics such as education level, age, and experience. This re- sult may suggest a higher return to education and experience for men, potentially highlighting barriers for women in accessing the labor market and more lucra- tive sectors. It may also mean that, on average, employed women exhibit higher skill levels than their male counterparts. However, after controlling for individual and market controls such as occupation and industry, the wage gap decreases to 13.9 percent, which is still the largest in the Western Balkans. The persistent gen- der wage gap may indicate potential discrimination and a wage premium for men based on their sex or attributed to unobservable characteristics. 35 Data from Women, Business and the Law (2024) show data 98 out of 190 countries had a law on equal pay for men and women. This has increased from 21 out of 190 countries in 1991. 36 See ILOSTAT (2018) 37 The data refers to the factor weighted mean gender pay gap using hourly wages. The gender pay gap is higher when the esti- mate is based on monthly wages rather than hourly wages and it’s equal to 20.5 percent, reflecting the fact that in most countries women and men differ significantly in respect of working time – specifically, that part-time work is more prevalent among women than men. 38 The highest average gap is noted in Sub-Saharan Africa (21.8 percent) and West Asia (20.8 percent). Country Gender Assessment Serbia 36 Table 2. Gender Wage Gap in Hourly Wages in the Western Balkans Note: Log difference between female and male full-time employee hourly wages in each country. Individual controls: Education level, age and age squared, experience, and its square. Market controls: Occupation and Industry. Kosovo does not include experience due to high levels of non-response. Montenegro’s education and industry variables are less disaggregated than in the other countries. Source: EU-SILC, 2018) Country ALB MKD MNE SRB XKX YEAR 2020 2019 2019 2020 2018 RAW GAP -0.091*** -0.098*** -0.119*** -0.132*** 0.042* INDIVIDUAL CONTROLS -0.175*** -0.139*** -0.150*** -0.168*** -0.063*** IND. + MARKET CONTROLS -0.117*** -0.076*** -0.094*** -0.139*** -0.083*** 4.5 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND FINANCIAL INCLUSION Entrepreneurship offers women a pathway to economic opportunities, contribut- ing to job creation and overall economic growth. However, in Serbia, women repre- sent less than one-third of all entrepreneurs, with firms featuring female ownership accounting for 28.5 percent of all businesses in 2019. This figure is notably lower compared to the average share in European countries, which stood at 40.1 per- cent in 2021, and is in line with other Western Balkan countries where it was 22.5 percent during the period 2016-2021. The share in 2019 has decreased from 2013 when it was at 34.9 percent but remained consistent with the share from 2009, which was 28.8 percent.39 Women are more likely to be owners of medium-sized enterprises (20 to 99 employees), with 32.9 percent of enterprises in this category having women among the principal owners. However, the shares of female own- ers are lower in small firms (26.9 percent) and large firms (22.4 percent).40 The COVID pandemic impacted female enterprises to a great extent, but this im- pact was temporary. Administrative data indicate that there was no jump in the rate of closure of women’s businesses during the period of the pandemic crisis. Women have temporarily experienced deterioration in business in the sense of temporary closure, reduction of the volume of work, more difficult access to cli- ents, suppliers, but successfully overcame that period.41 Women are more likely than men to receive start-up loans, which represent the most extensive support program to start a business in Serbia, as 35.6 percent of the loans are granted to female enterprises. This share is higher than the propor- 39 World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Bank, Enterprise Surveys. 40 World Bank, Enterprise Surveys. 41 SeCons (2023a) Country Gender Assessment Serbia 37 tion of women-owned enterprises.42 Notably, there are no differences in the total amounts requested by the male and female businesses. Access to financial resources and credit is crucial for entrepreneurship. While both male and female individuals in Serbia have a significantly lower ownership rate of financial institution accounts compared to their counterparts in EU-27 countries, there are no significant gender differences in Serbia (Figure 33). Figure 33. Financial Institution Account Ownership, by Sex (percent) (population 15+) (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion 100 90 80 70 60 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Serbia Women Serbia Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men In Serbia, the majority of both women and men borrow through informal channels, often turning to