2023 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector A GLOBAL PLATFORM FOR ARTISANAL & SMALL SCALE MINING DATA Delve is a global platform for artisanal and small-scale mining Administration Branch, Regulatory Operations Division, (ASM) data. Its vision is a world in which ASM is recognized as Mineral Resources Authority of PNG); Perú (Ministry of Energy an important contributor to global development. and Mines—General Directorate of Mining Formalization); the Philippines (Mining Technology Division, Mines and Recommended citation: Geosciences Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural World Bank. 2023. 2023 State of the Artisanal and Small- Resources); Tanzania (Small Scale Mining Development Scale Mining Sector. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Section, Department of Minerals, Ministry of Minerals); Zambia (Ministry of mines and minerals development department of Planning and Information); and Zimbabwe (Department of Acknowledgments and key contributors: Mining Research, Value Addition and Beneficiation, Ministry of The 2023 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Mines and Mining Development Zimbabwe). Sector report is a collaboration between the World Bank’s Extractives Global Programmatic Support Multi-Donor Trust Fund and Pact. Women in Mining Questionnaire: Ecuador (Association of self- employed miners) Ghana (Women in Mining Ghana); Indonesia (Women in Mining & Energy); Mongolia (Umbrella Federation The lead report editors and authors are Professor Nellie of ASCM in Mongolia); Mozambique (Association of the Mutemeri (MutConsult), Dr. James McQuilken (Pact), Dr. Mozambican Women in Mining); Peru (National Network of Rachel Perks (World Bank), and Itai Mutemeri (MutConsult) Women Miners of ASM); Sierra Leone (Women on Mining and with contributions from Nathan Schneck (World Bank) and Extractives); Tanzania (Tanzania Women Miners Association); Susanne Madigan (World Bank). Sunny Kaplan (World Bank) Zambia (Association of Zambian Women in Mining); and provided editorial assistance. Zimbabwe (African Women in Mining Empowerment Trust, Zimbabwe Association for Women in Mining Association); The chapter overviews and case studies are written by a range of Delve partners as specified at the start of each section. Mine Site Questionnaire: Bolivia (Cumbre del Sajama); Guyana Thank you to all contributors of the 2023 Delve report. Layout (Mining 360°); Mongolia (Artisanal and Small-scale Miners and design are provided by BitterSweet Creative Group. National Federation of Mongolia); Sierra Leone (Cemmats Group Ltd); Zimbabwe (Zimbabwe Environmental Law This document was produced with financial assistance from Association Trust). the World Bank’s Extractives Global Programmatic Support Multi-Donor Trust Fund. Cover photo: Roseline Nyambu, artisanal miner in Kenya, presents her mined Survey: gemstones. Credit: World Bank With thanks to the following organizations for their support in collecting data for this report: Disclaimers: All opinions, views, and comments expressed in this report Government Questionnaire: Bolivia (Vice-Ministry of Mining solely belong to the authors and do not necessarily reflect Policy, Regulation and Inspection of the Ministry of Mines and those of the World Bank, Pact, MutConsult or any of the Metallurgy); Ecuador (Government of Azuay, National Mining institutions the authors are affiliated with. Company, Undersecretary of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining); Indonesia (Directorate of Engineering and Environmental All data points and original open-access sources used in Mineral and Coal-Directorate General of Mineral and Coal this report are on the Delve platform. To avoid further data (DGMC), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources); Kenya recycling when referencing any information contained in this (Ministry of Mining, Blue Economy and Maritime Affairs, National report, the original source should be included, for example: Mining Corporation, Mineral Prospecting Department); Malawi (Ministry of Mining and Natural Resources, Department of Mines); Mongolia (Head of the Technics and Technology McQuilken and Hilson, 2016, as cited in World Bank, 2023. Department, Department of Mining, Authority of Mineral and Oil resources); Papua New Guinea (Mineral Tenements http://www.stateofthesector23.delvedatabase.org/ Contents Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Case Study #3: TABLE OF BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II Capacity Training as a Springboard to Sustainable Development in TABLE OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II Nigeria’s Mining Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 TABLE OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV Case Study #4: The Necessary Next Step in Sierra Leone’s Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Efforts to Mainstream Gender into ASM GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON ARTISANAL AND SMALL- Formalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 SCALE MINING AND SDG 5 GENDER EQUALITY . . . . . . . . 1 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Case Study #5: ASM Formalization to Promote Women’s CASE STUDIES: A SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Human Rights In Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Advance Women’s Social Protections Introduction: Artisanal and Small-Scale at the Mine and Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Mining and Sustainable Development SOCIAL PROTECTION AS A CONCEPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Goal 5—Gender Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 INSIGHTS FROM THE 2023 STATE OF (IN)VISIBILITY CRISIS: WOMEN IN ASM ARE SECTOR SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 NOT BEING COUNTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 INSIGHTS FROM THE CASE STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 EVOLUTION OF ASM AND GENDER LITERATURE . . . . . 19 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Case Study #6: Make Mining Laws and Economic Policies Local Civil Society Organizations Gender Inclusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Working Together with the Colombian OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Municipal Government to Address LEGAL PROVISIONS TO END DISCRIMINATION Child Labor in ASM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 AND PROMOTE EQUALITY, ACCESS, AND EMPOWERMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Case Study #7: INSIGHTS FROM THE 2023 STATE OF Concerns Over the Social Protection SECTOR SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 for Mongolian Artisanal Miners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 INSIGHTS FROM THE CASE STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Case Study #8: CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Gendered Impacts of ASM Formalization: REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Women in the Artisanal Mining Sector of the Central African Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Case Study #1: Increasing the Presence of Women Case Study #9: in Alluvial Mining in Peru: The Case of For Women Entrepreneurs in Ghana’s Madre De Dios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Mining Communities, Finance is Golden . . . . . . . . . 92 Case Study #2: Case Study #10: Formalization and Gender: Lessons Unearthing Hope: A Holistic Approach from the Diamond ASM Kimberley Case to Supporting Girls and Boys in in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Tanzanian Mining Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 I Case Study #11: Table of boxes Empowering Women in Philippine ASM Communities through BOX 1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Compassionate Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 BOX 2. Formalization in Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 BOX 3. The ILO strategy on the extension Account for Gendered Differences of social protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 in Occupational Health and Safety Efforts at Mine Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 BOX 4. Livelihood and economic OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 dynamics of mining in Rwanda . . . . . . . . . . 128 GENDER INEQUALITIES IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Table of figures OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS FOR WOMEN IN MINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 FIGURE 1. Mapping SDG 5 Gender Equality INSIGHTS FROM THE 2023 STATE OF THE targets to artisanal and small- SECTOR SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 scale mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 INSIGHTS FROM THE CASE STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 FIGURE 2. From your experience in your CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 organization’s work what are REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 the challenges women in ASM experience? (WIM Questionnaire) . . . . . . . 36 Case Study #12: FIGURE 3. What types of programs has your The Women Who Age too Fast: group participated in? Embodied Experiences in the (WIM Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Democratic Republic of Congo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 FIGURE 4. What support does the government Case Study #13: need to better consider the needs Improving Health and Development of women in ASM? (Government Outcomes in Formalized ASM Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Operations through Promoting FIGURE 5. What, in your opinion, has been Responsible Mining Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 the greatest challenge? (Government Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Case Study #14: FIGURE 6. Active women miners per annum . . . . . . . 48 Illuminating Small-Scale Mining in Rwanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 FIGURE 7. Training sessions organized by Women in Mining Training Institute . . . . 52 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 FIGURE 8. Map of Nigeria showing G4M presence and number of student members in six states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 FIGURE 9. In recent years, has the number of women working in ASM changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 FIGURE 10. In recent years has society’s perception of women in ASM changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 FIGURE 11. In recent years have the number of women with licenses/permits changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 II FIGURE 12. In recent years how have the Table of tables cases of GBV in ASM changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 TABLE 1. Geographicalcoverage and gender disaggregation of the FIGURE 13. When was the last time you heard 2023 State of the Sector Report of any instances of gender-based Survey and legal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 violence against women in mining communities in the area? TABLE 2. Gender assessment of legal (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 FIGURE 14. Do you know if the survivors TABLE 3. What have been the impacts were provided with any assistance/ of government formalization support? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . 75 interventions on…? (Government Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 FIGURE 15. Map of Southwestern Central African Republic for AMPR’s TABLE 4. Lawsincreasing women’s supported women activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 empowerment in Sierra Leone . . . . . . . . . . 56 FIGURE 16. Health problems and care- TABLE 5. Beneficiaries of AMPR VSLA Support . . 89 seeking behavior by gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 TABLE 6. Beneficiaries of AMPR’s FIGURE 17. Involvement in mining by gender . . . . . . . 98 livelihoods support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 FIGURE 18. Which of these environmental TABLE 7: Summary of gender Issues in ASGM . . . 102 impacts have you observed TABLE 8. OHS exposure and related health on the mining site? implications in ASM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 TABLE 9. Pathologies and specific health FIGURE 19. In recent years have the negative risks faced by female workers . . . . . . . . . . . 120 environmental impacts to which women are exposed changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 FIGURE 20. Is maternal health and sexual health and reproductive care available near or at the site? (Mine Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 FIGURE 21. Do you believe you are making informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care? (Mine Site Questionnaire— women only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 FIGURE 22. At what age were you married? (Site Questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 FIGURE 23. Comic strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 FIGURE 24. Training methods used on the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 FIGURE 25. Lighting use at surveyed mines shows hand torches are main source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 III Acronyms Cut, Carat, 4-Cs Color and Clarity Civil Society CSO Organization Fourth Industrial 4IR Revolution The Philippines DA Department Acquired Immunodeficiency AIDS of Agriculture Syndrome District councils DC Association AFAMC of Women Artisanal South Africa’s DMRE Department of Miners of Carnot Mineral Resources and Energy Association AFAMCA of Women Artisanal Democratic DRC Republic of Congo Miners of the Central African Extractive EGPS Global Republic Programmatic Support Association AFESMICA of Women in the Environmental EPA Protection Agency Central African Mining Sector European EPRM Partnership for Artisanal Gold AGC Council Responsible Minerals Africa Gender AGI Index Federal Capital FCT Territory African Minerals AMDC Development Research FWO Foundation Flanders Centre The Instituto ICBF Colombiano de African Mining AMV Vision Bienestar Familiar The Alliance for Responsible Mining ARM The International ICMM Council on Antiretroviral ART therapy Mining and Metals Artisanal ASGM and small-scale gold IGF The Intergovernmental Forum mining on Mining, Minerals, Metals and ASM Artisanal and small-scale mining Sustainable Development ASOMUSELUPAZ The Association of Women Mineral Ifakara Health IHI Institute Selectors and Peacebuilders International ILO Labour Organization AWOME African Women in Mining Intelligence IQ Quotient Empowerment Trust Illuminating ISMR Small-Scale Mining in Association AZWIM of Zambian Women in Rwanda Mining Girls for Mining G4M Club Bureau BECDOR d’expertise et de contrôle Gender-based GBV violence [includes du diamant et de l’or sexual violence] The Convention CEDAW on the Elimination Ghana Health GHS Service of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Human Immunodeficiency HIV Virus Centre CEGEMI d’Expertise en Gestion HIV testing HTS services Minière Kimberly KPCS Process The Inter-Institutional CIETI Committee Certification Scheme for the Prevention and Eradication Local Government LGU Unit of Child Labor Madre de MDD Dios Compassionate CG Gold MiniCom Ghana’s Minerals Commission Child Labor CL Central African MMG Republic’s Ministry Children CLHIV living with HIV of Mines and Geology CRAFT Code Code of Risk-mitigation for ASM Nigeria’s MMSD Minister of Mines and engaging in Formal Trade Steel Development IV Tanzania’s MOHCDGEC Ministry of Health, USAID AMPR USAID Artisanal Mining and Property Community Development, Gender, Rights Elderly and Children Flemish VLIR-UOS Interuniversity Council Mineral MPRDA and Petroleum Resources Rwanda WIAMO Women In/And Mining Development Act, 2002 Organization Non-governmental NGO Organization WIASM Women in Artisanal Scale Mining Organisation OECD for Economic World Health WHO Organization Co-operation and Development Women in WIM Mining Office of OHCHR the United Nations High Women WIMIN in Mining in Nigeria Commissioner for Human Rights WIMTI Women In Mining Training Institute Occupational OHS health and safety Women on WoME Mining and Extractives Open Society OSIWA Initiative for West Africa Ghana’s Water WRC Resources Commission Other Unacceptable OUWC Working Conditions Orphans and OVC vulnerable children Peace Diamond PDA Alliance The U.S. PEPFAR President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief Personal protective PPE equipment RED SOCIAL Instituto Redes de Desarrollo Social Rwanda Mines, RMB Petroleum and Gas Board SDG Sustainable Development Goal Servicio Nacional SENA de Aprendizaje Solid Minerals SMDF Development Fund The Pilares SN Solidarity Network Sexual and SRH Reproductive Health Sexually Transmitted STD Disease Science, STEM Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Sexually Transmitted STI Infection System for SIRITI the Identification, Registration and Characterization of Child Labor and its Worst Forms Tanzanian TAMOWA Women Miners Association Village Savings VSLA’s and Loans Associations University of UC Cartagena United Nations UN United States USAID Agency for International Development State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 V Credit: Senderistas, Shutterstock VI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Global outlook on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and SDG 5 Gender Equality Since the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted in 2015, SDG 5 “Achieve Gender Equality and Empower all Women and Girls” (SDG 5 Gender Equality) was showing improvement. Girls’ access to education increased, women’s representation in parliament grew, and child marriage has decreased.1 However, since the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 the world has witnessed increases in violence, child marriage, and women and girls in caregiver roles. Since the end of the pandemic, the annual Sustainable Development Goals Report has painted a worrisome picture warning that the “world is not on track to achieve SDG 5 Gender Equality by 2030” (UNECA, 2023). 2023 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2020 1 Since 2015, the annual SDG Report has also The contributions of ASM to SDG 5 repeated ad infinitum the same consistent message: ASM is a vital contributor to our global economy and the equality and empowerment of women and girls way of life. It supplies notable volumes of minerals will not be possible until their rights are secured to global industries from jewelry, construction, in legal frameworks. Various reports outline how agriculture, information technology, manufacturing, “assuring women’s rights through legal frameworks automotive, and defense. Women play a critical role is a first step in addressing discrimination against in this sector, with an estimated 13.4 million women them”(UNECA, 2016), that “empowering women working in ASM worldwide, comprising 30% of the requires addressing structural issues such as unfair global 44.67 million ASM workforce.2 However, the social norms and attitudes as well as developing lack of sex-disaggregated data on women’s partici- progressive legal frameworks that promote equality pation in ASM could make this figure far higher. between women and men” (UNECA, 2018), and “discriminatory laws and legal gaps continue to Women perform multiple direct and indirect prevent women from enjoying their human rights” tasks along the ASM value chain: mining, sorting, (UNECA, 2021). The pace of gender-related legal crushing, grinding, sieving, washing and panning; reforms is also slowing with economies in 2022 and transporting ores, food sales, and other related adopting the fewest gender-related reforms in more services. Some of these tasks are visible, occurring than two decades (World Bank 2023a). The World at the mine face. But many female-concentrated Bank’s forthcoming Gender Strategy 2024–2030 ASM job categories happen away from view, recognizes the urgent imperative to accelerate such as retreating material in rivers downstream, gender equality for a sustainable, resilient, and processing gold with mercury in their homes, and inclusive future (World Bank 2023b). preparing food for miners. Many of these tasks are never recognized, let alone documented, even The 2023 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale when mine surveys do occur at sites, leaving the Mining (ASM) Sector report takes up this call to impression that mining remains a man’s world. action to examine whether and how legal frame- Simply put: women are not being counted. The works inhibit or promote women’s equality and result is that without interventions that promote empowerment in ASM, along with analyzing women’s participation, policies and practices to several other key barriers to women’s participation improve the well-being and standing of miners are and empowerment in the sector including social gender blind—meaning they fail to acknowledge protections and access to occupational health and and accommodate gender differences that affect safety (OHS). equal participation of men and women in ASM. The report finds that while considerable work Some examples of gender-blind reforms and prac- remains to get back on track to achieve SDG 5 by tices in ASM include: a lack of prioritizing women’s 2030, gains are being made through women-fo- sanitation and hygiene infrastructure at mine sites, cused initiatives advancing the development of the child care provisions, or lighting that could improve ASM sector. Successful initiatives have addressed security and OHS; the introduction of mechaniza- the legal and structural barriers to female partici- tion and simple technologies that increase produc- pation in ASM, included women in their design tivity but inadvertently take jobs away from women and implementation, and developed women’s without re-deployment elsewhere; structures and capacities in law, mining, and business. However, processes to report malpractices at sites being significant progress is needed to make ASM legal governed by the very people who commit the frameworks gender inclusive, advance women’s abuses against women. social protections at work and home, and account for gendered differences in ASM occupational Not only does the lack of visibility of women exclude health and safety. them from meaningful reforms to the sector, but it often leads to economic and physical discrimina- tion. As a result of performing ancillary roles such as 2 Executive summary washing, processing, and transporting ore, women sentation of 67% female participants in the survey in ASM are excluded from the highest-earning who shared their experiences with the legal and activities and do not derive the same economic structural barriers. Fourteen case studies (repre- benefits as men in ASM do. senting 12 countries) contributed by 34 authors from 23 organizations illustrate practical exam- ples to follow in order to advance SDG 5 in ASM. Achieving SDG 5 in ASM: Women-led mining groups and networks were instrumental in the data collection of this report, Recommendations and key findings and their organizational and influencing power The 2023 State of the Sector report examines should be capacitated and harnessed to help close the intersection of ASM and SDG 5 and the steps the gender gap in ASM. that need to be taken to achieve gender equality. Drawing on a review of mining and legal frameworks “As miners and as an association, we need in 21 countries and the collection of primary data, a support. Support from government agen- first for the 2023 report, through a trio of surveys cies, municipalities, and the country as a with over 1,900 participants from government, whole, that supports the mining sector and women in mining groups, and miners themselves,3 gives more confidence to women, supports the 2023 report amplifies the visibility of women’s us in gender and human rights...They should contributions in ASM and provides quantitative and strengthen us and help us grow, give us a qualitative data to underpin its recommendations. hand, and help us move forward” The 2023 report effectively communicates the – DIVANEY VIVEROS (FEMALE ARTISANAL MINER voices of women by including a substantial repre- FROM SUÁREZ CAUCA, COLOMBIA, 2023) “Maman minyangala” at work, Democratic Republic of Congo Credit: Sara Geenen State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 3 To best understand and analyze the challenge of The 2023 State of the Sector finds that most mining achieving SDG 5 gender equality and women and codes around the world are gender blind or gender girls empowerment in ASM, the 2023 State of the neutral and do not contain stipulations to enhance Sector report employed an analytical framework women’s participation in ASM. An in-depth legal that identified three key barriers to women’s partic- analysis of the mining code and relevant laws (such ipation and empowerment in the sector. as land and reproductive health rights) of 21 ASM countries across Latin America and the Caribbean, The report is structured in three chapters, with Africa, and East Asia and Pacific found that 14 each providing findings from the research, illustra- mining codes (67%) and 17 (80%) property right laws tive case studies, and a key recommendation to are gender blind or neutral, leaving women behind advance women’s participation in ASM: in terms of access and control over resources. Seven countries are found to have included 1. Make mining laws and economic policies gender in their mining codes, with most being in gender inclusive. Sub-Saharan Africa, while only three of the 21 countries have passed gender-sensitive land laws 2. Advance women’s social protections at (Colombia, Tanzania, and Zambia). Governments the mine and home. pointed to capacity building and financial support as the most common forms of support needed to 3. Account for gendered differences in better consider the needs of women. Officials cite occupational health and safety (OHS) lack of funding as the greatest challenge to inte- efforts at mine sites. grating gender considerations into efforts aimed at supporting the sector. Please see the full report for supporting informa- tion informed by primary research for each of the Legal frameworks guaranteeing the rights and key findings. fundamental freedoms of women in society and mining are not the only factor constraining women’s full participation in ASM. Traditional beliefs and RECOMMENDATION 1: MAKE MINING LAWS AND discriminatory customary practices can also ECONOMIC POLICIES GENDER INCLUSIVE constrain women in ASM from fully enjoying their Like its global ambition, advancing SDG 5 in ASM rights, exercising economic autonomy, and making must start from the position of legal recognition. decisions independently. Legislation can either support or impede gender equality and women’s empowerment within wider But what is the impact of mining, land, and health society, which then impacts women’s full and rights legislative frameworks being gender blind effective participation in ASM. The 1935 (No. 45) and gender neutral, as well as customary practices International Labour Organization Underground limiting women’s equality and full participation in Work (Women) Convention4 formed the basis of ASM? Gender-blind approaches to formalize the discrimination against women in the mining industry sector overlook women in ASM as an important writ large, making it illegal for women to work in stakeholder group and fail to consider their unique underground mines. Despite more recent amend- gender-specific needs. Consequently, there is ments in many national legislations and lack of a lack of information and understanding of the enforcement in others, it still provided the basis for on-the-ground needs of women in ASM. banning women from mining, including in ASM. The Convention is proposed for abrogation at the 112th Somewhat reassuringly, however, the 2023 State of session of the International Labour Conference the Sector finds that governments are increasingly in 2024, signaling an important step in protecting recognizing the importance of women in ASM, with women’s access to work in mining and providing a 67% of officials responding that they have under- catalyst for further reforms. taken programs that specifically empower women in ASM or have women-specific components. 4 Executive summary Additionally, 83% of government officials stated reforms has the potential to drive growth that is more they included women in the development of ASM inclusive and fair. However, it is estimated by the formalization interventions. Though there is some International Labour Organization that 55% of the way to go in understanding and capacity develop- world’s population does not have any social protec- ment on gender-inclusive policy and programming. tion coverage while many others have only partial Exploring the outcomes and impact of such inter- protection. This worryingly large gap in social safety ventions further could be a useful avenue in future nets is especially true for informal economic activity work to better understand the gap between law, of which the majority of ASM falls, with 80–90% of policy, and program interventions. ASM miners worldwide estimated to operate infor- mally without the licenses and permits required by The report provides ways in which women’s full law and poor practices (World Bank, 2020). participation in ASM can be promoted through five illustrative case studies from partner organizations The recommendation to advance women’s social on the ground in the Peru, South Africa, Nigeria, protections at work and home through ASM is Sierra Leone, and Colombia. therefore urgently needed. The report illustrates there is good progress in this regard and the sector KEY FINDINGS is responding to these gaps in social protection through partnerships with governments and civil - The lack of gender-sensitive language in national society organizations toward increasing access to laws is hindering gender equality in ASM. social protection for artisanal and small-scale miners. - Governments are increasingly recognizing the According to government officials, Women in Mining importance of women in ASM. (WIM) groups, and miners, formalization interven- tions are leading to perceived increases in women’s - Capacity development and financial support participation in ASM, mining license applications, are crucial areas that require immediate atten- and improvements in perception of women miners. tion to enable government officials to advance However, the share of domestic work women gender equality in the ASM sector. are expected to undertake has not significantly decreased. This quantifies the “double burden” that women carry (combination of domestic and RECOMMENDATION 2: ADVANCE WOMEN’S SOCIAL work duties) and is a significant reason why women PROTECTIONS AT THE MINE AND HOME work fewer hours in ASM than men do. On average, Social protections are defined as the “set of policies women working in the ASM value chain performed and programs aimed at preventing and protecting 26% (five hours per week) more domestic work than all people against poverty, vulnerability and social men. Additionally, gender-based violence (GBV) exclusion, throughout their life.” (SPIAC-B, 2019). that disproportionally affects women is not being Focused on SDG target 5.4: “recognize and value actively monitored by governments at ASM sites, unpaid care and domestic work through the provi- meaning data-driven and evidence-based policies sion of public services, infrastructure and social and initiatives to address GBV in ASM communities protection policies …,” social protections are a funda- cannot be robustly developed and implemented. mental construct within national development strat- egies and support gender equality and women’s A second powerful finding, and a recurring theme and girl’s empowerment. Placing an emphasis on throughout the report, is the importance of gender- vulnerable groups, social protections can be a specific ASM networks and associations to improve catalyst for reducing gaps in inequality, promoting women’s visibility in ASM and advance gender social inclusions, and eradicating poverty. equality, and the importance of stakeholders working together to achieve beneficial outcomes Within ASM, establishing and improving social for women. WIM groups’ participation in formal- protection mechanisms through policies and policy ization initiatives resulted in a reported increase State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 5 RECOMMENDATION 3: ACCOUNT FOR GENDERED in the number of women in leadership positions, DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND decrease in discrimination, reduction in GBV, and SAFETY EFFORTS AT MINE SITES increase in women’s access to land/mine owner- ship. Empowering, legitimizing, and professional- Engaging in ASM bears the risk of numerous occu- izing these gender-specific professional groups is pational health and safety (OHS) hazards. The critical to advancing gender equality in ASM. gendered division of labor, anatomical and biolog- ical differences, employment patterns, cultural In countries where there are no nationwide inter- beliefs, societal roles, expectations, and respon- ventions that include women in ASM, the 2023 sibilities contribute to gender-specific patterns report finds that WIM groups and NGOs remain of OHS hazards and risks and result in differen- critical in facilitating multistakeholder engagement. tiated, and sometimes higher, risks of negative Along with the trainings, workshops, and commu- OHS impacts in ASM. The 2023 report explored nity meetings these groups provide, TV, radio, gendered inequality of OHS in ASM according to newspapers, and social media were all reported four categories: i) physical and biomechanical, ii) as being important to spread awareness of govern- chemical, iii) psychosocial, and iv) environmental. ment and nongovernment programs and opportu- nities to grow social protections. The 2023 State of the Sector highlights how women’s lower earnings in periphery roles with While well-structured policy is important to improve repetitive manual tasks such as rock breaking and social protections for women in ASM, it takes ore grinding, and lack of access to capital means concrete actions to enable these policies. The they face specific biomechanical impacts and report presents six case studies from organizations cannot afford personal protective equipment or working in Colombia, Mongolia, the Central African improved mining and processing technologies. Republic, Ghana, Tanzania, and the Philippines illustrating methods being used to bring about In many countries, women are excluded from meaningful changes in the lives of artisanal and gold extraction activities due to cultural beliefs small-scale miners. and presumed regard for their perceived safety. Instead, women are confined to processing activities KEY FINDINGS conducting mercury amalgamation and vaporization. Women and children are disproportionately impacted - Women are being included by government by occupational mercury use as the powerful chemical in ASM development initiatives, increasing neurotoxin can be transferred to young and unborn women’s participation and improving percep- children through breastfeeding and the placenta tions of them in ASM. causing adverse birth outcomes, spontaneous abor- tions, low birth weights, and preterm births. - ASM support initiatives need to consider how to reduce disparities in domestic work performed Psychosocially (the influence of social and phys- by women versus men. ical factors on an individual’s mind or behavior), the level of physical activity in ASM can result in - Gender-specific ASM networks and associ- extreme fatigue and chronic pain not only because ations are critical to improving women’s visi- of the arduous work but also due to the additional bility in ASM and advancing gender equality. domestic demands placed on women, resulting in abuse of drugs and alcohol as a coping mechanism. - Governments lack a reporting mechanism to Hunger and malnutrition, with women traditionally monitor GBV in ASM communities. being the food providers at home and mine sites, can have additional psychosocial impacts. The negative environmental impacts of ASM activ- ities that result in agricultural land degradation 6 Executive summary and destruction are found to disproportionately can be promoted through interventions that enable affect women because they often rely on farming women to advance from hazardous lower-earning for income and to supplement the household diet. peripheral jobs, which has constrained them from With women most often being responsible for food participating in decision making, to higher-paid provision in the home, when the quality, quantity decision making roles. By elevating the position and nutritional value of food is reduced, it is often of women in ASM, approaches aimed at fostering women who go without to feed their families first. gender equality can disrupt the gendered social norms and cultural barriers that result in pervasive The report calls for interventions to account for gender discrimination and GBV in ASM communi- gendered differences in OHS within ASM to ensure ties and the wider society. gender equality and women’s full participation in the sector. The differentiated OHS impacts of To better understand the ways in which ASM ASM are further evidenced by the 2023 State of produces gendered effects on women’s well-being, the Sector Survey findings that show the negative three case studies from the Democratic Republic of environmental impacts of ASM are increasing and Congo (DRC), Ghana, and Rwanda demonstrate the disproportionately impacting women as reported wide array of OHS risks and mining-related health by over one-third of miners participating in the Mine impacts, as well as the various interventions and Site Questionnaire. multi-stakeholder approaches needed to improve women’s OHS in ASM and address the differential Miners often lack access to health care near the risks women face. ASM sites where they work, cutting off access to maternal and sexual health and reproductive care. KEY FINDINGS And worryingly, women in ASM are dispropor- tionally 11 times more likely to be in early marriage - Women in ASM are being exposed to an (under the age of 18) than men, which can limit their increasing number of negative environmental freedoms and at times be a form of modern slavery. impacts. Gender-responsive ASM policy and interventions - There is limited availability of maternal health can address the various OHS challenges faced by and sexual health and reproductive care near women. Legislation that enhances women’s access mine sites and mining communities. to and ownership of land could empower women in ASM to participate in the sector actively and mean- - Girls are at a disproportionately higher risk of ingfully without fear and risk of GBV. Gender equality child marriage in ASM communities than boys. Gender and governance workshop with the women of the ASOMUSELUPAZ association Credit: Alliance for Responsible Mining State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 7 Conclusion 2023 State of the ASM Sector report summarizes The obstacles confronting women in ASM span the following key recommendations to improve legal, social, and economic domains. These difficul- SDG 5 outcomes in ASM. ties are exacerbated by the persisting gender-blind- ness within mining laws, resulting in discrimination The role of professional mining groups like Women against women miners and hindering their access in Mining in advancing these actions and achieving to resources, education, and economic advance- reforms cannot be understated. Governments ment, placing their safety and well-being at risk. must continue to empower, legitimize, and profes- Without action and reforms, women will remain sionalize these gender-specific groups in order to unable to realize the full economic and social bene- improve women’s visibility in ASM and advance fits afforded by a well-developed ASM sector. The gender equality. Recommendation Description Make mining legal frameworks It is imperative to proactively promote and bolster gender equality within mining laws. This requires a gender inclusive comprehensive reevaluation and amendment of gender-blind or gender-neutral mining codes and national mining policies to ensure the acknowledgment and safeguarding of women miners’ rights. Specifically, the forthcoming abrogation of the ILO Underground Work (Women) Convention 1935 (No. 45), which bars female employment in underground mine work, provides a clear catalyst for dialogue and reforms to be built upon. Furthermore, reinforcing legal frameworks that shield women from discrimination and detrimental practices is vital for fostering a more inclusive and equitable environment. In the sphere of land rights and resource access, a fundamental transformation of both statutory land ownership systems and customary tenure arrangements is essential. This transformation enables women to transition from peripheral roles in the ASM value chain to ownership, thereby guaranteeing they receive the same economic benefits as their male counterparts. Ownership enables women to access capital and credit to grow their operations, buy equipment and invest in technology, to generate higher value from mining, and lead the decision making regarding operational and financial management for the benefit of both women and men. Advance women’s social Advancing social protections for women in ASM provides a critical mechanism to support gender equality protections at the mine and and women’s empowerment in ASM. Women in ASM are faced by a multitude of socioeconomic challenges home beginning from childhood—young girls face barriers in accessing education; in adolescence, many are forced to leave school early and some are at risk of early pregnancies; and then in adulthood, women are faced with unequal treatment and precarious and unsafe working conditions, including sexual and gender- based violence (SGBV) at mines and at home. Governments and civil society organizations must partner to develop programs and interventions that facilitate greater access for women to educational and livelihood training programs to realize decent work, financial literacy programs that can build economic resilience and independence, and comprehensive sexual and reproductive health support, including access to education, contraceptives, medication, and unrestricted abortion services. Tackling SGBV in ASM through social protection measures is imperative. Robust legal frameworks and specific mine site measures to safeguard the safety and well-being of women are fundamental to their inclusion in ASM, while the deeply ingrained culture of masculinity in mining and ASM also needs tackling through awareness campaigns and education. Account for gendered differences Gender inequalities in occupational health and safety (OHS) result in women being differentially and in occupational health and safety more greatly exposed to risks in ASM. The differences are due to socio-cultural beliefs that may prevent efforts at mine sites women’s full and direct participation in mining activities and confine them to certain roles such as breaking rocks, carrying heavy loads on heads, panning and mercury use in gold amalgamation. These roles have heightened risks of repetitive and muscular skeletal injuries and exposure to chemical toxins, especially for pregnant and breastfeeding women. Mine site organization, infrastructure, and personal protective equipment (PPE) designed with men in mind also adversely impact women in ASM. A lack of separate changing and washing facilities, no childcare options, and poorly fitting PPE can prevent women’s equal participation and endanger their lives and that of their children they may have to bring to the mine. To address these issues and achieve gender equality in ASM, an in-depth understanding of the specific risks and needs women in ASM face is needed with which to design ASM sites and PPE that account for gendered differences, train and sensitize miners, government, and development partners to enable women’s equal and safe participation in all roles. 8 Executive summary The 2023 State of the Sector Survey underscores END NOTES Questionnaire, 100% women), and that overcoming the barriers faced by women in ASM 1 See annual summaries of progress artisanal and small-scale miners (Mine Site Questionnaire, 79% demands a comprehensive approach, from revising and data on SDG 5 on the UNECA women). A total of 16 local partner website: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/ gender-blind mining laws to challenging cultural goal5#progress_and_info organizations undertook the data collection, 11 of which were women and societal norms. Governments need to bolster 2 According to latest estimates in in mining groups. The 14 case studies cover 12 countries: two on their capacity to design, implement, and monitor Delve platform (August 2023): https:// delvedatabase.org/ See the 2023 Latin America and the Caribbean, eight on Africa, and two on East Asia gender-sensitive policies and interventions and fund report introduction for more informa- and Pacific. tion about the different estimates of programs aimed at empowering women in ASM. It is women working in ASM of 18–50%. 4 It states, “no female, whatever her age, shall be employed on under- critical to prioritize gender equality in the ASM sector 3 The survey includes three question- ground work in any mine.” naires with 1,935 participants from and collaboratively create an environment where 22 countries, including government women can fully participate, flourish, and enjoy their officials (Government Questionnaire, 54% women), leaders of Women rights without discrimination or hindrance. in Mining (WIM) groups (WIM State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 9 CASE STUDIES: A SUMMARY The three report chapters and their recommendations are accompanied by 14 case studies, contributed by 23 organizations that are directly working to advance SDG 5 in ASM. The case studies cover 12 countries and provide innovative, practical, and replicable examples to advance women’s full participation in ASM and sustainable development programming. Chapter 1 and the recommendation to “make mining standing of the gendered aspects of formalization laws and economic policies gender inclusive” is programs. The case study provides some much- accompanied by five case studies. They show the needed insight into how women are impacted need for legal frameworks and formalization initiatives by formalization initiatives, including unintended to include women in their creation and implementa- consequences, that in this case included increased tion to realize gender equality in ASM. gender discrimination and marginalization of some women involved in the intervention. Through The first case study on Madre Dios, Peru, by gender-disaggregated data tracking (a recom- the Instituto Redes de Desarrollo Social (RED mendation of the 2020 State of the Sector report), SOCIAL) highlights the prominence and leader- the longitudinal study charts the experience of ship role of women as legally recognized miners. 