Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 1 KOSOVO COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 2 May 2024 © 2024 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, D.C. 20433 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved Printed and manufactured in Washington, D.C. First Printing: [May 2024] This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be at- tributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to mem- bers of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting por- tions or all this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encour- ages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 3 CONTENTS Acknowledgments  4 Abbreviations  5 1. Introduction  6 2. Legal and institutional framework  8 3. Endowments  13 3.1 Health  13 3.2 Education  16 4. Economic opportunities  20 4.1 Labor market participation and employment status  20 4.2 Need and provision of care  26 4.3 Labor market segregation  30 4.4 Wage gap  31 4.5 Entrepreneurship and financial inclusion  32 5. Voice and agency  36 5.1 Political participation  36 5.2 Economic leadership  37 5.3 Violence against women and social norms  38 6. Conclusions  41 7. References  42 Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is one of six Western Balkans Country Gender Assessments (CGAs) prepared by a team led by Anna Fruttero and comprising of Chiara Broccolini, Armanda Car- cani, Alexandru Cojocaru, Roxanne Hakim, Olivera Kovacevic, Sanchi Kumal, Sel- ma Ljubijankic, Leonardo Lucchetti, Trang Nguyen, Ana Maria Oviedo, Ifeta Smajic, Bekim Ymeri, Zurab Sajaia, Marija Bashevska (North Macedonia), Bergin Kulenovic (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Juna Miluka (Albania and Kosovo), Jelena Žarković and Marko Vladisavjevic (Montenegro and Serbia), Dominik Koehler (SOGI), Emilia Ga- liano and Isabel Santagostino (WBL), Adela Llatja (GIZ), and Ermira Lubani (UN Women, Gender Responsive Budgeting). Designed by Human Indeed Studio. The team thanks Daniel Halim, Daniel Kirkwood, Lisa Kolovich (IMF), Miriam Muller and Will Seitz for their peer review; and Lundrim Aliu, Samra Bajramovic, Odeta Bulo, Besart Myderrizi, Mjellma Recaj, Jasminka Sopova, Evis Sulko, Sanja Tanic, Eranda Toque, and Dragana Varesic for support with the organization of consultations. The team is also grateful for guidance and support from Varalakshmi Vemuru (Practice Manager, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), Ambar Narayan and Sal- man Zaidi (Practice Managers, Poverty and Equity), Massimiliano Paolucci (Coun- try Manager, Kosovo and North Macedonia), Nicola Pontara (Country Manager, Serbia), Emanuel Salinas (Country Manager, Albania), Christopher Sheldon (Coun- try Manager, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro), Richard Record and Ind- hira Santos (Program Leaders). The team undertook consultations with and benefited from insights from various agencies of governments, civil organizations, donors, and international organiza- tions. The team thanks the many stakeholders who shared their knowledge and helped shape the contents of these Country Gender Assessments. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 5 ABBREVIATIONS ETF European Training Foundation EU European Union Eurostat The Statistical office of the European Union EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions ILOSTAT International Labor Organization Statistics INSTAT Institute of Statistics GEGI Gender Employment Gap Index HCI Human Capital Index KAS Kosovo Agency of Statistics LFP Labor Force Participation LFS Labor Force Survey LITS Life in Transition Survey NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development SEE Southern Eastern Europe STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WBL Women Business and the Law WDI World Development Indicators. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 6 1. INTRODUCTION Fostering gender equality and enabling women’s economic participation is critical for Kosovo’s development trajectory. Actively engaging, nurturing, and optimiz- ing the diverse talents and capabilities of the population, especially of inactive segments is paramount to sustained progress in poverty reduction and shared prosperity. In the last decades, Kosovo has seen some progress in gender equali- ty, including reduced gender gaps in education, increased female life expectancy, and a slight uptick in political participation. However, disparities persist in various areas, including the labor market, entrepreneurship, earnings, occupational segre- gation, unpaid labor, and violence against women. This Country Gender Assessment provides empirical evidence and analyzes gen- der equality in Kosovo. Methodologically, the report adopts the Gender Assess- ment framework proposed by the World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development (WDR 2012). Through this lens, the report scrutinizes recent progress and lingering challenges across three critical dimensions: Endowments, Economic opportunities, and Voice and Agency. Extensive research was conduct- ed drawing from various data sources to gauge indicators such as health, educa- tion, labor market dynamics, and gender-based violence, among others.1 This report updates and complements past work on gender equality in Kosovo, including the 2012 CGA (World Bank 2012). The analysis relies primarily on the World Development Indicators (WDI), 2022 Labor Force Survey (LFS), 2023 Life in Transition Survey, 2019 Enterprise Survey, 2021 Global Findex and other data available through the World Bank Gender Data portal, as well as a variety of sec- ondary sources, which provide a broad picture of the key gender issues in Kosovo. The results of the analysis suggest that there are significant gender disparities in human capital and access to economic opportunities. The highlights can be sum- marized as follows: • Kosovo could reap substantial economic benefits from reducing gender gaps, as highlighted by the value of 46.4 percent of Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI), identifying the potential rise in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates between genders. 1 This note focuses on gender disparities specifically hindering the well-being and economic welfare of women in Kosovo. However, gender gaps can arise in the outcomes and opportunities enjoyed by females and males across several dimensions. (WDR 2012). In many instances, men—rather than women—may suffer as a result of gender disparities. Regardless of whether these inequali- ties create disadvantages for men or for women, gender equality matters intrinsically, as well as instrumentally, to foster economic efficiency and development outcomes (WDR 2012). Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 7 • While education doesn’t completely bridge the gender gaps in labor force participation, women with higher levels of education exhibit higher participa- tion rates, narrowing the differences with men. However, employment rates remain significantly higher for men across all education levels, indicating challenges for women in securing employment. • The workforce potential lags that of other regional countries, with girls facing a greater disadvantage. A girl born in Kosovo will only achieve 58 percent of her potential productivity as an adult compared to 70 percent average in the European and Central Asia region. • A significant gender gap is evident in tertiary education enrollment, with women dominating at both the bachelor’s and master’s levels. • A phenomenon known as motherhood penalty is observable in Kosovo. The transition to adulthood differs for young men and women: young men typical- ly experience a decrease in inactivity rates and an increase in employment, while young women often transition from school to inactivity. Employment rates between men and women diverge at the time of family formation. • The availability of good-quality sex-disaggregated data is key to inform any serious reform effort. Notable low quality, limited availability and delays in producing sex-disaggregated micro-data hamper effective evidence-based policy making in Kosovo.2 Addressing gender equality offers opportunities. In addition to its intrinsic value, promoting gender equality is a central priority towards achieving inclusive growth and reduce poverty. Promoting women’s economic opportunities, access to en- dowments, and voice and agency is fundamental in tackling some of Kosovo’s main policy challenges, including raising labor productivity, promoting private sec- tor development, and fostering resilience. The structure of the report is as follows. Section 2 delves into the legal and insti- tutional framework. Section 3 assesses gender equality from the perspective of human endowments. Section 4 discusses progress and challenges in economic opportunities. Section 5 focuses on issues related to voice and agency. 