family or friends for financial support. While borrowing rates from informal sources were similar for both genders in 2014 and 2017, there’s been a shift in 2021 where men are now more likely than women to borrow from family and friends (33.3 percent vs. 26.9 percent) (Table 3). Additionally, men in Serbia consistently exhibit slightly higher rates of borrowing from formal financial insti- tutions compared to women, maintaining a 3-percentage-point gender gap over the past decade. This trend could be attributed to the lower rates of immovable property and land ownership among women, potentially impeding their access to formal credit. Notably, the proportion of individuals borrowing through informal channels is nearly double in Serbia compared to the EU-27 countries and is the highest among Western Balkans countries. 42 SeCons (2023b) Country Gender Assessment Serbia 38 Table 3. Borrowing from Formal and Informal Channels by Sex (percent) (population 15+) (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion     2011 2014 2017 2021 Borrowed from family Female 13.3 45.5 24.2 26.8 or friends Male 8.3 43.2 24.7 33.3 Borrowed from a formal Female 6 12.5 11 11.9 financial institution Male 9 14.5 14.2 14.9 Gender disparities in the use of digital payments are negligible. Data from 2014 indicates that 62 percent of women and 65 percent of men in Serbia made or re- ceived digital payments (Figure 34). By 2021, these rates had increased for both genders, with 89 percent of women and 86 percent of men engaging in digital payments. However, the utilization of digital payments by both genders in Serbia still lags significantly behind that of EU-27 countries. Figure 34. Made Digital Payments in the last year, by sex (% population 15+) (2014-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Serbia 2014 Euro Area 2014 Serbia 2017 Euro Area 2017 Serbia 2021 Euro Area 2021 Women Men Women in Serbia are less likely to own property compared to men, which can be attributed in part to societal discrimination and patriarchal values. Women have ownership stakes in 38.3 percent of real estate in Serbia, whereas men own 74.4 percent. Specifically, women have full ownership of 25.6 percent of real estate, while another 12.8 percent is co-owned with men, and 0.3 percent is jointly owned. Despite legal provisions granting equal property rights to men and women, and equal inheritance rights for sons and daughters, discriminatory practices persist, contributing to lower property ownership among women. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 39 In terms of the type of real estate owned, women are more likely to possess spe- cial part of buildings, such as apartments or office spaces, accounting for approxi- mately 50 percent of ownership in this category (42.6 percent as sole owners and 8.2 percent as co-owners) (Figure 35). Conversely, women are less likely to own entire buildings and are least likely to own land, whether agricultural, forested, or for construction purposes.43 This discrepancy partly arises from the tendency for male spouses to be registered as property owners when new real estate is acquired. This can be attributed to factors such as higher male employment rates or earnings. Although the law allows for joint property disposal during marriage and recognizes women’s non-monetary contributions, in practice, proving these contributions in divorce cases often requires lengthy and costly legal proceedings. Figure 35: Immovable Property Ownership in Serbia (2020) Source: Serbian Cadastre data for 2020. Plot of land Total Buildings Special part of the buildings 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Female 100% owners (in %) Female co-ownership (in %) 43 However, these estimates represent an upper bound of the female shares, as the estimated shares include all household types, including single-family households, in which there is no intra-household distribution of the property. Single-person households are the only households in which the majority are women – 60 percent, and this is partially due to their higher life expectancy. In the cases of non-single households, men are the majority of heads of households and given the traditional roles of men and women, they are more likely to be property owners than women. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 40 SPOTLIGHT 3 - SOGI The Western Balkan countries have made strides in protecting fundamental rights, including those of sexual and gender minorities. However, the European Commission emphasizes the need for stronger implementation to combat discrimination and violence. The EU enlargement process offers an opportunity for SOGI inclusion, with support from various development partners. Limited data on SOGI reveal the profound impact of discrimination, exclusion, and violence on LGBTI individuals and the region as a whole. Endowments - LGBTI individuals in the Western Balkans face significant challenges in education, employment, and accessing essential services due to discrimination, bullying, and violence. A 2018 World Bank survey revealed alarm- ing rates of negative comments and conduct towards LGBTI people in schools, with a notable impact on mental health, including increased suicide rates. Discrimination extends to healthcare, where nearly 40% of respondents reported mistreatment or avoided treatment due to fear of discrimination. Widespread violence against LGBTI indi- viduals further exacerbates the situation, with many cases going unreported. Additionally, accessing housing pres- ents hurdles, as evidenced by higher refusal rates for same-sex couples compared to heterosexual counterparts. Montenegro’s recent passage of a same-sex partnership law signals progress towards equality in various domains. Economic Opportunity - Data on labor market outcomes for LGTBI people remains extremely limited across the Western Balkans. A 2019 World Bank study in Serbia found that 15 percent of LGBTI people have experienced discrimination at work. Discrimination adversely affects their socio-economic outcomes; 10 percent of respondents have quit a paid job, and 7 percent have taken unexpected leave from work due to the discrimination they expe- rienced. The same survey found that LGBTI people who reported experiences of workplace discrimination also reported lower incomes. A 2020 survey by the EU Fundamental Rights Agency found that LGBTI people in North Macedonia and Serbia frequently experience discrimination in the workplace: 25 percent of respondents in North Macedonia and 24 percent in Serbia respectively. Voice and Agency - Discrimination, exclusion, and violence remain widespread, and LGBTI people often lack trust in the institutions designed to protect their human rights. Research in Serbia, for example, found that the vast majority of LGBTI people have low trust in the political system (95 percent), the legal system (93 percent), and the police (91 percent). The World Bank approaches sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) inclusion through its com- mitments to gender equality as well as social inclusion – two crucial components of the World Bank’s twin goals to eradicate extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity. Like heterosexual and cisgender women and girls, lesbi- an, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) people are held to and impacted by prevailing restrictive gender norms and thus struggle to equally participate in markets, services, and spaces. In the Western Balkans, the same restrictive norms that hinder women and girls from achieving their full potential lie at the root of stigma, prejudice, and violence against LGBTI people. Sources: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2020. A long way to go for LGBTI equality. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ fra_uploads/fra-2020-lgbti-equality-technical-report_en.pdf World Bank Group. 2018. Life on the Margins: Survey Results of the Experiences of LGBTI People in Southeastern Europe. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30607 World Bank Group. 2019. A Comparative Analysis of the Socioeconomic Dimensions of LGBTI Exclusion in Serbia. World Bank. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 41 5. VOICE AND AGENCY Women’s agency in Serbia has substantially improved, primarily through increased political participation and decision-making. Overall, limited data availability poses a major barrier to fully understanding and addressing issues related to GBV and reproductive rights. 5.1 ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN Social norms can shape gender roles and stereotypes, impacting women’s out- comes by restricting their participation in the public sphere and within the house- hold. While most people perceive women and men as equally competent business executives, there is a wider gender gap regarding perceptions of political leader- ship. 93.6 percent of women and 84.6 percent of men perceive both genders as equally competent business executives. Regarding the statement “Men make better political leaders than women do,” 36.5 percent of women and 46.4 percent of men agree or strongly agree. (Figure 36). Social norms may foster acceptance of violent and abusive behaviors toward wom- en, contributing to the prevalence of intimate partner domestic violence. According to the OSCE-led survey on violence against women (OSCE, 2019), thirty percent of surveyed women in Serbia tend to agree that domestic violence is a private matter and should be handled within the family, more than double the EU average (14 per- cent). While the great majority of women do not think that having sexual intercourse without the woman’s consent can be justified, 10 percent of Serbian women think it is justifiable in a marriage or among partners who live together, 7 percent if the wom- an is wearing provocative clothing and 7 percent if the woman is flirting beforehand. 