159 women involved in the landmark intervention. Madre Dios has the highest level of female partic- The South African experience provides an under- ipation in ASM in the country. Women constitute standing of the unique gender dynamics of ASM 30% of the legal concession holders and also 30% formalization that lays the groundwork from which of the 9,520 people involved with the formaliza- gender sensitive policy frameworks can be created. tion process. The high levels of women miners in Madre Dios can be attributed to the conducive The third case study by Women in Mining in geological structure, increased learning opportuni- Nigeria (WIMIN) explores the advancement of ties, the use of clean technologies, and women in gender equity through the lens of education leadership positions due to existing interventions and capacity building in Nigeria. To counter the and practices that include women in the creation of significant gender gap in Nigeria’s mining sector, regulations. Madre Dios provides an understanding WIMIN, in collaboration with the Ford Foundation of the cause and effect of higher levels of female and Open Society Initiative for West Africa (OSIWA), participation in ASM activities. established the Women in Mining Training Institute (WIMTI) to provide women in the sector with contin- Next, a case study on ASM in South Africa uous training and capacity development. In an by Imbokodo Mining Services, the National effort to address gender inequality at the source, Association of Artisanal Miners, and Women in they also launched the Girls for Mining (G4M) Club, Artisanal Scale Mining (WIASM) improves under- an intervention aimed at girls in school. Through 10 Case studies: a summary coaching and mentorship, it encourages them to nized as a miner collective, leading to the creation pursue science, technology, engineering and math- of ASOMUSELUPAZ. Through becoming legally ematics (STEM)-related courses and exposes them recognized as a group, ASOMUSELUPAZ increased to opportunities in mining. These largely online their legitimacy with state entities, creating collec- forums demonstrate the opportunity to leverage tive identity to represent them and participate in digital technologies to address gender inequality public dialogues they were previously shut out of and capacity building in ASM. thereby improving the participation, representation, and visibility of women miners. Sierra Leone’s 2018 Artisanal Mining Policy designed to promote formalization is discussed Chapter 2 and the second report recommenda- in the fourth case study by Cemmats Group. tion to “advance women’s social protections at Although the national mining laws and regulations the mine and work” is accompanied by six case offer some protection for women, there have been studies. The case studies reveal the interconnec- no specific directives toward safeguarding women tivity between the sustainable development of the in the sector and the initiatives that may see women ASM sector and realization of social protection protected and empowered. The case study clearly systems. The collective examples also offer insight highlights how important gender-inclusive mining into ways in which social protection systems must legal frameworks are to the full participation of be designed and implemented—with gender inclu- women in ASM. Adjacent policies and regulations sion and equity as integral parts, to stimulate socio- have played a role in increasing women’s security economic growth and well-being. and progress in the industry, with a new Gender Equality Act in 2023 that aims to increase women’s The sixth case study in the report by the interna- participation at the leadership and decision making tional NGO Pact focuses on the Pilares Solidarity level through gender targets and safeguarding Network in Bolivar, Colombia, demonstrating the mechanisms, but specific mining legislation is also power of collective social protection approaches needed. The case study ends with a call to action to address child labor and unacceptable working for the government to spur the formation of women conditions in ASM. Beginning as an associa- cooperatives as a means to help catalyze financing tion of 12 civil society organizations, growing to and improve their standing within the ASM sector. 36, the collective approach by the network has Notwithstanding the impetus for greater social created common objectives to better represent the protection, women will continue to face significant community and legitimacy with local government. challenges, particularly in financial equity and In turn, this has resulted in the network having security, if improved legislation and policy is not greater influence on local government as well as matched with concomitant on the ground activities. a more collaborative approach—working together on shared social challenges across ASM, agricul- The fifth and final case study in Chapter 1 ture, and fishing livelihoods to promote the creation details the partnership between the Alliance for and adoption of comprehensive public policy social Responsible Mining (ARM) and the Association protection measures on child labor. The network of Women Mineral Selectors and Peacebuilders has also supported its members through diagnostic (ASOMUSELUPAZ) in the municipality of Suarez, tools and awareness-raising to empower them to Cauca, Colombia. Women account for more than identify and implement social protection measures 50% of ASM workers in Colombia, yet they face a in their municipalities. The case study demonstrates range of gender-based barriers and inequalities, the importance of local actors including communi- earning less than men for the same roles, exposed ties, civil society, and government to identify and to gender-based violence, and often excluded implement social protection measures within ASM from mining associations and cooperatives— and related communities for a holistic and powerful leaving them unable to access formal markets. To collective approach. overcome this, ARM supported a group of women miners to organize and become formally recog- State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 11 The Artisanal Gold Council and planetGOLD and development of a Gender Action Plan, ensuring Mongolia provide the seventh report case study their voice and agency are heard and protected. on Mongolia. The case study shares findings from an assessment on artisanal miner’s access to social The ninth case study by Solidaridad also focuses services covering four key aspects of social protec- on access to finance through a pilot project with tion i) social insurance, ii) social welfare, iii) health women goldminers in Ghana. Following a review insurance, and iv) health care services. The assess- of women working in artisanal and small-scale gold ment finds, despite the vulnerability and differenti- mining (ASGM) a key barrier to their equal partic- ated needs of artisanal miners, there is no specific ipation was found to be a lack access to finance or targeted social protection program for them, and performing low-paid jobs, reflecting their wider and miners are left out of existing social welfare marginalized position in their communities, and and employment support programs as they are not hindering their economic and social development. considered target groups within these programs. To address this inequality, the project aimed to Social protection programs that exist for busi- improve the financial and social position of women nesses in Mongolia have not been tailored to ASM through a range of activities including establishing as they do not account for dynamics of seasonality, VSLAs, external funding for business support, irregularity, migration, mobility, and high levels of engagement of women, men, and key stakeholders personnel turnover. Inconsistent ASM formalization on the role of women in households and businesses, policy framework and non-allocation of new ASM and training in responsible mining, group dynamics, land over the last three years has also meant many and leadership skills. The Solidaridad case study artisanal miners are jobless and failed to pay social provides a benchmark for how to support women health insurance contributions that serve as one of in exercising their economic rights and financial the most important bases for social protection in inclusion, thereby enhancing their social protection Mongolia. The result is end-of-life poverty for both safety nets. female and male miners, disability, and early deaths for miners and in ASM communities. The 10th case study by the international NGO Pact and Ifakara Health Institute (IHI) provides exam- Village-level savings and loans associations ples of social protection measures to remove (VSLAs) for artisanal mining communities in the children from mining in Tanzania. As part of the Central Africa Republic are a social protection five-year (2016–2021) USAID Kizazi Kipya project, example shared by USAID and Tetra Tech in the the case study highlights the numerous risks and eighth case study. With no microfinance services vulnerabilities that children in mining face such available for women in the remote southwestern as dangerous working conditions, susceptibility part of the Central African Republic, women miners to HIV, violence, limited education opportunities, were being left behind in the broader governance and difficulty accessing essential social services. shift to professionalization, commercialization, and To address these challenges, the project was strengthening of Kimberley Process Certification designed with a focus on children’s health, safety, Scheme (KPCS) chain of custody in the diamond education, and livelihoods, considering gender mining sector. As part of the Artisanal Mining and and age. The intervention employed a gender-sen- Property Rights project, VSLAs were therefore sitive case management approach, which tailored established to enhance women’s social inclusion support to each child’s specific needs. Professional and provide much-needed financing to do so. social workers played a crucial role in dealing with The 14 VSLAs saved enough money to offer a 5% complex cases, including high rates of violence. interest rate, significantly lower than the 15% rate They identified abuse cases and provided parenting from traditional microfinance institutions, providing interventions to improve skills and reduce harsh finance to their members for investments and insur- punishment. Regular visits by social workers led ance in case of emergencies. Crucially, women to a reduction in abuse frequency among children were engaged from the outset of the project design who disclosed experiencing it, emphasizing the through Participatory Rural Appraisal assessments importance of ongoing support and intervention. 12 Case studies: a summary The project also implemented strategies to support of Congo (DRC), the 12th case study titled “The children engaged in mining by focusing on school Women Who Age Too Fast” by five academic enrollment, progression, and alternative livelihood institutions in DRC and Belgium highlights key options. The endline assessment showed that over gendered occupational health and safety (OHS) half of the children involved in mining at the begin- issues affecting women in ASM. These issues ning of the project had left mining activities. This include early aging, fatigue, sleep disturbances, progress is essential to supporting parents and respiratory disease, a loss of libido, and poor eating caregivers and providing safer livelihood opportu- habits. With far-reaching consequences on the nities for children in ASM communities. physical and mental health, work, and home lives of women engaged in ASM, the authors argue that The 11th and final case study in Chapter 2 under a multi-stakeholder and holistic understanding of the recommendation to “advance women’s social the lives of women miners is needed to address protections at the mine and work” is by BAN the acute, specific, and differentiated OHS chal- Toxics, an NGO in the Philippines. Focused on lenges women miners face. This includes a consid- the Compassionate Gold program to engage with eration of the women’s’ socioeconomic needs, the ASGM communities and promote gender inclu- socio-cultural environment, and the environmental sion, the NGO conducted a gender assessment dimension. The intervention in Kamituga took a to identify key issues that women experience and multi-pronged approach: the women miners were potential mitigating actions. Through community provided with sensitization on the specific OHS awareness-raising and lobbying with local govern- risks they face; targeted training was provided to ment, BAN Toxics operationalized their findings health staff and technical government services; and and empowered women in ASGM through targeted a comic strip was circulated to educate the broader initiatives. Government agencies provided women community about gender discrimination in mining. in mining groups with livelihood starter kits and financial assistance, skills and business training, The 13th case study by Women in Mining Ghana and seedlings and farming equipment to create (WIM Ghana) outlines a collective approach to alternative livelihood opportunities. These activi- improving the OHS of women in ASM. The Tinga ties legitimized the role women play in the ASGM Project is a collaboration between WIM Ghana, and value chain and also gave them the opportunity The Social Investment Consultancy Africa (TSIC), to pursue alternative livelihoods based on their with support from the World Bank’s Extractive skills and talents increasing and diversifying their Global Programmatic Support (EGPS) Emergency economic resilience and social protection from Response for Artisanal Mining Communities economic shocks. Impacted by COVID-19. During the project, a range of OHS risks were identified among women miners Chapter 3 features three case studies that including limited access to health care facilities, demonstrate the need to ‘account for gendered potable drinking water, poor general knowledge differences in occupational health and safety of mining-related health issues, mercury dangers, efforts at mine sites’. These differences include and no use of personal protective equipment socio-cultural factors such as perceptions around (PPE). Relatedly, mercury intoxication, respiratory women working in ASM that can confine them to diseases, and poor nutrition were all recorded what might be considered ‘safer’ but lower-paid among women miners and their communities. To roles such as breaking rocks and panning as well help address these systemic health issues, govern- as ensuring that organizational structures, infra- ment departments, universities, and NGOs worked structure, and safety equipment at mines are suited with the women miners to develop a training curric- to women’s physiological and biological needs and ulum that focused on their self-defined needs and caregiving responsibilities. gaps in OHS knowledge. The training methods included body mapping exercises and role Summarizing the findings of in-depth research playing and used local dialects during teaching. with women miners in the Democratic Republic This approach allowed the project to educate State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 13 the women miners on both OHS and responsible activities globally, and key to ensuring the full partici- mining techniques, accounting for their differenti- pation of women in ASM. To address these develop- ated impacts and needs. ment challenges, ISMR is now working with private sector partners to introduce quality affordable The final and 14th case study of the report by Pact head torches, financing models, and solar power and Rwanda Women In/And Mining Organization for recharging. ISMR aims to ensure more resilient, (WIAMO) looks at the gendered impacts of poor sustainable, and responsible mining communities lighting on the OHS and participation of women in and promote the green energy transition, while, Rwanda’s ASM sector. Through in-depth research by crucially, improving OHS and enabling women to the Illuminating Small-Scale Mining in Rwanda (ISMR) fully participate in the ASM sector. project, implemented alongside the Rwanda Mines Petroleum and Gas Board (RMB), it was found that women are disproportionately negatively affected REFERENCES women and girls. 2023 PROGRESS AND INFO. Accessed September by poor lighting conditions in mining areas, creating UNECA (2016). Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals, 2023: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/ goal5#progress_and_info a gender wage and safety gap. Poorly lit tunnels that Report of the Secretary-General, 2016 World Bank, 2020. “2020 State of session. E/2016/75: https://unstats. require crouching and use of poor-quality handheld un.org/sdgs/files/report/2016/secre- the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector.! Washington, D.C.: World Bank. torches limits women’s full and equal participation tary-general-sdg-report-2016--en.pdf UNECA (2018). The Sustainable World Bank. (2023a). Women, Business in ASM due to increased vulnerability to sexual and Development Goals Report 2018, and the Law 2023. World Bank. http:// hdl.handle.net/10986/39462 gender-based violence and perceptions of their United Nations: https://unstats. un.org/sdgs/files/report/2018/ World Bank. (2023b). World Bank personal safety working underground. Additionally, TheSustainableDevelopment Gender Strategy 2024 - 2030 : GoalsReport2018-EN.pdf Accelerate Gender Equality for a women interviewed during the research expressed UNECA (2021). Progress towards the Sustainable, Resilient, and Inclusive fear of commuting to and from the mines in dark- Sustainable Development Goals, Future – Consultation Draft (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. Report of the Secretary-General, 2021 ness, which restricts their options for shifts and job session. E/2021/58: https://docu- http://documents.worldbank.org/ curated/en/099013107142345483/ opportunities. The study found that in the over 40 ments-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/ GEN/N21/109/71/PDF/N2110971. SECBOS04cf7b650208a5e08b784 c0db6a4 mines surveyed, only two women were engaged pdf?OpenElement in underground mining. Improving lighting in small- UNECA (2023) Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Achieve scale mines is an important part of formalizing ASM gender equality and empower all 14 Credit: Virtu Gem State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 15 INTRODUCTION: ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE MINING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5— GENDER EQUALITY ASM AND SDG 5: THE DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE Sustainable Development Goal 5 “Achieve Gender Equality and Empower all Women and Girls” (SDG 5 Gender Equality) is a fundamental human right and precondition for a “peaceful, prosperous and sustainable” world.1 The United Nations explains that providing women with “equal access to education, health care, decent work, and representation in political and economic decision making processes will fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large.”2 This statement is also true in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM)—where women’s equal access to full participation and representation in decision making processes will lead to more sustainable and beneficial mining operations for miners, their communities, and wider society. 16 Artisanal and small-scale mining and Sustainable Development Goal 5 – Gender Equality Similarly, the five targets of SDG 5 and the devel- and a need to earn a living to support their families, opment challenges they aim to address have a the sight of women carrying ore on their heads strong overlap with the experience of women in and babies on their backs is not uncommon. This ASM (Figure 1). Women in ASM suffer discrimination overlap between SDG 5 and ASM therefore creates by laws and social norms that prevent their rights, a framework for analysis as well as the opportunity roles, and access to resources. There are docu- for action to show how improving gender equality mented accounts in the literature of higher rates of for women in ASM also helps attain the SDGs—the sexual and gender-based violence (GBV), and child, globally recognized and shared framework for early, and forced marriages in some ASM commu- sustainable development. The creation of a sustain- nities. While women in ASM also undertake unpaid able ASM sector through an appropriate legislative caregiving responsibilities sometimes simultane- framework, access to information, capital, equip- ously while mining—with no affordable childcare ment, capacity building, and greater representation FIGURE 1. Mapping SDG 5 Gender Equality targets to artisanal and small-scale mining SDG 5 Target Gender Issues in ASM Target 5.1: End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls Women in ASM experience discrimination at an institutional level through everywhere prejudicial and gender-blind legislation and also at a societal level, where traditional beliefs shape gender norms and restrict women’s’ rights, roles, and access to resources. Target 5.2: Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls Women working and living in communities around ASM have reported in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and experiencing high rates of interpersonal and sexual violence. 3 other types of exploitation Target 5.3: Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and Child, early and forced marriage occur in exchange for access to resources forced marriage, and female genital mutilation in ASM areas, sometimes known as gold marriages or sapphire marriages.4 Target 5.4: Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work Women undertake caregiving and domestic activities simultaneously through the provision of public services, infrastructure, and social while mining and processing contributing to their invisibility, such as protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within taking turns to look after children by groups of women at mine sites, the household and the family as nationally appropriate carrying babies on backs while transporting ore, and processing minerals at home between household tasks. Target 5.5: Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal Legal systems, traditional beliefs, and social norms impede women in opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision making in political, ASM from fully participating in leadership structures and decision making. economic and public life. Target 5.a: Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic Most mining codes, land use, and property rights frameworks are resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and gender blind and customary laws are primarily patriarchal in structure, other forms of property, financial services, inheritance, and natural which limits women from having access to or controlling natural resources, in accordance with national laws resources and consequently accessing formal financial services. Target 5.b: Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular Due to the “invisibility” of women in ASM, they often do not benefit equally information and communications technology, to promote the from government support or development interventions that are not empowerment of women gender mainstreamed or do not have a gender-specific component. Many women also lack the collateral and capacity to access financial services to invest in new technologies and equipment to graduate up the value chain. Target 5.c: Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable To a great extent, frameworks and strategies for the sustainable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment development of the ASM sector are gender blind and women are left of all women and girls at all levels out of policy discussions and decision making, which has resulted in their needs not being met. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 17 and involvement in decision making processes is milling, washing, sieving, sluicing, sieving, panning, central to the sustainable development of the ASM concentrating gold (which often requires the use sector and is in direct alignment with SDG 5. of mercury or other toxic chemicals), and trans- porting. Women also provide cleaning services and For these reasons, the 2023 State of the Sector sell food and other goods on site (Jenkins, 2014; report focuses on the intersection of ASM and IGF, 2018). This “visibility crisis” as outlined in the SDG 5. The SDG 5 targets and indicators act as 2020 State of the Sector report, is felt the most a conceptual framework for understanding the by women in ASM because of how and by whom gendered impacts of ASM development and the “miners” are defined in data collection (Hinton, 2011; involvement (or lack thereof) of women in the Perks, 2020). Though broader definitions of ASM development process. do include “mineral extraction and processing” (Hilson and McQuilken, 2014), there is not universal alignment in household surveys on whether activ- (In)visibility crisis: Women in ASM are ities such as pounding rock, washing material, or carrying sacks of ore constitute “mining”. Nor is not being counted there universal alignment in what percentage of Women make up a significant portion of the global time engaged in such extraction processing activ- ASM workforce. It is estimated that women account ities is needed to determine whether a person is for between 18% (World Bank, 2020a, p.91),5 30% considered or consider themselves as a “miner” in (Delve, 2023),6 and 50% (IGF, 2018) of the 44.67 a survey answer. million people who work in ASM across 80 coun- tries. This large range in estimates can be explained In Akwatia town, the location of Ghana’s artisanal by several factors. First, is the overwhelming lack of diamond mining industry, women receive what sex-disaggregated labor data. As highlighted in the is left only after the men have extracted the best 2020 State of the Sector report: simply put, women stones. They wait all day on the periphery of mine in ASM are not being counted (Perks, 2020; Perks sites “renting” sieves to men in return for already- and Shultz, 2020). Second, is that women’s labor is panned “black sands,” which they receive at the end highly variable depending on the mineral, country, of the day and take home to sieve again between and seasonal dynamics. In some contexts, the household work to extract the smallest diamonds proportion of women engaged in ASM far exceeds (McQuilken and Hilson, 2018). In Myanmar, where men. In Guinea, approximately 75% of the ASM women are excluded from mine sites due to cultural participants are women, and in Tanzania’s ASM perceptions including their safety, men exclusively sector most gemstones are mined by women (IGF, dig the gold concentrates that are then transported 2018; Craig and Antonocci, 2014). While in Indonesia to domestic areas for women to do the panning, up until the late 1980s, women and men’s participa- mercury amalgamation, and burning, producing tion in gold panning had traditionally been equal, sponge gold for sale. But by relegating women however, increased mechanization disadvantaged to the periphery of ASM sites for their supposed women, and men came to dominate ASM of gold safety, women—and their children if pregnant and/ (Witni and Paul, 2020). or breastfeeding—are unknowingly placed in the greatest danger of mercury poisoning with its Despite the poor data, women are involved in associated disastrous long-term health impacts almost every stage of the mining value chain. Their (McFarlane and Villalobos, 2019). These periphery contributions are largely overshadowed by the act tasks, as well as being invisible, are typically the of extraction such as digging, which is almost exclu- lowest paid in the ASM value chain, with women sively undertaken by men. As such, women’s work earning on average 75% less than men (Lahiri-Dutt, has been relegated to the periphery both liter- 2018; Eshun, 2016). As a result, women have histor- ally and metaphorically—even though they often ically not only been overlooked for their work but perform strenuous and sometimes dangerous have also not earned the same as men from their manual tasks such as sorting, crushing, griding, labor. 18 Artisanal and small-scale mining and Sustainable Development Goal 5 – Gender Equality So, what is the impact of this invisibility? Despite Straten, 2000), have captured the greatest media constituting a significant portion of the ASM labor and academic attention being well documented force and meaningfully contributing to the produc- and constituting a large portion of the ASM knowl- tivity of the sector, there is a serious lack of recog- edge base. As a result, the narrative surrounding nition of the value of women in ASM. Operating ASM has tended to focus on its negative impacts under the cloak of invisibility, women have been rather than its positive development potential (De left out of policy discussions, national legislation, Haan et al., 2020). development interventions, and research agendas (Hinton, 2011). Being overlooked on such a large This focus holds true when examining the literature scale has resulted in an acute gender data gap— on gender and ASM, where the negative impacts large swaths of the data on women’s participation of ASM on women has been a primary focal point in ASM are two decades old and there are huge for academics, practitioners, and activists. Perks variations in the data that exists (Perks and Schulz, and Schulz (2020) point to four key reasons for 2020; World Bank, 2020a). The 2023 State of the the gender gap in ASM, namely discriminatory Sector report fills some of these gaps and contrib- legislation; exclusionary social norms and discrim- utes to a greater understanding of the intersection inatory gender practices; inadequate education of ASM and gender through the lens of SDG 5 and training; and persistent GBV including sexual Gender Equality. harassment. ASM scholarship affirms that, in many countries, gender inequality is systemic and is To better understand this intersection of ASM and upheld by national laws that exclude women from SDG 5 and frame the proceeding report chapters land ownership and property rights; similarly, and case studies, it is necessary to briefly review customary laws tend to reinforce male land owner- how negative perspectives of ASM have evolved ship over women’s land rights (Meinzen-Dick et al., over time, and in turn, given their peripheral posi- 1997; Lahiri-Dutt, 2008; Widman, 2014). tion within an already-marginalized sector, nega- tively impacted women in ASM. LEGAL FRAMEWORKS IGNORE WOMEN As legal frameworks and policies for the mining sector have tended to miss and not make space Evolution of ASM and gender literature for ASM (Hilson and McQuilken, 2014), so too THE FOCUS ON NEGATIVE IMPACTS AND have women been ignored from ASM legal frame- DATA GAPS IN ASM ARE REPLICATED works—marginalized within an already marginalized AND EXACERBATED FOR WOMEN sector. The novel analysis of 21 legal frameworks in ASM was initially considered a “dirty, destructive Section 2 of this report finds 14 mining laws and 17 and illegal” activity and the scant early scholarship laws concerning property rights to be gender blind on the sector echoed these sentiments (Noetstaller, or gender neutral (Table 2). This review and prior 1995). Since ASM first attracted academic scholar- desk research conducted by Lahiri-Dutt (2022) ship in the 1980s, over the past four decades the shows that some countries such as Bolivia, Ghana, sector has remained marginalized on the periphery Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea even have laws of international development agendas (Hilson and prohibiting women from working in particular roles McQuilken, 2014), due in large part to the lack of in mining (specifically underground mining) stem- complete, accurate and reliable data (World Bank, ming from international labor standards, namely 2019). Instead, the negative environmental impacts the ILO Underground Work (Women) Convention, (Meech, Viega and Tromans, 1998; Viega and 1935 (No. 45), which was classified as outdated in Hinton, 2002; Chenje, 2002; Guenther, 2019); poor 2018 but remains in effect in 68 countries around working conditions (World Bank, 2020; ILO, 1999); the world (ILO, 2021). child labor (Hilson, 2012; Pact, 2016; Human Rights Watch, 2015); and the adverse health and safety These legal restrictions confining women to the effects (Bose-O’Reilly et al., 2008; WHO, 2016; van periphery of ASM also inform, and are informed State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 19 by, social norms restricting women’s roles, employ- nizations, multilateral organizations, and national ability and access; women are generally consigned governments (Hilson and McQuilken, 2014). to peripheral lower-earning roles on the mine site, which replicate gendered beliefs held by the wider In parallel, gender inclusion also gained traction society (Danielson and Hinton, 2020; Buss et al., among international and state-level policy makers. 2019; Werthmann, 2019; Lawson and Lahiri-Dutt, Gender considerations and women’s participation 2020). On the more extreme end, traditional beliefs mandates were incorporated into international have been used to totally exclude women from policy documents, due diligence frameworks, and mining. In Colombia, the Democratic Republic of national legislation (Buss and Rutherford, 2020). Congo (DRC), Mexico, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, The 2009 African Mining Vision (AMV),7 for instance, for example, it is believed that letting women explicitly mentions “progress toward gender equity onto a mine site could bring bad luck (Cholteeva, and the empowerment of women” as one of its short- 2021). Low literacy rates, limited access to financial term goals; in reference to ASM formalization, it also services, insufficient skills, inappropriate technol- highlights gender equality as a focus area. Similarly, ogies, and inadequate access to geological infor- the African Minerals Development Centre (AMDC), mation have also sidelined women in ASM and tasked with implementing the AMV in individual constrained them from fully participating in the countries, incorporates gender into their national sector (IGF, 2018; Eftimie et al., 2009). The preva- planning frameworks. Although, the Kimberly lence of gender-based violence, sexual exploita- Process core documents do not include gender, tion, and harassment in and around ASM mine sites the 2012 Washington Declaration Diagnostic is well documented in the literature, including that Framework, which helps countries assess the arti- women living around ASM sites are more likely to sanal diamond mining sector against the Kimberly experience sexual violence (Kelly, King-Close and Process Certification Scheme,8 seeks to promote Perks, 2014; Atim et al., 2020; Perks, et al., 2015, gender equality and has included gender indicators Rustad, Østby and Nordås, 2016; Fourati, Girard across its policy subgoals (Washington Declaration, and Laurent-Lucchetti, 2021). 2016). Donor agencies and NGOs operating in the natural resources sector developed their own frameworks for gender-inclusive programming GENDER INCLUSION BECOMING AN in ASM. In 2012, the World Bank launched the INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOCUS first gender and ASM framework—The Gender In the mid-1990s, the discourse around ASM began Dimensions of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining—A to shift with policy makers highlighting the sector’s Rapid Assessment Toolkit, which is a detailed potential to meaningfully contribute to development ASM-specific assessment framework that identifies by driving economic growth and reducing poverty the situational gender dimensions and enables the and unemployment. ASM was packaged as a “policy researcher or program officer to make appropriate response to rural poverty alleviation” and garnered gender mainstreaming decisions (Eftimie et al., some attention in development circles (Perks, 2012). IMPACT’s9 Gender Impact Assessment toolkit 2013). This culminated in the 1995 International was also developed to integrate gender and human Roundtable on Informal Mining held at the World rights into mineral sector initiatives including those Bank where experts and delegates discussed the that support the sector’s sustainable development state of ASM and pathways to improve the sector. (Côté, 2020). As part of the Minamata Convention’s They concluded that an integrated development National Action Plans for artisanal and small-scale approach would improve the environmental degra- gold mining (ASGM), UNEP provided guidance for dation, poor health and safety, and ineffective use developing gender-responsive national planning of mineral resources, thereby enabling ASM to and policy strategy documents (UNEP, 2021). make a contribution to the national economy (Barry, 1996). In the years following the Roundtable, ASM ASM scholarship also reflected this shift and was gradually included in the pro-poor agendas authors turned their focus to ASM as a catalyst and interventions of donors, development orga- for economic development and poverty allevia- 20 Artisanal and small-scale mining and Sustainable Development Goal 5 – Gender Equality tion and the opportunities and challenges women ization operationalizes a top-down restructuring of experience in ASM (Hinton et al., 2003, Stewart, the sector, which based on current social and envi- Kibombo and Rankin, 2020; Amutabi and Lutta ronmental norms can create the conditions for state Mukhebi, 2001; Heemskerk, 2003; Lahiri-Dutt, or elite capture, accelerate environmental destruc- 2006; Labonne, 1996; Ibrahim, Rutherford and tion, constrain poor or small actors, and further Buss, 2020; Bashwira et al., 2013). exclude marginalized groups, women in particular (Geenen, 2012; Putzel et al., 2015; Maconachie and Hilson, 2011; Alvarez-Berríos, L’Roe and Naughton- ASM DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORKS MUST Treves, 2021). BE GENDER INCLUSIVE Lately, the regulation of ASM through formalization— Gender has not garnered much attention in the integrating ASM into the formal economy through emerging body of literature on the empirical legalization, taxation, financing, and technical impacts of formalization on ASM communities. improvement—has become the dominant narra- Women, and their experiences and perspectives, tive in ASM development (Buss et al., 2019). The are largely absent from the conversation, and when renewed interest from policy makers in ASM devel- women are mentioned it is often briefly or in rela- opment in recent years has been further buoyed by tion to something else (Jenkins, 2014). Bashwira et the need to secure production and supply of critical al., 2014; Hilson et al., 2018; and Buss et al., 2019, minerals for the green energy transition through form part of the limited scholarship that explicitly ASM, such as cobalt, tin, tungsten, and tantalum, considers women. Even so, Hilson et al., (2018) with the World Bank (2020b)—suggesting a 500% contends that “overall, this paper has reinforced increase in the production of key minerals by 2050 how little is known about informal ASM ‘spaces’ … may be needed to meet rising global demand. and, in particular, the women who populate them.” This trend is even more concerning when consid- Although efforts to support the sector’s develop- ering the broad and universal acceptance of formal- ment have been ongoing since the 1980s, with ization as the policy framework for the ASM sector. varying levels of success, this time, multilateral For these reasons, the 2023 State of the Sector organizations and donor agencies have made report has chosen to fill the critical literature gap their support for the sustainable development of and expand beyond the narrow framing of formal- the sector actionable through funding envelopes,10 ization to focus on the intersection of gender and technical assistance11 programs, and livelihood the sustainable development of the ASM sector. interventions,12 thereby bolstering national efforts (Hilson, 2017; Hilson and McQuilken, 2014). For most governments and donor agencies, the creation of Methodology legislation to define and regulate ASM has been the central focus of ASM development strategies The 2023 State of the Sector report decreases the (Echavarria,2014; Mensah, 2021; IGF, 2018). Many global data gap in ASM by contributing to the knowl- scholars and practitioners argue that policy makers edge base on SDG 5 Gender Equality and sustain- have been overly focused on legalization and able development of the ASM sector. Following that legislation alone cannot tackle the illegality a review of the available literature on gender and and informality of the ASM sector (IMPACT, 2018; ASM, the report undertakes a gender assessment Barretto, 2011b). They argue for an expanded frame- of legal frameworks (relevant ASM laws, regulations, work for sector development beyond the traditional policies, and initiatives) of 21 countries to determine understanding of formalization that is inclusive whether they are gender blind or gender neutral and of programming that increases access to finance, inhibit or promote women’s participation in mining credit, markets, equipment, capacity building, (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and training on mining techniques (Barretto, 2011; Suriname, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Malawi, Sierra Marshall and Viega, 2017; Eniowo et al., 2022). Some Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, critics argue that traditional approaches to formal- Indonesia, Lao PDR, Mongolia, Papua New Guinea, State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 21 and the Philippines). These countries were chosen The Government Questionnaire focused on data as they are geographically diverse, have signif- gaps relating to how or if gender is mainstreamed icant ASM activity (>20,000 artisanal and small- in national formalization processes.13 Officials from scale miners) across multiple commodities, are at 12 countries (Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Kenya, Malawi, different stages of and taken different approaches Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mongolia, Indonesia, to ASM development, and have varying levels of Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines) responded. gender mainstreaming. They provided information on planned and existing formalization efforts in their countries, if and how For the first time in its history, the 2023 State of the gender is mainstreamed, the status of SDG 5 inte- Sector report collects primary data with support gration, and the barriers to mainstreaming gender from Delve data collection partners to systematically in ASM. detail gender inequalities in ASM. This was accom- plished by building on the gendered review of the The leaders from 11 WIM groups in Ecuador, Ghana, literature and legal frameworks with the origins of Indonesia, Mozambique, Peru, Sierra Leone, the ASM data gap mapped in the 2019 report and Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe responded to the power of ASM to help achieve SDG 8 Decent the WIM Questionnaire. The WIM leaders provided Work outlined in the 2020 report. Developed by the information on their organizational capacity to Delve team, the 2023 Delve State of Sector Survey advocate for women in ASM, the gendered was launched in November 2022 comprising three impacts of formalization and the barriers to entry questionnaires targeting three stakeholder groups: for women in ASM. Hearing directly from women in government officials (Government Questionnaire), ASM helped fill data gaps relating to the gendered leaders of Women in Mining (WIM) groups (WIM impacts of formalization and the role of WIM groups Questionnaire) and artisanal and small-scale miners in improving gender equality in the ASM sector. (Mine Site Questionnaire (Table 1). The Mine Site Questionnaire was conducted in Each questionnaire was developed based on SDG 5 Bolivia, Guyana, Mongolia, Sierra Leone, and targets, gendered impacts, and data gaps mapped Zimbabwe, and included questions regarding the by the Delve team (Figure 1) as well as the specific direct impacts of formalization on women, wages, roles of the stakeholder groups. The primary data gender norms, and societal views on women in collection was supported by Delve contributors, ASM and how women and men participate in the namely local experts and organizations within the ASM value chain. These answers provided insight Delve networks that are well connected and/or into the experience of miners relating to formaliza- engaged directly with ASM in the country. These tion and gender. A total of 1,907 participants (840 networks are an invaluable resource and demon- women and 1,067 men) from across the ASM value strate the power of Delve to bring stakeholders chain and working in 16 commodities (chrome, together to share data, improve understanding, colored gemstones, copper, diamonds, fluorspar, and advance evidence-based policy making. Local gold, lead, limestone, mineral, lithium, sand, silver, partners—particularly women-led mining networks stone aggregate, tantalum (coltan), tin (cassiterite), and associations—play a crucial role collecting data tungsten (wolframite) and zinc) participated in the and closing the gender gap. Mine Site Questionnaire. Table 1 summarizes the geographical coverage The survey data from all three questionnaires and and gender disaggregation of the questionnaires subsequent creation of large multi-country data and whether a legal analysis was also undertaken sets explored throughout the report contributes to (Table 2). Countries were chosen to ensure all three plugging the ASM data gap and developing a more geographical regions were represented and based complete picture of the ASM sustainable develop- on the practical ability to access stakeholders ment-gender nexus. through the Delve network and the resources avail- able for primary data collection and analyses. 22 Artisanal and small-scale mining and Sustainable Development Goal 5 – Gender Equality TABLE 1. Geographical coverage and gender disaggregation of the 2023 State of the Sector Report Survey and legal analysis Women in Mining Government Questionnaire Questionnaire Mine Site Questionnaire No. participants No. participants No. participants Legal Total Total Total Country analysis Participation (women:men) Participation (women:men) Participation (women:men) LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Bolivia ✓ ✓ 1 (1:0) X - ✓ 500 (270:230) Brazil ✓ X - X - X - Colombia ✓ X - X - X - Ecuador ✓ ✓ 5* (3:2) ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Guyana ✓ X - X - ✓ 142 (143:285) Peru ✓ ✓ 1 (1:0) ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Suriname ✓ X - X - X - AFRICA Ghana ✓ X - ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Guinea ✓ X - X - X - Kenya ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) X - X - Malawi ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) X - X - Mozambique X X - ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Sierra Leone ✓ X - ✓ 1 (1:0) ✓ 507 (181:326) South Africa ✓ X - X - X - Tanzania ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Zambia ✓ ✓ 1 (1:0) ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Zimbabwe ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) ✓ 2 (2:0) ✓ 251 (135:116) EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC Indonesia ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) ✓ 1 (1:0) X - Laos PDR ✓ X - X X - Mongolia ✓ ✓ 2* (0:2) ✓ 1 (1:0) ✓ 363 (113:250) Papua New ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) X - X - Guinea Philippines ✓ ✓ 1 (0:1) X - X - 1,907 Totals 21 12 17 (6:11) 11 11 (11:0) 5 (840:1,067) *Indicates a team of officials collaborated in the survey questionnaire. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 23 END NOTES responsible practices. In this survey, Craig D., & Antonucci A. (2014). The Fourati, M., Girard, V. and Laurent- formalization interventions are Empowerment of Tanzanian Women Lucchetti, J. (2021) Sexual Violence 1 Our World in Data team. 2023. defined as ASM related government Through Jewellery Manufacture. as a Weapon of War. working paper. “Achieve gender equality and activities such as changes to policy, the Geological Survey of Sweden LISBON: NOVA AFRICA, pp. 1–57. empower all women and girls”. legislation, regulation and other (SGU). Retrieved from: https://static1. Retrieved from: https://ourworldin- Geenen, S. (2012). A dangerous bet: national level activities intended squarespace.com/static/568a3352e- data.org/sdgs/gender-equality The challenges of formalizing artisanal to professionalize and legalize the 0327c02e38c3369/t/5a04716241920 country’s ASM sector.” 28d943f1c2c/1510240627901/ mining in the Democratic Republic 2 Our World in Data team. 2023. The+Empowerment+of+Tanzanian+ of Congo. Resources Policy, 37 (3), “Achieve gender equality and Women+Through+Jewellery+ 322-330. empower all women and girls”. REFERENCES Manufacture.pdf. Retrieved from: https://ourworldin- Guenther, M. (2019). Local Effects of data.org/sdgs/gender-equality African Union. (2009). Africa Mining Artisanal Mining: Empirical Evidence Chenje, M. (2000). State of the envi- 3 Buss, D., Rutherford, B., Stewart,J., Vision. Addis Ababa: Africa Union. ronment in the Zambezi Basin 2000. from Ghana. 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Sustainable Development Goals, State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 25 MAKE MINING LAWS AND ECONOMIC POLICIES GENDER INCLUSIVE AUTHORS: Prof. Nellia Mutemeri,1 Dr James McQuilken, 2 Nydia Ponnan1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1MutConsult, 1University of the Witwatersrand, Pact, 3MutConsult SDG 5 Targets SDG 5 Indicators Target 5.1: End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls Indicator 5.1.1: Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, everywhere enforce and monitor equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sex Target 5.5: Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal Indicator 5.5.1: Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision making in political, parliaments and (b) local governments economic and public life Indicator 5.5.2: Proportion of women in managerial positions Target 5.a: Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic Indicator 5.a.1: (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and or secure rights over agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure resources, in accordance with national laws Indicator 5.a.2: Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control Target 5.b: Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular Indicator 5.b.1: Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, information and communications technology, to promote the by sex empowerment of women Target 5.c: Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable Indicator 5.c.1: Proportion of countries with systems to track and make legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment public allocations for gender equality and women’s empowerment of all women and girls at all levels 26 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive KEY FINDINGS Overview It is generally understood that promoting sustain- - The lack of gender-sensitive language in able development within the ASM sector is a national laws is hindering gender equality in process that comprises two pillars with multiple ASM. Of the national mining codes reviewed, steps: i) legalization of activities by obtaining 67% are either gender blind or gender neutral, the necessary licenses, permits, and access to while 80% of the legal land ownership frame- land required by law; ii) professionalization to works are gender blind or gender neutral. improve mining and operational practices in line Legal frameworks lack of distinction based on with national laws, international regulations, and gender (gender neutral) or consideration for industry best practices (World Bank, 2009; Speigel, gender-related issues (gender blind) presents 2012; McQuilken and Hilson, 2016; UNITAR, 2017; a formidable barrier to addressing the gender Hilson et al., 2017; De-Haan et al., 2020; Ofosu et disparities that persist within the sector. al., 2022; Atienza, 2023). Integrating ASM into the formal economy, society, and regulatory systems - Governments are increasingly recognizing encompasses a wide range of activities. Often the the importance of women in ASM. Most first and primary mechanism to do so is through the government officials (83% or 10 out of 12) stated creation of new, and amendment of, existing legal that they considered or included women in and policy frameworks to make space for ASM and the development of their formalization inter- provide a legal foundation for technical support, ventions—further exploring the outcomes and engagement, and improvements. As a first step for impact of such interventions could be a useful governments and policy makers, sector develop- avenue in future work to better understand ment is typically enacted through legislation that the gap between law, policy, and program clearly defines ASM, regulates the property rights interventions. The majority (67%) of govern- of working areas, regularizes the sector through ments surveyed had undertaken programs taxation, and monitors access to the resources that that specifically empower women in ASM or are exploited. This chapter focuses on the legal have women-specific components. aspects of the sustainable development of ASM to consider how greater participation and protection - Capacity development and financial support of women in wider society, as enshrined in national are crucial areas that require immediate legal frameworks, can promote and provide impetus attention to enable government officials to for gender equality in ASM. advance gender equality in the ASM sector. Government’s recognize capacity building Legislation can support or impede gender equality (29%) and financial support (22%) as the most and women’s empowerment. Discrimination against common forms of support needed to better women in the law is one of the most visible forms consider the needs of women. Officials cite of gender inequality (Sever, 2022). On average, lack of funding (44%) as the greatest chal- women around the world only enjoy three-quarters lenge to increasing gender considerations of the legal rights afforded to men (World Bank, into efforts to the support the sector. 2022). Moreover, 178 countries around the world maintain legal barriers that prevent 2.4 billion work- ing-age women from exercising their economic rights (World Bank, 2022). Legal constraints on the basis of gender promote the subordination of women and girls and support attitudes and harmful practices that limit their opportunities and potential, and positively correlate with wider gender gaps across a range of economic, social, and political indicators as measured by the Africa Gender Index (AGI) (OECD, 2021). The creation of gender-respon- State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 27 sive legal and regulatory systems that ensure girls restricting the ways in which women can participate and women can actively and equally participate in in ASM. The majority of mining codes around the society can catalyze gender parity. Legal recogni- world are gender blind or neutral and do not contain tion is the first step in guaranteeing the rights and stipulations to enhance women’s participation in fundamental freedoms of women and is particularly ASM. Without the legal right to mine and additional important in societies where social norms and tradi- regulations to provide a legal de jure basis for their tional practices are detrimental to women’s equality. participation, it is not possible for women to over- come the societal de facto norms that prevent their Legal frameworks regulate access to mineral equality in ASM, and society at large. resources through overlapping and standalone laws—mining codes, property rights frameworks, Even where the legal frameworks exist allowing land tenure agreements, inheritance laws, envi- women to own mining and land rights and partic- ronmental protocols and waste management stan- ipate in ASM, the costly, burdensome, and compli- dards comprise the body of legislation that ensures cated process of obtaining an ASM license and that natural resources are managed and disbursed accompanying permits can be prohibitive for men equitably. Women in ASM are constrained by de jure let alone women who, as outlined, face addi- (legally recognized practices) and de facto (what tional barriers. For example, in Liberia, Hilson and happens in reality) inequity in owning, accessing, Bockstael (2011) note that a Class C ASM license controlling and using land and mineral resources costs $150 annually, equivalent to half the gross (IGF, 2018). Discriminatory inheritance and property national income per capita of $300 at that time. laws deny women control and access to land, thus While in Ghana, Adu-Baffour et al., (2021) docu- BOX 1. Definitions Gender blind and gender neutral: The failure to recognize that gender is an essential determinant Gender equality: The enjoyment of equal rights, of social outcomes that ignores gender norms, responsibilities, opportunities, and treatment of rules, and relations and can result in the creation women, men, girls, and boys in all spheres of of projects and policies that reinforce gender- life and work. Gender equality does not mean based discrimination, biases, and stereotypes that women and men will become the same, but (Côté, 2020). The legal review in this report that their rights, responsibilities, social status, defines gender blind as excluding gender and and access to resources are not determined disregards the different needs and interests of by gender. In recognition of the diversity of women and men, and gender neutral as having the different groups, gender equality implies laws that acknowledge gender but that make no that different interests, needs, and priorities of distinction based on gender. women and men are considered, valued, and favored equally (ILO, 2012; UNIDO, 2015). Gender mainstreaming: The globally accepted strategy for incorporating a gender perspective Gender equity: Refers to fairness and justice, into policies, strategies, programs, and project and acknowledges that adjustments must be activities, including the design, implementation, made to counter asymmetries. Aims to improve monitoring, and evaluation as well as into the equality of outcomes and results recognizing institutional culture of an organization, so that differing needs and interests; which requires women and men benefit equally and inequality transformative change and a redistribution of is not increased (Côté, 2020). power and resources whereas gender equality refers to an equality of opportunities (Eftimie et al., 2012; Rickard et al., 2017). 28 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive ment the 14-step1 land acquisition and licensing evaluated. This review conducts a gender assess- process for acquiring a small-scale mining license ment of each country’s mining code; whether including having a mine plan, having signatory from legal frameworks to promote, enforce and monitor the Minister for Lands and Natural Resources, and non-discrimination on the basis of gender exist; securing environmental and water use permits. whether there are legal provisions for women’s Additionally, becoming a legal ASM operator also land rights; and whether there are laws that guar- involves accessing the funds to pay for the cost of antee sexual and reproductive health rights. Each the ASM license and environmental assessments, of these indicators are directly linked to SDG 5 and as well as sufficient technical knowledge, time, and will provide insight to how gender equality is being capacity to complete the paperwork and navigate supported by the countries in the data set. the legal processes. With legalization being a core pillar and the first MINING LAWS AND GENDER EQUALITY part of ASM sustainable development, it is imper- The Mining Code refers to a set of laws that are ative to understand these legal barriers to women in force, whether local or national, that regulate the owning and accessing a license and participating management, preservation, exploration, exploita- in mining in order to design and implement rights- tion, and processing of minerals for domestic based interventions. Even in countries where consumption and export, including land tenure women’s rights are legally protected, customary rights and obligations, health and safety proto- tenure arrangements often supersede statutory cols, and related environmental regulations. The laws. Traditional beliefs and discriminatory prac- main objective of the Mining Code is to put forth tices constrain women in ASM from fully enjoying the country’s vision for the mining sector and align their rights, exercising economic autonomy, and legal provisions to this vision. For example, the making decisions independently. Mining Code can define ASM, national economic objectives, employment equity targets, and specific This chapter provides the status of equality, equity, financial provisions for the mining sector. and empowerment in the life of women in ASM and how this is provided for in the law. It presents On one hand, mining laws can specifically seek to evidence from literature, legal analysis of mining promote and support gender equality in the mining codes, as well as the survey and questionnaires sector, and on the other, gender-blind mining laws conducted in the target countries and compiled are a formidable barrier to advancing women’s case studies. The evidence is presented in line with rights and equal participation in ASM. In the context the relevant SDG 5 targets and indicators to illus- of ASM, where gender disparities often persist, it is trate the role the ASM sector can play in achieving crucial that mining laws acknowledge and address the SDG 5 targets. these inequalities. Regrettably, two-thirds (67%) of the mining codes of the countries reviewed were either gender neutral, having laws that acknowledge Legal provisions to end discrimination gender but make no distinction based on gender, or and promote equality, access, and gender blind with a complete lack of consideration for gender-related issues. This finding means that empowerment women miners frequently encounter discrimination To understand how broader legal frameworks and obstacles to accessing resources, educational impact gender equality in ASM and the legal pillar opportunities, and economic growth. Their safety of ASM sustainable development, this section and well-being are also at risk, as these laws often comprises a legal review of 21 ASM countries fail to provide protective measures tailored to their with significant ASM activity across three regions. needs. To foster a more inclusive and gender-eq- The SDG 5 targets and indicators are used as the uitable ASM sector, it is imperative that mining conceptual framework against which each coun- laws actively seek to promote and support gender try’s mining legislation and other relevant laws are equality. Recognizing and rectifying these gender State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 29 TABLE 2. Gender assessment of legal frameworks Gender neutral = laws acknowledge gender but make no distinction based on gender. Gender blind = excludes gender and disregards the different needs and interests of women and men. Does the Mining Code have special Estimated proportion Is ASM recognized in provisions for women’s Country of women in ASM the Mining Code? equal access and benefits? LATIN AMERICAN and the CARIBBEAN Bolivia Unknown ✓ Gender blind Brazil Unknown ✓ Gender blind Colombia 56%3 ✓ ✓ Ecuador 10%4 ✓ Gender blind Guyana 20%5 ✓ Gender blind Peru 15%6 ✓ ✓ Suriname 25%7 ✓ Gender blind AFRICA Ghana 50%8 ✓ Gender neutral Guinea 70%9 ✓ Gender blind Kenya 40%-45%10 ✓ ✓ Malawi 10%11 ✓ ✓ Sierra Leone 47%12 ✓ Gender blind South Africa Unknown X ✓ Tanzania 25%13 ✓ ✓ Zambia Unknown ✓ ✓ Zimbabwe Unknown X Gender blind EAST ASIA and PACIFIC Indonesia 10%14 ✓ Gender blind Laos PDR 50%-80%15 ✓ Gender blind Mongolia 24%16 ✓ Gender blind Papua New Guinea 20%17 ✓ Gender blind Philippines 4%18 ✓ Gender blind 30 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive Are there laws that guarantee Was the IL O Underground Are there legal frameworks Are there legal frameworks full and equal access to Work (Women) Convention to promote, enforce, and (including customary law) women and men aged 15 1935 that makes it illegal for monitor equality and that guarantees women years and older to sexual women to work underground non-discrimination on the equal rights to land reproductive health care, in any mine still ratified prior basis of gender? ownership and/or control? information, and education? to abrogation?2 ✓ Gender neutral Limited Yes ✓ Gender neutral ✓ Yes ✓ ✓ ✓ No (never ratified) ✓ Gender neutral ✓ Yes ✓ Gender blind ✓ Yes ✓ Gender neutral Limited No (repealed) ✓ Gender neutral ✓ No (never ratified) ✓ Gender neutral ✓ Yes ✓ Gender neutral X Yes ✓ Gender neutral ✓ Yes ✓ ✓ ✓ Yes ✓ Gender neutral Limited Yes ✓ Gender neutral ✓ Yes ✓ ✓ ✓ Yes ✓ ✓ ✓ No (repealed) ✓ Gender neutral Limited No (repealed) ✓ Gender neutral ✓ Yes ✓ Gender neutral ✓ No (never ratified) ✓ Gender blind ✓ No (never ratified) ✓ Gender blind Limited Yes ✓ Gender neutral ✓ No (never ratified) State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 31 disparities in the regulatory framework is a funda- also referred to as the international bill of rights for mental step in ensuring the rights and empower- women. It has since been ratified by 189 states. ment of women in ASM. Ending discrimination against all women and girls everywhere is a key objective of SDG 5. Despite Of the seven countries that have included the development of a comprehensive legal frame- gender in their mining codes, five of them (Kenya, work to guard against discrimination on the basis Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia) are of gender, women and girls around the world are in Sub-Saharan Africa. This legislative recogni- confronted by unfair and unequal treatment in their tion could be a consequence of the inclusion of homes, workplaces, and in their wider communities. gender as part of the 2009 African Mining Vision— Gender inequality is built into the social fabric and an African Union-wide policy document for the legislative systems—globally, on average, women transparent, equitable, and optimal exploitation of enjoy only 77% of the legal rights that men do mineral resources to underpin broad-based sustain- (World Bank, 2023). Moreover, 178 countries have able growth and socioeconomic development of laws that discriminate against women economically, the region (AMV, 2009). South Africa, Tanzania, including 18 countries where women are legally and Zambia for example have set gender targets required to seek permission from their husbands to as part of their mining frameworks. Malawi’s draft work (World Bank, 2022). ASM policy acknowledges that women in ASM face greater challenges than men, specifically, the social The ASM-hosting countries in the 2023 State of the norms and cultural traditions that impact their socio- Sector Survey data set have all ratified CEDAW and economic status impose a heavy family burden, have created legal frameworks to reduce gender limit their independence and mobility, and increase inequality at a national level. However, the ILO difficulties in accessing financial, technical, and Underground Work (Women) Convention, 1935 (No. legal support. In the Latin America and Caribbean 45), which legislates that “No female, whatever her region, Colombia and Peru are part of the data set age, shall be employed on underground work in any with gender-sensitive mining codes. In 2020, the mine” is still in law (although not always enforced) Colombian government created gender equality in 68 countries around the world, 13 of which are guidelines for the mining sector to promote gender part of this data set: Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Ghana, equality in the industry. An analysis of Peru’s mining Guinea, Guyana, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Papua code and legal frameworks shows it has provisions New Guinea, Sierra Leone, South Africa, and for women’s equal access and benefits, although Tanzania. A 2018 ILO standards review marked the limited laws guaranteeing equal access to health, convention as outdated and the convention is set information, and education services. Meanwhile for abrogation at the forthcoming 112th Session of Ecuador shows signs of advancement, with the the International Labour Conference (2024) (ILO, government recently issuing a ministerial resolution 2021). Historically, the ILO Convention 45 and other to create a Committee for Gender Equality within prohibitive laws are responsible for the pervasive the Ministry of Energy and Mines in order to identify socially constructed norm that mining is men’s gender gaps and implement strategies to reme- work, which disadvantages many women partic- diate gender inequality. None of the five countries ipants in ASM. Women are generally boxed into in Asia that were reviewed had included gender in peripheral roles on ASM value chains that replicate their mining frameworks. the societal belief that women are physically and intellectually weaker. As a result of performing ancillary roles such as washing ore, processing, NON-DISCRIMINATION BASED ON GENDER and transporting, women in ASM are excluded from Gender-based discrimination is prohibited under the highest-earning activities and do not derive the almost every human rights treaty. It is even the same economic benefits that men in ASM do. subject of its own treaty—in 1981, the United Nations instituted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 32 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive WOMEN’S ACCESS TO, USE, AND CONTROL OVER access to land. Only three countries in the data set LAND AND PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES have passed gender-sensitive land laws. Zambia’s “Land is key to a life with dignity and a National Land’s Policy, for instance, aims to achieve basis for entitlements which can ensure an a gender-sensitive land sector by reserving 50% adequate standard of living and economic of available land for women. Tanzania’s revised independence and, therefore, personal Land Act ensures that women comprise 25% of the empowerment” village councils that govern customary land tenure (GELBSPAN AND NAGARAJ, 2012). arrangements. Colombia’s Law 731 aims to improve the quality of life of rural women including women Women’s access to, use, and control over land in mining by prioritizing low-income women and and productive resources is inextricably linked enshrining specific measures aimed at accelerating to the achievement and enjoyment of a broad equity between rural women and men, such as range of human rights such as the right to equality, quotas and preferential financing. housing, health, water, food, work, and education (UN OHCHR, 2013). Women’s secure access to While de jure laws and regulations may provide land has also been inextricably linked to sustain- for equal access and ownership of land and able economic development, global food security, natural resources between women and men, in and the prevention and response to gender-based ASM-hosting countries customary tenure arrange- violence (GBV) (UN OHCHR, 2013). As such, policy ments are often more prevalent and dominant frameworks to protect and support women’s land (Freudenberger, 2011). Customary tenure refers to rights have been developed at global, regional, customs, practices, and beliefs that are accepted and national levels. Realizing women’s secure as obligatory rules of conduct by a community in access to land and productive resources is a regard to land ownership and access. Customary pivotal part of the gender-responsive Sustainable land ownership systems tend to prioritize men over Development Agenda as evidenced by its inclusion women and patriarchal systems govern decision in SDG 5 under target 5.a: “Undertake reforms to making, land disbursal, and inheritance rights. give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over Despite the absence of legal requirements for men land and other forms of property, financial services, to grant permission to women for land ownership inheritance and natural resources, in accordance or land tenure security in the data set countries, with national laws.” customary structures often perpetuate discrimina- tion against women concerning land ownership, Local property rights systems affect women’s inheritance, and access. For example, in Sierra capacity to benefit from ASM. Without owner- Leone, the dominance of customary law results in ship, control of, or access to mineral-bearing land, 95% of the land being managed under rules that women are forced into lower-earning activities that prohibit women from managing and inheriting land position them poorly for participation in decision (Conteh, 2015). And in Colombia, the prevailing making. In the absence of land tenure, women in traditional belief that women bring bad luck to mine ASM are also unable to access capital and credit to sites limits women’s access to productive assets grow their operations, buy equipment, and invest in forcing them into less lucrative roles. technology to generate higher value from mining. As outlined, the majority of the reviewed countries Meanwhile, Ghana’s legal framework, encom- either have gender-blind or gender-neutral land passing the Constitution and the 2019 Land Bill, rights frameworks where gender neutral means the explicitly champions gender equality in land owner- laws acknowledge gender but make no distinction ship. Despite this, deeply ingrained social norms based on gender, and gender blind excludes gender act as formidable barriers to women’s access to and and disregards the different needs and interests of utilization of land. Customary laws often view prop- women and men. Both, gender-neutral and gender- erty as a family asset under the control of the male blind legislation can in effect deny women secure family head, leading to restricted land and agricul- State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 33 tural resource access for women (Government of land, perpetuating gender disparities in land owner- Ghana, 2015, McQuilken and Hilson, 2016). ship and access. These enduring patterns persist across the region, obstructing the realization of In Indonesia, the Basic Agrarian Act No. 5 of 1960 gender equality in land ownership and access. officially upholds gender-neutral access to land rights and inheritance, in line with the Civil Code. However, the practical application of these laws SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH RIGHTS is frequently hindered by the influence of Islamic Universal access to sexual and reproductive health Law and customary practices, resulting in limited (SRH) and reproductive rights and the elimination shares of family property for wives and daughters. of violence and harmful practices are targets set by Similarly, in Guinea, land laws explicitly grant equal SDG 5. SRH can be understood as a person’s right land rights to both men and women. Nevertheless, to a healthy body and the autonomy, education, and customary practices often discourage women from health care to freely decide who to engage in sexual asserting ownership rights to land, causing them to activities with, free of coercion, discrimination, and rely on use-rights to land owned by male relatives. violence; and how to avoid sexually transmitted infections or unintended pregnancies and access In Kenya, customary laws across various ethnic adequate antenatal health care (WHO, n.d). Women’s groups frequently restrict women from inheriting SRH is related to several human rights, including the land, compelling them to reside on land as guests right to health, life, privacy, education, to be free of male relatives, whether by blood or marriage. A from torture, and the prohibition of discrimination, as comparable pattern is observed in Tanzania, where such, countries are duty-bound to respect, protect, women primarily acquire land interests through and fulfill these rights. Apart from Guinea, all the their husbands, especially in patrilineal systems countries in the data set have enshrined access to practiced by about 80% of ethnic groups. sexual and reproductive health in their legal frame- works. The level of access ranges from limited to Throughout much of Sub-Saharan Africa, including universal: Colombia, Guyana, and South Africa are Zambia, widows, in particular, encounter substan- on the upper end of the spectrum guaranteeing tial barriers when attempting to access family land universal access to methods of contraceptives and after their husbands’ deaths, despite statutory laws fertility control and making sex education, maternal protecting women’s rights. This issue is pervasive care, and abortions available without restriction. In in Sub-Saharan Africa, extending to countries contrast, Bolivia, Peru, Sierra Leone, Zimbabwe, and including Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Papua New Guinea provide access to sexual and Congo (DRC), Eritrea, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and reproductive health information, but other aspects Tanzania. Here, widows, divorcees, and victims of sexual health are limited. For instance, Sierra of conflicts and civil wars often find themselves Leone forbids abortions, even if the life or health of denied access to matrimonial and family land due the woman is at risk; in Papua New Guinea, parental to adherence to customary and patriarchal rules. consent is required for contraceptives; and in Bolivia, child marriages are legal—girls can marry at age 14 Patriarchal land inheritance practices persist in and boys at 16 with parental permission, with further Sub-Saharan Africa despite the region’s commit- exceptions made for pregnant minors. ment to gender-equality objectives and national land reforms. These practices consistently designate Health care is often very limited around ASM sites, land as men’s domain, relegating women, including despite the wide range of health and safety risks daughters, sisters, and wives, to secondary access that stem from ASM. The seasonal and migratory through their male relatives. This entrenched nature of ASM and access to sex work around mine framework often portrays women as individuals in sites can result in high-risk behavior that can facil- transition, moving from their natal homes to marital itate the spread of sexually transmitted infections/ households. Consequently, women are frequently diseases (STI/STD), HIV, and AIDS (WHO, 2016). pressured to marry if they wish to own or access The prevalence of HIV is highest in Sub-Saharan 34 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive INCLUSION IN POLICY FORMULATION Africa where the proportion of women working in ASM is the highest, and six of the countries from Women have a right to equal participation in deci- the analysis (Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, sion making. Having the involvement of women Zambia, and Zimbabwe) rank in the top 20 most-in- and men in public and private decision making fected countries in the world (Elflein, 2022). The processes broadens perspectives, increases inno- majority of people living with HIV/AIDS are women vation, heightens accountability, reduces conflict, and women also constitute a larger portion of the results in a more robust solutions, and gener- new infections globally (UN Women, n.d.). ally benefits not only women but society at large (Asuako, 2020). Equal participation is also key to Maternal mortality rates are the highest in Sub-Saharan sustainable development and reflected in the SDG Africa, with highest levels of maternal death on the 5 target “ensure women’s full and effective partic- continent overlapping with several ASM-hosting ipation and equal opportunities for leadership at countries, such as DRC, Guinea, Nigeria, Sierra all levels of decision making in political, economic Leone, and Zimbabwe. This could indicate a general and public life.” Relatedly, women in ASM should lack of government capacity in these countries to be included in policy making to advance gender extend health care generally but also specifically to equality and improve the sustainability of the sector. remote ASM areas that tend to lack antenatal care or The 2023 State of the Sector survey revealed that maternity wards, leaving local women to depend on 10 out of the 12 governments (83%) considered or NGOs, midwives, or traditional healers. Additionally, included women in developing ASM interventions. a study conducted in Tanzania indicated that women When asked about how women were included in in ASGM regions are more likely to suffer adverse the development of interventions, the majority of birth outcomes due to maternal exposure to arsenic governments indicated they consulted with orga- and mercury (Nyanza et al., 2020). nized WIM groups. This points to the tendency of governments to lean toward interacting with Femicide and GBV19 are prevalent in the countries organizations. It also highlights the importance of in the data set. Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, organized women in mining groups as the vehicle Suriname, and South Africa have some of highest to communicate the voices of women in mining. rates of femicide in the world, and all the countries in the data set have a high rate of GBV, with rates of From a women-in-mining perspective, seven of the female genital mutilation as high as 94% in Guinea, 11 leaders of WIM groups surveyed (64%) believe and Papua New Guinea having one of the highest that their government is supportive of gender rates of GBV in the world outside of a conflict zone equality in ASM. It should be noted that the survey (28 Too Many, 2021; McLennan, 2021). Incidence of had two WIM groups from Zimbabwe, with one violence against women in ASM areas has been group responding “Yes” to this question, while documented across the globe (Rustad et al., 2016 the other responded “No”. The other “No’s” came and Hinton et al., 2003). GBV and sexual assault is from WIM groups from Ecuador, Mongolia, and prevalent in ASM settings due to the highly mascu- Indonesia. Reasons for the belief that their govern- linized culture, and the remote, informal, often illegal, ment did not support gender equality included: and precarious nature of ASM (Hinton et al., 2003). lack of awareness, the illegality of ASM operations, a lack of effort or follow-through from governments in addressing women in ASM’s needs (even in Insights from the 2023 State of cases where policy has been formulated), a lack of regulatory clarity, and gender discrimination. Sector Survey This section draws on the data gathered from the 2023 State of the Sector Survey to examine whether THE NEEDS OF WOMEN IN ASM and how women in ASM have been included in the Gender-blind development approaches overlook legislative and policy aspects of the sustainable women in ASM as an important stakeholder group development of the ASM sector. and fail to consider their unique gender-specific State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 35 needs. Consequently, there is a lack of information and formal education and training that men typically understanding of the on-the-ground needs of women have more access to, it is difficult for women to navi- in ASM. The 2023 State of Sector Survey sheds some gate the legal ASM licensing process and have full light on this matter, by asking the WIM groups “what and effective participation in decision making and are the challenges women in ASM experience?” leadership positions in ASM organizations (SDG 5 target 5.5). Similarly, de jure challenges that women Though not the most selected answers, there are face in ASM such as lack of understanding of laws several challenges selected by WIM groups that and regulations, marginalization in political forums, relate more explicitly to legal and social barriers to lack of legal protections, and de facto barriers such women’s participation in ASM and thus sustainable as superstitions and discrimination and negative development of the sector, including the cost of gender stereotypes are all selected by one or more and capacity needed to pay for and navigate the WIM groups as challenges. Ensuring there are laws ASM licensing process. First, is “lack of financial and regulations in place to secure and promote literacy/management training,” which was chosen women’s participation in ASM and that they are as a key challenge by five WIM groups and was empowered to exercise those rights is therefore still the second most-selected challenge out of a key part of the sustainable development of the 20, placing it high up the list. Without the kind of ASM sector. From your experience in your organization’s work what are the challenges women in FIGURE 2. ASM experience? (WIM Questionnaire) 7 6 5 4 Count 3 2 1 – g ns ns g g s es es gu ce ns s ea re y rs C o er s sy tio n qu tal nt en ro ia... m et ac in ub i n i n in ne gm me a tio io tio at yp en i rd Su oru ap rk in in in c c cr p t ic th i bu la tra i Do t r a ra ot ec m m l a ip im r r u t u ss to c io nd rs m o f al re t t e e sa dv al le pe he in t. al y ce air al al de ste ic re ur t i o c ac ra o e s c lp se m m ty Ac ces lit ni f to b e d o ck b i l i ga en er /m t po a ch y by vo t. n t s b r-b Ac v nd s ss Cr cy le liz f te vi ad o n n in ce G ce tio w ge of of n Ac of o la te Ac io a ta ck k e in ck of at l li ac oi tiv G La la m La pl ia g L a n/ rim c r i in nc Ex eg na io nd sc D i s na gi at N ta ar in fi rs M of de ck un La Di of ck La Challenges for women in ASM Ecuador Mongolia Sierra Leone Zimbabwe Ghana Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Indonesia Peru Zambia 36 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive The top four types of programs WIM groups license. On a related note, access to equipment have participated in (Figure 3) were aimed at: and a lack of financial literacy or management increasing the number of women in leadership training were the second and third most selected positions, ending the discrimination of women challenges. Given that access to equipment is in ASM, reducing GBV and sexual violence, and typically the result of financial constraints, this indi- supporting women’s access to land/mine owner- cates that the top three challenges facing women ship. Again, such programs are key to ensuring that in ASM, as selected by WIM leaders, are related to fundamental legal rights exist and are exercised to or a consequence of insufficient access to finance enable women’s participation in ASM. impeding not only their access to a license but also to equipment needed to upgrade operations and The most-selected answer by the leaders of WIM increase productivity and incomes. groups regarding challenges that women face was access to capital. Access to capital can be The need for access to capital initiatives is further a barrier to obtaining the licenses and permits underlined by the responses from the leaders required by law to mine with numerous studies in of WIM groups shown in Figure 3 showing which the literature highlighting the often-complex, costly, types of ASM programs and initiatives they had and time-consuming process of obtaining an ASM participated in. Of the 11 groups participating in FIGURE 3. What types of programs has your group participated in? (WIM Questionnaire) 11 10 9 8 7 6 Count 5 4 3 2 1 – M es s iti om e s i in M M in d M in ip m ive ng ic h n an es sh AS AS AS AS o n en iti po f w e t ci lit m ct un rc er an tio e po co du o s n in ta c sh ber crea ou wn fin o i en M ro en in es o pl iol AS rep ss n om n lr d tio ex v ad num I ce ra an s w al e d d pa ac r e an tu o l of xu a s ci M na s t p ca al r ti n se -b i n AS io th u to es i pa er al sex at er c nd in es ac in 's en he to en rim ge cc ’s le om ss om l a en sc s ce ce u a om di w w du ac se e p Re eq w th el e ea d rt H id d an p p o cr En ov In Pr Su Programmes participated in Ecuador Mongolia Sierra Leone Zimbabwe Ghana Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Indonesia Peru Zambia State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 37 the WIM Questionnaire, only one had participated behind gender-responsive programming in ASM. in interventions designed to “help women in ASM Moreover, it is evident that governments that have access financing.” These findings further illustrate plans to initiate future interventions are responding the need for women-focused access to finance to the pressing financial needs of women in ASM as initiatives in the ASM sector that also account for indicated by the previous section. the initial start-up costs of owning, operating, and upgrading a financially successful ASM site. IMPACTS OF FORMALIZATION ON WOMEN To unpack the gender-ASM sustainable develop- EFFORTS TO ADDRESS WOMEN’S NEEDS ment nexus, the impact of formalization activities Development interventions that overly focus on on women needs to be assessed. The Government landowners and lack a gender component tend Questionnaire asked officials to assess the impacts to overlook women in ASM. This is because such of government formalization interventions on a interventions do not identify or address the struc- variety of issues, including those related in full or tural legal barriers that might prevent women’s full part to legal aspects of formalization such as access participation in ASM. Subsequently, gender-spe- to capital (for licensing and titling costs), women’s cific programming is fundamental to addressing licensing applications, society’s perceptions of the needs of women in ASM. Of the governments women in ASM, and women’s participation in the surveyed, eight out of 12 (67%) had undertaken sector. Capacity building might also be considered programs that specifically empower women in to support the legal aspects of ASM sustainable ASM or have women-specific components. These development if aspects on land titling and licensing programs included: market access initiatives, processes are included. The results are summa- capacity building and training, a health program, rized in Table 3. and one access-to-finance initiative. Only four of 12 government officials (33%) reported The three governments that had not undertaken that women’s access to capital had increased as a gender-specific programming elaborated on result of government formalization efforts. However why they believe they had not attempted such twice as many officials (eight out of 12 or 67%) programs. One official stated that they believed reported that women’s opportunities for gener- focusing on one gender would make the govern- ating income had increased. This difference is to ment appear gender biased. An official from Asia be expected given that income-generating oppor- pointed to a lack of financial and human resources, tunities, particularly employment, livelihood diver- while a respondent from Latin America stated that sification, and entrepreneurship opportunities, are other priorities and issues were the reason such easier to expand through largely government and initiatives had not been undertaken. donor-supported interventions such as training, capacity building, and gender sensitization. While Additionally, only 50% of government officials partic- access to capital is a pervasive barrier to sustain- ipating in the survey indicated their government was able development across the ASM sector, there is considering or planning programs that specifically a need for the private banking and finance sector to empower women or have women-specific compo- understand ASM, de-risk their investments, and be nents in ASM. The other 50% responded “unknown”. able and willing to lend to ASM operators on suitable Of the governments that are considering programs and sustainable terms. The relative ease with which that specifically empower women in ASM and were sustainable development of the ASM sector can willing to share details of their plans, programs focus expand opportunities for women, in which govern- on providing access to financial services, markets, ment intervention is the most important lever, is also and capacity building, with none related to legal seen in the responses to “Women’s participation aspects of ASM sustainable development. in ASM” and the “Number of women participating in capacity building,” which were both reported to The responses indicate there is general impetus increase in nine of the 12 (75%) countries surveyed. 