2 See World Bank, Gender Data Portal which explores availability of the 900+ indicators in the portal for every country in the last 5 years, last 10 years, or since 1960 for 14 topics (assets, children 0-14, education, employment and time use, entrepreneurship, environment, health, leadership, norms and decision-making, population, SDGs, technology, violence, youth 15-24). In the case of Kosovo, out of all the indicators assessed on the portal for each topic, only the 6 percent are available for the category “gen- der-based violence”, 13 percent for “education”, “norms and decision-making” and “health” and 33 percent for “assets”. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 8 2. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK The Republic of Kosovo has a modern legal framework promoting and guaran- teeing gender equality, aligning with international standards. Kosovo’s commit- ment to gender equality and non-discrimination principles traces back to the 2008 Kosovo Constitution. Indeed, Kosovo has made significant legislative strides for gender equality, scoring 91.9 out of 100 in the 2023 World Bank’s Women, Busi- ness, and the Law (WBL) 1.0. index. 3 This index reflects Kosovo’s progress since the 1970s (Figure 1). In the 1970s and 80s, women had less than three-quarters of the legal rights of men in economic opportunities, scoring 67.5 on the WBL 1.0. index. Since then, there has been consistent improvement, with scores rising from 70.6 in the late 1990s to 91.9 in the past decade. Kosovo’s progress exceeds the ECA average (84.4 in 2023) and ranks second only to Serbia. Key advancements include robust measures against workplace discrimination and sexual harassment and legislation for equal pay. Since 1971, Kosovo has excelled in various indicators (Figure 2), including freedom of movement, laws affecting women’s work and pay, marriage regulations, en- trepreneurship opportunities, and gender disparities in property and inheritance, all scoring perfectly in 2021. Progress has been made in laws affecting women’s workforce decisions and protections against workplace discrimination and harass- ment, achieving a perfect score in 2003. Challenges remain, particularly in laws impacting women’s employment after childbirth and pension size. Maternal leave benefits were lacking between 2003 and 2011, and as of 2023, full implementa- tion of maternal leave benefits and paid parental leave remains incomplete.4 Re- forms to enhance provisions for working mothers and ensure gender equality in social security after retirement could improve workforce participation. 3 The WBL 1.0. index assesses how laws and regulations impact women’s economic opportunities across various areas, includ- ing Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. The score is calculated by taking the average of each index, with 100 being the highest possible score. The index is based on the analysis of the domestic laws and regulations, updated to October 2023. 4 The World Bank; Women, Business and the Law 1971-2023 Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 9 Figure 1. WBL 1.0. Index (1975-2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 NOTE: The WBL 1.0. index assesses how laws and regulations impact women’s economic opportunities across various areas, including Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. The score is calculated by taking the average of each index, with 100 being the highest possible score. The index is based on the analysis of the domestic laws and regulations, updated to October 2023. 100 90 80 70 60 50 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 ALB BIH MNE SRB EU27 MKD KXK Figure 2. WBL.1.0. Score by Indices in Kosovo (1975-2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 60 40 20 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Workplace Mobility Pay Marriage Parenthood Entrepreneurship Assets Pension According to the new WBL 2.0 legal frameworks index,5 women in Kosovo have 85 percent of the legal rights of men. This update provides a deeper insight into the legal underpinnings of gender equality, revealing a notable decrease in Koso- vo’s scores compared to the previous WBL 1.0 index (Figure 3). Key areas such as women’s safety, workplace, parenthood, entrepreneurship support and affordable and quality childcare lag behind. 5 The new WBL 2.0. index includes two additional indicators – Safety and Childcare – and new and revised questions under the original WBL indicators. The analysis continues to be based on domestic laws and regulations. The new Safety Indicator ex- pands the measurement legislation on violence against women. Previously, WBL 1.0. addressed only two forms of violence: sexual harassment in employment (under Workplace Indicator) and domestic violence (under Marriage Indicator). The new Safety Indicator now covers two additional forms of violence against women: child marriage and femicide. The new Child- care Indicator assesses childcare services offered in center-based settings to children from birth to two years and 11 months. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 10 The legal framework on gender equality is primarily shaped by Law no.05/L-020, “On Gender Equality,” and Law no. 05/L-021, “On Protection from Discrimination,” both dated 28.05.2015, focusing on gender equality, guarantees, protects, and promotes equality between sexes, recognizing it as fundamental for democratic development. It outlines general and specific measures for equal rights, delineates responsible institutions’ roles, and aligns with international conventions, ensuring equal opportunities across public and private spheres. Even with equal laws in place, achieving women’s rights and opportunities still faces significant challenges due to inadequate implementation and weak en- forcement. WBL 2.0 supportive frameworks assesses the disparity between laws in theory and their application in practice (de jure vs de facto). It encompasses various instruments aimed at facilitating the implementation of laws, including national policies, plans and programs, services, budget, special procedures, and sanctions for noncompliance with certain standards. Data for Kosovo reveal that the supportive frameworks necessary for the implementation of laws could be strengthened for all the indicators, except Safety. In particular, supportive frame- works could be more robust in critical areas such as affecting women’s decisions to enter the labor market, including women’s legal capacity and ability to work, as well as protections in the workplace against discrimination and sexual harassment (the Workplace Indicator) and differences in property and inheritance law, includ- ing instances in which legal systems are supported by customary law and judicial precedent (Assets Indicator) (Figure 4). Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 11 Figure 3. WBL 2.0. Legal Score by Indices (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 WBL 2.0 legal score, EU-27 average 80 60 40 20 0 Mobility Pay Marriage Assets Pension Workplace Parenthood Safety Entrepreneurship Childcare Figure 4. WBL 2.0. Supportive Frameworks Score (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 WBL 2.0 supportive framework score, EU-27 average 60 40 20 0 Safety Mobility Entrepreneurship Pension Childcare Pay Marriage Workplace Parenthood Assets Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 12 SPOTLIGHT 1 – Gender-Responsive Budgeting Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) is an approach to budgeting that seeks to promote gender equal- ity by ensuring that public policies and expenditures are designed and implemented in ways that take into account the different needs and priorities of women and men. It is an important tool to improve the transparency, accountability, effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of public expenditure. GRB brings into focus issues that are frequently overlooked within budget analysis and decision mak- ing. These issues include the role that unpaid work plays in economic and social outcomes, especially the unequal distribution of and responsibility for unpaid work that is placed on women and the extent to which women can voice their needs and participate in decision-making on budgets. GRB not only as- sists governments in innovating when it comes to the resources for financing the SDGs but also allows them to track allocations for gender equality and to assess the extent to which they are making this information publicly available and transparent. In Kosovo, GRB has been a legal requirement in Kosovo since 2015. The Law on Gender Equality states that all public institutions should include gender mainstreaming in their institutions and their budgets. Yet, according to the Kosovo Program for Gender Equality 2020–2024, women are not represented in decision-making processes and their requirements and specific needs are not considered at either the local or central level. Investments are more oriented towards meeting the needs of men and thus improving the lives of men. Aiming to improve GRB implementation, Kosovo’s Government in November 2022 approved the Concept Document on GRB, thus laying out the outline and the content of the GRB draft normative act and proposing all the necessary amendments across the existing legal framework of Kosovo for a full-fledged implementation of the gender equality. Source: UN Women Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 13 3. ENDOWMENTS Kosovo’s workforce potential lags behind that of other regional countries, with girls facing a greater disadvantage. According to the 2020 Human Capital Index,6 a girl born in Kosovo will only achieve 58 percent of her potential productivity as an adult due to limitation in education and health, compared to 55 percent for a boy. These figures fall below the European and Central Asia regional averages of 70 percent for girls and 60 percent for boys, as well as the EU-27 averages (75 and 71 percent, respectively) (Figure 5). Figure 5. Human Capital Index (2020) Source: World Bank, 2020 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 KOSOVO ECA EU-27 Women Men 3.1 HEALTH Life expectancy has increased for both genders but it remains considerably lower for men and lower than the EU-27 average by 3.7 percentage points for women and 3.5 percentage points for men (Figure 6). Among the Western Balkan coun- tries, Kosovo surpasses North Macedonia and Serbia with slight differences and is surpassed by Albania, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Prenatal care is characterized by high access to services and high rates of insti- tutional births7. In 2020, 94.4 percent of women received prenatal care with at 6 Source: World Bank (2020). The HCI calculates the contributions of health and education to worker productivity. The final index score ranges from zero to one and measures the productivity as a future worker of child born today relative to the benchmark of full health and complete education. 7 The proportion of births occurring in health facilities. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 14 least four visits,8 and 99 percent were attended by skilled health staff. Institutional deliveries are consistently high in both urban (98.5 percent) and rural areas (99.4 percent) among women aged 15-49 who had live births in the last two years. This shift towards institutional deliveries has played a pivotal role in reducing health risks for mothers and children by minimizing complications and infections. These advancements have contributed to a steady decline in the infant mortality rate for both genders since 2000, concurrently narrowing the gender gap (Figure 7). While Kosovo’s infant mortality rate remains above the EU average, it is making consis- tent progress towards closing this gap with the European Union. Figure 6. Life Expectancy at Birth by Gender (years) (1995-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 11, 2024 85 80 75 70 65 60 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Women - KOSOVO Men - KOSOVO Woman - EU27 Men - EU27 Figure 7. Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group, and UNDESA/Population Division, World Health Organization, 2023. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 50 40 30 20 10 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - KOSOVO Men - KOSOVO Women - EU27 Men - EU27 8 Source: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, Childinfo, and Demographic and Health Sur- veys. Accessed: January 11, 2024 Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 15 While the fertility rate has decreased from 2.6 children per woman in 2001 to 1.5 in 2021, Kosovo has consistently remained below the replacement rate of 2.1 births per woman since 2014 (Figure 8). Over the period from 2000 to 2021, adolescent fertility rate has decreased, plummeting from 21.5 to 8.2 children born to women aged 15-19 per 1,000 women in the same age group (Figure 9). While the youth dependency ratio decreased from 41 percent in 2012 to 32 percent in 2021, the old dependency ratio has increased from 11 percent in 2012 to 15 percent in 2021. The confluence of increasing life expectancy and declining fertility rates indicates that the rising old dependency ratio may add an extra burden to care activities for women. Figure 8. Fertility Rate, Total (births per woman) (2001-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Albania EU27 Kosovo Montenegro North Serbia Macedonia Figure 9. Adolescent Fertility Rate (births per 1,000 women aged 15 – 19) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects. Accessed: January 11, 2024 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Albania EU27 Kosovo Montenegro North Macedonia Serbia Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 16 The notable delay in data availability in Kosovo, hinders a thorough assessment of specific health outcomes and behaviors. This limitation not only affects our ability to gauge the state of health within the country but also constrains the possibility of meaningful comparisons with both EU countries and other nations in the region. 3.2 EDUCATION Men lagging behind in tertiary education is a concerning trend. 9 A significant gen- der gap is evident in tertiary education enrollment, with women dominating at both the bachelor’s and master’s levels (Figure 10). In 2020, women constituted 60 per- cent of students enrolled in bachelor’s degree programs, a trend observed con- sistently in the academic years 2018-2019 and 2019-2020. Unfortunately, recent data on the educational attainment of women and men are currently unavailable.10 Figure 10. Gross Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Education (2020-2021) Source: KAS, Women and Men in Kosovo, 2021 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Bachelor Level Master Level Women Men Besides enrolment, girls consistently outperform boys across various competen- cies in school. Harmonized test scores demonstrate a 9 score points gap between 15-year-old girls and boys (Figure 11). The most significant performance gap is ob- served in reading scores, where girls outshine boys. Conversely, boys perform slightly better in science. However, both girls and boys in Kosovo demonstrate performance levels considerably below the OECD averages, with the most sub- stantial gaps in reading literacy. 9 Data on enrollment rates are not available for Kosovo. 10 Data from the Population Census of 2011 show that 77.2 percent of those with no formal education were women. Furthermore, large gaps were also present in upper secondary education. Of those who had attained upper secondary education, only 32.3 percent were women. The gaps were reversed for primary and lower secondary education with 16.1 and 14.7 percentage points higher for women, respectively. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 17 Figure 11. Student Performance 15 Years, 2022 Source: PISA scores, 2022 Harmonized test scores (2020) Science Mathematics 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 KOSOVO Girls KOSOVO Boys OECD Girls OECD Boys Gender gaps in digital skills are more pronounced among individuals with low- er levels of education and among older demographics. Notably, younger women demonstrate higher proficiency in basic or above basic digital skills compared to their male counterparts. In the age-group 16-24, women held a 5.7 percentage points advantage in 2019 (Table 1). However, as age increases, the gender gap shifts in favor of men, reaching its highest point at 12.2 percentage points in the age group 25-54. Furthermore, there is a clear correlation between digital skills and education attainment for both sexes, with the gender gaps favoring women among those with higher education. Despite these trends, Kosovo still falls be- hind the EU-27 average and other regional counterparts in terms of overall digital skills proficiency. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 18 Table 1. Individuals with Basic Digital Skills or Above (percent, by sex, age group,and level of education) (2019) Source: Eurostat, 2021. Accessed: January, 8 2024.   Kosovo EU-27   Men Women Men Women AGE-GROUPS 16-24 years old 55.3 61 81 82 25-54 years old 32.6 20.4 63 62 55-74 years old 12.5 4.2 37 26 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Low formal education 12.6 6 35 27 Medium formal education 28.8 31.3 56 53 High formal education 66.6 69.1 86 82 Lack of data availability poses challenges for education statistics, particularly in crucial aspects such as educational attainment and fields of study. This lack of comprehensive data hampers the ability to conduct detailed analyses regarding issues such as educational segregation. Moreover, it limits the understanding of the broader implications of education on various facets of life, including its impact on the labor market, entrepreneurship, and representation in society. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 19 SPOTLIGHT 2 - School Hours Parents of young children face the daunting task of juggling childcare responsibilities with earning an income. The scarcity of childcare facilities exacerbates this challenge, leaving parents with few options, such as relying on untrained caregivers, reducing work hours, or even quitting their jobs altogether. This issue extends beyond early childhood care; even when children reach primary school age, parents continue to grapple with the balance between work and childcare due to school hours and breaks. This struggle is amplified for single parents or households where both parents work full-time. Analyzing school calendars in the Western Balkans reveals that children spend only half the working hours of a full-time employee in school annually. This underscores the necessity for accessible and af- fordable preschool and afterschool care. The lack thereof not only impedes parents’ ability to work but also forces them into difficult decisions regarding their children’s care quality. Thus, the shortage of accessible and affordable preschool and afterschool care can have a profound im- pact on parents and families. It can limit parents’ ability to return to work or force them to make difficult choices about the quality of care their children receive. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 20 4. ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES Bridging the gender gap in employment could lead to significant economic ben- efits. Despite progress in education and health outcomes for women, these ad- vancements often fail to translate into improved economic opportunities. The Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI),11 which assesses the potential rise in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates between genders, stood at 46.4 percent in 2022, underscoring the substantial economic and social impact of clos- ing the gender employment gap. 4.1 LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS In 2022, the labor force participation (LFP) rate for women stood at 22 percent, a stark contrast to the 55.5 percent rate for men. While the LFP rate for wom- en has seen a 4.2 percentage point increase since 2012, men have consistently maintained considerably higher LFP rates over the past decade, resulting in an average gender gap of approximately 39 percentage points (Figure 12). Individual and household characteristics such as age, marital status, educational attainment, household composition, and local market demand play crucial roles in determin- ing LFP (Gashi et al., 2019). Moreover, perceived discrimination due to patriarchal social norms, cultural factors, and challenges related to maternity leave further contribute to hindrances in women’s participation in the labor force (Abazi-Morina and Delibashzade, 2017). 11 Source: Penning (2020). GEGI index measure of gender employment gaps equal to the long-run GDP per capita gains from in- creasing women’s employment rates, so they are equal to men’s. The basic GEGI is defined as the gap between male and female employment as a share of total employment. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 21 Figure 12. Labor Force Participation Rate (percent population 15-64 years old) (2012-2022) Source: SEE Jobs Gateway, 2022 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 Women Men Education alone won’t close gender gaps in labor force participation, but it signifi- cantly contributes to narrowing them. Highly educated women have much higher participation rates than those with less education. For example, women with ad- vanced education are 60.6 percentage points more likely to participate than those with basic education, and 41.9 percentage points more likely than those with in- termediate education. Still, even highly educated women have lower participation than educated men. In 2021, women with advanced education had a 65.6 percent participation rate compared to 76.7 percent for men (Figure 13). And the gender gap is wider for less educated women, reaching 31.2 percentage points for inter- mediate-level education and 24.7 percentage points for basic education. Figure 13. Labor Force Participation Rate by Education Level and Sex (15-64 years old) (2021) Source: INSTAT, Men and Women, 2021 Advanced education Intermediate education Basic education 0 20 40 60 80 100 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 22 In Kosovo, just like in Europe, men outpace women in employment rates. Since 2012, the employment-to-population ratio for men has consistently surpassed that of women. In 2022, only 18.4 percent of women were employed, compared to a much higher 49.4 percent for men (Figure 14). Gender gaps have persisted for a decade, ranging between 27.2 to 33.9 percentage points. Figure 14. Employment to Population Ratio by Sex (15-64 years old) (2012-2022) Source: SEE Jobs Gateway, 2022. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 Women Men As with labor force participation, at higher level of education employment rates in- crease and the gender gap decreases. In 2021, the employment-to-population ra- tio for those with tertiary education was 71.7 percent for men and 53.4 for women, and gender gap 18.3 percentage point gap (Figure 15). The gap persists across all education levels: men with secondary education had rates about 30 percentage points higher than women (46.4 percent for men and 15.7 percent for women), and for those with primary education, the gap was 22 percentage points (25.4 percent for men and 3.6 percent for women). Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 23 Figure 15. Employment to Population Ratio by Sex and Level of Education (15-64 years) (2021) Source: KAS, Women and Men in Kosovo, 2021 Tertiary education Secondary education High School Secondary education Professional/Vocational Preliminary education No education 0 20 40 60 80 100 Women Men NEET rates, referring to youth not in education, employment, or training remain high for both young women and men, but the gender gap has narrowed (Figure 16). In 2022, NEET rate for women was 40.1 percent and for men 33.3 percent. Figure 16. Not in Education, Employment or Training Rates by Sex (2012-2022) 70 SEE Jobs Gateway, 2024. Source: 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 Women Men In Kosovo, the transition to adulthood differs for young men and women. While young men typically see a reduction in inactivity rate and an increase in employ- ment, young women often transition from school to inactivity (Figures 17 and 18). This trend aligns with the early formation of families among women, which contin- ues into their twenties and thirties (Figures 19 and 20). While the share of inactive men remains stable or declines during these years, the NEET rate for women rises steadily until nearly the age of 40. This pattern suggests a correlation with the sig- nificant responsibilities that women undertake in terms of care and domestic work in Kosovo. This is consistent with the “motherhood penalty”, a pattern document- ed for countries across the world, where employment trends for men and women diverge significantly post-parenthood (Kleven et al. 2023). Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 24 Figure 17. NEET Rates by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2022 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Figure 18. Employment Rates by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2022. 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men AGE AGE Figure 19. Family Formation by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2022. 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 SHARE OF MEN AND WOMEN WHO ARE MARRIED OR CO HABITING Women Men Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 25 Figure 20. Share of Adults with Children 0-17 y.o. by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2022. 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Inactivity among men is largely due to market-related factors, such as education and training or the belief that no jobs are available, while for women it is predom- inantly due to family obligations. Over 65 percent of men attribute their status to market reasons, in contrast to just 21 percent for women. Conversely, personal or family responsibilities are the main reasons for over 58 percent of women com- pared to only 5 percent of men (Figure 21). Figure 21. Reasons for Inactivity by Sex (adults 25-64 years old) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2022 Women Men 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Care/Family Education Believe no work available Other Women not only participate less in the labor market but are also more likely to be engaged in part-time employment (Figure 22). While there has been a de- crease in the share of part-time employment for both genders since 2013, the disparity remains. Women are less likely to work in precarious jobs. Men are more likely to be in un- Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 26 stable employment12, with 19 percent of employed men in 2020 compared to 11 percent of women. Interestingly, while women showed a decline in unstable em- ployment from 2018 to 2020, men’s rates remained relatively steady (Figure 23). Figure 22. Incidence of Part-Time Employment by Sex (2013-2022) Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 11, 2024 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2013 2017 2022 Women Men Figure 23. Unstable Employment by Sex (2012-2020) Source: KAS, Women and Men in Kosovo, 2021 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women Men 4.2 NEED AND PROVISION OF CARE Women’s economic participation is hindered by the unequal distribution of care- giving responsibilities. Social norms often burden women with caregiving respon- sibilities duties, especially when access to quality public or private care is limit- 12 Workers in unstable jobs are either self-employed persons without employees or those who perform unpaid work in a family busi- ness. These two groups of workers are less likely to have a formal employment agreement than paid workers. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 27 ed, and resources for hiring paid caregivers are scarce. This imbalance results in women being time-poor, with limited availability for paid labor or longer work hours, pushing women towards informal and lower-paying jobs. Traditional gender roles persist in Kosovo, with a majority agreeing that women should handle household chores, regardless of their husband’s employment sta- tus.13 Consequently, women shoulder the majority of unpaid care and domestic work, significantly impacting their labor force participation. Childcare duties alone account for a substantial portion of women’s economic inactivity, with women dedicating three times more time to household and family care work than men (Millennium Challenge Corporation, 2018). More women than men opt for part-time work, primarily driven by family obliga- tions. While the predominant reason for both genders working part-time is the challenge of securing full-time employment (56.7 percent of men and 34.3 per- cent of women), there exists a 3 percentage points gap between women and men working part-time due to family or other reasons (Figure 24). Additionally, the lim- ited availability of childcare and elderly care facilities exacerbates the situation. As of 2019, Kosovo had 42 public kindergartens, unevenly distributed across the country (Haxhikandrija, 2019). Concerning elderly care, as of 2021 only four out of 38 municipalities offered residential care, accommodating a total of 160 residents (Haxhikandrija, 2021). Figure 24. Reasons for Part-Time Work by Sex (15-64 years old) (2022) Source:KAS, Labor Force Survey, 2022 Women Men 0 20 40 60 80 100 Care/Family Education Cannot find full time Don't want Other reasons 13 Life In Transition Survey IV (2021) Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 28 The COVID-19 pandemic amplified gender disparities in unpaid care and domes- tic work. Women bore the brunt of increased caregiving responsibilities during quarantine and school closures, with fewer reporting increased support from their partners (UN Women, 2020). Kosovo has a high dependency burden14, with a higher proportion of the popula- tion living with young children and the elderly than other Western Balkan coun- tries. Notably, living with elderly individuals15 is slightly more prevalent in Kosovo than living with younger children.16Kosovo has the highest level of potential care needs in the Western Balkans countries. According to Life in Transition Survey (LITS) IV, 23.5 percent of Kosovo’s population resides in a household with only childcare need, 11.7 percent in a household with only elderly care need, and 3 per- cent in a household with both care need (see Figure 25).17 Figure 25. Households with Care Needs (2023) Note: Percent of the Population Living in Households with Children, Elderly and Disabled Source: LITS IV (2023) Bosnia and Herz. Serbia Albania Montenegro North Macedonia Kosovo 0 10 20 30 40 Only childcare Only elderly care Only disabled care Reasons for not using childcare facilities in Kosovo include reliance on household members for care and the distance of the care facilities. Similarly caring for elder by household members or using live-in support explain more frequently why elder- ly care facilities are not chosen (Figure 26). In Kosovo, schools typically run for just 5 hours a day, leaving parents to han- dle childcare for the rest of the day. Come summer, with holidays stretching up to three months, the challenge escalates. Balancing work commitments with 14 Young children (ages 0-6) and the elderly (ages 65+) 15 While the presence of an elderly person may mean more care work for the other adults in the household, it may also result in less childcare work if the elderly person is providing care for grandchildren themselves. 16 LITS IV (2023) 17 The LITS IV includes a question asking whether each household member needs care and whether they use institutional care facilities. The question is asked for all children (0-6 years old) and elderly people. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 29 family responsibilities becomes a major struggle, especially for mothers and low-income households. Figure 26. Reasons for not Using Care Facilities by Type of Care Needed Source: LITS IV (2023 A. Reasons for not using childcare facilities (% of the population living in households with childcare needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality Safety concerns All places taken All children cared in the HH Other reasons B. Reasons for not using elderly care facilities (% of the population living in households with elderly care needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality All places are taken Cared for in the family Cared for with live-in support Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 30 4.3 LABOR MARKET SEGREGATION Men dominate industries like construction, manufacturing, mining, and utilities, while women are predominantly concentrated in public administration, health, ed- ucation, and social services (Figure 27). For instance, 14.5 percent of working men are in construction compared to just 0.7 percent of working women. Conversely, 51.7 percent of women are employed in public administration, health, education, and social services compared to 24.2 percent of men. Figure 27. Share of Employment by Sectors and Gender (2020) Source: Authors’ elaboration of country’s official data Women Men 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Agriculture Manufacturing Trade, Transport, Hospitality, B. Admin. Service. Mining & quarry, Utilities Construction P.A., Health, Edu., Other Social Services Despite outnumbering men in professional roles by 22 percentage points, gender disparities persist in occupations traditionally associated with men, like machine operators and assemblers (6.5 percentage points), crafts and similar occupations (6.7 percentage points), and elementary occupations (10.6 percentage points), which predominantly involve physical work (Figure 28). Figure 28. Share of Employment by Occupation and Gender (2020) Source: Authors’ elaboration of country’s official data Women Men 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Managers Professionals Profes. technicians O ce workers & assistants Services & sales workers Skilled workers agr. - fores., fish. Employees in crafts & similar Machine operators & assemblers Elementary occupations Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 31 4.4 WAGE GAP In the past decade, nearly every developed nation has implemented regulations promoting the fair treatment of women in the workforce.18 While strides have been made in reducing the global gender wage gap, it remains a relevant issue across labor markets. According to the ILOSTAT Global Wage Report 2018/19,19 the raw mean gender pay gap was equal to 18.8 percent,20 meaning that for every dollar men make, women make 81.2 cents. Notably, Northern, Southern, and Western Eu- rope exhibit a lower raw gap at 13.3 percent,21 positioning the region on a stronger foundation in the ongoing efforts to close the gender pay gap. Data from EU-SILC (2018) reveals that Kosovo is the sole Western Balkans country with a positive raw gender wage gap, indicating that women earn, on average, 4 percent more than men (Table 2). Upon controlling for individual characteristics, occupation, and industry, it becomes apparent that women, in fact, earn less than men. Specifically, the gender wage gap flips to 6.3 percent in favor of men when considering individual factors such as education level, age, and experience. This reversal may suggest a higher return to education and experience for men, po- tentially highlighting barriers for women in accessing the labor market and more lucrative sectors. It may also imply that, on average, employed women exhibit higher skill levels than their male counterparts. However, the gender wage gap widens further to 8.3 percent after incorporating additional controls for individual and market factors, such as occupation and industry. This expansion suggests the possibility of lingering discrimination against women. The nuanced findings underscore the importance of a thorough examination when assessing wage dis- parities between genders.22 18 Data from Women, Business and the Law (2023) show data 94 out of 190 countries had a law on equal pay for men and women. This has increased from 21 out of 190 countries in 1991. 19 See ILOSTAT (2018) 20 The data refers to the factor weighted mean gender pay gap using hourly wages. The gender pay gap is higher when the esti- mate is based on monthly wages rather than hourly wages and it’s equal to 20.5 percent, reflecting the fact that in most countries women and men differ significantly in respect of working time – specifically, that part-time work is more prevalent among women than men. 21 The highest average gap is noted in Sub-Saharan Africa (21.8 percent) and West Asia (20.8 percent). 22 There has been very few previous studies of the gender wage gap amongst adults in Kosovo. For the most relevant analysis see Pastore et al (2013) and Gashi and Adnett (2020). Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 32 Table 2. Gender Wage Gap in Hourly Wages in the Western Balkans Note: Log difference between female and male full-time employee hourly wages in each country. Individual controls: Education level, age and age squared, experience, and its square. Market controls: Occupation and Industry. Kosovo does not include experience due to high levels of non-response. Montenegro’s education and industry variables are less disaggregated than in the other countries. Source: EU-SILC, 2018) Country ALB MKD MNE SRB XKX YEAR 2020 2019 2019 2020 2018 RAW GAP -0.091*** -0.098*** -0.119*** -0.132*** 0.042* INDIVIDUAL CONTROLS -0.175*** -0.139*** -0.150*** -0.168*** -0.063*** IND. + MARKET CONTROLS -0.117*** -0.076*** -0.094*** -0.139*** -0.083*** 4.5 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND FINANCIAL INCLUSION Gender gaps loom large in enterprises ownership, with women-owned enterpris- es typically smaller in scale. Despite the potential for economic empowerment, women in Kosovo trail behind in entrepreneurship. As of late 2021, women sole- ly owned 24.7 percent of enterprises, compared to 70.2 percent owned by men. Larger enterprises with 10-49 and 50 or more employees were overwhelmingly owned by male entrepreneurs, at 95 percent and 97.5 percent, respectively (Figure 29). Women face numerous barriers to entrepreneurship, including societal bias- es, household responsibilities, and care activities, and lack of property ownership (Dobranja, 2022). Moreover, women entrepreneurs cite high taxes, a small market size, and heavy administrative burdens are key hindrances to business activity. Profitable sectors like mining, electricity, gas, steam supply, water supply, sew- erage, waste management and repair activities, transportation and storage, and manufacturing, are largely owned by men, ranging between 92 and 96 percent. Women-owned and managed businesses appear to be more focused on sectors like agriculture, education, finance, social services, and scientific activities, al- though they are still predominantly owned by men. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 33 Figure 29. Active Enterprises by Sex of Owner and Size of the Enterprise (percent) (2020) Source: KAS, Labor Force Survey, 2020 1-9 employees 10-49 employees 50+ employees 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Women Men The COVID-19 pandemic has had a widespread negative impact on women-owned businesses. Over 95 percent of surveyed women entrepreneurs reported a neg- ative impact of COVID-19 on business operations (American Chamber of Com- merce, 2020). The main factor cited for this impact include decreased demand for goods and services (72 percent), unpaid bills by clients (23 percent), and employ- ees absenteeism (18 percent).23 Additionally, income losses from family business- es due to COVID-19 were reported by 64 percent of women and 73 percent of men (UN Women, 2020). Access to financial services and credit is critical for entrepreneurship, yet fewer women have financial accounts or access to credit. Fewer women utilize digital payments. In 2021, 47.4 percent of women had an account at a financial institu- tion or with a mobile-money-service provider, compared to 68.9 percent of men (Figure 30). Women’s account ownership has increased over the past decade but lags behind men’s. Women borrow more from family and friends than from formal financial institutions (Table 3). There is a 13.2 percentage points gender gap in borrowing from formal financial institutions. Even though digital payments have doubled since 2017, they remain less common among women. In 2021, 25.2 per- cent of women made digital payments in the last year compared to 39.4 percent of men (Figure 31). 