5.2 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Women’s representation in political power has been on the rise. Historically, women have been underrepresented in politics across all levels of governance. However, since 2012, there has been a notable increase in the number of women holding parliamentary seats, approaching the 40 percent mark. As of 2020, women occupy 38.8 percent of seats in the national parliament (see Figure 37). While significant progress was made in achieving gender parity in national parliament seats as early as 2012, a turning point for local representation occurred in 2016. Following local Country Gender Assessment Serbia 42 elections, the proportion of women among members of local assemblies surged from 19 percent to 36 percent, marking a substantial increase at the local level.44 Figure 36. Beliefs related to women’s role in public life. (2023) Source: LITS IV (2023) A. Women are as competent as men to be business executives (% of the population agreeing (agree/strongly agree)) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Serbia Montenegro Women Men B. Men make better political leaders than women do (% of the population agreeing – agree/strongly agree) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Women Men The representation of women in ministerial positions has seen a significant increase, rising from 16.7 percent in 2008 to 43.4 percent in 2020. This surge in female repre- sentation is notably higher than the average among European countries (32.2 per- cent) and other Western Balkan nations (32.8 percent). The most substantial leap occurred in 2015, with the proportion of women in the Council of Ministers climbing to 22.2 percent from just 9.1 percent in 2014 (see Figure 38). 44 UN Women (2021) Country Gender Assessment Serbia 43 SPOTLIGHT 4 – Intersectionality: gender and the Roma community The Roma1 constitute the largest ethnic minority in Europe, and they rank among the most marginalized, vulnerable to human rights violations and socially isolated communities in the European Union. Although Roma segregation is an issue affecting countries across Europe, the Balkans have historically served as the birthplace of Roma societies on the continent. In Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, 5 percent to 10 percent of the overall population identifies as Roma. According to the 2002 census, there were 108,193 Roma in Serbia but domestic and international sources estimate Serbia’s Roma population to be 300,000-460,000. Roma face multiple barriers and constraints that hinder their ability to accumulate human capital, participate in the labour market on an equal basis, and generate economic gains, with Roma females being particularly affected. The government passed the “Law on Prohibition of Discrimi- nation in 2009 and developed the Strategy and Action Plan for Social Inclusion of Roma (2016-2025) which features women and girls as specifically vulnerable collective within Roma communities. The Roma Social Inclusion Coordi- nation Body is the institution in charge of the Roma agenda. In 2002, the Roma population’s life expectancy was only 48 years, significantly lower than the national average of 72.2 Men predominated in all age groups up to 60, unlike the wider population where this shifts at 40, indicating a smaller gender gap in life expectancy among the Roma, attributed to higher youth ratios, greater mortality of women in their reproductive years, and a focus on male offspring, with Roma infant mortality rates being double. Over half of the Roma women aged 16-50 in settlements near Belgrade are undernourished, and smoking is prevalent.3 Roma, especially women, face more unmet healthcare needs, with 30% of women reporting unmet medical needs. These disparities are linked to socio-demographic factors like family size and employment. Roma settlements report ado- lescent fertility rates over ten times higher than the national average, at 163 versus 12, and a total fertility rate of 3.5 children per woman, indicating early and higher childbearing especially in poorer and rural segments. Roma children, especially from secondary education, have significantly lower enrolment rates, with girls slightly less enrolled than boys. In Roma settlements, preschool and primary enrolment rates are 73% for girls and 79% for boys, compared to 97% in the general population. Primary education sees 93.1% enrolment for boys and 91% for girls among Roma, versus 99.6% and 97.3% in the general population. The gap widens in secondary education, with only 30% of Roma boys and 26% of Roma girls attending, against 94.7% and 93.3% in the general population. Drop-out rates in Roma settlements are significantly higher, at 33% for both genders in primary education. Roma women