38 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive TABLE 3. What have been the impacts of government formalization interventions on…? (Government Questionnaire) done by Women Impacts Women violence in ASM Women in ASM Domestic Work Participating in Participation in are Exposed to Environmental ASM Capacity gender-based Opportunities Perception of Incidences of Applications # of Women Access to Licensing Women’s Women’s Women’s Women’s Negative Society’s Share of Building Income Capital in ASM ASM Country Kenya Increased Increased Decreased Increased Increased Decreased Increased Deteriorated Decreased Tanzania Unchanged Increased Unchanged Increased Increased Unchanged Increased Improved Decreased Philippines Unchanged Unchanged Increased Unchanged Increased Increased Increased Improved Unknown Zimbabwe Increased Increased Decreased Increased Increased Unchanged Increased Unchanged Unknown Zambia Increased Increased Decreased Increased Increased Decreased Increased Improved Decreased Indonesia Unknown Unknown Increased Increased Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Papua New Guinea Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Malawi Unknown Increased Decreased Increased Increased Unknown Increased Improved Unknown Mongolia Increased Increased Unknown Increased Increased Unknown Increased Improved Unknown Ecuador Unchanged Increased Increased Increased Increased Increased Increased Improved Increased Peru Unknown Increased Unknown Unknown Increased Unknown Increased Unknown Increased Bolivia Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown In contrast, access to finance in ASM broadly, not CAPACITY TO ENSURE GENDER-RESPONSIVE DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES only for women, is more complex as it requires a larger range of stakeholders (e.g., financial institu- A foundational pillar of ASM sustainable develop- tions), a functioning financial ecosystem, market ment is the building of state capacity to implement, access, appropriate licensing regimes, financial monitor, and enforce interventions in accordance literacy on the part of ASM operators, operational with national laws and international standards. To and production data, and significant de-risking of ensure that activities are gender responsive, it is both financial and reputational risk (ANRC, 2022). necessary for governments (national and local) to develop this capacity. Eight out of 12 government officials (67%) also reported that licensing applications from women had The pie chart in Figure 4 illustrates the results of increased as result of formalization interventions. a question posed to government officials to iden- This is to be expected due to the strong association tify the support they require to better address the between the countries where licensing applications needs of women engaged in ASM. Nearly 30% of from women have increased and those reporting respondents indicated that capacity building is the increases in the number of women participating most crucial and most selected form of support in capacity building. This illustrates that capacity needed. This suggests that officials require more building can help women navigate the often-com- knowledge and skills to better consider the needs plex licensing process. The other data points summa- of women in ASM. Capacity building can equip offi- rized in Table 3 are discussed in the corresponding cials with the necessary knowledge on legal frame- sections in the remainder of the report. works as well as the tools and resources to lobby State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 39 support does the government need to better consider the needs of women in ASM? FIGURE 4. What (Government Questionnaire) 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 29.6% 3.7% 7.4% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 22.2% Capacity building Quantitative targets in policies Sector data (reports/studies) Gender sensitization Intergovernmental cooperation Competitive salaries Financial support Access to markets Gender equality in job searches Lack of gender experts in Administrative support Enabling policy government agencies Technical support Programs dedicated to gender issues for legal change and create more effective policies FIGURE 5. What,in your opinion, has been the and programs that support women in ASM. greatest challenge? (Government Questionnaire) Financial support was the second most-selected Illegality 11.1% Lack of need at 22.2%. This implies that government offi- funding cials require financial resources, such as budgets 44.4% and grants, to implement policies and programs to advance gender equality in ASM. By providing financial support, officials can help women in ASM start and expand their businesses, enhance their Cultural working conditions, and upgrade their equipment. beliefs The need for capacity development and financial 22.2% support to improve the ASM sector are themes that run throughout the questionnaires. In addition to the capacity issues noted earlier, Figure 5 summarizes the responses from govern- ment officials to the question: “What, in your opinion, have been the greatest challenges to the Lack of holistic approach by all sector inclusion of gender considerations in the formal- stakeholders Lack of human ization process?” A lack of funding is, by a signifi- 11.1% resources cant margin, the most stated challenge to gender 11.1% 40 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive considerations in formalization. Cultural beliefs are Association of Artisanal Miners, and Women in the second most-selected challenge, showing that Artisanal Scale Mining (WIASM) improves under- negative perceptions of women in ASM, and likely standing of the gendered aspects of formalization of ASM more broadly, are still a significant hurdle to programs. The case study provides some much- gender mainstreaming in formalization processes. needed insight into how women are impacted by formalization initiatives, including unintended Overall, the data presented in the figures highlight consequences, that in this case included increased that governments need to improve their internal gender discrimination and marginalization of some capabilities and operations to support women in women involved in the intervention. Through ASM centers and that, perhaps most importantly, gender-disaggregated data tracking (a recom- they are aware of these shortcomings. Capacity mendation of the 2020 State of the Sector report), development and financial support are crucial the longitudinal study charts the experience of areas that require immediate attention to enable 159 women involved in the landmark intervention. officials to better consider the needs of women in The South African experience provides an under- this sector. By addressing these needs, officials can standing of the unique gender dynamics of ASM create an enabling environment for women in ASM formalization that lays the groundwork from which to prosper, promote gender equality, and drive gender sensitive policy frameworks can be created. economic development. The third case study by Women in Mining in Nigeria (WIMIN) explores the advancement of gender equity through the lens of education Insights from the case studies and capacity building in Nigeria. To counter the Chapter 1 and the recommendation to “make significant gender gap in Nigeria’s mining sector, mining laws and economic policies gender inclu- WIMIN, in collaboration with the Ford Foundation sive” is accompanied by five case studies. They and Open Society Initiative for West Africa (OSIWA), show the need for legal frameworks and formaliza- established the Women in Mining Training Institute tion initiatives to include women in their creation and (WIMTI) to provide women in the sector with contin- implementation to realize gender equality in ASM. uous training and capacity development. In an effort to address gender inequality at the source, The first case study on Madre Dios, Peru, by they also launched the Girls for Mining (G4M) Club, the Instituto Redes de Desarrollo Social (RED an intervention aimed at girls in school. Through SOCIAL) highlights the prominence and leader- coaching and mentorship, it encourages them to ship role of women as legally recognized miners. pursue science, technology, engineering and math- Madre Dios has the highest level of female partic- ematics (STEM)-related courses and exposes them ipation in ASM in the country. Women constitute to opportunities in mining. These largely online 30% of the legal concession holders and also 30% forums demonstrate the opportunity to leverage of the 9,520 people involved with the formaliza- digital technologies to address gender inequality tion process. The high levels of women miners in and capacity building in ASM. Madre Dios can be attributed to the conducive geological structure, increased learning opportuni- Sierra Leone’s 2018 Artisanal Mining Policy ties, the use of clean technologies, and women in designed to promote formalization is discussed leadership positions due to existing interventions in the fourth case study by Cemmats Group. and practices that include women in the creation of Although the national mining laws and regulations regulations. Madre Dios provides an understanding offer some protection for women, there have been of the cause and effect of higher levels of female no specific directives toward safeguarding women participation in ASM activities. in the sector and the initiatives that may see women protected and empowered. The case study clearly Next, a case study on ASM in South Africa highlights how important gender-inclusive mining by Imbokodo Mining Services, the National legal frameworks are to the full participation of State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 41 women in ASM. Adjacent policies and regulations in public dialogues they were previously shut out of have played a role in increasing women’s security thereby improving the participation, representation, and progress in the industry, with a new Gender and visibility of women miners. Equality Act in 2023 that aims to increase women’s participation at the leadership and decision making level through gender targets and safeguarding Conclusion mechanisms, but specific mining legislation is also needed. The case study ends with a call to action Many countries in the 2023 State of the Sector for the government to spur the formation of women Survey data set have supported gender equality cooperatives as a means to help catalyze financing in ASM and are at various stages of gender and improve their standing within the ASM sector. mainstreaming their laws and policies. However, Notwithstanding the impetus for greater social the advancement of gender equality in ASM is protection, women will continue to face significant conditional on the reform of gender-blind mining challenges, particularly in financial equity and codes and protective legislation that enshrines security, if improved legislation and policy is not discriminatory practices. Equally, both statutory matched with concomitant on the ground activities. land ownership frameworks and customary tenure arrangements must afford women and men the The fifth and final case study in Chapter 1 details the same land rights in order for women in ASM to partnership between the Alliance for Responsible advance from low-earning ancillary roles along the Mining (ARM) and the Association of Women Mineral value chain to mine ownership as central tenants of Selectors and Peacebuilders (ASOMUSELUPAZ) rights-based sustainable development of the ASM in the municipality of Suarez, Cauca, Colombia. sector. For women to fully participate in ASM, their Women account for more than 50% of ASM workers health and safety need to be prioritized, especially in Colombia, yet they face a range of gender-based considering that women require specialized sexual barriers and inequalities, earning less than men for and reproductive health care. Overall, the respon- the same roles, exposed to gender-based violence, dent countries in the 2023 State of the Sector and often excluded from mining associations and Survey have included gender as part of their ASM cooperatives—leaving them unable to access formal development strategies. But, for ASM development markets. To overcome this, ARM supported a group efforts to increase gender parity in the sector, inter- of women miners to organize and become formally ventions must carefully encourage equal participa- recognized as a miner collective, leading to the tion and seek to address the needs of women. The creation of ASOMUSELUPAZ. Through becoming findings of the survey also highlight the need for the legally recognized as a group, ASOMUSELUPAZ capacity and financial ability to support, monitor, increased their legitimacy with state entities, creating and enforce a gender-responsive approach for the collective identity to represent them and participate sustainable development of the ASM sector. END NOTES sector”. Retrieved from: https:// nl/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/ Kenya”. Retrieved from: https:// internationalwim.org/wp-content/ Mobile_Migrant_Population_ assets.ctfassets.net/rrirl83ijfda/ 1 See informational poster produced uploads/2021/06/gender-issues-in- Study_Suriname-Summary-1.pdf NDxPfSo4GuCMvgzVgDbVY/0bbce by the NGO Solidaridad (2022) the-artinsanal-and-small-scale-min- 8fe0ba4c10ce9804ee3844ef8cc/ ‘Procedure for Acquiring a Small ing-sector.pdf 8 UNECA. n.d. “Ghana ASM Profile”. Women_in_Artisanal_Mining_in_ Scale Mining License’: https://www. Retrieved from: https://knowledge. 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Retrieved from: https:// www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/ Sector. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. uploads/2016/09/USAID_Land_ internationalwim.org/wp-content/ en/f?p=1000:11300:0::NO:113 Tenure_World_Bank_2016_ASM_ uploads/2021/11/ASM-Sierra- 7 Heemskerk, M, Jacobs, E and 00:P11300_INSTRUMENT_ID:312190 Guinea.pdf Leone.pdf Pratley, P. n.d. “MOBILE MIGRANT 3 USAID. 2020. “Gender issues in the POPULATION STUDY SURINAME”. 10 Kenya Land Alliance. n.d. 13 Gerig, L, Ndagano, P, Schneck, N artisanal and small-scale mining Retrieved from: https://www.kit. “Women in Artisanal mining in and Hoex. L. n.d. “Delve country 42 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive profile: Tanzania”. Retrieved from: Conteh, S. (2015) Protecting women’s Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, UNITAR (2017). Handbook, Developing https://delvedatabase.org/uploads/ land rights in Sierra Leone’s draft Minerals, Metals and Sustainable National ASGM Formalization resources/Delve-Country-Profile- National Land Policy, Namati. Retrieved Development (IGF). (2018). Women Strategies within National Action Tanzania.pdf from: https://namati.org/news-stories/ in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining: Plans. UN Environment, Global protecting-womens-land-rights-in-sier- Challenges and opportunities for Mercury Partnership, UNITAR: 14 Herlusia, S, Ndagano, P and greater participation. Winnipeg: IISD. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/ ra-leones-draft-national-land-policy. Schneck, N. n.d. “Delve country handle/20.500.11822/26437/ profile: Indonesia”. Retrieved from: Côté, G. (2020). Toolkit: Gender Impact McLennan, S. (2021) Women in Papua formalization_handbook. https://delvedatabase.org/uploads/ Assessments for Projects and Policies New Guinea are suffering an epidemic pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y resources/Delve-Country-Profile- Related to Artisanal and Small-Scale of violence - the government must act, Indonesia_2.pdf Mining - International Women in Mining Human Rights Watch. Retrieved from: World Bank (2009). Mining together: (IWiM). [online] International Women in https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/01/ Large-scale mining meets artisanal 15 Moretti, D., & Garrett, N. (2018). women-papua-new-guinea-are-suf- mining. A guide for action. Washington, Mining (IWiM). Artisanal and small-scale mining fering-epidemic-violence-govern- DC: World Bank. governance: The ‘emerging issue’ De Haan, J., Dales, K., McQuilken, ment-must-act. of ‘unregulated mining’ in Lao PDR. J., (2020). Mapping Artisanal and World Bank. 2022. Women, In K. 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Retrieved from: https://www.statista. (2020). Maternal exposure to arsenic and date) Defining sexual health, World com/statistics/270209/countries-with- mercury and associated risk of adverse 17 Javia, I and Siop, P. 2010. “Paper on Health Organization. World Health the-highest-global-hiv-prevalence. birth outcomes in small-scale gold mining Challenges and Achievements on Organization. Retrieved from: https:// communities in Northern Tanzania. Small scale mining a Gender. Papua Freudenberger, M., Ali, S., Fella, T., www.who.int/teams/sexual-and-re- Environment international, 137, 105450. New Guinea” Retrieved from: https:// and Pennes, S. (2011). Property rights productive-health-and-research/ sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/ and artisanal mining: Clarifying and OECD (2021), SIGI 2021 Regional key-areas-of-work/sexual-health/ statements/presentation_javia.pdf Report for Africa, Social Institutions and defining-sexual-health. strengthening rights: options for policy Gender Index, OECD Publishing, Paris, 18 ILO. 2020. “Artisanal and small- makers. Property Rights and Resource World Health Organization. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1787/a6d95d90-en. scale gold mining baseline report: Governance Briefing Paper, 14. Environmental and occupational health Camarines Norte and South Ofosu, G., Torbor, M., Sarpong, D., hazards associated with artisanal and Gelbspan, T., & Nagaraj, V. K. Cotabato”. Retrieved from: https:// (2022). Gender and artisanal and small-scale gold mining. (2012). Seeding Hope? Land in www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ small-scale mining: Exploring women’s the International Human Rights   public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo- livelihood and occupational roles in Agenda: Challenges and Prospects. manila/documents/publication/ formalised settings. Journal of Rural Retrieved from: https://www.escr-net. wcms_754840.pdf Studies, v96, p.121-128. org/sites/default/files/c828ff98b- 19 The 2023 report uses the term 088f34a2a7ad2458e7574e3/ Rustad, Siri Aas; Gudrun Østby & gender-based violence (GBV) to ESCR-Net%20Publication%20 Ragnhild Nordås (2016) Does Artisanal include sexual acts of violence, Seeding%20Hope%20Land%20in%20 Mining Increase the Risk of Sexual noting that sexual and gender- the%20International%20Human%20 Violence? Micro-level evidence from based violence (SGBV) is often used Rights%20Agenda%20_ENG.pdf. Eastern Congo, Quality in Primary Care interchangeably with the term GBV. 24(2): 77–80. 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(Accessed: April 19, 2023). Bangkok: ILO. Asuako, J. (2020) Women’s partic- UNIDO. (2015). Guide on Gender ipation in decision making: Why it International Labour Organization Mainstreaming Environmental matters: United nations development (2021). Women in mining: Towards Management Projects. Vienna: programme, UNDP. Retrieved from: gender equality. rep. Retrieved from: UNIDO. Retrieved from https://www. https://www.undp.org/ghana/news/ https://www.ilo.org/sector/Resources/ unido.org/sites/default/files/2015-02/ women%E2%80%99s-participation-de- publications/WCMS_821061/lang--en/ Gender_Environmental_Management_ cision-making-why-it-matters. index.htm Projects_0.pdf State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 43 CASE STUDY #1 Credit: AMATAF and Pure Earth, 2020 INCREASING THE PRESENCE OF WOMEN IN ALLUVIAL MINING IN PERU: THE CASE OF MADRE DE DIOS AUTHORS: Olinda Orozco Zevallos1 and Guadalupe Eto Chero1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Instituto Redes de Desarrollo Social (RED SOCIAL) INTRODUCTION This case study from the Department of Madre de Dios (MDD) in the Peruvian Amazon reveals the flaws of the state’s institutional framework in the face of uncontrolled growth of informal and illegal mining, which unequally impacts the lives of MDD women and men. Approaching this case study from a gender perspective exposes the participation of women miners in the formalization process and demonstrates how unique geography and the leadership of women in social and environmental responsibility initiatives can propel them towards greater representation in a formalized ASM sector. The research (Prevenir-USAID- Red Social, 2021) was carried out between August– November 2020 and its results were presented in early 2021. Secondary studies were used as well as official information and statistics from the Ministry of Energy. The primary data was collected through interviews (via video calls due to COVID-19 health restrictions) with women leaders and members of mining concessions, producer and union leaders, consultants, specialists, and state officials. 44 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive Increasing the visibility of women and minerals where alluvial mining occurs in open miners in MDD spaces allowing for operations to be observed and picked up easier. Women are also favored in Studies on ASM in Peru have focused primarily on the leadership roles in the social and environmental role of miners as producers, rights holders, workers, responsibility of the pilot reforestation programs traders, and suppliers in economic, legal, technical, and the use of clean processing technologies such environmental, and social interactions. The results as gravimetric plants. are valuable, but the studies have not taken gender into consideration, which has hidden the presence This trend portrays a new vision of socially and envi- of women in the ASM gold value chain. ronmentally responsible ASM, which helps change the face of Amazonian mining and promote strate- Although some studies have addressed the social gies to eradicate illegal mining practices in MDD. problems of women in ASM as victims of trafficking and sexual exploitation and what their rights are, this study highlights the prominence and leadership of A CALL FOR A BETTER USE OF LIMITED RESOURCES women artisanal miners. According to the Ministry With the state focusing on attacking the effects from of Mines’ MDD Mining Formalization Information illegal mining and not its causes, their actions are Registry database (MINEM, 2020), women make up more limited to addressing the victims of trafficking 30% of the formalized concession holders. Likewise, and sexual exploitation, while women miners who it shows that of the total 9,520 legal persons in the fight for formalization and feel threatened by illegal formalization process, 30% are women—placing mining appear ignored. MDD as the leading department in Peru in terms in terms of percentage of women who are concession The National government has prioritized tempo- holders in the country’s ASM sector. rary military operations against illegal mining in MDD with minimal achievements, to the detriment Among the factors that explain this high statistic of institutional and budgetary support for the ASM is the Amazonian geography with accessible soils formalization process. Between 2014 and 2019, 364 Women from the AMATAF artisanal mining association involved in a reforestation pilot Credit: AMATAF and Pure Earth, 2020 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 45 million Brazilian soles were spent on these military women in mining is also attributable to the geog- operations with limited results, while the Regional raphy that allows for easier access to resources and Directorate of Energy and Mines of the MDD received a production cycle that is easy to learn. only 0.5 million soles per year to manage the entire formalization process (Prevenir-USAID- Red Social, Formalized women miners are employing respon- 2021). This imbalance needs to be rectified. sible mining practices, including pilot programs to use clean technologies and aid in the recovery of degraded areas. In addition, female leadership enhanced by the association of producers gives Conclusion women the potential to improve responsible mining There is a growing role for women miners in Madre rates in the region and effective state policies could de Dios, which is evidenced by the fact that women further strengthen the role women play in combat- are owners of one in three operations belonging ting illegality in the sector. In particular, the govern- to private citizens and partners in one in four oper- ment needs to better allocate available resources. ations belonging to legal entities. The number of There is still a need for more studies with a gender approach to identify needs, interests, and demands AMATAF Clean Technologies Center in MDD, Peru of women. This will strengthen the representation and leadership of women in managing mining sites, Credit: AMATAF and Pure Earth, 2020 exercising their rights to equality and decision making, and in their communities. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ALUVIAL: Visibilizando la presencia de la Mujer en la Minería Aluvial de Madre We want to thank the Prevent Project— de Dios: Un reto para las políticas USAID/DAI that financed this study. públicas de la MAPE. Producido por Red Social para el Proyecto Prevenir REFERENCES de USAID. Lima: Prevenir.Usaid. MINEM. (2020). Registro de Información de la DGFM. Lima: Ministerio de Energía y Minas. Prevenir-USAID- Red Social. (2021). Informe final GÉNERO Y MINERÍA 46 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive CASE STUDY #2 Credit: Kgothatso Nhlengetwa FORMALIZATION AND GENDER: LESSONS FROM THE DIAMOND ASM KIMBERLEY CASE IN SOUTH AFRICA AUTHORS: Kgothatso Nhlengetwa1 and Michelle Lillian–May Goliath2 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Imbokodo Mining Services, 2Women in Artisanal Scale Mining (WIASM) INTRODUCTION This case study presents the experiences of women in the only ASM project to formalize in South Africa. A longitudinal action research study was conducted between 2017 and 2021 that resulted in the issuance of two permits. The process involved collaboration between government, unregulated miners, the Department of Mineral Resources and Energy (DMRE), a large-scale mine, the local government municipality, a social housing company, and one of the authors of this case study. The co-researched process aimed to attain a permit through social justice activism and a unique “dummy application” process, which used Section 104 of the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA, 2002) through a special consent by the Minister of Mineral Resources and Energy to award a five-hectare permit to the primary cooperative, Bathopele Primary Mining Cooperative, in 2018. An initial five-hectare portion came from the municipality and additional land was transferred, with rights, by the Ekapa Mining-Kem JV (a large- scale mining joint venture). A tripartite agreement was used to direct the process and included rules and negotiated terms of engagement. This unique approach was necessary because South Africa had no policy on artisanal mining at the time and the legal framework for small-scale mining was through the DMRE permitting system. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 47 The study also tracked 159 women out of a group Moving up the value chain: of 3,000 artisanal miners. The experiences of the opportunities and barriers women in this project offer South Africa a perspective on gender in artisanal mining, an understanding of the During 2019, gender mainstreaming in the project unique vulnerabilities of women, and how to ensure included focused empowerment training, particu- they are included in future ASM policy and legislation, larly gemstone evaluation training, at the Kimberley as current policy is completely gender blind. Diamond and Jewelry Academy (KIDJA). This opportunity exposed women to the possibilities of trading directly with registered cutters and polishers as well as entering the jewelry making industry. The Women’s participation in the project process included evaluating linkages to the tourism Disaggregated data was collected on active women sector, where women organized their own diamond miners in Kimberley between 2016 and 2021 (Figure mining tours. 8). In 2016 and 2017 a total of 56 women were ille- gally mining in Kimberley according to data from a This intervention allowed some women to leave court list that was compiled when miners registered the mining fields and enter other areas of the value to be formalized with the DMRE. Of this list, only 13 chain. During this time, linkages were established women completed the formalization process in 2018, to the international jewelry market, which indi- one of which was elected to Primary Cooperative cated interest in buying all the “salt and pepper” Management. After the permits were obtained, an ethically sourced natural diamonds from Kimberley additional 125 women registered with the cooper- that would be marketed for their perceived unique- ative to mine legally and continued to mine during ness, affordability, and the fact that they contribute 2019. A combination of factors such as COVID-19, to sustainability by extending diamond resources. alternative employment, and on-site violence, saw Unfortunately, due to COVID-19, many women left 101 women leave active mining towards the end of the site and those who remained were unable to 2020. Of the original group, at the time of writing, no produce sufficient diamonds at scale for interna- women miners are currently actively mining. tional trade. FIGURE 6. Active women miners per annum Bathopele Cooperative—Women members by cohort 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 – Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Number of (active members; incl. (new members) (new members) (new members) women members Unregulated and Formalized exiting project group 1 from ’16/’17) 2016/2017 2019 2020 2021 48 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive Women artisanal mining day tour Beef Master Camp, Kimberley Credit: Conrad Goliath It should be noted that male artisanal miners overall Conclusion expressed that gender mainstreaming was a type of favoritism and was unfair to largely vulnerable The project presents mixed results. Although most groups. Women on the other hand felt they could women exited the diamond ASM field, many went escape dangerous situations by finding employ- into the mainstream economy and ASM provided ment in other segments of the value chain and were a foundation for them to do so. The project in excited by the prospects of jewelry making, rough Kimberley was formalized through a unique collab- evaluation, and trade. Women also performed oration of stakeholders and although successful various additional tasks such as sieve construction from a legal perspective, the women who started and repair to supplement their incomes. the process are no longer active. This suggests that the project in its initial structure was unsustainable Further artisanal mining-related training was offered for women’s participation. by the DMRE, however the minimum entrance require- ments to participate in the training was a barrier to The authors propose that for future formalization initia- broad scale participation by women due to their lower tives, women should play a more active role in the formal education levels. To overcome this barrier, arti- design of the project and in leadership levels of coop- sanal miners sent their unemployed children who met eratives. To improve sustainability, it is recommended the minimum education levels to the training. that the education levels of artisanal miners be taken into account for development and training and that training be developed uniquely for women in ASM. Women construct sieves for additional income The current ASM policy is silent on the gender dynamics of ASM and the Kimberley diamond ASM example should be taken as evidence-based research input into the legal framework to be set up by the DMRE. Credit: Daniel Limpitlaw ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES Thanks to the Bathopele Artisanal Goliath, M.L.M, 2022. “Urban Mining Primary Cooperative, the Pacifications and Solutions: Towards a South Africa National Association Contested Space Theory of Artisanal of Artisanal Miners, the University Mining” (unpublished thesis) of the Free State, and all women in Court List of Illegal Diamond Miners, Credit: Kgothatso Nhlengetwa artisanal mining. June 2017. DMRE State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 49 CASE STUDY #3 Credit: Women in Mining in Nigeria CAPACITY TRAINING AS A SPRINGBOARD TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA’S MINING SECTOR AUTHORS: Olusola Olaniyi1 and Janet Adeyemi2 ORGANIZATION(S): 1Berillos Proconsultants, 2Women in Mining in Nigeria INTRODUCTION In Nigeria, women make up approximately 14% of the country’s mining workforce (NEITI, 2020). This case study shows the importance of educating and empowering women and girls in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) communities using capacity training as a springboard to bridge the gender inequality gap in the ASM workforce and coach girls for the sustainable development of mineral resources in Nigeria. In particular, the case study highlights how improving gender equality in ASM can help achieve SDG 5 target 5.1 to end discrimination against women and girls by making mining more accessible to women and actively supporting their inclusion and participation in the ASM sector and target 5.5 to ensure women’s full effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership in political, economic, and public life. The use of digital platforms also showcases how target 5.b to enhance the use of ICT to promote women’s empowerment can be supported in ASM development projects. 50 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive Engaging women and girls by a range of participants including Women in The Women in Mining Training Institute (WIMTI) was Mining members, ASM community members, established in 2021 by Women in Mining in Nigeria resource persons, policy makers, professionals, (WIMIN) to provide continuous capacity training for extractive industry experts, economists, business women miners in Nigeria, and especially those in coaches and leaders, as well as potential miners. ASM. The institute’s Girls for Mining (G4M) club was WIMIN’s research on gender justice and gender created to introduce mining as career path for girls mainstreaming, funded by the Ford Foundation and young women in secondary and tertiary educa- and the Open Society Initiative for West Africa tion. Both initiatives aim to increase the involvement (OSIWA), gave birth to the Girls for Mining (G4M) of women and girls in mining-related peer learning, Club, launched on March 8, 2022, in Abuja, Nigeria, training, and specialized knowledge transfer, to mark International Women’s Day with 51 girls providing them with a strong foundation to enhance inducted as inaugural members. The initiative their technical skills. This focus on skill develop- encourages the next generation of girls to embrace ment is intended to foster wealth creation and drive mining and science, technology, engineering, and long-term performance improvements, ultimately mathematics (STEM)-related courses and exposes contributing to decreasing the gender inequality them to opportunities in the extractive industry and gap in the country’s ASM sector and helping to better prepares them for the future. achieve SDG 5 targets 5.1 and 5.5. Specific training themes include responsible methods and practices Nigeria’s Minister of Mines and Steel Development of mining, gender issues, justice, leadership, and (MMSD) in his speech at the launch of G4M, said, the economics and business of mining. “Gender inequality is one of the many challenges preventing the mining industry from reaching its full WIMTI launched its monthly online training classes potential. While Nigerians understand that gender in July 2021 targeting women artisanal small-scale inequality in the mining industry is a deep-seated miners with attendees from both across Africa issue, the time to make the industry more inclusive and around the globe. This regular online school for both genders is now and not when the country continues to grow and it is also being attended has advanced.” The winner of the quiz during a launch receives a Lenovo laptop Credit: Women in Mininig in Nigeria State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 51 FIGURE 7. Training sessions organized by Women in Mining Training Institute Maiden Edition: Digital Training WIMTI January 2023 Class WIMTI Class March 2023 Series A1 Embracing the future Map of Nigeria Showing G4M Presence FIGURE 8. Mining is characterized by constant changes but and Number of Student Members in Six States most importantly, it is a key driver in this new era. With the Fourth Industrial Revolution fast-tracked by the COVID-19 pandemic, every sector of the economy is going through drastic digital technological changes. WIMIN saw the pressing need to close the gender divide and is leveraging digital channels to do so. As envisioned, WIMTI has turned to a virtual knowledge hub in line with the new global digital transformations and innovations. Recently, WIMTI online training focused on the theme of the 2023 International Women’s Day Celebration, “DigitALL: Innovation and technology for gender equality” (UN Women). The WIMTI Class in March 2023 (Figure 7) Source: vemaps.com focused on three topics: the role of digitization in the mining sector, the use of software in the digita- lization of mining in Nigeria, and why women must embrace the digital loop. During this training, participants were informed that digitalization has the potential to bring about modern transformative changes, create new oppor- tunities, as well as open a plethora of doors for job efficiency and professional growth. The trainees gained greater insights into emerging technologies in the mining sector and that with digital, remote, and virtual jobs the future of ASM is looking brighter, especially for women and girls. Although the full effects from digitalization are uncertain, women 52 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive artisanal and small-scale miners and girls in ASM Conclusion communities have hope for improved environmental While progress is being made, further research and protection and better workplace health and safety. the collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated data on the ASM and large-scale mining sector in G4M now has a robust program including real- Nigeria is needed to provide a robust evidence- time orientations, local and international exchange base of women’s skills and capacity needs in the programs, trainings, coaching, and mentoring by sector. Furthermore, investment in the form of ASM experts and experienced professionals. Ten funding, grants, and sponsorships are needed for girls in 10 different schools, totaling 100 per state the sustainability of initiatives such as WIMTI and across ASM communities in Nigeria, are being taken G4M because many women artisanal and small- through intensive personalized guidance to build their scale miners and girls in ASM communities may not knowledge and skills, confidence, and professional be able to afford the costs of paid training sessions. networks in readiness for future livelihoods in mining. WIMIN through WIMTI and G4M is successfully Figure 8 shows G4M currently has a presence in six utilizing capacity training as a springboard to states: Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Taraba, Plateau, encourage and help women in ASM and girls in Osun, Ebonyi and Ekiti, while Edo is set for launching. ASM communities improve their knowledge, skills, and choice of education for better livelihoods. G4M To encourage participation, inspiration, and was set up to help young girls understand mining, generate excitement, participants receive a school build capacity, address human rights issues, and bag at each state’s launch and the winner of a quiz bridge the generational and gender gaps. At the competition receives a laptop. The program is G4M launch, Janet Adeyemi observed that, “low helping young women visualize their future in the participation of women is due to lack of education mining sector, thereby enhancing gender inclusion. and stringent cultural barriers. With enlightenment and more educated young women coming into the “The G4M club is nice and I am happy to join. sector, those barriers can be broken, and we can I know a geologist studies the earth…I would more quickly achieve equality in the sector.” like to be a miner in the future.” – FAVOR BALA (G4M MEMBER) Credit: Daniel Limpitlaw ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Abuja. Retrieved from: https://www. Nkechi Isaac. (2022). #IWD2022: Women in Mining in Nigeria. (2022). premiumtimesng.com/news/more- Gender Inequality Bane of Mining 2022 International Women’s Day and The authors acknowledge the news/516543-mining-group-launches- Industry - Adegbite: As WIMIN launches Launch of G4M Club. Retrieved from: collaboration by WIMIN with the Ford girl-child-initiative-in-nigeria.html?tztc=1 G4M to mentor young girls. From https://wimng.org/press_news/?id=p_2 Foundation, OSIWA, Solid Minerals Science Nigeria,: https://scienceni- Development Fund (SMDF), and MMSD McQuilken, J, Perks, R. (2020). 2020 Women in Mining in Nigeria. (2022). geria.com/iwd2022-gender-inequali- Press release WIMIN to launch G4M in on gender justice and mainstreaming State of the Artisianal and Small-Scale ty-bane-of-mining-industry-adegbite/ three additional states. Retrieved from: that led to the formation of G4M. Also Mining Report. (The World Bank, thanks to Berillos Proconsultants, the Extractive Global Programmatic United Nations. (2022). Sustainable https://wimng.org/w/press-release- interviewees, and the contributions Support, Pact). Delve. Retrieved from: Development Goals Report – Goal wimin-to-launch-g4m-in-three-addi- from presenters and attendees in https://delvedatabase.org/uploads/ tional-states/ 5: Achieve gender equality and WIMTI classes. resources/Delve-2020-State-of-the- empower all women and girls. Women in Mining Training Institute Sector-Report-0504.pdf Retrieved from https://www. (WIMTI). (2023). Retrieved from: https:// REFERENCES Nathan, S, Ndagano, P, and Olaniyi, un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ wimng.org/w/wimti/ O. (2021). Delve Country Profile: gender-equality/ Alahira, H. A. (2014). Berom Women Nigeria - Artisanal and Small-scale Vemaps. (2019). Outline Map of and Colonial Mining Enterprises, Jos Mining Sector. The World Bank, Nigeria with States: Free Vector Maps. Plateau. Impact: International Journal Extractive Global Programmatic Retrieved from Download fully editable of Research in Humanities, Arts and Support & Pact, Delve - A Global Outline Map of Nigeria with States. Literature., Vol. 2 (Issue 9), 87-96. Platform for Artisanal and Small-scale Retrieved from: https://www.pinterest. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/ Mining Data. Retrieved from: https:// com/pin/618330223817473873/ details/11.HumanitiesBeromWomen delvedatabase.org/uploads/resources/ AndColonialTinMiningEnterprise Nigeria-Country-Profile_final_1.0.pdf WIM (UK) and PwC. (2020). Mining for Dr.H.A.Alahira/page/n1/mode/2up Talents: A Study of Women on Boards NEITI. (2020). Solid Minerals Industry Azamfirei, L. (Ed.). (2016). Knowledge in the Mining Industry. Retrieved April Audit Report. Abuja: Prepared by Is Power. The Journal of Critical Care 2023, from https://internationalwim.org/ Amedu Onekpe & Co (Chartered Medicine., 2 (2), 65. wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Mining- Accountants). Retrieved from: https:// for-talent-FINAL-report-20131.pdf Dairo, F. (2022). Mining: Group eiti.org/sites/default/files/attachments/ launches girl-child initiative in Nigeria. final_neiti_2020_sma_report_-_03- Women in Mining in Nigeria (WIMIN). Nigeria, Premium Times Nigeria. 01-2022.pdf (2023). Retrieved from https://wimng.org/ State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 53 CASE STUDY #4 Credit: Muhammad Shah Jaman, iStock THE NECESSARY NEXT STEP IN SIERRA LEONE’S EFFORTS TO MAINSTREAM GENDER INTO ASM FORMALIZATION AUTHORS: Andrew Keili1 ORGANIZATION(S): 1Cemmats Group Ltd. INTRODUCTION Attempts at formalization in the Sierra Leonean mining sector have been few with women given limited consideration. However, broader laws and regulations are now empowering women, including those in the ASM sector. Here, we make the case that the time has come for Sierra Leone to make progress on both formalization and gender equality in ASM. This case study demonstrates how reforms to national laws can promote gender equality in ASM and help achieve SDG target 5.a to undertake reforms to give equal economic rights to women, and 5.c to adopt and strengthen policies and legislation to promote gender equality and women and girls’ empowerment. 54 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive Sierra Leone’s ASM sector it succeeded in meeting some of its objectives, the Diamonds, often associated with Sierra Leone’s project was discontinued and did not lead to the mining sector, were first “discovered” and mined significant market, governance, or gender balance commercially as artisanal operations in the eastern impacts that were envisioned for the sector. part of the country in the 1930s. Today, artisanal mining occurs in more than half of the country’s 190 chiefdoms. Primarily diamonds and gold are mined, Women’s role in Sierra Leone’s though some coltan and zircon are mined using ASM sector artisanal methods. Women sometimes take higher-paid roles and lead- It is estimated that artisanal diamond and gold ership positions as mine owners and site managers mining, and related livelihood activities, support at in Sierra Leone’s artisanal mining industry. Some least 300,000 Sierra Leoneans and that upwards hold licenses and financially support operations. of 10% of the population are supported by artisanal The Baseline Study on Artisanal Mining indicated diamond and gold mining. The Baseline Study on that women play an important role in supporting Artisanal Mining, funded by the World Bank and mining, especially in gold. The survey found that 17% carried out by Levin Sources and Cemmats Group of those involved in site management were women, (2021) estimates, from export and extrapolated with half of them serving as project supporters, espe- survey data, that Sierra Leone’s annual artisanal cially in gold mining. The same study indicated that production of diamonds is between 180,000 and while representing around 30% of the work force, 200,000 carats. In 2018, the value paid for these women collectively only produce a little more than stones at the miner level was approximately $27 16% of the gold that men produce, 363 kg of gold million, or about 40% of the value at export of versus 2,171 kg. The production estimate shows that $65 million. The same study estimates that Sierra women are likely excluded from more productive Leone’s annual gold production is approximately assets, tools, and roles. Women serve as washers/ 3 metric tons, representing about 2.6 tons of pure panners and transporters and play important roles gold. Based on the average sales price at the time as auxiliary actors, notably as cooks, food sellers, of the study, this production was sold by miners and vendors of consumer goods. for $86.7 million. The export data however shows that only around 4% of unrefined produced gold Notwithstanding their participation in the sector, is exported legally with the rest smuggled. Given women face severe challenges due to many factors these figures, formalization is imperative for the that include poor and unequal access to land, lack country’s development. of skills training, inappropriate technology, func- tional literacy problems, and a lack of marketing and finance skills. The difficulties of formalization Hilson, Maconachie and Kieli (2016) largely attri- Legislative progress in Sierra Leone bute the slow progress of formalization in Sierra Leone’s ASM sector to the “large scale mining An area where Sierra Leone has made progress to bias” of the government. Many formalization inter- empower women, broadly and in ASM, is in legisla- ventions in the ASM sector, largely donor-funded tion. To reflect the commitment of the government or driven by private interests, have floundered in meeting global obligations, legislative reforms for various reasons. One example is the Peace in critical areas have been enacted, as required Diamond Alliance (PDA) initiative that was initiated by the Convention on the Elimination of all forms by USAID in 2002 to address issues relating to of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). In the formation of mining cooperatives, financing addition to the 2007 Gender Laws, the Sexual artisanal mining operations, and the fair trade of Offences Act was also passed in 2012. Select laws diamonds produced by artisanal miners. Although are outlined below. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 55 TABLE 4. Laws increasing women’s empowerment in Sierra Leone Law Purpose Domestic Violence Act (2007) Addresses all types of violence in a domestic setting. Devolution of Estates Act Provides protection for women in terms of land and estate inheritance in the event (also known as the “Intestate that her spouse dies intestate (without a will). Succession Act”) (2007) Registration of Customary Outlines a framework for registering customary marriages and divorces, which Marriages and Divorces Act (2009) provides further economic and legal protection for women. The Sexual Offences Act (2012) Provides a clear framework for addressing sexual violence crimes. A new Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment tutions required collateral. They supplemented their Act promulgated in 202312 seeks to increase earnings by performing gardening services. the number of women in leadership and decision making positions, aiming for women to hold 30% of “We have difficulty saving as we contribute positions in elective office and appointment posi- to our “Osusu” scheme. It is impossible to tions. This act therefore supports the aims of the access loans as financial institutions require revised 2018 Artisanal Mining Policy7 designed to collateral, often in the form of submitting formalize ASM operations to be legally compliant a house plan. We find this impossible. and to improve access to finance. The policy Although six of us in our group have acknowledges the fact that women have dynamic husbands, they are farmers and cannot help roles in artisanal mining operations including as with accessing loans.” license holders, diggers, panners, cooks, and – CHOCONDE MEMBER. mineral traders and that some women are engaged in mining but also play roles in mineral trading Access to credit for ASM is very difficult. Banks in and local farming. The policy states that female Sierra Leone charge punitive interest rates and participation will be promoted and opportunities are reluctant to fund projects in the mining sector for capacity building and formalization pursued. It (especially the ASM subsector) because of inherent advocates for ASM business planning to be given uncertainties with geology, grades, production, prominence and for ASM business structures to be and the lack of collateral. set up. These structures will require finance. A lack of cooperation The difficulties of finance A host of women’s rights and empowerment orga- A survey carried out by Cemmats in 2021 on a women’s nizations have appeared over the past decade, organization with 33 members called Choconde including the 50:50 organization and SEND Sierra (meaning “good dream”) indicated that their average Leone that have given increased confidence to earnings per month was very low and they had women to combat discrimination of various sorts. problems saving money. They however contributed This needs to be replicated in various forms in ASM. to an Osusu scheme (saving centrally and donating proceeds to one person at a time on a rotational Despite formal attempts at organizing miners in basis). They had no supporter outside the group and cooperatives or associations, these groups are found it impossible to access loans as financial insti- few and far between and can fail due to a range 56 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive of internal, external, and cooperative design factors equipment that can be rented out and serve as (Levin and Turay, 2008). There are informal arrange- a source of income. A collective of women may ments whereby female miners pool resources also be assisted in providing cooking services together either with their own funds or with funds or participating in post-mining reclamation from financial supporters for mining. Such schemes activities are neither organized nor pervasive. 2. Women’s associations and networks must be In the Baseline Study on Artisanal Mining, only 4% supported by government funding and training of those interviewed said they were part of a coop- and encouraged to hold governments to erative or association. Upon further investigation, account on legislative and regulatory gender many of these groups appeared to be informal provisions. A formal network for women in self-help groups or “pre-cooperatives” rather than mining should be created similar to the Malawi organizations that collectively represent miner’s Women in Mining Association (MAWIMA), interests or share in risk and reward. which acts as a direct link to local government and government departments responsible for mining. There are similar groups in Ghana, The moment to promote the Rwanda, Tanzania, and Kenya, yet Sierra Leone has not advanced to this stage. Organizations association of women in ASM is now that already exist, such as the Women on Attempts at formalization in Sierra Leone’s mining Mining and Extractives (WoME), a national NGO sector have mainly been restricted to pilot projects, that works in mining communities with women which have failed to take root. There are however and young people to raise awareness, build opportunities to markedly improve upon this by capacity, and advocate for women, could have encouraging more women to participate in the their role in governance and communication sector formally. Though national laws and regula- with government expanded. tions address a lot of the issues that would prevent women participating in the formalization of the 3. The government should encourage and even sector, there needs to be specific initiatives under- require, where appropriate, women’s partici- taken for the mining sector for their full benefits to pation in decision making. This could include be realized. The primary opportunities are through simple measures such as promoting women’s encouraging the formation of cooperatives and inclusion in site-level committees and ensuring providing them with routes to securing financing. their representation during wider stakeholder consultations for the ASM sector. The following recommendations are made for enhancing formalization for women miners: As shown by the successes of the Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM) project in Colombia 1. The government, through the Ministry of (case study #5), cooperatives and formalization go Mines and Mineral Resources and the National hand in hand with improving the standing of women Minerals Agency, should encourage the forma- and helping to increase the financial resources tion of mining cooperatives and associations available to them. Assisting this process is a natural and provide accessible guidance and funding next step for Sierra Leone’s government. to interested parties. The Mines Ministry does not presently fund such schemes. The govern- REFERENCES Keili, A. (2006). Encouraging compe- ment should however provide funding for tition and breaking the chains of the Adam Smith International in collabora- this or encourage the funding through rural tion with International Women in Mining bonded seller: How to introduce sustainable new forms of mining banks. Women’s enterprises and organizations (IWiM). (2017). Women in Mining: Can a mining law unlock the potential of finance. Paper presented at Diamonds should be promoted and supported. These women? for Development sub-regional confer- ence, Monrovia, Liberia. may include a collective of women panners Keili, A. (2001). The evolving diamond Keili, A. (2021). Personal notes – trade in Sierra Leone. Report presented to acquire a number of wash plants and other to Partnership Africa Canada. Meeting with women’s organization for State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 57 artisanal gold mining held at Nimikoro, Government of Sierra Leone. (2017). Gender Equality and Women’s Wamala, L. (2021). “In the Swamps of Kono District, Sierra Leone. Artisanal Mining Policy for Sierra Leone Empowerment Act Sierra Leone, Rural Women Plant Seeds of Peace”. Available from: https:// WFP, No date. “Strengthening Women’s Government of Sierra Leone. (2007). Levin, E. & Turay, B. (2008). Artisanal wfpwestafrica.medium.com/in-the- Cooperatives in Sierra Leone”. Domestic Violence Act Diamond Cooperatives in Sierra Leone: swamps-of-sierra-leone-rural-women- Retrieved from: https://www.fao.org/ Success or Failure? Government of Sierra Leone. (2007). plant-seeds-of-peace-e35677a8430c partnerships/resource-partners/ investing-for-results/news-article/ Devolution of Estates Act MICD. (No date). Access to Credit Levin Sources and Cemmats Group en/c/1148510/ Government of Sierra Leone. (2007). Unions for Communities to Embrace Limited. (2021). The Baseline Study on Registration of Customary Marriages and Promote Sustainable Development Artisanal Mining for Sierra Leone. Gavin Hilson, Roy Maconachie and Andrew K. Keili. (2016). Formalizing the and Divorce Act in Sierra Leone (ACCESS). Retrieved Network Movement for Justice and artisanal mining sector in Sierra Leone: from: https://micdp.coops4dev.coop/ Development. (2021). The challenges Government of Sierra Leone. (2012). An analysis of the policy, institutional project/access-credit-unions-commu- characterizing Sierra Leone’s artisanal Sexual Offences Act and regulatory challenges for the nities-embrace-and-promote-sustain- diamond mining sector and why the national minerals agency. Government of Sierra Leone. 2022. able-development-sierra-leone sector should be formalized. 58 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive CASE STUDY #5 Credit: ARM ASM FORMALIZATION TO PROMOTE WOMEN’S HUMAN RIGHTS IN COLOMBIA AUTHORS: María Kamila Gómez Colmenares1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM) INTRODUCTION In Suárez, a town and municipality in the Cauca Department of Colombia, an association of female artisanal miners (ASOMUSELUPAZ), together with the Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM), have worked to achieve formalization and mitigate the gender-based violence and discrimination to which they have been exposed. This case study describes the holistic approach this project has taken to empower women using formalization. The income gap between women and men in peripheral and dispersed rural areas in Colombia is almost twice as high as in the capital cities (16.4% versus 33.6%) (DANE, 2020). These areas with the poorest households also offer fewer services, increasing the vulnerability of the population, and due to persistent socioeconomic and gender inequalities in Colombia, rural women’s opportunities to escape poverty are limited. Artisanal mining in Colombia mostly occurs in peripheral and rural areas of the country affected by multidimensional problems, such as internal armed conflict, drug trafficking, and illegal exploitation, among others (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2022). State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 59 The mining sector in Colombia is highly masculin- This case study focuses on the case of subsis- ized with low participation of women as a result of tence mining in the Cauca Department. ARM has industry-wide gender gaps (Ministry of Mines and worked with a group of women miners in the region Energy, 2020). It is not easy to perform a compre- since 2017. Under the implementation of different hensive quantitative analysis because complete projects,3 they have sought to address to gender- data on the current labor conditions of women in based violence, responsible mining practices, envi- the ASM sector does not exist (Ministry of Mines ronmental issues, entrepreneurship, and social and and Energy, 2020). economic solidarity. These projects have allowed ARM to weave strong ties between women and According to the “Genesis” platform,1 in Colombia other key actors, mitigating risks and gender- women represent more than 50% of ASM workers based violence, and also responding to SDG 5 and (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2022). This activity Law 1257 of 20084 promoting a life free of violence allows them to generate an income to support against women. themselves and their families without requiring a high degree of technical skills. This is very important considering the precarious conditions The women miners’ experience and low access to formal jobs that women face in in Cauca, Colombia the mining sector. The municipality of Suarez is located in the south- However, women in the ASM sector are exposed to west of Colombia, in the region of Cauca, which constant sexual, economic, institutional, psycholog- is characterized by economic activities such as ical, and physical violence (Arcos and Rivera, 2019). mining and agriculture. Since 2017, as part of a Here are some examples illustrating that gender project implemented by ARM, a series of dialogues inequality cuts across many areas of women’s lives have been initiated with a group of women artis- on a daily basis: anal/subsistence miners who were located on the roadside or at the exit of the mine entrances and 1. Women in artisanal mining earn less than the who at that time, were not recognized as miners legal minimum wage2 (roughly US$123 dollars by the government nor by other small-scale miners. a month) (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2020). We experienced skepticism from external actors 2. Women are also typically in charge of children, while working with this group of women. There was sick and/or disabled people (Ministry of Mines an entrenched lack of trust due to the absence of and Energy, 2020) the state, the historical presence of several armed groups, and the general lack of actions guaran- 3. Women also dedicate more hours per week on teeing the rights of women miners in the region. For average to housework (Ministry of Mines and these reasons, ARM began their work with trust- Energy, 2022). building activities using participatory approaches. Together with women miners, a set of specific 4. Women are constantly exposed to gender- needs and concerns were identified and prioritized. based violence such as sexual harassment or abuse, mistreatment by members of their The group of women who chose to participate in family, colleagues, and others (Arcos and the project were characterized as follows: Rivera, 2019). - 80% of the women were mothers 5. Some women are not allowed to be part of and head of households organizations, associations and/or coopera- tives where they could have a voice and vote - 88% considered themselves victims or be recognized as miners (Ministry of Mines of armed conflict and Energy, 2020). 60 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive - 93% self-identify as black and/or Connecting to the formal market of Afro descent In the past, the women’s group worked between four and six days per week collecting minerals. - Their average age was between 25 and 59 However, they were marginalized by male miners years old (73%), with the group’s ages ranging and were not allowed to process their minerals on between 18 and 67 a daily basis, so they had to process their ore in very short shifts and on a specific day of the month, - The Illiteracy rate among them was 5.8% every 15 or 20 days. The main reason being they were not considered “real miners” due to the small - The main income-generating activity was amount of material they collected, ranging from mining for 93% of the group. Most did not work 3–14 grams per person. every day in this activity as they had to attend to unpaid household chores 50% of their time Another major challenge was they only had access to informal buyers who underpaid for their product. - None of the women reached the minimum wage Due to insufficient information provided by the in effect for 2017 in Colombia (Col$737,717/ women on the purity of the extracted mineral and month, or US$254/month for that year) fluctuations in the international price of gold, women received less than 70% of the international price, in - They had low access to financial entities (13%) comparison to men, who received better prices (Alliance for Responsible Mining, 2018) (Alliance for Responsible Mining, 2017; Alliance for Responsible Mining, 2020). Based on this context, and within the framework of one of the projects implemented by ARM, this In addition, a constant fear of commercializing oper- group of women “seleccionadoras” started the ations under formal schemes was identified due to process of creating an organizational scheme to be historical linkages to informal markets as well as recognized as a women’s miner collective. a lack of support towards formalizing subsistence mining in the territory (Alliance for Responsible Periodic meetings were held with the women Mining, 2020). Thus, support was given to help to discuss the importance of the association to the women mineral sorters connect to the formal generate actions to improve their quality of life. market through the necessary steps: (1) registration Workshops explored and strengthened their in the RUT,5 (2) registration in the RUCOM platform,6 knowledge and skills in relation to traceability (3) online registration in the “Sí Minero” platform,7 in the gold supply chain (showing it is ethically and (4) the opening of bank accounts8 (Alliance sourced), leadership, environmental management, for Responsible Mining, 2020); all of these steps marketing, and human rights. On September 11, were in compliance with the criteria established in 2017, the Association of Women Mineral Selectors the CRAFT Code (Code of Risk-mitigation for ASM and Peacebuilders (ASOMUSELUPAZ) was created engaging in Formal Trade). to make their work visible so they could be recog- nized as important stakeholders in the municipality. Although many formal gold buyers prefer not to source from subsistence miners due to the risks associated with the traceability of these minerals, the implementation of CRAFT increased the The process to formalization buyer’s confidence, interest, and commitment to be ASM formalization presents several challenges for involved (Alliance for Responsible Mining, 2020). As miners: the absence of state actors to engage with a result, establishing formal supply chains through local authorities, a lack of knowledge of mining stan- CRAFT led to a pilot sale in which the group of dards, and the necessary requirements to formalize women obtained a 20.8% increase in their final and commercialize operations. The following sections profits, which meant they received 92.48% of the detail the results of the group’s formalization process. international price. This allowed them to demon- State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 61 strate to their community the benefits of formaliza- To improve the conditions faced by the women tion and help change perceptions around it. miners in Cauca, ARM has helped improve gover- nance through strengthening leadership and “It has brought us benefits such as being on building relationships with strategic actors. As a a government platform (Genesis platform result, mining communities have been connected and bank access), where we can receive with key regional players to promote dialogue that economic assistance and be able to sell our can contribute to addressing the current needs in gold at a higher price when we can process the region. These plans were developed with the mercury-free gold.” input of multiple institutions (such as the Chamber – DIANA LUCUMI, (FEMALE ARTISANAL MINER of Commerce, the Secretary of Economic and FROM SUÁREZ CAUCA, COLOMBIA, 2023) Competitiveness Development, the Secretary of Mines, the Municipal Mayor’s Office of Suárez, the Suárez Mining Cooperative, and public universities) Governance and organizations working in the region, and the active participation of women in the association. One of the goals of the women’s group was to improve their visibility as female miners to increase During 2022, the last round of discussions had legitimacy with state entities. By going through the more than 50 attendees who were key stake- formalization process, encouraging the collective holders in the region. Those spaces opened up the identity of women miners, and strengthening their opportunity to activate institutional mechanisms knowledge in leadership and advocacy, the women to prevent gender-based violence and promote began to participate in dialogue on mining in the women’s participation in ASM. territory as active and relevant agents in municipal debates. “We have also been able to be seen, we are part of a fully constituted association with a “We can be part of calls for proposals from Chamber of Commerce and tax identification public and private entities, we have meet- number, and we are recognized. One of our ings with other women, and the opportunity colleagues was able to go to the OECD in to meet other key people to grow” Italy and demonstrate what artisanal mining – DIANA LUCUMI, (FEMALE ARTISANAL MINER is like, and we have been able to make FROM SUÁREZ CAUCA, COLOMBIA, 2023) ourselves known thanks to formalization.” – DIANA LUCUMI, (FEMALE ARTISANAL MINER FROM SUÁREZ CAUCA, COLOMBIA, 2023) BOX 2. Formalization in Colombia Human rights and gender Formalization is, in essence, the process that mining organizations must undertake, consid- The environment where the women miners live is ering their conditions, needs, and character- characterized by social structures impacting their istics, to be able to legally work on a mining daily lives where child labor, forced recruitment, site. This process requires the completion gender-based violence, absence or weakness of of technical and legal protocols such as the state, among other problems, are common and obtaining environmental and mining licenses represent latent social risks. given by the national authorities. In Colombia, the latest framework related to formaliza- As part of recognizing and applying due diligence tion processes is the Law 2052 of 2022. It and the CRAFT code, a series of spaces were created includes different strategies to help informal where women could identify the different types of miners transition to legal mining operations. violence they face, reflecting on their individual and collective situations. The result was the recognition of 62 Make mining laws and economic policies gender inclusive different types of physical, sexual, economic, institu- - Digital literacy and access to digital infra- tional, symbolic, and psychological violence that were structure: To register and formalize women common not only in mining but also in their daily lives. miners, entities often require email addresses and stable internet connections. Many miners The women earned an active voice on these issues are elderly women who do not have smart- in the territory, gaining recognition and partici- phones or computers due to low educational pating in the mining debate in the community and levels and access. Strategies should be used in national and international exchanges where they that do not discriminate and are suitable across articulated their efforts, needs, and achievements. generational and educational gaps. Another alternative is for institutions to offer training “The benefits are many, we are now empow- and support in the management of information ered women, women not afraid to face and communication technologies to facilitate the public, with the awareness that being this process. formalized and joining together is essential.” – DIANA LUCUMI, (FEMALE ARTISANAL MINER - Lack of clear information: There is a lack of FROM SUÁREZ CAUCA, COLOMBIA, 2023) clarity about the formalization process for both institutions and mining communities. It is essential Progress in mining formalization for women has to continue promoting inter-institutional commu- helped mitigate gender-based violence in the nication to promote standardized and accurate following ways: information as way to increase formalization. - Sexual violence: bringing light to gender-based - Financial literacy and access to financial violence has generated support networks to services: It has been identified that for formal prevent and seek mitigation strategies. sales, transactions through banks reduce risks, especially those related to the financing of illicit - Economic dependence: the identification economies. However, banks require certif- of violence has prompted women to seek icates that do not apply to artisanal miners, economic autonomy as a way out of the cycles demonstrating a lack of understanding of arti- of violence and ensure better living conditions sanal mining. Therefore, incentivizing financial for themselves and their families. institutions to become familiar with the formal- ization processes of subsistence mining will - Visibility of women miners: currently the allow for greater access to banking services women of the association are recognized by and contribute to risk mitigation. governmental entities, which has allowed them to promote the rights of women miners. Mining communities are often marked by a strong sexist culture that hinders and limits women’s - Internal governance: forming an association economic empowerment and access to opportu- has allowed them to move forward with formal- nities, negatively affecting their economic, social, ization processes and spread the message of political, and cultural rights. Due to these condi- good practices to other women in the territory. tions, there is scarce state presence, which leads to the normalization of different types of violence and human rights violations. To overcome these problems, it is necessary for the mining regulations Recommendations and key findings to continually reflect the experiences of women There are barriers that prevent women from miners, and thus contribute to the implementation achieving formalization that contribute to violence of actions within the framework of the subsistence against women. We suggest paying attention to the mining policy (2022) that mainstreams a gender following technical considerations when replicating perspective. The above recommendations should this exercise in other territories: be accompanied by advice, mercury-free technolo- State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 63 gies, adequate inputs and equipment, and organi- 7 This platform was replaced in 2020 Arcos, Ander, Rivera Guzmán, Estefanía zational processes that allow for the consolidation by Genesis. (2018). Brechas de género en la minería. La minería artesanal y de pequeña of actions aimed at sustainability and improving 8 The process was accompanied by escala colombiana desde una perspec- ARM at the headquarters of Banco gender equality. Agrario in the municipality of Suárez, tiva de género. Envigado (Antioquia): Alianza por la Minería Responsable, the only bank with a physical office. proyecto “Somos Tesoro”. While there is no explicit obligation “As miners and as an association, we need for banking in Colombian regula- tions, it is identified that for formal Diana Lucumi (2023) Woman miner by ASOMUSELUPAZ. Interview by ARM support. Support from government agencies, sales, transactions through banking Divaney Viveros (2023) Woman miner facilitates the reduction of money municipalities, and the country as a whole, laundering (ML) or terrorist financing by ASOMUSELUPAZ. Interview by ARM. (TF) risks, mainly those related to the that supports the mining sector and gives financing of illicit economies (Alliance Ministerio de Minas y Energía- MME. (2022). Política Pública para la minería more confidence to women, supports us for Responsible Mining, 2020). de Subsistencia en Colombia. in gender and human rights... They should REFERENCES Ministerio de Minas y Energía- MME. (2020). Lineamientos de género para strengthen us and help us grow, give us a Alliance for Responsible Mining. (2018). el sector minero energético. Con apoyo de Clúster Minero, Geotérmico hand, and help us move forward” Beneficiary and household characteri- zation report—Alliance for Responsible e Hidrocarburos Sector Infraestructura y Energía. Fondo Canadiense para el – DIANA LUCUMI, (FEMALE ARTISANAL MINER Mining (2018) Informe De Conformación Sector Extractivo CANEF; Programa De Grupo De Asociadas Del Consejo FROM SUÁREZ CAUCA, COLOMBIA, 2023) Comunitario Aganche “Asociación Global de Gobernanza Ambiental, EGP, PNUD. de Mujeres Seleccionadoras y Luchadoras por la Paz z del Municipio La República. (2022). Colombia es el This project demonstrates the power of a holistic de Suárez- ASOMUSELUPAZ”. octavo país con más poder adquis- itivo per cápita en América Latina. multi-stakeholder approach. ARM has been working Alliance for Responsible Mining. (2018). Beneficiary and household charac- Publicado en Agosto 11 del 2022 Disponible en: https://www.larepublica. with banking institutions, public entities, and other terization report—Suárez, Cauca, Colombia. Project financed by EPRM. co/globoeconomia/colombia-es-el-oc- tavo-pais-con-mas-poder-adquisitivo- organizations that impact the mining sector. The Alliance for Responsible Mining. per-capita-en-america-latina-3422492 achievements are interrelated as association de-risks (2020). Estudio de caso: La experiencia en los municipios de Suárez y El DANE. (2022). Comunicado de Prensa. formalization, and formalization increases economic Tambo. Departamento de Cauca, pobreza monetaria. En 2021, en el total nacional la pobreza monetaria Colombia. En línea: https://www.plan- power and legitimacy. The combination of this prog- etgold.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/ fue 39,3% y la pobreza monetaria extrema fue 12,2%. Bogotá 26 de abril ress gave this group of women a legitimatized and ARM%202020.%20Estudio%20de%20 Casea%20_La%20experiencia%20 de 2022 https://www.dane.gov.co/files/ investigaciones/condiciones_vida/ collective voice to promote a life free of violence. en%20los%20municipios%20de%20 Suarez%20y%20El%20Tambo.pdf pobreza/2021/Comunicado-pobreza- monetaria_2021.pdf Alliance for Responsible Mining. (2020). DANE. (2020). MUJERES Y HOMBRES: Análisis de los costos legales, técnicos BRECHAS DE GÉNERO EN COLOMBIA. y sociales de la regularización y ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Beneficiary Selection System for disponible en: https://www.dane.gov. formalización para la Minería artesanal Social Programs Card (SISBEN), co/files/investigaciones/genero/publi- We express our gratitude to all funding y a pequeña escala, casos de estudio Single Tax Registration—RUT caciones/mujeres-y-hombre-brechas- partners who help pave the way to Antioquia y Boyacá. En línea: ESTUDIO (Spanish acronym), with the activity de-genero-colombia-informe.pdf sustainability, better mining practices, DE CASO SOMOS TESORO 2020_M9_ corresponding to the mining sector. and respect for human rights in these C4.indd (responsiblemines.org) types of communities: 2 The legal currency is the Colombian peso, and the current legal minimum • The Ford Foundation and European wage (as of 2023) is Col$1,160,000, Partnership for Responsible Minerals equivalent to US$250. In 2020 (the (EPRM) year of publication by the Ministry of “Laboratorios de MAPE responsable: Mines), the current minimum wage del diálogo a la acción”, 2017–2019 was Col$877,802, equivalent to US$238 at that time. • FOS—Fondo Sueco-Noruego de Cooperación con la Sociedad Civil 3 Together with the support of USAID, Colombiana UNDP, Kering, FOS, and the Ford Foundation. “Pilotos de gobernanza local del recurso minero desde el territorio, 4 By which norms of awareness, en el marco de un modelo global de prevention, and punishment of cadenas de suministro para minerales forms of violence and discrimination libres de conflicto y peores prácticas against women are dictated, the en el departamento del Cauca, Criminal Codes, Criminal Procedure, Colombia”, 2018–2020 Law 294 of 1996 are reformed and other provisions are dictated. • UNDP Proyecto PlanetGold Gestión Integrada del Mercurio para el Sector 5 Single Tax Registration—RUT ASGM, 2020–2023 (acronym in Spanish). • Kering, 2022–2023 6 Single Register of Mineral Traders— RUCOM (acronym in Spanish). It is a control measure, through which END NOTES the Mining Authority publishes the 1 Platform for the registration of authorized miners in the country subsistence (artisanal) miners and certifies the persons who trade, in the country who seek to be consume, or process minerals in the recognized and formalized. The main national territory, with the purpose requirements for registration on the of providing greater transparency to Genesis platform are: ID document, the activity. 64 ADVANCE WOMEN’S SOCIAL PROTECTIONS AT THE MINE AND HOME AUTHORS: Stacy Hope,1 Marie-Rose Bashwira, 2 Michael Akilimali, 2 Nellia Mutemeri, 3 Ege Tekinbas,4 Marion Langlois,4 Nydia Ponnan5 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Women in Mining UK, 2International Institute of Social Studies, 3University of the Witwatersrand, 4 International Institute for Sustainable Development, 5MutConsult SDG 5 Targets SDG 5 Indicators 5.4: Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through 5.1.1: Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, the provision of public services, infrastructure, and social protection age, and location policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 65 KEY FINDINGS mine ownership. Empowering, legitimizing, and professionalizing these gender-specific - Women are being included by government professional groups is critical to advancing in ASM development initiatives, increasing gender equality in ASM. women’s participation and improving percep- tions of them in ASM. Most (83%) government - Governments lack a reporting mechanism to officials reported women are included in the monitor GBV in ASM communities. Only 17% formalization process, while 75% reported an of government officials (two out of 12) reported increase in women participating in the ASM and collecting data on GBV in ASM, while 58% of capacity building initiatives, and 67% reported government participants (seven out of 12) did formalization interventions had led to an not know how GBV was being impacted by increase in licensing applications from women. ASM formalization efforts. In Bolivia, Guyana, Sierra Leone, Zimbabwe (four of the five mine site questionnaire coun- Underpinning the ASM sector is the notion that it is tries), participants overwhelmingly reported an an informal industry that is in opposition to human increase in the number of women working in rights and safe and healthy environments. Today’s ASM and that society’s perception of women in discourse surrounding artisanal and small-scale ASM improved. These findings were supported miners has endured greater scrutiny as global by WIM Groups, with 64% noting that women’s demand for minerals to meet the supply needs of participation in ASM had increased in Indo- net-zero targets put them at the heart of discussions nesia, Mongolia, Mozambique, Peru, Tanzania, around responsible sourcing. At the epicenter of and Zimbabwe, and gender-based violence responsible supply chains where miners are preva- (GBV) at and around mine sites had decreased lent, social protection systems constitute an integral in some countries also. part of its definition and adherence. Yet, for social protection mechanisms to flourish and be sustain- - ASM support initiatives need to consider able, the inclusion of ASM in the design and imple- how to reduce disparities in domestic work mentation of these interventions is key. To do so, performed by women versus men. On government must pave a pathway toward sustain- average, women working in the ASM value able development of the ASM sector—enabling chain performed 26% (five hours per week) communities, government agencies, the private more domestic work than men. Only 16% of sector, and civil society organizations to work governments reported that formalization had together toward a holistic approach for economic led to a decrease in the share of domestic growth, wealth creation, and social inclusion for work women perform and 17% reported that it all. Yet not all ASM stakeholders are included, in had instead increased. particular women. Hence, ASM interventions must move beyond a generalist approach and adapt a - Gender-specific ASM networks and asso- gender-responsive one to ensure equitable protec- ciations are critical to improving women’s tion and progress are met. visibility in ASM and advancing gender equality. All the WIM organizations surveyed state they play a role in ASM formalization, Social protection as a concept including advocating for the rights of women in the industry and ensuring a gender lens is The precarious nature of ASM has for its history employed in policy making and reformation. been marred by images that oppose mechanisms WIM groups’ participation in formalization for social protection to thrive. An image that has initiatives resulted in a reported increase in left a lasting image of the sector is one of workers the number of women in leadership positions, clamoring for space to obtain ore bodies that offer decrease in discrimination, reduction in GBV, great value to the downstream producers of the and increase in women’s access to land/ Global North, that appears to suggest little to no 66 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home safeguarding of human life and human rights. It is an often-accurate portrayal of an industry that is, BOX 3. The ILO strategy on the extension of for almost its entirety, an informal one—unregulated social protection and unprotected. However, it is not the picture in its entirety, nor a narrative that cannot transform. National social protection floors are seen as ways to guarantee that minimum levels of Social protection is a fundamental construct within social security needs are met. These social national development strategies and is particularly protection floors “are nationally defined relevant to SDG 5 as a contributor toward gender sets of basic social security guarantees that equality and women’s and girl’s empowerment. By should ensure, as a minimum that, over the definition, social protection is: life cycle, all in need have access to essen- tial health care and to basic income security “a set of policies and programs aimed at which together secure effective access to preventing and protecting all people against goods and services defined as necessary at poverty, vulnerability and social exclusion, the national level” (ILO 2012). throughout their life cycle placing a partic- ular emphasis on vulnerable groups. This means ensuring adequate protection for all who need it, including children; people To date, social protection systems have failed to of working age in case of maternity, sick- capture the majority of citizens, with 55% of the ness, work injury or for those without jobs; world’s population not having any coverage while persons with disability and older persons. many others have only partial protection (ILO, This protection can be provided through 2017a). For most workers in the informal economy, social insurance, tax-funded social benefits, the lack of social protection is a key issue as social assistance services, public works they are mostly excluded from social protections programs and other schemes guaranteeing systems on the grounds that informal work “struc- basic income security and access to turally limits the ability to organize social protection essential services.” systems primarily on the basis of contributory social (SOCIAL PROTECTION INTER-AGENCY insurance” (Calligaro et al, 2023: 1). This lack of COOPERATION BOARD, 2019) social protection and progress prevents them from obtaining financial security, dignity, decent work, The World Bank Gender Strategy 2024–2030: and the ability to exercise their rights. However, Accelerate Gender Equality for a Sustainable, even more concerning is that women represent the Resilient, and Inclusive Future (Consultation Draft) majority of those unprotected (ILO, 2017a). Hence, emphasizes that social protection programs help social protection systems must address gender build and protect human capital (World Bank, inequalities, and therefore be gender responsive, 2024). Cash-plus approaches with psychosocial to prevent exacerbating the many intersecting components can tackle multiple gender gaps and forms of discrimination and exclusion women and promote women’s agency and bargaining power girls face. at the household level. Adaptive social protection delivery systems that leverage digital technologies With ASM playing an integral role in the livelihoods can recognize specific vulnerabilities that women, of an estimated 44.67 million people1 globally and girls, and sexual and gender minorities face and growing, 80–90% of artisanal and small-scale thus better help all people cope with crises, shocks, miners who operate informally are not covered by transitions, and aging. Social workers can promote social protection mechanisms (World Bank, 2020; women’s, girls’, and sexual and gender minorities’ ILO, 2020). Adding another layer of complexity, rights, including sexual and reproductive health gender politics within lower-middle income coun- rights, and protection against violence. tries where ASM is prevalent pose the risk of not only excluding women, but children and other State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 67 vulnerable communities as well. Although the reali- Leading the charge in advocacy surrounding women zation of social and economic development through in ASM are WIM organizations. These organizations social protection is a global political commitment, lobby and create programs to amplify women’s voices this has not yet been achieved or translated into and agency, bring attention to the challenges they many of these countries’ policies and actions. face in accessing equal opportunities, and safeguard their rights to decent and safe work. Governments There is a growing understanding that social are also taking note, as they are increasingly including protection can be the catalyst for reducing gaps WIM organizations into the mining reforms and ASM in inequality, promoting social inclusion, and erad- policy making and interventions. icating poverty. Within the context of the ASM sector, accelerating progress in building social protection mechanisms through policies and policy GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND SOCIAL PROTECTION reforms have the potential to drive growth that is Gender-based violence is one example where more inclusive and fairer (UNEN, n.d.). However, strong social protection mechanisms are needed understanding that social protection systems must to achieve SDG 5 target 5.2 and eliminate all be designed within the national context and be forms of violence against women and girls. Gender inclusive of all participants within the sector— both inequality and GBV are in a complex by-causal rela- women and men—is only part of the solution. It’s tionship—GBV is caused by, and is also a product also necessary to understand that women’s chal- of, gender inequality. Violence is used as a form of lenges begin from childhood, as young girls trying social control, is it used to enforce gendered norms to access education; to adolescence where they and power asymmetries between women and are at risk of early pregnancy and leaving school men. In an environment like mining that is hyper- early; through to adulthood where they are faced masculine, and more specifically ASM that can with inequalities and precarious and unsafe working occur outside of formal or legal bounds with limited conditions. This requires placing social protection government oversight and police presence, crimi- interventions across all stages of the life cycle and nality, lawlessness, and violence can be prevalent. attacking inequality from all angles. This context, coupled with deep-rooted gender inequalities, makes ASM areas and host communi- Notwithstanding the immense panoply of challenges ties fertile ground for GBV. that the ASM sector faces, the sector is responding to these gaps in social protection through partner- Violence against women and girls is one of the ships with governments and civil society organiza- most prevalent and pervasive human rights viola- tions working toward increasing access to social tions in the world. GBV can take many forms, it protection for ASM operators, as well as (re)defining can manifest as physical abuse, rape and sexual social protection systems that address gendered violence, female genital mutilation, honor kill- risks. In doing so, such an approach acknowledges ings, child marriage, workplace harassment, and that the relationship between the social protection economic violence, among others. GBV is wide- and gender is symbiotic: social protection systems spread—it occurs in homes, schools, offices, in any increase access to interventions and programs that place in every country around the world, regard- can strengthen women’s access to decent work, less of socioeconomic status. The World Health quality care services, livelihood programs (e.g., Organization’s (WHO) analysis of longitudinal data training), financial independence and security, and from 161 countries estimates that one in three sustainable infrastructure. Social protection can women will experience sexual or physical abuse in also facilitate access to vital services that meet their her lifetime (WHO, 2021). health (including sexual and reproductive health) and education needs and increase demand and GBV does not only negatively impact the physical confidence in accessing gender-based violence and mental well-being of the survivor, but it also services (SPIAC-B, n.d.). has far- reaching development repercussions. It is estimated that violence against women and girls 68 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home costs the global economy $1.5 trillion due to lower al., 2022), and Rustad, Østby and Nordås (2016) productivity levels, decreased labor supply, lost tax found that woman are more likely to experience revenue, diminished earnings, diverted resources, sexual violence the closer they live to an ASM site. and associated opportunity costs (Ouedraogo and In addition to the physical violence experienced by Stenzel, 2021). GBV also directly impacts public women in ASM, the economic deprivation of land spending and service delivery by placing a higher rights and land tenure amounts to a form of socio- burden on public health care, social services, and economic violence. the justice system. The World Bank estimates that national economies can lose between 1–2% of their GDP due to GBV, however this is believed to be a Insights from the 2023 State of conservative estimate due to the sensitivity of the Sector Survey subject and that violence against women is univer- sally underreported (Duvvury, et al., 2013). The momentum surrounding social protection and the role in which the ASM sector plays in estab- In recognition of the link between reducing GBV lishing a more secure fiscal regime is growing. and positive development outcomes, target 5.2 Slowly, governments are growing their ASM “Eliminate all forms of violence against all women interventions as a means to bring artisanal and and girls in the public and private spheres, including small-scale miners into the national economy and trafficking and sexual and other types of exploita- to better address their vulnerabilities and devel- tion,” and target 5.3—“Eliminate all harmful prac- opment needs. For this 2023 report, the three tices, such as child, early and forced marriage and questionnaires of the State of the Sector Survey female genital mutilation,” aim to reduce violence have given more granular context to how social against women at a national and international level. protection systems are viewed and being shaped In addition to SGG 5, reducing violence against across the globe through governments, WIM orga- women and girls will also contribute to the attain- nizations, and among the artisanal and small-scale ment of several other SDGs. miners themselves. In ASM, women are regularly exposed to GBV and sexual harassment with multiple forms of violence GOVERNMENT FORMALIZATION AND GENDER EQUALITY against women documented in ASM communities around the world (Arcos and Rivera, 2019; Watson, The Government Questionnaire makes it apparent 2021; Perks, 2011; Hayes and Perks, 2012; Bashwira that governments are moving in the direction of et al., 2014; Hinton, Viega and Beinhoff, 2003). The professionalizing the sector through ASM formaliza- Pallaqueras (‘gold pickers’) in