PLAYBOOK FOR ENABLING CIVILIAN DRONE OPERATIONS 02 AFRICAN DRONE FORUM PUBLICATION 02 AFRICAN DRONE FORUM PUBLICATION PLAYBOOK FOR ENABLING CIVILIAN DRONE OPERATIONS © 2023 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/3.0/igo. Under the Creative Commons Attribution license, you are free to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt this work, including for commercial purposes, under the following conditions: Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: Anderson, Edward, Ochoa, Catalina, Gregor Engelmann, David Guerin, Denise Soesilo, Tautvydas Juskauskas, Jonathan Slater, and Aymen Osman Ali. 2023. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations. Washington, DC: World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO Translations— If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:This translation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation. The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation. Adaptations— If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank. Third-party content— The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work. The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third-party-owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties.The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. If you wish to reuse a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that reuse and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; email: pubrights@worldbank.org. Further permission required for reuse. Cover and interior design: Nik Nikam / World Bank. Table of Contents Foreword 6 Acknowledgments 10 About the African Drone Forum (ADF) 12 Executive Summary 14 Abbreviations 24 Introduction 28 Phase 1: Feasibility 36 1.1 Use case needs assessment and integration into existing operations and supply-chains 37 1.2 Opportunity cost assessment 44 1.3 Stakeholder consultation, community outreach, and sensitization 48 1.4 Business models, ownership, and financing 53 1.5 Un-crewed Aircraft System (UAS) platform considerations 56 Phase 2: Planning 62 2.1 Training and capacity - enabling side 64 2.2 Fit-for-purpose regulations 66 2.3 Harmonization and interoperability 73 2.4 Airspace management 76 2.5 Droneports 80 2.6 Command and Control (C2) links and Spectrum 82 2.7 Un-crewed Aircraft Systems Traffic Management (UTM) 84 2.8 Privacy, data management, quality, and transparency 89 2.9 Logistics and customs 92 Table of Contents 2.10 Oversight, audits and airworthiness inspection 94 2.11 Insurance 96 2.12 Procurement and service contracts 98 Phase 3: Set up 103 3.1 Safety and risk management 104 3.2 Concept of Operations (CONOPS) 108 3.3 Operational approval 110 3.4 Training and capacity - operations side 112 Phase 4: Operations and Sustainability 115 4.1 Flight operations 116 4.2 Sustainability of operations and the ecosystem 119 Conclusion 122 Key enabling activities 123 Role of key organizations and initiatives 125 Bibliography 131 Index 139 Appendix A: Glossary and definitions 144 Appendix B: Risk management during the Lake Victoria and Lake Kivu Challenge 155 Appendix C: International (cross-border) flights and multi- country operations 159 Endnotes 164 Boxes, Figures & Tables Boxes 1.1 Steps of a use case needs assessment for UAS operations 38 Data scarcity and challenges in quantifying the impact of 1.2 introducing drones 43 1.3 National Steering Committee and community outreach in Malawi 51 1.4 Example options for outsourced, drone-as-a-service UAS operations 54 1.5 Main UAS platform configurations 57 2.1 Example training opportunities for national stakeholders and regulators 65 2.2 Prescriptive and performance-based UAS regulations 69 2.3 The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) approach to harmonization 74 2.4 Segregated Airspace, The Malawi Humanitarian Drone Testing Corridor 79 2.5 UTM service provision in Europe and during the African Drone Forum 86 2.6 Examples initiatives to ensure the responsible and ethical use of UAS and reduce privacy concerns 89 2.7 Lithium battery transport and temporary importation for the Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) 92 2.8 Competitor vetting for the Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) 95 Boxes, Figures & Tables 2.9 European Union Regulation 785/2004 97 2.10 Procurement for UAS-based Vaccine Deliveries in Vanuatu 101 Three ways to approach risk management for UAS operations 105 3.1 3.2 The SORA approach to the Concept of Operations 109 3.3 The JARUS categorization of UAS operations 111 3.4 Training the next generation of African UAS pilots and operators at the African Drone and Data Academy (ADDA) 113 4.1 From contingency procedures to emergency response plan (ERP) — C2 Link loss 118 Figures 1.1 Highlighting the themes and stakeholders associated with the different elements and phases 32 1.2 Overview of the different elements across the phases of setting up enabling ecosystems and UAS operations 34 1.3 Overview of main UAS platform configuration 56 2.1 Operations in the context of airspace classes 77 2.2: GSMA overview of UTM capabilities related to phases of a UAS operation 87 Boxes, Figures & Tables Tables 1.1 Key cost factors in insourcing and outsourcing of UAS operations 45 1.2 Ethics principles 52 2.1 Common elements of UAS regulations 67 2.2 Key resource factors in insourcing and outsourcing of UAS operations 102 Foreword Emerging economies worldwide are on the rise in terms of both rapidly growing economies and younger populations. The labor force across many countries is also doubling, with millions of young people seeking opportunities. Much of this growth focuses on Metropolitan areas in Africa, with most Africans expected to live in urban areas by 2035. Ensuring this growth is shared broadly will be a crucial challenge, as rural areas, home to most of the world’s poor, cannot be left behind. In Africa, only 34% of citizens live within 2km of an all-weather road compared to over 90% in East Asia. The visible results are higher costs for goods and services, long wait times for deliveries, reduced productivity of rural facilities, and fewer opportunities for rural citizens. Bridging the gap between urban and rural in a way that brings greater reach and resilience to hard-to-reach communities requires us to rethink how to deliver mobility and set up supply chains better. Drones provide an opportunity to overcome persistent infrastructure deficiencies and address the needs and demand for more specialized transport and logistics, digitalization, and other services. They can support delivery operations to smaller airfields and hard-to-reach communities and operations in more hazardous conditions. Enabling safe, efficient and scalable drone operations will require new infrastructure and policy and regulatory reforms, greater engagement with specialized private operators, cross-sectoral and cross-governmental collaboration, and the leveraging of different investment streams to deliver and ensure efficient use of opportunities afforded by drones. This guidebook brings together experiences and lessons learned from a range of initiatives and operations within the context of the African experience of drone operations. In doing so, it provides detailed guidance and recommendations regarding the needed infrastructure, regulations, and management approaches that underpin the establishment of enabling ecosystems conducive to drone operations anywhere internationally. The World Bank looks forward to working closely with governments, the private sector, and other Development Partners to unlock the lower skies and bring the region’s development visions to life. Nicolas Peltier-Thiberge Wendy E. Hughes Franz Drees-Gross, Global Director, Transport, Infrastructure Regional Infrastructure Regional The World Bank Director, Africa East & South, Director, Africa West and The World Bank Central, The World Bank Acknowledgments This guidebook was prepared under the guidance of Almud Weitz (Practice Manager, Transport—East Africa) by a team led by Edward Anderson (Senior Disaster Risk Management Specialist, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery) and Catalina Ochoa (Senior Urban Transport Specialist, Transport—South Asia), who also served as task team leaders for the projects and as members of the book’s leadership. This guidebook was produced with financial and technical support from the World Bank’s Korea Green Growth Trust Fund (KGGTF) and VillageReach. KGGTF is a partnership between the World Bank Group and the Republic of Korea, established in 2011 to support client countries as they shift to a green development path. Both partners share a common goal to reduce poverty and promote shared economic prosperity in an environmentally responsible and socially inclusive way. Learn more at www.wbgkggtf.org. The core team was composed of the World Bank consultants Gregor Engelmann, David Guerin, Denise Soesilo, and George Mulamula. Members of the extended team — Ayman A.O. Ali (Senior Transport Specialist, Transport—East Africa), Tautvydas Juškauskas (UNICEF Supply Division, ISG-UAS) and Jonathan Slater (Blue Globe Innovation) — provided invaluable contributions to the book. The team also benefited at an early stage from consultations on emerging themes with government officials, representatives of civil society organizations, intergovernmental organizations, industry, and researchers who provided their input. Special thanks go to those organizations and individuals who provided written comments and engaged directly with the team, including Alain Mulembwe (AAC / RDC), ANAC MALI, Andy Thurling (Nuair), Ben Savonen (Kijenzi), EAC- CASSOA, Francis Kigen (KCAA), Gabriella Ailstock (UPDWG), Harrison Wolf (World Economic Forum), Helena Samsioe (GLOBHE), Joseph Muhlhausen (WeRobotics), Kim de Boeck (KU Leuven), Klaus Scho (Germandrones GmbH), Jusu Kallon (Sierra Leone CAA), Kofi Konan (ANAC Côte D’Ivoire), Michael Scheibenreif (UNICEF Malawi), Olivier Defawe (VillageReach), Rahul Singh (Global Medic), Sara de la Rosa (AirMap), Susie Truog (VillageReach), Tiamiyou Radji (Senegal Flying Labs), UAV Dach, UK CAAi and Venturi U-Tech. Peer review was provided by Harsh Gupta (principal investment officer, International Finance Corporation), Christopher J. De Serio (senior transport specialist, Transport—East Africa), Ramtin Amin, (digital development specialist consultant, Digital Development—Global/East Asia and Pacific), Giacomo Rambaldi (independent consultant, Formerly Center for Agriculture and Regional Cooperation (CTA) - Digital Agriculture Lead, African Drone Forum Board Member). Nik Nikam was the principal graphic designer. Finally, the team apologizes to any individuals or organizations that contributed to this book but were inadvertently omitted from these acknowledgments. About the AFRICAN DRONE FORUM (ADF) The ADF is a multi-stakeholder engagement platform for drone technologies and services that meet the needs of emerging African market opportunities. The program connects the African drone community, curates knowledge relevant to stakeholders, and defines high-frequency drone services’ requirements with the potential for significant social and economic benefits. The ADF seeks to demonstrate how a future drone economy will look by showcasing the frontier use cases tailored to African countries’ needs and facilitates harmonized rulemaking directions to support African services. The program kicked off in February 2020 as a first-of-its-kind event in Africa, with the potential to evolve into a regular forum on the state of the art and serve as a showcase for system advances with increasing levels of automation that can make a significant difference for isolated and rural communities. Executive Summary This playbook presents an end-to-end roadmap of elements and activities that underpin ecosystems capable of supporting safe and sustainable high-frequency drone operations. The focus is on enabling operations using small to medium-size drones or un-crewed aircraft system (UAS) within health, urban land administration, and other sectors. Those are likely to provide significant socio-economic benefits in the near to medium term. The majority of these operations will likely take place within low-level airspace generally shared with helicopters, other UAS, and conventional aviation during take-off and landing and provide the most near-term opportunities to both address deficiencies in current operations and supply chains and to support development in line with the Sustainable Development Goals — including Goal 2 (enhancing food security), 3 (good health and wellbeing), 8 (economic growth and decent job possibilities), and 9 (resilient infrastructure and fostering innovation). Experiences from the Lake Victoria Challenge (LVC) held in Tanzania and Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) held in Rwanda were reviewed and analyzed to identify the various elements and activities underpinning successful UAS operations and how they interlink. In addition, we interviewed and surveyed government officials, representatives of intergovernmental organizations, drone manufacturers, drone service providers, end-users, and researchers on their experiences with drones and perceptions on opportunities and barriers to high-frequency drone operations to help inform this playbook. Although the playbook largely builds on African experiences, it is very much region-agnostic and applicable elsewhere. It aims to raise awareness of the complexities of setting up enabling ecosystems and function as a guideline for discussions rather than as a fixed manual. Our findings and consultations have shown that the most significant barriers to successful UAS operations are: • Training and capacity building on the regulatory and the operations side during Phase 2: Planning and Phase 3: Operations, respectively; • A lack of effective UAS regulations or rules that regulators should address early on during Phase 2: Planning, following training and capacity building; • Uncertainty among operators stemming from the absence of clear and fit-for-purpose regulations or rules, timelines for permits, or long-term contracts to offset potential capital and pre-launch costs and other issues stemming from insufficient planning in Phase 1: Feasibility or activities in Phase 2: Planning; • Insufficient feasibility assessment in Phase 1: Feasibility to identify actual needs and understand the affordability, commercial viability, and ultimately the ongoing monitoring and evaluation during Phase 4: Sustainability to ensure operations address needs as circumstances may change; and • Airspace integration, particularly for operations beyond the visual line of sight (VLOS) and ultimately for scaling operations, requires careful considerations on airspace management and traffic management, among others, during Phase 2: Planning. PHASE 1: FEASIBILITY — Whether drones are an appropriate and financially-viable solution capable of delivering transformational value to a particular problem depends on specific needs, the scale of demand, the cost and performance of alternatives, and the given ecosystem’s readiness. Although an initial feasibility analysis can be quick and require a very light touch, more rigorous and resource-intensive analyses can identify specific investment needs and contribute to a detailed understanding of baseline costs and affordability. 1.1 Use case needs assessment — Identifying use cases with clear problem statements and addressable needs where drones can have a meaningful impact is the first step when considering the use of UAS1 or commencing higher-level engagements or tender. Understanding problem statements requires identifying underlying root causes within the existing systems and procedures that create bottlenecks or difficulties. A needs assessment of a use case can help determine its what, how, a comprehensive and locally tailored where, and when and define requirements, engagement and communication strategy settings, objectives, and purpose of often represents an ongoing process and envisaged operations2 while considering should target different groups within a the prevailing policies and regulations. It country, including the national, provincial, should also consider avenues for mitigating regional, or district government, and the the impact on local distribution networks, general public4. economies, and other stakeholders through, for example, creating demand for unusual or 1.4 Business models, ownership, and new community jobs, such as order taking, financing — A range of products and maintenance, or droneport management. services make up the value chain of elements underpinning drone operations, 1.2 Opportunity cost assessment — An each with its business model archetypes opportunity cost assessment can help and considerations5. Whereas use cases determine where and how much money to and the products and services to address spend on a particular service. It follows the them are available, financing models covering identification of use cases and operational service provision, beyond an initial setup requirements and analyzes all aspects and or pilot phase, often are not. Different associated opportunity costs involved in funding models and sources exist, such as a particular service to determine costs of donor or private funding or Public-Private alternative systems compared to potential Partnerships, with later stages of a UAS drone operations. Early experiences show program potentially utilizing combinations that the cost-effectiveness of UAS operations of approaches in a co-financing or blended- is primarily affected by drone vendor financing manner. pricing structure, capital costs, ground transportation costs, and the level of demand 1.5 UAS platform considerations — It is compared to traditional service provision3. crucial to select the right platform to Whereas mapping operations are largely ensure it fits the use case, performs to cost-effective compared to alternatives, expectations, and functions safely and cargo operations with UAS are generally as expected in the environment. Other more expensive, especially if examining potential considerations include the ease of commodity categories individually and use, reliability, ongoing operating costs, ease looking exclusively at direct costs of service of maintenance and repair, user interface, provision. Combining different programmatic flight control and navigation, Command commodities and services, also referred and Control (C2) link, and durability. Some to as product integration or layering, can UAS are capable of vertical take-off and significantly increase an operation’s cost- landing (VTOL), offering additional flexibility effectiveness and thus its affordability and and operating capabilities such as flying commercial viability. from small, remote sites with minimal infrastructure. The vast majority of UAS 1.3 Stakeholder consultation, community currently used in the commercial sector are outreach, and sensitization — Ensuring small, weighing less than 25kg. Whereas an political and social buy-in, wider increasing number of drones rely on electric acceptance, and the alleviation of engines that use lithium batteries, some skepticism and safety and security continue to rely on combustion engines. concerns surrounding drone technology is Depending on the battery size, the logistics crucial to increasing the chances for the of transporting them can become an issue. long-term sustainability of high-frequency Another important consideration for platform operations. Successful stakeholder selection for use cases such as medical cargo identification and implementation of is cold-chain capacity. Industry challenges Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 17 and competitions can be helpful tools to conduct, standards and other requirements encourage the development and adoption of of general applications”6 that operators new technologies and support long-listing of must meet, advisory documents set out potential UAS service or original equipment acceptable means of complying with the manufacturer (OEM) providers. “hard law” regulations and focused methods for evaluating the submitted documentation PHASE 2: PLANNING — Whereas a of prospective operators. Each CAA should thorough feasibility analysis can help have a clear structure for publishing its determine whether drones are the latest regulations, implementing rules, and appropriate tool for a given use case, providing advisory information. Regulators the broader ecosystem incorporating may also want to reduce the burden on elements of governance, planning, oversight and enforcement by determining and operations must be capable of which UAS and operations impose an supporting that use case. Stakeholders insignificant risk to safety, security, and are encouraged to engage with their peers, privacy and exempting such from regulatory their regional safety oversight organization, supervision requirements. and organizations such as International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), European Union 2.3 Harmonization and interoperability — Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), and Joint Although the development of regulatory Authorities for Rulemaking on Unmanned regimes falls under the jurisdiction of each Systems (JARUS) to exchange knowledge and country, certain levels of harmonization, strive for harmonization and interoperability standardization, and ultimately of regulations and processes. interoperability are desirable. Regulatory harmonization can increase aviation 2.1 Training and capacity (enabling safety and security, reduce administrative side) — Understanding technology and burdens for regulators and operators alike, its implications is a prerequisite for open new markets, and ultimately enable developing fit-for-purpose regulations. cross-border operations. The alignment Stakeholders and end-users involved of competing interests and national in UAS operations need to understand requirements underpinning harmonization commercial drones’ evolving technology processes toward interoperability requires and capabilities, which may be much larger ongoing consultation and stepped or phased than consumer-oriented commercial-off- approaches7. Although ICAO provides the-shelf UAS. Dedicated drone teams within standards and recommended practices a civil aviation authority (CAA) or another (SARPs) for international operations or competent authority may be an avenue missions certified to a conventional aircraft to ensure that regulations and processes level, no SARPs for autonomous or low-level account for the latest developments UAS operations currently exist. and specialist requirements. However, establishing a dedicated team dealing with 2.4 Airspace management — UAS can permits, registration, inspections, auditing, operate outside of conventional aviation’s airworthiness assessments, and so forth often traditional point-to-point model, thus requires additional funding and support. “enabling a more dynamic use of airspace”8, bringing flexibility to end- 2.2 Fit-for-purpose regulations — Similar users at the same time as complicating to most other regulatory regimes, each considerations for regulators regarding country has the jurisdiction to adopt, where, when, and how to ensure safety develop, amend, or repeal aviation- and security when approving operations. related regulations. Whereas regulations Ultimately, most operations will likely are legally binding and prescribe “rules of follow conventional aviation and occur Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 18 within predefined air corridors, which may can address this challenge and provide other be segregated from or within controlled ancillary benefits. With few exceptions, most airspace. Air traffic control will need to notably the 1090 MHz spectrum band shared either continue to manage or release among conventional aviation and some UAS the airspace to a controlling authority (a operations for the Automatic Dependent temporary flight restriction [TFR]) within Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B), and the controlled airspace. Segregated corridors allocation of 5030-5091 MHz for C2 links9, provide safe environments for testing drone there are no global standards for spectrum applications, regulatory mechanisms, and allocation for UAS operations or C2 links, with operational practices to support decision- rules varying across different regions. making regarding the subsequent scale-up in non-segregated airspace. Such corridors 2.7 UTM Services — Effective traffic commonly face scalability and funding management is essential to ensure the safe challenges, however. sharing of airspace. One of the primary functions of a UTM system is tracking and 2.5 Droneports — Droneports, also known monitoring UAS to provide situational as drone operating centers, represent the awareness and understanding of what a interface between earth and sky and are drone is and should be doing. UTM services fundamental to safe and sustainable high- can also provide the necessary information to frequency UAS operations. Operational support different risk mitigation strategies and requirements identified during the feasibility overall safety risk management. To this end, assessment should determine the number it functions as a complementary yet separate and location of droneports, as they tool to air traffic management (ATM) for provide information on the performance conventional aviation. UTM software platforms of the droneport itself and on its broader work on the principle of reliable network cost-effectiveness of operations overall. coverage, cloud access, and interfacing with Droneports fulfill essential functions, conventional ATM. Although the ability to track including power charging or refueling, drones as they move through the airspace safe landing and take-off, maintenance, is at the core of any UTM system, non- repair, and overhaul. The establishment cooperative drones, which operate without of droneports generally follows a four- active tracking technology, may represent a phase approach of 1) site identification and significant challenge. assessment, 2) planning, 3) construction, and 4) operation of droneports. 2.8 Privacy, data management, quality, and transparency — Most drones are 2.6 Command and control (C2) links equipped with sensors or cameras for and spectrum — C2 links support the data collection, either as part of the actual flight and flight management by mission objective or flight management connecting the drone and remote pilot and safety systems, and potentially station (RPS). The harmonized, standards- represent a significant privacy hazard. based nature of existing mobile networks and Although not all countries’ privacy and data technologies makes it a scalable connectivity protection laws reference UAS technology solution for providing C2 links in Beyond Visual specifically, attitudes will shift with increasing Line of Sight (BVLOS) operations. However, recognition of UAS in future regulations. in remote and rural areas, connectivity gaps Countries may want to require operators to can prove a significant challenge to the demonstrate their ability to comply with local provision of C2 links for BVLOS operations, or regional privacy laws as a condition for requiring alternative solutions such as obtaining operational approval. Operators satellite communications. Investments in involved in data generation need to consider widening rural connectivity and broadband how to handle sensitive areas as part of the Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 19 operations and seek guidance from national for drone insurance: a traditional annual authorities where necessary. policy with monthly installments or a pay-as- you-fly model covering individual or a daily 2.9 Logistics and customs — Many quota of flights. However, there is little data operations rely on importing and available to insurers on making predictions exporting some or all of the UAS for the failure rate with commercial UASs. equipment required, including drones, Nevertheless, an increasing number of batteries or other fuel technology such as insurers are looking to enter the market hydrogen cells, and ancillary equipment. and provide customized insurance tailored Depending on battery size, international toward drone operations. dangerous goods regulations may affect battery logistics for cargo and large mapping 2.12 Procurement and service contracts drones. Additionally, some UAS platforms — A good understanding of the use case and other specialist equipment needed to set identified through the initial needs up operations may be considered dual-use assessment and opportunity cost analysis goods and subject to export restrictions. is essential in informing the procurement process. Procurement usually involves 2.10 Oversight, audits, airworthiness several steps: inspections — Many agencies, including • Pre-procurement — involves refining and ICAO, embody drones in the legal defining specifications, sourcing interest definition for aircraft that evoke and identifying potential vendors or certification and airworthiness similar service providers, and initial prequalifying. to that in conventional aviation, such Flying competitions similar to the Lake that “all aircraft should be reliable, Victoria and Lake Kivu Challenge or other controllable, and safe — no matter technology demonstrators in a drone how small or large, or whether the corridor provide a valuable opportunity crew is onboard the aircraft or piloting for assessing vendors’ operational, safety, it remotely”10. There are, however, no and project management practices standard or even harmonized frameworks and performance, especially in low- for regulating “acceptable” standards of connectivity, low-resource, and adverse airworthiness, operational conduct, and weather settings. pilot competency for small UAS. Compared • Procurement — involves purchasing with conventional aviation, the rapid equipment for in-house operations development of UAS technologies further (insourcing) or procurement of a service renders traditional approaches of granting provider to service the identified use airworthiness certification impractical in case(s) (outsourcing). many cases. Instead, the CAA or another • Evaluating and Awarding Contracts — designated airworthiness authority is involves determining clear evaluation responsible for authorization, oversight, and principles and criteria to ensure granting of operating licenses. the quality and capacity to assess proposals and vendors is in place. Some 2.11 Insurance — Comprehensive and organizations might use insourcing for appropriate insurance coverage is some drone program elements and essential to protect UAS operations and outsourcing for others in a hybrid model. reduce liability for operators11. Different types of specialist insurance and payment PHASE 3: SETUP — Once enabling plans exist in addition to basic annual public elements are in place, the onus falls liability insurance, including hull, physical on the operator to plan operations damage, employer, and product liability appropriate to the local operating insurance. There are two ways of paying environment. Developing a robust safety Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 20 risk management strategy and Concept (i.e., the aircraft operations manual), to the of Operations (ConOps) is fundamental characteristics of the operating environment to applying for operational approval and and operational setup to risk management ensuring the overall safety and security of procedures and other policies and processes. the drone operations. Stakeholders are encouraged to ensure operations are safe 3.3 Operational approval — Operations and appropriate to the local operating should never occur without authorization environment, and involve ongoing community in the form of permission or a legislated and stakeholder engagement. exemption. Depending on the airspace type and risk involved, a CAA may consider 3.1 Safety and risk management — categorizing operations and their likeliness Safety risk management is at the core of authorization differently, because certain of each management system and helps UAS operations may not require any prior eliminate or reduce risks to acceptable operational authorization, which would levels where practical. It includes a four- reduce the administrative burden on step process of 1) identification of hazards, operators and authorities such as CAAs. 2) risk assessment, 3) mitigations, and 4) Regardless of operational classification, determination of acceptable risk levels. however, the understanding of airspace, risk, In addition to more conventional air risk and the platform’s capabilities and functions (i.e., the risk to other airspace users), risk of remote pilots and crew looking to operate management for UAS operations also UAS remain crucial. requires considerations regarding ground risk because of their relatively short safety 3.4 Training and capacity (operations side) track record and levels of sophistication — ICAO identified operators’ education and redundancy. Other potential hazards and training as fundamental enablers of include cybersecurity hazards; environmental safe and efficient UAS operations12. Key hazards; occupational health, safety, and stakeholders and actors requiring training environment (OHS&E) hazards; privacy and include the flight operations team and local data protection; and reputational damage. staff, community members, and users using The use of heavy or fast platforms raises the service. Yet a lack of capable staff is both air and ground risk significantly, as do among the most crucial barriers to creating operations over populated areas or with local business opportunities, scaling up, and complex or busy air traffic. To this end, JARUS sustaining operations, and involves three has developed a risk-based categorization for key challenges: finding talent with the right UAS operations to account for the increasing experience, connecting this talent with the complexity of regulatory frameworks and risk right opportunities, and the availability of management methodologies. licensed and certified schools. Inclusively addressing these challenges also provides 3.2 ConOps — ConOps aims to identify opportunities for improved gender inclusion the technical, operational, and human in training and recruitment and championing information related to the intended drone female leaders and entrepreneurs. operations. Production of a professional operations manual outlining how a UAS PHASE 4: OPERATIONS AND operator will conduct its operations is crucial. SUSTAINABILITY — Having determined It should provide users and competent that operations are feasible, required authorities with a structured overview elements to support safe and efficient addressing everything they need to know scaling of UAS operations are in place, to safely conduct operations described in and operators are ready to conduct the proposed ConOps — from a summary operations, the final phase of flying of characteristics of the drone platform and ensuring sustainability may begin. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 21 Beyond the flying itself, ongoing engagement, • Post-flight — Evaluations of individual monitoring, and evaluation should form part flights can support the continued of any UAS operation to determine whether monitoring and assessment of overall an operation was successful, and should operations and provide learning strive toward financial and environmental opportunities for future flights. sustainability and overall continuity of knowledge. Operators and end-users 4.2 Sustainability of operations and are encouraged to collect data on their ecosystem — Continued monitoring operations to support education and assist and evaluation of operations, financing ongoing impact evaluations. considerations beyond initial donor- funding, continuity of knowledge, and 4.1 Flight operations — Flight operations minimizing environmental impact are consist of three phases: mission crucial to ensuring the sustainability of preparation, flight, and post-flight. operations and the broader ecosystem. • Mission preparation — Flight scheduling, Monitoring provides insight into how well the routing, and planning should begin with operation meets its goals and performance assessing the operating environment, targets, informs suggestions for timely including potential risks to persons and changes to live service provision, and assists property near envisaged operations, with impact assessment and evaluation local weather conditions, and airspace against alternative technology options. and flight restrictions. Depending on the Key performance or impact indicators are type of airspace and operation, operators fundamental metrics for evaluating the may need to obtain an air traffic impact of interventions compared with control authorization before any flight. alternative means of service provision. The final step of mission preparation Evaluating cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit should include pre-flight briefings and or cost-utility, and planning for financial inspections to assess airworthiness, sustainability requires understanding compliance, and safety. the costs and performance of the UAS • Flight operations — Although most operations and alternative systems. From flight operations will run under normal an environmental perspective, operations procedures as determined during mission involving battery-powered drones should preparation, some flights may encounter consider how spent or damaged batteries abnormal situations and call for non- are disposed of or recycled to minimize normal (contingency) or emergency lasting environmental impacts. Operators response procedures. An emergency should also ensure “knowledge and skills response plan should address situations transfer and capacity development, such as that escalate beyond normal and include building local skills in addition to community contingency conditions to respond to engagement”13 both precedes and forms part a loss of control of an operation as of the ongoing operations. well as reporting mechanisms to notify authorities. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 22 Abbreviations ADDA African Drone and Data Academy ADF African Drone Forum ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast AIP Aeronautical Information Publication AltMoC Alternative Means of Compliance AMC Acceptable Means of Compliance ANSP Air Navigation Service Provider ASSURE Alliance for System Safety of UAS through Research and Excellence ATC Air Traffic Control ATM Air Traffic Management BVLOS Beyond Visual Line of Sight C2 Command and control CAA Civil Aviation Authority CAAi CAA International CAOs Civil Aviation Orders CASA Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority CE Conformité Européenne ConOps Concept of Operations EAC-CASSOA East African Community - Civil Aviation Safety and Security Oversight Organization EASA European Union Aviation Safety Agency EFTZ Emergency flight termination zone EOI Expression of interest ERP Emergency response plan EUROCAE European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment FAA Federal Aviation Administration FSF Flight Safety Foundation GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 24 Abbreviations GHSC-PSM Global Health Supply Chain Program-Procurement and Supply Management GPS Global Positioning System GUTMA Global UTM Association HAPS High Altitude Platform Systems ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization IFR Instrument flight rules ISG-UAS Interagency Supply Chain Group’s UAS Coordinating Body ISM Industrial, scientific and medical ISO International Organization for Standardization ITB Invitation to Bid JARUS Joint Authorities for Rulemaking on Unmanned Systems KPI Key Performance Indicator LKC Lake Kivu Challenge LVC Lake Victoria Challenge MOS Manual of Standards MoU Memorandum of Understanding MTOM Maximum take-off mass MUST Malawi University of Science & Technology NCRSSH National Committee on Research in Social Studies & Humanities NHSRC National Health Sciences Research Committee NOTAM Notice to Airmen OSHE Occupational health, safety and environment OEM Original equipment manufacturer OSO Operation safety objectives PBO Performance-based oversight PDRA Pre-Defined Risk Assessment PPP Public-Private Partnership Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 25 Abbreviations RBO Risk-Based Oversight RFI Request for Information RFP Request for Proposal RFQ Request for Quotation RFT Request for Tender RPA Remotely Piloted Aircraft RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft System RPS Remote Pilot Station RSOO Regional Safety Oversight Organization RTCA Radio Technical Communications for Aeronautics, Inc SAIL Specific Assurance and Integrity Level SARPs Standards and Recommended Practices SESAR Single European Sky ATM Research Joint Undertaking SMS Safety Management Systems SORA Specific Operations Risk Assessment STS Standard scenario TFR Temporary Flight Restrictions TOR Terms of Reference UAS Un-crewed aircraft system UAS-AG UAS Advisory Group UASSG UAS Study Group UAV Un-crewed aerial vehicle UEMOA Union Economique et monétaire Ouest Africaine UK United Kingdom UNDRIP United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples UPDWG UAV for Payload Delivery Working Group UPS Uninterruptible power supply Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 26 Abbreviations URSAC Unité Régionale de Supervision de la Sécurité et e la Sûreté de l’Aviation Civile de l’UEMOA UTM Un-crewed aircraft systems traffic management VHF Very high frequency VLOS Visual line of sight VTOL Vertical take-off and landing WBG World Bank Group WEF World Economic Forum WFP World Food Programme Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 27 Introduction The African Drone Forum (ADF) is a multi-stakeholder engagement platform for drone technologies and services that meet the needs of emerging markets. Through its work, the ADF seeks to assist countries in Africa and beyond in building enabling drone ecosystems that can make a significant difference for isolated and rural communities, tap into potential new market opportunities, and unlock an additional resource: the lower skies. In Africa, the necessary technologies for Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) drone operations and autonomous flights are being tested and proven. “Drone” is a term used mainly by the media and governments when communicating with the public, and although alternative names for a drone exist, such as un-crewed aircraft (UA), un-crewed aerial vehicles (UAV), or remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS), this guidebook will use the term un-crewed aircraft system (UAS)14. The utilization of the lower skies can help overcome existing challenges to service provision, such as topography that makes parts of a country inaccessible. Those accessibility challenges often coincide with infrastructure deficits, creating unsafe driving conditions at night and adverse weather conditions. At the same time, as driving conditions for ground vehicles deteriorate, demand for certain medical and humanitarian use cases does not. As a result, essential goods supply chains across many emerging economies are highly vulnerable and easily disrupted. This fragility provides a strong impetus for introducing alternative transport modalities that can fill gaps in current service provision and strengthen existing supply chains. The use of UASs in the lower skies provides opportunities to support and enhance the resilience of those supply chains, accelerate digitization efforts, and improve service to hard-to-reach or previously unconnected communities. Providing enabling environments can unlock new markets, use cases, and job opportunities and serve as a crucial downstream enabler to future UAS operations either fail before the initial economic growth, poverty reduction, and pilot stage or do not continue beyond it to shared prosperity in Africa and beyond15. a larger scale due to a range of reasons, Investments in power grids, expanding rural from challenges with training and capacity connectivity and broadband access, and building, to unclear UAS regulations or rules, boosting education, technological literacy, to missing infrastructure and funding gaps. and other supporting elements will likely Among the biggest drivers are uncertainty yield broader economic and societal benefits. caused by regulations that are “prohibitive, lacking in specificity, or simply nonexistent”18 In 2018, the AU Executive Council and underestimating the complexities and recommended that the member states timeframes involved in setting up UAS harness the opportunities offered operations and broader enabling ecosystems. by UAS, with a particular focus on agriculture16. Other essential uses include This guidebook identifies elements the strengthening of health supply chains, a necessary to unlock the transformational subject of specific importance in the context value UASs can bring to a country and of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, and set up an environment conducive to safe mapping and data collection to support land and sustainable high-frequency drone digitalization, cadastral mapping, disaster operations. It achieves this by reflecting on and risk management, urban planning, and experiences of facilitating the LVC in Tanzania inspection of critical infrastructure from in 2018 and the LKC, under the banner pipelines and powerlines to mining sites and of the ADF, in Rwanda in 2020. It further telecommunications. Use cases particularly builds on a review of existing literature, suited to drones broadly span mapping and reports, and guidelines regarding the set- data collection, cargo, or hybrid operations. up of drone ecosystems and corridors and • Mapping and data collection — This semi-structured interviews with partners, use case currently represents the vast government representatives, regulators, and majority of UAS operations. These UAS service providers and manufacturers. services have proven cost-effective Although the guidebook largely builds on compared with alternatives and are African experiences, it is very much region- easy to set up, commonly relying on agnostic and applicable elsewhere. flying within VLOS. In those cases, UAS “cover large surface areas, over The focus is on enabling VLOS and BVLOS a shorter period of time, at a higher operations using small- to medium-size resolution, at less cost, greater safety, UAS within low-level airspace. These are using fewer resources, than relying likely to represent most UAS operations and only on field personnel and logistics, provide significant socio-economic benefits shortening the time taken to evaluate in the near to medium term. Although there findings and inform planning”17. are benefits in providing more in-depth • Cargo operations — This is the most and technical discussions of the individual complex use case, relying on flying elements, specifically drone regulations BVLOS and requiring sophisticated UAS and rules, the focus is instead on raising platforms. Despite the demand for UAS awareness of the complexities of setting applications, few cargo operations make up enabling environments by providing it beyond the limited pilot stage owing high-level overviews and discussions of all to a range of factors, from restrictive elements that make up a broader enabling regulations affecting permitting and environment. Where appropriate, references approval to gaps in funding and capacity. to pivotal reviews, publications, and studies Despite demand across use cases, many are included to overcome this limit in scope. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 30 This guidebook covers different elements that form the part of a holistic, enabling environment for safe and sustainable high-frequency UAS operations. Although responsibilities for the various elements rest with a diverse range of stakeholders, we intend to raise awareness of how different elements interlink and form part of a broader enabling environment. Readers should not regard this playbook as a one-size-fits-all approach, but rather as a comprehensive overview of experiences drawn from different operational environments that are not exclusionary to new additions, removals, or changes that naturally occur over time. Each element is associated with at least one of the overarching themes, involves at least one core stakeholder group, and is interconnected with elements across the different phases, as no one element alone “is indicative of the success or failure of a drone programme”19. The breakdown for each element is as follows: 1. Background — This section endeavors to answer why this particular element matters and what it entails. The background also highlights which stakeholders are traditionally responsible for the implementation. In cases where implementers can make different choices, we have included further explanations and anecdotes. Readers should note that examples generally reflect the experience of a particular deployment and would need to be adjusted and made relevant to a specific country and use case context. 2. Discussion — This section raises pertinent questions and discusses particular caveats associated with the element itself or choices related to it. 3. For more information, see also — This section highlights in-depth resources regarding a particular element, including a summary of specific relevance. We have strived to include various reports, guidebooks, and academic literature that reflect the progressive and most effective guidance on a particular topic to date. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 31 Figure 1.1 Highlighting the themes and stakeholders associated with the different elements and phases Phase 1 Phase 2 Feasibility Planning 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Use Case Opportunity Stakeholder Business UAS Training & Fit-for- Harmonization Airspace Droneports C2 Link Needs Cost Consultation, Models, Platform Capacity - purpose & Manage- & Assessment Assessment Community Ownership & Consider- Enabling side Regulations Interoperability ment Spectrum Outreach & Financing ations Sensitization Use Cases Community Financing Equipment Financing Regulations Flight Operations Financing Engagement Capacity Building Dat Themes Involvement of Non-Aviation Entities Clients and/or Operator Security Telecommunicatio Civil Society Regulator Services & Organizations others Aviation Government Entities NCAA or other NC NCAA or other designated authority design designated authority ANSP Other Organizations & Interest Groups UAS Manu- Mobile Donor Organizations, NGO's International Organizations such as RSOO's Network facturers Operators Community Based Private Organizations Sector Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 32 Phase 4 Phase 3 Operations & Setup Sustainability 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 UTM Privacy, Data Logistics Oversight, Insurance Procurement Safety & Concept Operational Training & Flight Sustainability Services Management, & Audits & & Service Risk Man- of Approval Capacity - Operations of Operations Quality & Customs Air- Contracts agement Operations Operations Transparency worthiness side Inspection Safety & Equipment Safety & Risk Financing Flight Operations Flight Operations Equipment Risk Equipment Safety Capacity Community ta & Connectivity Use Cases & Risk Building Engagement Use Cases Capacity Building Regulations ons Security Customs Services & Authorities others CAA or other NCAA NCAA or other NCAA or other nated authority or other designated authority designated authority ANSP designated ANSP authority UAS Manu- Insurance UAS Manu- facturers Provider facturers Freight Companies & Dangerous Goods Vendors Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 33 Figure 1.2 Overview of the different elements across the phases of setting up enabling ecosystems and UAS operations. While each chapter can be read individually, the cells across each line highlight the interconnectedness with other elements and phases. Phase 1 Phase 2 Feasibility Planning 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Use Case Opportunity Stakeholder Business UAS Training & Fit-for- Harmonization Airspace Droneports C2 Link Needs Cost Consultation, Models, Platform Capacity - purpose & Manage- & Assessment Assessment Community Ownership & Consider- Enabling side Regulations Interoperability ment Spectrum Outreach & Financing ations Sensitization Phase 1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 Phase 2 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.9 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.11 2.12 Phase 3 3.1 3.1 3.4 Phase 4 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 34 Phase 4 Phase 3 Operations & Setup Sustainability 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 UTM Privacy, Data Logistics Oversight, Insurance Procurement Safety & Concept Operational Training & Flight Sustainability Services Management, & Audits & & Service Risk Man- of Approval Capacity - Operations of Operations Quality & Customs Air- Contracts agement Operations Operations Transparency worthiness side Inspection 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.11 2.11 2.12 2.12 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 35 Phase 1: Feasibility Drones are a powerful tool capable of providing many benefits — from efficient data collection to safe and timely service provision for medical commodity delivery. Whether UASs are an appropriate solution and capable of delivering transformational value to a particular problem depends on specific needs, the cost and performance of alternatives, and the given ecosystem’s readiness. Initial feasibility analysis can range from very light touch and rapid to a very in-depth and resource-intensive study. More rigorous and resource-intensive analyses can highlight specific needs within existing supply chains or operating procedures and contribute to a detailed understanding of baseline costs and affordability for customers, in terms of willingness and ability to pay, compared to alternatives not easily captured by simple analysis. A thorough feasibility analysis should also consider the impact on the broader community and stakeholders, their perceptions, humanitarian needs, and improved quality of life that UAS can bring20. Finally, it should also consider potential business models for funding operations, how “success” is measured and monitored, and whether envisioned operations are feasible with available technology. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 36 1.1 USE CASE NEEDS ASSESSMENT stem from insufficient resources at analysis AND INTEGRATION INTO EXISTING labs or violation of procedures rather than long transportation times from clinic to OPERATIONS AND SUPPLY-CHAINS laboratories. Themes: Use cases Involvement: End-users such as a postal Drones can have tremendous potential to service; Ministries in charge of Agriculture, generate all kinds of benefits and solve Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, or all types of use case problems. Yet a clear Health; local government authorities; understanding of where and how they can donor organizations, NGOs; or UAS service have an impact is needed to determine providers looking to conduct or procure their full potential before any higher-level services to address specific use cases engagement or tender should occur. A use case needs assessment considers the Background identified use cases in the context of existing The first step in examining the feasibility supply chains and procedures to determine of drone operations should be the whether drones can provide long-term, identification of use cases with clear transformational value rather than a nice-to- problem statements and addressable have benefit. Integrating drones into existing needs where drones can have a systems rather than creating new ones will meaningful impact. Those problems could often prove more practical and sustainable. include large unmapped areas that are It is a best practice to compare drone difficult to access or high stockout rates solutions with existing solutions to determine in health clinics. The problem statements whether drones have the potential to provide should, in turn, lead to the identification advantages in efficiency, effectiveness, and of clear objectives to frame the envisaged cost. Those will vary depending on the chosen operations. Those objectives both help with drone platform (see 1.5) capabilities and the opportunity cost assessment (see 1.2), specifications, price, speed, distance, coverage, an informed choice of drone platform (see and overall efficiency and effectiveness. 1.5), procurement (see 2.12), and ongoing evaluation of operations as part of Phase 4. A needs assessment “defines the Undertaking a use case needs assessment operational requirements, conditions, will help with this process. Ideally, and settings (e.g., population density, and prospective end-users shall conduct such an whether in urban or rural context), and assessment in consultation with a wide range would define the operation’s objective of stakeholders and system participants. and purpose” by considering the what, how, where, and when of the use case21. Understanding problem statements An assessment should consider the potential requires identifying underlying root benefits versus the risk of utilizing drones; for causes within the existing systems and example, do the health and service benefits procedures that create bottlenecks outweigh the risk of adding things to the and difficulties. Identifying root causes is country’s airspace? A needs assessment necessary to determine whether drones would consider four different elements: represent a potential solution to address 1. Geography and transport network the problem statements. Root causes of characteristics (e.g., climate, topography, stockouts of medical commodities, for seasonality, existing transport modalities, example, could be caused by international quality of the network, density of health shipping and procurement challenges rather facilities, the density of health facilities, than challenges in last mile delivery from and distances between commodity re- warehouses to health clinics. Similarly, supply points); issues with diagnostic sample analysis could 2. Service demand (i.e., baseline data Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 37 summarizing demand for various categories of commodities, including facility-level population, health, and supply chain data); 3. Drone characteristics (i.e., range, payload, delivery mechanism, connectivity requirements)22; 4. Alternative modes of transport or service provision (e.g., performance, capital expenditure, operating costs, indirect costs such as expired medicines or stockouts, , and comparison with drones); The analysis should also consider the existing alternatives, local (logistics) partners, and the private sector as well as the current economic structure behind in-country logistics to determine the drones’ role within an existing system or structure as a complementary rather than a competitive tool. Box 1.1 — Steps of a use case needs assessment for UAS operations Steps of a use case need assessment, which should be carried out in consultation with all stakeholders within the broader ecosystem impacted by drone interventions include31: 1. The identification of gap(s) in an existing approach to a use case or supply chain; 2. Determining the root causes of those gap(s) to understand whether drones and objectives are the right tools to address the identified problem statements sustainably and cost-effectively 3. Understanding the needs and requirements of supply chains and operating practices to determine whether drones can have a meaningful impact and provide transformational value 4. The articulation of requirements a drone platform needs to be capable of fulfilling Understanding those elements will help determine whether drones are the right tool for the job, selecting an appropriate platform, informed procurement, engagement, and ultimately success. Approaching donors with a value proposition in the form of clear, long-term plans is also likely to unlock mainstream funding opportunities from the international donor and development community. Case Study — The root problem is that the demand for digitalization of urban change currently Urban Land Administration exceeds either the affordability or pace- An early set of use cases in Africa used mapping of traditional survey methods drones for land administration associated in these towns and cities. Typically, cities with building surveys, land titling, cadaster, will deploy surveyors for ground-based town planning, and infrastructure measurements and collection of plots and monitoring. This subset of applications has building boundaries. Ground-based data seen strong demand in cities experiencing collection is costly and, more importantly, rapid and mostly unplanned urbanization time-consuming. Historical alternatives have — a common challenge across African cities. been the acquisition of very high-resolution Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 38 aerial imagery from conventional aviation 2kg, are made of expanded polypropylene service providers. This option allows for quick foam material, and are designed to break city-wide mapping, but is expensive when apart on impact. using aircraft and occurs infrequently (often at five-year intervals), making it ineffective Urban applications that require heavier in fast-changing communities with more drone systems can manage ground risk in frequent update needs. alternative ways. In the case of urban river surveys in Dar es Salaam, high-precision Advantages of drones include reduction river cross-section surveys required the use in cost and complexity compared with of drone-mounted Lidar, leading to a total conventional aerial mapping, they are often platform weight exceeding 16kg. In this case, quicker to deploy, and they usually count the operator managed the ground risk by on local providers rather than international flying in a tightly controlled and temporarily firms or aircraft. Also, the lower flight level of evacuated river valley, avoiding overflying drone-based photogrammetry versus high- houses and within the operator and safety flying aircraft can provide higher resolution officers’ line of sight. images (on the order of 2-3cm needed in cadaster applications) and 3-dimensional Case Study — Disaster Risk data for digital surface models. Management Disaster management is a familiar early The primary operational challenge to adopter of new drone-related capabilities — consider in urban operations is the ground particularly in risk assessment and damage risk. Surveying buildings necessitates flying assessment applications. Similar to urban over people and houses, as it is impractical land surveys, these require low-flying, to vacate neighbourhoods for the mapping. lighter-weight systems operating in complex Furthermore, large-scale urban surveys ground and air risk environments. The suggest the need for BVLOS operations challenge statement in this domain differs within urban areas that are likely to be close slightly from urban land administration, as to critical infrastructure and populated. Some flights are time-sensitive, as is the case with survey applications, including cadaster, which damage assessment or situational awareness require very high-resolution measurements, where data on impacted areas, buildings, typically involve drones flying very close people, and so forth are needed as quickly as to the ground; currently, a 2.5cm ground possible. Wide-area disasters, such as cyclone sampling resolution using an eBee Plus drone damage, flooding, or earthquakes, may also requires an 80m flight altitude. Low-altitude call for BVLOS operations to survey large flying presents a challenge with tall buildings, areas or reach distant communities. masts, kites, and so forth. In the context of emergency operations, relief, Many drone regulation regimes forbid flying and response activities, drone services can over people or houses, or BVLOS, within be a critical enabler of a coordinated and 5km of aerodromes or restrict drones to efficient recovery, providing routine situation a maximum or minimum ceiling that may maps, damage maps, and baselines for be incompatible with survey requirements. reconstruction. The constraining challenge As such, urban surveys are very likely to is the lack of time to develop and consult require extensive consultation with aviation during an emergency, which impedes proper regulators, broad consultation of route and management of permissions, operations flight planning, and high focus on minimizing manuals, and safety assessments. Therefore, ground risk through the use of small, it is highly desirable to have pre-approved lightweight, frangible aircraft systems. Some service providers operating in coordination professional survey drones weigh less than Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 39 with civil protection and humanitarian Based on several activity reports, drones agencies that are well-versed, trained, and have demonstrated capability to improve have conducted drills and simulations in several aspects of health programs, which advance (see 2.1). Using volunteer drone can potentially contribute to the Sustainable services deployed for the first time during Development Goals23: an emergency is to be avoided where possible, as there is an inherent risk for • The use of drones can lead to a 65% causing coordination issues stemming from reduction in turnaround times of their often-limited experience of working diagnostic samples (i.e., samples in emergency situations. Instead, ex-ante delivered on time, not expiring, effective approvals with local providers or international diagnostics) and up to a 130% increase in organizations with the necessary experience diagnostic sample collection, leading to is a more pertinent avenue. more effective healthcare provision • Drones can support compliance or An additional consideration is a need for a adherence with immunization and balanced assessment of risk that considers treatment schedules or campaigns, the consequences of not flying. During an introducing services that would not be emergency, the understanding of “acceptable available otherwise risk” may change if the drone application • Drone delivery can help minimize vaccine is itself a life-saving objective. These and other health commodities stockout decisions, however, should be discussed levels and increase the general availability and determined ex-ante during disaster of health commodities at the health- preparedness and risk-reduction programs facility level that identify authorized service providers, • Drones can reduce the health facility services, and operating regimes. dependency on storage capacity and equipment Case Study — • Drone delivery bundled with other Health and Layering use cases innovative interventions can offer a cost- effective solution for disease control, Lack of accessibility and poor transportation based on WHO cost-effectiveness infrastructure — two supply chain assessment methodologies bottlenecks — often lead to the lack of • High utilization of drones through equitable access to health commodities and frequent usage can decrease transport services. Physical barriers such as topography costs and help recoup both initial capital or terrain, transport infrastructure, weather, and ongoing operating costs or security may prevent governments and organizations from timely delivery of Drones represent a promising tool for in- commodities and services. In such instances, country logistics in access-constrained drone technology offers a solution to contexts. They may carry, among other overcome some of those physical barriers. In things, life-saving commodities, blood areas where transportation and accessibility products, vaccines, diagnostic samples, are the root cause of inequities in health micronutrients, or other small payloads as service and health commodity coverage, a part of the routine health supply chain or drones have the potential of closing that gap during emergencies. The quick turnaround and bringing transformational, leap-frogging time and range of drones allow end-users value. To maximize the results and impact of to use them for emergency orders, regular drone delivery, it is crucial to clearly define and just-in-time re-supply of essential the needs and demands and identify the commodities, and reverse logistics such as problem that drones actually can help solve. diagnostic sample pick-up to add an on- demand or just-in-time “pull” system to a Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 40 supply chain24. Another emerging use for mile generally faces fewer problems and drones is the delivery of larger payloads that logistics challenges compared with last can include humanitarian aid25. mile deliveries. • Middle mile—Operations involve the The delivery solution’s selection will depend transport from the highest level of the mainly on the underlying health indicator supply chain to distribution hubs or among performance, coupled with transportation such hubs. Drones have the potential to and distribution bottlenecks. A Ministry significantly reduce transportation hours of Health might use drones to improve and handoff times usually associated with vaccination coverage; provide timely hub and spoke models27. fulfillment of emergency requests for • Last mile—Operations involve the oxytocin, anti-venom, or blood transfusions; transport of payloads to their final improve turnaround time for infectious destination or in time-sensitive situations diseases diagnostics such as tuberculosis, such as the delivery of essential malaria, or HIV; or increase the overall commodities, medical aid, and disease availability of health commodities and outbreak or epidemics management and diagnostics services at a health facility level. disaster response supplies. At the same time, ministries might consider For cargo operations, drones are likely to the layering of use cases, such as mapping have the most significant impact across the at the same time as delivering cargo, which last mile because they involve small payloads can generate efficiencies and cost savings that are easy to transport, besides being by allocating fixed costs across many flights, where most access and supply problems thus maximizing utilization in terms of within public health systems occur. Some capacity and time26. drones support cold-chain transport for temperature-sensitive health products, Discussion using active or passive cooling. Companies such as Zipline (for their blood deliveries Pertinent questions in Rwanda), for example, use low-tech • Will drones supplement and strengthen solutions such as simple ice packs capable existing supply chains, or will they replace of providing cooling for nearly 15 hours. existing modes or introduce previously Passive cooling cannot sustain the extreme unexplored supply chains? durations or temperatures necessary for a • What are opportunity costs for lives small number of vaccines and medications, and impacts on the supply chain— however; such applications require active such as, for example, impacts on job cooling, which comes at the expense of opportunities—and how can drones add higher power consumption and more transformational value? specialist cargo compartments on the drone that cannot be repurposed for other In cargo operations, UAS can impact uses as easily. Depending on the type of different stages of a supply chain, each cargo, considerations for potential risk to with different requirements placed on the public health and safety, property, and the drone platform. environment may be necessary (see 3.1); this • First mile—Operations involve is particularly relevant for goods classified as transportation from the manufacturer dangerous, such as biological samples28. to ports of entry or the highest level in the supply chain, such as a centralized The introduction of UAS into local warehouse. These routes are often served operations and supply chains is likely by sea, air, or ground transport, as the to impact local distribution networks, number of products to be delivered is economies, and logistics partners. typically large. At the same time, the first As such, it would be worth considering Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 41 the impact of proposed operations and service for the least resources in comparison services on the private sector and local with alternative interventions. Understanding communities. A reduction in the volume the existing capabilities, ecosystem, and of goods transported by local drivers, for economic structure can also provide insight example, can mean less work and thereby into how drone operations can achieve less income, adversely affecting livelihoods. long-term sustainability by applying market- During the process of demands and needs driven approaches. identification, consultations with the local community, local supply chain, logistics, and Finally, the collection of operational, health stakeholders are critical to ensure that cost, technical, and related data and the use cases address local needs (see 1.3). evidence should be an integral part of Such an inclusive and consultative process drone delivery implementations to ensure of identifying needs and demands helps that the results are shared, progress shape an accurate problem statement and is monitored, costs are quantified, and ensures community acceptance and long- impact is evaluated. Collecting baseline term sustainability of the solution. Ultimately, data for evaluations may not always be operations and particularly those involving straightforward, but it is essential for the last mile will continue to require locals evaluating cost, performance, and impact. to distribute to local houses or businesses Basic information on stock levels across and create demand for unusual or new medical facilities, for example, may either jobs in communities, such as order taking, be missing entirely or inaccurate due to a maintenance or droneport management. range of factors from paper record-keeping with limited information to underreporting The analysis also has to consider other (see 4.2)29. In order to rigorously generate aspects of processes and supply chains, evidence on drone operations, monitoring including storage and particularly cold- and evaluation professionals and financial chain capacity (both at the hub and the resources must be identified and budgeted destination health facility, for example), for prior to starting operations30. product and service availability and demand, existing protocols and processes, For more information, see also and available human and organizational UN Aviation Safety Section (2017). United Nations resources, including: RPAS Experience: Setting the Stage. Presentation delivered at ICAO 2nd Remotely Piloted Aircraft • Managing last mile delivery — Do System (RPAS) Symposium — Details UN agency remote receiving points have the cellular experiences of using drones for various use cases coverage to provide connectivity, staff World Bank Group (2017). Guidance Note: Managing available to receive deliveries and reload the risks of unmanned aircraft operations in drones, and in the case of cold-chain development projects. — An in-depth overview of cargo, the appropriate storage capacity possible use cases of UAS. and electric supply to prevent spoilage? • Data management, privacy, and Use cases — Urban land administration and quality — Does the capability to analyze disaster risk management and understand geospatial or imagery GFDRR (2021-a). Drones and the 2017 Sierra Leone data collected by drones exist in the Mudslide. ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction country? Is there sufficient trust in the data? Program: Online. — Case study outlining both the approach and key lessons learned. Such understanding helps inform cost GFDRR (2021-b). Drone Use in Senegal for Flood Control. assessments to determine whether the ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction Program: intervention (i.e., UAS operation) can offer Online. — Case study outlining both the approach and the best value for money or, in other words, key lessons learned. whether drone delivery has the potential to GFDRR (2021-c). Drones and Response to the 2018 Uganda yield the most significant improvement in Landslide. ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 42 Box 1.2 — Data scarcity and challenges in quantifying the impact of introducing drones At present, most UAS operations remain pilots with few at-scale services in existence. Supply chain disruptions and quarantine measures impacting connectivity and service delivery brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic have amplified the interest in utilizing drones to strengthen service provision and resilience. However, considering the inherent complexity of setting up enabling environments, this interest does not yet represent a full gamechanger. Impacts of introducing drones have primarily materialized among digital applications, which form part of broader digitalization efforts and thus complicate identifying the specific impacts of drones. Although the number of cargo and other operations using UAS have increased in recent years, generating impacts takes significant time, and data does not exist or is not (publically) available yet. In part to address this challenge, the World Bank is conducting a sector-by-sector impact assessment to determine potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of introducing drones for inclusion in a forthcoming report on the harmonization of drone regulations. Program: Online. — Case study outlining both the Kopenhagen: UNICEF Supply Division — Overview approach and key lessons learned. of potential considerations in the examination of World Bank Group (2016). UAV State of Play for potential uses for UAS in the transport of health Development: Innovations in Program and commodities Humanitarian Contexts. — Note on the use of UAS in VillageReach, ISG-UAS (2019, Nov). Toolkit for development with a specific focus on mapping and how Generating Evidence around the Use of Unmanned they measure up to other data capturing alternatives Aircraft Systems (UAS) for Medical Commodity Delivery, (Version 2). Seattle: VillageReach — Provides guidance and tools to generate evidence Use cases — Health and delivery around the use of UAS for medical commodity Eichleay, M., Evens, E., Stankevitz, K., Parker, C. (2019) delivery to inform programmatic decision-making Using the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Delivery Wright, et al. (2018). What should you deliver by Decision Tool to Consider Transporting Medical unmanned aerial systems? The role of geography, Supplies via Drone. Global Health Science Practice, product, and UAS type in prioritizing deliveries by 7(4), 500-506 — Commentary outlining challenges UAS. White paper, inSupply — Study considering the for integrating UAS into health supply chains cost-effectiveness of different health commodities Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). Assessing for delivery via UAS. Feasibility and Readiness for Cargo Drones in Yadav, P., Lydon, P., Oswald, J., Dicko, M., Zaffran, M. Health Supply Chains. A Guide to Conducting (2014). Integration of vaccine supply chains Scoping Trips in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. with other health commodity supply chains: A Washington: USAID — Guideline to support planning framework for decision making. Vaccine, 32(50), for cargo operation setup 6725-6732— Product integration or “layering” of ISG-UAS (2018, Dec). UAVs in Global Health: Use drone services within health supply chains Case Prioritization. Presentation delivered at Yadav, Prashant (2015). Health Product Supply Chains ISG-UAS Group Meeting — Presentation of (1) in Developing Countries: Diagnosis of the Root prioritized use cases for UAS in global health Causes of Underperformance and an Agenda for and (2) beginning to detail the requirements to Reform, Health Systems & Reform, 1(2), pp. 142- operationalize these use cases. 154 — Discussion of health supply chains and main UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct). Unmanned challenges and their root causes Aircraft Systems: Product Profiles and Guidance. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 43 1.2 OPPORTUNITY COST objectives”. The objectives include total ASSESSMENT operating costs, speed, availability, flexibility, and human or societal objectives. Human Themes: Use cases and financing and societal objectives are particularly crucial Involvement: End-users such as a postal for public-decision makers and international service; Ministries in charge of Agriculture, donor organizations who cannot determine Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, or Health; the potential cost-effectiveness of UAS local government authorities; donor “without looking at the public health benefits, organizations; NGOs; UAS service providers which may be substantial”32. The opportunity looking to conduct or procure services to costs of increasing access to healthcare or address specific use cases other services, gender inclusion, lives saved, Timeline: Approximately three months, once improved environmental sustainability, or a tailored framework to account for UASs is in the reduction in waste and stockouts are place. Otherwise it is more likely to take 9-12 challenging to quantify. Yet understanding months; it is generally more of an iterative opportunities are crucial to determining the process. In the beginning, it will be very overall cost-benefit of different solutions in high level and would help make a case for the context of affordability, as they will likely government support. As more information counterbalance the intangible benefits. becomes available, end-users should refine the cost assessment. Drone operations can either be outsourced, running as an external Background drone-as-a-service model, or insourced, Following the identification of use as end-user-run services. (see 1.4 and cases and operational requirements, an 2.12). The prior involves paying a company opportunity cost assessment can help to set up the necessary infrastructure and determine how much money to spend on equipment, provide training, and conduct providing a particular service and what maintenance and operations. Although services to spend it on. Such analysis can accurate data is rarely publicly available help resolve uncertainty over the added (see Box 1.2), cost estimates for external value of a UAS compared to alternative service models for cargo operations range modalities from trucks and motorbikes for from US$1-2 million in capital expenditure cargo delivery to planes and satellites for alone, with additional monthly service fees mapping purposes. It aims to determine of up to US$100,000 per month for delivery value propositions of different options as of 500,000 vaccine doses or other supplies a benchmark to inform business model to most hard-to-reach areas in a country33. If choice (in conjunction with a prior use case the inevitable inefficiencies of a public sector needs assessment, see 1.1) and determine operation, such as comparatively poorer whether planned operations are feasible operating metrics, are included, the overall within allocated budgets. It involves the cost of internal service models may end up consideration of cost-effectiveness and cost- significantly higher. External, drone-as-a- efficiencies within broader, existing operating service models provide an additional benefit practices or supply chains. of being “professionalized” operations, alleviating the need for extensive internal It also analyzes all aspects and associated capacity building and staffing at the cost to (opportunity) costs needed to provide a the procuring government or organization. In particular service to determine baseline the case of UAS operations, the opportunity costs to compare to potential drone cost assessment should consider a range operation costs. A typical approach for of elements, particularly if an internal as exploring the case for using UASs is within opposed to an outsourced drone-as-a-service the context of the so-called “logistics model is chosen, including: Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 44 Table 1.1 — Key cost factors in insourcing and outsourcing of UAS operations Type Insourced Capital Procurement — The upfront cost for drones can range from approximately 36,000US$ costs for multirotor to 100,000US$ for more sophisticated drones capable of Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) cargo operations34. Little is known about the lifetime of different UAS platforms, with some smaller electric UAS potentially needing replacement after 1000 flight hours making procurement a potentially recurring cost. Infrastructure — Additional investments may be Outsourced necessary to set up suitable Infrastructure — Although the UAS service provider droneports and provide will be providing the platform itself, depending on connectivity to support the service arrangement, they may require particular operations (see 2.5), but are infrastructure such as an airstrip or warehouse to be highly dependent on the in place to be able to operate (see 1.4, 2.5). chosen UAS platform. Ancillary equipment — Depending on the chosen objectives, computers, mobile phones, and other small equipment may need to be purchased. Pre-launch Human resources — This can include hiring additional staff, capacity building with both costs staff and regulators (see 2.1 and 3.4), and community engagement efforts in the lead-up to the commencement of operations. Training and capacity building often includes the engagement of international staff or consultants'. Operational — This includes travel to potential operating sites for site selection and assessments (see 2.5 and 3.1), applications for operational approval (see 3.3), and potentially very costly shipping and importation of equipment (see 2.9). In some countries, fees for permits and additional costs for permit applications' accelerated approval may also be due. Travel — There may be ongoing travel costs for (routine) inspections, audits, mapping, or Operating other scenarios. costs Maintenance — This is likely to represent the most significant Outsourced ongoing cost factor and can make Depending on the chosen business model up more than half of the ongoing (see 1.4) and contractual arrangements operating budget. Maintenance costs (see 2.12), UAS service provider fees should account for the procurement typically include maintenance, labor and of spare parts, which may need to be other operating costs. imported from outside the country. Labor costs, meanwhile, might be low when mainly employing local staff. Other costs — This can include data analytics, and ancillary services ranging from Un- crewed Traffic Management (UTM, see 2.7) to insurance (see 2.11) necessary to conduct operations. Assessments should also consider data fees for mobile networks or satellite communications (see 2.6, 2.7), which may be very expensive in some countries, and fuel or electricity. Important Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to obtain this type of information from UAS note service providers, with no good or reliable resources to pull data from. Publishing a request for Information (RFI) or Expression of interest (EOI) may be an avenue for end- users to collect information to aid decision making (see 2.12). Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 45 Discussion • The reason that drones scale well is because savings add up faster than costs. Pertinent questions • Infrastructure costs can easily prevent • Can the local environment support drone drone programs from becoming cost- operations without requiring additional competitive, regardless of demand levels costs to set up enabling elements? or drone vendor specifications. • What are the actual benefits of using In many countries across Africa, for example, drones? variable costs for alternatives to drones are • What are the costs of the drone platform higher than in many other places “because or service required for the identified use of (i) high fuel costs; (ii) the age of truck cases? fleets, which leads to much higher fuel • Do drones make sense or not in the specific consumption; and (iii) road conditions that context and address the identified needs, are among the worst in the world. However, or is there another more feasible modality? offsetting high variable costs, fixed costs are much lower in Africa than in Europe because Although organizations on the ground of much lower wages and lower capital costs have experience identifying gaps in associated with aged trucks”36. health supply chains and data analytics, their financial frameworks are often Most likely, if examining commodity not tailored to account for aviation, categories individually and looking regulations, and drone technology. exclusively at direct costs of service Ecosystem readiness can introduce provision, cargo operations with UAS significant unforeseen costs that are are generally more expensive for most potentially unaccounted for in traditional commodities. Instead, drone operations cost-benefit analysis models. Depending on stakeholders should consider them within the the use case needs, sophisticated drones broader systems and opportunity costs, such requiring more sophisticated training that as increased speed and availability of goods is not necessarily available locally may be and services. Despite being more expensive, needed. As a result, pilot studies often reveal studies predict the most cost-effective use that drones are too expensive in a particular case examples would likely be the transport instance, do not fit the needs, or do not have of laboratory samples (associated with the the right enabling environment. lowest percentage increase in transport costs compared to present), life-saving items, and Early experience in cost-benefit analysis blood deliveries (associated with the lowest shows that savings in goods transport dollar amount increase in transport costs), using UAS are primarily affected by when accounting for opportunity costs37. drone vendor pricing structure, capital costs, ground transportation costs, and Cross-subsidization through combining the level of demand when compared to different programmatic commodities traditional transport modes35. It is essential and services, also referred to as product to consider that: integration or layering, can significantly • Drone vendors vary significantly in their increase the cost-effectiveness and thus pricing and drone capabilities. affordability and commercial viability38. • Leasing provides a much more cost- The multi-purpose capabilities of transport competitive option compared to buying. and data collection provided by many drone • Because drones cannot compete in platforms make them an appropriate tool price with cheap or free transportation for collecting data for disaster preparedness, (including public transit) for cargo humanitarian response, urban planning, operations, site selection is critical for infrastructure and environmental monitoring, having a cost-effective drone program. and agriculture and other use cases during Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 46 cargo operations. Opening new revenue AAVs. — Tool for estimating last mile transport and streams through layering can significantly inventory cost implications for UAS operations McCord, J., Tien, M., Sarley, D. (2013) Guide to Public improve the commercial viability of envisaged Health Supply Chain Costing: A Basic Methodology. drone operations and thus address potential Arlington, Va.: USAID | DELIVER PROJECT, Task funding concerns, increase financial Order 4. — Provides an overview on how to cost sustainability, and reduce reliance on donor supply chains, with Appendix C providing an funding (see 1.4, 4.2). Other avenues for overview of potential sources of cost information increasing commercial viability and cost- Ochieng , W., Ye, T., Scheel, C., Lor, A., Saindon, J., Yee, S.L., Meltzer, M., Kapil, V., Karem, K. (2020). effectiveness include increasing the density Uncrewed aircraft systems versus motorcycles of facilities and customers within range of the to deliver laboratory samples in west Africa: droneport (see 2.5) and increasing the range a comparative economic study. Lancet Global and automation of the UAS platform. Health, 8, e143-151— Comparative economic study of the costs and cost-effectiveness of UAS versus motorcycles for laboratory sample delivery. For more information, see also Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021). Unlocking the lower Bahrainwala, L., et al. (2020). Drones and digital skies: The Costs and Benefits of Deploying Drones adherence monitoring for community-based across Use Cases in East Africa. Washington: tuberculosis control in remote Madagascar: A World Bank — Report analyzing the economic and cost-effectiveness analysis, PLOSOne — Detailed broader societal rationale for introducing UAS to cost-benefit analysis for the introduction of a complement existing supply chains and processes tuberculosis treatment program using Drones in across different use cases from medical cargo Madagascar. and food aid delivery to infrastructure and land Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). Assessing mapping in an East African context. Feasibility and Readiness for Cargo Drones in Würbel, H. (2017). Framework for the evaluation Health Supply Chains. A Guide to Conducting of cost-effectiveness of drone use for the Scoping Trips in Low- and Middle-Income last-mile delivery of vaccines. MSc Thesis, Countries. Washington: USAID — Guideline to University of Barcelona — Review, comparison support planning for cargo operation setup and benchmarking of last mile logistics costs for JSI (n.d.) What should you Deliver by What Should the transport of pharmaceuticals, vaccines and You Deliver by Autonomous Aerial Systems? Tool associated commodities using UAS. for Determining Cost Effective Use Cases for Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 47 1.3 STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION, analyzing the use of drones; d) utilizing COMMUNITY OUTREACH, AND drones and benefiting from them, and e) those providing training and drones or SENSITIZATION their services to the end-users. Common Themes: Community engagement stakeholders and interest groups include: Involvement: Community engagement • Academic institutions; should be led by culturally appropriate • Community and district authorities community-based organizations or within and leaders, including local current government systems such as a councils and health facilities, as Ministry of Information or Health, and can well as faith and traditional leaders further involve end-users, NGOs, donor and healers; organizations, or UAS service providers • Development partners including looking to conduct operations. Stakeholder donors, and implementers and consultation further involves the Civil Aviation civil society organizations; Authority (CAA) or other designated authority, • General public in the vicinity of security services and other non-aviation take-off, landing, and operations government entities, and the private sector. sites, as well as communities under the flight path of drones; Background • Government Ministries including Stakeholder and community engagement, Agriculture, Defense, Disaster management, and sensitization are Management and Response, part of a multi-phase process crucial to Education, Environment, Health, getting drone programs off the ground. Information, Internal Affairs, They are parts of an important activity to Security, Surveys and Statistics, ensure political and social buy-in, wider and Transport; acceptance, and alleviation of skepticism, • The private sector, including safety, and security concerns regarding drone insurance providers, clearing technology, and will ultimately increase agents, and logistics and chances for long-term sustainability high- manufacturing; and frequency drone operations. Consultations • Regulatory authorities, including and engagement should involve aviation and Civil Aviation, Customs, Revenue ancillary stakeholders, including ministries, and Tax, and Telecommunications. security agencies, regulatory bodies, local 2. Stakeholder analysis — It is vital to communities, and the private sector. understand the needs, rights, interests, Transparency and an early engagement concerns, and perceptions of the with security agencies is particularly vital identified stakeholders and impacted as drones are increasingly equipped with communities to develop a comprehensive cameras to support safe remote take-off and locally tailored engagement strategy. and landing, potentially raising privacy and Typical analysis tools include focus group security issues among different stakeholder discussions, interviews, and similar groups. An engagement and outreach quantitative or qualitative methods. approach usually involves: The co-design of implementations with 1. Stakeholder identification — stakeholders also presents opportunities Stakeholders and interest groups critical to improve project outcomes and create and relevant for specific drone activity shared value besides aligning interests, and engaged in a) regulating or facilitating which may be competing at times the use of drones, as well as regulations, (economic impact versus safety and imports, communications; b) financing security, for example). or supporting the use of drones; c) 3. Communication planning — This step defines outcomes and supports Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 48 engagement and communication the opportunity for identifying socially strategies tailored to the stakeholder meaningful and economically impactful groups and their needs and contributions use cases can ensure buy-in and a shared identified in Step 2. Step 3 can also vision across the government as well as define media and engagement channels, much greater societal adoption from timetables, and metrics to measure the community engagement through existing success of communication strategies. government channels.” 40 4. Stakeholder engagement — A range of activities, including consultations, drone Community sensitization and stakeholder concept introductions, surveys, workshops, roundtable activities should also target town hall events, demonstrations, different groups within a country, discussions, media campaigns, and similar, including the national, provincial, can be used to implement the engagement regional, or district government, and strategy. In some cases, discussions and the general public41. Across these groups, negotiations can occur among project “support and buy-in must come not only from implementers and individual stakeholders, leadership, but also from those assisting such as landowners in a safe, private with implementation, such as health facility setting with translators or trusted staff, government officials, and local and intermediaries to negotiate temporary traditional leaders who are not connected to use and access to land or other private the government” 42. assets. Providing stakeholders with the 1. National level — Engagement often opportunity to question and discuss includes institutions and organizations proposals provides opportunities to that regulate, support, fund, or utilize strengthen project proposals and foster drone technology, and contribute to understanding and buy-in. their perspective on the regulations and use of drones. Institutions engaging Community sensitization and stakeholder on the national level include sectoral roundtable activities must continue Ministries, departments, and related throughout the whole operation. Ongoing institutions that play a central role in engagement among stakeholders can ensuring the adoption of drones through support overall ecosystem coordination, high-level policy- and decision-making. including the identification of operational Drone activities and programs commonly synergies and complementary use cases, originate from national-level institutions quality assurance and compliance monitoring working closely with development of operations with aviation regulations (see partners to explore the use of innovative 2.2), privacy and data management (see 2.8), technologies to address challenges they and auditing (see 2.10). Similarly, ongoing face in the completion of their missions engagement and communication efforts with and visions. the community and monitoring of public 2. In-country Provincial, Regional, or perceptions can help with sustainability District level — As individual districts and ensure the long-term success of drone may participate in Steering Committee programs (see 4.2)39. activities, particular importance shall be given to the engagement of relevant “Breaking barriers in communication authorities and organizations. Those across ministerial silos helps develop often include authorities such as the a broader understanding of the central political authority and provincial, opportunities, challenges and solutions regional or district hospitals or disaster government officials face before response units, or other entities and operations begin. By engaging all organizations that ultimately can benefit relevant government departments early, from the use of drones. Consultations Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 49 with stakeholders, thorough needs technology fits into the larger societal assessment, scoping visits, interviews, ecosystem. Methods of sensitization and and real-life demonstrations of drone engagement include (but are not limited technology are examples of activities to) consultations, focus group interviews, employed as a part of a district-level large-scale technology demonstrations, engagement. presentations, question and answer 3. Community level — The local community sessions, and other innovative at the district level is essential in communication for development tools. ensuring the social acceptance of The culmination of the sensitization drone technology, creating a sense activities is often an official approval by of ownership, and helping dispel the traditional leadership of a community, misconceptions. They are also crucial which the district leadership might also in alleviating concerns of families and consult. District- and community-level workers who might be directly affected by outreach can occur in parallel to ensure loss of income due to reduced demand close coordination and consultation for traditional service provision. This may between the two. involve highlighting ongoing demand for 4. General Public — Raising awareness local distribution on the last mile or new of drone technology and its benefits is opportunities, including order taking, essential for general public perception maintenance, or droneport management. and acceptance43. Highlighting the Placing the community at the center and enabling role of drones for the creation enabling them to analyze the technology of markets and job opportunities in and co-create technology-driven solutions addition to faster access to goods locally helps ensure a cultural fit, beyond can help to increase the social acceptance solving existing challenges. Community of drones. Implementing partners sensitization activities often focus on might choose various media channels exploring the value of drone technology to reach a large national audience. by ultimate beneficiaries (i.e., community, Sensitization activities at a community community health office, community level can help create a common message education institution, community for sharing with the general public. leadership), addressing and answering National campaigns often focus on the critical questions about the risk, balancing safety and privacy concerns safety, duration, and scope of the drone and conveying the key benefits of drone operations, as well as looking at how the technology. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 50 Box 1.3 — National Steering Committee and community outreach in Malawi One successful example of engagement and consultation was framed around activities in the Humanitarian Drone Corridor near Kasungu, Malawi. A National Remotely Piloted Aircraft Steering Committee has been created as a platform for inclusive engagement, information and experience sharing, consultation, and collective decision- making in the area of drones44. The committee convenes interested and relevant organizations, institutions, and entities. UNICEF, in collaboration with the Department of Civil Aviation, Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Information, further supported an extensive community sensitization and outreach campaign. The campaign aimed at sourcing community feedback and concerns about the use of drones in supply chain delivery, alongside demonstrations of the real-life drone use to community members and leaders through “drone days”. This approach helped ensure the common understanding as well as acceptance of this technology among communities. The latter is particularly crucial, as witch doctors are an integral component of many African cultures, including Sierra Leone and Malawi, potentially raising fears of drones and medical facilities besides inhibiting the transport of blood over people's houses and communities45. Community sensitization and information campaigns can help alleviate those fears and concerns. Discussion Pertinent questions • Can all stakeholders and the local community identify with the benefits, and are their concerns taken seriously and into account? • How can engagement work when it is too risky, such as in the middle of a civil war or unrest? • Who is best suited to directly engage with communities, considering the historical context of colonialism, systemic power imbalances, and cultural norms and preferences? Projects should apply principles of ethics and considerations over privacy and data protection when designing the implementation and operation and conduct an ethics review as part of their ongoing engagement, planning, and operations efforts. Development organizations such as UNICEF have developed and embraced a set of principles to guide their technology projects46. Researchers at Delft have instead proposed the following principles47, which are focused more on the design of the technology itself (see Table 1.2). Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 51 Table 1.2 — Ethics principles UNICEF principles Delft principles Design with the user Inclusion Build for sustainability Sustainability Be data-driven Accountability Use open standards, open data, open- Transparency source, and open innovation Reuse and improve Responsibility Do no harm Safety Be collaborative Democracy Understand the existing ecosystem Privacy Design for scale Security The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) recognizes the right of indigenous communities to Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (see 2.8). This normative framework protects the inherent right Indigenous communities have to decide on mining, forestry, oil, gas, water, or other proposed external activities that would affect their lands, territories, or natural resources. For more information, see also Washington: USAID — Guideline to support planning for cargo operation setup Eichleay, M., Mercer, S., Murashani, J., Evens, Mauluka, Chancy (2019). When the Drone E. (2016). Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Flies! Rethinking Communication Models in Development: Perspectives from Citizens and the Context of Innovations. The Journal of Government Officials in Tanzania. 10.13140/ Development Communication, 30(2) — Study of RG.2.1.3834.8560— Summarising initial perceptions UNICEF’s approach for community sensitization to of UAS safety, purpose, use cases, and regulations drone operations in the Kasungu drone corridor among government officials and the general public, Truog, et al. (2020). Insights Before Flights: How stressing the importance of holistic community Community Perceptions Can Make or Break engagement. Medical Drone Deliveries. Drones, 4(3) — Study Fabian, C. and Fabricant, R. (2014). The Ethics of on the similarities and differences in community innovation. Stanford Social Innovation Review perceptions to UAS for medical cargo delivery in — Ethical Framework for the introduction of novel Malawi, Mozambique, the Democratic Republic of technology solutions in international development the Congo, and the Dominican Republic. FAA (2016, Feb). Community Involvement Manual. Van den Hoven, J., et al. (eds.) (2015). Handbook of Washington: FAA — Covering good practices and Ethics, Values and Technological Design. Springer: techniques for community engagement, including Dordrecht — A detailed survey of how technological project lifecycles and institutional design should reflect an awareness Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). Assessing of ethical factors ranging across sustainability, Feasibility and Readiness for Cargo Drones in human well-being, privacy, democracy and justice, Health Supply Chains. A Guide to Conducting inclusivity, trust, accountability, and social and Scoping Trips in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. environmental responsibility. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 52 1.4 BUSINESS MODELS, commodities and manages warehousing OWNERSHIP, AND FINANCING and ordering, whereas the drone service provider executes the distribution. Themes: Financing Other services such as Zipline provide Involvement: End-users such as a postal warehousing, sourcing of commodities, service; Ministries in charge of Agriculture, distribution, and order management Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, or Health; within their offerings. local government authorities; donor • Vertically integrated model or organizations; or UAS service providers outright ownership (insourcing) — looking to conduct or procure services to Here, operations run in-house with the address specific use cases model either relying on a UAS platform purchased from an OEM manufacturer Background or one designed and built in-house. This A range of products and services model can potentially cover all elements make up the value chain of elements of the value chain from manufacturing underpinning drone operations, each the UAS platform to capacity building, with its own business model archetypes flight operations, data analytics, running and considerations48. The value chain of support services, and sourcing of begins with specialized sub-tier suppliers commodities. providing components, software, and sensors Many cargo UAS operations use drone-as-a- necessary for manufacturers to produce UAS service models instead of outright ownership platforms. Manufacturers can subsequently due to increased flexibility to change UAS opt to focus on the production of UASs platforms (see 1.5) as technology evolves and alone, acting under an Original Equipment needs change50. Manufacturer (OEM) business model, or cover elements of service provision under Whereas use cases and the products a drone-as-a-service model in addition to and services to address them are manufacturing49. available, financing models covering • OEM model — Involves the service provision beyond an initial setup manufacturing and sale of UAS platforms, or pilot phase often are not. Continued components, sensors, or software funding beyond the initial pilot period of a solutions to operators (outsourcing) or few months is one of the biggest and most end-users (insourcing). Those would, in common inhibitors for attracting operators turn, need to obtain regulatory approval, and setting up operations. Considerations provide training and capacity building for continued service should therefore be and operate flights before engaging data made from the very beginning. In certain analytics and support services (see 2.12). circumstances, funding may be diminished • Drone-as-a-service model (outsourcing) “due to changes in administration, priorities — Here, the service provider would or overall funding availability. Securing provide and source or manufacture initial funding is often easier than securing the UAS platform, data analytics, and continued funding in subsequent years” 51. ancillary services ranging from Un-crewed Business models, funding, and financing Aircraft Systems Traffic Management proposals should include clear outlines (UTM) to insurance necessary to conduct of how proposed drone activities fit into operations. Most drone-as-a-service cargo existing processes and supply chains and operations require operators to partner address proven needs and quantified with the customer to manage operations, demand (see 1.1) in a cost-effective manner as is the case with Wingcopter, Aerial (see 1.2). Quantified demand stems from Metric, and others. In many medical cargo an analysis of the addressable market operations, the Ministry of Health sources and an understanding of the potential Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 53 Box 1.4 — Example options for outsourced, drone-as-a-service UAS operations The most common include gig models or commercial franchises depending on the identified need and chosen business focus: • Gig-model — Sweden-based GLOBHE recognized that for certain types of operations such as mapping, which are often quick to complete and do not rely on established droneports such as cargo operations, gig models might be more applicable. They noticed that local drone pilots often have a hard time getting customers and identifying business opportunities. Based on this epiphany, they chose to develop a platform to connect local drone pilots with business opportunities in a gig-model to utilize the local capacity that is already in place. It strengthens the local community and entrepreneurs, addresses local use cases, reduces the cost for bringing in personnel and equipment from outside the country, and reduces administrative hurdles. • Full drone-as-a-service provision — Zipline, an American healthcare logistics start- up founded in 2014, designs drones to deliver medical products. To improve the medical supply chain in disconnected areas, Zipline, in contract with the Rwandan government, launched the world's first automated blood delivery system operating at a nationwide scale in partnership with the UPS Foundation and Gavi. The company uses autonomous electric drones to deliver medicines to hospitals, clinics, and health centers as and when required. Different third-party logistics services, including warehousing, and distribution, are performed by Zipline. “When Zipline's flight operations began in 2016, the company had contracts with 21 hospitals in Rwanda and only delivered blood. It has since expanded to 160 different medical products and is contracted to serve close to 2,500 hospitals and health facilities across Rwanda and Ghana” 53. The creation of Zipline is an excellent example of government and private enterprise working seamlessly. for commercial and sustainability of the sources exist, with later stages of a UAS proposed operations. Demonstrating program potentially utilizing combinations understanding and clearly identifying needs of approaches in a co-financing or blended and objectives significantly increases the financing manner: likelihood of unlocking funding for services • Donor-funded — Underpins the vast from both the private and public sectors majority of UAS projects so far. Options and lays the foundation for long-term exist to cross-subsidize projects through sustainability. The use of offtake contracts, parallel use cases (see 1.2). In the past, in particular, can help attract commercial donors have helped provide funding for funding and address potential concerns of infrastructure investments (for example, uncertainty beyond initial pilots. A longer Ghana) or provided funds to support the term commitment would enable amortization operations side (for example, Tanzania, of the upfront capital expenditure over a Malawi, or the Democratic Republic of longer time frame, thus reducing annual Congo). outgo. Different funding models and • Public-Private Partnership (PPP) — Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 54 Can help reduce reliance on direct-foreign maintenance of UAS platforms to safety risk (donor) investment and provide the next management, drone network design, drone step to sustainability for such projects. The service network management, scheduling government’s role in such partnerships and dispatching, network service monitoring, may be determined by the public benefits and operations reviews. At the same time, derived from financed operations — niche PPPs, such as the one between the Rwandan business opportunities versus public government and Carnegie Mellon University, goods that support wider communities. provide opportunities to accelerate domestic A PPP model could allow several manufacturing to reduce shipping costs and operators to use the same UAS platform, time for platforms and spare parts (see 1.5) droneports, and other infrastructures, and create high-skilled job opportunities.52 such as a district medical warehouse, for fixed or ad hoc services on a contractual Some drone manufacturers may opt to basis or per-use basis. set up their own delivery companies • Private or commercial funding — There under a drones-as-a-service business is increasing interest from UAS operators, model to create their own demand for the venture capitalists, and commercial manufacturing of drones. Uncertainty can banks to finance high-frequency UAS be challenging, as there is often an unknown operations. Such operations are likely to demand from the client side, making involve privately owned infrastructure, investments tricky. It requires massive such as a dedicated distribution center investments to go out there and provide that is operator-specific and managed by deliveries at scale as a drone manufacturer. a single company, with Zipline serving as Although we are finally seeing some a prominent example. companies succeeding in that field, many have either changed business models, gone Discussion out of business, or relied on other income sources such as Google Wing or Amazon. Pertinent questions • What should requirements for capacity building among the local community and For more information, see also economy be? Cohn, P., Green, A., Langstaff, M., Roller, M. (2017, • Will payout obligations occur in a lump Dec 5). Commercial drones are here: The future of unmanned aerial systems. McKinsey & Company sum or installments, based on operators — Explores the UAS value chain and different meeting milestones? business models and opportunities applicable to • How long would governments or end different elements within it. users be willing to commit upfront Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021). Unlocking through offtake contacts? the lower skies: The Costs and Benefits of • Who will cover the initial seed costs for Deploying Drones across Use Cases in East Africa. Washington: World Bank — Value assessment setup and equipment purchases? of different UAS use cases including medical • What will happen once the donor money commodity and food aid delivery, land mapping, runs out? agriculture and infrastructure inspections, and their policy and operational implications. Training and capacity building can represent an additional business model for OEM operators and pure operators. In insourcing, end-users should consider the procurement of training and capacity- building services alongside the platform purchase (see 2.1 and 3.4). Such training can range from basic operations, piloting, and Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 55 1.5 UAS PLATFORM Figure 1.3 — Overview of main UAS CONSIDERATIONS platform configuration Themes: Equipment Involvement: End-users such as a postal service; Ministries in charge of Agriculture, Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, or Health; local government authorities; donor organizations, or UAS service providers or manufacturers looking to purchase UAS platforms or procure services to address specific Fixed-wing drone capable of use cases one-way logistics (deliver-only) Background Appropriately selecting the right technology to ensure it fits the use case, performs to expectations, and can function appropriately in the environment is crucial. Factors that can affect this choice include, but are not limited to: • Distance for envisaged operations • The use case itself • Size and weight of the payload in the case of cargo operations • Local network connectivity • Operating altitude and weather patterns The understanding of operational requirements and factors should underpin the definition of minimum requirements and specifications that a UAS needs to fulfill. Among the most basic are range (i.e., distance and flight time) and speed, which are crucial to determining the value proposition for adding an on- demand just-in-time or “pull” system to supply chains (see 1.1), payload capacity (i.e., volume and weight), and specificity (for example, cold- VTOL fixed-wing (top) and VTOL rotocraft chain)54. It is important to note that (bottom) drones that are capable of reverse battery-powered UAS are likely to logistics (delivery and pick-up) have more limited range and payload capabilities than gasoline-powered drones in the short to medium term. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 56 Box 1.5 — Main UAS platform configurations UAS have three main platform configurations — Fixed-wing, vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) fixed-wing, or VTOL rotorcraft, with the vast majority of drones currently used in the commercial sector being small UAS, weighing less than 20-25kg. Fixed-wing – Configured like a traditional fixed-wing aircraft, such UAS require landing and take-off profiles with a bigger footprint. Their flight profile means that they are more aerodynamically efficient and typically have a more extended range and greater flight endurance, however. The fixed-wing platforms mostly use parachute airdrop mechanisms to deliver commodities and goods without landing at a delivery site, as this would require specialist landing infrastructure in each destination (runway or a catapult and retrieval system). Fixed-wing drones capable of only delivering commodities one- way can fly longer distances and serve the larger geographical areas. However, they have the limitation of not being capable of picking up packages.  VTOL fixed-wing or rotorcraft — Such “platforms fly using the same principles as manned helicopters, although the vast majority often have four, six, or eight rotors. Consequently, the platforms have a VTOL capability that makes them more operationally versatile” 55. VTOL capable drones can support reverse logistics (landing at the delivery site) in addition to parachute-dropping (a package to the delivery site) of commodities. Their agility and flexibility allow them to support diagnostic sample pickup from remote health clinics, for example. The distribution facility does not need specific take-off and retrieval mechanisms or runways, which might otherwise require high set-up costs and might not be feasible in some areas. VTOL drone systems can land in small spaces to deliver a package or pick up a package. Several such systems also offer a possibility of delivery without landing. In such cases, a drone uses a string to lower the payload, and after it reaches the ground, the string is retracted, and the drone returns to the home base. VTOL fixed-wing drones offer a more extended range compared to VTOL rotorcraft. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 57 There are many other considerations, b. User interface — The difficulty including ease of use, reliability, and of operating drone platforms ongoing operating costs: varies. Platforms with built-in fail-safe features and easy-to-use user interfaces and controls have significant advantages, ensuring that local staff can quickly learn how to operate them safely. a. Maintenance and repairs — When UASs are damaged through wear and tear, a crash, or other reasons, facilities, spare parts, and know-how for repairing and maintaining need to be in place to reduce service outages as much as possible. Given the overall supply c. Flight control and navigation — A chain problems common to resource- drone must have robust and redundant constrained environments, it might take navigation and other flight control a very long time to obtain spare parts systems (Global Positioning System [GPS], for drones from outside a country. Some Inertial Measurement Unit, or other) to issues with more complex drones may ensure that it can maintain its orientation only be fixable by the manufacturer itself. even under frequency jamming or other Therefore, UAS with low-maintenance technical abnormalities. Flight control requirements, low operational footprint, software should be easy to use, the same and spare parts readily or potentially as the overall user interface. available, via 3D-printing on-site, have huge advantages. Maintenance can make up a large part of operating costs, with some operators spending upwards of half their operating budget on maintenance of components. It is also crucial to check whether a drone service provider has a robust training program for repairs and maintenance to ensure that the local staff has the necessary training to maintain it efficiently. Ultimately, many operators are unlikely to have enough experience to have service or retirement schedules based on actual operational experience and information on the lifetime of the UAS owing to limited long-term experience. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 58 d. Command and control (C2) link — C2 is the data link between a drone and a remote pilot station and used to manage the flight. There are various possible architectures and considerations in the design, security, and management of the C2 link. Because of the limitation of regular and extended-range radio links, more and more platforms rely on cellular and satellite links instead. The quality of a link in such a situation heavily depends on cellular network coverage; satellite connection is still more expensive and is usually used as a stable backup. The drone platforms that consider low-connectivity, low-resource settings and redundant C2 link solutions have an advantage. e. Durability and reliability — It is crucial to consider a platform’s ability to withstand harsh weather conditions, such as the capability to operate in light rain, high wind, high altitudes, dust, sub-zero temperatures, or extreme heat and humidity. There are no specific studies of various drone platforms and their tolerance for different weather conditions. Evaluating the provider’s flight safety records and total flight hours for the specific model is crucial to determine both durability and reliability. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 59 Discussion Pertinent questions • Which propulsion method is most suited considering local infrastructure? • What are the operational requirements (for example, long-duration cold-chain for vaccine transport), and can the drone operate within the environment (for example, altitude or weather)? Whereas an increasing number of drones rely on electric engines that use lithium batteries, some continue to rely on combustion engines that use various types of fuel. There is an increasing trend to use hydrogen fuel or other alternative sources of power to extend drone flight time and operational range.  • Gasoline-powered drones generally provide a greater range making them potentially more suitable for certain use cases than battery-powered UAS. However, higher platform cost, noise, pollution, and consistent fuel supply and quality have to be considered when choosing such a platform56. A growing number of manufacturers do not believe in gasoline-powered drones as they are afraid they might be associated with military drones. • Battery-powered drones are more environmentally friendly; however, they have limitations in terms of range owing to battery capacity. Additionally, stable electricity supply, battery charging capabilities, and battery swapping at different destinations (for example, health facilities or distribution centers) are important considerations to ensure that drones can operate uninterrupted. As the energy density of batteries is improving, one can expect that the range gap between battery-powered and gasoline-powered drones will be closed in the future. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 60 Depending on the lithium batteries’ However, some larger organizations and size, the logistics of transporting them companies may be hesitant to invest can become an issue. Most commercial in cargo drone technologies due to airlines are unwilling to transport lithium regulatory barriers. Cargo use cases rely batteries above a specific size as they may on BVLOS operations and, in some cases, be classified as dangerous goods (see dropping cargo, transporting dangerous 2.9), requiring alternative approaches for goods, and other aspects governed by handling or transporting. national regulations. Uncertain regulations or approval processes can prohibit operations Another important consideration during at scale, making investments in technology platform selection for temperature- development and manufacturing a risky sensitive product distribution and some endeavor in many cases and leading to other use cases is cold-chain capacity. manufacturers adopting a wait-and-see The majority of drone pilot projects for health approach instead. Costs associated with use cases to date used passive cooling (e.g., certification through the US Federal Aviation insulated cargo boxes that use ice-packs Administration (FAA) or similar bodies in the or cool water packs) to maintain vaccine EU can further exacerbate such concerns. temperatures (2-8 degrees of Celsius) during On the flipside, there is a risk that large flights. Evidence shows that passive cooling manufacturers may end up dictating certain was sufficient to maintain the cold-chain standards within the industry, resulting in an within acceptable limits. Active cooling uneven playing field for start-ups. systems could also be used as a cold-chain solution and could be particularly important in For more information, see also ultra-cold-chain scenarios. They provide longer Coban, S., Oktay, T. (2018). Unmanned Aerial storage times (14.9+ hours) at the expense of Vehicles (UAVs) According to Engine Type. increased power consumption and reduced Journal of Aviation, 2(2), 177-184 — Classifications versatility of repurposing the drone. of drone designs according to different metrics Dronethusiast (2018). Travelling with LiPo Batteries and your Drone — Advice on transporting of Industry challenges and competitions lithium batteries can be a helpful tool to encourage the USAID GHSC-PSM (2018, Jul 9). Unmanned Aerial development and adoption of new Vehicle Procurement Guide. Washington: technologies and support long-listing of Chemonics International Inc. — Covering potential UAS service or OEM providers. recommended specifications and questions for They also make sense if there is a cutting- offerors with a specific focus on cargo operations VillageReach (2020, Jun). How to Select a Drone edge element to be achieved that is not Service Provider for Transport of Health Products. commonly implemented. The ADF, for Lessons Learned. Seattle: VillageReach — Tool example, focuses on safe and scalable outlining a range of requirements to consider electric VTOL cargo operations, which to as part of UAS service provider selection with date have never been scaled into national- a specific focus on the transport of health level programs in Africa. Before opening commodities a request for proposal (RFP) (see 2.12) for the ADF, the organizing team conducted market research to understand how many technology providers globally offer electric VTOL, fixed-wing UASs to assess the feasibility of narrowing technology requirements. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 61 Phase 2: Planning Whereas a thorough feasibility analysis can help determine whether drones are the appropriate tool for a given use case, the broader ecosystem needs to be capable of supporting them. Sufficient knowledge and capacity, regulations, network connectivity, equipment, and infrastructure will need to be developed or put in place across broader ecosystem-supporting and operation- specific elements for UAS operations to be successful. Regulators and legislators need to have sufficient capacity to develop fit-for-purpose UAS regulations before striving toward harmonization with other countries and, ultimately, interoperability. Airspace is a scarce resource, and its management impacts where and what scale of operations are possible. Similarly, the location and sophistication of droneports should be proportional to the envisioned operations. Safe and efficient scaling of drone operations also requires reliable and secure connectivity and tracking capabilities to allow for “the dynamic, integrated management of air traffic and airspace” 57 via UTM. Ancillary elements such as privacy considerations, data management, data quality, and transparency should underpin data collection efforts, and operators should ensure sufficient insurance coverage for all operations. Straightforward logistics and customs procedures can help alleviate potential set-up bottlenecks, at the same time as auditing and airworthiness inspection mechanisms can support due diligence processes. Only once these enabling elements are in place and the feasibility analysis has shown the viability of conducting UAS operations should considerations turn toward thorough and transparent vendor selection, procurement, and service contract modalities. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 62 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 63 2.1 TRAINING AND CAPACITY - Understanding drones and their ENABLING SIDE implications on traditional aviation risk management is also a prerequisite for For operators: refer to section 3.4 training developing fit-for-purpose regulations and capacity - operations side to manage a country’s airspace “safely, Themes: Capacity building and financing economically and efficiently” 59. There Involvement: CAA or other designated is a distinct lack of training on regulations authority looking to improve capacity, civil and rules and, more importantly, safety society and international organizations such and traffic management specific knowledge as a Regional Safety Oversight Organization inherent to UAS among many CAAs. This (RSOO) looking to support capacity building often extends to a limited understanding of drone-specific Operations Risk Assessments Background and their evaluation (see 3.1). Drone Stakeholders and end-users involved in technology is rapidly evolving, bringing drone operations need to understand the with it widespread ramifications on existing technology and capabilities of commercial operating procedures, processes, and drones, which may be much larger arrangements. It affects, among others: than consumer-oriented commercial- • Airspace management — As most off-the-shelf UAS. Introducing Air Traffic drones can take-off and land outside Control (ATC) and CAA staff to the concepts, of closely regulated and controlled benefits and altruistic intentions of UAS traditional take-off and landing (see 1.3) will increase the likelihood they infrastructure; will support drone operations and design • Security — Protocols for airdropping of enabling regulations. For CAAs, the need for cargo; understanding stems from a need to assess • Privacy — As most drones are equipped safety, maintain control of the airspace, fulfill with cameras to assist with remote take- their oversight responsibility, and check off and landing; compliance with regulations. End-users need • Risk management — As drones can to understand capabilities to determine potentially pose significant risks to people whether drones are the right tool, which ones and objects on the ground; and are appropriate, and how to get the most out • Certification — Owing to rapidly evolving of them during operations. technology. “In our ministry, we have been looking forward to these technologies. We have a budget for drones and software, but no one knew how to operate them. We will use the technology to monitor the growth of corn, beans and basic grains during the drought. We can use sensors [attached to the drones] to analyze the soil, to avoid planting crops that won’t thrive. We might have to diversify the crops [for a better yield].” 58 Mey Riveiro, Ministry of Agriculture in Honduras Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 64 Box 2.1 — Example training opportunities for national stakeholders and regulators • National stakeholders, the World Food Programme (WFP) UAS training for emergency operations — Building in-country capacity for rapid deployment and the practice of emergency scenarios is critical for the safe, effective, and timely use of drones in emergency settings60. In 2018 and 2019, WFP and its local partners delivered a series of UAS training exercises in nine countries: Bolivia, Colombia, Cuba, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Haiti, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Nepal, strengthening the capacity of 400 representatives from more than 100 organizations. WFP has designed a 2-week complete UAS training course divided into three modules: 1. Let's COORDINATE — a workshop on strengthening cooperation among national stakeholders with theoretical sessions on safety procedures, privacy and data management, and lessons learned from a range of case studies; 2. Let's FLY — a series of hands-on training exercises in how to operate drones safely; 3. Let's MAP — a practical course on processing data obtained from drones using different software platforms. Participants found flight security, route and flight planning, and the introduction to drones’ technical features and capabilities to be among the most valuable components of the program. Further regional training sought to foster collaboration and consider regional applications through the collaborative development of a Concept of Operations (ConOps) for different use cases. • Government regulators, the UK-CAA International (CAAi) and Sierra Leone CAA — The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and others have appointed the UK-based CAAi to provide CAAs with training and technical support on aviation safety, security, and regulation in the past. This process includes root and branch assessments to understand authorities’ capabilities and challenges and reviews of legal and regulatory frameworks. Based on identified gaps and shortcomings, CAAi develops tailored training programs and recommendations and implementation deliverables to address those. In Sierra Leone, for example, the collaboration between CAAi and Sierra Leone CAA “helped establish an autonomous CAA organisational structure covering the scope of the State’s safety oversight responsibilities”61 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 65 Discussion their safety deficiencies due to insufficient financial, technical and/or qualified human Pertinent questions resources”63. • Would a specialized full-time employee be more cost-effective than engaging consultants on an ad hoc basis? For more information, see also • Who will conduct audits and evaluate WFP (2019) Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) maintenance schedules, regulations, and Training. Report on the Regional Drone Training for Central America. Rome: WFP — Overview of permit paperwork, and what does it take WFP’s Let’s FLY, Let’s MAP, and Let’s COORDINATE to assess this? training program and lessons learned from its • What are the required levels of training, implementation with officials from six Central cost, and complexities? American countries Dedicated drone teams within a CAA may 2.2 FIT-FOR-PURPOSE be an avenue to ensure that regulations REGULATIONS and processes account for drones’ Themes: Regulations latest developments and specialist Involvement: CAA or other designated requirements. For example, India’s Civil authority looking to develop fit for purpose Aviation Requirements (CAR) called for regulations and international organizations establishing “a Drone Directorate within such as a RSOO to support CAAs the Directorate General of Civil Aviation. Timeline: The development and refinement The Drone Directorate may issue necessary of fit-for-purpose regulations is an ongoing guidelines, which may be updated faster, process that can occur in parallel with other as the needs of a nascent drone industry activities and may start as early as initial differ from those of the mature Civil considerations to allow the operation of UAS Aviation Industry”62 to account for the rapid within a country's airspace. development inherent to the drone sector. During our interview and survey outreach some CAAs in Africa reported that they have Background two or three dedicated people working on Similar to most other regulatory regimes, drones alongside an intern or placement each country has the jurisdiction to adopt, student from the Morocco aviation school, develop, amend, or repeal aviation-related where drone content is covered. The regulations. The goal of regulations is to development of such teams and undertaking set legal “frameworks that enable socially of broader activities also represent an and economically important use cases, while opportunity for promoting gender inclusion. mitigating negative impacts, securing the skies from unlawful actors and enforcing Establishing a dedicated team dealing the policies they do create”64. Regulations, with permits, registration, inspections, rules, and guidance, when promulgated, auditing, airworthiness assessments, can relate either directly to UAS or UTM and so forth often requires additional or be indistinctly associated with ancillary funding and support, however. For many ones, from privacy and data protection to CAAs, inspections and other elements liability, insurance, security, environmental unique to approvals for drones are not part protection, dangerous goods transport, radio of the core business of CAA inspectors. It frequency spectrum, and so forth. Table 2.1 raises concerns over who will pay for CAA highlights common elements governing the staff to review documentation, manage use of UAS. The responsibility for developing permits, and conduct audits. RSOOs have regulations, rules, and guidance and a mandate to support member states “in administering and controlling civil aviation providing safety oversight and resolving within a country typically falls on a national Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 66 aviation authority. Additionally, service “The civil aviation authority is providers for aerodromes, air navigation, responsible for, inter alia, ensuring and so forth can further support their work aviation safety and protecting the public and that of the department of Ministry from aviation hazards. Operators of for Aviation. The ICAO supports national aircraft, whether manned or unmanned, governments in developing their regulations are likewise responsible for operating by facilitating alignment through the safely. The rapid rise of UAS raises new publishing of Standards and Recommended challenges that were not considered in Practices (SARPs). historic aviation regulatory frameworks. Before devising any regulatory framework for UAS operations, the regulator should understand and assess the UAS situation in his or her State.” 65 Table 2.1 — Common elements of UAS regulations66 Type Element Importance to UAS operations Operations Beyond Visual Line of Enables cargo and large-scale mapping and Sight (BVLOS) surveillance operations besides representing a step toward urban area operations Autonomous Flight Allow for increasingly automated operations, from scheduled and repetitive surveying of pipelines to routine surveillance missions Altitude restrictions Mitigation of air risk and supporting BVLOS operations in uncontrolled airspace Flights near or above (groups of) people. It is integral to urban and public safety use cases and certain surveillance applications Airspace integration Enables UAS operations in controlled airspaces and interaction with conventional Air Traffic Management (ATM) and aviation. Operator Operator certification Increase safety through ensuring operators are trained and comply with regulations, maintenance requirements, and so forth through regular auditing. UAS Remote identification Enable law enforcement and ATC to remotely platform identify and track UAS during operations for increased safety, compliance and to enable UTM Propulsion Create certification standards for UAS looking certification to operate using battery-powered or hydrogen propulsion and opportunity to promote green technologies. Airworthiness Create airworthiness standards for UAS platforms, certification such as weight restrictions. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 67 The inherent complexity of aviation Whereas regulations are legally binding necessitates the use of a leveled and prescribe “rules of conduct, approach in its regulation. The need for a standards and other requirements of balanced approach to aviation regulations general applications” that operators is universally recognized. It has been must meet, advisory documents set out implemented or recommended as a three- acceptable means of complying with the level approach for UAS regulation by the hard law regulations68 and associated European Union, European Union Aviation implementing rules. EASA, for example, Safety Agency (EASA), and the ICAO UAS provides operators with the opportunity to Model Regulations. This approach ranges propose Alternative Means of Compliance from “hard law” with binding rules (i.e., (AltMoC) to showcase abidance with the regulations) to “soft law” (i.e., non-binding implementing rules or with regulations in standards) to afford certain flexibility67. cases in which no associated AMC exists69. AltMoCs may also include the proposition of new standard scenarios (STSs) (see 3.1) as Level 1 (Basic or primary regulations) alternatives to those published by EASA. Outlining “basic principles”73 defining a CAAs Aviation safety regulations should provide competencies and essential requirements. focused methods for evaluating the submitted documentation by prospective operators to grant or reject flight and Level 2 (Implementing acts, rules to Level 1) operation proposals. The methods for safety regulation fall under two categories: Outlining Civil Aviation Regulations, defining Prescriptive or performance-based (see airspace rules and Safety Regulations, defining Box 2.2). Although performance-based standards underpinning airworthiness, licenses, regulations do not specify specific means and ratings of personnel involved in operations, ATC, dangerous goods regulations, and other of achieving compliance, they set goals safety topics. Level 2 also involves both Manuals that allow alternative ways of achieving of Standards (MOSs), outlining uniform compliance — for example, “something shall specifications and standards applications, and prevent people from falling over the edge of Civil Aviation Orders (CAOs), and outlining the cliff.” With prescriptive regulations, the technical details and requirements to complement specific means of achieving compliance are requirements set in the regulations. mandated, for example, “you shall install a 1 meter high rail at the edge of the cliff”70. Level 3 (Advisory documents) The Joint Authorities for Rulemaking on Unmanned Systems (JARUS) has developed Including Acceptable Means of Compliance a risk-based categorization for UAS (AMC) outlining how to comply with specific operations to account for the increasing implementing rules and associated Guidance complexity of regulatory frameworks Material. Advisory documents may also and risk management methodologies include other advisory publications to be read (see 3.3). The risk-based oversight (RBO) in conjunction with the referenced regulations approach applies rules proportionate to to explain their intent and provide context for the regulation and how operators may apply it. the risk profile of an operation and the These may include Advisory Circulars associated safety performance of the operator71. The with MOSs or Safety Regulations; Civil Aviation profile depends on the specific nature and Advisory Publications associated with CAOs or complexities of the operation and proposed Civil Aviation Regulations; and Airworthiness UAS platform. The RBO approach stipulates Advisory Circulars as guidance to CAOs. that low-risk operations such as a light quadcopter flying within VLOS, close to Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 68 the ground but away from other people, use of performance indicators as a way to should attract less oversight than higher-risk evaluate risks of operations: operations such as those above people (see 3.1). Safety performance considers traditional “The concept of “performance” conveys aviation safety methods, including Safety the idea of tangibly measuring the Management Systems (SMS), Emergency health of the system under scrutiny Response Plan (ERP), ConOps paperwork by and ultimately assessing its overall prospective operators, and past certification performance. Performance indicators, or oversight. The risk-based framework as a means to measure, may specifically provides regulatory strategies for all UAS help to either identify risks within that and all operational environments, with system or measure safety risks or considerations ranging from aircraft design, monitoring actions mitigating these risks. production, maintenance, operational This means that a PBO can also support approval, pilot competency, regulatory the identification of areas of greater enforcement, and safety promotion. risk and serve the risk assessment and According to EASA, performance-based mitigation exercise. This is where PBO oversight (PBO) and RBO converge in the meets RBO.”72 Box 2.2 — Prescriptive and performance-based UAS regulations Regulations can represent “prescriptive rules that specify what needs to be done and how, or performance-based rules that specify what the outcome should be instead of how to achieve it”74. Prescriptive regulations Performance-based regulations Description Provides detailed, rigid requirements Provides a comprehensive process or such as the weight, size, or speed of framework of goals focussed on risk-based the UAS, making them more applicable trade-offs. Such a framework helps identify to regulating technical systems. They “general characteristics for low-risk flights may also prescribe the operation’s that can be easily approved, while also altitude or geographical limitations defining a framework for approval that that an operator cannot exceed leverages rapidly evolving and data-driven without exemptions. safety analysis”75 and risk management. The modes of performance-based rules “adopted in the EU are a combination of objective-based rules (only the objective is defined, not the means to achieve it) and process-based rules (specific organizational requirements and/or processes are prescribed as enablers of the desired outcome). Objective-based rules relate closely to the operational environment and procedures”76. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 69 Prescriptive regulations Performance-based regulations Advantage Providing exact specifications for The flexibility afforded by setting goals compliance makes it easy for CAAs allows for evaluating all types of UAS or other designated authorities to operations regardless of platform identify whether an “operator meets all characteristics and operational parameters requirements within a particular type of resulting in support for applications that proposal”77. would be extremely difficult to approve under a prescriptive regime. Disadvantage Considering the rapid technological Potential uncertainty in how to comply development of UAS platforms, with objective requirements and account prescriptive approaches may stifle for inconsistencies in implementation innovation, limit the scope for approval can slow down the approval of lower- of medium- or higher-risk applications, risk operations that are easy to approve cause uncertainty for “accessing under a prescriptive regime80. airspace beyond the specifically authorized operational parameters”78 and potentially reduce the “the traceability between the prescriptive regulation and the contextual factors […], which may lead to misleading compliance demonstration”79 over time. Ultimately, “Most regulations apply a mix of performance-based and prescriptive approaches, and often lean towards prescriptive practices. […]. The EU has adopted a generally performance-based approach for operations in the Specific operations category. In Africa, only Ghana and Rwanda currently accept the SORA, a performance-based risk assessment procedure developed by JARUS as an acceptable means of compliance for certain operations types. Generally speaking, prescriptive approaches seem to be more common across African countries.”81 Discussion Each CAA should have a clear structure for publishing its latest regulations, Pertinent questions implementing rules, and advisory • How will CAAs ensure dissemination information regardless of approach. and awareness of the latest regulations, Furthermore, clear guidance on registering, implementing rules, and advisory applying for permits, dealing with customs information? procedures, spectrum bands, and so • Can CAAs identify UAS operations forth should be available for international that pose low enough risk to safety, UAS service providers looking to fly in security, and privacy so as not to require a designated country or for local drone approvals? startups and operators. In reality, however, many websites, email addresses, or phone Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 70 contacts are out of date. Similarly, language level UAS operations currently exist85. barriers for multilingual engagement may The development or the amendment of persist, making it challenging to obtain the SARPs can take as much as five to seven latest information and find correct contact years, with global implementation and points within government agencies. An harmonization taking even longer. There is up-to-date, national register of UAS pilots, an increasing demand for ICAO to consider their certification, and recertification could such low-level airspace operations, however. improve oversight capabilities for CAAs or In 2007, ICAO established the UAS study other designated authorities and provide group (UASSG) to support regulation and them with an easy avenue for disseminating guidance development; in 2014, the ICAO the latest information on regulations or RPAS Panel replaced the UASSG. Its scope implementing rules and advisory information. is to facilitate “safe, secure and efficient integration of [UAS …] into non-segregated Regulators may also want to determine airspace and aerodromes”86 at the same which UAS and operations impose too time as maintaining existing safety levels for insignificant a risk to safety, security, conventional aviation. The ICAO UAS model and privacy to regulate them and burden regulations stemming from the group’s work oversight and enforcement. Studies have “are meant to offer model language for demonstrated that UAS with a maximum States to facilitate the establishment of UAS take-off mass (MTOM) of less than 250g, regulations,” with states having the option to often classified as “nano”, might pose no “adapt the model regulations, as appropriate, risk of severe or long-term injury in case of a to meet their specific needs”87. crash and have no present risks to security82. Although studies are ongoing, preliminary Yet most UAS platforms are unable findings suggest that a platform’s overall to comply with the Convention on ability to absorb and dissipate energy in a International Civil Aviation88. non-destructive manner rather than platform The inability to comply highlighted the need weight alone affects the impact severity of a for ICAO to address the increasing number UAS. In any case, “harmless” operations with of UAS operating in low-level airspace that nano platforms are not generally considered could conflict with conventional aviation as aviation. Aside from the point of sale a matter of urgency. Thus, member states education via do’s and don’t’s on leaflets, the and the aviation industry asked ICAO to basic principle of “No person may operate go beyond the conventional international an aircraft in a careless or reckless manner instrument flight rules (IFR) framework and so as to endanger the life or property of develop a global baseline of provisions another”83 applies. In some cases, pilots need and guidance material for the proper to observe additional local restrictions such harmonization of UAS regulations. In their as maximum operating heights, remaining UTM principles, ICAO stipulates that: within VLOS, or minimum age. Beyond impact damage, regulators should consider the “UAS operators must prove potential security and privacy implications of compliance with a minimum set of small platforms. In Europe, for example, UAS safety standards and be operationally operators need to register themselves if their and legally accountable if routine UAS platform is “equipped with a sensor able operations are to be accepted by to capture personal data”84 (see 2.8, 3.3). the public. Each of these issues depends on the harmonization Whereas ICAO provides SARPs for of risk- and performance-based international operations or missions regulations and oversight, and should certified to a conventional aircraft include consideration of emerging level, no SARPs for autonomous or low- technological solutions”89. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 71 Compared with conventional aviation, the For more information, see also rapid development of UAS technologies ADF (2021a). A systematic review of UAS regulations further renders traditional approaches and rules in African Union Member States. of granting airworthiness certification — Review of regulations across African Union impractical, in many cases. Instead, member states as there are discrepancies in the availability and design of regulations across certification processes for UAS “will demand countries and regions globally suitably flexible and responsive regulatory Droneregulations.info (2021). Global Drone approval models that are performance- Regulations Database. — Summary of current UA based, supportive of innovation and which regulations across the globe can develop the knowledge and skill sets of Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). Assessing both regulators and industry in parallel with Feasibility and Readiness for Cargo Drones in Health Supply Chains. A Guide to Conducting the technology changes”90. Such processes Scoping Trips in Low- and Middle-Income may include CAAs proposing airworthiness Countries. Washington: USAID — Guideline to criteria that manufacturers must meet to support planning for cargo operation setup prove their designs’ reliability, controllability, ICAO (2016, Dec 7). The ICAO UAS Toolkit. Helpful and safety. Potential principles to guide tools to assist States in realizing effective design include but are not limited to91: UAS operational guidance and safe domestic operations. ICAO: Montreal • Safety by Design — All aspects from ICAO (2020, Jun 23). ICAO Model UAS Regulations. initial design and manufacturing to ICAO: Montreal — It provides a model text for refurbishment and repair follow safety the regulation of UAS, that states are free to adapt and manufacturing principles prescribed to their own needs and choice of regulatory level within aviation regulations. (primary, secondary, and so on). Note: Model • Security by Design — The design of regulations do not supersede or replace Annexes to the Chicago convention. hardware (i.e., physical aspects of a UAS) Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India and software reflect end-to-end security (2019, Jan). Drone Ecosystem Policy Roadmap. considerations to ensure “continuous — Highlights elements and considerations for the monitoring, tracking, tamper proofing, airworthiness assessment of UAS platforms. trusted hardware design, sense and avoid Union Economique et monétaire Ouest Africaine capabilities, and standardized emergency (UEMOA) (2019). Annexe Au Reglement D’Execution Relatif A l’Exploitation Des Aeronefs responses”92. Telepilotes — Model text for UAS regulations for • Privacy by Design — The UAS has features french speaking CAAs across Africa (although it that aid in protecting privacy, which are does not align with ICAO UAS Model Regulations) enabled by default. WEF (2018, Dec). Advanced Drone Operations toolkit: Accelerating the Drone Revolution. Geneva: WEF In addition to meeting airworthiness — Comparing real-world approaches to enable drone regulations criteria, “each UAS should have specifications for the environmental conditions that are applicable to its operation. The manufacturer shall determine the limitations for operating in varied weather conditions and include the information in the manufacturer’s instructions and limitations. UAS built for testing or home-built models must likewise possess documentation that specify environmental conditions or limitations.”93 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 72 2.3 HARMONIZATION AND certification and training, and so forth to INTEROPERABILITY enable interoperability. • Interoperability — The ability “of two or Themes: Regulations and capacity building more networks, systems, components or Involvement: CAAs or other designated applications working together through authority and International organizations exchanges of information between them, such as a RSOO looking to harmonize fit without any restriction, and with the for purpose regulations toward achieving ability to use the exchanged information interoperability for technical or operational purposes without any restriction”97. Background Discussion over the use of standardization Although the development of regulatory versus harmonization remains ongoing, regimes falls under the jurisdiction however. Whereas standardization implies of each country, certain levels of uniformity, harmonization means a move harmonization are necessary to support toward choice from similar approaches. international operations and movement. When considering rapidly evolving Global interoperability through harmonized technology such as UAS, harmonization frameworks is essential to support has the benefit of providing member states international aviation, as non-harmonized with an opportunity to adopt recommended certifications, training, and other aspects practices appropriate to their circumstances would likely ground global travel and trade by without placing undue constraints on local air. Solutions for ATM and communications, regulations and practices98. navigations and surveillance should be adaptable and compatible to support “The isolated development of legislation seamless operations and deployment across and rules could result in a situation different regions. Similarly, harmonized allowing one UAS operation while training and certification requirements would preventing it in an adjacent country, allow operators to conduct operations in even using the same UAS for the same different regions without facing regulatory concept of operation. Research in the approval bottlenecks. In reality, however, EU shows that incompatibility hampers there is a general lack of standards and the growing civilian UAS business, harmonization across regulatory frameworks as numerous different technical for UASs in Africa and elsewhere94. requirements need to be followed depending on the location, and UAS rules The conceptual goal of the International can vary between states within a country. Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is Operators and manufacturers of the to achieve global harmonization and largest number of platforms, generally interoperability through the provision of smaller UA under 25 kg, but specifically SARPs95. This vision extends to an integrated, those less than 4 kg, have petitioned harmonized, and globally “interoperable for consistency across UAS/drone ATM system for all users during all phases regulations. Commercial off-the-shelf of flight, that meets agreed levels of products can then be sold worldwide”99. safety, provides for optimum economic operations, is environmentally sustainable At the same time as standardization is and meets national security requirements”96. vital to ensure international aviation Harmonization and interoperability are safety and security, which relies on cross- broadly considered as: border interoperability, harmonization • Harmonization — A process resulting in is the key to opening new markets for a similarity of approaches to the design of UAS operations. Despite the demand for regulatory frameworks, requirements for UAS operators to serve multiple markets, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 73 opportunities for training are scarce, and their skills internationally — assuming differing regulations across countries serve harmonization of labor laws for such as administrative bottlenecks. skillsets. • Harmonized training and certification • Harmonization of regulations, training, requirements would allow training and certification can make it easier facilities to develop standard for operators to service different curriculums and allow pilots to apply regions while also addressing safety, Box 2.3 — The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) approach to harmonization The European Commission promulgated rules to harmonize national UAS regulations across all European Union member states to ensure safe and efficient scaling of UAS operations and traffic across the region. This harmonization was designed as a stepped- approach: 1. Oct. 2019 — Implementing rules (947) and Delegated Acts (945) define the subdivision of UAS operations into three categories: Open, Specific, and Certified, and the associated thresholds among these categories. Their publication set in motion a transitional period that, although initially delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic, entered into force on December 31, 2020101. 2. Nov 2019 — Release of advisory documents including Guidance Material and Acceptable Means of Compliance, allowing the use of the Specific Operations Risk Assessment (SORA) and Standard Scenarios (STS’s) as harmonized approaches to safety risk management for UAS operations. 3. Mar. 2020 — Publishing of an opinion on U-Space, the single European Un- crewed Aircraft Systems Traffic Management (UTM). 4. April 2020 — Publishing of rules for safe drone operations in Europe’s cities by EASA followed by proposed standards for light drone certification in July. Certification of larger UAS had previously been prescriptive, relying on detailed technical specifications derived from conventional aircraft with special provisions for UAS specific aspects. Compliance with basic technical requirements is demonstrated by affixing the Conformité Européenne (CE) marking and UAS class to each product at the point of sale and platform in operation. Each manufacturer that demonstrates conformity with the assessment procedures thus safely reduces the burden on CAAs and enforcement agencies to conduct case-by-case approval processes for every flight. These steps allow lower-risk operations to occur with free movement of pilots and UAS platforms among member states for domestic operations. However, it does not permit cross-border operations as those are highly complex international operations, attracting ICAO SARPs, considering UAS operating similar to conventional aircraft, and invoking customs considerations. The UAS industry and others initially assumed that cargo UAS over urban areas would not be classed as certified operations. However, EASA changed direction in 2020 before publishing final drafts of STS’s, instead deferring to certification through airworthiness. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 74 accountability, and sustainability concerns stepped or phased approaches. A stepped due to a reduction in the complexity of approach to harmonization would involve diverse sets of regulations, implementing increasing harmonization in targeted areas, rules, and guidance material. regionally, continent-wide, and then with • The improved coordination of spectrum other large trading blocs such as EASA in the bands for UAS operations would further European Union or the FAA in the United alleviate concerns over spectrum States. A phased approach to harmonizing interference in border areas or across regulations would provide participating international borders (see Annex C). countries with a roadmap of parts they can The European Experience (see Box 2.3) adapt when they are ready. Incorporating provides an example of a harmonized drones into master plans for transport or approach to regulating UAS. Although the aviation can improve efforts to integrate European experience and the ICAO Model diverse airspace users and ensure roadmaps UAS Regulations100 provide a starting point for consider adequate support through the consideration, they may not reflect the needs allocation of resources for the development of individual states or regions. and the deployment of a diverse range of operational environments and UAS use- The alignment of competing interests cases102. Harmonization could involve a and national requirements underpinning roadmap for increasing the complexity of harmonization processes toward permitted operations at the same time as interoperability requires consultation and retaining acceptable levels of risk: 1. VLOS requests 2. BVLOS requests Fly UAS including one-off applications, One-off applications in segregated minor training for agency staff, and airspace or areas with low ground risk, the application of STS operations only. reliable connectivity, and test corridors. 3. Concurrent VLOS 4. Considerations over lower-risk operations and BVLOS flights Legislate the exemption of lower-risk operations from the overarching Increase complexity at the regulatory approach based on operator declaration to reduce the burden same time as retaining on CAAs and industry. Continued assessment of all higher-risk operations, adequate spacing and including heavier cargo, flights over populated areas, and so forth, using segregation between them. the SORA methodology or similar safety and risk management approaches. 5. Complex, segregated operations Considerations over approval of UAS operations nearer to urban areas or controlled aerodromes, cross- border flights, transport of dangerous goods, increased number of flights in close proximity, and some automated flights and more than one UAS per remote pilot. 6. Full integration, interoperability, and harmonization Two-way movement of operations, full cross-border compatibility, Urban or Advanced Air Mobility, operations over urban areas, full integration of conventional and un-crewed operations in the same airspace, at the same time as allowing all complexities of operations. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 75 Discussion 2.4 AIRSPACE MANAGEMENT Pertinent Questions Themes: Flight Operations • Which elements of regulations can be Involvement: CAA or other designated harmonized, and what should be left to authority and Air Navigation Service Provider participating states? (ANSP) to manage national airspace • Who will oversee harmonization efforts in different regions? Background Standard aviation English phraseology is UAS can operate outside of conventional crucial to effective verbal communication aviation’s traditional point-to-point and reducing ambiguity in aviation model, thus “enabling a more dynamic and should be complemented by plain- use of airspace”108 and complicating language communications in English considerations of where, when, and how when necessary. Difficulties in plain to approve operations. This flexibility stems language communications between ATC and from reduced requirements for take-off flight crew have caused serious incidents and landing infrastructure and operations and accidents in the past, prompting in lower levels of airspace that introduce ICAO to introduce a language proficiency additional considerations over ground risk system for communications among (see 3.1). operational personnel, including ATC or Flight Information System and pilots103. Ultimately, most UAS operations will likely Outside of those communications, it is up follow conventional aviation and occur to policymakers to decide which language within predefined air corridors, which to use. In Africa, 22 African Union member may be segregated from or integrated states are Francophone, five are Portuguese into controlled airspace. A Drone Corridor speaking, and the remainder Anglophone is “a segregated airspace defined by the with some Arabic. Within ICAO, the Language appropriate authorities in consultation with and Publications Services is responsible for the airspace designers to keep commercial producing ICAO documents and publications UAS operations out of the non-segregated in all UN official languages (i.e., Arabic, airspace in which manned aircrafts operate.”109 Chinese, English, French, Russian, and It forms a standard UAS route depicted on Spanish) per the requisite quality standards. charts, Notice to Airmen (NOTAM), and so on As of March 2021, the “ICAO UAS Model to create awareness of operations among regulations”104 is only available in English. other airspace users. A CAA can introduce The “ICAO UAS Toolkit”105 and “U-Aid. UAS for drone operations into existing airspace and Humanitarian Aid and Emergency Response airway management through: Guidance”106 are only available in English, a. Segregation — Airspace is designated whereas the ICAO RPAS Manual107 was for operations with access restrictions for translated into all six languages on initial other airspace users known as restricted publication in 2015. or atypical airspace110. It requires operations to remain within the assigned airspace and safety buffers surrounding For more information, see also it. Procedures are needed in an airspace EASA (2018). Introduction of a regulatory framework for the operation of unmanned aircraft systems violation by another party entering or in the ‘open’ and ‘specific’ categories (Opinion No the operation escaping the segregated 01/2018). — EASA rules for the open and specific UAS operations (see 3.2) airspace. EC (2016, June 1). Commission takes steps to b. Integration — UAS operations take modernise EU’s standardisation policy place in the same airspace as other (MEMO/16/1963) — Provides background, context, and explanation to the European approach to (conventional) operations. ICAO asserts harmonizing regulations. that this approach should in no way Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 76 increase safety risks; however, no airspace types). Regardless of the approach, separation minima or segregation NOTAMs, which can be supported with guidelines exist among UAS and other Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) operations. Instead, the extent of supplements if needed, should be published separation or segregation depends on the to inform other airspace users of potential level of risk of the UAS operation — it is drone activity in the specified airspace. Such generally lower for VLOS, yet challenging NOTAMs should cover airspace dimensions, for BVLOS operations and represents a hours of activation, activity heights and work in progress. altitudes, and contact details such as phone The ADF assessed both airspace options: number or Very High Frequency (VHF), integration during the LVC in Tanzania and alongside ATC procedures for activation segregation at the LKC in Rwanda. Regulatory and deactivation. In controlled airspace, support for integration was not available at the CAA should broadcast the activation the LVC, with flights taking place in natural air and deactivation of temporary airspace traffic gaps. At the LKC, extensive work with restrictions via the area VHF frequency to the CAA precipitated the setup of restricted allow involved parties to monitor this during airspace based on the JARUS semantic model operations. An alternative exists in temporary (see Annex B and Section 3.2 for further airspace releases; here, an agreement is discussions on the role of airspace in safety made between the airspace custodian to risk management). allow an individual (one-off) BVLOS flight under agreed-upon procedures and away ATC will need to either continue to from other airspace users by flying only manage or release the airspace to a during gaps in conventional air traffic. This controlling authority in the case of airspace is then temporarily restricted to integrating (a TFR) within controlled other airspace users, such as other UAS airspace (see Figure 2.1 for an overview of operations and conventional aviation. Figure 2.1: Operations in the context of airspace classes111 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 77 Segregated corridors represent Discussion opportunities for testing and to support Pertinent questions decision-making across various areas • What is the more appropriate airspace relating to drone operations. management option, open (integrated) or 1. Use-case testing — Corridors have closed (segregated)? played an essential role in testing • How will test corridors be funded, and the feasibility and scalability of what is the incentive for potential users? safely conducting different drone applications, including mapping Such corridors commonly face scalability and medical commodity delivery, by and funding challenges, however. As providing a real-world environment tests are often limited in duration, it is hard and challenges (see 1.1). to generate a long-lasting impact from 2. Sensitization and community activities within a corridor. Because drone acceptance — Drone tests in corridors are usually located in remote corridors can help identify the areas to address ground risk challenges, best strategies and approaches for they have difficulties demonstrating urban local community sensitization and land administration use cases (see 1.1), for stakeholder management (see 1.3). example. Increasing market opportunities 3. Operational testing and technology such as the potential for progressive scale- demonstration — Drone up of operations outside dedicated corridors manufacturers, service providers, is likely to increase the chance of attracting and researchers benefit from stress- genuine agencies and customers. Most testing their platforms, evaluating corridor users are likely to be international drone compliance with regulatory companies, which will need to raise requirements, and exploring various considerable funds to support logistics technological and operational aspects and operations. They may be dismayed by of their solutions. Drone corridors potential fees charged for corridor access. have proven helpful for technical tests However, potential revenue streams for (flight performance) and operating training exist in corridor usage, as institutions aspects, including BVLOS ConOps, might settle within the corridor to set up standard operating and emergency training centers (see 2.1, 3.4). procedures, UTM, and similar. Corridors can also support vendor or service provider prequalification, For more information, see also testing, and technical demonstrations Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, VillageReach, GIZ, and UNICEF (2019, Dec). (see 1.5). Malawi Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Toolkit: 4. Regulation — It enables regulators A Guideline for Drone Service Providers, to test their regulatory procedures Humanitarian and Research Fields. — Summary and coordination mechanisms within of the Humanitarian Drone Corridor in Kasungu, segregated airspace and ensure that Malawi for drone service providers looking to regulations are fit-for-purpose in both operate there. FAA (n.d.). ALC-42: Airspace, Special Use Airspace theory and practice (see 2.2). and TFRs. — A basic introduction to airspace The benefits of segregated drone corridors classification and types of Controlled Airspace are undeniable, as they offer a safe UPDWG (2019, May 22). Technical and Logistical environment to evaluate drone applications, Challenges Encountered During Test Flights in regulatory mechanisms, and operational Malawi. Presentation — Details lessons learned practices for the subsequent scale-up in from the implementation of the Humanitarian Drone Corridor in Kasungu, Malawi non-segregated airspace. Similar corridors to Malawi (see Box 2.4) exist in Sierra Leone, Kazakhstan, and elsewhere. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 78 Box 2.4 — Segregated Airspace, The Malawi Humanitarian Drone Testing Corridor UA Established in early 2017, Malawi’s Humanitarian Drone Testing Corridor is the first of its kind on the continent. It serves as an experimental technological “sandbox” and open to companies, academic entities, and other drone industry participants — enabling them to test specific drone solutions within a humanitarian and development context. This testing helps the Malawian government, UNICEF, and other development partners gather the evidence and learn how they can use UAS technology safely and at scale to benefit the people of Malawi. The Corridor is located two hours drive from Malawi’s capital Lilongwe and covers around 5000km2 of the Kasungu district. The corridor is a circular shape with a 40km radius (80km diameter) and a permitted altitude of 1312 feet (400m) above ground level. Kasungu aerodrome, with its 1200m long tarmac runway, is at the center of the corridor. Kasungu district is home to several communities, villages, and towns with a total population of ~800,000, the majority of which resides in rural areas. Before establishing the Corridor in Kasungu, UNICEF undertook an extensive community sensitization campaign to help familiarize local people and authorities with the use of drones (see 1.3). That campaign has helped provide information about the risks and benefits of using drones for medical delivery, mapping, environmental monitoring and other applications. Communities, health facilities, terrain, obstacles, critical infrastructures such as dams, power stations, high-power transmission, and mobile network coverage has been extensively mapped to provide crucial risk management data to prospective corridor users. The understanding of network coverage and provision (see 2.6) alongside knowledge on community and facilities locations on the ground is crucial to enable adequate safety and risk management (see 3.1) and mission planning (see 4.1). Prospective corridor users looking to conduct long-range BVLOS testing requires Department of Civil Aviation approval (see 3.3), possession of a valid UAS pilots license, 3rd party liability insurance (see 2.11), a detailed safety and risk management (see 3.1) and ConOps (see 3.2), and needs to adhere to UNICEF innovation principles and address one or more UNICEF Global Goals for Every Child. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 79 2.5 DRONEPORTS Operational requirements should determine the number and location of Themes: Flight operations droneports, as they have implications Involvement: UAS service provider, on the performance of the droneport end-users such as a postal service or itself and broader cost-effectiveness of Ministries in charge of Agriculture, operations overall. Depending on the size Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, or Health, of the service area, droneports can be set or local government authorities and the up in a centralized or decentralized manner. private sector using the droneport for In a centralized approach, one droneport flight operations and ancillary services; would serve the entire area, reducing capital telecommunications regulator and mobile cost for droneports, but requiring more network operators to provide connectivity powerful drones capable of long-range flights at high speeds. In a decentralized approach, Background operations would be split across multiple Droneports (sometimes synonymous to droneports serving as distribution hubs for Drone Operating Centers) represent the flight operations and allowing for quicker interface between earth and sky and service times and the use of lower-range UAS. are fundamental to safe and sustainable Identified needs, scale of demand, and the high-frequency UAS operations. Their combination of capital cost, operating, and fixed locations enable transport and mobility other costs (see 1.2) heavily drive decisions services and provide a convening location over a centralized versus decentralized for training, testing, and raising community approach (see 1.1). Regardless of the chosen awareness as a civic space112. Given model, the operation of droneports near established demand and if well designed and populated areas and critical infrastructure executed, a network of droneports can be necessitate considerations over ground risk profitable, create employment opportunities, mitigations. Safe operations of droneports share value and provide iconic and futuristic require adequate physical space on the civic buildings in communities that lack ground and three-dimensional airspace significant architecture. As the concept is surrounding them as safety buffers to reduce new and implementation depends on local air and ground risk (see 3.1). contexts, there is no template of a “perfect” droneport. Nonetheless, droneports need At a minimum, droneports should allow to provide some universal key features, for essential functions, including power regardless of an operations scale. charging or refueling, safe landing and take- off, maintenance, repair, and overhaul. Long haul deliveries “would require Depending on the length of the operation, drone ports being built as public they can either be set up as temporary infrastructure, and development or permanent bases and utilize existing initiatives being embedded into infrastructure such as buildings or airstrips. At regional infrastructure — in the a minimum, droneports should have: same way we are currently benefiting • Accessibility to the businesses or from public roads, private telephone communities it is looking to serve may connections and internet service be crucial for resupplying a distribution providers in remote places. Corporate center. In addition to accessibility from an interests would have to take the infrastructure point, sites in the middle fiduciary risk: governments/ NGOs of a jungle or on beaches, for example, would then only have to purchase (or may prove inaccessible during specific rent) the drones” Jonathan Ledgard113 weather scenarios. • Space for take-off and landing should be free from sand and excess dust where Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 80 possible. The LKC flying operations, for maintaining drones on-site, especially in example, have shown that too smooth case of particularly remote or hard-to-reach a surface can lead to false pressure and droneports, as damaged drones reaching altitude reading when the UAS lands. these facilities may depend on such services • A building with basic facilities such as for continued operation. These facilities electricity, fresh water, and a washroom would need to include tools for basic are necessary for full-time operations. mechanical and electrical repair and some It can also provide shelter during rainy digital fabrication capabilities, such as the seasons, provide space for storing on-site 3D printing of spare drone parts. equipment, and repair or maintenance The inclusion of such equipment within work. droneports could then have the bonus of • A consistent power supply and giving community members access to these reliable power grids is essential for revolutionary technologies in a public setting UAS operations with battery-powered and offer opportunities for expanding local UAS (see 1.5) and to power an UTM maintenance and manufacturing capabilities. system (see 2.7). Generators or solar panels can be appropriate solutions in Discussion areas with frequent power cuts, whereas The establishment of droneports will Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) generally follow a four-phase approach of units can prevent damages from sudden 1) site identification and assessment, 2) power outages. planning, 3) construction, and 4) operation • Connectivity and reliable internet of droneports114. access are necessary to remotely pilot 1. Site identification and assessment aircraft, download location maps, make — This phase helps determine suitable software updates to UAS platforms, and locations for the droneport setup reliably run UTM systems. and should include an environmental • Security and perimeter fences reduce and safety assessment of the site. the ground risk of potential harm to Droneports can be set up in urban, individuals while providing safe storage peri-urban, or rural areas depending for equipment at the droneport. on the underlying use case and its Community sensitization (see 1.3) can associated service requirements, goals, help reduce risks of theft and malicious and aims. Rural, urban and peri-urban damage to the operations, reducing the areas each come with their caveats, need for private security to help guard from accessibility and ease of access equipment at night. to facilities such as power grids and • A clear view of the surrounding airspace network connectivity, to implications to detect potential hazards such as birds, on operational approval (see 3.3) owing helicopters, or non-cooperative drones, to increases in ground risk to people which could collide with a drone (see and infrastructure (see 3.1). air risk in 3.1) and may not show up on 2. Planning — Local surveyors and the UTM system used for situational drones flown VLOS can help render awareness and risk mitigation. accurate models and map sites with • Warehousing and logistics facilities exact GPS coordinates. Drone service if distributing and receiving medical providers will need this information commodities such as blood, vaccines, or for route and planning and safe lab samples, pharmacy supplies, which BVLOS operations with remote take- may also require additional refrigeration. off and landing. The necessary level In addition to these features, it is an absolute of sophistication beyond the chosen necessity that droneports contain the tools distribution system’s requirements, and resources necessary for repairing and technology, and use case (such Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 81 as cold-chain) is largely personal 2.6 C2 LINKS AND SPECTRUM preference. A droneport could range from a simple tarp to a futuristic- Themes: Flight operations, data, and looking structure, such as the Norman connectivity Foster Foundation’s vision. Involvement: UAS service provider 3. Construction — Depending on coordinates with the CAA or other designated accessibility and plans for the authority to request frequencies for and droneport extensive work may be avoid interference issues during drone required. This would include bringing operations. Telecommunications regulator in equipment and materials from will allocate and manage radio frequencies. outside the area or even outside the country, including some specialist Background equipment such as solar panels, USPs, C2 links support flight and flight weather stations, or relay antennas. management by connecting the drone and 4. Operation — Depending on whether remote pilot station (RPS). In addition to insourcing or outsourcing is the providing a means to control the drone, they business model chosen (see 1.4, provide data links for sending mission-critical 2.12), the droneport and operations information, navigation, and communication management may fall within the needs from identification and authentication drone service provider’s remit. to positioning throughout the flight. Link Routine site surveys can help identify performance, the health of the C2 link can be potential risks as surrounding areas affected by signal strength and interference develop further. issues, among others. Operations commonly rely on unlicensed spectrum in industrial, For more information, see also scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands Norman Foster Foundation (n.d.). Droneport. with the option to extend the radio line of — Summary of Norman Foster’s Imagination of a sight via relay stations when within VLOS. droneport as a central civic structure in Rwanda Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 82 BVLOS operations instead require the C2 and a plan of available spectrum bands can link to be relayed through alternative means assist with the planning of operations and of connection, such as mobile networks reduce the risk of interference. Historically, such as GSM or 4G or LTE, or via satellite a lack of frequency spectrum allocation communications. to support C2 links has been a significant inhibitor to achieving the required C2 link The harmonized, standards-based performance for BVLOS operations. In nature of existing mobile networks addition, receivers also need to be available and technologies makes it a scalable and within range to interact with the UTM connectivity solution for the provision system, which may be difficult in some areas of C2 links in BVLOS operations. Mobile due to connectivity gaps. networks can increase link performance and provide direct communication for remote In remote and rural areas, connectivity identification, detect-and-avoid, and other gaps can prove a significant challenge risk mitigation and collision avoidance to the provision of C2 links for measures (see 2.7, 3.1). Owing to the globally BVLOS operations. Working with the harmonized nature of the dedicated licensed telecommunications regulator and mobile spectrum underpinning the provision of network operators in the country could result mobile network services, it can provide safe, in installing new towers to address those gaps secure, and efficient connectivity options for and provide additional coverage. In areas BVLOS and high-risk environment operations without backhaul or power to support mobile above urban and peri-urban areas with towers, satellite links may prove one of the reliable network coverage. Some location only viable connectivity solutions despite their services can also support positioning based relatively high costs. Combining terrestrial on signal triangulation from cell towers using links (that is, 3G, 4G, and 5G) with solar- a similar concept to GPS via satellites. Greater powered HAPS, such as balloons or solar- bandwidths afforded by the increasing rollout powered stratospheric aircraft, and satellite of 4G and 5G services will provide even more communications provides opportunities to security, quicker transmission speeds, and overcome connectivity gaps and provide better reliability of C2 links. redundancy while opening opportunities to engage with the local space industry. Discussion In addition to enabling UAS operations, investments in rural and affordable Pertinent questions connectivity can further help create economic • Will operations in border areas cause activity and access to services. interference issues with neighboring countries? With few exceptions — most notably • What happens during a C2 link failure or the 1090 MHz spectrum band shared other issues with data link performance? among conventional aviation and some UAS operations for the ADS-B, and the Operators should consider how and where allocation of 5030-5091 MHz for C2 link115 UAS can broadcast location information — there are no global standards for to avoid interference, particularly for spectrum allocation for UAS operations, operations in border areas. In some cases, with rules varying across different regions. operators may need to request access to Instead, the national telecommunications specific spectrum bands before setting up regulator is responsible for managing an UTM and commencing flight operations. spectrum allocation, which would include C2 The clear communication of frequency plans links, and prevent interference across the highlighting network strength, network licensed spectrum. In the case of Automatic coverage, spectrum-related regulations, Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B) Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 83 usage, the telecommunications regulator 2.7 UTM should perform radio frequency spectrum analysis to identify potential congestion Themes: Flight operations, equipment, data of the 1090 mhz spectrum to consider and connectivity the impact of spectrum crowding on the Involvement: CAA or other designated performance of the ANSP surveillance authority, ANSP and UTM service provider, system. The risk of overcrowding of the 1090 in some cases in collaboration with the mhz spectrum is prompting discussions on telecommunications regulator whether to limit the use of ADS-B on small UAS operations in low-level airspace. Such Background ADS-B overcrowding is likely to be less of an Low-level airspace, home to most issue in countries with relatively low levels of UAS operations, is commonly shared conventional aviation. with helicopters, other UASs, and conventional aviation during take-off For more information, see also and landing, making effective traffic GSMA (2018). Using Mobile Networks to Coordinate management essential to ensure safe Unmanned Aircraft Traffic. London: GSMA — sharing of airspace. The introduction of Guidance note highlighting the role that mobile UAS into this airspace gives rise to concerns networks can play in providing C2 Link, support over traditional ATM capacity to handle UTM operations, and other aspects of connectivity authorization, appropriate use by operators, essential for safe and sustainable high-frequency drone operations with a specific focus on 5G. safety and security, and how to coordinate ITU (2012-a) Examples of technical characteristics their use117. UTM can assist with this need for unmanned aircraft control and non-payload and increase airspace access and integration communications links (Report ITU-R M.2233). through awareness while it enhances Geneva:ITU — Discussion of achievable C2 operations safety and security. link performances ahead of passing of WRC-12 RES153116 UPDWG (2019, May 22). Technical and Logistical The primary function of a UTM system is Challenges Encountered During Test Flights tracking and monitoring UAS to provide in Malawi. Presentation — Discussion on situational awareness and understanding connectivity challenges encountered in the of what a drone is and should be doing. It Humanitarian Drone Corridor in Kasungu, Malawi can help facilitate safe and efficient scaling Vaughn, M. (2019). Considerations on the use of 1090 of drone operations, making it an essential MHz and 24-bit aircraft addresses. Presentation delivered at ICAO Drone Enable/3. — Discussion element for states safety oversight approach on the risks of overcrowding of Aviation specific and airspace management in the face of 1090MHz spectrum and the future of 24-bit aircraft scaling a national drone program. Common addresses in the face of massive increases in capabilities include118: demand through UAS operations. • Situational awareness — Provides an overview of where UAS are operating and checks whether UAS are what they claim to be on their preplanned and approved route(s) • Deconfliction — Different options for managing mitigation measures to prevent collisions between UAS’s and conventional aviation, and thus avoid air risk or ground risk scenarios • Notification — Notifies airspace users in an emergency or abnormal situation such as through the inclusion of AIP, an aeronautical information circular, or Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 84 NOTAM notifications within the platform UAS enters or exits a preset virtual • Compliance — Options to monitor boundary. It helps ensure separation the compliance of airspace users with from conventional and other UAS traffic. environmental, security, and privacy Experiences from the LVC have shown requirements that many UAS operators struggle with If linked in with an existing Flight Information the construction of complex geo-fences. System, the UTM system can be a source • Detect-and-avoid — These features of valid, current, and accurate information prevent airborne collisions with other to support drone operations — from aircraft or UASs in cases were separation aeronautical, geospatial, weather, flight and assurance, “the capability to maintain safe flow, security, and other information. separation from other aircraft”120 fails. Although relying on communication with “UAS Traffic Management, or UTM, is a RPSs and Flight Information Systems (or digital air traffic management system UTMs) traditionally, there is an increasing made up of technologies and services push for UAS platforms to support designed to maintain safe integration direct communication with other LTE- or and separation of drones and other 5G-equipped aircraft in the surrounding aircraft and objects in low-altitude environment121. airspace. UTM works by connecting drones and their control systems, To this end, UTM functions as a drone operators, and enterprise fleet complementary yet separate tool to managers to airspace authorities for the ATM for conventional aviation. The ICAO exchange of mission-critical information considers UTM a “specific aspect of air traffic and services related to remote management which manages UAS operations identification, situational awareness, safely, economically, and efficiently through operations planning, notification, the provision of facilities and a seamless set airspace authorization, traffic of services in collaboration with all parties deconfliction, conformance monitoring, and involving airborne and ground-based and emergency management. UTM functions”122. A UTM system can be of a differs from classical ATM in that persistent or a more portable nature (see Box it is digital and predominantly 2.5 for examples): self-managed, relying primarily • Persistent — Functions similar to on automation and autonomous traditional ATC with a defined geographic capabilities for safety at scale. UTM coverage, making it appropriate for involves minimal human interaction, urban areas with high rates of air traffic giving rise to a variety of business and necessary human resources and models that vary from traditional ATM infrastructure both economically and financially.”119 • Portable — Can be set up anywhere to support emergency operations, or for UTM services can provide the necessary small-scale operations such as precision information to support different risk agriculture or infrastructure monitoring mitigation strategies and overall safety use cases risk management (see 3.1). Among the most In general, the portable option should be common mitigation strategies for collision considered a last-resort tool rather than for avoidance and reduction of air and ground supporting sustainable operations. Significant risk are: infrastructure and software to power detect- • Geo-fencing — A feature within the and-avoid systems, enable analytics, and flight control software that triggers support navigation in low-to-no-connectivity an alert on the ground control station areas are required to enable and safely or a preprogrammed action when a and securely manage the widespread use Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 85 Box 2.5 — UTM service provision in Europe and during the African Drone Forum Whereas the European U-Space approach123 relies on the use of a persistent UTM, both the Lake Victoria Challenge (LVC) and Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) flying competitions employed a portable UTM. • The European U-Space approach — To enable a common approach to manage un-crewed traffic through the same rules and procedures for all UAS operators across Europe, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the European Union have developed a regulatory framework that allowed the safe and harmonized use of U-space services. This framework links to UAS regulations across the EU member states. It allows member states to remain responsible for defining their own UAS geographic zones to offer U-space services. Member states adopted the U-Space regulatory framework in April 2021. Mandatory U-Space services include network identification, geofence, traffic information, and UAS flight authorization. Additional services offered at the discretion of member states include tracking services, weather information services, and conformance monitoring services. • The African Drone Forum — The LVC held near a controlled aerodrome at Mwanza, Tanzania, in October 2018, included safety evaluations of both Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) and Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) UAS flights. In 2020, the LKC flying competitions took place near Gisenyi, Rwanda. In both cases, a basic UTM was to support risk mitigation during BVLOS flights. Real-time UAS locations and movement fed the traffic management system. It was not advanced enough to include varying airspace, weather, and advanced geo-fencing at the same time as segregating UAS and conventional airspace users, all of which had to be set manually by the Operations Manager. At the LKC 2 years later, the UTM tracked all flights via mobile networks, relying on either an inbuilt transceiver or attached hardware such as the “Unifly BLIP” and adequate coverage. of low-altitude UAS operations, regardless provider, or 3) procuring UTM capabilities of the type. Although the term UTM is used as part of a closed model such as those generically, there are many components (for provided by Zipline or Swoop Aero. UTMs can example, software, relay antennas) to a UTM be provided as a service to UAS operating in system that no single company can fulfill segregated airspace or a combined package at present. Some implementation options if used with ATM service provision in ICAO available to countries include 1) operating airspace (see 2.4). However, the interface their own UTM, for example, through their between the UTM and ATM requires tailoring ANSP; 2) contracting a separate UTM service to local contexts and systems. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 86 Figure 2.2: GSMA124 overview of UTM capabilities related to phases of a UAS operation 1 INITIAL PREPARATION Electronic Registration Electronic Identification Flight Planning Geofencing 2 FLIGHT PREPARATION Flight Approval Meteorological Information Capacity Management Tracking Conflict Detection 3 FLIGHT EXECUTION Airspace Dynamic Interface with other Information Traffic Control (ATC/ATM) 4 POST FLIGHT Recording Playback/Logs Discussion ATM and UTM. Having internal champions of trust alongside basic rulesets and Pertinent questions protocols to protect operations safety can • Will the UTM system integrate with the help alleviate those blocks. existing ATM? • What is the appropriate sensor The ability to track drones as they move technology to use? through the airspace is at the core of • Who will cover the costs for relay any UTM system. Such capabilities can also antennas and other sensor infrastructure support law enforcement and policing as well necessary to make UTM systems work? as the communication of ad hoc and static no-fly zones. Currently, several different UTM software platforms work on the technology options for tracking exist: principle of reliable network coverage, • Network-based UAS specific transponders cloud access, and integration with — This option can include GSM trackers, conventional ATM. Setting up a UTM for example, and requires mobile network system requires a lot of effort because infrastructure to function. Current 3G it involves integration with the existing and 4G networks in populated areas are ATM system, as awareness and traffic often sufficiently developed to deliver management capability for drones and connectivity, real-time data, security, and commercial aviation in harmony are crucial identity management to support UTM. to ensure safety within the airspace. Thus, • Broadcast-based — ADS-B transmits ICAO UTM may not work in scenarios without an IDs and GPS positions over the 1090MHz existing or only a rudimentary ATM. This frequency commonly used in commercial challenge also relates to earlier discussions aviation. Besides being very expensive, on capacity (see 2.1), as local ATC will need their use may lead to potential crowding both capacity and capability to engage with of the frequency depending on the a chosen UTM system. Internal processes airspace’s busyness125. and operations can be a block to integrating Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 87 • Broadcast-based UAS-specific For more information, see also transponders — This option can include African Drone Forum (2021b). Traffic Management of WiFi or Bluetooth, may integrate with a the Future, Today: A Primer on UTM — A high-level UTM system for remote identification126, use case-based overview of UTM systems, why they and are widely used in the U.S., Europe, are relevant, and what they entail. and Japan. They are limited in range and ASTM (2019). Standard Specification for Remote ID and Tracking (F3411-19), West Conshohocken, PA: may pose problems sharing data and ASTM International — Standard specification for feeding it into a UTM, making them more use of broadcast-based UAS specific transponders tailored for emergencies than routine for remote identification traffic management. Creamer, S. P. (2018). Aircraft Registration Network Depending on the chosen sensor (ARN) for Drones. Presentation delivered at technology, investment in additional network Drone Enable/2 — Update on ICAOs efforts in the registration and identification of UAS infrastructures such as relay antennas, FAA (2020, Mar 2). Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) additional cell towers, or solar-powered Traffic Management (UTM). Concept of Operations HAPSs may be necessary to provide sufficient 2.0. Washington: FAA — Federal Aviation coverage for a UTM system to work reliably. Administration (FAA) reflection of their work on Regardless of the chosen technology, UTM implementation in their National Airspace. however, the need for a safe, secure, and GSMA (2018). Using Mobile Networks to Coordinate Unmanned Aircraft Traffic. London: GSMA— efficient globally interoperable identification Guidance note highlighting the role that mobile system persists. Yet non-cooperative drones, networks can play in providing Command and those operating without active tracking control (C2) Link, support UTM operations, and technology, represent a significant challenge other aspects of connectivity essential for safe and and may warrant the installation of Counter sustainable high-frequency drone operations with UAS or anti-drone systems. Such systems a specific focus on 5G. ICAO (2021, Feb 9). Unmanned Aircraft Systems Traffic may include electronic signatures, geo- Management (UTM) – A Common Framework with fencing, and frequency interference, among Core Principles for Global Harmonization (Edition other features. 3). Montreal: ICAO — Provides States considering implementing a UTM system with a reference framework and core capabilities of a “typical” UTM system. Scorer, D. (2019). Aircraft Registry Network (ARN) Concept. Presentation delivered at Drone Enable/3 — Overview of existing ICAO framework, the concept of ARN, why states need it, and how ICAO is addressing this need SESAR (2020). U-space. Supporting Safe and Secure Drone Operations in Europe. Consolidated report on SESAR U-space research and innovation results. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union — Summary and background on U-Space, the joint European UTM implementation. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 88 2.8 PRIVACY, DATA MANAGEMENT, a postal service or Ministries in charge of Agriculture, Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, QUALITY, AND TRANSPARENCY or HealthLocal Government Authoritiesas Themes: data generators and consumers. Data and connectivity, safety and risk Involvement: Security services, other non- Background aviation government entities, and CAA or As most drones are equipped with sensors another designated authority involved in or cameras for data collection either as developing regulation and compliance. UAS part of the mission objective or as part service providers and end-users such as of the flight management and safety Box 2.6 — Examples initiatives to ensure the responsible and ethical use of UAS and reduce privacy concerns • Ethical approval — The responsible and ethical use of drones reduces the risk profile of operations and contributes to increasing public acceptance of UAS. In Malawi, drone operations involving or impacting human subjects require ethical approval from the “Malawi National Health Sciences Research Committee (NHSRC) or the National Committee on Research in Social Sciences and Humanities (NCRSSH)” before the commencement of operations129. • Image resolution — UAS can collect centimeter-level resolution imagery, potentially leading to severe privacy invasions. Although there is no standard definition of what image resolution constitutes an invasion of privacy, it has given rise to interesting debates. In Zanzibar, during the 2017 land mapping initiative using drones, processed images were available at two resolutions — 2.5cm and 7 cm. Owing to many latrines in Zanzibar lacking roofs, images were deemed too high in resolution if they could show an occupied latrine. Although both 2.5cm and 7cm resolution imagery were collected, the prior was reserved for government use, with only the latter released for public use. Although this is not an industry standard, the recommendation is that local stakeholders be aware of and discuss the privacy concerns of acquiring and publishing imagery or allowing private companies to host images with private significance. • Public Availability and Access — OpenAerialMap130 is a set of tools for searching, sharing, and using openly licensed satellite and drone imagery built on top of the Open Imagery Network, an open service providing search and access to this imagery. It presents a potential low-cost solution for many drone imagery data sharing needs, where data are openly licensed and encouraged for broad reuse • Privacy-by-design — India’s Civil Aviation requirements only allow the use of drones, whose manufacturers implemented privacy-by-design standards in their drones to reduce risks of future privacy harms by UAS operators131. Although the regulations do not provide any specific guidance, the Future of Privacy Forum has considered different approaches of embedding privacy-by-design across detect-and- avoid capabilities, Navigation Controls, and the automatic analysis of video feeds132. Such technologies can also include automatic encryption of imagery and other potentially sensitive data collected during flight133. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 89 systems, they can potentially represent a with local privacy or regional laws as significant privacy hazard. a condition for obtaining operational approval (see 3.3). Such requirements are “Drone operations can result in increasingly common and coincide with collection, use, or sharing of personal the growing recognition of the value of information, including information individual privacy and data protection and about individuals who are not involved efforts to “harmonise the understanding and in the flights. Some consumers management of data protection […] and align have concerns about drone data it with the evolution of UA regulations”134. collection, and policymakers agree that Regardless of the legal situation, conducting a responsible data practices are crucial to Data Protection Impact Assessment can help building trust in drone services”127. identify appropriate measures to guarantee sensible data and privacy protection levels135. Hence, operators need to consider transparency, consent, and data In some cases, data sets generated management, including retention, storage, through the use of UAS hold high public access, and the impact of the operation on interest and are valuable for uses beyond individual privacy and, national security, their original intent. In cases where data and whether they comply with national data may be considered a public good by local protection laws128. Having a data lifecycle stakeholders, it is vital to develop a data plan, a detailed chain of custody from raw publishing, hosting and maintenance, and images, and flight log data to process data access plan for the final outputs. This process sets for distribution to users and backup should begin with selecting a data license repositories is considered best practice. that determines how anyone can use the Such plans should include dates for data data. Typically, public data sets will choose an acquisition, processing, deletion, and attribution license136, which allows for all legal records of access (see 3.1). Operations also uses as long as they attribute the data source need to comply with local data protection (and thus cannot claim the data as their own), regulations, which exist in nearly all countries with the onus of enforcing the licensing falling to some degree. Although not all countries’ on the copyright holder. Alternative types laws reference UAS technology specifically, include non-commercial use, whereby data attitudes are shifting with increasing sets are available for research, education, recognition of UAS in future iterations of and other activities rather than commercial regulations. Ideally, the UAS platform itself purposes. Once a licensing regime is selected should also have technical data protection based on envisaged reuse purposes, data capabilities, such as encryption of collected should be curated and published in a user- data, to secure it from unauthorized access friendly and privacy-compliant manner — by third parties. including complete meta-data labels, details on acquisition dates and processing methods, presentation in machine-readable file Discussion formats, and hosting on indexed, searchable Pertinent questions databases. The resources to maintain large • Who is responsible for proving that imagery data sets for general public use are operations comply with local data non-trivial, as data sets can quickly reach protection and privacy laws? several terabytes in size. • How do operators deal with sensitive sites during large-scale mapping operations? At the same time, operators involved in data generation need to consider how Countries may want to require operators to handle sensitive areas as part of the to demonstrate their ability to comply operations and seek guidance from Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 90 national authorities where necessary. For more information, see also It is often impractical to avoid flying over Bothner, M., et al. (2021). Humanitarian UAV Code such areas, whereas the deliberate omission of Conduct & Guidelines. — UAS code of conduct from either the flight plan or the output guidelines on data protection data can draw unwanted attention to such GFDRR (2018, Dec 21). Machine Learning for Disaster sites. Ultimately, security agencies will Risk Management. Washington: World Bank — Guidance note on how machine learning can determine how to handle those cases, and support disaster risk management, including UAS operators must consider precedents key definitions, case studies, and practical and possible solutions. A common approach considerations for implementation. to minimize disruption and avoid drawing ICRC (2020). Handbook on Data Protection in attention to sensitive areas is to publish Humanitarian Action (2nd Edition). Geneva: imagery of sensitive areas in a degraded form ICRC — Explores data protection challenges related to data analytics and provides guidance on (that is, lower resolution) — this could be addressing those. in line with Google earth imagery (typically Molinario, G., Deparday, V. (2019, Mar 6). 