have lower education completion rates than men, with only 63% completing primary and about 10% secondary education. Tertiary education completion is rare, yet 2% of Roma women aged 26-29 have achieved it. High costs, social norms, early marriage for girls, and income needs for boys are significant educational barriers. Despite these challenges, Roma girls tend to outperform boys in school, a trend attributed to their adaptability in a patriarchal society. Roma women face notably low employment participation and high unemployment rates. In 2016, their participation was around 20%, significantly lower than Roma men’s, and exacerbated by low education levels, with only 10% com- pleting secondary education. NEET rates for Roma women reach 78%, far above the 57% for men. Factors contrib- uting to this include poverty, isolation, limited education and training, early marriage, patriarchal norms, inadequate access to services like childcare, and low wage expectations. Despite active job seeking, unemployment among Roma women and men is high, around 50%, due to discrimination and skill deficits. In Roma settlements, 22% of women aged 15-49 believe it’s justifiable for a husband to hit or beat his wife under certain conditions, with child neglect (16%) and arguing or leaving without informing (10% each) being top reasons. A smaller percentage endorse this for sexual refusal (7%) or cooking mistakes (4%). However, 82% are aware of where to report domestic violence, with most knowing they can turn to the police (77%), followed by social work centers (27%) and safe houses (11%). Early marriage is prevalent among Roma girls in Serbia, with 40% of those aged 15-19 already having been pregnant or given birth. Cultural norms around virginity and controlling adolescent sexuality contribute to this, despite recognition of its harm within the community. Notes: 1. Roma is used to refer to several groups (for example, Roma, Sinti, Kale, Gypsies, Romanichels, Boyash, Ashkali, Egyptians, Yenish, Dom, Lom, Rom, Abdal), including travelers, without denying the specificities of these groups. These groups are all considered under the wider Roma umbrella in the European Union (EU) Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies (European Commission 2011). 2. However, data by gender are not available. Vuksanović-Macura, Z. (2012). 3. Crowley et al (2013). Sources: Robayo-Abril et al., 2019; Hughson, 2014; UNICEF, 2014, World Bank, 2015 Country Gender Assessment Serbia 44 Figure 37. The Portion of Parliament Seats Held by Women (2006-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Women in Politics. 50 40 30 20 10 0 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Figure 38. Proportion of Women in Ministerial Level Positions (percent) (2008-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Women in Politics. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 50 40 30 20 10 0 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 In 2019, women constituted 70 percent of judges in courts of general jurisdic- tion, with the highest representation found in courts of appeal, where they ac- counted for 77 percent of judges. Notably, at the Misdemeanour Court of Appeals, women made up 89 percent of judges, while men comprised only 11 percent.45 Despite progress, there is still room for improvement in other areas of represen- tation. For instance, women held only 6 percent of the positions of presidents of municipalities/mayors, and their representation among members of municipal and town/city assemblies stood at 31.3 percent in 2019. Regarding public prosecutor’s offices, women constituted 39 percent of public prosecutors, with men account- ing for the remaining 61 percent. Women were most represented at higher and 45 Source: SORS, Women, and Men in the Republic of Serbia, 2020. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 45 basic public prosecutor’s offices, comprising 38 percent respectively, and held 62 percent of deputy public prosecutor positions at basic public prosecutor’s offices. Overall, women held 58 percent of deputy public prosecutor positions compared to men’s 42 percent. However, the representation of women as deputy public prosecutors was lowest (25 percent) at the Organized Crime Public Prosecutor’s Office, while the lowest share of men in such positions (38 percent) was observed at basic public prosecutor’s offices.46 ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP The representation of women on the boards and in executive positions within the largest companies listed on the stock exchange saw significant growth from 2014 to 2021, rising from 15 to 23 percent and from 23 to 32 percent, respectively. Meanwhile, the proportion of women among members of the executive board of the National Bank of Serbia remained stable during this period (2014-2021) (Table 4). Additionally, in 2019, 18.2 percent of firms had a female top manager, aligning with the EU-27 average. This marked an increase of about 2 percentage points from 2013. Notably, the share of firms with female top managers in Serbia is the highest among Western Balkans countries. 