23 Respondents were allowed to select multiple factors as contributing to the negative impact of COVID-19 on their business opera- tions, hence the total percentage exceeds 100%. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 34 Figure 30. Financial Institution Account Ownership, by Sex (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion. 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 2011 2014 2017 2021 Women Men Table 3. Borrowing from Formal and Informal Channels, by Sex (percent) (age 15+) (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion     2011 2014 2017 2021 Borrowed from family Female 13.4 11.7 26.4 25.8 or friends Male 20.6 21.7 24.2 25.9 Borrowed from a formal Female 5.6 13.4 10.5 11.1 financial institution Male 6.6 20.2 19 24.3 Figure 31. Made Digital Payments in the Last Year, by Sex (percent pop. 15+) (2014-2021) 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2014 2017 2021 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 35 SPOTLIGHT 3 - SOGI The Western Balkan countries have made strides in protecting fundamental rights, including those of sexual and gender minorities. However, the European Commission emphasizes the need for stronger implementation to combat discrimination and violence. The EU enlargement process offers an oppor- tunity for SOGI inclusion, with support from various development partners. Limited data on SOGI reveal the profound impact of discrimination, exclusion, and violence on LGBTI individuals and the region as a whole. Endowments - LGBTI individuals in the Western Balkans face significant challenges in education, em- ployment, and accessing essential services due to discrimination, bullying, and violence. A 2018 World Bank survey revealed alarming rates of negative comments and conduct towards LGBTI people in schools, with a notable impact on mental health, including increased suicide rates. Discrimination ex- tends to healthcare, where nearly 40% of respondents reported mistreatment or avoided treatment due to fear of discrimination. Widespread violence against LGBTI individuals further exacerbates the situa- tion, with many cases going unreported. Additionally, accessing housing presents hurdles, as evidenced by higher refusal rates for same-sex couples compared to heterosexual counterparts. Montenegro’s recent passage of a same-sex partnership law signals progress towards equality in various domains. Economic Opportunity - Data on labor market outcomes for LGBTI people remains extremely limited across the Western Balkans. A 2019 World Bank study in Serbia found that 15 percent of LGBTI people have experienced discrimination at work. Discrimination adversely affects their socio-economic out- comes; 10 percent of respondents have quit a paid job, and 7 percent have taken unexpected leave from work due to the discrimination they experienced. The same survey found that LGBTI people who reported experiences of workplace discrimination also reported lower incomes. A 2020 survey by the EU Fundamental Rights Agency found that LGBTI people in North Macedonia and Serbia frequently experience discrimination in the workplace: 25 percent of respondents in North Macedonia and 24 percent in Serbia respectively. Voice and Agency - Discrimination, exclusion, and violence remain widespread, and LGBTI people often lack trust in the institutions designed to protect their human rights. Research in Serbia, for example, found that the vast majority of LGBTI people have low trust in the political system (95 percent), the legal system (93 percent), and the police (91 percent). The World Bank approaches sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) inclusion through its commitments to gender equality as well as social inclusion – two crucial components of the World Bank’s twin goals to eradicate extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity. Like heterosexual and cisgender women and girls, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgen- der, and intersex (LGBTI) people are held to and impacted by prevailing restrictive gender norms and thus struggle to equally participate in markets, services, and spaces. In the Western Balkans, the same restrictive norms that hinder women and girls from achieving their full potential lie at the root of stigma, prejudice, and violence against LGBTI people. Sources: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2020. A long way to go for LGBTI equality. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_ uploads/fra-2020-lgbti-equality-technical-report_en.pdf World Bank Group. 2018. Life on the Margins: Survey Results of the Experiences of LGBTI People in Southeastern Europe. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30607 World Bank Group. 2019. A Comparative Analysis of the Socioeconomic Dimensions of LGBTI Exclusion in Serbia. World Bank. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 36 5. VOICE AND AGENCY The evidence on voice and agency for women in Kosovo is mixed. Adolescent fertility rate has been on a downward trajectory, suggesting progress in reproduc- tive rights and women’s agency. Women are progressively advancing in political representation. Overall, limited data availability poses a major barrier to fully un- derstand, and address issues related to GBV and reproductive rights. 5.1 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Women are gradually gaining ground in political power, thanks to the electoral reforms at the central and local levels that increased political representation of women in a traditionally male-dominated system.24 Despite improvements in the electoral code and the implementation of gender quotas, gender gaps persist in political leadership roles both at central and local levels. In February 2021, Kosovo elected its second female president, and a record 36 percent of parliamentarian positions were held by women. However, women held 34.2 percent of parliamen- tary seats and only 27 percent of seats in the national government.25 Progress in other areas remains elusive. Women continue to be underrepresented in leading positions in traditionally male-dominated fields such as the army, police, diplomacy and judiciary. In 2019, women constituted 35 percent of leading posi- tions in diplomatic missions, 11 percent in the armed forces and 10 percent in the police force (Figure 32). Women’s representation is slightly higher in civilian roles within the military, at 23 percent, compared to the armed forces. Gender gaps in judicial councils were smaller, with women holding 45 percent of judge positions. 24 Kosovo has applied a system of quotas at central and local elections. 25 Eurostat 2021 Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 37 Figure 32. Share of Men and Women in Leading Positions (2018-2019) Source: KAS, Women, and Men in Kosovo 2018-2019 Judge Army Civil Army Leading positions in police forces Diplomatic sta 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Women Men 5.2 ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP The percentage of firms with female top managers in Kosovo was only 2.7 percent in 2019. In 2013, the percentage was higher at 9.3 percent, while in 2009, only 0.3 percent of firms had female top managers.26 Women and men are perceived to be equally competent as business executives by most of the population, but there is a wider gender gap when it comes to political leadership. 