50cm) or using older images. However, this Demystifying machine learning for disaster approach affects data quality, and depending risk management. World Bank Blogs — Summary on the purpose of the survey, different of Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and methods may warrant consideration. Recovery (GFDRR) experiences of using machine learning in mapping applications Oren, C., Verity, A. (2020). Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) And its Impact on Humanitarian Action. Digital Humanitarian Network — Update on earlier work by OCHA on using UAS for humanitarian response, focusing on how AI has enabled more effective uses of UAS. World Bank Group (2016). UAV State of Play for Development: Innovations in Program and Humanitarian Contexts. Washington: World Bank — Guidance on the use of UAS for data collections (although not covering data policy) World Bank Group (2017). Guidance Note: Managing the risks of unmanned aircraft operations in development projects. Washington: World Bank — An in-depth overview of possible use cases of UAS and their associated risks that ought to be taken into consideration when considering UA operations Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 91 2.9 LOGISTICS AND CUSTOMS authority can recommend clearing agents to assist with temporary importation and ease Themes: Equipment the processes for foreign UAS operators. Involvement: Customs authorities with The equipment that drone service support from freight companies, clearing providers may be looking to bring with agents, and dangerous goods shipping them broadly falls under three categories: agents when dealing with lithium battery Drones, batteries or other fuel technology transport, import, and export, UAS service such as hydrogen cells, and ancillary providers or manufacturers for importation equipment. and exportation of equipment • Drones — Involves the drone platform Timeline: Up to three months for the itself. Most countries expect service transport of lithium batteries, for example providers to register their drones before import into the country. Ghana, for Background example, requires a clearance letter Most drone operations will rely on the to be presented to customs, whereas importation and exportation of some Rwanda requires permanent residents to or all of the UAS equipment required. register drones. Besides the initial import and final export, • Batteries or other fuel technology such operators may require additional equipment as hydrogen cells — Some providers and spare parts at various stages throughout such as Zipline have opted to transport the operational life cycle. Clear customs rules lithium cells and ancillary circuit boards to and release procedures can help reduce assemble lithium batteries in the country holdups of equipment in bonded warehouses, to avoid potential issues with dangerous accelerate release timelines, and prevent goods regulations. other undue delays. Procedures should be • Ancillary equipment — May include clear, objective, and openly communicated radios for communication, mini to ensure transparency and increase trust weather stations, spare parts, and other by international stakeholders. In Malawi, equipment to conduct operations “safely, UNICEF, VillageReach, and the Malawi Revenue economically and efficiently”137. Box 2.7 — Lithium battery transport and temporary importation for the Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) Owing to restrictions on lithium battery transports imposed by commercial airlines under international dangerous goods regulations, some of the competitors faced difficulties with the international transport of lithium batteries for their UAS platforms. Partly to address this issue, initial considerations focussed on shipping batteries via sea freight or land. Although most teams were ultimately able to transport batteries through specialist dangerous goods shipping agents, one team resorted to ground transport from one of their other operations in Malawi. Following the LKC, most teams opted to use the same transport approach for exportation purposes, whereas some teams donated the batteries in-Country. To comply with temporary importation and exportation rules in Rwanda and their respective home countries, German and Spanish teams were required to export the batteries to avoid potential customs charges and other penalties. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 92 Release procedures provide opportunities to • Are there programs or facilities for the champion green technologies by leveraging safe recycling or disposal of batteries to different fees for electric or hydrogen and avoid them being tossed or burned in combustion technologies (see 1.5). pits, for example? • Do operators need to prove everything International dangerous goods regulations has left the country or where everything is may affect battery logistics for cargo and following the operations? large mapping drones. Small consumer • “What import and customs duties or other drones typically use lithium batteries that taxes will be levied?”139 do not pose any significant international air transport challenges. However, larger electric drones with extended range and endurance require batteries with a far higher capacity, often exceeding the 100-watt-hour rating threshold and classified as dangerous goods138. The transport of dangerous goods on passenger aircraft is forbidden unless the State of Origin, State of Destination, and State of the Operator have issued special approvals. They require special packaging and marking and require transport on cargo aircraft only. Additional restrictions and requirements for air transport apply, and even if operators meet all conditions, the decision to onboard the cargo is at the discretion of the pilot and airline. As a result, planning the international transport of lithium batteries becomes an essential element in budgets and implementation timelines. To plan for adequate battery supply for short-term projects, operators can consider maritime or terrestrial shipping options, which are reliable but take longer than transport by air. For long-term implementations, operators can import individual lithium cells (rating < 20-watt- hours) that fall below dangerous goods thresholds to assemble the cells into lithium battery packs in-country. Discussion Some UAS platforms and other specialist Pertinent questions equipment needed to set up operations • When will the equipment be considered may be considered dual-use goods and permanently rather than temporarily subject to export restrictions. Those imported? may include several UAS accessories • What documentation and provenance and components, including electronics, are required to import or export UAS computers, telecommunications and platforms, batteries, and ancillary “information security”, sensors and lasers, equipment? and navigation and avionics140. In response, some manufacturers have limited their UAS Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 93 endurance to under 50 minutes to bypass 2.10 OVERSIGHT, AUDITS, AND such regulations. Most cargo drones will AIRWORTHINESS INSPECTION be considered dual-use equipment where export restrictions apply, however. In some Themes: Safety and risk cases, manufacturers or operators are Involvement: UAS service providers prohibited from exporting the drone itself, for outsourcing or end-user in case of ancillary equipment, or specific components insourcing with oversight by the CAA or other without special declarations or exemptions. designated authority for initial audits and Import to the countries of operations is periodic inspections a logistical challenge that changes from Timeline: The engagement with a CAA or country to country and requires working other designated authority in designing with clearing agents on-site to avoid undue the terms of reference (TOR) and auditing delays on timelines and budgets (through protocols should occur as early as possible import taxes and tariffs, for example). Such within the procurement process, which may measures present “a significant hurdle to be months ahead of the ultimate signing of one-off foreign operators such as tourists Memorandum of Understanding (MoUs) and but can be circumvented for routine and service contracts long-term operations by engaging local pilots or operators, or by incorporating a Background local branch”141. Similarly, some countries According to the ICAO, all aircraft, which may impose different import conditions on by definition includes the majority of gasoline-powered equipment142. Generally, drones, should be “reliable, controllable, the preferred way is to work with a trusted and safe – no matter how small or national partner who can broker waivers to large, or whether the crew is onboard reduce potential fees and costs. the aircraft or piloting it remotely”143. Yet conventional type certification of UAS For more information, see also platforms is both impractical and cost- Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, prohibitive in many cases (see 2.2). Instead, VillageReach, GIZ, and UNICEF (2019, Dec). audits, airworthiness assessments, and due Malawi Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Toolkit: diligence checks ensure that both UAS and A Guideline for Drone Service Providers, pilots can safely and responsibly complete Humanitarian and Research Fields. — An excellent the planned operations. example handbook providing operators with clarity on how to set up operations and address operating challenges There are, however, no standard or EC (2009, May 5). COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No even harmonized frameworks for 428/2009 on setting up a Community regime for regulating “acceptable” standards of the control of exports, transfer, brokering and airworthiness, operational conduct, and transit of dual-use items. Luxembourg: Office pilot competency for small UAS. Instead, for Official Publications of the European Communities — Appendix I provides an overview frameworks include tests to certify that of dual-use items subject to export restrictions. systems are safe from interference, robust ICAO (2009, Jun 25). Transport of Lithium Batteries in enough for the operating environment, Accordance with the ICAO Technical Instructions. reliable, as specified in the initial registration Montreal: ICAO — Guidance note to address and supporting documentation, and commonly asked questions about lithium battery most importantly, airworthy. Additionally, transport IATA (2019, Dec 12). 2020 Lithium Battery Guidance operators or pilots should prove they Document. Transport of Lithium Metal and Lithium possess knowledge of the operating Ion Batteries. Montreal: IATA — Guidance for environment, applicable regulations and complying with provisions applicable to lithium laws, and their UAS, including air navigation battery transport by air as set out in the IATA experience and so forth144. Dangerous Goods Regulations Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 94 The CAA or other designated for increased inspection and maintenance airworthiness authority is responsible oversight. Thorough maintenance is essential for authorization, audits, and granting and often an operation’s most significant of operating licenses. Although a national- running cost factor, challenging the long- level committee (see 1.3) can support term sustainability of operations. In the the CAA or other designated authority absence of certification standards for UAS as a quality assurance mechanism, it is meant to operate in complex operations considered best practice for operators to (that is, BVLOS, overflying people, and so have an internal quality assurance system forth), it is highly recommended to conduct for continuous internal auditing. Whereas audits of the manufacturer and operators, the onus is on the operator to ensure ideally production site, before any on-site the UAS is inspected before each take-off implementations take place. This activity may and suitable for safe operation, there are be delegated to the contracting agency by the considerations to introduce mandated CAAs as appropriate while still retaining the periodic inspections by approved facilities full responsibility for safety oversight. Box 2.8 — Competitor vetting for the Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) The competitor selection for the LKC held in 2020, followed a multi-process audit protocol: 1. Phase 1 (Remote) — Due diligence auditing, for example, does the drone physically exist and is it capable of flying; 2. Phase 2 (Remote) — Process auditing and checking of internal documents including operations manual and international pilots licenses and so on; 3. Phase 3 (In-Person) — The operations manager conducted spot checks of hardware and operations on-site alongside incremental flight displays to check whether UAS “technical capabilities and limitations, including communication reliability, and the capacity and reliability of the [… UAS] service operators”145. For example, at the LKC in Rwanda, this involved 1) manual inspection of drones; 2) basic hover tests; 3) transitions from vertical to horizontal flight; and 4) transition from Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) to BVLOS. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 95 Discussion 2.11 INSURANCE Pertinent questions Themes: Safety and risk, equipment, use • Should maintenance requirements and cases safety metrics be incorporated within a Involvement: UAS service provider for country’s regulations or tender contracts outsourcing or end-user in case of insourcing, without regulatory frameworks and and insurance provider related legal obligations? Background Although every operator should have some form of a maintenance program, Comprehensive and appropriate many may not have extensive service or insurance coverage is essential to protect retirement schedules based on actual UAS operations and reduce liability for operational experience and information operators146. Each operator should have on the lifetime of the UAS (see 1.5). insurance proportional to the risk of the Understanding an operator’s approach to planned operations. Insurance is necessary maintenance should form part of the initial to cover damage to equipment, persons, and, due diligence checks as part of the service in some cases, breakdown of operations in provider or UAS platform selection. In the case of a failure of the SMS (see 3.1), which absence of detailed schedules, robust can result in accidents or fly-aways, for maintenance protocols and requirements example. Many countries do not provide can be devised as part of the operations clear guidelines on required insurance, while manual inherent to an operator’s safety and many local insurance companies do not have risk management (see 3.1) and form part of the requisite experience to insure drones and the requirements for obtaining operational their operations, potentially exposing UAS approval (see 3.3). A CAA or other designated operators to “financial and legal risks from authority could then carry out routine audits insufficient coverage”147. to determine whether operators fulfill their maintenance and safety obligations. Different types of specialist insurance and payment plans exist. A traditional annual policy usually has monthly installments. For more information, see also In contrast, a pay-as-you-fly model allows USAID GHSC-PSM (2018, Jul 9). Unmanned Aerial operators to cover each flight or a daily rate Vehicle Procurement Guide. Washington: Chemonics International Inc. — Covering of flying instead, making them an attractive recommended specifications and questions for option for short-term pilot projects with offerors with a specific focus on cargo operations specific insurance needs. The most common and likely relevant until additional UAS have been specialist insurances include148: certified. • Third-party or public liability insurance VillageReach (2020, Jun). How to Select a Drone to cover “damage to third-party property Service Provider for Transport of Health Products. Lessons Learned. Seattle: VillageReach — and injury to other people” with a Recommendations for drone service provider minimum coverage of US$500,000 - selection for the transport of health commodities 1,000,000 commonly required; based on experiences from the Democratic • Hull insurance to cover replacement or Republic of Congo and Mozambique repair of damage to the UAS platform itself, such as in the event of a crash; • Physical damage insurance for the owner or operator to cover physical damage to the UAS (that is, similar to hull insurance) and additionally ground equipment, or to cover the total loss of the platform or payload (this is Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 96 sometimes covered under third-party Discussion insurance instead); Pertinent questions • Employer insurance to cover UAS • How is insurance coverage managed in operators and associated staff; and remote locations? • Product liability insurance for the • What and how much does the insurance manufacturer or service provider to cover? cover training facilities, consultants, • What are the contingency procedures in dealers, software designers, for example, case operations breakdown is caused by in case the insured product caused mechanical failures, for example? or contributed to a loss outside of a • Who will cover compensation, for warranty case. example, in the case of loss of life or Some providers’ additional coverage option health consequences stemming from may include professional indemnity (for spoiled blood products or medication example, recommendations given to clients), caused by a cold-chain failure mid-flight? “personal injury (invasion of privacy), non- • Should there be a requirement for owned (if you crash someone else’s drone), operators to have compensation medical expenses, premises liability and mechanisms in place for scenarios war perils such as damage sustained from a where drone operations impact locals’ malicious act”149. livelihoods — for example, when a drone crashes into a field, which bystanders subsequently trample? There is little data available to insurers for Box 2.9 — European Union making predictions for the failure rates Regulation 785/2004 of commercial UASs. The majority of UASs have not existed long enough for insurers The regulation describes the to understand the particular features that insurance obligations for all aircraft could influence the likelihood of an accident operators. It mandates all commercial or system failure, amplifying the need for UAS operators to purchase third- testing corridors (see 2.4). Nevertheless, an party liability insurance. As UAS increasing number of insurers are looking became more widespread, several to enter the market and provide customized operators and ancillary businesses insurances tailored toward drone operations. raised concerns over high costs Although some commercial insurers allow and other difficulties in purchasing you to fly only in their country, some offer third-party liability insurance. The worldwide coverage pending prior approval. European Union found that “the Specialist drone insurance providers, cost to insure a small unmanned including Moonrock (UK), Flock (UK), Heli Guy surveillance aircraft (SUSA) was almost (UK), Drone Cover Club (UK), Cover Drone twice that of insuring a standard (Europe), Hollard (South Africa), iTOO (South family car”150 in some cases. Several Africa), Santam (South Africa), FEIC (Asia), recommendations were made to and others offer flexible policies easy to increase competition among insurers customize for each kind of flight purpose, and increase the minimum amount type of drone, and period covered. of public liability cover required by commercial UAS operators. Currently, For more information, see also the minimum amount of cover UAV Coach (n.d.). Drone Insurance: a Step-by- required corresponds to one million Step Guide to Liability and Drone Hull Insurance Euros per accident. — Overview of insurance types, requirements, and example costs. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 97 2.12 PROCUREMENT AND SERVICE potential solutions capable of fulfilling CONTRACTS identified needs within expected costs and service and delivery times. Themes: Financing Information received from an RFI is Involvement: End-users such as a postal not used to award contracts. service or Ministries in charge of Agriculture, b. EOI — EOI can help clear up Infrastructure, Commerce, Land, or Health, or uncertainties regarding the number local government authorities and UAS service of companies that can fulfill the providers needs within a specified budget and requirements. They can then Background be advertised as a part of an RFI A good understanding of the use case to identify interested operators or identified through the initial needs and manufacturers. opportunity cost assessment is essential in informing the procurement process. Flying competitions similar to the LVC and Those identify and formulate baseline costs, LKC or other technology demonstrators clear problem statements, and mission in a Drone Corridor provide a valuable objectives for drafting clear Scopes of Work information source for assessing and Terms of Reference. Irrespective of the vendors’ operational, safety, and project chosen procurement strategy, clear scopes management practices and performance, and terms with specific objectives and especially in low-connectivity, low- requirements make it easier for potential resource, and adverse weather suppliers to design appropriate proposals settings. They can provide a glimpse of and budgets. The pre-procurement and vendor capabilities in ensuring regulatory procurement documentation should compliance by gaining approvals and making incorporate the scope and ensure the five submissions to the CAA or other regulatory rights of procurement are addressed: bodies. Alternative options to assess vendors include on-site inspections or visits to their 1. Service of the right quality manufacturing bases to understand quality 2. Delivered in the right quantity assurance processes and general operational 3. To the right place practices and conduct a technical drone 4. At the right time solution demo. 5. For the right price 2. Procurement 1. Pre-procurement This step involves purchasing equipment This step involves refining and defining for in-house operations (insourcing) specifications, sourcing interest and or procurement of a service provider identifying potential vendors or service to service the identified use case(s) providers, and initial prequalifying. Market (outsourcing). Government and exploration approaches are common methods implementers of drone programs may use a to identify and prequalify local, regional, or few different management and contracting international vendors or service providers approaches, with the decision grounded in a capable of satisfying needs. They include: thorough feasibility analysis (see particularly a. RFI — RFI is an instrument used to 1.2) and made during pre-procurement: conduct a market survey to obtain ● Insourcing — An end user establishes information from the market about a specific drone service function within available services and goods and their organization and runs drone their capability profiles, which can operations themselves. That involves help refine the final ToR. End-users investment in and purchase of a fleet can use an RFI to identify available or Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 98 of drones, supporting infrastructure, are two critical information sources for the onboarding and training a workforce, Terms of Reference that define the purpose adding any other necessary elements and structures of the agreement: to an organization, and making drone 1. Operational requirements, including operations one of an organization’s overall service goals, expected functions. outcomes, and desired impacts; and ● Outsourcing — Instead of having the 2. Regulatory frameworks and related drone operations conducted in-house, legal obligations as prerequisites outsourcing allows a government or for operations and flight approval. implementing partner to contract an In the absence of local UAS outside vendor/operator to provide regulations, operators should drone services for delivery, mapping, consult the CAA to determine a list humanitarian response, and so forth. of regulatory compliance criteria and requirements for manufacturers and Although a multitude of approaches to service providers. procurement exist, the most appropriate for service procurement are: Some general requirement principles, 1. Request for Quotation (RFQ) or considerations, and criteria include, but are Invitation to Bid (ITB) — These not limited to: are most suitable for standard ● Client references and previous and straightforward equipment or vendor experience — These should service requirements with precise be assessed thoroughly to determine and detailed Terms of Reference and their capabilities in complying with evaluation criteria. regulations, gaining approvals and 2. Request for Tender (RFT) — permits to conduct BVLOS flights, Although RFTs generally have detailed training staff, and operating in low- terms of reference and descriptions connectivity, low-resource settings. of service requirements, their scope Submission requirements should is broader than a RFQ and more include customer references or specific than a RFP. testimonials. 3. RFP — This is most suitable for cases ● ConOps — This can be a good where the whole nature, specifications, indicator of an operator’s and characteristics of the required thoroughness. A thorough ConOps services are unknown. RFPs allow the (see 3.2) lays out clear rules and procuring entity to seek out solution- guidelines underpinning safe and based options and innovations without efficient drone operations, including clearly defined specifications, allowing checklists, safety procedures, for greater flexibility. emergency procedures, and general Less frequently used approaches include operational practices. single-sourcing and market-led proposals. ● Insurance — A comprehensive Among those above, RFQs and ITBs are well third-party liability with either local suited for mapping services, with RFPs more or international coverage should be suited for delivery services. in place. Insurance of equipment is relevant when an end-user opts to 3. Evaluating and awarding contracts purchase their fleet of drones. This step involves determining clear ● Licenses and certificates — Vendors, evaluation principles and criteria to particularly service providers, should ensure the quality and capacity to assess prove they and their employees are proposals and vendors is in place. There sufficiently certified and experienced. Unless local licensing is in place, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 99 the vendor must consult the CAA to • Contract duration — This is primarily determine what international licenses a concern in the case of an outsourced might be accepted. Additionally, a or external drone-as-service contract, previously conducted risk assessment, or where individual service aspects or completed certificates for the shipment infrastructure such as UTM systems are of dangerous goods (hazardous procured. materials), and an Airworthiness Certificate shall also be considered 4. Monitoring performance necessary evidence of experience and This step involves measuring and operational excellence. monitoring the performance of operations ● Technical drone platform — to evaluate their effectiveness and Evaluation can be done using an identify potential areas for improvement. evaluation matrix such as the USAID It might be helpful to split the activities matrix151, which helps determine into different phases to manage risks and whether a specific drone platform ensure that a supplier or vendor can perform can meet the needs and operational according to the TOR and contractual requirements described in the Terms obligations. However, unless there is a of Reference. guarantee of a more long-term engagement, ● Company information — This should some service providers may find it challenging include recent audits, company to allocate sufficient resources, which may incorporation documents, as well often be limited, to prioritize activities. In as a description of the company most cases, it will prove a best practice to profile with its relevant subsidiaries commit to a provider for the initial phases or owners to support the regular due of a project as long as they deliver as diligence assessment of a vendor. agreed, with some self-funding of part of ● Local capacity building — the activities. Such risk-sharing can increase International vendors or service trust and a sense of ownership among providers, in particular, should stakeholders as it creates more of a team incorporate this as one of their than a client relationship. All drone operations competencies. Contractual are subject to varying regulatory approvals requirements might even include: and technical demonstrations; therefore, ○ Provisions for a certain degree of procurement might consider these activities a in-country sourcing prequalification process to avoid unnecessary ○ Final assembly or maintenance challenges during the contract period. through local manufacturers ○ A sub-contractual relationship with 1. Contracts should include a minimum a local operator standard of flight performance, ○ Local staff hiring to ensure local with leeway for factors such as sustainability and stimulate the connectivity, weather, and so local economy forth, which might be beyond ● Performance and cost — Many anyone’s control. Requirements service providers opt to charge a fixed for evaluating service providers or monthly rate or flat service fee, making vendor performance may consist cost-for-value monitoring challenging. of the number of flights completed, In those cases, the operational model percentage of mapping area covered, should require a minimum standard volume of data processed, volume of flight performance, such as the and weight of cargo delivered, or number of flights completed or the number of re-supply or collection percentage of cargo delivery and requests fulfilled. collection requests fulfilled. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 100 2. Drone service providers also need to be measured and monitored for the efficiency of operations (for example, response time), efficiency and quality of communication, timeliness, quality of reporting (for example, flights, deliveries, cargo, mapping), quality of project management, engagement with stakeholders, training of local and health facility staff, and so forth, with leeway for factors outside the operator’s control, such as the unavailability of spare parts due to global supply chain shortages. Box 2.10 — Procurement for UAS-based Vaccine Deliveries in Vanuatu The Ministry of Health in Vanuatu is working with UNICEF to explore UAS as a safe, efficient, and scalable transportation mode to deliver vaccines from main health facilities to dispensaries and mobile vaccination teams. The project’s primary objective is to test the technical feasibility and economic sustainability of including this new transportation mode into the existing Expanded Programme on Immunization as a last mile delivery resource. To achieve this objective, the Ministry of Health seeks to contract up to three service contractors through a government procurement process. Three request for tender (RFT) processes for physical services, for Pentecost, Epi & Shepherds, and Erromago islands, respectively, have been issued officially. In October 2018, in a global first, the Vanuatu government awarded two international drone companies, Swoop Aero and Wingcopter, with commercial contracts to trial the use of drones to bring life-saving vaccines to children living in remote rural islands152. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 101 Discussion Pertinent questions • Will drone services be facilitated by the end-user or by a procured third party? • Are funders open to procuring multi-modal systems beyond private-sector trucking companies, for example? Some organizations might use insourcing for some drone program elements and outsourcing for others in a hybrid model. Table 2.2 outlines the key factors of both approaches. Table 2.2 — Key resource factors in insourcing and outsourcing of UAS operations Resource elements Insourcing Outsourcing Up-front investment Medium to High Low to Medium153 Procurement of equipment Needed Not needed Internal capacity building for drone piloting and Needed Not needed operations Internal capacity to manage regulatory Needed Not needed compliance Internal capacity to maintain and repair drones Needed Not needed Internal capacity to manage liability and insurance Needed Not needed aspects Dedicated personnel to run the operations Needed Not needed Dedicated project management staff Needed Needed Individual insurance Needed Not needed Risk of loss or appropriation of equipment Likely Unlikely Savings/cost-efficiency Long-term Short/medium-term For more information, see also VillageReach (2020, Jun). How to Select a Drone Service Provider for Transport of Health Products. Dubin, S., Greve, A., Triche, R. (2020). Drones in Lessons Learned. Seattle: VillageReach — International Development. Innovating the Recommendations for drone service provider Supply Chain to Reach Patients in Remote Areas. selection for the transport of health commodities Washington: USAID — Recommendations for based on experiences from the Democratic the conduct of successful drone operations based Republic of Congo and Mozambique on experiences of drone operations along Lake World Bank Group (2017). Guidance Note: Managing Malawi. the risks of unmanned aircraft operations in USAID GHSC-PSM (2018, Jul 9). Unmanned Aerial development projects. Washington: World Vehicle Procurement Guide. Washington: Bank — Guidance for UAS platform selection Chemonics International Inc. — Covering and in-depth overview of drone service provider recommended specifications and questions for obligations and recommendations offerors with a specific focus on cargo operations Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 102 Phase 3: Set Up Once enabling elements are in place, the onus falls on the operator to plan their operations appropriate to the local operating environment. The development of a robust safety risk management strategy and ConOps is fundamental to applying for operational approval and ensuring the overall safety and security of the UAS operations. This phase should continue with previous elements such as stakeholder and community engagement as a cornerstone to successful operations and local buy-in. This engagement might extend to the training and recruiting of local staff and UAS pilots in many cases. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 103 3.1 SAFETY AND RISK limited to the operational level itself as MANAGEMENT “changes in organisational structures, facilities, the scope of work, personnel, Themes: Safety and risk documentation, policies and procedures, etc. Involvement: UAS service provider for can result in the inadvertent introduction of outsourcing or end-user in case of insourcing new hazards, which expose the organisation and CAA or another designated oversight to new, or increased risk”158. Each risk authority management approach should follow a four- step process159: Background 1. Hazard identification — The A SMS fosters a safety culture by identification of potential hazards to providing “a systematic approach to people and property on the ground achieving acceptable levels of safety and other airspace users during the risk”154. It applies across all levels of an proposed operations organization, from strategic management to 2. Risk assessment — Risk is the the operations themselves. Each SMS should “combination of the frequency consist of four components, covering safety (probability) of an occurrence and its policy (i.e., management and organizational associated level of severity”160 of harm structure), safety risk management (i.e., including fatal injury to third parties and risk protocols for safe operations), safety damage to critical infrastructure assurance (i.e., ongoing evaluation of risk 3. Mitigations — The mitigation of management), and safety promotion (i.e., identified hazards and associated training and learning from lessons)155. In risks through avoidance of the hazard, theory, an effective SMS should allow a retention of the hazard and acceptance drone service provider to determine156: of risk, transfer of risk, or reduction of 1. The most likely cause of a subsequent risk through different measures accident or serious incident 4. Determine acceptable risk levels— 2. How they know what will happen Rather than prescribing different 3. What they will do to mitigate and requirements, states may consider learn from it using performance-based criteria to 4. Whether their chosen mitigation indicate acceptable levels of safety161 strategy is working “Understanding the risks of these future The ICAO stipulates that all member states operations as well as the foreseeable must have a state safety program, “an introduction of new technologies and integrated set of regulations and activities operations make adherence to sound aimed at improving safety,” including an safety management principles more SMS157. ANSPs and aircraft operators beyond important than ever. Therefore, the a certain organizational size also require an implementation of safety management SMS; whether UTM or drone service providers principles by RPAS operators will contribute are required to have one in place currently to the ability of assessing the safety risks remains at their discretion or that of the host associated with the RPAS operations and country where they are looking to operate. their potential impact on other service providers. The safety management system of an RPAS operator should be Safety risk management is at the core of commensurate with the scope of the RPAS each SMS and helps eliminate or reduce operator and the scale and complexity risks to acceptable levels where practical. of its operations. Proper oversight of the It closely interacts with safety assurance, implementation of safety management the ongoing evaluation of chosen risk principles by RPAS operators will contribute mitigations, and the identification of new to the ability of a State to effectively hazards. Those hazards are not uniquely manage aviation safety”162. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 104 Box 3.1 — Three ways to approach risk management for UAS operations • Specific Operational Risk Assessment (SORA) — The SORA is an approach developed by the Joint Authorities for Rulemaking on Unmanned Systems (JARUS)173. It guides both the competent authority and the applicant on CAA authorization requirements for operations in a UAS in a given operational environment. The SORA methodology consists of ten systematic steps and a primary focus on the “specific” category of UAS operations. The process begins with a Concept of Operations (ConOps, see 3.2) before considering ground risk (Step 2 and 3), air risk Steps 4-6), and final specific assurance and integrity levels (SAIL) and Operation Safety Objectives (OSO) in steps 7-10174. • Declaration of a Standard Scenario (STS)175 — JARUS and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) conducted risk assessments for different operational scenarios with lower intrinsic risk. Each STS includes a precise list of mitigation steps for operations allowing the responsible CAA or designated authority to be satisfied with an operator’s declaration that they will implement the identified mitigation measures during the specified operations. • Pre-Defined Risk Assessment (PDRA)176 — They are primarily developed by the UK CAA International (CAAi) and function similarly to STS's although providing the CAA with more flexibility in their design. Appendix B provides an in-depth discussion of the Safety Risk Management approach and SORA chosen for the Lake Victoria Challenge (LVC) held in Mwanza, Tanzania, in 2018 and the Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) held in Karongi, Rwanda, in 2020 with specific emphasis on the managing of air risk, ground risk, environmental risk, and occupational Health, Safety and Environment (OSHE). In addition to more conventional air a UAS resulting in it crashing into people risk, which involves the risk to other causing fatal injuries. Economic fallout and airspace users, risk management for UAS other damage to critical infrastructure are operations also requires considerations harder to assess, with sensitivities to this over ground risk because of UAS’s harm varying across different countries. relatively short safety track record. In addition to the sub-part on hazard and UAS can pose a threat to people and risk minimization, the ICAO UAS model infrastructure on the ground if they fly over regulations164 also consider ground risk when or near crowds or urban areas, close to regulating the dropping of articles from a critical and transport infrastructures such drone and prohibited UAS operations. Other as ports, roads, and aerodromes, or even hazards to consider include165: economic security threats when operating • Cybersecurity hazards—As platforms near critical infrastructure. Previous studies and ancillary equipment, including have shown that “the amount of energy droneports, become connected, risks needed to cause fatal injuries in the case of cyberattacks increase. The hijacking of a direct hit, are extremely low”163 with of a UAS by a third party with the the likely outcome of a loss of control of intent to purposely crash it or use it for Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 105 ransomware or other purposes, as has to measures that contribute to the been happening with mission-critical avoidance, minimization, transfer or health systems during the COVID-19 sharing of data protection risks”.168 pandemic, is a particular concern. Other • Reputational damage—This addresses cyber threats include the jamming of “an accident or incident caused by mid- signals over specific areas or the remote air collision with another airspace user; deletion or theft of data at droneports damage to the environment, wildlife, or data collected or carried by the UAS. people, or properties in an area; or Data encryption and security-by-design significant damage during a ground strike approaches built into the drone platform by a UA in its employ”169 and can have itself can help mitigate possibilities consequences for the operator, as well as of interference166. Both JARUS and its the larger UA community and industry. forthcoming Annex J and other groups In such scenarios, scrutiny will inevitably continue to strive for better protection be placed on the UAS operator, their against cyberthreats and the development safety management system, and safety of basic sets of standards for evaluating performance. safety risk and consideration within procurement protocols. Discussion • Environmental hazards—These are Pertinent questions associated with impacts on any living • Is there a mechanism for reporting organisms or the environment and may accidents, incidents, and privacy include emissions, spillage of dangerous violations? cargo, noise, and disturbance of • What are the risks associated with the breeding grounds. Potential mitigations carriage of dangerous goods? include airspace restrictions or design requirements to reduce noise or The use of heavy or fast platforms raises emissions. both air and ground risk significantly, • OSHE—This considers the physical health as do operations over populated areas and safety of different people attending or with complex or busy air traffic. A and conducting operations and flying small UAS operating over a gathering of events. According to ICAO, the “primary people might be a higher risk than a large difference between aviation safety platform operating long distances in an management and OSHE systems is the uninhabited region with no other airspace intent. In many States employers have users. The way forward appears to lie in a a legal duty to take reasonable care of regulatory framework very different from the health and safety of their employees. that of conventional aviation: a risk-based The intention of OSHE programmes is safety approach where the response is in to meet the legal and ethical obligations proportion to the operation being conducted, by fostering a safe and healthy work with no people onboard, using atypical flight environment”167. missions. Dropping items from aircraft, for • Privacy and data protection—This example, emphasizes the need for a new includes the violation of individual privacy approach. It is illegal to drop any objects from and data protection laws as flights may aircraft in many states, yet this ability could cause a certain level of local sensitivity. be instrumental in humanitarian missions A Data Protection Impact Assessment and could prove to be extremely safe in can help identify appropriate conduct specific operations, such as utilizing small in the absence of national laws or local UAS flying slowly at a low level. restrictions (see 2.8). The assessment aims “to identify, evaluate and address Accurately determining ground risk the risks to Personal Data […] and lead Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 106 remains a particular challenge with cases and sharing of impact metrics increase different definitions and interpretations transparency and help realize the market of population density, including potential to motivate investment and tech definitions proposed by the JARUS170. development. Realizing potential can help Populous areas include those primarily overcome what some manufacturers (and used for residential, commercial, industrial, to some extent, drone service providers) or recreational purposes, such as sporting see as a lack of appetite for risk and failure fields. Although various definitions exist, the because they are early adopters and have to SORA determines ground risk is lower when prove their use cases. Having a platform or overflying sparsely populated environments mechanism and incentives for sharing such where crashes into terrain are less likely to knowledge with stakeholders and the general be lethal to third-party people. Ground risk public can help improve transparency in buffers and control of landing areas around operations and confidence and trust in the droneports can help achieve OSOs171. In technology. case there was doubt about the accuracy and reliability of the UA landing at a remote For more information, see also droneport that would retain risk above ICAO (2020) U-Aid. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) acceptable levels, operators could employ for Humanitarian Aid and Emergency Response other mitigations such as extending buffers Guidance. Montreal: ICAO — Summary of risks to achieve the set OSOs. and responsibilities associated with the carriage of Dangerous Goods on UAS. ICAO (2020, Jun 23) ICAO Model UAS Regulations Although the SORA methodology — Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Carrying provides a comprehensive framework Dangerous Goods (Advisory Circular 102-37) — for safety risk management for specific Provides guidance to understand the risks and drone operations, it is an exceedingly responsibilities for safe carriage of dangerous complex one. An October 2020 UAS survey goods via UAS and includes information for packing on European operations and risk methods and marking of such goods. ICRC (2020). Handbook on Data Protection in found that a large segment of the European Humanitarian Action (2nd Edition). Geneva: UAS operator community struggled to fully ICRC — Introduction to Data Protection Impact grasp and comprehend the AMC. Besides, Assessments and their conduct. the SORA is only available in a small number JARUS. (2019, Jan). JARUS guidelines on Specific of languages leading to language barriers Operational Risk Assessment (SORA). JAR-DEL- exacerbating challenges of comprehension WG6-D.04 — Overview of the JARUS SORA approach for Safety Risk Management of specific drone of the framework (see 2.2). Feedback logged operations and the underlying ConOps (see 3.4) as part of the survey noted that there is Mendez, E. (2019, Aug 13). Safety Management Basic potential for online tools to facilitate the Concepts. Presentation delivered at ICAO NACC safety risk assessment for UAS operators. Regional Office — ICAO primer on aviation-specific Safety Risk Management Ultimately, the risk of operators World Bank Group (2017). Guidance Note: Managing the risks of unmanned aircraft operations in not reporting (minor) accidents to development projects. Washington: World Bank preserve a company’s reputation and — An in-depth overview of possible use cases of track record remains. Yet accidents and UAS and their associated risks that ought to be incidents are crucial lessons from the taken into consideration when considering UA regulatory, manufacturer, and operator operations side to improve security and safety in the future. Sharing field tests or failure reports help promote transparency and provides learning opportunities with ICAO mandating the investigation of safety incidents172. Additionally, visibility of use Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 107 3.2 CONOPS described in the proposed ConOps safely — from a summary of characteristics of the Themes: Flight operations drone platform (that is, aircraft operations Involvement: UAS service provider for manual), characteristics of the operating outsourcing or end-user in case of insourcing environment, and operational setup to risk and CAA or another designated oversight management procedures and other policies authority and processes. It should also cover “the user organization, mission, and objectives from Background an integrated systems point of view and is The ConOps aims to identify the technical, used to communicate overall quantitative operational, and human information and qualitative system characteristics to related to the intended drone operations. stakeholders”179. Although local regulations The ConOps serves as a general framework do not always mandate operations manuals, to summarize envisaged operations for all it would be considered a best practice stakeholders involved in the operations. for operators to have such a document. The framework should cover the “where” The JARUS approach stipulates that the and “when” of the envisioned mission, the operations manual is a subpart of the “how” and “what” of the drone platform and ConOps. In contrast, OSO and mitigations are its specifications to accomplish the mission, identified through the SORA methodology and the “who” will execute the operation177. and detailed through the supporting ConOps Answering those questions helps formalize safety portfolio. The operations manual is a the operational environment framing statement of intent in flying operations that the UAS operations to ensure a common should include the following points180: understanding of the challenges and avenues • Organizational structure (including for either integrating them into conventional nominated key individuals) airspace or employing segregated airspace. • Statement of compliance with the This understanding, in turn, serves as a basis regulation in relevant areas of operation for the crafting of an operations manual and the associated SMS (see 3.1). A ConOps may • Operational policies relate to an individual flight request, a range • Personnel policies of flight requests by the same operators, • Remote pilot certifications such as for an overarching approval, or may, for a test area or corridor, outline a network • Medical requirements of operations. It can also cover emergency or • Currency requirements ad hoc missions, beyond planned operations. • Training policy and structure In the case of a SORA, for example, an applicant’s ConOps needs “to collect and • SMS policy provide the relevant technical, operational • Risk-management policy and system information needed to assess the • Quality-management policy risk associated with the intended operation of the UAS”178. • UAS specifications • Operational procedures and ERP A professional operations manual • Limitations of the external systems outlining how a UAS operator will conduct supporting UAS for safe operations its operations is crucial to setting up safe and efficient drone operations. • Environmental conditions required for a The manual should provide users with a safe operation structured overview addressing everything • Accident and incident reporting process they need to know to conduct operations Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 108 Box 3.2 — The SORA approach to the Concept of Operations Whereas the ConOps provides an overview of the proposed UAS operation, the SORA (see 3.1) “provides a logical process to analyse the proposed ConOps and establish an adequate level of confidence that the operation can be conducted with an acceptable level of risk”182. The ten-step process of the SORA begins with the ConOps description before progressing through ground risk evaluations to determine whether to proceed with the SORA methodology, require a new application with a modified ConOps, or require other processes such as considering the operation as “certified” instead. The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) considers the ConOps as the foundation for all other activities as it describes the proposed operations and lends insight into the operator’s safety culture. A ConOps should represent an evolving document — “as the SORA process is applied, additional mitigations and limitations may be identified, requiring additional associated technical details, procedures, and other information to be provided/updated in the ConOps”183. Discussion integrated into the airspace for international instrument flight rules (IFR) operations”181. Pertinent questions JARUS (2019, Jan). JARUS guidelines on Specific • Will there be sufficient capacity to review Operational Risk Assessment (SORA) (Issue 2.0) and understand the submitted ConOps (JAR-DEL-WG6-D.04) — Guidelines and annexes manual and associated SMS? describing the SORA methodology World Bank Group (2017). Guidance Note: Managing the risks of unmanned aircraft operations in For more information, see also development projects. Washington: World Bank ADF (2020). Lake Kivu Challenge: Un-crewed Aircraft — Guidance on the contents of a UAS operation- Flying: Concept of Operations (ConOps). Version specific SMS and ConOps for operators 4.1 — State of the art ConOps for Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) flights close to aerodrome approach paths and international borders EASA (2021, Apr). Easy Access Rules for Unmanned Aircraft Systems (Regulations (EU) 2019/947 and (EU) 2019/945), Cologne: EASA — Article 11 of Annex A provides guidelines for collecting and presenting the system and operational information underpinning and supporting specific UAS operations. ICAO (2017, Mar). Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) Concept of Operations (ConOps) for International IFR Operations. Montreal: ICAO — The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) ConOps describing “the operational environment of manned and unmanned aircraft, thereby ensuring a common understanding of the challenges and how those which are remotely piloted can be expected to be accommodated and ultimately Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 109 3.3 OPERATIONAL APPROVAL or rural) and type of airspace (i.e., controlled or not) used for the planned operations Themes: Flight Operations (see Box 3.3). It is essential to determine Involvement: Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) where operations may be permitted and or another designated authority which areas they should be excluded from regarding airspace, ground structures, and Background population. The European regulations define Operations should never occur without this as a UAS geographical zone, which is authorization in the form of permission “a portion of airspace established by the or a legislated exemption. Operators competent authority that facilitates, restricts need to follow the steps outlined by the or excludes UAS operations in order to relevant CAA to obtain approval. Most address risks pertaining to safety, privacy, countries promulgate rules with different protection of personal data, security or the processes for public or private entities environment, arising from UAS operations”185. and commercial or recreational uses, with Ideally, UTM systems should be capable of authorities’ involvement and requirements accounting for those geographical zones (see generally intensifying with an operations persistent UTM example in 2.7). categorization or risk. Operators also need to ensure compliance with relevant international and domestic legislation and Discussion applicable regulatory frameworks including Pertinent questions but not limited to customs, liability and • Which operations do not require a insurance, telecommunications standards, formal application or registration the environment, and privacy and data process to accelerate the quick rollout of protection. Some countries may also require operations safely? operators to obtain a security clearance and a specified level of endorsement from At the same time as addressing risk and the Ministries or agencies responsible reducing the administrative burden on for transport, privacy, communications, operators and authorities such as CAAs, customs (importation), law enforcement, and certain UAS operations may not require possibly aerodromes. Ultimately, the onus any prior operational authorization. will be on CAAs to approve UAS operations Although it seems justified that such non- based on their regulatory frameworks and approval scenarios exist, the challenge is categorizations. At minimum, it is a best to find a threshold where a UAS operation practice to have an authorization process passes from one that could cause harm to that accounts for systematic prioritization of one that cannot. One difficulty exists in the meaningful operations with acceptable levels determination of whether UAS constitutes of safety. aircraft, considering: Depending on the airspace type and risk “an aircraft can become arbitrarily small, involved, a CAA may consider categorizing yet legally all drones irrespective of size operations and their likeliness of are aircraft and therefore governed under authorization differently. One example of the ICAO Chicago Convention and its categorization is the EASA approach based related Annexes and contained SARPs, as on the JARUS-recommended UAS category well as regional or national legislation, A and B operations184. It considers drone ordinances, restrictions or other agreed operations as open (JARUS: Category A), upon guidance. Yet it is impossible and specific (Category B), or certified (Category C), unnecessary for the large number of depending on a set of criteria — most notably smaller, lower risk, drones – such as toys - weight of the drone and the area (i.e., urban to be considered legally as aircraft”186. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 110 Box 3.3 — The JARUS categorization of UAS operations Working Group 7 of JARUS was officially chartered with developing a categorization scheme describing the level of regulatory involvement for the varying types of UAS operations in April 2015. In 2019, JARUS190 proposed a risk-based concept for performance-based regulations of UAS operations — a recommended UAS regulatory strategy for all operational environments. The regulatory strategy includes consideration for aircraft design, production, maintenance, operational approval, pilot competency, regulatory enforcement, and safety promotion. Here, operations are considered as “open” (Category A), “specific” (Category B), or “certified” (Category C) depending on the level of risk involved: • ‘Open’ category operations — present the lowest amount of risk and do not require any involvement from a CAA. To be classified as an open operation, drones will need to be operated within the operators' Visual Line of Sight (VLOS), below 120m or Very Low-Level altitudes, away from critical infrastructure, and weigh less than 25kg. Drones with a total takeoff weight over 250g generally need to be registered but do not require operational approval for use. Open operations are divided into three types depending on whether they occur over people or populated areas with more stringent requirements imposed as ground risk increases. Although there are no formal registration requirements or minimum pilot age, pilots must know and respect airmanship, air safety rules, airspace restrictions, aviation regulations, human performance limitations, operational procedures, privacy and data protection, and security. • ‘Specific’ category operations — represent medium risk operations and go beyond open category operations by allowing for operations in very low-level airspace (up to 500 feet above ground level), above crowds of people, and Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS). Because of the higher levels of risk and complexity, UAS operators must obtain authorization, which may be for the state of registration and operation, from the CAA or other designated authority — unless granted an exemption. Exemptions or alternative means of compliance may be available when an operator holds a light UAS operator certificate with the appropriate privileges, for example. An operational authorization request submitted to the relevant authorities usually includes a site assessment, the Concept of Operations (ConOps, see 3.4), and an operational risk assessment (see 3.1). • ‘Certified’ category operations — represent high-risk operations in controlled airspace shared with conventional aviation. Operations in the certified category require certification of the operator and aircraft and the licensing of remote pilots. The transport of people is always a certified operation, whereas flying over crowds of people with a UAS may be considered specific unless the Specific Operations Risk Assessment (SORA, see 3.1) concludes that it should be certified. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 111 The JARUS categorization (see Box 3.3) is 3.4 TRAINING AND CAPACITY - one example of defining a threshold for OPERATIONS SIDE determining the minimum requirements operators need to fulfill and demonstrate Themes: Capacity building before being granted authorization. Similar Involvement: UAS service provider or wordings and thresholds are often used manufacturer and end-user outside the EU member states, with wording in many countries stemming from the ICAO Background UAS Model Regulations187. In many cases, The ICAO identified operator’s education clear communication of requirements and and training as fundamental enablers obligations could alleviate uncertainty among of safe and efficient UAS operations191. operators, who routinely find that it takes too Recent proof of concept operations with long between planning and implementation cargo drones have highlighted the need of operations to receive approval: “I really feel to strengthen safety management and that with better communication between the safety culture within the industry and operators and the regulators, we will actually involved stakeholders192. In an ideal case be able to achieve a fast-track process to make situation, local staff and local entities sure that our vision turns into reality”188. will be capable of conducting operations management (i.e., planning, monitoring, Regardless of operational classification, piloting, communications, safety, and risk however, the understanding of airspace management, maintenance, repairs) to and risk by remote pilots looking to reduce reliance on international personnel operate UAS remains crucial. This involves and ensure sustainability (see 4.2). In the knowing whether the drone is flying within case of international UAS service provider controlled or uncontrolled airspace because or vendor selection, training and knowledge it has a significant impact on categorizing transfer activities for local capacity building the planned operation(s). Similarly, whereas should be key activities to ensure a seamless cargo transport is specific in most cases, continuation of operations into the future. “the transport of dangerous goods is in the ‘certified’ category if the payload is not in a Two key groups of stakeholders and crash-protected container, such that there is actors will require training: the flight a high risk for third parties in the case of an operations team and health staff or other accident”189. community members assisting the flight operations. The level of training for these For more information, see also two groups differs: EASA (2018). Introduction of a regulatory framework 1. A local flight operations team may for the operation of unmanned aircraft systems be hired and subsequently trained on in the ‘open’ and ‘specific’ categories (Opinion No various aspects of drone operations. 01/2018). — EASA rules for the open and specific They include piloting a drone; UAS operations airmanship; battery management; 14 CFR Parts 11, 21, 43, and 107 — Outlining Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) rules for UAS drone assembly, maintenance, operations over people and populated areas. and pre-and post-flight checklist ICAO (2020, Jun 23) ICAO Model UAS Regulations — management; risk assessment and Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Certification safety management; communication (Advisory Circular 102-1) — ICAO guidance for protocols; route planning, approval, specific UAS operations authorization and operations monitoring; reporting; ICAO (n.d.-e) Special Authorization [Regulators]. Viewed May 25, 2021 — Provides a sample and meteorology. Such staff may decision tree for regulators to support the either be local license holders or authorization process for a proposed UAS seek to obtain such a license from a operation. competent authority after receiving Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 112 training. In any case, getting a remote Systematic training and onboarding pilot certification shall be a logical next of health staff will be a catalyst step after such training. for successful drone integration 2. Local staff, community members, into the health supply chain, and or users receiving the service therefore, constant communication need to be trained to handle drone and appreciation are crucial. It is delivery, in particular, to ensure also helpful to issue certificates for safe operations and continuous such staff, acknowledging their new communication with the flight competency. operations team to coordinate arrival, In both cases, having clear job descriptions loading, and departure. Local health with requirements and expected roles, staff will need to receive training in the skills and competency are very important following areas: order management, in recruiting the right staff and supporters. communications procedures, clearing Usually, training the local flight operation and securing of a landing area, staff and local health staff shall fall under handling of cargo (i.e., off-loading, the service provider or vendor. There are uploading), emergency procedures, also incredible opportunities for improved basic drone operations, and battery gender inclusion in training and recruitment, management (i.e., battery charging and championing of female leaders and and replacement, if required). entrepreneurs. Box 3.4 — Training the next generation of African UAS pilots and operators at the African Drone and Data Academy (ADDA) Although the Malawi Humanitarian Drone Testing Corridor (see Box 2.4) has managed to attract many academic and private entities to test various drone applications, it did not solve a fundamental issue of gaps in local capacity and skills. Recognizing a need for training, UNICEF and its partners established the African Drone and Data Academy (ADDA) with its first campus located in Lilongwe, Malawi. The academy is operated by Virginia Tech in partnership with the Malawi University of Science and Technology and provides technology education for African students. The Academy offers a range of both on-site and remote courses and modules covering aircraft fundamentals such as the physics of drone flight, communications, mechatronics, and autonomy, but also focuses on operations, regulations, data and geospatial analysis, and entrepreneurship. In the face of growing local and international demand for skilled UAS operators and entrepreneurs, the academy presents a unique growth opportunity for African youth. Graduates of the program become licensed drone pilots under the Malawi Department of Civil Aviation guidelines and certified AUVSI TOP pilots. As of late 2020, 90% of graduates found employment in the UAS sector. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 113 Discussion assessments. An increasing number of initiatives such as ADDA, Dronemasters, Pertinent questions Dove Academy, WeRobotics FlyingLabs, • What is the minimum number of staff and others have started to address this required? niche over the past few years. • Is there sufficient local capacity in terms 2. Once trained and certified, connecting of certified, experienced remote pilots that talent with opportunities — and non-flying staff involved in the Local capacity is often limited, requiring operation? organizations to bring their staff and • Who will verify operator training, equipment, which is not sustainable from certification, and experience, and will a business or environmental perspective. foreign ones be recognized? Despite increasing numbers of certified and experienced staff, there is not always “We noticed that there are very few delivery a customer demand, however. At a drones out there and even fewer people that minimum, the staff roster should include are actually trained to fly them. We could an operator and a mechanic as flight not scale cargo deliveries from a regulatory personnel. Ideally, all flights should involve or technology aspect as the underlying the use of spotters to increase operational tech and knowledge to fly wasn’t out there. safety support and reduce risk. Those We ended up in a situation where we had can be medical or security staff at the to ship personnel and new technology, operating sites, for example. which was not particularly sustainable 3. The distribution of licensed and from a business, time, and environmental certified schools — Whereas most perspective. When looking at data, we countries with regulations mandate pilot realized that there are many photography certification in the form of licenses or drones and drone pilots out there. They other proof of competency, requirements already owned drones, were capable, and vary widely, particularly when considering had the permission to fly them.” increasing complexities or types of operation. The absence of standard Helena Samsioe, GLOBHE curriculums in recognized institutions further exacerbates the challenges of A lack of capable staff is among the disharmonization (see 2.3)193. Although most crucial barriers to creating local an increasing number of initiatives exist, business opportunities, scaling up, and licensed and certified schools are still few in sustainability of operations. This comes number depending on the continent, as are down to three key challenges: regulations needed to certify such schools. 1. Finding talent with the right experience — Most local drone pilots were found not to have an aviation background. For more information, see also Many local pilots, for example, are Dubin, S., Greve, A., Triche, R. (2020). Drones in International Development. Innovating the engineers and require extensive extra Supply Chain to Reach Patients in Remote Areas. training when going beyond multi-copter Washington: USAID — Recommendations for flights. Yet drone pilots have to share the conduct of successful drone operations based the airspace with conventional aviation. on experiences of drone operations along Lake Clear procedures are needed based on a Malawi. WFP (2019, Jun) Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) framework that gets updated based on Training. Report on the Regional Drone Training learned experiences. Some drone service for Central America. Rome: WFP. — Overview of providers might build a framework for the Let’s FLY, Let’s MAP, and Let’s COORDINATE operations without having an aviation training program and lessons learned from its implementation with officials from six Central background and appropriate drone risk American countries Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 114 Phase 4: Operations And Sustainability Having determined that operations are feasible, required elements to support safe and efficient scaling of UAS operations are in place, and operators are ready to conduct operations, the final phase of flying and ensuring sustainability begins. Given overall operational approval, operators will likely still need to obtain flight approval for each flight as part of the on-the-day mission preparation. Considering the number of steps, elements, and actions required from initial considerations of use cases to the actual take-off, the flight itself is generally a rather anticlimactic affair once it transitions from VLOS to automated BVLOS. Beyond the flying itself, ongoing engagement, monitoring, and evaluation should form part of any UAS operation to determine whether an operation was successful and strive toward financial and environmental sustainability and overall sustainability of knowledge194. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 115 4.1 FLIGHT OPERATIONS • Local airspace and flight restrictions — Route planning should also consider Themes: Flight operations the proximity of planned operations to Involvement: UAS service provider for conventional aviation activity. Access outsourcing or end-user in case of insourcing to NOTAM or TFR will help identify any and CAA or another designated oversight non-normal activities within the airspace. authority, ANSP Flight planning should also account for restricted or prohibited airspace. Background Flight operations consist of three phases: Depending on the type of airspace (see mission preparation, flight, and post- 2.4) and operations category (see 3.3), flight. Although the primary focus on any operators may need to obtain an ATC UAS operation is on conducting the flight authorization before any flight. Obtaining itself, adequate preparation and post-flight authorization is especially crucial for evaluation are at least equally, if not more, operations taking place in or near controlled important, to ensure safe and efficient airspace and aerodromes — both to operations. manage air risk and minimize disruption to conventional aviation. UTM services (see 2.7) Mission preparation are essential to the monitoring of air traffic and approval-based governance. Despite Flight scheduling, routing, and planning the capabilities of UTM services, however, should begin with assessing the operating the ultimate responsibility for evaluating the environment, including risks to persons importance and necessity of proposed flight and property near envisaged operations, plans to ensure timely approval and support local weather conditions, and airspace decongestion remains with the ANSP. and flight restrictions. • Determining ground risk — Route “Automated approval-based governance plans should avoid populated and – Providing an easy, low-cost and urban areas to reduce risk to people inclusive way to access airspace is and infrastructure on the ground. fundamental to promoting an ecosystem However, accurate base maps to assist of drone use that enables STEM with planning paths around (critical) education, low-altitude operations infrastructure are often hard to come by. and more long-distance, complex At the same time, an increasing number operations. These services are evolving of UTM service providers (see 2.7) are rapidly and being rolled out all over the considering how to provide dynamic risk world, enabling real-time approvals, profiles to assist with route planning and providing low-overhead management obtaining approvals. of rule-based airspace, and facilitating • Local weather conditions — Operators deconfliction.”196 need to make informed judgments as to whether it’s safe to operate within The final step of mission preparation the given weather situations given the should include pre-flight briefings and limits of their UAS platform (see 1.5). inspections to assess airworthiness, Additionally, depending on the type of compliance, and safety. Briefings should airspace and local regulations, different ensure that all persons involved in the visual meteorological conditions such upcoming flight or operations are aware as minimum visibility and distance from of operating conditions, emergency clouds may need to be present for a flight procedures, contingency procedures, roles operation to obtain clearance from the and responsibilities, and potential hazards ANSP or ATC195. affecting operational safety. Inspections Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 116 should cover both the UAS platform to operations, droneports, and so forth. ensure it is safe and airworthy and that there EASA, for example, provides guidance for is enough available power to operate for the evaluation of ERPs198. Each ERP should the intended operational time and at least be suitable to the ConOps; clearly define five minutes after that. Inspections should criteria to identify an emergency; include further cover the RPS to ensure that C2 mitigation measures to reduce risk; be easy links with the UAS are working correctly. A to understand and practical to use; clearly high proportion of incidents and accidents delineate remote crew member(s) duties; and involving UAS are attributable to human error outline notification procedures. Emergency by the Remote Pilot197. The use of checklists is procedures commonly involve avoidance a proven foundation for improving aviation strategies such as rapidly descending the safety and standardizing pilot procedures UA to a safe altitude, where an encounter in conventional aviation. Their use helps with another aircraft is highly remote, or improve safety and reduce the costs executing an immediate landing in a safe attributable to equipment loss and the risk of space such as a predetermined emergency damage to third parties. flight termination zone (EFTZ)199. For most scenarios, it should further include actions to Flight notify first responders in the case of a crash, Although most flight operations will run as well as the ANSP and nearby operators in under normal procedures as determined geo-fence breaches, to reduce air risk. during mission preparation, some flight operations may encounter abnormal Post-flight situations and call for non-normal Evaluations of individual flights can (contingency) or emergency response support the continued monitoring and procedures. Those scenarios may include a assessment of overall operations and violation of TFR airspace by an unknown or provide learning opportunities for future non-cooperative entity (i.e., no transponder, flights. Reports can include qualitative no radio, no flight plan aircraft or other UAS) observations and technical data collected (see 2.4), the loss of C2 link, and subsequent from the UAS information system. Both can control of a drone (see 2.6), or sudden strong assist with understanding and learning from winds that may exceed tolerances of the safety-related occurrences and support the specific UAS platform. Operators should evaluation of Key Performance Indicators anticipate different scenarios and develop (KPIs) related to the overall UAS operation contingency procedures and an ERP (see 3.1) (see 4.2). Overall flight quality metrics can in advance for inclusion in their operations include flight duration and distance, battery manual (see 3.2). Having procedures and consumption, “altitudes, routes/waypoint plans in place can help remote operators tracks, flight operational time (including mitigate the consequences of a failure at preparation, take-off, landing and post-flight some level to ensure overall safety and tasks) average and maximum airspeeds and reduce risks to others. groundspeeds, environmental conditions”200. Similarly, the report can capture any safety- An ERP should address situations that related occurrences, such as breaches of NO- escalate beyond normal and contingency FLY-ZONES, organizational or administrative conditions to the unrecoverable loss issues that may impact future flying safety of control of operations. Emergency and security, and other aspects that procedures should be developed as part of prompted a deviation from normal flight the safety and risk management (see 3.1) and procedures. ConOps (see 3.2) and be specific to different UAS platforms, operating environments, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 117 Box 4.1 — From contingency procedures to emergency response plan (ERP) — C2 Link loss As long as a UA continues along the pre-planned route and flight plan, within the agreed-upon geofence parameters, and is trackable via UTM, operations may generally be considered normal (no further action) or, at worst, invoke contingency procedures (such as briefly holding position in hover mode). Additional complicating factors, such as straying off routes toward the edge and beyond the geo-fence, a breakdown in tracking via UTM, loss of power to the UTM systems, or failure to regain C2 link, may require operators to invoke emergency response procedures. In the case of such a loss of control event, operators should invoke their predetermined ERP. For example, in the case of the Lake Kivu Challenge (LKC) in Rwanda, this would have involved immediate notification of the Rwanda Approach Control Centre, L’Autorité de l’Aviation Civile du Congo (RDC), and Goma ATC (see Appendix B). Owing to the absence of parachutes and other "arrestor systems’201 for safe landings UAS at the LKC were pre-programmed to first continue flying along the pre-planned flight path to try and reestablish the C2 link (contingency) before seeking out a predetermined EFTZ in case of failure of reconnection events (emergency). EFTZ’s were located away from populations and clear of other UAS to reduce ground and air risk at the same time as offering the option to recover UAS both for salvaging for future operations and reduce environmental concerns over abandoned equipment. For more information, see also ADF (2020). Lake Kivu Challenge: Un-crewed Aircraft Flying: Concept of Operations (ConOps). Version 4.1 — State of the art ConOps for Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) flights close to aerodrome approach paths and international borders Bothner, M., et al. (2021). Humanitarian UAV Code of Conduct & Guidelines. — UAS code of conduct guidelines on data protection Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 118 4.2 SUSTAINABILITY OF payload transported, flight quantity, and OPERATIONS AND THE ECOSYSTEM failure rate204. It is important to note that monitoring and evaluating drone programs, Themes: Capacity building, community although often under-resourced, shall always engagement, use cases, and regulations be an integral part of a program’s design Involvement: Everyone and receive sufficient technical, human, and financial resources. KPIs should align with Background local and national strategies and policies, Continued monitoring and evaluation of such as national health supply chain strategy, ongoing operations, considerations of national disaster preparedness strategy, or financing beyond initial donor-funding, other relevant strategic documents, to ensure continuity of knowledge, and minimizing they reflect needs and priorities. environmental impact are crucial to ensuring the sustainability of both Cost evaluation and financial operations and the broader ecosystem. sustainability Evaluating cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit Monitoring and evaluation of or cost-utility and planning for financial operation performance sustainability requires understanding Monitoring provides insight into how the costs and performance of the UAS well the operation meets its goals operations and previous systems. and performance targets, informs The evaluation of costs is separate from suggestions for timely changes to live conventional monitoring and evaluation service provision, and assists with impact of operational performance. It requires a assessment and evaluation against thorough understanding of all costs involved, alternative technology options. Evaluation including capital and pre-launch costs such supports the “objective assessment of as infrastructure, training, and ongoing fixed success or failure” and helps shape the and variable operating costs of operations direction of future goals, which should (see 1.2) at scale over a sustained period, form part of the procurement or vendor since the costs for pilot operations may management. Combined, they determine a not reflect those at scale. In addition, it project’s “effectiveness to deliver outputs requires information on the performance of that translate into outcomes and establish UAS operations obtained through routine their impact against measurable indicators, monitoring and evaluation and baseline against alternative means of process data for previous systems such as land delivery cost comparators”202 and fixed surveying or ground transport, depending versus variable costs. “Any operation needs on the chosen use case. Unfortunately, there to be able to demonstrate that it is not is limited publicly available knowledge on doing the wrong thing very well (efficient the cost of UAS operations, as stakeholders but ineffective) not the right thing but badly either do not know or are hesitant to share. (effective but inefficient)”203. Whereas initial pilot projects are likely to Key performance or impact indicators are focus on specific use cases, transitioning fundamental metrics for evaluating the toward layering of use cases can unlock impact of interventions compared with new business opportunities to ensure alternative means of service provision. the financial sustainability of operations Indicators should be developed early on (see 1.1, 1.2). Opportunities for layering and as part of the use case needs assessment cross-subsidization exist across mapping, in the initial feasibility assessment phase. cargo, and surveillance with applications Examples of KPIs include turnaround times, of interest to the private, government, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 119 and humanitarian sectors. Similarly, the manufacturers and operators, thus opening of infrastructure, support services, supporting the growth of the local ecosystem. and other elements across the UAS value Leaving equipment, skills, and infrastructure chain for shared use can help drive cost- in the country can be good if the ecosystem is effectiveness through increased utilization in place and there is a real need and use case of infrastructure such as droneports and for the technology. Otherwise, abandoning services such as UTM and UAS platforms equipment and batteries should prompt themselves (see 1.4)205. Opening for shared considerations over the environmental use can further open additional revenue impact of operations. streams and business opportunities, such as introducing fabrication labs at droneports Environmental sustainability (see 2.5). Both layering and opening up for From an environmental perspective, shared use can be a vehicle to transition operations involving battery-powered from donor funding to more sustainable drones should consider how spent financing models. Similarly, the reduction or damaged batteries are disposed of other upstream or downstream costs of or recycled to minimize lasting through the optimized distribution of medical environmental impact209. Whereas bringing commodities, for example, can provide cost lithium batteries into the country can be recovery mechanisms to finance ongoing UAS a significant challenge (see 2.9), recycling operations206. Opportunities for cost recovery or disposal can prove an even bigger could include on-demand distribution rather one. Lithium batteries commonly used in than stockpiling of certain commodities, battery-powered UAS platforms can pose thus reducing the procurement volume, or fire and health hazards when damaged or opportunities for PPPs, such as the delivery, improperly disposed of. Some organizations for a monthly fee, of specific commodities, and universities have started setting up their including rabies treatment, HIV/AIDS post- lithium battery programs as examples for exposure prophylaxis, or antivenoms, local recycling to address those hazards. to mining companies or international However, in many cases, UAS operators organizations working in remote areas. will not have considered how to dispose of Ultimately, however, “collaborations with batteries or have not come up with a clear domestic investors are the most likely plan. Operators and manufacturers are often to provide long-term growth through vague or unwilling to divulge information on partnership with government ministries and their disposal plans, while donors will only foreign-direct investment”207. require that operators and manufacturers need to deal with sustainability themselves, Sustainability of knowledge without setting clear sustainability metrics Exporting of equipment means that that companies have to fulfill, raising foreign organizations did the work, concerns that lithium batteries may end up and the legacy risks leave the country. in a dump somewhere. Selling refurbished As discussed in Sections 2.1 (Training — drones could also be an exciting pathway to Enabling side), 2.12 (Procurement), and 3.4 increase sustainability and help lower the (Training — Operations side), as elsewhere, cost barrier for some projects. “knowledge and skills transfer and capacity development, such as building local skills Discussion in addition to community engagement”208 Pertinent questions should both precede and form part of the • Can the regulatory environment adapt to ongoing operations. Training and knowledge new technology developments, and is it exchange helps ensure local start-ups conducive to long-term operations and and stakeholders learn from established funding? Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 120 • Will data about the comparative value of drones be shared? • What are potential pathways and activities to strive toward financial sustainability of operations? For more information, see also Knoblauch, et al. (2019). Bi-directional drones to strengthen healthcare provision: experiences and lessons from Madagascar, Malawi and Senegal. BMJ Global Health, 4: e001541 — Overview of experiences from implementing cargo drone pilot projects for health service provision across three African countries. UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct). Unmanned Aircraft Systems: Product Profiles and Guidance. Annexe 2: Value for Money. Kopenhagen: UNICEF Supply Division —Discussing the ACQUA framework for evaluating operations from a cost-effectiveness point of view. UPDWG (2019, May 22). Technical and Logistical Challenges Encountered During Test Flights in Malawi. Presentation— Details lessons learned from the Malawi drone corridor VillageReach, ISG-UAS (2019, Nov). Toolkit for Generating Evidence around the Use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) for Medical Commodity Delivery, Version 2. Seattle: VillageReach — Evaluation framework to determine the success of UAS operations WFP Logistics Cluster (n.d.). Technical Support Guides: Monitoring and Evaluation. Rome: WFP — Provides an overview of assessment and monitoring cost-effectiveness and impact of interventions over time Conclusion This guidebook intends to provide a comprehensive end-to-end overview of elements that underpin safe and sustainable high-frequency UAS operations and the broader enabling ecosystem surrounding them. For operations to be successful, they need to be viable and address a demonstrated need cost-effectively. Broader ecosystem-supporting and operation-specific elements from local capacity to regulations, communication spectrum to infrastructure, and customs to procurement procedures are required. Operators must develop their operations manual and ConOps underpinning safety and risk-management efforts proportional to the planned operations. Community outreach, sensitization, and stakeholder engagement, as well as capacity building, should be ongoing. Crucially, continuous monitoring and evaluation can foster an understanding of the success of operations, provide learning opportunities, and increase financial and environmental sustainability and overall sustainability of knowledge. The broad range of activities and elements helps address and overcome key barriers to the success of UAS operations and ecosystems. Although this guidebook largely builds on African experiences, it is very much region-agnostic and applicable elsewhere. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 122 KEY ENABLING ACTIVITIES pilot and feasibility demonstration phase(s) from the very beginning. ● Considerations of timelines — 1. Feasibility and buy-in Activities from procurement to ● Feasibility assessment — Although transporting batteries and obtaining UAS can introduce a plethora of operational approvals to open up new benefits, they do so at potentially air routes can take significant amounts significant expense, a particular of time. A recent survey found that concern for envisioned use in low- the initial setup of UAS programs resource settings. A thorough can take anywhere from six months feasibility analysis, including use to two years, with scale-ups taking case needs and opportunity cost “an additional six to nine months”211, assessment, can help determine potentially affecting investor interest whether prospective operations align and confidence. with actual needs and can provide tangible benefits. It may also prevent 2. Training and capacity building the setup of unnecessary parallel ● Operational training — Many supply chains that may ultimately international organizations routinely compete with existing ones or several bring personnel and technology with other “failure” scenarios210. them, which is not sustainable from ● Community and stakeholder a business nor an environmental engagement — Whereas feasibility perspective. A lack of skilled pilots is assessments may show clear benefits, a particularly pressing concern for in theory, they rely on political and cargo operations, requiring more social buy-in across all affected sophisticated technology and skillsets stakeholders, local communities, than mapping applications. For and the general public. Engagement mapping applications, capacity gaps should include dialogue between are mostly within geospatial analysis demand (i.e., non-aviation client rather than on the operations and sectors such as agriculture, urban, data collection side. Providing training and environment) and supply, opportunities and capacity building such as transport, regulatory, and can increase the employability of airspace sides. Early and ongoing youth and skilled professionals, engagement is crucial to ensuring while ensuring enough certified buy-in, wider acceptance, alleviation and experienced personnel to meet of skepticism and safety concerns service demands are available. of drone technology, and ultimately ● Regulatory capacity building increasing chances for the long-term — Many aviation regulators may sustainability of high-frequency drone experience UAS as daunting operations. technologies, bringing with them ● Ensure financial sustainability — A new implications on everything lack of continued funding beyond from airspace and ground risk initial pilots and potential donor management to security concerns dependence can have drastic impacts over dropping of cargo and privacy on the long-term sustainability concerns over cameras on board. of projects and can potentially Understandably, regulators may undo much of the existing work worry about regulating wholly alien, and community buy-in. Therefore, rapidly evolving technology with implementers should consider how to widespread ramifications on existing fund UAS operations beyond the initial operating procedures, processes, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 123 and arrangements212. Fostering an air space, including beyond line understanding of UAS technology, its of sight. In the absence of such implications, and benefits through clarity, UAV initiatives are bound dedicated capacity building can to remain at the scale of donor- alleviate concerns and address gaps funded pilots, and investment in knowledge to lay a foundation for in local technical capacity designing fit-for-purpose regulations. and necessary infrastructure – including infrastructure 3. UAS regulations or rules in ancillary services such as ● Overcome language barriers reliable internet and electricity — Many UAS specific guidance connectivity efficient internet and documents, such as the ICAO UAS electricity services that allow UAV model regulations, are only available operations to run smoothly – will in English. In contrast, the ICAO be discouraged”213. annexes, for example, are translated into the six United Nations languages. Uncertainty is an especially pressing Language barriers further extend to challenge for BVLOS in general workshops and other materials, often and cargo operations in particular. held in English or poorly translated, Providing clear implementing acts leading to limited engagement from and permitting rules can help alleviate francophone CAAs across Africa, for uncertainty and serve as crucial example. Translating documents and enablers for securing funding and specific accommodations for other planning timelines for setting up and languages in consultative processes scaling-up of safe and efficient UAS such as workshops can increase operations. collaboration and knowledge and ● Harmonization and interoperability learning exchange. — The alignment of rules, regulations, ● Development of fit-for-purpose UAS and processes across countries are regulations — The development of crucial enablers to both ease of setting clear and fit-for-purpose regulations up operations in different countries relies on a certain level of regulatory and ultimately operations across capacity and drone knowledge. borders. Political motivations from a Compared with conventional RSOO or the African Union, in the case aviation, the rapid development of of Africa, for example, could accelerate UAS technologies renders traditional regional dialogues. Although views on regulatory elements such as international organizations, such as airworthiness certification impractical the Interagency Supply Chain Group in many cases. Yet fit-for-purpose UAS or Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, regulations need to be compatible can aid in building a larger strategy, with existing aviation regulations and they are often limited in their ability to those of other sectors to reflect the lobby for harmonization directly. latest developments without being overly restrictive. 4. Operations and infrastructure ● Provide clear rules — In many cases, ● Auditing, airworthiness UAS operators have found a assessments, and maintenance inspections — Auditing, assessments, “need for regulatory support, or and inspections are crucial to at least clarification, regarding the safety of UAS operations, the ability of UAVs [that is, UAS] particularly in light of the challenges to operate in the shared civilian with providing the airworthiness Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 124 certification mentioned above. Yet, ● African Drone and Data Academy many CAAs may either be lacking (ADDA) — Based in Lilongwe, dedicated knowledge or resources Malawi, the ADDA, is established to assess rapidly evolving UAS by UNICEF and run by Virginia Tech technology. Opportunities exist in in collaboration with the Malawi setting up national commissions to University of Science and Technology provide oversight activities funded out (MUST). It represents a local training of a portion of each UAS operations initiative, recruiting cohorts of future budget. drone pilots from Malawi and beyond. ● UTM service provision — Many In addition to providing training to CAAs are experiencing challenges prospective UAS operators, it helps with the safe integration of UAS into share knowledge on drone use cases the national airspace. UTM services and applications214. can support ANSPs and ATC in their ● African Drone Forum (ADF) — airspace oversight responsibilities and The ADF is a multi-stakeholder address challenges of managing air engagement platform for drone risk. It can also help address security technologies and services that meets concerns emerging from unauthorized the needs of emerging African market drone usage within sovereign opportunities. The program connects airspace. the African drone community, curates ● Safety and risk management — knowledge relevant to stakeholders, Managing safety and risk are crucial and defines high-frequency drone to ensure the safety of operations and service requirements with the others affected by ongoing operations potential for significant social and and identify hazards and mitigation economic benefits. The ADF seeks steps to reduce or eliminate risks to demonstrate how a future drone associated with those hazards. economy will look by showcasing the ● The increasing maturity of technical frontier use cases tailored to African standards and guidance — As UAS countries' needs and facilitates hardware, software, and infrastructure harmonized rulemaking directions (for example, connectivity, to support African services. The surveillance, and data quality) develop program kicked off in February 2020 further, they will ultimately achieve as a first-of-its-kind event in Africa, the necessary levels of maturity with the potential to evolve into a required to underpin safe, higher- regular forum on the state of the risk category operations. Remaining art and to serve as a showcase for dynamic and open while predicting system advances with increasing future know-how is one approach to levels of automation that can make a anticipate developments and ensure significant difference for isolated and regulations and rules are capable of rural communities.215 regulating in a fit-for-purpose rather ● AfricaGoesDigital Inc. (AfGD) — than a restrictive fashion. AfricaGoesDigital Inc. is an industry association representing selected ROLES OF KEY ORGANIZATIONS African enterprises that are providing AND INITIATIVES digital services in the sectors of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, Several organizations and initiatives can natural resource management, provide varying types and levels of support, infrastructure, and mining, and in the with the list being not exhaustive by any domains of surveying, engineering, means: inspection, disaster risk management, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 125 humanitarian work, and research. EAC-CASSOA is drafting performance- Members leverage the power of digital based model regulations for the technologies such as UASs, satellite EAC in line with ICAO UAS model imagery, or geographical information regulations for promulgation in 2021. systems to deliver quality services ● European Organisation for Civil and high-end products across the Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE) continent. Some members of AfGD — EUROCAE works with industry offer certified UAS training in Africa. members and represents the ● AW-Drone — This is a Horizon 2020 European leader in developing research project to support “the internationally recognized industry rulemaking process for the definition standards for aviation. Their WG- of rules, technical standards and 105/UAS working group operates procedures for civilian drones to across several focus teams “tasked enable safe and reliable operations to develop standards and guidance in the European Union”216. It provides documents that will allow the safe a comprehensive repository and operation of UAS in all types of searchable list of links to technical airspace, at all times and for all types standards and best practices relating of operations” with WG-115 explicitly to the SORA methodology (see 3.1). focusing on Counter UAS218. From 2021, the focus shifts to UTM ● FAA Alliance for System Safety of and U-Space (see 2.7) and guidance on UAS through Research Excellence autonomous operations. (ASSURE) — ASSURE is a partnership ● Directorate-General for European of leading research institutes, private Civil Protection and Humanitarian sector and government partners with Aid Operations (DG ECHO) DG a mission “to provide high-quality ECHO and its humanitarian partner research and support to autonomy organizations have spearheaded work stakeholders both within the US to integrate UASs safely, securely, and beyond to safely and efficiently and efficiently into its humanitarian integrate autonomous systems initiatives. “The main mission of the into the national and international Directorate-General for European infrastructure, thereby increasing Civil Protection and Humanitarian commerce and overall public safety Aid Operations is to preserve lives, and benefit”219. prevent and alleviate human suffering ● Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) — and safeguard the integrity and FSF “is an independent, nonprofit, dignity of populations affected by international organization engaged natural disasters and man-made in research, education, advocacy and crises”217. Headquartered in Brussels communications to improve aviation with a global network of field offices, safety. The Foundation’s mission is DG ECHO ensures rapid and effective to connect, influence and lead global delivery of EU relief assistance. aviation safety”220. Its Autonomous and ● East African Community Civil Remotely Piloted Aviation Systems Aviation Safety and Security (ARPAS) Advisory Committee is a Oversight Agency (EAC-CASSOA) collaborative industry-government- — EAC-CASSOA is the RSOO for the academic effort to address safety six East African Community Partner considerations in un-crewed States with a mandate to harmonize autonomous and semi-autonomous aviation regulations, policies, and flight operations. It further serves as procedures. Following the first set of a forum to inform international safety RPAS regulations developed in 2017, policy and practices related to UAS. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 126 ● Flying Labs Network — Flying Organization (ICAO) — ICAO Labs Network is a network of locally develops international SARPs and owned and operated knowledge hubs policies to ensure safe, secure, focusing on social-good applications and efficient aviation224. The scope for drones. Flying Labs build and of ICAO’s work is on conventional strengthen local drone and data (that is, crewed) and RPASs (that capacity through hands-on training is, un-crewed) aircraft abiding by for organizations and individuals and SARPs while operating under IFR in pilot/research projects in collaboration international, ICAO-classified airspace with local stakeholders. They also and at controlled aerodromes. build and facilitate local ecosystems, Although non-certified UAS in the convene knowledge-sharing and lower airspace is not part of ICAO's support local organizations and core mandate, they are increasingly entrepreneurs with mentorship.221 recognized. This recognition led to ● Global UTM Association (GUTMA) the development of guidance text for — GUTMA “is a non-profit consortium UAS model regulations225 published in of worldwide Unmanned Aircraft 2020 as a milestone of involvement Systems Traffic Management (UTM) and recognition of UAS within ICAO stakeholders. Its purpose is to and stakeholder engagement through foster the safe, secure and efficient both the UAS Advisory Group (UAS-AG) integration of drones in national and the annual Drone Enable event. airspace systems. Its mission is ● International Organization for to support and accelerate the Standardization (ISO) — Committee transparent implementation of ISO/TC 20/SC 16 UAS is currently globally interoperable UTM systems. developing global standards with the GUTMA members collaborate following scope: “Standardization remotely.”222 in the field of unmanned aircraft ● Interagency Supply Chain Group’s systems, with the regard to UAS Coordinating Body (ISG-UAS) — their design and development, ISG-UAS comprises 11 international manufacturing, delivery, maintenance; organizations and donors that classification and characteristics of convene stakeholders in the UAS unmanned aircraft systems; materials, and global health space to align components and equipment used and coordinate UAS investments during their manufacturing, as well for payload delivery in low- and as in the field of safety in joint usage middle-income countries. Through of airspace”226 by un-crewed and this coordination, ISG-UAS aims to conventional aviation. understand the potential of UAS ● Joint Authorities for Rulemaking in global health, where to focus of Unmanned Systems (JARUS) investments in the near- and long- — JARUS delivers mature UAS term, and how to better leverage guidance for authorities to use in each other’s work to continue this rulemaking efforts, including the SORA knowledge base and ensure the methodology, associated STS (see 3.1), investments are cost-effective and and a UAS operational categorization sustainable. ISG-UAS is a part of the (see 3.3)227. Interagency Supply Chain Group, a ● Radio Technical Commission global collaboration forum to support for Aeronautics, Inc. (RTCA) country-level improvements in health — RTCA working group SC-228 supply chains223. works closely with EUROCAE on ● International Civil Aviation developing standards to support Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 127 authorities’ rulemaking programs interested in developing, advancing, focused on detect-and-avoid and C2 and applying drones for use in public performance228. health and supply chain systems. ● Single European Sky ATM Research UPDWG provides a platform for Joint Undertaking (SESAR) — SESAR members to share information, is an international Public-Private experiences, and resources on drones Partnership (PPP) representing the for health with a diverse network of “technological pillar of Europe’s professionals and organizations. It ambitious Single European Sky (SES) also hosts the Medical Drone Delivery initiative. SESAR is the mechanism Database231, the world’s leading drone which coordinates and concentrates database for health implementations. all EU research and development ● VillageReach — VillageReach is (R&D) activities in ATM”229 including on an international nongovernmental services and capabilities necessary to organization that transforms health facilitate the European U-Space UTM. care delivery to reach everyone so ● UNICEF Supply Division — In that each person has the health care collaboration with partners, the needed to thrive. In collaboration with UNICEF Supply Division supports governments, the private sector, and governments in strengthening NGOs, they aim to demonstrate the national supply chain systems with potential of drones to improve the a particular focus on the needs of availability of health products and children and emergency response. increase equity of access. VillageReach It provides technical assistance and has extensive experience developing capacity building to improve drone and managing drone delivery delivery integration into supply chains programs from proof-of-concept and serves as the secretariat for the flights to large-scale drone delivery Interagency Supply Chain Group. operations in the Democratic Republic ● Union Economique et monétaire of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Ouest Africaine (UEMOA) — The Dominican Republic, and the Central West African Economic and Monetary African Republic. Union UEMOA is made up of eight ● WFP: UAS Coordination Technical member states in French-speaking Working Group — The UAS West Africa. The RSOO supporting coordination group is a platform for the UEMOA member states is Unité exchanging ideas and best practices Régionale de Supervision de la among a community of stakeholders Sécurité et e la Sûreté de l’Aviation involved in the safe and responsible Civile de l’UEMOA (URSAC). In 2018, use of UAS, especially in humanitarian UEMOA and URSAC drafted model text and emergency activities. It comprises for use by their Francophone member four technical working groups: states when drafting UAS regulations: connectivity, imagery, ethics, and “Annexe au reglement d’execution relatif regulation and operation. a l’exploitation des aeronefs telepilotes ● World Bank Group (WBG) — The - Première edition”230. The document WBG provides funding and knowledge could be adapted for French speaking to developing countries in response CAAs across Africa, although it does to government requests as part of not align with the ICAO UAS Model a commitment to reduce poverty, regulations. increase shared prosperity, and ● UAV for Payload Delivery Working promote sustainable development Group (UPDWG) — UPDWG is a global shared among its five institutions. community of 350+ stakeholders ● World Economic Forum (WEF) — Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 128 The Aerospace and Drones Team operations and connects the broader is a part of the WEF’s Centre for communities surrounding drone ports the Fourth Industrial Revolution. It and operations. Improvements in seeks to leverage the global reach of connectivity are likely to drive broader WEF to scale its Performance-Based economic and societal impacts, from Regulation framework and enable enabling new jobs and skills training to local economies around the world to unlocking innovation and investment begin integrating drones into their to increasing productivity. supply chains. ● Artificial intelligence — AI ● Women in Drones — Women represents a fundamental enabler for in Drones is a membership increasing levels of autonomy, and, in organization seeking to increase turn, serves as an enabler for higher female participation in the economic utilization and thus improved cost- opportunities of the UAS industry efficiencies of operations232. Outside through partnerships with companies of flight operations, advances in AI will committed to promoting inclusivity. continue to impact data collection and Many of the donor organizations work from analytics applications significantly. the bottom up and can only provide support ● Heavy lift — The delivery of in response to government-level requests. humanitarian aid, including food Having a clear plan on what is planned, and ad-hoc medical infrastructure, what is needed where and when, and how commonly rely on large cargo aircraft the needs are meant to be addressed, such as the Hercules C130, which are which this guidebook can help develop, expensive to operate and require can significantly increase the chances of large landing strips. Heavy-lift cargo collaborations leading to successful, safe, and drones provide an opportunity sustainable high-frequency UAS operations. to serve the middle mile more effectively while reducing risk to staff FUTURE TRENDS for operations in fragile or conflict- affected states. As technology advances, new breakthroughs ● Propulsion technology — Although with potential for opening new services the energy density of lithium batteries and broader environmental, societal, and is still too small for most operations, it economic benefits are possible. Although by is improving over time. Breakthroughs no means exhaustive, the most noteworthy of hydrocarbons are still a while off, include: with hydrogen-powered drones such ● 4G, 5G, and satellites — as South Korea-manufactured Doosan Opportunities exist in the increasing DS30 representing an intermediary rollout of 4G and 5G technologies, solution. Whereas solid-state batteries HAPS, and satellite constellations represent an ideal solution for drones such as the SpaceX Starlink. due to their high capacity and small Providing high bandwidths to remote size, they have not yet seen wide or rural regions supports drone market adoption. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 129 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 130 Bibliography ADF (2020, Sep). Newsletter ADF (2020). Lake Kivu Challenge: Un-crewed Aircraft Flying: Concept of Operations (ConOps) ADF (2021a). A systematic review of UAS regulations and rules in African Union Member States ADF (2021b). Traffic Management of the Future, Today: A Primer on UTM African Union (2018, Jan 25-26). Decision on the Reports of the Specialised Technical Committees (STCs) (EX. CL/Dec. 987 (XXXII). Proceedings of Executive Council Thirty-Second Ordinary Session Airmap (February 19, 2019). Anatomy of UTM and U-Space: Participants, Services, and Architecture. White Paper Allen, K. (2016, Mar 15). Using drones to save lives in Malawi. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world- africa-35810153 ASTM (2019). Standard Specification for Remote ID and Tracking (F3411-19). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International Bahrainwala, L., et al. (2020). Drones and digital adherence monitoring for community-based tuberculosis control in remote Madagascar: A cost-effectiveness analysis, PLOSOne Bothner, M., et al. (2021). Humanitarian UAV Code of Conduct & Guidelines. https://uavcode.org/ Brown, A. (2020, Feb 5). Droneports and Infrastructure Services in Africa. Presentation delivered at the African Drone Forum, February 5-7, 2020. Kigali, Rwanda CASA (2017, Aug 3). Overview of civil aviation safety legislation. https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/ overview-civil-aviation-safety-legislation Chakib, M. (2018, Nov). Safety Management System. Presentation delivered at SMS Aerodrome, November 27-29, 2018, Cairo, Egypt. https://www.icao.int/MID/Documents/2018/Aerodrome%20SMS%20Workshop/ M1-1-SMS_Aerodrome_Hazard%20Identfication.pdf Civil Aviation Authority UK (2020, Nov 5). Unmanned Aircraft System Operations in UK Airspace — Guidance (CAP 722) (Eighth Edition). Crawley: Civil Aviation Authority Civil Aviation Authority UK (2021, Feb 12). Regulations made under powers in the Civil Aviation Act 1982 and the Air Navigation Order 2016 (CAP 393). Crawley: Civil Aviation Authority Coban, S., Oktay, T. (2018). Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) According to Engine Type. Journal of Aviation, 2(2), 177-184 Code of Federal Regulations (2020, Jan 1). Title 14 — Aeronautics and Space. Cohn, P., Green, A., Langstaff, M., Roller, M. (2017, Dec 5). Commercial drones are here: The future of unmanned aerial systems. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-logistics-and-infrastructure/our- insights/commercial-drones-are-here-the-future-of-unmanned-aerial-systems Creamer, S. P. (2018). Aircraft Registration Network (ARN) for Drones. Presentation delivered at Drone Enable/2, September 10-14, 2018, Chengdu, China Creative Commons (2019). About CC Licenses. Viewed May 12, 2021 Crowne Agents (2017, May 4). Can drones really help us save lives in the world’s most fragile contexts? https://www.crownagents.com/blog-post/can-drones-really-help-us-save-lives-in-the-worlds-most- fragile-contexts/ Crowne Agents (2019). Drones na Salone. Saving the lives of women and children: The introduction of a sustainable, cost-effective, on-demand delivery model, utilising drone technology, into medical supply Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 131 Bibliography chain of Sierra Leone. Position paper Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, VillageReach, GIZ, and UNICEF (2019, Dec). Malawi Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) Toolkit: A Guideline for Drone Service Providers, Humanitarian and Research Fields. https://www.updwg.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Malawi-RPA-Toolkit-2019_Dec.-Final.pdf Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union (European Parliament) (2015). Privacy and Data Protection Implications of the Civil Use of Drones., 10.2861/28162 Droneregulations.info (2021). Global Drone Regulations Database. www.droneregulations.info Dronethusiast (2018). Travelling with LiPo Batteries and your Drone. https://www.dronethusiast.com/ traveling-with-lipo-batteries-drone/ Dubin, S., Greve, A., Triche, R. (2020). Drones in International Development. Innovating the Supply Chain to Reach Patients in Remote Areas. Washington: USAID Economist (2017, Jun 8) Technology Quarterly. Taking Flight: Civilian Drones. https://www.economist.com/ technology-quarterly/2017-06-08/civilian-drones EASA (2015, Oct 12). SPECIAL CONDITION. Equipment, systems, and installations (SC-RPAS.1309-01). Cologne: EASA EASA (2015, Dec 18) Technical Opinion: Introduction of a regulatory framework for the operation of unmanned aircraft. Cologne: EASA EASA (2016, Feb 16) EASA Policy and Strategic Plan on the Implementation of Performance Based Regulations. Presentation for WP02 — Performance Based Regulations. http://hub.easa.europa.eu/crt/ docs/viewcrdattachment/cid_123501/aid_2662/fmd_85d5d80d0c435bd6ad13c96b49145c7d EASA (2016, Nov 22). Practices for risk-based oversight (Edition 1), Cologne: EASA EASA (2018). Introduction of a regulatory framework for the operation of unmanned aircraft systems in the ‘open’ and ‘specific’ categories (Opinion No 01/2018), Cologne: EASA EASA (2019, Oct 9). Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC) and Guidance Material (GM) to Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/947 (Issue 1). Annex I to ED Decision 2019/021/R. Cologne: EASA EASA (2021, Apr). Easy Access Rules for Unmanned Aircraft Systems (Regulations (EU) 2019/947 and (EU) 2019/945). Cologne: EASA EASA (2021). Drones - regulatory framework background. https://www.easa.europa.eu/domains/civil- drones-rpas/drones-regulatory-framework-background EASA (2021-b). Drones - regulatory framework timeline. https://www.easa.europa.eu/drones-regulatory- framework-timeline EASA (n.d.) Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC) and Alternative Means of Compliance (AltMoc). https:// www.easa.europa.eu/document-library/acceptable-means-compliance-amcs-and-alternative-means- compliance-altmocs#group-easa-downloads EC (2009, May 5). COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 428/2009 on setting up a Community regime for the control of exports, transfer, brokering and transit of dual-use items. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities EC (2016, June 1). Commission takes steps to modernise EU’s standardisation policy (MEMO/16/1963). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. EC (2021, Apr 22). Drones: Commission adopts new rules and conditions for safe, secure and green drone operations. https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2021-04-22-drones Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 132 Bibliography Eichleay, M., Mercer, S., Murashani, J., Evens, E. (2016). Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Development: Perspectives from Citizens and Government Officials in Tanzania. Fhi360, 10.13140/RG.2.1.3834.8560 Eichleay, M., Evens, E., Stankevitz, K., Parker, C. (2019) Using the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Delivery Decision Tool to Consider Transporting Medical Supplies via Drone. Global Health Science Practice, 7(4), 500-506 Eurocontrol (2011, Sep 20). Partnering to deliver global interoperability. Brussels: Eurocontrol European Parliament, Council of the EU (2018, Aug 22). REGULATION (EU) 2018/1139 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Union Aviation Safety Agency, and amending Regulations (EC) No 2111/2005, (EC) No 1008/2008, (EU) No 996/2010, (EU) No 376/2014 and Directives 2014/30/EU and 2014/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Regulations (EC) No 552/2004 and (EC) No 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Regulation (EEC) No 3922/91. Official Journal of the European Union European Union Committee (2015, Mar 5). Civilian Use of Drones in the EU, Seventh Report. London: The Stationery Office Limited FAA (2000, Dec 30). FAA System Safety Handbook, Appendix A: Glossary. Washington: FAA FAA (2016, Feb). Community Involvement Manual. Washington: FAA FAA (2017, May 9). Aviation Safety (AVS) Safety Management System Requirements (VS 8000.367B). Washington: FAA FAA (2017, Sep 11). Safety Management System Components. https://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/sms/ explained/components/ FAA (2020, Nov 24). Certification for Advanced Operations Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Criteria for Special Classes. https://www.faa.gov/uas/advanced_operations/certification/criteria_special_classes/ FAA (2020, Mar 2). Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Traffic Management (UTM). Concept of Operations 2.0. Washington: FAA FAA (n.d.). ALC-42: Airspace, Special Use Airspace and TFRs. https://www.faasafety.gov/gslac/ALC/ course_content.aspx?cID=42&sID=505&preview=true Fabian, C., Fabricant, R. (2014). The Ethics of innovation. Stanford Social Innovation Review. https://ssir. org/articles/entry/the_ethics_of_innovation# FPF (Future of Privacy Forum) (2016, Aug 2). Drones and Privacy by Design: Embedding Privacy Enhancing Technology in Unmanned Aircraft. Washington: FPF FSD, DG ECHO (2017). Drones in Humanitarian Action. A Guide to the Use of Airborne Systems in humanitarian crises. Geneva: FSD GAVI the Vaccine Alliance (2020, Aug). Maintaining, Restoring & Strengthening Immunisation. GAVI Innovation Catalogue. Washington: GAVI GFDRR (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery) (2018, Dec 21). Machine Learning for Disaster Risk Management. Washington: World Bank GFDRR (2021-a). Drones and the 2017 Sierra Leone Mudslide. ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction Program: Online GFDRR (2021-b). Drone Use in Senegal for Flood Control. ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction Program: Online GFDRR (2021-c). Drones and Response to the 2018 Uganda Landslide. ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction Program: Online Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 133 Bibliography Global-Aero (n.d.). Unmanned Aircraft Safety, Risk Management and Insurance. https://www.global-aero. com/unmanned-aircraft-safety-risk-management-and-insurance/ Government of India (2018, Aug 27). Subject: Requirements for Operation of Civil Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS). CIVIL AVIATION REQUIREMENTS SECTION 3 – AIR TRANSPORT SERIES X PART I Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). Assessing Feasibility and Readiness for Cargo Drones in Health Supply Chains. A Guide to Conducting Scoping Trips in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Washington: USAID GSMA (2018). Using Mobile Networks to Coordinate Unmanned Aircraft Traffic. London: GSMA Haidari, et al. (2016). The economic and operational value of using drones to transport vaccines. Vaccine, 34(34) IATA (2019, Dec 12). 2020 Lithium Battery Guidance Document. Transport of Lithium Metal and Lithium Ion Batteries. Montreal: IATA ICAO (1991). Human Factors Digest No. 3. Training of Operational Personnel in Human Factors (Circular 227-AN/136). Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2005). Global Air Traffic Management Operational Concept (Doc 9854). Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2006). Convention on International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300/9). Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2009, Jun 25). Transport of Lithium Batteries in Accordance with the ICAO Technical Instructions. Guidance Note, Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2011). Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) (Cir 328, AN/190). Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2015). Manual on Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) (Doc 10019). Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2016, Dec 7). The ICAO UAS Toolkit. Helpful tools to assist States in realizing effective UAS operational guidance and safe domestic operations https://www.icao.int/safety/UA/UASToolkit/Pages/ default.aspx ICAO (2017, Mar). Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) Concept of Operations (ConOps) for International IFR Operations. Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2018). Safety Management Manual (Doc 9859), 4th Edition. Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2019, Nov 8). 1090 MHz spectrum issues and proper management of 24-bit aircraft addresses associated with unmanned aircraft operating exclusively at very low level. (State Letter Ref: SP 44/2 - 19/77) ICAO (2020) U-Aid. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) for Humanitarian Aid and Emergency Response Guidance. Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2020, Jun 23). ICAO Model UAS Regulations. Montreal: ICAO ICAO (2021, Feb 9). Unmanned Aircraft Systems Traffic Management (UTM) – A Common Framework with Core Principles for Global Harmonization (Edition 3). Montreal: ICAO ICAO (n.d.-a). RSOOs (Including COSCAPs)/RAIOs. https://www.icao.int/safety/Implementation/Pages/ COSCAPs-RSOOs-RAIOs.aspx ICAO (n.d.-b) Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems Panel (RPASP). https://www.icao.int/safety/UA/Pages/ Remotely-Piloted-Aircraft-Systems-Panel-(RPASP).aspx ICAO (n.d.-c). Dangerous Goods. https://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/ops/cabinsafety/pages/ dangerous-goods.aspx Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 134 Bibliography ICAO (n.d.-e) Special Authorization [Regulators]. https://www.icao.int/safety/UA/UASToolkit/ DocumentsAndPdfs/Regulators%20-%20Copy.pdf ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross) (2020). Handbook on Data Protection in Humanitarian Action (2nd Edition). Geneva: ICRC IEEE Computer Society (March 19, 1998). IEEE Guide for Information Technology—System Definition— Concept of Operations (ConOps) Document, IEEE Std, pp.1362-1998 ISG-UAS (2018, Dec). UAVs in Global Health: Use Case Prioritization. Presentation delivered at ISG-UAS Group Meeting, December, 2018. https://isghealth.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/UAV-use-case- prioritization_Dec2018.pdf ITU (2012-a). Examples of technical characteristics for unmanned aircraft control and non-payload communications links (Report ITU-R M.2233). Geneva:ITU ITU (2012-b). Resolution 153: The use of frequency bands allocated to the fixed-satellite service not subject to Appendices 30, 30A and 30B for the control and non-payload communications of unmanned aircraft systems in non-segregated airspaces. In Final Acts WRC-12, World Radiocommunication Conference, pp.229-230. Geneva:ITU JARUS (2015, Sep). JARUS - FCL Recommendation (JAR_DEL_WG1_D.04) JARUS (2017, Jun 26). JARUS guidelines on SORA. Annex A: Guidelines on collecting and presenting system and operation information for a specific UAS operation (version 1.0) (JAR-DEL-WG6-D.04) JARUS (2018, Jul 11). JARUS Glossary. (JAR_DEL_Glossary_D.4) JARUS (2019, Jan). JARUS guidelines on Specific Operational Risk Assessment (SORA) (Issue 2.0) (JAR- DEL-WG6-D.04) JARUS (2019, Jun 21). UAS Operational categorization (JAR-DEL-WG7-UASOC-D.04) JARUS (2019, Jul 11). JARUS Ops A & B. Recommendations for Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS). Category A & Category B Operations (JAR_DEL_WG2_D.04) JARUS (2019, Sep 25). JARUS guidelines on SORA. JARUS-STS-02. Standard Scenario for Aerial Work Operations. (JAR-DEL-WG6-D.04) JK RPAS Consulting (2019, Sep). Project Report Vanuatu Drone Trial: Phase 1 and 2. Viewed July 20, 2020 https://www.updwg.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/UNICEF-Vanuatu-Drone-Report-Final-Executive- Summary.pdf Jones, Therese (2017). International Commercial Drone Regulation and Drone Delivery Services. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation JSI (n.d.) What should you Deliver by What Should You Deliver by Autonomous Aerial Systems? Tool for Determining Cost Effective Use Cases for AAVs. https://www.updwg.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/ UAS-Cost-effective-use-cases-simulation-Tool-v3.xlsx Knoblauch, et al. (2019). Bi-directional drones to strengthen healthcare provision: experiences and lessons from Madagascar, Malawi and Senegal. BMJ Global Health, 4: e001541 La Cour-Harbo, A. (2017). Mass threshold for ‘harmless’ drones. International Journal of Micro Air Vehicles, 9(2), pp. 77-92 Levitate Capital (2020). The Future of the Drone Economy. A comprehensive analysis of the economic potential, market opportunities, and strategic considerations in the drone economy. White Paper Lewis, Noah (2020, May 12). A tech company engineered drones to deliver vital COVID-19 medical supplies to rural Ghana and Rwanda in Minutes. https://www.businessinsider.com/zipline-drone-coronavirus- Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 135 Bibliography supplies-africa-rwanda-ghana-2020-5?r=US&IR=T Mariani, J., Liu, P. (September 8, 2020). Advancing Drone Technology Innovation in Government. FedTech Magazine. https://fedtechmagazine.com/article/2020/09/advancing-drone-technology-innovation- government Mauluka, Chancy (2019). When the Drone Flies! Rethinking Communication Models in the Context of Innovations. The Journal of Development Communication, 30(2) McCord, J., Tien, M., Sarley, D. (2013) Guide to Public Health Supply Chain Costing: A Basic Methodology. Arlington, Va.: USAID | DELIVER PROJECT, Task Order 4 McLeay, Stuart, Neal, David, Tollington, Tony (1999). International Standardisation and Harmonisation: a New Measurement Technique. Journal of International Financial Management and Accounting, 10(1) Mendez, E. (2019, Aug 13). Safety Management Basic Concepts. Presentation delivered at ICAO NACC Regional Office, August 13, 2019. https://www.icao.int/NACC/Documents/Meetings/2019/SMSANSP/ SMSxANSP-P01.pdf Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India (2019, Jan). Drone Ecosystem Policy Roadmap. http://www. nishithdesai.com/fileadmin/user_upload/pdfs/NDA%20Hotline/190121_H_R_DRONE-ECOSYSTEM-POLICY- ROADMAP.PDF Molinario, G., Deparday, V. (2019, Mar 6). Demystifying machine learning for disaster risk management. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/demystifying-machine-learning-disaster-risk- management Norman Foster Foundation (n.d.). Droneport. https://www.normanfosterfoundation.org/project/droneport/ Ochieng , W., Ye, T., Scheel, C., Lor, A., Saindon, J., Yee, S.L., Meltzer, M., Kapil, V., Karem, K. (2020). Uncrewed aircraft systems versus motorcycles to deliver laboratory samples in west Africa: a comparative economic study. Lancet Global Health, 8, e143-151 OpenAerialMap (n.d.). About. https://openaerialmap.org/about/ Oren, C., Verity, A. (2020). Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) And its Impact on Humanitarian Action. Online: Digital Humanitarian Network Penny J., Eaton A., Bishop P.G., Bloomfield R.E. (2001) The Practicalities of Goal-Based Safety Regulation. In: Redmill F., Anderson T. (eds) Aspects of Safety Management. Springer, London. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-1-4471-0713-2_3 Phillips, N., Blauvelt, C., Ziba, M., et al. (2016). Costs associated with the use of unmanned aerial vehicles for transportation of laboratory samples in Malawi. Seattle: VillageReach Pinto, N. (n.d.). Unravelling the drone blueprint in Africa. Logistics Update Africa. https://www. logupdateafrica.com/unravelling-the-drone-blueprint-in-africa-aviation Rae, T. (2019, Jul 4). This workshop came along at the right time. Much-anticipated regional drone training offers new options for Central American humanitarian community. World Food Programme Insight. https:// medium.com/world-food-programme-insight/this-workshop-came-along-at-the-right-time-14ed453915ef Rwanda CAA (2018, Jul 19). Aeronautical Information Publication (6th Edition) Rwanda CAA (2019-a). Part 27: Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Kigali: Rwanda CAA Rwanda CAA (2019-b). Part 30:Safety Management Regulations. Kigali: Rwanda CAA SAE International Aerospace Recommended Practice (1996, Dec). Guidelines and Methods for Conducting the Safety Assessment Process on Civil Airborne Systems and Equipment. SAE Standard ARP4761 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 136 Bibliography Scorer, D. (2019). Aircraft Registry Network (ARN) Concept. Presentation delivered at Drone Enable/3, November 12-14, 2019, Montreal, Canada. https://www.icao.int/Meetings/DRONEENABLE3/ Presentations/1.02.3%20-%20David%20Scorer.pdf SESAR (2018). European ATM Master Plan: Roadmap for the safe integration of drones into all classes of airspace SESAR (2020). U-space. Supporting Safe and Secure Drone Operations in Europe. Consolidated report on SESAR U-space research and innovation results. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union SkyBrary (2019, Aug 30). Safety Regulation. https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Safety_Regulation Soesilo, D., Rambaldi, G. (2018, Feb). Drones in Agriculture in Africa and other ACP countries. A survey on Perceptions and Applications. (CTA Working Paper 18/02). Wageningen: CTA Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021). Unlocking the lower skies: The Costs and Benefits of Deploying Drones across Use Cases in East Africa. Washington: World Bank Teravaninthorn, S., Raballand, G. (2009). Transport Prices and Costs in Africa : A Review of the International Corridors. Directions in Development; Infrastructure. Washington: World Bank Truog, et al. (2020). Insights Before Flights: How Community Perceptions Can Make or Break Medical Drone Deliveries. Drones, 4(3) UAV Coach (n.d.). Drone Insurance: A Step-by-Step Guide to Liability and Drone Hull Insurance. https:// uavcoach.com/drone-insurance-guide/ UEMOA (2019). Annexe Au Reglement D’Execution Relatif A l’Exploitation Des Aeronefs Telepilotes UK CAAi (2020). Developing an ICAO compliant legal and regulatory framework in Sierra Leone. https:// caainternational.com/portfolio/developing-icao-compliant-legal-regulatory-framework-sierra-leone/ UN Aviation Safety Section (2017). United Nations RPAS Experience: Setting the Stage. Presentation given at ICAO 2nd Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) Symposium, September 19-21, 2017, Montreal, Canada UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct). Unmanned Aircraft Systems: Product Profiles and Guidance. Kopenhagen: UNICEF Supply Division UPDWG (2019, May 22). Technical and Logistical Challenges Encountered During Test Flights in Malawi. https://www.updwg.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Technical-and-Logistical-Challenges-Encountered- During-Test-Flights-in-Malawi_UPDWG_2019_05_22.pdf USAID GHSC-PSM (Global Health Supply Chain Program-Procurement and Supply Management) (2017, Feb), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Landscape Analysis: Applications in the Development Context. Washington: Chemonics International Inc. USAID GHSC-PSM (Global Health Supply Chain Program-Procurement and Supply Management) (2018, Jul 9). Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Procurement Guide. Washington: Chemonics International Inc. Van den Hoven, J., et al. (eds.) (2015). Handbook of Ethics, Values and Technological Design. Springer: Dordrecht Vaughn, M. (2019). Considerations on the use of 1090 MHz and 24-bit aircraft addresses. Presentation delivered at ICAO Drone Enable/3, November 12-14, 2019, Montreal, Canada. https://www.icao.int/ Meetings/DRONEENABLE3/Presentations/1.02.2%20-%20Vaughn%20Maiolla.pdf VillageReach, ISG-UAS (2019, Nov). Toolkit for Generating Evidence around the Use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) for Medical Commodity Delivery, Version 2. Seattle: VillageReach VillageReach (2020). How to Select a Drone Service Provider for Transport of Health Products. Lessons Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 137 Bibliography Learned. Seattle: VillageReach WEF (2018, Dec). Advanced Drone Operations toolkit: Accelerating the Drone Revolution. Geneva: WEF WEF (2021, Mar). Medicine from the Sky. Opportunities and Lessons from Drones in Africa. Insight Report WFP (2019, Jun) Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Training. Report on the Regional Drone Training for Central America. Rome: WFP WFP Logistics Cluster (n.d.). Technical Support Guides: Monitoring and Evaluation. Rome: WFP World Bank Group (2016). UAV State of Play for Development: Innovations in Program and Humanitarian Contexts. Washington: World Bank World Bank Group (2017). Guidance Note: Managing the risks of unmanned aircraft operations in development projects. Washington: World Bank Wright, et al. (2018). What should you deliver by unmanned aerial systems? The role of geography, product, and UAS type in prioritizing deliveries by UAS. White paper, inSupply. https://publications.jsi.com/ JSIInternet/Inc/Common/_download_pub.cfm?id=19145&lid=3 Würbel, H. (2017). Framework for the evaluation of cost-effectiveness of drone use for the last-mile delivery of vaccines. MSc Thesis, University of Barcelona Yadav, P., Lydon, P., Oswald, J., Dicko, M., Zaffran, M. (2014). Integration of vaccine supply chains with other health commodity supply chains: A framework for decision making. Vaccine, 32(50), 6725-6732 Yadav, Prashant (2015). Health Product Supply Chains in Developing Countries: Diagnosis of the Root Causes of Underperformance and an Agenda for Reform, Health Systems & Reform, 1(2), pp. 142-154 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 138 Index COUNTRIES & South Africa 97 79, 86, 105, 109-110, 116, REGIONS South Korea 129 127 Africa 38-39, 46, 73 Sweden 54 Agriculture 46, 55, 64, 85, 123, 125 Asia 97 Tanzania 52, 54, 77, 86, 105 Airmanship 111-112 Bolivia 65 Uganda 42 Air Navigation Service Central African Republic United Kingdom 65, 97, 105 Provider (ANSP) 84, 86, 128 United States of America 104, 116-117, 125 Colombia 65 61, 75, 88, 112, 126 Air risk 39, 67, 81, 84, 105, Cuba 65 116-118, 125 Democratic Republic of Airspace 64, 67, 71, 75-79, Congo 52, 54, 118, 128 84-86, 108, 110-112, 116, REGULATIONS & Dominican Republic 52, RULES 125, 127 El Salvador 65 Convention on International Air Traffic Management 45, Civil Aviation 71 53, 66-68, 71, 73-74, 78, 81, Ethiopia 65 84-88, 100, 104, 110, 116, Europe 46, 68, 71, 73-75, EU Regulation 785/2004 97 118, 120, 125, 127 86, 88, 97, 107, 109, 126 ICAO UAS Model Airworthiness 66-67, 72, Germany 92 Regulations 68, 71-72, 76, 94, 124-125 105, 111, 124, 126-128 Ghana 54, 70, 92 Ancillary equipment 45, 92- India Civil Aviation Haiti 65 94, 105-106 Requirements 66, 89 Honduras 64 Approval, community/ UEMOA regulations 72, 128 ethical 50, 89 India 66, 89 Approval, operational 39- Japan 88 —A— 40, 45, 53, 61, 66, 69-70, Kazakhstan 78 72-75, 79, 81, 89, 93, 96, Abnormal Situation 84, 117 Madagascar 47, 65, 121 98-100, 110-112, 116, 123 Academic stakeholder 48, Malawi 51-52, 54, 78-79, 79, 113, 126 Assessment, Data 84, 89, 92, 102, 113-114, Protection Impact (DPIA) Acceptable risk levels 40, 121, 125, 128 90, 106-107 75, 104, 107, 109-110 Morocco 66 Assessment, demand/need/ Accessibility 40, 80-82 Mozambique 52, 65, 96, use case 37-42, 44, 50, 119 Accident 96-97, 104, 106- 102, 128 Assessment, feasibility 119, 108, 112, 117 Nepal 65 123 Advisory documents/ Rwanda 41, 54-55, 70, 77, Assessment, impact 43, 119 information 68, 70-71, 74 82, 86, 92, 95, 105, 118 Assessment, opportunity ADS-B (Automatic Senegal 42, 121 cost 37, 42, 44-47, 98, 123 Dependent Surveillance – Sierra Leone 42, 51, 65, 78 Broadcast) 83-84, 87 Assessment, risk 39, 64, 70, 74-75, 104-109, 111-112, Spain 92 Aerodrome 39, 67, 71, 75, 114, 126-127 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 139 Index Assessment, site 111, annex CC2 link 59, 82-84, 88, 117- 59, 81-84, 87-88, 100, 129 Atypical airspace 76 118 Considerations, drone Audit 45, 49, 66-67, 94-96, Cadastral mapping 38-39 platform 40-41, 47, 56-57, 100, 124-125 Capacity building — 59-61, 88, 93, 96-97, 112, enabling 64-66, 98-99, 119 Automated flight 75 123-124, 127 Contingency procedures 97, Autonomous operation 67, 116-118 71, 85, 126 Capacity building — operating 44-45, 54-55, Contracts 45, 54-55, 86, 100, 102, 112-114, 120, 123, 94-96, 98-102 127-128 Controlled airspace 67, 75- —B— Capital costs 44-46, 54, 80, 78, 86, 110-112, 116, 127 Barriers, batteries 56, 60, 119 Cost-benefit analysis 37, 81, 92-94, 120 Cargo operations 41, 44-47, 42, 44-47, 98, 123 Barriers, funding 46-47, 53- 53-54, 61, 124 Costs 38, 41, 44-46, 54, 58, 55, 66, 78, 100, 119-120, Certification 61, 67, 71-74, 80, 119 123 94-95, 111, 114, 124-125 Counter UAS 88, 126 Barriers, infrastructure 40, Cold-chain 41-42, 56, 60- Critical infrastructure 39, 57, 80-82, 87-88, 124 61, 81-82, 97 79-80, 105, 111, Barriers, language 71, 107, Community engagement Cross-border flights 74-75, 124 45, 48-52, 78-79, 81, 120 appendix c Barriers, permitting 66, 70- Concept of Operations Customs 48, 70-71, 92-94, 71, 110-112 (ConOps) 65, 69, 78-79, 99, 110 Barriers, regulatory 61 105, 108-109, 111, 117-118 Barriers, training 64, 114 Conformance monitoring 85-86 Barriers, traffic Consent 52, 90 —D— management 64, 84-88 Considerations, cold-chain Dangerous goods 61, 66, Batteries 56, 60, 67, 81, 92- 68, 75, 92-93, 99-100 94, 120 41-42, 56, 60-61, 81-82, 97 Considerations, cost 38, 41, Data availability and access Beyond Visual Line of Sight 20, 43, 97 (BVLOS) 39, 61, 67, 75, 77- 44-47, 53-55, 58, 66, 78, 78, 81-83, 86, 111, 118 80, 100, 119-120, 123 Data management 42, 65, Considerations, durability 89-91 Blood 41, 51, 54, 81, 97 and reliability 59, 72, 95, Data Protection Impact Business models 44-45, 53- Assessment (DPIA) 90, 106- 107 55, 82 107 Considerations, Buy-in 48-49, 123 Deconfliction 84-85, 116 maintenance 44-45, 50, 55, 58, 80-81, 95-96, 102, 112, Demand assessment 37-42, 124-125 44, 50, 119 —C— Considerations, network Detect-and-avoid 83-85, connectivity 38, 42, 45, 56, 89 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 140 Index Disaster Risk Management Last mile 37-42, 101 39-40, 91 Layering / product Donor funding 54-55, 119- —H— integration 43, 46, 113, 128 120 Low-level airspace 71, 84, Harmonization 71, 73-76, Drone-as-a-service 44-46, 83, 94, 114 111 53-55, 98-99, 102 Hazards/risk 81, 104-106, Drone corridor 51-52, 78- 116-117 79, 97-98, 113 Heavy lift 129 —M— Drone platform 37-38, 56- 61 High Altitude Platform Maintenance 44-45, 50, 55, Systems (HAPS) 88, 103, 58, 80-81, 95-96, 102, 112, Droneports 45, 80-82, 105- 129 124-125 107, 119-120 Management, airspace 64, Durability 59, 72, 95, 107 76-78, 84 —I— Management, air traffic (ATM) 67, 73, 84-87, 128 Image resolution 38-39, —E— 89-91 Management, data 37-42, Emergency procedures 68- 44, 50, 119 Impact assessment 43, 119 69, 78, 116-118 Management, disaster risk Importation 45, 48, 92-94 39-40, 91 Emergency response 39-41, 84-85, 128 Infrastructure 40, 57, 80- Management, safety risk 82, 87-88, 124 (SRM) 64, 68-69, 85, 96, Ethics 50, 52, 89-90 Insourcing 45, 53-55, 98- 104-107, 117-118 Exportation 92-94 99, 102 Management, UAS traffic Insurance 96-97, 99, 102 (UTM) 45, 53, 66-67, 71, Integration, airspace 67, 71, 74, 78, 81, 84-88, 100, 104, —F— 75-77, 84-85, 125, 127 110, 116, 118, 120, 125, 127 Feasibility assessment 119, Integration, product 43, 46, Means of compliance 68, 123 113, 128 107 Financing 46-47, 53-55, 66, Mile, first/middle 41, 129 78, 100, 119-120, 123 Mile, last 37-42, 101 Fixed costs 38, 41, 44-45, —K— Mission preparation 116-117 58, 119 Monitoring, conformance Key Performance Indicators (KPI) 119-120 85-86 Monitoring, performance —G— 42, 100-101, 119 Geofence 85-86 —L— Ground risk 38-39, 81, 105- Language barrier 71, 107, 107, 111, 116 124 —N— Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 141 Index Needs assessment 37-42, assessment 37, 42, 44-47, Regulations, dangerous 44, 50, 119 98, 123 goods 68, 92-93 Network connectivity 38, Original Equipment Regulations, ICAO UAS 42, 45, 56, 59, 81-84, 87- Manufacturer (OEM) 53, 55, model 101, 105, 112 88, 100, 129 61 Regulations, performance- Non-cooperative aircraft Outsourcing 44-46, 53-55, based 68-71, 111 81, 88, 117 98-99, 102 Regulations, prescriptive Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) Oversight 64-66 68-71, 84, 68-71, 111 76-77, 116 94-96, 124-125 Regulations, privacy 90 Ownership 44-46, 53-55, Reverse logistics 56-57 98-99, 102 Reliability 59, 72, 95, 107 —O— Remote identification 67, Occupational health, safety 83, 85-88 and environment (OSHE) —P— Request for information 106 Payload 40-41, 56-57, 96- (RFI) 45, 98-99 Operation, autonomous 67, 97, 112, 119 Restrictions 67, 77, 106, 111 71, 85, 126 Performance-based Risk, acceptable levels 40, Operation, emergency 39- regulations 68-71, 111 75, 104, 107, 109-110 41, 84-85, 128 Performance monitoring Risk, air 39, 67, 81, 84, 105, Operation, pilot phase 53- 42, 100-101, 119 116-118, 125 55, 61, 96, 119-120 Permits 66, 70-71, 110-112 Risk, ground 38-39, 81, Operation Safety Personal Data 91, 106, 110 105-107, 111, 116 Objectives (OSO) 105-108 Privacy 42, 48-52, 64-66, Risk assessment 39, 64, Operating costs 38, 41, 44- 71-72, 89-91, 110-111 104-107, 109, 111-112, 114 45, 58, 119 Pre-defined Risk Risk assessment, Pre- Operating license or permit Assessment (PDRA) 105 defined (PDRA) 105 66, 70-71, 110-112 Pre-flight 116-117 Risk assessment, Specific Operational approval 39- Operations (SORA) 64, 70, 40, 45, 53, 61, 66, 69-70, Prescriptive regulations 68- 71, 111 74-75, 105, 107-109, 111, 72-75, 79, 81, 89, 93, 96, 126-127 98-100, 110-112, 116, 123 Procedures, contingency or non-normal 97, 116-118 Risk-based oversight (RBO) Operational categorization 68-69, 111 68-69, 106, 111 Procurement 44-46, 53-55, Operational environment 98-99, 102 39, 74-75, 81, 89-91, 108- Public-private partnership 111 (PPP) 54-55, 120 —S— Operations manual 95-96, Safety assurance 104-105 108-109, 117 Safety buffer 80, 107 Opportunity cost —R— Safety culture 109, 112 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 142 Index Safety Risk Management 74, 78, 81, 84-88, 100, 104, (SRM) 64, 68-69, 85, 96, 110, 116, 118, 120, 125, 127 104-107, 117-118 Uncontrolled airspace 67, Security 48, 59, 64-66, 110, 112 70-73, 81, 83-85, 105-107, Use cases, Agriculture 46, 110-111 55, 64, 85, 123, 125 Segregated airspace 18-19, Use cases, Cadastral 71, 75-76, 78-79, 86, 108 mapping 38-39 Site assessment 111, annex Use cases, Cargo 41, 44-47, Specific Operations Risk 53-54, 60-61, 124 Assessment (SORA) 64, 70, Use cases, Disaster Risk 74-75, 105, 107-109, 111, Management 39-40, 91 126-127 Use cases, Mapping and Spectrum 66-67, 70, 75, data collection 38-39, 41, 82-84 44, 54-55, 78-79, 89, 99- Stakeholder consultation 101, 119-120, 123 48-52, 79, 113, 120 Use cases, Vaccine delivery Standard Scenario (STS) 40-41, 60-61, 81, 101 74-75, 105, 127 Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) 67, 71, 73-74, 110, —V— annex Vaccine delivery 40-41, 44, Supply chain 37-42, 101, 60-61, 81, 101 129 Vertical take-off and Sustainability 41-42, 47-49, landing (VTOL) 56-57 53-54, 95, 114, 119- Vetting 94-96 Volunteer drone services 39-40 —T— Tracking 83-84, 87-88 Training 55, 64-66, 73-74, —W— 98-99, 112-113 Warehouse 37, 41, 45, 55 Weather 56, 59-60, 72, 80, 85-86, 92, 100, 116 —U— U-Space 74, 86 UAS traffic Management (UTM) 45, 53, 66-67, 71, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 143 Appendix A: Glossary and definitions The aim of this Appendix is to "promote a common understanding of the terms and abbreviations used"233 in relation to UAS operations and official ICAO, the JARUS, and the EASA documents. The glossary builds primarily on ICAO definitions and terms followed by EASA, JARUS, and "other definitions and terms from other organisations and working groups for general informational purposes"234. Among the original definitions, the terms RPAS, UA, and UAS are used interchangeably. For the purposes of this guidebook, they have been standardized to “UAS” where applicable, with changes indicated in the footnotes as “adapted from”. Abnormal situation — One in which it is no longer possible to continue the flight using normal procedures but the safety of the aircraft or persons on board or on the ground is not in danger.235 Acceptable means of compliance — Non-binding standards adopted by EASA to illustrate means to establish compliance with the Basic Regulation [level 1] and its Implementing Rules [level 2]236 Acceptable risk — The level of risk that individuals or groups are willing to accept given the benefits gained. Each organization will have its own acceptable risk level, which is derived from its legal and regulatory compliance responsibilities, its threat profile, and its business/ organizational drivers and impacts237. Accident — An unplanned event or series of events that results in death, injury, or damage to, or loss of, equipment or property238. ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast) — A means by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects can automatically transmit and/or receive data such as identification, position and additional data, as appropriate, in a broadcast mode via a data link239. Aerodrome — A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft240. Aeronautical Information Service — A service established within the defined area of coverage responsible for the provision of aeronautical data and aeronautical information necessary for the safety, regularity and efficiency of air navigation241. Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) — A publication issued by or with the authority of a State and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation242. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 144 Aircraft — Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface243. Airmanship — The consistent use of good judgement and well- developed knowledge, skills and attitudes to maintain flight safety and accomplish flight objectives244. Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) — The ANSP is the designated provider of air traffic service in a specific area of operation (airspace). The ANSP assesses whether the proposed flight can be safely conducted in the particular airspace that it covers, and if so, authorises the flight.245 Airspace risk class (ARC) — The ARC is an initial assignment of generic collision risk of airspace, before mitigations are applied. ARC is assigned to airspace encounter categories, qualitative classification of the rate at which a UAS would encounter a another aircraft in typical civil airspace found in the U.S. and Europe, based on a qualitative assessment of collision risk of generic types of airspace246. Air Traffic Control (service) — A service provided for the purposes of: a) preventing collisions between aircraft and in the manoeuvring area between aircraft and obstructions; and b) expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic247. Air traffic management (ATM) — The dynamic, integrated management of air traffic and airspace (including air traffic services, airspace management and air traffic flow management) – safely, economically and efficiently – through the provision of facilities and seamless services in collaboration with all parties and involving airborne and ground-based functions248. Air traffic service — A generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control service (area control service, approach control service or aerodrome control service)249. Airworthiness — The condition of an item (aircraft, aircraft system, or part) in which that item operates in a safe manner to accomplish its intended function250. Airworthiness certification — Takes into account platform configuration, usage, environment, and the hardware and software of the entire system. It also considers design characteristics, production processes, interoperability, reliability, and in-service maintenance programmes that adequately mitigate safety risks. Technical standards may be used to certify specific components251. Applicant — In the context of the SORA, an applicant refers to the individual or organization who desires to operate a UAS in a limited or restricted manner and submits the necessary technical, operational and human information related to the intended use of the UAS for the NAA [that is Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)] to evaluate the risks associated with the operation for the purpose of authorizing the operation in an agreed upon manner according to established Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 145 conditions and limitations of the operation252. Assurance — The planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or process satisfies given requirements253. Atypical airspace — Atypical Airspace is defined as; a) Restricted Airspace; b) Airspace where conventional aircraft cannot go (e.g. airspace within 100 feet of buildings or structures); c) Airspace characterization where the encounter rate of conventional aircraft (encounter is defined as proximity of 3000 feet horizontally and ± 350 feet vertically) can be shown to be less than 1E-6 per flight hour during the operation); d) Airspace not covered in Airspace Encounter Categories (AEC) 1 through 12254. Audit — An independent examination of the life cycle processes and their products for compliance, accuracy, completeness and traceability255. Automated flight — A flight following pre-programmed instructions, loaded in the unmanned aircraft (UA) flight control system, that the UAS executes256. Autonomous operation — An operation during which a remotely-piloted aircraft is operating without pilot intervention in the management of the flight257. Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) — BVLOS is a means of flying the UAS without the direct, unaided visual supervision of the aircraft by the person manipulating the flight controls258. Buffer — The area between the "Hard Fence" and the "Soft Fence" in geo-fencing. The buffer must take into account all elements which can have an influence on the size of the buffer as latency, accuracy, wind, altitude, UA-performance etc259. Capital costs — Resource that are used over several years260 Certification — The legal recognition that a product, service, organization, or person complies with the applicable requirements. Such certification comprises the activity of technically checking the product, service, organization or person, and the formal recognition of compliance with the applicable requirements by issue of a certificate, license, approval, or other documents as required by national laws and procedures261. Civil Aviation Authority (National) — The government regulatory agency that governs aircraft, airmen, and operations262. Collision avoidance — Averting physical contact between an aircraft and any other object or terrain263. Command and control (C2) link — The data link between the remotely piloted aircraft and the remote pilot station for the purposes of managing the flight264. Commercial (UAS) operation — An aircraft operation conducted for business purposes (mapping, security surveillance, wildlife survey, aerial application, etc.) other than commercial air transport, for Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 146 remuneration or hire265. Commercial-off-the-shelf — Components designed to be implemented into existing systems without extensive customization and for which design data are not always available to the customer266. Community — Broadly defines the term "community" to include local residents, the general public, and other stakeholders267 Complexity — An attribute of systems or items which makes their operation difficult to comprehend. Increased system complexity is often caused by such items as sophisticated components and multiple interrelationships268. Component — Any self-contained part, combination of parts, subassemblies or units, which perform a distinct function necessary to the operation of the system269. Competency — A combination of skills, knowledge and attitude required to perform a task to the prescribed standard270. Concept of Operations (ConOps) — A user-oriented document that describes systems characteristics for a proposed system from a user's perspective. A ConOps also describes the user organization, mission, and objectives from an integrated systems point of view and is used to communicate overall quantitative and qualitative system characteristics to stakeholders271. Conformance monitoring — A service that provides real-time alerting of non-conformance [Non-fulfillment of an organization’s requirements, policies, and procedures, as well as requirements of safety risk controls developed by the organization272] with intended Operation Volume/ trajectory [flight plan] to an Operator or another airspace user.273 Consent — The freely-given, specific and informed indication of a Data Subject’s wishes by which the Data Subject signifies agreement to Personal Data relating to him or her being processed274. Contingency procedures — Planned course of action designed to help an organization respond effectively to a significant future event or situation that may or may not happen275. Controlled airspace — An airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification. Note: Controlled airspace is a generic term which covers ATS airspace Classes A, B, C, D and E as described in [ICAO] Annex 11, 2.6276. Cooperative aircraft — Aircraft that have an electronic means of identification (i.e., a transponder) aboard and operating277. Critical infrastructure — Means systems and assets vital to national defence, national security, economic security, public health or safety including both regional and national infrastructure278. Dangerous goods — Articles of substances which are capable of posing a risk to health, safety, property or the environment279. Data link — A term referring to all interconnections to, from and within Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 147 the remotely piloted aircraft system. It includes control, flight status, communication, and payload links.280 Data Protection Impact Assessment — An assessment that identifies, evaluates and addresses the risks to Personal Data arising from a project, policy, programme or other initiative.281 Detect-and-Avoid — The capability to see, sense or detect conflicting traffic or other hazards and take the appropriate action to comply with the acceptable rules of flight282. Emergency procedures — Procedures that are executed by the UA pilot in command or by the aircraft to mitigate the effect of failures that cause or lead to an emergency condition283. Emergency response plan (ERP) — Plan of actions to be conducted in a certain order or manner, in response to an emergency event284. Environment — (a) The aggregate of operational and ambient conditions to include the external procedures, conditions, and objects that affect the development, operation, and maintenance of a system. Operational conditions include traffic density, communication density, workload, etc. Ambient conditions include weather, electromagnetic interference, vibration, acoustics, etc. (b) Everything external to a system which can affect or be affected by the system285. Equipment — A complete assembly—operating either independently or within a system/subsystem—that performs a specific function286. Error — An occurrence arising as a result of an incorrect action or decision by personnel operating or maintaining a system. […] (2) A mistake in specification, design, or implementation287. Fail-safe — A characteristic of a system whereby any malfunction affecting the system safety will cause the system to revert to a state that is known to be within acceptable risk parameters288. Failure — A loss of function or a malfunction of a system or a part thereof289. Flight Information Service — A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights290. Flight plan — Specified information provided to air traffic services units, relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft291. Geofence — A virtual three-dimensional perimeter around a geographic point, either fixed or moving, that can be predefined or dynamically generated and that enables software to trigger a response when a device approaches the perimeter. Note: sometimes referred to as geoawareness or geocaging292. Geo-fencing — An automatic limitation of the airspace a UA can enter293. Ground risk buffer — An area over the surface of the earth, which surrounds the operational volume and that is specified in order to minimise the risk to third parties on the surface in the event of the unmanned aircraft leaving the operational volume294. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 148 Guidelines — Recommended procedures for complying with regulations295. Harm — The term harm, for the purpose of this document, relates to undesired events defined as: a. Fatal injuries to third parties on the ground b. Fatal injuries to third parties in the air (Catastrophic MAC with a manned aircraft) c. Damage to critical infrastructure296. Hazard — A condition or an object with the potential to cause injuries, damage, loss of material or a reduction of the ability to perform a prescribed function297. Hazard identification — Identification of a potentially unsafe condition resulting from failures, malfunctions, external events, errors, or a combination thereof298. Holistic — Characterized by comprehension of the parts of something as intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole299. Incident — A near miss accident with minor consequences that could have resulted in greater loss. An unplanned event that could have resulted in an accident, or did result in minor damage, and which indicates the existence of, though may not define a hazard or hazardous condition. Sometimes called a mishap300. Inspection — An examination of an item against a specific standard301. Integration — (1) The act of causing elements of an item to function together. (2) The act of gathering a number of separate functions within a single implementation302. Likelihood — Estimation of the degree of confidence one may have in the occurrence of an event303. Lithium Battery — The term "lithium battery" refers to a family of batteries with different chemistries, comprising many types of cathodes and electrolytes304. Loss of control — Loss of the ability to manage or direct the continued operation of an UAS305. Maintenance — The performance of tasks required to ensure the continuing airworthiness of an aircraft, including any one or combination of overhaul, inspection, replacement, defect rectification and the embodiment of a modification or repair306. Maintenance programme — A document which describes the specific scheduled maintenance tasks and their frequency of completion and related procedures, such as a reliability programme, necessary for the safe operation of those aircraft to which it applies307. Maximum take-off mass (MTOM) — The maximum Unmanned Aircraft mass, including payload and fuel, as defined by the manufacturer or the builder, at which the Unmanned Aircraft can be operated308. Mitigation — A means to reduce the risk of a hazard309. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) — A notice distributed by means of telecommunication containing information concerning the Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 149 establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations310. Observer — A trained and competent person designated by the operator who, by visual observation of the unmanned aircraft, assists the remote pilot in the safe conduct of the flight311. Operating costs — Resource used and replaced, in one year’s time (e.g. personnel salaries, medicines, supplies, gasoline, medicines)312 Operations manual — A manual containing procedures, instructions and guidance for use by operational personnel in the execution of their duties313. Operator — A person, organization or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft operation314. Payload — Instrument, mechanism, equipment, part, apparatus, appurtenance, or accessory, including communications equipment, that is installed in or attached to the aircraft and is not used or intended to be used in operating or controlling an aircraft in flight, and is not part of an airframe, engine, or propeller315. Personal Data — Any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person.316 Population density — The number of people living per unit of an area (e.g. per square mile); the number of people relative to the space occupied by them317. Probability — The measure of the likelihood that an event will occur318. Procedure — Standard, detailed steps that prescribe how to perform specific tasks319. Process — Set of inter-related resources and activities, which transform inputs into outputs320. Pull system — In a requisition (pull) system, the lower-level facility orders commodities as [and when] it needs them, pulling supplies through the chain. NOTE: In an allocation (push) system [common in many low- and middle-income countries], the higher-level facility decides what commodities to push down the chain and when to move them321 Radio Line of Sight — A direct electronic point-to-point contact between a transmitter and a receiver322. Redundancy — Multiple independent means incorporated to accomplish a given function323. Reliability — The probability that an item will perform a required function under specified conditions, without failure, for a specified period of time324. Remote crew member — A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of a remotely piloted aircraft during flight time325. Remote identification — Services related to the identification of UAS in the national airspace326. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 150 Remote pilot — A person charged by the operator with duties essential to the operation of a remotely piloted aircraft and who manipulates the flight controls, as appropriate, during flight time327. Remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) — A remotely piloted aircraft, its associated remote pilot station(s), the required C2 Link and any other components as specified in the type design328. Note: Referred to as UAS in this guidebook Remote pilot station (RPS) — The component of the remotely piloted aircraft system containing the equipment used to pilot the remotely piloted aircraft329. Restricted area — An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified conditions330. Risk — The combination of the frequency (probability) of an occurrence and its associated level of severity331. Note: ICAO and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) use the term safety risk instead or synonymously Risk analysis — The development of qualitative and / or quantitative estimate of risk based on evaluation and mathematical techniques332. Risk assessment — The process by which the results of risk analysis are used to make decisions333. Risk-based oversight (RBO) — A way of performing oversight, in which: planning is driven by the combination of the risk profile and safety performance; and execution focuses on the management of risk, besides ensuring compliance334. Risk control — The Risk associated with the hazardous event under study is adequately controlled, by the reduction of severity and / or likelihood, via the application of engineering and/ or administrative hazard controls. Note: see also risk mitigation335. Risk mitigation — The process of incorporating defences or preventive controls to lower the severity and/or likelihood of a hazard and the projected consequences336. Risk profile — The element of risks that are inherent to the nature and operations of the regulated entity, this includes the: specific nature of the organisation; complexity of the activities; and risks stemming from the activities carried out337. Root cause — The contributory events, initiating events, which started the adverse event flow are considered root causes. Should these causes be eliminated the hazardous event [or incident] would not have occurred. It should be noted that accidents are the result of many contributors, both unsafe acts and /or unsafe conditions; Note: also see Hazard338. Route plan — A set of waypoints for the [… UAS] to follow, as well as general air vehicle commands for auxiliary systems (e.g., lights, IFF, de- icing, etc.) and emergency operation commands. Taxi or flight patterns may be incorporated into the route either as a series of sequenced waypoints or as ‘seed’ waypoints with range and bearing information, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 151 which, will depend on the sophistication of the GCS [that is remote pilot station] and RPAS [that is UAS]339. Safety — The state in which risks associated with aviation activities, related to, or in direct support of the operation of aircraft, are reduced and controlled to an acceptable level through a continuing process of hazard identification and risk management340. Safety assurance — Includes processes within the SMS that function systematically to ensure the performance and effectiveness of safety risk controls and that the organization meets or exceeds its safety objectives through the collection, analysis, and assessment of information341. Safety Culture — The shared values, actions, and behaviors that demonstrate a commitment to safety over competing goals and demands342. Safety Management System (SMS) — A systematic approach to managing safety, including the necessary organizational structures, accountabilities, policies and procedures343. Safety objective — A measurable goal or desirable outcome related to safety344. Safety oversight — A function performed by a State to ensure that individuals and organizations performing an aviation activity comply with safety-related national laws and regulations345. Safety performance — The demonstration of how effectively a regulated entity can mitigate its risks, substantiated through the proven ability to: comply with the applicable requirements; implement and maintain effective safety management; identify and manage safety risks; and achieve and maintain safe operations. The results of past certification or oversight also need to be taken into account346. Safety promotion — A combination of training and communication of safety information to support the implementation and operation of an SMS in an organization347. Safety policy — The organization’s documented commitment to safety, which defines its safety objectives and the accountabilities and responsibilities of its employees with regard to safety. The Safety Policy links organizational safety objectives to the organization’s goals and establishes employees’ accountabilities and responsibilities in regard to achieving those goals348. Safety risk — The predicted probability and severity of the consequences or outcomes of a hazard349. Note: EASA and JARUS use term risk instead Safety risk management — A process within the SMS composed of describing the system; identifying the hazards; and analyzing, assessing, and controlling risk350 Segregated airspace — Airspace of specified dimensions allocated for exclusive use to a specific user(s)351 Separation — Maintaining a specific minimum distance [buffer] between an aircraft and another aircraft or terrain to avoid collisions, normally Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 152 by requiring aircraft to fly at set levels or level bands, on set routes or in certain directions, or by controlling an aircraft's speed352. Severity — The consequence or impact of a hazard’s effect or outcome in terms of degree of loss or harm353. Situational awareness — The ability to keep track of the prioritized significant events and conditions in the environments of the subject354. Specific Assurance and Integrity Levels (SAIL) — The SAIL parameter consolidates the ground and air risk analyses and drives the required activities. The SAIL represents the level of confidence that the UAS operation will stay under control355. Specific category — Category of UAS operation where a proportionate approach to the assessment of the risk will be taken by requiring the UAS operator to present a Specific Operation Risk Assessment of the UAS operation before operational approval will be granted by the appropriate aviation "authority"356. Specific operational risk assessment (SORA) — A means by which an aircraft operator is granted approval by certifying authorities to operate an unmanned aircraft system within the limitations set forth by the authorities in the Specific Category357. Specification — A collection of requirements which, when taken together, constitute the criteria which define the functions and attributes of a system, or an item358. Standard scenario (STS) — A type of UAS operation in the ‘specific’ category, as defined in Appendix 1 of the Annex, for which a precise list of mitigating measures has been identified in such a way that the competent authority can be satisfied with declarations in which operators declare that they will apply the mitigating measures when executing this type of operation359. Standard operating procedure — A set of instructions covering those features of operations which lend themselves to a definite or standardized procedure without loss of effectiveness360. Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) — SARPs are adopted by the Council under the provisions of the Convention. They are defined as follows: Standard. Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, matériel, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of international air navigation and to which Contracting States will conform in accordance with the Convention; in the event of impossibility of compliance, notification to the Council is compulsory under Article 38. Recommended Practice. Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, matériel, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is recognized as desirable in the interests of safety, regularity or efficiency of international air navigation, and to which Contracting States will endeavour to conform in accordance with the Convention361. State of the operator — The State in which the operator’s principal place of business is located or, if there is no such place of business, the Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 153 operator’s permanent residence362. Surveillance system — A generic term meaning variously, ADS-B […] or any comparable groundbased system that enables the identification of aircraft363. Testing — The process of operating a system under specified conditions, observing or recording the results, and making an evaluation of some aspect of the system364. Threat — Events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the flight crew, increase operational complexity and which must be managed to maintain the margin of safety365. Type certificate — A document issued by a contracting State to define the design of an aircraft type and to certify that this design meets the appropriate airworthiness requirements of that State366 UAS operators — Any legal or natural person operating or intending to operate one or more UAS367. Un-crewed Aircraft Systems Traffic Management (UTM) — A specific aspect of Air Traffic Management (ATM) which manages UAS operations safely, economically and efficiently through the provision of facilities and a seamless set of services in collaboration with all parties and involving airborne and ground-based functions368. UAS geographical zone — A portion of airspace established by the competent authority that facilitates, restricts or excludes UAS operations in order to address risks pertaining to safety, privacy, protection of personal data, security or the environment, arising from UAS operations369. Uncontrolled airspace — For the purposes of this assessment, Uncontrolled Airspace is defined as Class G airspace370. Un-crewed Aircraft System (UAS) — An aircraft and its associated elements which are operated with no pilot on board371. Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) — An aircraft that uses powered lift to ascend or descend vertically or near vertically and does not require forward flight to generate continuous lift by a fixed non-moving lifting surface to remain airborne. Light VTOL aircraft may exhibit forward, rearward and side to side flight or hover in place372. Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) — An operation in which the remote pilot or observer maintains direct unaided visual contact with the UAS373. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 154 Appendix B: Risk management during the LVC and LKC International standards require of drone flights from other airspace operations such as the LVC and LKC to users; perform a hazard identification and risk ● The protection of the environment assessment374. Yet, the 2018 LVC took place nearby to the LKC operations, mainly in the absence of suitable international including the protection of wildlife standards for UAS air displays and near the LKC operations; competitions. To overcome this limitation, ● The detailing of procedures, lines of the organizers built the LVC safety and responsibility, safety risk management risk management approach on a range of assessments, security processes, guidance, including the UK CAAi, Australian an ERP, and a draft program of Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA), EAC- competition or exhibition events; CASSOA, and Advisory Circular AC-GEN016A, ● The safe importation and exportation June 2017. In 2018, the LVC facilitated a of equipment required by competitors range of electric, VTOL, VLOS, and BVLOS and display groups for the LKC, UAS flights near a controlled aerodrome at including drones, a RPS, spare parts Mwanza, Tanzania. Following the success and tools, batteries, and radios for of the LVC, the ADF and LKC took place in communications; and Kigali and Gisenyi, Rwanda. In both cases, ● Compliance with insurance and flights took off from a temporary droneport liability obligations. near a lake. They continued over water to a The process sought to foster an environment separate, temporary droneport on an island whereby safety management can be effective, within Lake Victoria and Lake Kivu. as everyone is responsible for safety. The organizers expected all personnel to SAFETY POLICY AND CONOPS understand the safety policy and requirement Safety and risk management at the LKC to report safety issues. The LKC ConOps involved a multi-step process of risk supported this mission and followed the assessments, site assessments, and JARUS approach in describing what types of consultations to ensure the highest levels operations the operator intends to carry out: of safety during planned operations. Specifically, the focus was on ensuring: “The detailed description […] of how, ● The safety of all airspace users where, and under which limitations operating near the LKC operations; or conditions the operations shall ● The safety and privacy of all be performed. Relevant charts and individuals residing near the LKC any other information helpful to visualize and understand the intended operations; operation […] specific details on ● The protection of critical infrastructure the type of operations (e.g. VLOS, near the LKC operations; BVLOS), the population density to be ● Compliance with dimensions, both overflown (e.g. away from people, laterally and vertically, and hours of sparsely populated, crowds) and airspace, including necessary safety the airspace requirements […] the buffers surrounding any drone level of involvement of the crew and operations, assigned to the LKC automated or autonomous systems operations for the safe segregation during each phase of the flight”375 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 155 AIR AND GROUND RISK involved. This safety assessment and In 2018, the LVC Organizing Committee ConOps workshop assessed any drone flying conducted site risk assessments for the associated with the LKC during Q1 2020, with proposed flying location(s) to identify and the scope of: mitigate against all known or anticipated ● Reviewing previous risk management hazards and threats associated with the efforts operations. Risk assessments included ● Identifying any new hazards to safety airspace change processes and ground risk ● Assessment of the likelihood (i.e., will to provide a safe environment for the public they lead to harm) and consequences and uninvolved third-party persons not (i.e., what will this harm be) of these directly associated with the flight operations. hazards Flying over the lake was favored to avoid ● Identifying of risk controls and populated environments with potential mitigations (i.e., threat and harm threats to people and infrastructure on the barriers) ground. Choosing flight routes also involved ● Recording workshop outcomes, identifying emergency landing points as including a risk register for input to “safe havens” in case of mid-flight issues. the LKC ConOps Identifying emergency landing points is The LKC Organizing Committee captured particularly crucial for flights over water, action items from the workshop within as alternatives would likely involve ditching meeting minutes shared among all a drone into the lake and subsequently attendees. The process followed the Rwanda losing or severely damaging equipment and Civil Aviation Regulations376 and included potentially causing environmental pollution. follow-up teleconference calls over the Droneports were as close to the shoreline subsequent weeks. as possible to address ground risk concerns. However, the operation of high-frequency The LKC used segregated airspace droneports (see 2.5) is likely to require to manage air risk during both VLOS closer proximity to facilities such as medical and BVLOS operations. The Organizing dispensaries, necessitating an examination Committee purposefully designed the of associated increases in risk levels. segregated air routes for the TFR airspace to Such assessments are likely to represent be as far from conventional flights as possible a particular challenge in low-resource and over sparse or empty landscapes settings, where mapping quality may be low devoid of infrastructure and people. The and population data may be inaccurate or operations manager sought approval from missing. Meanwhile, the LVC and LKC built on ATC before activation or deactivation of any the understanding that understanding and segregated airspace; however, the TFR were management of ground risk would advance left active for the duration of flying activities, alongside the availability of accurate mapping reducing the risk of errors in airspace data, allowing operations to expand away release coordination. Changes in airspace from expanses of water. restrictions are usually communicated through published NOTAMs, with ATC and The LVC efforts and learning alongside Flight Safety Officers directing the flight newly developed guidance, including the information system to affected flights and JARUS SORA, underpinned the subsequent broadcasting on the necessary frequencies LKC risk-assessment process. Several as per local procedures. Clearance from ATC planning meetings were conducted with was required, using a case-by-case method essential stakeholders, culminating with a for any drone flights outside the segregated visit to the intended flying and droneport airspace. The Organizing Committee delayed locations, followed by a site assessment flying operations during thunderstorms or workshop in 2019 attended by all those hazardous weather. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 156 No operators employed mitigations The design of the segregated airspace such as parachute arrestor systems or route considered potential impacts on tethered operations, requiring the use of local wildlife caused by characteristics alternative criteria to assess risk levels. A of the un-crewed aircraft that are site assessment of Lake Kivu, Rubavu Town, foreign to the environment, such as their Bugarura Island, and Karongi indicated few noise, appearance, and flying pattern. fishing vessels (a potential ground risk), The LKC-OC monitored the noise during with numbers monitored throughout the flying activities to collect data for future event. The evaluation involved community work in this area. All operations avoided engagement with fishermen and ferry game reserves377, with bird concentration operators to determine fishing patterns and information monitored via NOTAMs. A likely impacts. Different OSOs underpinned particular concern was Ile Tembabagoyi, the LKC operations safety and risk management, largest of the islands in the LKC flying area, including robust maintenance schedules, which is a refuge to thousands of African crew training and experience requirements, straw bats, an almost-endangered species. reliable C2 links, and redundancies The LKC-OC further added an exclusion zone with adequate procedures during a lost (NO-FLY-ZONE) around Ile Tembabagoyi, C2 link. Attendees were aware of their and all teams were required to remain clear responsibilities, such as the relevant trespass and not overfly it. The organizers identified laws regarding operations from private land no additional nesting or roosting sites and the need to obtain the appropriate during the site assessment boat trip on permission before operating from a Lake Kivu in September 2019. The en-route particular site. As part of the flying safety charts within Rwanda’s AIP378 list no areas process, the Flying Committee produced a within Rwanda where wildlife could have Post-Flying Report that identified: impacted flight operations. The LKC team ● Any safety-related occurrences; nonetheless briefed the UAS operators on ● Any actions or operations non- the possible environmental impact of flying compliant with the flying approval, over Lake Kivu, with operators advised to such as breaches of NO-FLY-ZONES; remain outside restricted areas to comply ● Organizational or administrative with national and local environmental issues that may have an impact on the regulations and operate 1,000 feet above safety of further or future flying; and or avoid potentially sensitive areas entirely. ● A copy of the completed participant Although the site assessment identified two sheet and schedule flown. rubbish dumps near the main droneport in Those reports are stored safely and securely Gisenyi, the team removed those before the for at least five years. commencement of operations. Those could have attracted many birds to move among ENVIRONMENT them whenever a UA took off or landed. The LKC, where applicable, was to have Additional environmental concerns included a negligible impact on the environment, drone parts recycling, lithium battery populace, and ecosystem around the recycling, and pollution risks at any potential venues. Whereas only electric and hybrid crash sites. aircraft were admitted to the competition, limiting the CO2 footprint, the LKC also OSHE considered the environmental impact of At the LVC and LKC, considerations supporting staff and equipment. Although the of electrical safety, slipping and LKC was unable to utilize them in 2020, the tripping accidents, and exposure to the use of solar panels and storage batteries was elements formed part of the safety risk- investigated, especially at remote droneports management process. and tracking receiver stations for ADS-B. ● Electrical safety — Exposed wiring, Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 157 particularly in the absence of no influence of alcohol or drugs was earth leakage circuit breakers (i.e, strictly prohibited. safety devices to prevent electric ● Occupational hazards — Risk of shock), and breaks in the main power injury from slipping over uneven and supply led to occasional power cuts loose surfaces was considered part and surges as diesel generators of the work area risk assessment. kicked in. Remote droneports Considerations included the risk of relied on 240V portable generators, falling or dropped objects, especially potentially without safety switches. as “struck by” injuries are common ● Fire safety — Fire sacks and sand and can occur almost anywhere. buckets were made available for During the LKC, for example, a potential lithium battery fires, with heavy pole and steel ladder fell and fire extinguishers located at the damaged equipment, with no injuries. refueling point and throughout the ● Exposure to the elements — droneport. In general, any refueling Attendees were briefed on sensible (hydrogen or gasoline, for example) clothing, mosquito repellent, and should be conducted clear of all sunscreens for essential protection public and operators, preferably in an alongside the need to keep hydrated isolated location, and monitored for and under shade as much as fires during all times of use. possible. The LKC only used reputable ● Acceptable behavior — Smoking boat transport services, with all within the droneports was strictly passengers required to wear life prohibited as a potential fire hazard. jackets when on a boat. Similarly, operating under the Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 158 Appendix C: International (cross- border) flights and multi-country operations Enabling seamless and safe operations, operations, where the RPS only or both the either in nearby countries or across platform and RPS are outside the territory of international borders, requires standard the state of the operator, such as: structure and rules and service level ● The UAS platform is operating in the agreements among UAS operators, service airspace of only one state (state X) at the providers, and competent authorities. same time as it is remotely piloted by a Harmonization is one of the critical enablers remote pilot located in any other state of cross-border flights, which are still rare for (state Y); UAS at this stage. Interoperability builds on ● Either the UAS platform or the RPS is harmonization and represents an enabler for operated in high seas airspace; or multi-country operations. One operator can ● The UAS platform and RPS are both operate in several countries using the same being operated in territory of a state procedures, crew, and equipment without other than the state of the operator. significant adjustment to techniques. They In cases where more than one RPS is used further represent enablers to beyond-country for an operation, they may be collocated or operations and allow service providers and even distributed across the globe. In either manufacturers access to markets across scenario, operators must ensure the safe several regions. and effective handover of piloting control from one RPS to another and the integrity of Interoperability also requires agreed-upon C2 Links380. UAS regulations and communication, at least regionally and preferably globally. Cross-border UAS operations may involve Specifically, commonality in frequency ICAO SARPs and the annexes relating to spectrum usage, risk approaches utilizing international aviation. Although annexes UTM, data management assurance standards and SARPs govern conventional aviation and (for example, cybersecurity or software international IFR operations, they do not assurance level), education, Aeronautical consider autonomous or low-level cross- Information Service and GIS data usage, and border UAS operations. There is no clarity “a system of common horizontal, vertical and whether it is possible or appropriate for two temporal reference sources compatible with or more member states to allow exemptions the accuracy and tolerances needed for UA from the ICAO SARPs to allow cross-border navigation through the airspace”379 will need flights of UAS in low-level and perhaps to be aligned. even in uncontrolled, Class G airspace — depending on the risk assessment and In conventional aviation, international potentially through atypical situations such operations involve an aircraft crossing as TFR. In theory, SARPs contained within the an international border or operating following annexes may need to be regarded in high-seas airspace. Remote pilots can as mandatory. They would apply as the flight operate UAS from any approved RPS, unlike crosses a border, even though the UA may be conventional aviation, where the cockpit is an without people or cargo on board: integral part of the aircraft. This segregated ● Direct impact: nature of platform and control gives rise • Annex 1 – Personal licensing to additional scenarios for international • Annex 2 – Rules of the air Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 159 • Annex 3 – Meteorological services for provide direction and guidance to harmonize international air navigation UAS regulatory activities on UTM across the • Annex 6 – Operation of aircraft (3 parts) member states. It is a unique opportunity for • Annex 7 – Aircraft nationality and states, international organizations, industry, registration marks academia, and other stakeholders to share • Annex 8 – Airworthiness of aircraft their research, best practices, and lessons • Annex 9 – Facilitation learned. This common UTM framework will • Annex 11 – Air traffic services also provide a stepped approach toward • Annex 12 – Search and rescue integration into the existing ATM system to • Annex 13 – Aircraft accident and enable industry, including manufacturers, incident investigation service providers, and end-users, to grow • Annex 15 – Aeronautical information “safely, economically and efficiently”383 services without disrupting conventional aviation. • Annex 17 – Security and safeguarding • Annex 18 – Transport of dangerous The GUTMA and JARUS also provide some goods guidance toward global harmonization. The • Annex 19 – Safety management Global UTM Architecture proposed by GUTMA ● Indirect impact: represents a framework with interfaces • Annex 4 – Aeronautical charts to external systems while representing • Annex 5 – Units of measurement used a potential baseline to define standard in air interfaces. The methodology requires • Annex 10 – Aeronautical standardized terminology for phases of telecommunications (5 parts) operation, procedures, and operational • Annex 14 – Aerodromes (4 parts) volumes to facilitate effective communication • Annex 16 – Environmental protection (2 of all aspects of the JARUS SORA. The JARUS parts) SORA Main Body provides key concepts and The approving member states and ICAO definitions, with the semantic model being will need to consider how to address one such notion. Although the SORA aims to complexities and perhaps provide an support operators and competent authorities exemption from many ICAO annexes and and highlight the benefits of a harmonized SARPs to provide operational approval. risk assessment methodology, JARUS also acknowledges the need to accommodate The establishment of a cross-border UTM national specificities that cannot be could help enable such international standardized. operations. At the same time as the concept of UTM continues to evolve, it is From 2020-21, JARUS drafted another of the crucial to ensure global harmonization 10 annexes to the SORA Main Body: Annex and interoperability through finding joint H UTM UAS Safety Services Considerations. agreements on both its framework and The annex focuses on the safety functions principles. To achieve this, ICAO is leading enabled by third-party services and how efforts toward the development of a services can assure competent authorities framework for UTM. ICAO recently published that responsibilities are clearly divided among its latest version of the UTM framework, operators and the services they may rely which provides the foundations for consistent on, at the same time as it addresses core rules and regulations, promotes best functionality of calculating and mitigating the practices and standards, and supports the initial Ground Risk Class or initial Airspace development of common guidance material Risk Class, or of fulfilling parts of the OSO. It consistent with ICAO’s principles381. Since is important to note that the SORA does not 2017, ICAO has assembled industry partners address interactions among multiple UAS, nor at its annual DRONE ENABLE Symposia382 to does it include wake turbulence as a hazard. Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 160 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 161 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 162 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 163 Endnotes 42 Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021), p.7 43 Soesilo, D., Rambaldi, G. (2018, Feb) 44 More about the steering committee can be found 1 The forthcoming World Bank Report “Towards here: Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, harmonization of drone regulations” provides an in- VillageReach, GIZ and UNICEF (2019, Dec) depth impact assessment for different sectors. 45 Allen, K. (2016, Mar 15); Crowne Agents (2019) 2 UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.9 46 Fabian, C., Fabricant, R. (2014) 3 Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021) 47 Van den Hoven, J. et al. (eds.) (2015) 4 Mauluka, Chancy (2019); Truog, et al. (2020) 48 Cohn, et al. (2017) 5 Cohn, et al. (2017) 49 WEF (2021, Mar) 6 CASA (2017, Aug 3) 50 WEF (2021, Mar) 7 The forthcoming World Bank Report “Towards harmonization of drone regulations” provides a 51 WEF (2021, Mar), p.10 framework to support regulatory harmonization efforts. 52 WEF (2021) 8 WEF (2018, Dec), p.6 53 Lewis (2020, May 12) 9 ITU (2012-b) 54 WEF (2021, Mar) 10 FAA (2020, Nov 24) 55  World Bank Group (2017) 11 WEF (2021, Mar) 56 Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, 12 WEF (2021, Mar) VillageReach, GIZ and UNICEF (2019, Dec), p.24 13 UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.22 57 ICAO (2021, Feb 9), p.2 14 Whereas the term “unmanned” has been used 58  Rae, T. (2019, Jul 4) traditionally, “un-crewed” is increasingly adopted 59  ICAO (2021, Feb 9), p.2 instead. 60  FSD, DG ECHO (2017) 15 Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India (2019, Jan); Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021) 61  UK CAAi (2020) 16 African Union (2018, Jan 25-26) 62  Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India (2019, Jan) 17 UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.3 63  ICAO (n.d.-a) 18 ADF (2021a), p.8 64 WEF (2018, Dec) 19 WEF (2021, Mar), p.27 65 ICAO (2016, Dec 7), 1.1 20 WEF (2021, Mar) 66  ADF (2021a); Cohn, et al. (2017) 21 UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.9 67  EASA (2015, Dec 18); EASA (2016, Feb 16) 22 Wright, et al. (2018) 68  CASA (2017, Aug 3) 23 Bahrainwala, L., et al. (2020); Haidari, et al. (2016); JK RPAS Consulting (September 2019) 69  EASA (n.d.) 24 Yadav (2015) 70  Penny, et al. (2001), p.1 25 ISG-UAS (2018, Dec) 71  European Parliament, Council of the EU (2018, Aug 22) 26 Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021) 72  EASA (2016, Nov 22), p. 11 27 Levitate Capital (2020) 73  For example, European Parliament, Council of the EU 28 ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Advisory Circular 102-37 (2018, Aug 22) 29 Yadav (2015); WEF (2021) 74  ADF (2021a), p.13 30 An updated version of the VillageReach, ISG-UAS 75  ADF (2021a), p.13 (2019, Nov) evidence generation toolkit is currently under development. 76  ADF (2021a), p.14 31 UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.21 provides a 77  SkyBrary (2019, Aug 30) summary 78  ADF (2021a), p.13 32 Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021), xvi 79  SkyBrary (2019, Aug 30) 33 GAVI the Vaccine Alliance (2020, Aug) 80  ADF (2021a); SkyBrary (2019, Aug 30) 34 ADF (2020, Sep) 81  ADF (2021a), pp. 13-14 on Prescriptive vs. 35 Phillips, N., et al. (2016); Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. performance-based regulatory elements (2021) 82  La Cour-Harbo (2017). This does not preclude CAAs 36 Teravaninthorn, S., Raballand, G. (2009) from imposing operational limitations, however (see Government of India, 2018, Aug 27, for example) 37 Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021), xiv 83  14 CFR § 91.13 38 Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021), xiv; Yadav, et al. (2014) 84  EASA (2021, Apr), p.10 39 Truog, et al. (2020) 85  ICAO (2015) 40 WEF (2018, Dec), p.9 86  ICAO (n.d.-b) 41 Mauluka, Chancy (2019); Truog, et al. (2020) 87  ICAO (2020, Jun 23), p. 1 (Parts 101/102) Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 164 88  ICAO (2006) 135  ICRC (2020) 89  ICAO (2021, Feb 9), p.8 136  Creative Commons (2019) 90  ICAO (2017, Mar), p.4 137  ICAO (2021, Feb 9), p.2 91  Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India (2019, 138  UN 3480 or UN 3481 Jan) 139  Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021), p.9 92  Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India (2019, 140  EC (2009, May 5), Annex I Jan), p.7 141  ADF (2021a) 93  ICAO (2020), p.7 142  Greve, A., et al. (2021). 94  ADF (2021a) 143  FAA (2020, Nov 24) 95  ICAO (2005) 144  Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, 96  ICAO (2005), p. 1-1 VillageReach, GIZ and UNICEF (2019, Dec), p.8 97  Eurocontrol (2011, Sep 20) 145  Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, 98  McLeay et al. (1999) VillageReach, GIZ and UNICEF (2019, Dec), p.8 99  ADF (2021a), p.15 146  WEF (2021, Mar) 100  ICAO (2020, Jun 23) 147  WEF (2021, Mar), p.32 101  EASA (2021-b) 148  UAV coach (n.d.); WEF (2021, Mar) 102  SESAR (2018) 149  Global-Aero (n.d.) 103  ICAO Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing 150  European Union Committee (2015, Mar 5), p.54 104  ICAO (2020, Jun 23) 151  USAID GHSC-PSM (2018, Jul 9) 105  ICAO (2016, Dec 7) 152  JK RPAS Consulting (September 2019) 106  ICAO (2020) 153  Third-party logistics (3PL) model providers in particular might require upfront investments into the 107  ICAO (2015) infrastructure 108  WEF (2018, Dec), p.6 154  FAA (2017, Sep 11) 109  Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India 155  Chakib, M. (2018, Nov) (2019, Jan) 156  Mendez, E. (2019, Aug 13) 110  ICAO (2015) 157  ICAO (2016, Dec 7) 111  FAA (2020, Mar 2) 158  EASA (2021, Apr), p. 215 112  Norman Foster Foundation (n.d.) 159  ICAO (2018) 113  Crowne Agents (2017, May 4) 160  EASA (2019, Oct 9); JARUS (2019, Jan) 114  Brown, A. (2020, Feb 5) 161  ICAO (2020) 115  ITU (2012-b) 162  ICAO (2017, Mar), p.16 116  ITU (2012-b) 163  JARUS (2019, Jan 30), p.17 117  FAA (2020, Mar 2) 164  ICAO (2020, Jun 23) 118  SESAR (2020) 165  JARUS (2019, Jun 21), 119  Airmap (2019, Feb 19) 166  World Bank Group (2017) 120  EASA (2015, Oct 12) 167  ICAO (2018), 1-5 121  GSMA (2018) 168  ICRC (2020), p.78 122  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 169  World Bank Group (2017), p.37 123  EC (2021, Apr 22); SESAR (2020) 170  As of January 2021, JARUS will consider areas with 124  GSMA (2018) fewer than one person as “controlled”, “sparse” with 125  ICAO (2019, Nov 8) 1-300 people, and “populated” with 300-15,000 people. Discussion on what constitutes a “gathering” are ongoing 126  ASTM (2019) 171  If the UAS is planned to operate at a height of 400 127  FPF (2016, Aug 2), p.3 feet, the ground risk buffer should at least be 400 feet. 128  ICRC (2020); WEF (2021, Mar) 172  ICAO (2018) 129  Department of Civil Aviation Malawi, MACRA, 173  JARUS (2019, Jan) VillageReach, GIZ and UNICEF (2019, Dec), p.8 174  EASA (2019, Oct 9), p.18 130  OpenAerialMap (n.d.) 175  JARUS (2019, November 11) 131  Ministry of Civil Aviation Government of India (2019, Jan) 176  Civil Aviation Authority UK (2020, Nov 5) 132  FPF (2016, Aug 2) 177  WEF (2018, Dec), p.11 133  ICRC (2020) 178  JARUS (2019, Jan), p.19 134  World Bank Group (2017), p.35; Directorate-General 179  IEEE Computer Society (March 19, 1998) for Internal Policies of the Union (European Parliament) 180  JARUS (2019, Sep 25) (2015) Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 165 181  ICAO (2017, Mar), p.1 225  ICAO (2020, Jun 23) 182  EASA (2019, Oct 9), p.17 226  https://www.iso.org/committee/5336224.html 183  EASA (2019, Oct 9), p.19 227  https://www.jarus-rpas.org 184  JARUS (2019, Jul 11) 228  https://www.rtca.org/sc-228/ 185  European Parliament, Council of the EU (2018, Aug 229  https://www.sesarju.eu/discover-sesar 22) 230  UEMOA (2019) 186  ICAO (2015) 187  ICAO (2020, Jun 23) 231  https://www.updwg.org/md3/ 188  Sanjeev Gadhia as quoted by Pinto, N. (n.d.) 232  Economist (2017, Jun 8) 189  EASA (2019, Oct 9), p. 8 233  JARUS (2018, Jul 11), p.2 190  JARUS (2019, June 21) 234  JARUS (2018, Jul 11), p.2 191  ICAO (2016, Dec 7) 235  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 192  JK RPAS Consulting (2019, Sep), Lake Kivu Challenge 236  JARUS (2019, Jul 11) (see Annex B) 237  FAA (2017, May 9); JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 193  This topic will be discussed more in-depth in a forthcoming World Bank Report, "Towards 238  FAA (2000, Dec 30); FAA (2017, May 9); JARUS harmonization of drone regulations" (2017, Jun 26) 194  Truog, et al. (2020) 239  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar) 195  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102 240  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2020, Jun 23) 196  WEF (2018, Dec), p.9 241  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 197  ICAO (1991) 242  ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102 198  EASA (2019, Oct 9) 243  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 199  See for example, ADF (2020), OSOs: MAC-TB#3 102; ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 200  Knoblauch, et al. (2019), Table 3 244  JARUS (2015, Sep) 201  JARUS (2019, Jan 30), Annex B 245  EASA (2019, Oct 9) 202  UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.25 246  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 203  UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.19 247  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 204  Knoblauch, et al. (2019), Table 3 248  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 205  Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021) 249  ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO 206  WEF (2021, Mar) (2021, Feb 9) 207  WEF (2018, Dec) p.18 250  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); SAE (1996, Dec) 208  UNICEF Supply Division (2019, Oct), p.22 251  ICAO (2017, Mar) 209  Environmental impacts are covered more in- depth in the forthcoming World Bank Report, "Towards 252  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) harmonization of drone regulations” 253  SAE (1996, Dec) 210 210 Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). 254  Adapted from JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 211  WEF (2021, Mar), p.18 255  FAA (2000, Dec 30) 212  Greve, A., Dubin, S., Triche, R. (2021). 256  Adapted from JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 213  Stokenberga, A., Ochoa, C. (2021), xix 257  ICAO (2011) 214  https://www.unicef.org/innovation/ 258  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) AfricanDroneAcademy 259  Adapted from geo-fencing in JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 215  https://www.Africandroneforum.org/ 260  McCord, J., Tien, M., Sarley, D. (2013) 216  https://www.aw-drones.eu/ 261  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); SAE (1996, Dec) 217  FSD, DG ECHO (2017) 262  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 218  https://www.eurocae.net/about-us/working- groups/ 263  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 219  https://www.assureuas.org/about/ 264  ICAO (2011); ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO (2021, Feb 9); 220  https://flightsafety.org/ JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 221  https://flyinglabs.org/; WEF (2018, Dec), p.19 265  ICAO (2011) 222  https://gutma.org/ 266  JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 223  For more information, visit isghealth.org and 267  FAA (2016, Feb) isghealth.org/uas-coordinating-body/. 268  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); SAE (1996, Dec) 224  https://www.icao.int/about-icao/Pages/default. aspx 269  SAE (1996, Dec) Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 166 270  JARUS (2015, Sep) 9); JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 271  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 315  EASA (2021, Apr) 272  FAA (2017, May 9) 316  ICRC (2020) 273  FAA (2020, Mar 2) 317  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 274  ICRC (2020) 318  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 275  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 319  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 276  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); ICAO (2015) 320  FAA (2000, Dec 30); JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 277  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 321  McCord, J., Tien, M., Sarley, D. (2013) 278  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 322  ICAO (2011) 279  ICAO (n.d.-c) 323  SAE (1996, Dec) 280  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 324  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); SAE (1996, Dec) 281  ICRC (2020) 325  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 282  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, 326  FAA (2020, Mar 2) Mar); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO (2021, 327  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar); ICAO (2020, Jun Feb 9) 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO (2021, Feb 9); JARUS (2015, 283  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) Sep) 284  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 328  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 285  FAA (2000, Dec 30); JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 329  ICAO (2015); JARUS (2015, Sep) 286  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 330  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 287  SAE (1996, Dec) 331  EASA (2019, Oct 9); JARUS (2019, Jan) 288  FAA (2000, Dec 30); SAE (1996, Dec) 332  FAA (2000, Dec 30); JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 289  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 333  FAA (2000, Dec 30); JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 290  European Parliament, Council of the EU (2018, 334  EASA (2016, Nov 22); EASA (2019, Oct 9) Aug 22) 335  FAA (2000, Dec 30) 291  ICAO (2015) 336  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 292  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 102 293  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 337  EASA (2016, Nov 22); EASA (2019, Oct 9) 294  EASA (2021, Apr) 338  FAA (2000, Dec 30) 295  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); SAE (1996, Dec) 339  JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 296  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); JARUS (2019, Jan) 340  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2018); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 297  JARUS (2019, Jul 11) 341  FAA (2017, May 9) 298  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 342  FAA (2017, May 9) 299  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 343  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 300  FAA (2000, Dec 30) 102 301  JARUS (2017, Jun 26); SAE (1996, Dec) 344  FAA (2017, May 9); JARUS (2017, Aug 26) 302  SAE (1996, Dec) 345  ICAO (2018) 303  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 346  EASA (2016, Nov 22); EASA (2019, Oct 9) 304  IATA (2019, Dec 12) 347  FAA (2017, May 9) 305  JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 348  FAA (2017, May 9) 306  ICAO (2015) 349  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2018) 307  ICAO (2015) 350  FAA (2017, May 9) 308  EASA (2021, Apr) 351  ICAO (2011); ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar); 309  JARUS (2017, Jun 26) ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO (2021, Feb 9); 310  ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102 JARUS (2017, Aug 26) 311  ICAO (2017, Mar); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 352  JARUS (2017, Aug 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) and 102 353  FAA (2017, May 9); JARUS (2017, Aug 26) 312  McCord, J., Tien, M., Sarley, D. (2013) 354  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 313  ICAO (2015); JARUS (2017, Jun 26) 355  JARUS (2019, Jan) 314  ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar); ICAO (2021, Feb 356  Adapted from JARUS (2017, Aug 26) Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 167 357  JARUS (2017, Aug 26) 358  SAE (1996, Dec) 359  EASA (2021, Apr) 360  JARUS (2017, Aug 26); JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 361  ICAO (2017, Mar) 362  IATA (2019, Dec 12); ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar) 363  ICAO (2017, Mar) 364  FAA (2000, Dec 30) 365  JARUS (2015, Sep) 366  ICAO (2015) 367  EASA (2021, Apr) 368  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 369  EASA (2021, Apr) 370  JARUS (2017, Aug 26); JARUS (2019, Jan), Annex C 371  ICAO (2011); ICAO (2021, Feb 9); JARUS (2017, Aug 26) 372  JARUS (2018, Jul 11) 373  Adapted from ICAO (2015); ICAO (2017, Mar); ICAO (2020, Jun 23), Parts 101 and 102; ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 374  ICAO (2018) 375  JARUS (2017, Jun 26), p.5 376  Rwanda CAA (2019-a, 2019-b) 377  Rwanda CAA (2018, Jul 19), ENR 5.6 378  Rwanda CAA (2018, Jul 19), ENR 6.8, ENR 6.9 379  ICAO (2021, Feb 9), p.10 380  ICAO (2015) 381  ICAO (2021, Feb 9) 382  https://www.icao.int/meetings/UAS2017/ Pages/default.aspx 383  ICAO (2021, Feb 9), p.2 Playbook for Enabling Civilian Drone Operations 168