48F47 Table 4. Share of Women Among Members of Boards And Executives in Largest Quoted Companies, and Share Among Members of National Bank of Serbia (2014-2021) Source: European Institute for Gender Equality, Gender Statistics Database/ Women and men in decision making/Business and Finance/Business 2014 2017 2021 Board members at the largest listed companies 15.3 19.7 22.8 Executives at the Largest listed companies 23.5 20.9 31.8 Women in Central banks: governors, deputy/vice-governors, 30 22.2 33.3 and members (% of total) 46 Source: SORS, Women, and Men in the Republic of Serbia, 2020. 47 Source: World Bank Enterprise Survey Country Gender Assessment Serbia 46 5.3 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Figure 39. Experiences of Violence Against Women and Girls Source: Well-being and Safety of Women (OSCE), 2019 Any Intimate partner psychological violence Sexual harrassment Intimate partner or non-intimate partner physical and/or sexual violence Stalking 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Since the age of 15 12 months prior to the survey Violence against women remains a concern in Serbia, with cultural norms and at- titudes contributing to perpetuating such violence. According to the WHO (2018) survey, fifteen percent of women aged 15 to 49 report having experienced inti- mate partner physical and sexual violence at some point. Another survey led by OSCE reveals that two in five women surveyed indicated had experienced sexual 49F48 harassment since age 15, and 18 percent reporting such experience within the 12 months preceding the survey. Twenty-two percent of women surveyed reported experiencing experienced physical or sexual violence at the hands of a partner or non-partner since the age of 15, with 18 percent of women who had a previous partner reporting such violence at the hands of the partner. Among women with current partners, ten percent reported experiencing physical or sexual violence from their current partner, while nine percent reported similar experiences from non-partners. Stalking affected one in ten women surveyed (Figure 39). The most prevalent forms of violence are intimate partner violence and psychological abuse, often manifested as controlling and abusive behavior. Police involvement in cases of physical violence appears to be limited, with a signif- icant number of women viewing domestic violence as a private matter that should remain within the family. Although NGOs focused on violence against women are widely recognized, they are not typically the first point of contact for women seek- ing help. There are several barriers preventing women from accessing services, including feelings of shame and fear or mistrust of the police, social workers, and healthcare professionals due to perceived stereotypes among representatives of 48 The survey was conducted in 2019 among a representative sample of women between 18 and 74 years old. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 47 these professions. Particularly in rural areas, support services are simply not avail- able, while other women face physical barriers to access or lack long-term and practical support for housing and money.49 6. CONCLUSIONS Gender equality is pivotal for Serbia’s economic advancement and its journey to- ward becoming a high-income nation and achieving European Union membership. The country has made commendable strides in several key areas, contributing to a more equitable society and laying the groundwork for sustainable economic devel- opment. Notably, the significant achievements in educational attainment among women, their increased representation in political arenas, and the strengthening of legal frameworks for gender equality are fundamental milestones. Despite these advancements, Serbia continues to grapple with deep-seated chal- lenges that hinder the full realization of gender equality. The persistent gap in labor force participation between genders underscores a critical area of concern. Despite women’s higher educational achievements, their engagement in the work- force is markedly lower than that of men, pointing to systemic barriers that limit their economic opportunities. This discrepancy not only undermines the poten- tial economic contributions of women but also perpetuates income inequality and hampers poverty reduction efforts. Furthermore, the educational disadvantages faced by boys, particularly in higher education, present a complex challenge that merits attention. Ensuring that boys and young men have equal opportunities and support in their educational journey is essential for their personal development and for mitigating the long-term im- pacts on the labor market and society at large. Serbia can unlock the full potential of its human capital and drive sustainable eco- nomic growth by persistently striving for gender equality. This requires a united effort from all sectors of society, including government, businesses, communities, and individuals. By dismantling barriers that impede women’s full participation in economic, social, and political spheres, Serbia can foster a more inclusive, equita- ble, and resilient society. 