93.7 percent of women and 86.9 percent of men perceive men and women as equally competent as business executives. While women tend to agree more with the statement, the gender difference is not vast. However, the gender gap is particularly wide for the statement “Men make better political leaders than women do,” with 39.2 percent of women and 60.6 percent of men agreeing or strongly agreeing (Figure 33). 26 World Bank Enterprise Survey, 2019. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 38 Figure 33. Beliefs Related to Women’s Role in Public Life Source: LITS IV (2023) A. Women are as competent as men to be business executives (% of the population agreeing (agree/strongly agree)) 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Women Men B. Men make better political leaders than women do (% of the population agreeing – agree/strongly agree) 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Women Men 5.3 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND SOCIAL NORMS The law criminalizes rape and domestic violence regardless of gender, including rape of a relative or spouse, and recognizes gender-based violence as a form of discrimination but lacks a definition of gender-based violence for use in criminal and civil proceedings (US Department of State, 2022) Like in other countries, data on gender-based violence (GBV) is not systematical- ly and widely available in Kosovo. The latest report from 2015 (Fansworth, et al. 2015) indicated that rates of violence against women were still high. In particular, psychological violence was the most commonly reported form, affecting 63 per- cent of women compared to 47 percent of men. While economic and sexual vio- Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 39 lence were reported at lower rates (29 percent of women and 25 percent of men report economic violence and 11 percent of women and 9 percent of men report sexual violence), underreporting could be behind these results, especially for sex- ual violence, including due to social stigma or lack of trust in authorities. Social norms can play a significant role in violence against women, with social change lagging behind legal reforms. Although there is a legal framework in place protecting women against domestic violence and a majority of women (73 per- cent) and men (78 percent) are aware of its existence, violence against women continues to be socially acceptable and tolerated. A higher percentage of women, 58 percent, compared to 47 percent of men think that if a husband is unemployed, violence is bound to happen sometimes. Furthermore, 21 percent of women and 22 percent of men agree that sometimes it is acceptable for a husband to hit his wife (Figure 34). Figure 34. Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women Source: KAS, Women, and Men in Kosovo 2018-2019 % who think if a husband is unemployed, violence is bound to happen sometimes % who agree a law on domestic violence exists in Kosovo % of Kosovars who agree that sometimes it is ok for a husband to hit his wife 0 20 40 60 80 100 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 40 SPOTLIGHT 4 – Intersectionality: gender and the Roma community The Roma1 community, Europe’s largest ethnic minority, faces severe marginalization, vulnerability to human rights violations, and social isolation. The 2011 census, which excluded North Kosovo, estimated a total of 8,824, though 2010 OSCE estimates suggested that there were around 34,000 Roma people residing in Kosovo. Despite efforts by the Kosovar government to address their rights and inclusion, Roma, especially females, encounter barriers hindering their access to education, healthcare, and em- ployment. Gender gaps persist, with Roma women bearing a disproportionate burden. The gender gaps in self-reported unmet needs for medical care among the Roma population aged 16 and above are relatively large and statistically significant in almost all countries in the Western Balkans, except for Albania and Kosovo. Child stunting remains a challenge in Kosovo, and still, many vulnerable children are not vaccinated against measles, for instance, across these countries. Roma, and Roma women and girls, are likely to be especially affected by these challenges. Labor force participation among Roma women remains extremely low, especially among those with low educational attainment, though gender disparities in employment have slightly narrowed. Balancing employment with caregiving responsibilities poses challenges for Roma women, who often reside in larger households and lack nursing breaks, particularly in Kosovo. Gender-based violence among the Roma community is pervasive, with intimate partner violence consid- ered socially acceptable and underreported due to fear, distrust in institutions, and community dynam- ics. Child marriages are common among Roma girls, driven by patriarchal traditions, lack of education, and economic hardship. Despite legislative efforts and strategies to promote Roma inclusion in Kosovo, significant challenges remain, particularly regarding gender disparities, healthcare access, education quality, and addressing gender-based violence. Efforts to address these issues require comprehensive approaches that tackle societal norms, systemic barriers, and economic disparities. Notes: 1. Roma is used to refer to several groups (for example, Roma, Sinti, Kale, Gypsies, Romanichels, Boyash, Ashkali, Egyptians, Yenish, Dom, Lom, Rom, Abdal), including travelers, without denying the specificities of these groups. These groups are all considered under the wider Roma umbrella in the European Union (EU) Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies (European Commission 2011). 2. Law on the Protection of Rights of Members of National Minorities, Official Gazette of BiH 12/03 Sources: Robayo-Abril et al., 2019; Hughson, 2014; UNICEF, 2014, World Bank, 2015 Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 41 6. CONCLUSIONS Gender equality is a pivotal catalyst for sustainable economic development in Kosovo. The country commendable progress with educational domains, alongside notable enhancements in women’s life expectancy and their burgeoning presence in political spheres, underscore a committed journey towards tapping into the untapped reservoirs of its human capital. These notable achievements not only reflect a societal shift towards inclusivity but also spotlight the intrinsic value of fostering a gender-equitable environment for economic prosperity. Despite these strides, the path to achieving full gender equality in Kosovo is fraught with challenges that require immediate and strategic interventions. The labor market exhibits stark gender disparities, with women’s labor force participa- tion lagging significantly behind their male counterparts. This gap persists despite women’s educational gains, underscoring systemic barriers that hinder women’s full economic engagement. The phenomenon of the ‘motherhood penalty,’ where women’s career trajectories are adversely affected post-motherhood, further ex- acerbates gender inequalities in the workplace. This underscores the need for policies that support work-life balance and challenge traditional gender roles that delegate caregiving primarily to women. In light of these challenges, Kosovo stands at a critical juncture where the commit- ment to gender equality must translate into actionable policies and initiatives. En- hancing data collection and analysis through the improved availability and quality of sex-disaggregated data is paramount for informed decision-making and effec- tive policy formulation. Kosovo can unlock the full potential of its human capital and drive sustainable eco- nomic growth by persistently striving for gender equality. This requires a holistic and integrated approach involving all sectors of society, including government, businesses, communities, and individuals. By fostering an environment that cham- pions gender equality as a fundamental principle of societal progress, Kosovo can unlock the full potential of its human capital, driving forward economic develop- ment and building a more equitable and prosperous society for all. Country Gender Assessment Kosovo 42 7. 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