49 See also Djikanovic, B. et al (2018) Country Gender Assessment Serbia 48 7. REFERENCES Adsera, Alicia. 2004. “Changing Fertility Rates in Cukrowska, Ewa and Angela Kóczé. 2013. “In- Developed Countries. The Impact of Labor Market terplay Between Gender and Ethnicity: Exposing Institutions,” Journal of Population Economics, Structural Disparities of Romani Women. Analysis 17(1): 17-43. of the UNDP/World Bank/EC regional Roma survey data” Roma Inclusion Working Papers. Bratislava: Ahn, Namkee and Pedro Mira. 2002. “A Note on UNDP. the Changing Relationship between Fertility and Female Employment Rates in Developed Coun- Dahl, Gordon B., Katrine V. Loken, Magne Mogstad, tries,” Studies of the Spanish Economy, 13(4): and Kari Vea Salvanes “What Is the Case for Paid 667-682. Maternity Leave?,” Review of Economics and Statis- tics, 98(4): 655-670 Anderson, Thomas and Hans-Peter Kohler. 2013. “Education Fever and the East Asian Fertility Puz- D’Albis, Hippolyte, Paula E. Gobbi, and Angela zle: A Case Study of Low Fertility in South Korea,” Greulich. 2017. “Having a Second Child and Access Asian Population Studies 9 (2): 196– 215. to Childcare: Evidence from European Countries,” Journal of Demographic Economics 83 (2): 177-210. Avlijaš, Sonia, Nevena Ivanović, Marko Vladisavlje- vić, M., and Suncicia Vujić. 2013. “Gender Pay Gap De Laat, Joost and Almudena Sevilla-Sanz. 2006. in the Western Balkan Countries: Evidence from “Working Women, Men’s Home Time and Low- Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia.” FREN-Foun- est-Low Fertility,” ISER Working Paper 2006-23. dation for the Advancement of Economics. Del Boca Daniela. 2002. “The Effect of Childcare Babovic, Marija. 2012. “Polazna Studija o Pre- and Part Time Opportunities on Participation and duzetništvu žena u Srbiji.” Beograd: Program Fertility Decisions in Italy,” Journal of Population Ujedinjenih Nacija za razvoj. Beograd. Economics 15(3): 549-573. Bick, Alexander.2015. “The Quantitative Role of Djikanovic, Bosiljka, Zelika Stamenkovic, Vesna Childcare for Female Labor Force Participation and Bjegovic Mikanovic, Dejana Vukovic, Vladimir S. Fertility,” Journal of the European Economic Associ- Gordeev, and Natasa Maksimovic. 2018. “Negative ation 14(3): 639-668. Attitudes Related to Violence Against Women: Gen- der and Ethnic Differences Among Youth Living in Boelmann, Barbara, Anna Raute, and Uta Schon- Serbia,” International Journal of Public Health 63: berg. 2021. “Wind of Change? Cultural Determi- 923–932. nants of Maternal Labor Supply,” CEPR Discussion Paper 16149. European Commission. 2011. “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, Browne, Evie. 2017. “Gender in the Western Bal- the Council, The European Economic and Social kans.” K4D Helpdesk Report. Brighton, UK: Committee and the Committee of the Regions. An Institute of Development Studies. EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strat- egies up to 2020”. Crowley, Niall, Angela Genova, and Siliva Sanson- etti. 2013. “Empowerment of Roma Women within Fanelli, Ester and Paola Profeta. 2021. “Fathers’ the European Framework of National Roma” Euro- Involvement in the Family, Fertility, and Maternal pean Parliament manuscript, September. Employment: Evidence From Central and Eastern Europe,” Demography, 58(5): 1931-1954. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 49 Fernandez, Raquel and Alessandra Fogli. 2009. Marijantović, Dragana. 2015. “Assessment of the “Culture: An Empirical Investigation of Beliefs, ´ Structural Barriers that Hinder the Employment of Work, and Fertility,” American Economic Journal: Roma Women,” UN Women. Macroeconomics 1 (1): 146–77. NALED. 2019. “Rodna Analiza Ekonomskih Pro- Goldin, Claudia. 2014. “A Grand Gender Con- grama i Finansijskih Mera Razvojne Agencije Srbije vergence: Its Last Chapter,” American Economic i Analiza Uticaja na Rodnu Ravnopravnost,“ Bel- Review, 104(4): 1091-1119. grade. GRS.2021. “National Strategy for Gender Equality NALED. 2020. “Rodna analiza sa predlogom indika- for 2021-2030. Government of the Republic of Ser- tora,” British Embassy Belgrade. Good Governance bia, Coordination body for Gender Equality,” fund. Guner, Nezih, Ezgi Kaya, and Virginia Sanchez-Mar- Oliver-Burgess, Angela, Marija Babovic, Ana Popo- cos. 2020. “Labor Market Institutions and Fertility,” vicki, and Dina Scippa. 2020. “Serbia Final Gender CEMFI, Unpublished Manuscript. Analysis Report,” Prepared by Banyan Global. USAID, May. Kleven, Henrik, Camille Landais, Johanna Posch, Andreas Steinhauser, and Josef Zweimuller. 2019. Olivetti, Claudia and Barbara Petrongolo. 2017. “Child Penalties across Countries: Evidence and “The Economic Consequences of Family Policies: Explanations,” AEA Papers and Proceedings Lessons from a Century of Legislation in High-In- 109:122–126. come Countries,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31 (1): 205- 230. Kleven, Henrik, Camille Landais, and Gabriel Leite-Mariante. 2023. “The Child Penalty Atlas,” Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban and Max Roser. 2020. NBER Working Paper 31649. “Marriages and Divorces,” Published online at OurWorldInData.org Kurshitashvili, Nato, Karla Gonzalez Carvajal, Kelly Saunders, and Laila Ait Bihi Ouali. 2022. “Paths OSCE.2019. “Wellbeing and Safety of Women,” Or- Toward Green Mobility: Perspectives on Women ganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. and Rail Transport in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Pennings, Steven Michael. 2020. “A Gender Em- Serbia.” World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank. ployment Gap Index (GEGI) : A Simple Measure of the Economic Gains from Closing Gender Em- ILOSTAT. 2018. “Global Wage Report 2018/19. What ployment Gaps, with an Application to the Pacific lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps,” Geneva, ILOSTAT. Islands,” Washington, DC. World Bank. Lebedinski, Lara and Marko Vladisavljević. 2022. Radovanović, Svetlana and Aleksandar Knežević. “Parenthood and labour market outcomes in Ser- 2014. “Romi u Srbiji,” Statistical Office of the Re- bia,” Economic Annals, 67(232): 7-47. public of Serbia, Belgrade. Lopes, Marta. 2020. “Job Security and Fertility De- Raute, Anna. 2018. “Can Financial Incentives cisions,” Unpublished Manuscript, University Carlos Reduce the Baby Gap? Evidence from a Reform in III de Madrid. Maternity Leave Benefits” Journal of Public Eco- nomics 169: 203-222. Majumdar, Shruti and Andrea Woodhouse. 2019. “The Problem Is ‘They See Us As A Whole’: Ex- plaining Gender- and Ethnicity-Based Inequalities among the Roma in Serbia,” Background Paper, World Bank, Washington DC. Country Gender Assessment Serbia 50 Robayo-Abril, Monica, Carmen de Paz Nieves, and WHO.2018. “Violence Against Women. Prevalence Trinidad Saavedra Facusse. 2019. “Closing the Estimates, 2018,” Published by WHO, on behalf of Gender Gaps Among Marginalized Roma in the the United Nations Inter-Agency Working Group Western Balkans,” Washington, DC. World Bank. on Violence Against Women Estimation and Data Republic Secertariat for Public Policies. 2021. (VAW-IAWGED) ”Serbian and 2030 agenda. Mapping the Nation- al Strategic Framework vis-a-vis the Sustainable World Bank. 2016. “Women´s Access to Economic Development Goals,“ Belgrade. Opportunities in Serbia,” World Bank, Washington, DC. SeCons.2020. “Consequences of COVID-19 on Women’s and Men’s Economic Empowerment” UN World Bank. 2017. “Promoting Women’s Access Women Serbia Country Office, July to Economic Opportunities: Serbia,” World Bank, Washington DC. SeCons.2023a. “Polazna studija o preduzetništvu žena u Srbiji – deset godina kasnije,” UN Women. World Bank. 2018. “Discrimination Against Sexual Minorities in Education and Housing Evidence from SeCons.2023b.: “Programi podrške preduzetništvu Two Field Experiments in Serbia,”. Policy Research žena u Srbiji – deset godina kasnije,” UN Women. Working Paper 8504, Washington. DC. World Bank SORS.2020. “Women and men in the Republic of World Bank. 2019. “The Problem Is They See Us As Serbia. Statistical office of the republic of Serbia.“ A Whole: Explaining Gender and Ethnicity-based In- Belgrad. equalities Among the Roma in Serbia,” World Bank Group, Washington DC. SORS and UNICEF.2019. “Serbia Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey and Serbia Roma Settlements Multi- World Bank. 2020. “Serbia Systematic Country ple Indicator Cluster Survey, 2019, Survey Findings Diagnostic: Update,” Washington, DC. World Bank. Report,” Belgrad. World Bank. 2020b. “Human Capital Project,”. Stefanovic Fereigra, Ana. 2021. “EU Gender Coun- Washington, DC. World Bank. try Profile for Serbia,” UN Women and the Europe- an Union. World Bank. 2023. “Women, Business and the Law, 2023,” World Bank, Washington, DC. UNICEF MICS.2014. “Serbia Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey,” December. UNICEF.2017. “Child marriage among the Roma population in Serbia. Etnographic reserach.” Belgrade. UN Women.2015. “Annual Report 2015-2016,” New York. UN Women. 2021. “Gender Equality Index of the Republic of Serbia 2021: Digitalization, Future of Work and Gender Equality,” New York. Vuksanović-Macura, Zatala. 2012. “The Mapping and Enumeration of Informal Roma Settlements in Serbia,” Environment and Urbanization, 24(2): 685-705.