Peru face a range of tion. Such interventions include legal status for ASM violence while just trying to do their jobs—physical operators protected under law with rights to mine abuse, harassment, discrimination, and contempt ownership (within the constructs of licenses), health (Guzmán and Lazarte, 2022). It has been recorded and safety sensitization, value addition through that girls and women from Bolivia, Côte d’Ivoire, access to finance, equipment and market schemes, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, and Peru have been trafficked and capacity building. Even more promising is that to mine areas lured by promises of economic 83% of government officials participating in the prosperity (Global Initiative, 2016; Koné and Faye, questionnaire reported the inclusion of women in 2021). In Zimbabwe, Mafongoya et al., (2021) found the formalization process. elevated rates of child, early, and forced marriage in three mining hotspots; these marriages are The impacts of these formalization interventions, as traditionally accepted, and perceived as a social reported by government officials, provide positive safety net. Concerns of modern slavery and forced signals for progress toward gender equality in ASM labor have been well documented along informal (Table 3). The majority of survey participants (67%) tin, tungsten, and tantalum (3T) value chains in the reported that the impacts of government formal- DRC (Bashwira and Hintjens, 2019, McQuilken et ization interventions led to an increase in women’s State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 69 income-generating opportunities. Similarly, 67% Although not all WIM organizations perceived their of governments reported that formalization inter- governments to be supportive of gender equality in ventions had led to an increase in licensing appli- ASM, all organizations did, however, state that they cations from women. While 75% of governments played a role in ASM formalization that included reported an increase in women participating in the advocacy surrounding the rights of women in the ASM sector, a similar percentage of governments industry and ensuring a gender lens was employed reported an increase in women participating in in policy making and reformation. These organi- ASM capacity building initiatives. Also promising zations sit on technical committees (Association is that society’s perceptions of women operating of Zambian Women in Mining AZWIM), Women in the sector are beginning to shift. With six (50%) on Mining and Extractives (WoME) Sierra Leone, government participants stating that perceptions of National Network of Women Miners of ASM (Peru)) women in ASM have improved, this will have signif- or participate in ongoing discussions and debates icant implications on women’s ability to operate surrounding formalization activities (the Umbrella safely (Figure 9). Federation of ASCM in Mongolia, Association of the Mozambican Women in Mining, Women in Mining & Energy (Indonesia), and the Tanzanian Women ROLE OF WOMEN IN MINING ORGANIZATIONS Miners Association (TAMOWA)). In countries where there are no nationwide inter- ventions that include women in ASM, women in Additionally, such groups also put in place social mining organizations and NGOs are critical as they protection mechanisms where government-led facilitate necessary multistakeholder engagement. ones are absent, and there are many examples For example, in Bolivia, the National Network of to share on how this is being done. For example, Women in Mining bring together women miners— in Zambia, the AZWIM has developed the Worth- particularly ASM operators —to address issues Tiffany-AZWIM Savings Group program—an initia- surrounding violence, equitable access, and tive to educate artisanal and small-scale miners agency to enforce their rights. on financial literacy and planning and to provide access to financial institutions and options that In the WIM Questionnaire, among the 11 WIM would enable economic empowerment. The organizations that participated, seven institutions group is also responsible for the development of believed that their government was supportive of cooperatives in four provinces. The TAWOMA and gender equality in ASM, whereas four did not: Women in Mining Ghana have also outlined their efforts to provide financial security to women in “Over the years, women have been facing the industry. Others, such as the Women on Mining challenges of access and control over and Extractives and African Women in Mining resourceful land. [R]esearch [has] been Empowerment Trust (AWOME), focus on empow- done and discussions have been [held] ering women to overcome vulnerabilities, abuses, with different ministries representing and traumas experienced as a result of mining— women and the Ministry of Mines, but working toward ending discrimination, sexual very little effort [has] been shown to end harassment, GBV, and sexual exploitation. Added to these challenges and to support the this, capacity building surrounding leadership and women financially to own land, property entrepreneurship (usually encompassing financial rights and grow their business.” literacy) are pivotal to the visibility of women in ASM – AWOME REPRESENTATIVE IN WIM and emboldening their voices, as was highlighted QUESTIONNAIRE by the Umbrella Federation of ASCM in Mongolia. All of the 11 organizations surveyed raise awareness of the ASM sector in their respective countries and sometimes beyond. All but one, the exception being the Association of the Mozambican Women 70 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home WOMEN’S SHARE OF DOMESTIC WORK in Mining, reported that they employ training and capacity building of ASM stakeholders as a way Where formalization efforts by governments have in which they currently support the sector. Part of not made that much of an apparent impact is in the social protection includes the fair and equitable share of domestic work women are expected to participation in trading goods on the market. For do, with only two of the 12 governments reporting female gold sorters in the Puno region of Peru, that the share of domestic work that women take their participation in the national multisector policy on has decreased as a result of formalization initia- of ASM—Peru’s first policy on the sector—has tives and two stating that it has actually increased. enabled them to obtain Supreme Decree 018 that Half (50%) of the governments in the Government allows the registration of manual gold sorters and Questionnaire responded “unknown” to this ques- thus authorizes them to market their ore at fair tion, perhaps signaling that the share of domestic prices. However, compliance to this has not been work women in ASM undertake is not given equal monitored, with several sorters reporting that they consideration in comparison to other indicators are still underpaid for their gold. or that, unlike participation rates, it is harder to measure or estimate. Yet, the “double burden” There is evidence from the questionnaire that a (the combination of domestic and work duties) that correlation between government ASM formaliza- women carry is a significant reason why women tion interventions and social protection-relevant work fewer hours at mining than men do. The limits indicators, such as women’s participation rates, in working hours directly impacts women’s earn- exists. Most WIM participants (seven out of 11 or ings. Similar to the Government Questionnaire, 64%) noted that women’s participation in ASM has the WIM Questionnaire showed government-led increased in recent years—namely WIM organiza- ASM interventions have not demonstrated as tions in Indonesia, Mongolia, Mozambique, Peru, much impact on the amount of time women spend Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. performing domestic work, with only Zambian and FIGURE 9. In recent years, has the number of women working in ASM changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) 400 350 300 Respondent Count 250 200 150 100 50 – ia a l ia ne e an bw liv go o uy Le Bo ba on G m ra M Zi er Si Country Decreased Increased Unchanged Unknown State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 71 Zimbabwean organizations noting that domestic Perhaps unsurprisingly, ASM value chain partici- work for women has decreased. pants’ perception of women in the sector is widely reported to have improved in these four countries At the mine-site level, the 2023 State of the Sector (Bolivia, Guyana, Sierra Leonne and Zimbabwe), Survey revealed that in the five countries surveyed, with all Guyanese participants attesting to this in the share of domestic work performed by women is their responses. most frequently reported to have increased in Guyana and Zimbabwe and remained the same in Bolivia and Under target 5.a, the goal is to “Undertake reforms Sierra Leone. Most participants answered “unknown” to give women equal rights to economic resources, in Mongolia. This indicates that, from the perspective as well as to ownership and control over land and of ASM value chain participants surveyed, women’s other forms of property, financial services, inheri- share of domestic work has either not changed or tance and natural resources, in accordance with increased. Furthermore, the Mine Site Questionnaire national law.” When examining women miners’ found that on average women working in the ASM access to capital or financing, the results from the value chain performed 26% (five hours per week) Mine Site Questionnaire show a reported “increase more domestic work for than men. in access to capital for women” as the most selected response for those operating in Guyana, Sierra Leone, and Zimbabwe. Signaling an increase FEMALE PARTICIPATION AND ACCESS TO RESOURCES in accessibility for those groups. In Bolivia, the Despite women bearing a greater portion of most selected response to this question is that it domestic work, in four of the five countries surveyed “remained unchanged” and most Mongolian partic- at the mine-site level, ASM participants overwhelm- ipants “did not know.” Similarly, improvements in ingly reported an increase in the number of women society’s perception of women in ASM are reported working in ASM or experiencing an increase in all countries by Mongolia, though in Bolivia and in income-generating opportunities (Figure 9). to some extent in Sierra Leone many participants FIGURE 10.In recent years has society’s perception of women in ASM changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) 300 250 Respondent Count 200 150 100 50 – ia a l ia ne e an bw liv go o uy Le Bo ba on G m ra M Zi er Si Country Deteriorated Improved Unchanged Unknown 72 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home also answered “unchanged” (Figure 10). Overall, Perhaps most revealing among the site-level partici- there is improvement, but there is still much to be pants is examining levels of access and control—who done especially when considering the impact of has it and in which context. It is encouraging to see traditional beliefs on women’s participation in ASM that in three of the four countries2 that responded as outlined in the first section of the 2023 report. to questions surrounding control and agency at the mine site, the most-selected response option among As previously mentioned, access to capital and participants was that both “men and women have financial services for women ensures their equal the power to make decisions about the selling of participation and equal rights to economic agency. minerals at the site”. However, when it comes to who Access to loans, informal credit schemes, and a controls access to the site, more mixed results are bank account, are but a few of the ways this can be found. Only in Mongolia did the questionnaire find achieved. For female and male miners participating that most participants reported that “both men and in the questionnaire, informal credit is their most women control access to the site”. In Bolivia and Sierra commonly used financial service, followed by a bank Leone, the most-selected response was that “men account. However, a significant number of women control access to the site”. In Zimbabwe, there is an do not access any financial services, and among almost equal number of responses for “both genders men this was the second most common response. controlling the site” and “men controlling the site”. Whereas in the past access to operating permits Statistically, the Mine Site Questionnaire revealed for women in certain jurisdictions was not preva- that a higher percentage of men have access to lent, participants in four of the five countries over- information on government programs or opportuni- whelmingly reported an increase in women who ties for training, finance, and various other enabling hold licenses/permits. Although some increase was initiatives than women. However, as efforts to create reported in Mongolia, most participants at ASM equitable access to gender-responsive social sites answered “unknown” (Figure 11). protection mechanisms increase, it is inevitable In recent years have the number of women with licenses/permits changed? FIGURE 11. (Mine Site Questionnaire) 300 250 Respondent Count 200 150 100 50 – ia a l ia ne e an bw liv go o uy Le Bo ba on G m ra M Zi er Si Country Decreased Increased Unchanged Unknown State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 73 that women-focused initiatives will also increase to Most participants of the Government Questionnaire, promote their inclusion, remove barriers, and ensure 10 out of 12 (83%), reported that the government the provision of regular and adequate protection. does collect data on GBV. However, worryingly, only 17% of government officials (participants from In terms of channels used to access information Ecuador and Kenya) reported collecting data on on government programs or other opportunities GBV in ASM. The difficulties of collecting data in in ASM, there is no clear single preferred channel. ASM are well established, however, the lack of For instance, engagement forums (nongovern- government activity in this area likely indicates mental training events, workshops, or community that collecting this data is not high enough on the meetings) are the most popular channel in Sierra agenda of most governments. Leone but traditional media (TV, radio, and news- papers) are also important. Social media is the In response to the question “What impact have most popular channel for accessing opportunity government formalization interventions had on inci- information in Zimbabwe and Mongolia but so too dences of gender-based violence in ASM?” most are mining cooperative’s, WIM groups, and other government representatives (seven out of 12 or 58%) organizing bodies. What is evident from the data answered “unknown”, which is likely a result of data is that an omni-channel approach is necessary to not being collected on this topic. Of the remaining ensure a growing awareness of government and participants, three responded that they believed it nongovernment programs and opportunities. had decreased and two responded that GBV had increased. In the WIM Questionnaire, participants provided an equally inconclusive picture on the GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE impact of formalization on incidences of GBV with The 2023 State of the Sector Survey results provide four out of 11 organizations (33%) responding that it revealing insights into the extent to which GBV and had decreased (Indonesia, Mozambique, Tanzania, asymmetries of decision making power negatively Zimbabwe-1), two reporting that it had increased impact women in ASM. (Ecuador, Zimbabwe-2) two reporting “unknown” FIGURE 12. In recent years how have the cases of GBV in ASM changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) 350 300 250 Respondent Count 200 150 100 50 – ia a l ia ne e an bw liv go o uy Le Bo ba on G m ra M Zi er Si Country Decreased Increased Unchanged Unknown 74 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home (Peru, Sierra Leone) and three reporting that inci- FIGURE 14. Do you know if the survivors were dences of GBV had remained unchanged (Ghana, provided with any assistance/support? Mongolia, Zambia). (Mine Site Questionnaire) The Mine Site Questionnaire provides details from No 25.2% the members of mining communities on gender- based violence more broadly. When asked “in recent years how have the cases of GBV in ASM Yes changed?” (Figure 12) participants from Guyana 41.1% and Sierra Leone overwhelmingly answered that it had decreased. However, worryingly, in Zimbabwe and Mongolia, excluding the ”unknown” responses, the responses overall indicated that GBV in ASM had increased or remained unchanged. In addition to determining increases or decreases in GBV, the Mine Site Questionnaire provides useful insights into incidences of GBV. Most participants indicated they had heard of an instance of GBV Unknown 33.7% within their community in the last year indicating a prevalence of GBV within the ASM communities surveyed (Figure 13). To assess if survivors of GBV incidents received any assistance from government agencies or NGOs, the Mine Site Questionnaire also asked FIGURE 13. When was the last time you heard of any instances of gender-based violence against women in mining communities in the area? (Mine Site Questionnaire) 250 200 Respondent Count 150 100 50 – s to e y) ) ar s s t k nt s s s w th th th th ar ar ot n s sa n o nde ye no on on on on ye ye r n po <1 m m m m e s po >2 1-2 fe e s 1 -3 6 9 12 do s re r (re 6- 3- (p No 9- se on Response options sp re o N Bolivia Guyana Mongolia Sierra Leone Zimbabwe State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 75 those participants who knew of incidences of GBV tools and awareness-raising to empower them to if the survivors had received assistance or support identify and implement social protection measures (Figure 14). Across all countries surveyed, 41.1% in their municipalities. The case study demonstrates of participants (403 out of 981) reported that the the importance of local actors including communi- survivors had received assistance, while 25.2% ties, civil society, and government to identify and and 33.7% responded “No” and “unknown” respec- implement social protection measures within ASM tively. In every country except for Zimbabwe, most and related communities for a holistic and powerful participants answered “unknown” to this question. collective approach. In Zimbabwe, participants responded “Yes” and “unknown” equally. This data combined with that The Artisanal Gold Council and planetGOLD in Figure 13 suggesting GBV is increasing in some Mongolia provide the eighth case study on of mine sites surveyed, suggests a situation where Mongolia. The case study shares findings from an GBV is prevalent and acknowledged in these assessment on artisanal miner’s access to social communities but assistance for survivors is not services covering four key aspects of social protec- openly discussed and thus likely not provided. tion i) social insurance, ii) social welfare, iii) health insurance, and iv) health care services. The assess- ment finds, despite the vulnerability and differenti- ated needs of artisanal miners, there is no specific Insights from the case studies or targeted social protection program for them, Chapter 2 and the second report recommenda- and miners are left out of existing social welfare tion to “advance women’s social protections at and employment support programs as they are not the mine and home” is accompanied by six case considered target groups within these programs. studies. The case studies reveal the interconnec- Social protection programs that exist for busi- tivity between the sustainable development of the nesses in Mongolia have not been tailored to ASM ASM sector and realization of social protection as they do not account for dynamics of seasonality, systems. The collective examples also offer insight irregularity, migration, mobility, and high levels of into ways in which social protection systems must personnel turnover. Inconsistent ASM formalization be designed and implemented—with gender inclu- policy framework and non-allocation of new ASM sion and equity as integral parts, to stimulate socio- land over the last three years has also meant many economic growth and well-being. artisanal miners are jobless and failed to pay social health insurance contributions that serve as one of The seventh case study in the report by the the most important bases for social protection in international NGO Pact focuses on the Pilares Mongolia. The result is end-of-life poverty for both Solidarity Network in Bolivar, Colombia, demon- female and male miners, disability, and early deaths strating the power of collective social protection for miners in ASM communities. approaches to address child labor and unaccept- able working conditions in ASM. Beginning as an Village-level savings and loans associations association of 12 civil society organizations, growing (VSLAs) for artisanal mining communities in the to 36, the collective approach by the network has Central Africa Republic are a social protection created common objectives to better represent the example shared by USAID and Tetra Tech in the community and legitimacy with local government. ninth case study. With no microfinance services In turn, this has resulted in the network having available for women in the remote southwestern greater influence on local government as well as part of the Central African Republic, women miners a more collaborative approach—working together were being left behind in the broader governance on shared social challenges across ASM, agricul- shift to professionalization, commercialization, and ture, and fishing livelihoods to promote the creation strengthening of Kimberley Process Certification and adoption of comprehensive public policy social Scheme (KPCS) chain of custody in the diamond protection measures on child labor. The network mining sector. As part of the Artisanal Mining and has also supported its members through diagnostic Property Rights project, VSLAs were therefore 76 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home established to enhance women’s social inclusion social workers played a crucial role in dealing with and provide much-needed financing to do so. complex cases, including high rates of violence. The 14 VSLAs saved enough money to offer a 5% They identified abuse cases and provided parenting interest rate, significantly lower than the 15% rate interventions to improve skills and reduce harsh from traditional microfinance institutions, providing punishment. Regular visits by social workers led finance to their members for investments and insur- to a reduction in abuse frequency among children ance in case of emergencies. Crucially, women who disclosed experiencing it, emphasizing the were engaged from the outset of the project design importance of ongoing support and intervention. through Participatory Rural Appraisal assessments The project also implemented strategies to support and development of a Gender Action Plan, ensuring children engaged in mining by focusing on school their voice and agency are heard and protected. enrollment, progression, and alternative livelihood options. The endline assessment showed that over The 10th case study by Solidaridad also focuses half of the children involved in mining at the begin- on access to finance through a pilot project with ning of the project had left mining activities. This women goldminers in Ghana. Following a review progress is essential to supporting parents and of women working in artisanal and small-scale gold caregivers and providing safer livelihood opportu- mining (ASGM), a key barrier to their equal partici- nities for children in ASM communities. pation was found to be a lack of access to finance and performing low paid jobs, reflecting their wider The 12th and final case study in Chapter 2 under marginalized position in their communities, and the recommendation to “advance women’s social hindering their economic and social development. To protections at the mine and home” is by BAN address this inequality, the project aimed to improve Toxics, an NGO in the Philippines. Focused on the financial and social position of women through the Compassionate Gold program to engage with a range of activities, including establishing VSLAs, ASGM communities and promote gender inclu- external funding for business support, engagement sion, the NGO conducted a gender assessment of women, men, and key stakeholders on the role of to identify key issues that women experience and women in households and businesses, and training potential mitigating actions. Through community in responsible mining, group dynamics, and leader- awareness-raising and lobbying with local govern- ship skills. The Solidaridad case study provides a ment, BAN Toxics operationalized their findings benchmark for how to support women in exercising and empowered women in ASGM through targeted their economic rights and financial inclusion, thereby initiatives. Government agencies provided women enhancing their social protection safety nets. in mining groups with livelihood starter kits and financial assistance, skills and business training, and The 11th case study by the international NGO Pact seedlings and farming equipment to create alterna- and Ifakara Health Institute (IHI) provides exam- tive livelihood opportunities. These activities legiti- ples of social protection measures to remove mized the role women play in the ASGM value chain children from mining in Tanzania. As part of the and also gave them the opportunity to pursue alter- five-year (2016–2021) USAID Kizazi Kipya project, native livelihoods based on their skills and talents, the case study highlights the numerous risks and increasing and diversifying their economic resil- vulnerabilities that children in mining face such ience and social protection from economic shocks. as dangerous working conditions, susceptibility to HIV, violence, limited education opportunities, and difficulty accessing essential social services. Conclusion To address these challenges, the project was designed with a focus on children’s health, safety, The three questionnaires of the 2023 State of education, and livelihoods, considering gender Sector Survey demonstrate that the ASM sectors and age. The intervention employed a gender-sen- of the countries under study are, broadly, making sitive case management approach, which tailored progress in relation to indicators associated with support to each child’s specific needs. Professional social protections. In particular, it is heartening to State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 77 see the perceived increases in women’s participa- END NOTES A joint statement to the 63rd session tion in the sector, license applications, and improve- 1 Delve database (August 2023): of the Commission on the Status of Women. New York: Social Protection ments in perception of women miners as a result of https://delvedatabase.org/ Inter-Agency Cooperation Board. formalization interventions. Of concern is that none 2 Results from Guyana are excluded due to an insufficient number of Retrieved from: https://www.ilo.org/ wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@ of the three questionnaires indicated a significant responses to this question. nylo/documents/genericdocument/ wcms_674612.pdf. improvement in women’s share of domestic work. World Bank, 2020. “2020 State of REFERENCES This should be a key consideration for policy makers Calligaro, F and Cetrangolo, O. the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector.! Washington, D.C.: World Bank. and ASM project planners given the wide reports of (2023). Financing Universal Social World Bank. (2024). World Bank Protection: The Relevance and Labour women’s increased involvement in the sector. Market Impacts of Social Security Gender Strategy 2024 - 2030 : Contributions. WIEGO Working Paper Accelerate Gender Equality for a No. 47. WIEGO and ILO. Sustainable, Resilient, and Inclusive The case studies from Colombia and the Central ILO. (2012). Social Protection Floors Future - Consultation Draft (English). Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. African Republic outline the methods that orga- Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202). Geneva: International Labour Office. http://documents.worldbank.org/ curated/en/099013107142345483/ nizations are using to successfully improve social ILO. (2017). World Social Protection SECBOS04cf7b650208a5e08 b784c0db6a4 protections and gender equality in different parts of Report 2017-19: Universal Social Protection to Achieve the Sustainable UNEN. (n.d.). Thematic Brief: Social the world. The recurring theme in this regard is the Development Goals. Protection. New York: United Nations Economist Network. Retrieved from: importance of helping stakeholders work together SPIAC-B. (2019). Collaboration for https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/ Policy Coherence and Development to achieve outcomes beneficial for women. The Impact. New York: Social Protection files/2021/04/a-tb_on_social_protec- tion.pdf Inter-Agency Cooperation Board. case studies from Mongolia and Sierra Leone Retrieved from: https://www.ilo.org/   also make clear that while well-structured policy is wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@ nylo/documents/genericdocument/ important, concrete actions to enable these policies wcms_644769.pdf. are required for them to make meaningful changes SPIAC-B. (n.d.). Social Protection to Promote Gender Equality and in the lives of artisanal and small-scale miners. Women’s and Girls’ Empowerment: 78 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home CASE STUDY #6 Credit: Pact LOCAL CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS WORKING TOGETHER WITH THE COLOMBIAN MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT TO ADDRESS CHILD LABOR IN ASM AUTHORS: Alejandro Mora,1 Laura Cortes,1 and Felipe Chaparro1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Pact INTRODUCTION The Pilares Solidarity Network started as an association of 12 local civil society organizations (CSOs) working in the municipalities of San Martin de Loba and Barranco de Loba, south of the department of Bolívar, Colombia, in 2018. As of February 2023, Pilares grew to include 36 CSOs in four municipalities. Their main objective is to address child labor and other unacceptable working conditions through a collective impact approach. The CSOs formed the network to ensure better community representation, common objectives with greater influence on municipal decisions, and to facilitate collaboration with local governments. The initiative makes a significant contribution to SDG Target 5.c: Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 79 A diagnostic tool was used to identify child labor risks.1 ments. It operates in the municipalities of The network then conducted awareness-raising Barranco de Loba and San Martin de Loba. activities through communications and small high- impact grants to address child labor and other unac- Pilares performs diagnostic exercises to identify ceptable working conditions. This work piqued the child labor and other unacceptable working condi- interest of local governments and alliances were tions risks in rural and urban areas. The network built to move towards common objectives. uses an information system, operated using the Google suite of work products,4 to collect and Working with local governments and other public analyze information and subsequently build reports and private institutions has allowed the network that are shared with the local authorities in the to advance towards its goals, strengthen technical CIETIs. This allows the development of joint actions teams, enable new alternatives in income gener- with the local governments in the rural areas priori- ation for vulnerable families, and explore various tized to implement SIRITI. options to create alternative uses of children and youth’s recreational free time. Since its formation, the CSOs that make up the network understood that generating alliances with public and private entities would be key to achieving its goals and ensuring its sustainability. Encouraging collective impact Some of its alliances have been with the National Pilares has integrated 36 mining, agricultural, Learning Service training members of the network; fishing, and livestock CSOs, among others, based the Secretariat of Mines and Energy of Bolivar on the collective impact model and has fulfilled the diagnosing IT and safety risks in ASM; IT and five conditions2 for a successful collective impact safety risks in ASM; and recently, Pilares worked initiative (Stanford Social Innovation Review, 2011). in coordination with the University of Cartagena to The network has worked in a coordinated manner strengthen a beekeeping project. among its members and collaborated with public and private entities to advance the understanding In 2022—thanks to the results of a Pilares’ diagnostic of child labor and other unacceptable working exercise that showed the main cause of child labor conditions in their municipalities. was due to the lack of economic alternatives in the territory—the network started a bee farm with the With Pilares’ support, the local governments have support of Pact and the local governments. This was recognized the importance of government policies a new alternative for income generation and bene- related to child labor. They are implementing two fits more than 30 families (117 people) identified as at aspects of the public policy for the Prevention and risk of child labor and other unacceptable working Eradication of Child Labor and Protection of Young conditions. Once linked to the project, parents can Workers: ensure that their children are in school. That same year, Pilares received a $21,000 award through a 1) The Inter-Institutional Committee for the competition financed by the University of Cartagena Prevention and Eradication of Child Labor to technically strengthen CSO networks. The (CIETI): Pilares has represented civil society in network used the funds to strengthen the bee farm the CIETIs of each municipality. operation by purchasing equipment, materials, and supplies, including 3D printers to produce beehives. 2) The Integrated Information System for the Iden- tification, Registration and Characterization of Another risk associated with child labor identified Child Labor and its Worst Forms (SIRITI)3: SIRITI by Pilares is the lack of activities available for chil- is an information logging tool that should have dren and youth during their recreational free time.5 been operating since 2013 but only started Pilares and local governments joined efforts and operating in 2021 thanks to the collaborative resources to purchase musical instruments and work between Pilares and the local govern- study materials, hire teachers, and fund transporta- 80 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home Barranco de Loba, young participants of the accordion workshop Credit: Pact tion to rural areas where child labor is most evident Conclusion (International Labor Office and United Nations Children’s Fund, 2021). As a result, more than 200 Working with CSO’s since 2018, the Pilares Solidarity children and youth received music lessons. Network has applied and adjusted the collective impact methodology at the community level, which “We know that access to music, especially has proven to be a successful approach for local when it is something as strongly rooted development and empowerment. CSOs have been in our culture as vallenato (a popular folk significantly strengthened and gained more confi- music genre from Colombia), engages dence to progress the project, propose different children and allows us to take them out initiatives to potential partners, and continue of difficult environments.” working with the local governments. A strong sense – MANUEL RAMOS, MAYOR OF BARRANCO of ownership of the initiative among the network’s DE LOBA (EL UNIVERSAL, 2021) CSOs aides decision making, planning, and imple- mentation of activities. Digital literacy is also high on Pilares’ agenda. They believe this is one of the competencies that Pilares also autonomously convenes its meetings, should be provided to CSOs and encouraged in indicating a path towards organizational sustainability. rural communities to explore new digital platforms, Using community spaces in the municipalities to the opportunities they offer, and as a way to gain develop activities allows the CSOs and local govern- knowledge. ments to feel the project is rooted in their communities. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 81 This project demonstrates that community devel- DISCLAIMER REFERENCES opment must be driven by local actors to be Pilares funding is provided by the U.S. El Universal. (2021). El Universal. successful. Thanks to the knowledge of local Department of Labor under cooper- Retrieved from En el sur de Bolívar ative agreement number IL-31477-17- previenen el trabajo infantil con contexts, Pilares has gained the trust of communi- 75-K. The total cost of the project is música: https://www.eluniversal.com. co/regional/en-el-sur-de-bolivar-pre- ties with more CSOs joining the initiative who are financed with U.S. federal funds. vienen-el- trabajo-infantil-con-musica- motivated to bring change to their communities. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. AH5911763?fbclid=IwAR0dO8j2ntqK5 WClAAQu2iA0Kb5VVDip9MTXDLID The network continues to deliver strong messages Department of Labor, nor does mention LCK61 TmoeW3-zY_j7JY of trade names, commercial products, about the fight against child labor and to establish or organizations imply endorsement by International Labor Office and United Nations Children’s Fund. (2021). Child partnerships with local governments, the private the U.S. government. labor: Global estimates 2020,trends and the way forward. ILO and UNICEF, sector, and other institutions to achieve greater END NOTES Geneva and New York. Retrieved from: project sustainability over time. 1 Tool co-created by Pact and RS. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/ publication/wcms_827418.pdf 2 The five elements are a common agenda, shared measurement Stanford Social Innovation Review. systems, mutually reinforcing activi- (2011). Collective Impact. Stanford ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Colombia, la Agencia Nacional de ties, continuous communication, and Social Innovation Review. Minería, la Secretaría de Minas de backbone support organizations. The Pilares team acknowledges the Bolívar, and the Diversidad Rural y la commitment of the CSOs participating Agencia de Minería Responsable. 3 SIRITI website: https://app2.mintra- in the project and all the institutions bajo.gov.co/siriti/ and actors who support and work The project team is very grateful for the administrative support of Pact 4 Google Forms, Google Docs, Google with the CSOs, including the local Colombia and Pact DC as the project Sheets, Google Sites. governments of San Martin de Loba and Barranco de Loba, the University executing organization. 5 Pilares identified that the options for of Cartagena, the Servicio Nacional Pilares is grateful for the full funding recreational use of free time for chil- de Aprendizaje (SENA), the Instituto provided by the U.S. Department of dren and youth is limited, becoming Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar Labor and for the support and guid- one of the main reasons for them to (ICBF), el Ministerio de Trabajo de ance of its staff. access technology. 82 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home CASE STUDY #7 Credit: Erdenebileg Erendo, iStock CONCERNS OVER THE SOCIAL PROTECTION FOR MONGOLIAN ARTISANAL MINERS AUTHORS: Lkhagvadulam Jamiyandagva1,2 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1planetGOLD Mongolia, 2Artisanal Gold Council INTRODUCTION Social protection is a fundamental human right and an important concern for ASM as it is crucial for the overall welfare, quality of life, and the resilience of both women and men in ASM communities. Developing ASM regulatory frameworks and the political will to recognize and formalize ASM have been historically unstable in Mongolia, due to the government’s former beliefs in the 1990s that ASM is a temporary social phenomenon (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012). For example, it took almost three years to get new ASM regulations approved between September 2019 and August 2023. Furthermore, despite being an important aspect of ASM, the gender perspective is not considered in ASM Regulation #296 on the Extraction of Minerals by Artisanal and Small-scale Mining, approved in August 2022 (Government of Mongolia, 2022). State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 83 Consequently, as ASM jobs have not been secure artisanal miners are left out of existing social and formal in the past, social protection policy for arti- welfare and employment support programs, as sanal miners is left out of the picture, making 40,000- they are not considered target groups within 60,000 miners vulnerable. One-third of these miners these programs. are women, who in turn support another 120,000- 180,000 people (Sustainable Artisanal Mining, 2010, - Due to inconsistent policy on ASM formaliza- 2018). Importantly, ongoing formalization efforts tion, the delayed approval of the new ASM blindly claim to improve social protection for artisanal regulation, and the non-allocation of new ASM miners without a closer look at their current situa- land for three years, many artisanal miners have tion. To achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable been jobless and failing to pay social insurance Development, Leave No One Behind, and its SDG and health insurance contributions, which 5 to promote gender equality within the ASM sector, serve as one of the most important bases for careful analysis should inform the ongoing revisions a social protection safety net in Mongolia. As and amendments to the social insurance package a result, most artisanal miners are stuck in a laws the main legislation for social protection (Ministry vicious cycle of joblessness with unpaid social of Labor and Social Protection, 2023). insurance, poor access to social protections, and no income. Aiming to capture the current reality for miners on the ground, take stock of best practices avail- - Ongoing formalization efforts, in effect since able, and provide policy recommendations to August 2022, are limited to improvements relevant government stakeholders, the planet- in the legal framework of ASM operations, GOLD Mongolia project is conducting an in-depth without any consideration of its social protec- qualitative study covering four key aspects of tion aspect. In fact, such efforts push artisanal social protection, including i) social insurance, ii) miners’ partnerships or cooperatives to be social welfare, iii) health insurance, and iv) health- treated the same as a business entity, requiring care services in its ongoing study (planetGOLD them to pay compulsory social insurance, Mongolia, 2023). This case study presents the early health insurance contributions, and other taxes, findings from this study. without considering different features of ASM, for example, seasonality, irregularity, migration, mobility, and change of personnel. Findings from the assessment of artisanal miners’ access to SOCIAL INSURANCE AND SOCIAL WELFARE social services Mongolian Law on Social Insurance (1994) stipu- The early findings show a considerable gap persists lates the implementation of a voluntary and contrib- in social protection for artisanal miners, making utory plan for artisanal miners. This plan enables them economically vulnerable and susceptible to several social security services through retire- unfavorable and unforeseen risks and incidences ment insurance, benefits insurance, and industrial that might happen during their ASM employment. accident and occupational disease insurance. As The underlying reasons are multifaceted and vary identified during planetGOLD Mongolia’s previous for each aspect studied. studies (planetGOLD Mongolia, 2021a; planetGOLD Mongolia, 2021b), only 36% of the miners pay the social insurance contributions regularly, which GENERAL HIGHLIGHTS OF THE FINDINGS results in less access to available welfare services. - Although artisanal miners are typically It also showed that social insurance coverage was perceived as a vulnerable group (e.g., unem- higher among formal miners (39%) than informal ployed in rural communities with limited miners (27%). A national survey conducted among employment opportunities), there is no specific artisanal miners in 2021 identified artisanal miners’ social protection program targeted at them and social insurance coverage to be 42.9% (National 84 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home Statistics Office, 2022). All these are alarming 5. Between the relatively lower life expectancy of findings compared to the average coverage of the Mongolian men—the national average being 67 Mongolian workforce of 82.2% (Ministry of Labor years old, 9.4 years less than women (Mongo- and Social Protection, 2023). In addition, it should lian Statistical Information Service, 2021), and not be overlooked that paying social insurance the everchanging retirement age, male artis- contributions is regularly used as proof of regular anal miners are unsure about whether they will income and facilitates improved access to loans age into retirement age (65 years old according and finance in many cases. to the revised law) and benefit from pensions. The key concerns of social insurance and social 6. As paying social insurance makes women welfare identified as requiring urgent attention for eligible for maternity benefits and other forms artisanal miners in Mongolia are: of gender-specific additional support, female artisanal miners have higher rates of social 1. The voluntary social insurance plan applicable insurance coverage than men. to artisanal miners is being valued and treated the same as being unemployed rather than self-employed. It cannot guarantee access to HEALTH INSURANCE AND HEALTHCARE SERVICES the social protection benefits that miners need. Unlike social insurance, health insurance is manda- tory for Mongolians in order to receive various 2. The existing classification of artisanal miners, as healthcare services. Emergency care is also avail- it relates to social insurance and its integrated able for everybody, regardless of insurance status. database, does not offer any relief or facili- Most of the medical care and services, especially tated retirement. In large-scale mining, certain those that artisanal miners often need, are based technical employees (e.g., underground, toxic on paid contributions and high out-of-pocket and hot, and harsh working conditions, etc.) expenses. As per previous studies, 63% of the are eligible for earlier or facilitated retirement miners pay their health insurance contribution because of their harsh and difficult working regularly. When healthcare service is needed, the conditions. Artisanal miners are calling to be current plan allows artisanal miners to retroactively treated equally and be eligible for such practice. pay their health insurance for the last four to five years to get needed healthcare services. This 3. Current social insurance payment (e.g., fixed results in artisanal miners believing that the amount schedule) practices does not consider the of health insurance contribution is relatively afford- different needs of artisanal miners, e.g., able, if not accumulated for many years. As a result, seasonality, unstable mining operations, and nearly two-thirds (64%) of miners indicated they irregular revenue due to the quality of the ore. have access to healthcare while working at artisanal mining sites. This is a significant problem because: 4. It was found that artisanal miners do not benefit sufficiently from voluntary social insurance 1. Miners reported institutional and legal barriers plans due to their lack of awareness, non-pay- to access to healthcare. ment of social insurance contributions, and lack of outreach activities from social protec- 2. It was found that artisanal miners may not be tion-related government actors. For example, aware of the importance of preventive health it is worrisome that there are artisanal miners, screenings and check-ups. From a gender both male and female, experiencing minimum perspective, access to prenatal and post-natal income security (i.e., social welfare pension health check-ups is also an important deter- of approximately $80 per month) and end-of- minant of the physical and mental health of life poverty. Also, even eligible miners are not women miners. applying for a temporary incapacity benefit due to a lack of knowledge. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 85 3. Due to poor quality occupational health and 3. Conduct multi-government stakeholder safety practices, there were unfortunate cases information-sharing sessions and outreach of disability and death due to silicosis, tuber- activities for artisanal miners to increase their culosis, and industrial accidents. Regardless awareness of the importance and benefits of of being mandated to reach out to artisanal currently available social protection services. miners, responsible government officials lack the means, resources, and knowledge to build 4. Provide targeted mobile clinic services in ASM the occupational health and safety capacity of sites or special health screenings to raise ASM communities. miner’s health awareness and provide needed healthcare services. 4. It was observed that male miners lack both health-seeking and healthcare-seeking behav- 5. Train a critical mass of artisanal miners as advo- iors due to common gender stereotypes that cates for social protection among their peers. men have to be tough and are socialized not to express their pains and discomforts. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS planetGOLD Mongolia. (2021b). Gender Mapping in the Artisanal Gold This case study is based on the plan- 5. Miners could have benefitted more from a etGOLD Mongolia project. The project Mining Sector in Mongolia. Retrieved from: https://www.planetgold.org/ targeted health screening for occupational is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), led by the United Nations gender-mapping-artisanal-gold-min- ing-sector-mongolia diseases via mobile clinics or partnership-initi- Environment Programme (UNEP), and implemented in collaboration with the planetGOLD Mongolia. (2023). Feasibility ated periodical check-up practices, rather than United Nations Industrial Development assessment on artisanal miners’ access to selected social services. Early findings general medical care. Organization (UNIDO). It is executed by the Artisanal Gold Council (AGC) in part- of the ongoing study. nership with the government of Mongolia Sustainable Artisanal Mining. (2010). through the Ministry of Environment and Project Document Phase 2. Retrieved Tourism. Thanks goes to the tremendous from: https://asmhub.mn/uploads/ support and contribution of artisanal files/2010-2014- sam-project-docu- Conclusion and recommendations miners in Selenge province and my colleagues, as well as heartfelt thanks ment-phase-iii-eng_1.pdf to the research team, especially my role Sustainable Artisanal Mining. (2018). Social protection should be an important consider- models, Ms. Khishigsuren Lkhagva and Project Factsheet. Retrieved from: https://asmhub.mn/uploads/files/ Ms. Amarjargal Dairii. ation in the development of a sustainable workplace factsheetenglish-2018.pdf and responsible labor practices in ASM, especially REFERENCES United Nations Environment Programme. (2012). Analysis of formal- when formalization is ongoing and on the govern- Government of Mongolia. (2022). ization approaches in the artisanal and Regulation #296 on the Extraction of small-scale gold mining sector based on ment agenda. Although slow, a shift towards Minerals by Artisanal and Small-scale experiences in Ecuador, Mongolia, Peru, Mining. Approved in August 2022. full-fledged social protection for artisanal miners Retrieved from: https://legalinfo.mn/ Tanzania, and Uganda—Mongolian case study. Retrieved from: https://www. requires a concerted effort from key government mn/detail?lawId=16531307887921 responsiblemines.org/wp-content/ uploads/2018/05/Case_Studies_ and non-government stakeholders. For this purpose, Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of Mongolia. (2023). Minister of Labor Mongolia_June_2012.pdf the following recommendations are: and Social Protection T.Ayursaikhan press release on January 10, 2023. Retrieved from: https://mlsp.gov.mn/ content/detail/2624 1. Allow retroactive payment of social insurance Mongolian Statistical Information Service. contributions for artisanal miners for the period (2021). Sex disaggregated statistics on the life expectancy of Mongolians. when ASM regulation was not in place. Retrieved from: www.1212.mn National Statistics Office, Mongolia. 2. Introduce a facilitated or earlier retirement plan (2022). Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners’ Survey Report—2021. Retrieved for artisanal miners due to their underground from https://beta.1212.mn/mn/statistic/ file-library/survey and harsh working conditions, similar to large- planetGOLD Mongolia. (2021a). The scale mining employees, especially in light of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Sector in Mongolia: A Contextual Study of current formalization efforts. the planetGOLD Mongolia Project Sites. 86 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home CASE STUDY #8 Credit: USAID GENDERED IMPACTS OF ASM FORMALIZATION: WOMEN IN THE ARTISANAL MINING SECTOR OF THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC AUTHORS: Maxie Muwonge,1 Bocar Thiam, 2 and Mark Freudenberger2 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1USAID, 2Tetra Tech INTRODUCTION SDG 5’s ambition to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” is a core foundational principle for the ASM sector. The low participation of women in the ASM economy is a global challenge. According to the Delve 2020 State of the Sector report, globally, women remain largely invisible despite making up significant portions of the ASM workforce. Women often suffer workplace discrimination (World Bank, 2020). In the Central African Republic, artisanal mining is dominated by men, yet women play a vital role in transporting and washing diamondiferous gravel deposits. Few recognize the key role women also play in growing and processing food crops for the ASM labor force. Recent field studies show that nationally approximately 20% of artisanal miners are women, and yet in the southwest of the country only about 3% of the miners are women (Pennes and others, 2018). State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 87 Cultural barriers and inadequate technical capacity Working with women in the limit women entrepreneur’s entry into diamond Central African Republic’s extraction and export (Benjamin Ndongo, 2022, artisanal mining sector Sabine Jiekak, 2019). Mining communities in the Central African Republic often hold the beliefs that The USAID AMPR project, implemented by Tetra women should be at home caring for children; that Tech, supports the Ministry of Mines and Geology women are physically weak and not fit for mining; (MMG) to strengthen the chain of custody for or the unfounded theory that menstruating women diamonds under the Kimberly Process Certification bring bad luck to mining sites. Some women mine Scheme (KPCS).1 Among several project compo- site owners who have inherited or bought mining nents, one addresses women’s social inclusion in sites are forced to transfer the management of the artisanal mining sector. At the outset of the five- these sites to their sons or male spouses as a result. year project, a Gender Action Plan was prepared with women involved in the diamond sector through The USAID Artisanal Mining and Property Rights Participatory Rural Appraisal assessments carried (USAID AMPR) project launched an innovative initia- out in the project’s intervention sites in the south- tive to remove these barriers and improve the place of west of the country (Jiekak, 2019). By the fourth year women in artisanal diamond mining. This case study of the project, results began to be achieved among describes the initial results. It also illustrates how women entrepreneurs working through coopera- SDG targets 5.a and 5.c can be achieved by giving tives, rural business associations, and mentorship women rights to economic resources and access to programs, the focus of this case study. financial services and adopting and strengthening sound social policies that promote the equality and The USAID AMPR project has worked with the empowerment of women and girls in ASM. MMG, prefecture level federations of women’s FIGURE 15. Map of southwestern Central African Republic showing AMPR’s supported women’s activities 88 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home networks, and several national NGOs to support the AMPR VSLA members take loans ranging KPCS compliant subprefectures of Boda, Carnot, from about 30,000 to 120,000 Central and Nola. The project worked with women’s and African CFA francs (about $50 to $200) at mixed-gender organizations comprising a total of a 5% monthly interest rate. The absence of 535 members, among which 425 are women and basic rural finance capital for rural economic 110 men. activities is a major bottleneck in the Central African Republic. Microfinance provides Over the last four years, the project has worked up to 500,000 Central African CFA francs with these entities to design, at their request, (approximately $850) secured by a borrow- specialized trainings on a wide variety of technical er’s guarantee at a 15% monthly interest. topics and also provided material support. Training and support included small-scale agricultural By 2021, the success of working through women’s production training, soapmaking skills, organizing organizations led the USAID AMPR project to set village savings and loans systems, organizational up a Women’s Innovation Fund to support entre- management of cooperatives and associations, preneurial women to expand their participation and functional literacy. in the artisanal diamond mining sector. The grant mechanism supports the training of 120 women to expand their place in the artisanal diamond sector Leveraging village-level savings and by providing them with skills to engage in diamond extraction, and eventually in commercialization of loan associations diamonds. Women are trained in how to prospect Village-level savings and loan associations (VSLA)2 for diamonds with hand-held augers and the use of have proven particularly popular because no micro- SMARTER3 mining techniques consisting primarily finance services for women exist in the remote of bench terracing and backfilling. In addition, the southwestern part of the country. Within three women are instructed on previously well-tested months, the 14 VSLAs set up by the project raised methods of converting mined-out pits into plots for sufficient internal capital funds among themselves gardening and crop production. The project helps to provide credit to their members at a 5% interest to secure land rights to these restored mining sites. rate, significantly lower than the 15% standard rate applied by microfinance institutions in other parts The Women’s Innovation Fund is used to teach of the country. While loans offered internally to women diamond valuation techniques and commer- members are small, the VLSA’s encourage saving, cial sales through legitimate trade, as structured by credit for small-scale investments, and most impor- the KPCS and the Operational Framework applied to tantly, financial insurance in case of emergencies. the Central African Republic. Government diamond TABLE 5. Beneficiaries of AMPR VSLA Support Sub-Prefecture Women Men Sub Total Boda 41 12 53 Nola 133 63 196 Carnot 97 10 107 Total 271 85 356 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 89 evaluators of the Bureau d’expertise et de contrôle As a complement to the range of trainings provided to du diamant et de l’or (BECDOR) and the USAID women’s groups, the USAID AMPR project produced AMPR staff have so far trained 182 women artisanal a short video in Sango on tested methods for the miners and newly established women mine site promotion of dialogue among women and men owners on the principles and practices of diamond diamond miners on sensitive issues around gender valuation. This includes instructing women on how discrimination and opportunities for the inclusion of to use hand-held loupes to classify and evaluate women in the diamond mining value chain. rough diamonds for the 4-Cs (Cut, Carat, Color and Clarity). By knowing the quality of rough diamonds in advance of sales, women are better prepared to Diversifying livelihoods bargain for a better price. The provision of organizational support, training, and The USAID AMPR training in diamond valuation some materials and supplies have led to unexpected led to the emergence of women skilled in diamond benefits. Surprisingly, the COVID-19 pandemic evaluation and SMARTER mining. This core group generated new economic opportunities for women. is the foundation of entrepreneurs and resource Since soap needed for hand washing is so rare in persons in each sub-prefecture for scaling up remote diamond mining communities, and yet critical support to women interested in expanding their to mitigate against the transmission of COVID-19 and place in the diamond economy. The networks other diseases, the USAID AMPR team launched arti- of the Association of Women Artisanal Miners of sanal soapmaking in mining communities based on Carnot (AFAMC), Association of Women Artisanal the positive experiences gained under the previous Miners of the Central African Republic (AFAMCA), USAID PRADD I project (USAID, 2013). Experienced and Association of Women in the Central African soap makers were hired by the project during the Mining Sector (AFESMICA)4 are guided by an Action height of the pandemic to provide conceptual and Plan that supports interested women with further hands-on training to 194 members (175 women and training. The government BECDOR diamond valua- 19 men). Among the five soapmaking associations tors are fully supportive of this new initiative in the monitored closely, net revenue was on average sub-prefectures of Boda, Nola, and Carnot. The about $170/association. This may appear insignifi- USAID AMPR project provides the networks with cantly small, but not for a context where daily wages training modules in the local Sango language as in even the formal sector are about $2.50/day (Wage well as material support to enable the network to Indictor, 2023). Soapmaking has now become train other rural women in livelihood strengthening an established supplemental income generation and diversification and women’s entrepreneurship. activity for many groups. TABLE 6. Beneficiaries of AMPR’s livelihoods support Trained Soap Makers Beneficiaries of Agric. Livelihoods Sub-Prefecture Women Men Sub Total Women Men Sub Total Boda 43 5 48 42 6 48 Nola 100 9 109 114 73 187 Carnot 32 5 37 64 20 84 Total 175 19 194 220 99 319 90 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home Conclusion involved in the mining sector, however marginal- The place of women in the artisanal and allu- ized and disempowered initially, contribute greatly vial diamond mining sector in the Central African to helping to design training programs for them- Republic has long been relegated to simply trans- selves and the provision of other support needed porting and washing diamond gravel. Cultural to expand their place in the sector. These Action taboos and structural impediments limited the Plans educate project staff about the opportunities role of women in the economy. The USAID AMPR and hurdles that come with trying to strengthen the project has gone a long way toward overcoming, roles of women in the ASM sector. But this alone is with the support of the women themselves, some not enough. Projects must complement Action Plans cultural taboos and technical impediments in the by building a positive policy context within ministries southwest part of the country. The strategies used of mining needed to break the cultural beliefs that by the project may be of interest to others. women cannot or should not be involved in diamond extraction and commercialization. Fortunately, the While the verdict is still out on whether the USAID experience from previous USAID artisanal mining AMPR interventions will lead to long-term scaling-up programs in the Central African Republic and else- in the southwest, key lessons are beginning to where (USAID, 2009) were used to collaboratively emerge. At the outset of project implementation, design environmentally sensitive training programs donor-funded projects like USAID AMPR benefit in diamond exploration and extraction, site reha- greatly by carrying out participatory Action Plans bilitation, and diamond valuation through targeted with the women beneficiaries themselves. Women initiatives like a Women’s Innovation Fund. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3 SMARTER Mining is the Sustainable World Bank. (2020). 2020 State of USAID Property Rights and Resource Mining by Artisanal Miners Mining. It the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Governance Program (PRRG). Retrieved The USAID AMPR management includes techniques for prospecting, Sector. Washington D.C.: World Bank. from: https://www.land-links.org/ team acknowledges the generous exploitation, rehabilitation, and Retrieved from: https://stateofthe- wp-content/uploads/2018/04/USAID_ contributions made by the women enhancement of depleted mine sites. sector.delvedatabase.org/ Land_Tenure_PRADD_Presentation_ entrepreneurs to expanding their role Fella_08-07-2013-2-1.pdf in the ASM diamond economy and to 4 These women’s networks aim at Ndongo, Benjamin. (2022). Knowledge- the ongoing policy and programmatic reducing inequalities in the mining Attitudes-Practices (KAP) Survey of USAID. (2009). Rehabilitation support from the Central African sector. They integrate actions into Artisanal Miners in Central African Ecologique des Sites Miniers Republic’s Ministry of Mines and the networks of reflection and alter- Republic. Washington, DC: USAID Artisanaux de Diamants en Republique Geology and USAID. The opinions native action on development, with Artisanal Mining and Property Rights Centrafricaine et Leçons des expressed here are those solely of the aim of exchange and communica- Task Order under the Strengthening Experiences en Sierra Leone – Rapport the authors. tion aimed at promoting the dissem- Tenure and Resource Rights II Final. Retrieved from: https://www.land- ination of ideas and experiences (STARR II) IDIQ, USAID contract links.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/ on the conditions of women in the 7200AA18D00003 / 7200AA18C00087. USAID_Land_Tenure_PRADD-CAR_ END NOTES mining sector in the Central African Retrieved from: https://www.land-links. Ecological_Rehab_of_Artisanal_ Republic. AFESMICA is a member of org/document/survey-on-the-knowl- Diamond_Mining_Sites_French.pdf 1 Kimberley Process Certification the Association of Women in Mining edge-attitudes-and-practices-cap-of- Scheme (KPCS) requires WageIndicator. (2023). Minimum Wage in Africa (AWIMA) network. mining-crafts-in-the-central-african- diamond-producing countries to Central African Republic. Retrieved republic-summary-report/ implement safeguards on shipments from: https://wageindicator.org/salary/ of rough diamonds and certify them REFERENCES Pennes, S., Rolfe, A., Moloto, G. minimum-wage/central-african-repub- as conflict-free. For details, see and Betabelet., J (October 2018). lic#:~:text=Minimum%20Wage%20 KPCS, available at https://www. Jiekak, Sabine (2019). Gender Action %E2%80%93%20Central%20African%20 Diagnostic of mining and socio-eco- kimberleyprocess.com/en/system/ Plan. USAID Artisanal Mining and Republic,valid%20on%20January%20 nomic development prospects in the files/documents/KPCS%20Core%20 Property Rights Task Order under 1%2C%202018.&text=The%20amounts- CAR in the light of the vision of the Document.pdf the Strengthening Tenure and %20are%20in%20CFA%20Central%20 mining regime in Africa. Levin Sources. Resource Rights II (STARR II) IDIQ. African%20Franc 2 The VSLA model creates self-man- USAID contract 7200AA18D00003 / USAID. (2013). Property Rights and aged and self-capitalized savings 7200AA18C00087. Retrieved from: Artisanal Diamond Development groups that use members’ savings https://www.land-links.org/document/ (PRADD) Brown Bag. Washington, to lend to each other. For details see artisanal-mining-and-proper- DC.: USAID Artisanal Mining and VSLA at https://www.vsla.net/ ty-rights-ampr-gender-action-plan/ Property Rights Task Order under State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 91 CASE STUDY #9 Credit: Melikae Sinika, iStock FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN GHANA’S MINING COMMUNITIES, FINANCE IS GOLDEN AUTHORS: Yaw Britwum and Boukje Theeuwes1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Solidaridad INTRODUCTION Kering—a world-class luxury group—has partnered with international NGO Solidaridad to enhance the economic independence of artisanal and small-scale women gold miners in communities in Ghana by focusing on access to finance for women in small- scale mining communities. Solidaridad delivered a pilot project that mobilized 130 women into five savings groups to test whether the introduction of a revolving fund to these savings groups would bolster the group members’ ability to access more credit, in turn strengthening their mining-related and non-mining enterprises. The revolving fund is the provision of external funding to be given out as loans. In this situation, it means that entrepreneurs who cannot access formal finance can access loans that once repaid will support another entrepreneur. The loans are low interest and often repaid in less than a year, generating high rotation of money. This case study focuses on the monitoring and evaluation of this revolving fund (Solidaridad, 2021) and highlights how development partners can contribute to SDG 5 target 5.a to undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources including access to financial services that in turn enhance their access and ability to pay for social protection measures such as health insurance and economic resilience in times of household need. 92 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home Taking Village Savings and Loans - Developing indicators: Indicators were devel- Associations to the next level oped before starting so that everyone knew how success was being measured and how The project supports 130 women in three gold data would be obtained. mining communities in the Tarkwa and Bibiani area of Western Ghana. Started in July 2019, the project’s - Allocating budget: 6% of the total budget was goal is to improve the financial and social position of assigned to monitoring and evaluation. This women through a combination of activities ranging included the completion of an outcome evalu- from the introduction of Village Savings and Loans ation to assess if the intended outcomes were Associations (VSLAs); external funding for business being achieved. support; engagement of women, men and key stakeholders on the role of women in households - Real time monitoring: Field officers monitored and businesses; and trainings in responsible mining, the savings groups. They not only provided group dynamics, and leadership skills. For women technical support to the savings groups but business leaders this program might offer a path to also collected data on loans made, repayment financial independence and greater equality. rates, and what the loans are funding. Solidaridad has made a gender-specific review of - Consultation: The savings groups were adverse impacts in the gold mining supply chain consulted after nine months to understand the (Gender Responsive Due Diligence, 2021a). This group’s financial needs. This informed whether review showed that women in Ghana’s small-scale a revolving fund was needed, and if so, how it mining sector lack access to finance while also should be distributed between the groups. performing low-paid jobs. The underprivileged position of women in the gold mines is a reflec- - Research approaches: Solidaridad conducted tion of their position in the communities, which extensive research into how a revolving fund hinders women in their economic and social devel- would work, mindful not to disrupt savings opment. They need access to finance, support in groups, but instead enhance group capacity to financial literacy, and access to the local business- provide business related loans. supportive infrastructure. The project’s focus is to pave the way for women to start businesses around the gold mines and in the communities. By focusing Achievements on this, the project tackles a systemic gender- based barrier in gold mining communities. The project has made good progress implementing a gender-specific due diligence process, leading to Following these findings, Kering’s partnership with the following achievements: Solidaridad focused on increasing women’s access to credit so that women can start or improve their - 55% of women involved in the saving groups businesses around the mines legally (Gender have secured credit from either the savings Responsive Due Diligence, 2021b). This has been group or the revolving fund. Loans have contrib- achieved via establishing savings groups for women uted to business expansion and an increase in in the mining communities and then supporting these both profit and overall household incomes. savings groups to increase the size of their loans via a revolving fund of $15,000, provided by Kering. - The $15,000 revolving fund has been given out to 72 individuals via the five savings groups, Tracking implementation and results of the revolving with 88% repaid to date. fund (Gender Responsive Due Diligence, 2021c) has also been an important step for the project to - Trust has been placed in the women, they are understand how they can sustainably achieve their responsible for managing the revolving fund goal. They have done this in several ways: and how it works, which has provided more State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 93 ownership and empowerment. ways of working—will support the tracking of implementation and results as well as efficient - The women have demonstrated short repay- use of the fund. ment times, indicating the funds are likely to revolve for a long time. This means high reach - The revolving fund should be complemented and impact for a relatively low investment. by loan criteria as well as a tool to help track loan allocations and repayments. - By continuously tracking the savings groups, it was apparent that while women could access - Adequate financial resourcing is needed to finance through the groups, the finance avail- effectively track implementation and results— able was not enough. This meant the revolving make sure that you budget enough to do it well. fund could be used to inject sustainable capital into the groups. - To ensure that project participants have the confidence, skills, and knowledge to make - Through continuous tracking, frequent adjust- good financial investments, such a fund should ments could be made to improve how the be complemented with training on group revolving fund worked and a “how to” guide dynamics, leadership skills, business skills, and could be developed to ensure lessons learned financial literacy. from creating such a fund can inform future work. - To support women to make informed decisions about what kind of enterprises to invest in, work Learnings and recommendations with them to map the economic opportunities that exist in the area. for others - Keep reviewing your goal—the project’s goal ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Gender-Responsive Due Diligence, was for women in small-scale mining commu- Thanks to the funding partners and 2021a. STEP 2 Identify and assess adverse impacts. Retrieved from: nities to access finances. While the savings organizations involved: Solidaridad and https://www.genderduediligence.org/ Kering (note: Kering does not source groups started to progress, the funds available directly from miners involved in this implement-grdd/step-2/ were not enough. Kering and Solidaridad could project. Its support is based solely on its commitment to support women empow- Gender-Responsive Due Diligence, 2021b. STEP 3 Address adverse see this from continuous tracking of the pilot erment and development in the area). impacts. Retrieved from: https:// www.genderduediligence.org/ and so introduced the revolving fund. REFERENCES implement-grdd/step-3/ Gender-Responsive Due Diligence, Solidaridad, 2021. For Women 2021c. STEP 4 Track implementation - Embedding a revolving fund within an existing Entrepreneurs In Ghana’s Mining Communities, Finance Is Golden. and results. Retrieved from: https:// www.genderduediligence.org/ group structure—such as a savings group that is Retrieved from: https://www.solidaridad- implement-grdd/step-4/ network.org/news/supporting-women-en- registered and has guidelines and established trepreneurs-in-ghana-gold-communities/ 94 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home CASE STUDY #10 Credit: mddphoto, iStock UNEARTHING HOPE: A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO SUPPORTING GIRLS AND BOYS IN TANZANIAN MINING COMMUNITIES AUTHORS: Alison Koler,1 Levina Kikoyo1 and Ramadhani Abdul2 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Pact, 2Ifakara Health Institute INTRODUCTION USAID Kizazi Kipya was a five-year project (July 2016 to December 2021) implemented by Pact and its partners and funded by the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Across Tanzania, the project enabled orphans and vulnerable children (OVC)—children, adolescents, and young people orphaned and made vulnerable by HIV to utilize services for improved care, health, nutrition, education, protection, livelihoods, and psychosocial well-being. The project delivered services in areas with high HIV burden, including three district councils (DC) reliant on artisanal gold mining activities: Chunya DC and Songwe DC in the Southern Highlands, and Bukombe DC in the country’s northwest. To meet the unique needs of children and their caregivers in these artisanal mining communities, Kizazi Kipya designed and piloted a tailored service package for this population. The project, in partnership with Ifakara Health Institute (IHI), conducted formative research to guide the design of the intervention and a cohort study to evaluate its effectiveness on health and well-being outcomes including HIV and sexual violence. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 95 Formative research and baseline children (17%) being newly diagnosed. The overall measurement HIV prevalence among the cohort was 4.9% with a slightly higher proportion of boys (5.4%) living with The project’s formative research conducted in HIV compared to girls (4.3%). Of those previously 2017 found that in the target communities, child diagnosed, 92% were already on antiretroviral labor is a significant challenge that affects both therapy (ART). The baseline measurement revealed boys and girls, with children as young as 7 years that 80% of children had experienced physical, old starting to work in the mines and younger chil- emotional, and/or sexual violence in their lifetime. dren accompanying their mothers as they carry Children working in mining (i.e., direct contact with out mining-related work. Although both boys and minerals, selling/preparing food, bar work, and sex girls are involved in mining activities, different tasks work catering to miners) were more likely to ever are assigned by gender. Boys are often involved have had sex, transactional sex, more than one in both underground and surface mining activities, sexual partner, and used alcohol compared to those while girls are mainly engaged in surface mining not working in mining. Working in mining was also tasks, such as sorting and cutting stones and trans- associated with a more than two-fold increase in porting materials for crushing and washing. sexual and physical abuse. Though the vulnerabilities were more pronounced among children engaged in Girls are not typically engaged in washing and mining, those living in mining communities still faced amalgamating gold, rather they are more likely than significant risks and had numerous unmet needs boys to work in food stalls near and in mining areas. (Geubbels et al., 2018; Abdul et al., 2023). The formative research also found that some girls were engaged in sex work, and there were reports of sexual abuse among children across mining sites Tailored service package (Metta et al., 2017; 2023). Based on findings from the formative and baseline This formative research informed the approaches research, Kizazi Kipya adapted its family-centered and design of the package of interventions for case management approach to children and their children and their caregivers in mining communi- caregivers in mining communities. Given the multi- ties. In consultation with the Department of Social tude of vulnerabilities children in mining commu- Welfare under what was then the Ministry of Health, nities experience as well as the complexity that Community Development, Gender, Elderly and involvement in mining presents, the project opted Children (MOHCDGEC), the project expanded to hire professional social workers rather than using its enrollment criteria in these targeted mining lay volunteers as it did across other project sites. communities to consider the harms and risks chil- These social workers were trained to use standard- dren face. Girls and boys ages 10–19 who work ized tools to assess vulnerability and offered direct in direct contact with minerals, girls ages 10¬–19 health and social services during routine house- who provide services at the mines, children under hold visits based on identified needs. For services 10 years of age who worked in direct contact with that could not be provided directly, social workers minerals without caregiver presence, children made referrals and linkages to appropriate service living with HIV (CLHIV), and children who have providers in the area. Social workers customized been physically or sexually abused were all eligible support based on family circumstances and chil- for enrollment into Kizazi Kipya. Taking a family-cen- dren’s needs and developed care plans that were tered approach, these children, along with their monitored and updated on a regular basis. siblings (ages 0–19 years old) and caregivers, were offered enrollment in the project. With mining work being a structurally high HIV and violence risk environment, Kizazi Kipya focused As part of the baseline measurement (December on facilitating the transition of children away from 2017 to April 2018), HIV testing services (HTS) were mining work, redirecting them towards occupations offered and 47 children were HIV positive, with eight with fewer health and safety risks or reintegrating 96 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home them back into school. To do this, the project Overall, the endline demonstrated positive effects implemented economic strengthening activities for both boys and girls across health and social for older adolescents including linkages to proj- well-being domains. ect-supported savings and lending groups and vocational education scholarships and support. HIV knowledge: Awareness about HIV/AIDS For children still eligible to return to formal school, increased 22% and 23% for boys and girls, respec- social workers worked with school administrators tively. Of the children with awareness about HIV, 61% and government officials to re-enroll children, and reported knowing how HIV is transmitted at base- the project provided educational subsidies to chil- line, which increased to 78% at endline. Initially, less dren who returned to school. To reinforce the bene- than half of them could mention at least one way fits of schooling as well as positive parenting more of reducing HIV risk at baseline, while two-thirds generally, the project provided parental education could do so at endline. and positive parenting skill-building to caregivers. Given the heightened health risks associated with HIV risk behaviors: Children who became sexually mining activities, the project also provided health active during the study period had a higher median insurance to families enrolled in the project. age at first sex (age 16) compared to those who reported being sexually active at baseline (age 13). At baseline, 85% of boys reported a consensual first sex, whereas only two out of 10 girls had volun- Endline findings tary experiences, with the rest being coerced or The endline cohort measurement was conducted deceived. At the endline, all newly sexually active between December 2020 and January 2021. Out boys reported voluntary first sex, and the percentage of the 961 children who took part in the baseline of girls with voluntary first experiences significantly survey and received project services, 610 children rose from 20% to 58%. At baseline, condom use was (63%) participated in the endline survey. at 21% and increased to 35% at endline, with a more pronounced effect among girls. Initially, a substantial Between those who participated in the endline proportion of girls (60%) reported having older sex survey and those who were only part of the base- partners (5 years older or more), which decreased line, there were no significant differences in gender, to 48% by the endline. Transactional sex among chil- baseline HIV status, or study site. However, the dren slightly decreased from 29% to 24% over the baseline-only participants were typically older and course of the study, primarily driven by a decline in more frequently involved in mining activities. transactional sex among girls. FIGURE 16. Health Problems and Care-Seeking Behavior by Gender 80% 74% 63% 65% 59% 58% 60% 52% Stopped doing daily 39% work > 3 days because 40% 38% of health problems in past year 20% Sought care for health problem in past year – Baseline Endline Baseline Endline Male Female State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 97 HIV outcomes: A significant proportion of children than girls (26%). It was reported that 8% of children referred by the project for HTS, based on the HIV experienced sexual abuse, with a higher preva- risk assessment conducted by social workers, lence among girls (11%) compared to boys (4%). At reported attending the clinic for HTS (87% of boys, endline, of the children who reported experiencing 96% of girls). In total, more than 80% of children who violence, 76% noted a decrease in the frequency were tested at baseline also reported undergoing of such incidents once the project social worker at least one subsequent HIV test. Among CLHIV began conducting household visits. who participated in the endline, all newly identified HIV positive children achieved viral suppression Involvement in mining: At baseline, 36% of chil- while 75% of CLHIV with known status at baseline dren were involved in mining, and among those attained viral suppression during the study period participating in the endline survey 65% had or were already virally suppressed upon study stopped mining activities. Significant differences enrollment. by gender were observed, revealing that girls were more inclined than boys to discontinue or refrain General health: The baseline revealed that more from engaging in mining activities. than 50% of children reported having to halt their daily activities for three or more days due to health In addition to the decline in mining participation, issues. At endline, there was a substantial reduc- there was a noticeable reduction in the number of tion in this figure, with a decrease of 14 percentage children contributing to their family’s income. The points for boys and 24 percentage points for decrease was significant from 23% to 3% among girls. At the same time, the endline also revealed 5–9 year olds, 68% to 30% among 10–14 year olds, a decrease in care-seeking behavior among girls and 83% to 66% among 15–19 year olds (Geubbels when it came to addressing health problems. et al., 2021). Violence against children: At the endline, 70% of children reported experiencing violence in Discussion their lifetime, with the type of violence varying by gender. The most prevalent form was phys- Children in mining face a range of risks and vulner- ical abuse, as reported by 67% of children, with a abilities, including exposure to hazardous working slight variation between boys (65%) and girls (68%). conditions, increased susceptibility to HIV, elevated Emotional abuse was experienced by 30% of the levels of violence, limited opportunities for educa- children and was more common among boys (34%) tion, and challenges in accessing essential services. FIGURE 17. Involvement in mining by gender Never started mining Stopped mining Continued mining Started mining – 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Girls Boys 98 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home Gender differences in mining roles and occupa- lack of condom use, and nearly one in four, primarily tional exposures and the impact of gender norms girls, engaging in transactional sex, these findings more broadly contribute to observable variations in underscore the ongoing necessity for targeted risk risks and vulnerabilities among children engaged in reduction strategies among this population. mining activities. To effectively address these chal- lenges, the project’s multi-pronged design, which During the study period, there was a significant prioritized the health, safety, education, and liveli- decrease in the number of children who reported hoods of children and their families, was carefully having to discontinue their daily activities due to tailored to be gender-sensitive and age-appropriate. health issues. These findings highlight the positive The endline results demonstrated a positive effect impact of the intervention on minimizing health-re- across various health and social well-being domains, lated disruptions. The endline, however, revealed affirming the effectiveness of the project’s approach. a notable reduction in care-seeking behaviors for health problems in the past year among girls, A gender-sensitive and adaptable case manage- whereas no such change was observed among ment approach was utilized, tailoring support to boys. At the same time, girls were more likely than meet the unique needs of each child. The involve- boys to complete HIV testing if referred. This high- ment of professional social workers was crucial lights the need for further exploration of gender-spe- due to the complex nature of cases, particularly cific factors influencing care-seeking patterns. concerning high rates of sexual, physical, and emotional violence experienced by both boys and Recognizing the high-risk environment faced by girls. Social workers were able to identify and be first children engaged in mining activities, a pivotal responders to cases of abuse, and they also imple- strategy of the project focused on facilitating mented parenting interventions to improve positive school enrollment, supporting school progression, parenting skills and decrease harsh punishment. and promoting alternative livelihood options. The The endline assessment revealed that a significant endline demonstrated that more than half of chil- majority of children who had disclosed experiencing dren who were engaged in mining at baseline had abuse reported a notable reduction in the frequency ceased their mining activities. Notably, the effects of such abuse following the regular visits of the proj- were more pronounced among girls who were ect’s social worker to their household, underscoring more likely to have stopped mining or never start the value of continuous support and intervention by mining in the first place, though there were still social workers in safeguarding the well-being and significant impacts observed among boys. This protection of these vulnerable children. headway represents a crucial stride in breaking the intergenerational cycle of mining and serves as a Beyond child protection issues, social workers model to facilitate access to alternative livelihoods identified other needs and linked children to appro- and safer livelihood opportunities for these children. priate services including HIV services. Notably, there was high completion of HIV testing among children identified as at risk, and among CLHIV Conclusion almost 80% were virally suppressed. By endline, there were observable reductions in HIV risk The influence of gender has emerged as a crucial behaviors, including around sexual debut, condom factor affecting risks, vulnerabilities, and the use, and transactional sex. Among girls who outcomes of the project, highlighting the complex became sexually active during the study period, a interplay between societal norms, power dynamics, higher proportion of them reported a consensual and individual experiences in Tanzanian mining first sex compared to those who were already sexu- communities. Gender disparities were evident in the ally active at baseline. Despite these promising different risk profiles, underscoring the necessity results, the prevalence and persistence of high-risk for targeted strategies that specifically address the behaviors among sexually active children in the distinct challenges experienced by boys and girls study is notable. With more than half reporting a in mining communities. The research revealed that State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 99 interventions had varying degrees of effectiveness for certain outcomes depending on gender, which underscores the importance of continuing to empha- size a gender-responsive approach when designing and implementing future initiatives for this popula- tion. This approach is crucial in fostering meaningful change and ensuring that interventions effectively improve the well-being and empowerment of girls and boys in Tanzania’s mining communities. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in Tanzanian small-scale gold mines: high HIV and violence risk. Amsterdam, The authors are grateful to the children, Netherlands: International AIDS caregivers, and communities who Conference. participated in this research, sharing their experiences and insights that have Geubbels E, Abdul R. (2018). Baseline contributed to a deeper understanding survey for the USAID Kizazi Kipya chil- of the challenges and potential solutions dren in mining component, 2017-2018. in Tanzanian artisanal mining communi- Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Pact and ties. Special thanks to IHI for our partner- Ifakara Health Institute. ship and leading this important research. We extend our appreciation to Pact’s Geubbels E, Abdul R, Bajaria S, Minja J, local implementing partners, New Light Mtenga S. (2021). Impact of the USAID Children Center Organization (NELICO) Kizazi Kipya project children in mining and Integrated Rural Development component, 2017-2021. Dar es Salaam, Organization (IRDO), for their dedicated Tanzania: Pact and Ifakara Health efforts in implementing the project in Institute. mining communities. We are grateful for the guidance of the Department of Metta E, Abdul R, Geubbels E. (2017). Social Welfare under Tanzania’s Ministry Pathways and experiences of children of Health and the support of local and adolescents who engage in arti- government authorities in Chunya DC, sanal and small-scale gold mining-re- Songwe DC, and Bukombe DC under the lated Activities in Tanzania. Dar es President of the Regional Administration Salaam, Tanzania: Pact and Ifakara and Local Government (PO-RALG). Health Institute; 2017. We thank PEPFAR and USAID for their Metta E, Abdul R, Koler A, Geubbels generous funding support of the USAID E. (2023). Ecological aspects shaping Kizazi Kipya project. child labour in Tanzania’s artisanal and Abdul R, Metta E, Charles J, Kikoyo L, small-scale gold mines: A qualitative Koler A, Toroka N, (2018). Child labour inquiry. Heliyon. 100 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home CASE STUDY #11 Credit: BAN Toxics EMPOWERING WOMEN IN PHILIPPINE ASM COMMUNITIES THROUGH COMPASSIONATE GOLD AUTHORS: Jashaf Shamir Lorenzo1 and Arleen Honrade1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION: 1BAN Toxics (Philippines) INTRODUCTION The Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) sector in the Philippines is a significant provider of livelihoods with an estimated 500,000 miners being employed in the sector and millions more supported by it (Mayuga, 2017). These operations are largely informal and can be found in 40 provinces around the country (Simeon, 2016). ASGM is closely linked with extreme poverty, and miners, including women, engage in mining-related work due to the lack of educational and alternative economic opportunities available to them (International Labour Organization, 2019). These same conditions continue to lead to children working on mining sites, where they hope to earn money to help their parents (Human Rights Watch, 2015). It is estimated (International Labour Organization, 2019) that 18,000 to 20,000 women and children work in ASGM-related jobs in the Philippines. Women in ASGM face several challenges because of the absence of sustainable empowering opportunities and the continued silence of women’s contributions to the sector. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 101 In 2018, Philippine’s-based nongovernment orga- community organizing efforts for women in the nization BAN Toxics launched the Compassionate sector. Key issues identified for women in ASGM Gold Program (CG) to contribute toward the are summarized below. formalization of the sector (International Labour Organization, 2018). Among its objectives is to Under BAN Toxics’ CG Program, various activi- contribute toward gender equity in the sector ties have been conducted to contribute toward through community organizing and advocating mainstreaming gender issues in ASGM. The CG for increased institutional support. By providing Monitoring and Certification Tool helped identify women with valuable opportunities to participate in key gender issues as well as potential actions that the sector more meaningfully, women can become may address them in the context of formalization. In more visible in roles that are aligned with their line with BAN Toxics’ multi-stakeholder approach to capacities and interests. formalizing ASGM (World Bank, 2020), these activi- ties target women’s groups, small-scale miners, and local government partners and may be grouped under two key categories: 1) livelihood develop- The Compassionate Gold program ment and 2) reducing gender-based violence. BAN Toxics’ engagement with women in the small-scale mining sector comes from the need The potential of different livelihoods to contribute to address several inequities. As part of the CG to improving economic conditions for women were program, a certification tool was developed to iden- identified by the CG tool in the municipalities of tify key issues in the sector. The tool is consistent Paracale and Labo in the province of Camarines with international standards, such as the CRAFT Sur. Aside from mining-related skills (which also Code and the OECD standards, with modifications include crafts), agriculture was also seen as a key to fit the Philippine context (Lorenzo, 2020). The growth opportunity for women and one which issues identified were further assessed through dovetails well with ASGM whereby faster finan- community knowledge and BAN Toxics’ continued cial returns from mining can be invested in seeds, TABLE 7: Summary of gender Issues in ASGM Key Issue Description The double burden of work- Women engage in both manual and administrative duties in the sector (International home responsibilities Labour Organization, 2020). Aside from this, women are still expected to perform gendered roles in the household, which often overlap with their responsibilities in mining. In conversations with communities, women have described their situations as akin to that of “unpaid house helpers.” Perspectives on women’s The income received by women from mining is often perceived as “augmentative” in incomes nature, e.g., only serving to contribute a small amount to the family income, which is still seen as primarily driven by the males in the household. This perspective is indicative of a lack of acknowledgement and assertion of women’s economic contributions in the household. Gender-based violence Gender-based violence is still common in some communities in the Philippines. For other communities, the absence of such violence points to two possibilities: 1) improved gender conditions leading to no incidences of gender violence, or 2) the lack of resources available for women to report and seek actions to address such incidences. Lack of capacity to engage with In some cases, women were found to be provided with minimal or no consideration stakeholders during the development and implementation of small-scale mining projects. This limits opportunities to shape their working environments and opportunities more broadly. 102 Advance women’s social protections at the mine and home fertilizers, and tools, and improve household nutri- These activities served to legitimize women as tion through subsistence farming. Through ASM independent and empowered skilled workers formalization efforts and linking communities with who can be primary economic contributors to government partners, women mining groups were the household income. Previously, women in the provided with individual complementary livelihood partner areas were thought to be incapable of starter kits and financial assistance worth more providing substantive incomes, and these activities than 800,000 Philippine pesos by the Philippines helped shift community perspectives and enhance Department of Labor and Employment. The project the ASM community ecosystem they are a part of. benefited a total of 51 families. The CG approach showed that involving women beneficiaries in the conceptualization and imple- Ban Toxics facilitated the coordination between mentation of these activities provided them with partner mining communities and government stake- valuable opportunities to access livelihoods based holders such as the Philippines Technical Education on their interests, capacities, and talents. and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) and the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA). These partnerships focused on providing skills training Contributing toward the reduction and business training for target women groups of gender-based violence in the municipalities. Finally, the Department of Agriculture provided seedlings, farm tools, and Under the CG program, BAN Toxics continues to equipment such as container drums and water conduct gender sensitivity training with partner hoses to 186 families who wanted to shift away from mining communities such as Camarines Norte (Bicol mining-related work and move to agriculture. Region in the northern part of the Philippine archi- Livelihood development for women in ASGM Credit: BAN Toxics State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 103 pelago) and T’boli, South Cotabato (Soccsksargen them. This in turn can inform project development, Region in the southern part of the archipelago). planning, and implementation to ensure that women These activities focus on discussing the impacts of are provided equitable access to opportunities. gender in shaping the social, economic, and polit- ical opportunities available to an individual in the Last, affirmative action programs need to be devel- mining sector enabling their participation in ASGM. oped and implemented to address gender inequal- Gender mapping is regularly conducted in these ities and allow women to advance. Community communities to provide accurate estimates of the organizing plays an important role in providing number of women working in mine sites and to women with a voice. Furthermore, this can ensure that information on the status and condition contribute greatly toward identifying potential solu- of women in the sector are accurate. tions to community problems. As an example, the CG program’s livelihood components contributed Women in the ASGM sector are also accounted toward changing community gender dynamics and for in budgets and programs for gender equality women are now able to participate in critical and through partnerships with the local government profitable points in the gold mining process and unit (LGU). This is accomplished through linking enhance their economic contributions. women’s groups with the LGU’s gender focal point through multi-stakeholder discussions and the In conclusion, ensuring that women can participate establishment of formal partnerships. in key community processes and training them to become independent skilled workers, who show what is possible by leading by example, should remain a priority. BAN Toxics’ continuing experi- Key learnings and recommendations ences with the Compassionate Gold program reiter- BAN Toxics’ experience with gender issues in ates the importance of participation in ensuring the the context of formalization highlights several key rights of women in ASGM are protected and valued. learnings. First, gender is a cross-cutting issue and should be addressed through a multi-stakeholder perspective—the environmental, social, and polit- REFERENCES International Labour Organization. (2020). Artisanal and small-scale gold Human Rights Watch. (2015). ical conditions that women miners are subjected to Hazardous child labor in small-scale mining baseline report: Camarines Norte and South Cotabato. Retrieved from: are shaped by several external factors, including gold mining in the Philippines. Retrieved from: https://www.hrw.org/ https://www.ilo.org/manila/publications/ WCMS_754840/lang--en/index.htm other stakeholder groups’ perspectives of women. report/2015/09/30/what-if-something- Lorenzo, J. (2020). Compassionate gold: went-wrong/hazardous-child-labor- small-scale-gold-mining a multi-stakeholder approach to formal- ization and mercury-free production. Second, there is a continuing need to educate both International Labour Organization. Retrieved from: https://delvedatabase. (2018). What is Compassionate Gold? women and men regarding gender perspectives in Retrieved from: https://www.ilo.org/ org/uploads/resources/2020-SoS_ SHG-4_Compassionate-Gold.pdf wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro- the context of ASGM. Likewise, government stake- bangkok/---ilo-manila/documents/ Mayuga, J. (2017). “Villar: legalize small- holders should be made aware of these issues. As meetingdocument/wcms_630351.pdf scale mining. Published by Business Mirror”. Retrieved from: https:// NGOs, our roles are to facilitate discussions and International Labour Organization. (2019). Child labour in mining, poor businessmirror.com.ph/2017/05/22/ villar-legalize-small-scale-mining/ partnerships between these groups and to ensure working conditions take center stage in inter-regional meeting. Retrieved from: Simeon, L. (2016). “Government halts that women are represented in LGUs, which should https://www.ilo.org/manila/public/pr/ operations of small-scale miners”. The WCMS_706334/lang--en/index.htm Philippine Star. continue to implement gender-sensitive programs. International Labour Organization. World Bank. 2020. 2020 State of the (2019). Gap analysis and recom- Artisanal and Small- Scale Mining mendations on laws on child labour Sector. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Third, there is a need to emphasize the importance and working conditions in artisanal of conducting social research on the status of small-scale gold mining. Retrieved from: https://www.ilo.org/manila/publications/ women in ASGM and ensuring that gender is inte- WCMS_743701/lang--en/index.htm grated in data collection and analysis. Tools such as the CG Certification and Monitoring Tool have provided communities with valuable opportunities to understand the role and status of women in the sector, especially as they face issues unique to 104 ACCOUNT FOR GENDERED DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY EFFORTS AT MINE SITES AUTHORS: Dingani Moyo,1 Josephine Singo, 2 Marie-Rose Bashwira, 3 Michael Akilimali, 3 Nellia Mutemeri,1 Ege Tekinbas,4 Marion Langlois,4 Nydia Ponnan5 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1University of the Witwatersrand, 2University of Munich, 3International Institute of Social Studies, 4 International Institute for Sustainable Development, 5MutConsult SDG 5 Targets SDG 5 Indicators 5.2: Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the 5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current types of exploitation or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age 5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence 5.3: Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced 5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a marriage and female genital mutilation union before age 15 and before age 18 5.3.2 Proportion of girls and women aged 15–49 years who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age Target 5.6: Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive Indicator 5.6.1: Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and reproductive health care and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences Indicator 5.6.2: Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee full and equal access to women and men aged 15 years and older to sexual and reproductive health care, information and education State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 105 KEY FINDINGS Overview The 2020 State of the Sector report found that - Women in ASM are being exposed to an “investments in health and safety are urgently increasing number of negative environmen- needed for ASM, since improved OHS [occupational tally related health impacts. Over one-third health and safety] is a collective responsibility which (34%) of miners participating in the Mine Site is both feasible and beneficial to all” (World Bank, Questionnaire reported an increase in negative 2020a). To help fill the gender ASM data gap on environmental impacts on women in ASM in OHS—the practice that deals with the safety, health, recent years (651 out of 1,897 participants), with welfare and well-being of people when they are at only 13% (249 participants) noting a decrease. work—this section of the 2023 report considers the gendered needs and impacts on women. - There is limited availability of maternal health and sexual health and reproductive care near Mines are one of the most dangerous workplaces mine sites and mining communities. Over in the world due to the number of people who one-third of participants (34% or 647 out of are exposed to the inherent risks associated with 1,881) report that maternal and sexual health mining (Baghaei Naeini and Badri, 2023). Mining care is not available near the ASM sites where involves complex multidisciplinary processes under they work. dynamic conditions that frequently expose miners to a wide range of occupation health risks. Even - Girls are at a disproportionately higher risk though formal industrial mine operators are duty- of child marriage in ASM communities than bound to international, regional, and national laws, boys. Significantly more women than men corporate standards, and industry safety protocols, were married under the age of 18 compared mining still produces significant OHS risks every to men. The Mine Site Questionnaire found day. In its Safety Performance Report (ICMM, 2023), that, compared to men, 11 times more women the International Council on Mining and Metals reported being married under the age of 18 (ICMM), a leading industry body accounting for (58 women to five men). one-third of the global metals and mining sector, recorded 45 fatalities and 7,355 injuries across their large-scale mining members in 2021. Conversely, ASM is characterized by informality, limited govern- ment oversight and enforcement, and ASM opera- tions are known to be seasonal with high mobility trends in remote and hard to reach areas that have poor or no access to health services. As a result, the risk of accidents in ASM is believed to be six Occupational health and to seven times higher than that of large-scale miners (Ajith, Ghosh and Jansz, 2020). Moreover, safety (OHS) is the practice the risk of fatality in ASM is an order of magnitude that deals with the safety, higher; using the best available data from a range of sources, the 2020 State of the Sector report health, welfare and well- estimated that worldwide there could be upwards being of people when of 30,250 fatalities in ASM annually (McQuilken and McFarlane, in World Bank, 2020a). Even more they are at work. alarming, is that women and children are 90 times more at risk of death than their male counterparts (Ajith, Ghosh and Jansz, 2020). However, as ASM is perceived as a male-domi- nated industry, and women are often not regarded 106 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites as miners, women’s OHS has garnered limited of chemicals thereby increasing toxicity to body academic attention or consideration in policy forma- cells, tissues, and organs (Hoskins, 2003). Many tion. With an increasing number of women joining women of childbearing age are employed in ASM the global labor force (ILO, 2023), more work needs leading to many pregnancies potentially being to be done to consider gender differences in OHS. exposed to OHS dangers (Selander, 2016; Biswas et al., 2021). Poor sanitation and hygiene, lack of Against this context, the third section of the 2023 decent shelter, and the harsh working conditions report builds on findings of the 2020 State of the in ASM disproportionately affect women’s health. Sector report by extending the review of OHS in These physiological factors prejudice and constrain ASM through a gendered lens, demonstrating an women from fully participating in ASM activities. urgent need to address the socioeconomic and As a result, women are often relegated to lower- cultural marginalization that contributes to the earning peripheral roles where their contributions specific OHS risks confronting women in ASM. to the sector are not significantly recognized, even though they undertake important labor-intensive and hazardous jobs along the ASM value chain. Gender inequalities in occupational health and safety Occupational health and safety Women, men, and children that participate in ASM are exposed to numerous OHS hazards. The risks for women in mining gendered division of labor, biological differences, Women in ASM are uniquely exposed to a multi- employment patterns, cultural beliefs, societal plicity of OHS hazards due to anatomical, physio- roles, expectations, and responsibilities contribute logical, socioeconomic and sociocultural factors to gender-specific patterns of occupational (Geenen, et al., 2022). To highlight the gender-dif- hazards and risks with women being differentially ferentiated OHS risks and the way they manifest in more exposed. Gender inequalities in OHS can ASM, this section explores common risks women in be related to both socio-cultural and biological ASM experience according to the five categories differences (Sorrentino et al., 2016). Gendered in Table 8. norms, authority, and power relations frequently disadvantage women in ASM zones (Buss et al., 2017). Some of the many challenges women face PHYSICAL AND BIOMECHANICAL in ASM include a lack of land rights and ownership, Due to social norms and traditional beliefs, women restricted participation in decision making, limited usually occupy low-earning roles along the ASM access to leadership positions, a lack of access to value chain and as a result suffer from a limited finances, equipment, and technologies, and unsafe access to finance. With limited financial capacity, work conditions—resulting in a heightened inci- women struggle to afford equipment and technolo- dence of gender-based violence, including sexual gies to improve the productivity and safety of oper- harassment (World Bank, 2022b; IGF, 2018). ations such as the use of fume hoods and a mercury retort or the use of mercury-free technologies, Physical changes associated with pregnancy or take protective measures such as purchasing pose challenges to fitness for duty for women in personal protective equipment (PPE). Two studies safety-sensitive work such as in confined or high from Ghana found that it was less probable for spaces, or where precision and exactitude are female miners to wear PPE compared to their male required. Physiological changes due to menstrual counterparts; the women miners that were studied cycles and pregnancy result in greater exposure did not wear PPE as they were not paid enough to to OHS hazards when compared to their male afford PPE and companies did not provide women counterparts. The increase in respiratory rate, with PPE, as the roles women performed were not glomerular filtration rate,1 and other physiological ‘dangerous’ enough to warrant providing women changes result in increased uptake and distribution miners with PPE (Dinye and Erdiaw-Kwasie; 2012; State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 107 TABLE 8. OHS exposure and related health implications in ASM OHS Exposures Health Implications Physical and Biomechanical Landslides; flooding and mine collapse Injury, or sometimes death Uncomfortable, non-ergonomic working Musculoskeletal injuries and disorders positions Lack of PPE Accidents and injury Lack of ventilation Respiratory issues Lack of equipment or use of inappropriate Physical harm and injuries equipment Chemical Use of hazardous chemicals Heavy metal intoxication or poisoning (Hg, CN, As, Pb) Exposure to hazardous chemicals Developmental and neurological risks to unborn and breastfeeding babies Psychosocial Hard manual, repetitive labor; long Fatigue, stress and low libido working hours Poor nutrition Malnutrition, low immunity Casual and unpaid labor Poverty Limited support and/or coping Alcohol and substance abuse mechanisms Biological Limited to no water, sanitation and Water-borne diseases, gastrointestinal hygiene facilities disease and urinary tract infections Dust exposure Silicosis, Tuberculosis, Pneumoconiosis and other respiratory diseases Harsh weather conditions without Bacterial diseases, skin diseases, water- shelter; standing in cold/polluted water borne diseases and malaria for long periods of time, and poor waste management High risk behavior; lack of sexual and Sexually transmitted infections and reproductive health care diseases Unsafe work conditions Gender-based violence Environmental Diversion and use of water sources Water pollution, diversion and siltation of water sources Use of chemicals for mineral processing Chemical contamination of water sources, food sources and livestock Removal of the substrata without Erosion, sinkholes, deforestation and the restoration loss of biodiversity Processing and storage of tailings or Acid mine drainage and contamination of mine waste soil, ground and surface water Source: World Bank, 2020a 108 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites Aram et al., 2021). Women remain more vulnerable sites suffer from reduced cognitive functioning and to the health impacts of ASM as a lack of capital is score almost five IQ points lower than their peers one of the dominant disabling factors contributing to (Reuben et al., 2020). To make matters worse, many compromised workplace protection in ASM (Singo women miners and processors are unaware of the et al, 2022b). Furthermore, the PPE that is available dangers posed by mercury or about safe chemical is designed with men’s physiology in mind—tailored use (WIM Ghana, 2023). PPE that fits women’s bodies comfortably and correctly to provide adequate safety protection is needed to ensure their equal participation in ASM. PSYCHOSOCIAL Women can be deprived of access to, use of, and control of land and productive resources (IGF, 2018). CHEMICAL This judicial and cultural constraint has relegated As women are often perceived to be unsuited to women to labor-intensive, unmechanized, hazardous perform mineral extraction, they tend to be found roles along the value chain. Women manually sort working in the processing stage of the ASM value through ore; manually grind the ore sometimes only chain. Women are primarily involved in crushing, using rudimentary tools such as a pestle and mortar sluicing, washing, panning, sieving, sorting, mercury or merely a large rock; they also physically haul the amalgamation, and amalgam decomposition (IGF, ore to different locations for processing, and without 2018). In many countries, women are responsible access to primary mining deposits, many women are for chemical processing. In Burkina Faso, Kenya, forced to sift through mine waste to look for residual Myanmar, and the Philippines, for example, women minerals. In addition to the heightened exposure conduct the mercury amalgamation on vaporization to injuries and disease, this level of physicality can aspects of gold processing inhaling toxic fumes have various psychosocial2 impacts. Women miners where mercury easily enters the bloodstream, experience fatigue not only as a result of the arduous and it is also common for women processors to work they perform but also due to the domestic use their hands to manually mix the mercury-gold demands of home life that they are also traditionally amalgam (Kaboré and Ariyaratne, 2020; WHO, charged with (IGF, 2018). The physically demanding 2016; McFarlane and Villalobos, 2019, Sturmes, work can lead to miners abusing over-the-counter 2020). Oftentimes, amalgam decomposition occurs drugs to combat fatigue, exhaustion, and chronic in the homes of women miners who typically use pain with a range of studies showing how drug their cooking stoves to vaporize the mercury— and alcohol use is commonly used by artisanal and sometimes in the presence of children and other small-scale miners as a coping mechanism (WHO, family members (Hinton, Viega and Beinhoff, 2016; Hinton, Viega and Beinhoff, 2003; Schwartz, 2003). While toxic mercury affects us all, women Lee and Darrah, 2021). and children are disproportionately impacted by mercury use. Mercury is a powerful neurotoxin, and Hunger and malnutrition have also been recorded women of childbearing age exposed to high levels in ASM areas (Zhang et al., 2020; Nordhagen, of mercury, especially occupationally, can transfer 2022; MSF, 2022). This is specifically pertinent mercury exposure to the developing fetus through because women are traditionally and culturally the placenta. Maternal exposure to mercury can linked to food and social norms around the world cause adverse birth outcomes, spontaneous abor- dictate that women are responsible for the prepara- tions, low birth weights, and preterm births (Nyanza tion and cooking of meals in the home. Even when et al., 2020). Children living in mercury-contami- women are engaged in mining full time, they are nated areas are at risk of mercury poisoning and still expected to come home and prepare meals, contain significant amounts of mercury in their which for many is a difficult task to find food stocks hair, blood, and urine (Bose-O’Reilly, 2018; Bose- after work and many children are forced to wait O’Reilly et al., 2008). Elevated levels of mercury until their mothers return to eat (Stokes-Walters, exposure also produce longer-term impacts for 2021). Moreover, many mothers are dependent the next generation, as children living near ASM on the money made from mining and are forced State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 109 to return back to work early after giving birth. In occurs in rural communities where agriculture is order to do this, newborns as young as two weeks the primary livelihood activity (Ofuso et al.,2020). old are weaned off breastmilk and are fed solids ASM and agriculture have a particularly complex such as porridge made of cassava or sorghum relationship. Although revenues from ASM can fuel with added sugar, which contains little nutrients agriculture and vice versa, they often compete for (Geenen et al., 2022). Early weaning prior to the the same inputs, namely land, water, labor, and WHO’s recommended age of six months can result capital (Hilson, 2011; Ofuso et al.,2020; Hilson and in the increased risk of chronic disease such as islet Garforth, 2012; McQuilken and Hilson, 2016; Mitchell autoimmunity (a condition that can progress to type and McQuilken, 2019). Due to the interdependence 1 diabetes), obesity, adult-onset celiac disease, and between the two rural economies, the negative envi- eczema (Kuo et al., 2011). Another worrying trend is ronmental impacts can have dire consequences for women bearing the brunt of food insecurity, since agriculture. Land degradation caused by pitted land they are known to eat last or least and skip meals to and unearthed substratum causes soil to become ensure other family members have access to food infertile; deforestation caused by forest clearing (Fuhrman et al., 2020). and bush burning reduces livestock grazing areas; the appropriation of farmlands for mining activities decreases the availability of land for agricultural BIOLOGICAL production and disrupts crop cultivation; water Mining has historically been considered “men’s diversion for mineral processing and pollution due work” requiring a level of physical and mental to the discharge of cyanide, mercury, and other capacity that many believe women do not possess. heavy metals into water sources renders water This false premise has created harmful social unfit for human and animal consumption and for the norms, cultural beliefs, and stereotypes that have irrigation of farmlands (Ncube-Phiri, Mucherera and been used to exclude women from mining activi- Ncube, 2015; Boadi et al., 2016; Mujere and Isidro, ties. Cultural barriers prohibit women from entering 2016; Mudyazhezha and Kanhukamwe, 2014; Ofuso mine sites around the world and restrict women’s et al.,2020). access to, use of, or control over mineral-bearing land and other productive assets. In ASM, gender The adverse environmental impact of ASM on inequality is deeply engrained and evident along agriculture is particularly concerning for women for value chains, where women are typically found several reasons. First, women comprise a signif- performing ancillary lower-earning jobs (IGF, 2018). icant portion (42%) of the global agricultural labor It is also apparent in the exclusion of women from force, are important producers of staple cereal and decision making, or their inability to exercise root crops, and play an important role in ensuring universal land rights. These socially constructed that their households are adequately provided with patriarchal structures have reinforced prejudicial macro- and micronutrients—therefore negative gender roles and subjugated women and girls environmental impacts that impede agricultural resulting in rampant gender inequality. production can impact women’s livelihoods and food security (FAO, 2011; Doss et al., 2018). Second, due to cultural norms, women and girls are primarily ENVIRONMENTAL responsible for food preparation and provision The ASM life cycle is the cause of various envi- around mine sites and in nearby mining communi- ronmental impacts, namely land degradation, ties and are more likely to work at food stalls. ASM deforestation, water and soil pollution, changes activities that negatively impact local agricultural in landscape structure, destruction of vegeta- production due to environmental destruction and tion and agriculture, and the loss of biodiversity degradation in turn affect the type of food that in a number of ASM-hosting countries (Ofuso et women can provide, thereby impacting the quality, al.,2020; Macháček, 2019; Hilson, 2002; Ingram quantity and nutritional value of the food available et al., 2011; Bansah et al., 2018; Agwa-Ejon and in ASM areas. Pradhan, 2018). A large proportion of ASM activity 110 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites Insights from the 2023 State of the are the most reported environmental impacts from Sector Survey the Mine Site Questionnaire. Soil erosion is the most observed environmental impact resulting in ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN MINING SITES soil degradation, which leads to a reduction in soil fertility negatively impacting agricultural production Adverse environmental impacts are a result of and food security (Macháček, 2019). Soil erosion significant geomorphic changes to the earth. The also increases the amount of dust carried by the negative impacts of ASM through the extraction wind, so it is unsurprising that dust pollution is also and processing of minerals using dangerous chem- highly reported in the Mine Site Questionnaire. icals, improper mine waste management, poor Dust pollution is associated with a range of health restoration, remediation and rehabilitation activ- impacts including lung cancer, bronchial asthma, ities, not only impact the natural environment but chronic bronchitis, pneumoconiosis, pulmonary also pose a risk to human health. tuberculosis, occupational asthma, chronic obstruc- tive pulmonary disease, dust-related fibrosis, The 2023 State of the Sector Survey confirms cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, multiple environmental impacts of ASM, many of and gastric cancer (Duarte et al., 2022). This finding which are linked to negative health impacts on ASM is corroborated by a range of studies, including populations and local communities. Soil erosion, those on countries that participated in the survey. deforestation, contamination of local streams and For example, In Kimberley, South Africa, Rose wetlands, soil contamination, and dust pollution and Allen-Spies (2023) recorded an elevated rate FIGURE 18.Which of these environmental impacts have you observed on the mining site? (Mine Site Questionnaire) 1,000 900 800 700 Respondent Count 600 500 400 300 200 100 – n n te n ts es s n n n te ry ck n . .. ng n m tio io io tio tio tio io io et pi cu as as to as di te os at ct at w ca lu llu lu n w w es er oo se ys t ru in st er pe ol ol of po tifi m an c li v am re di Fl os tp rp xi es il O s er of fo m So To se ne of am ec nt us Ai td es hu De se oi co th r D t re tic ta bo D N U d ea bi il ua an ls er So D ha aq at ca ge w al lo of ba im of of n ar An k io n ea G io ct br at t ru in ut es am O D nt Environmental Impacts Co Female Male State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 111 of respiratory disease among ASM operators. In fluvial processes has been noted in many of the Ghana, Rajajee et al., (2017) found increased pulmo- countries including in the 2023 State of the Sector nary malfunction among an ASGM community, and Survey, including Ghana (Macdonald, Lund and additional research has shown that women are Blanchett, 2015), Colombia (Corredor et al., 2022), disproportionately exposed to and affected by air the Philippines (Espiritu, Claveria and Bernadas, pollutants (Balakrishnan, Cohen and Smith, 2014; 2022), Mozambique, and Zimbabwe (Mujere and Hemshekhar et al., 2022). Isidro, 2016). This is important for women in ASM communities as poor water quality disproportion- The participants of the Mine Site Questionnaire ately impacts women and girls. In many countries, reported deforestation as the second most women and girls bear the primary responsibility for observed environmental impact at an ASM site. water collection and cumulatively women and girls Mining is one of the top drivers of deforestation spend 200 million hours each day collecting water globally (World Wildlife Fund, 2023). Deforestation (UNICEF, 2016). Poor water quality means they are is associated with an increase in the spread additionally exposed to hazards when fetching of life-threatening zoonotic diseases such as water from polluted waterways and/or are forced malaria and dengue fever (Robbins, 2016). Malaria to travel longer distances in search of clean water, epidemics in the ASM gemstone mining regions allocating time away from income-generating of Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand and the activities or school to collect water (Global Water alluvial gold mining regions of Brazil, Colombia, Partnership, 2022). French Guyana, Peru, and Suriname have been directly linked to the occurrence of ASM activities From a gendered perspective, the Mine Site in ecologically disturbed landscapes made worse Questionnaire also found that the negative environ- by having a highly concentrated vulnerable popula- mental impacts women in ASM are exposed to are tion without access to health care. Additionally, the increasing. Over one-third (34% or 651 out of 1,987 malaria was then spread when the highly mobile participants) of miners participating in the Mine Site artisanal and small-scale miners returned home (Shanks and Wongsrichanalai, 2022). Most global malaria cases worldwide occur in Africa, where ASM FIGURE 19. In recent years have the negative prevalence is at its highest and children under five environmental impacts to which women are and pregnant women are the most vulnerable to the exposed changed? (Mine Site Questionnaire) disease. Malaria during pregnancy can contribute to premature and still births and contribute to peri- Decreased 13.1% natal and neonatal mortality (Imboumy-Limoukou, et al., 2020). Unchanged 29.8% The contamination of water systems by ASM activities also ranked as a noticeable environ- mental impact by the participants of the Mine Site Questionnaire. ASM activities are often carried out along or near water sources, and local water systems Unknown 22.7% are used during the extraction and processing phases. In addition, miners often discharge their waste back into rivers, streams, and dams. The effluent water is often comprised of sediment, heavy metals, and other chemical contaminants such as mercury and cyanide that can significantly reduce water quality and adversely impact local ecosystems, agriculture, livestock, human health, Increased and food quality. The adverse effect of ASM on 34.3% 112 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites FIGURE 20. Is maternal health and sexual health and At a country level, access to maternal and sexual reproductive care available near or at the site? health was reported high in Guyana and Bolivia, while (Mine Site Questionnaire) in Mongolia, most participants were uncertain about Unknown whether they had access to SRH. In Zimbabwe, the 13.5% difference in those that reported having access was minimally higher than those that reported lacking access. In Sierra Leone, the majority of participants reported not having access to SRH services. Regarding informed decision making on sexual relations, contraceptive use, and reproductive health, 64.2% of women surveyed in the Mine Site Yes Questionnaire (518 out of 808) responded that they 52.2% believed they were making informed decisions on reproductive health. A high proportion of women in No Bolivia, Guyana, and Zimbabwe believed they were 34.4% making informed decisions on the use of contracep- tives and reproductive health. Whereas the majority of the participants from Mongolia indicated that they were uncertain. Sierra Leone had the highest Questionnaire reported an increase in environ- percentage of women who responded that they did mental impacts on women ASM in recent years, not believe they were making informed decisions with only 13% (249 participants) noting a decrease. regarding sexual and reproductive health, however the difference between those that answered affir- matively was minimal. ACCESS TO SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH CARE SERVICES ASM occurs in isolated, remote settings, often with FIGURE 21. Do you believe you are making “limited to near absent” access to any form of health informed decisions regarding sexual relations, care (Singo et al., 2022a). ASM operators are gener- contraceptive use and reproductive health care? ally migratory and often engage in high-risk behav- (Mine Site Questionnaire—women only) iors that can result in unwanted pregnancies and facilitate the spread of sexually transmitted infections Unknown 10.3% and diseases (2016). In Tanzania (Cliff et al., 2003) and Mali (Sagaon-Teyssier, et al., 2017) for example, a high prevalence of HIV has been recorded among ASM communities. Women in ASM are more vulner- able and are particularly at risk of contracting sexu- ally transmitted infections and diseases and incurring the costs and responsibilities of unwanted pregnan- No cies (IGF, 2018; Landrigan et al., 2022). As the body 25.5% of knowledge focusing on sexual and reproductive health (SRH) in ASM communities is limited, the Mine Site Questionnaire was used to gain some insight into this area. This questionnaire found that the majority (47.9%) of the 1,881 participants stated that they either Yes did not have access to (647) or did not know if they 64.2% had access to (253) to SRH services near or at the ASM sites they work. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 113 FIGURE 22. At what age were you married? (Site Questionnaire) 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 Count 60 50 40 30 20 10 – 10 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 45 48 49 Age Married Female Male EARLY MARRIAGE Insights from the case studies The Mine Site Questionnaire shows a concerning Chapter 3 features three case studies that data point regarding early marriages in ASM. Modern demonstrate the need to ‘account for gendered slavery is sometimes experienced by women in the differences in occupational health and safety form of early marriage, contracted at an age below efforts at mine sites’. These differences include 18 (or forced marriage). The phenomenon of early socio-cultural factors such as perceptions around marriage is, according to ILO, (2015) a source of women working in ASM that can confine them to domestic slavery. In the Mine Site Questionnaire, what might be considered ‘safer’ but lower-paid the data shows a small but significant number of roles such as breaking rocks and panning as well women participants were married under the age as ensuring that organizational structures, infra- of 18. Although this does not necessarily imply structure, and safety equipment at mines are suited slavery toward women, the data shows that 11 times to women’s physiological and biological needs and more women than men were married under the caregiving responsibilities. age of 18 (58 women to five men). This finding is concerning as it may suggest that girls of working Summarizing the findings of in-depth research age and women in ASM are of greater vulnerability with women miners in the DRC, the 12th case to child, early, and forced marriage simply as a risk study titled “The Women Who Age Too Fast” of working in mining than they would in other rural by five academic institutions in the DRC and livelihoods that are not as male dominated and Belgium highlights key gendered OHS issues where additional community and social protection affecting women in ASM. These issues include measures may be in place. early aging, fatigue, sleep disturbances, respi- ratory disease, a loss of libido, and poor eating habits. With far-reaching consequences on the physical and mental health, work and home lives 114 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites of women engaged in ASM, the authors argue that project, implemented alongside the Rwanda Mines a multi-stakeholder and holistic understanding of Petroleum and Gas Board (RMB), it was found that the lives of women miners is needed to address women are disproportionately negatively affected the acute, specific, and differentiated OHS chal- by poor lighting conditions in mining areas, creating lenges women miners face. This includes a consid- a gender wage and safety gap. Poorly lit tunnels that eration of the women’s socioeconomic needs, the require crouching and use of poor-quality handheld socio-cultural environment, and the environmental torches limits women’s full and equal participation dimension. The intervention in Kamituga took a in ASM due to increased vulnerability to sexual and multi-pronged approach: the women miners were gender-based violence and perceptions of their provided with sensitization on the specific OHS personal safety working underground. Additionally, risks they face; targeted training was provided to women interviewed during the research expressed health staff and technical government services; and fear of commuting to and from the mines in darkness, a comic strip was circulated to educate the broader which restricts their options for shifts and job oppor- community about gender discrimination in mining. tunities. The study found that in the over 40 mines surveyed, only two women were engaged in under- The 13th case study by Women in Mining Ghana ground mining. Improving lighting in small-scale (WIM Ghana) outlines a collective approach to mines is an important part of formalizing ASM activi- improving the OHS of women in ASM. The Tinga ties globally and key to ensuring the full participation Project is a collaboration between WIM Ghana and of women in ASM. To address these development The Social Investment Consultancy Africa (TSIC), challenges, ISMR is now working with private sector with support from the World Bank’s Extractive partners to introduce quality affordable head torches, Global Programmatic Support (EGPS) Emergency financing models, and solar power for recharging. Response for Artisanal Mining Communities ISMR aims to ensure more resilient, sustainable, and Impacted by COVID-19. During the project, a range responsible mining communities and promote the of OHS risks were identified among women miners green energy transition, while, crucially, improving including limited access to health care facilities, OHS and enabling women to fully participate in the potable drinking water, poor general knowledge ASM sector. of mining-related health issues, mercury dangers, and no use of PPE. Relatedly, mercury intoxica- tion, respiratory diseases, and poor nutrition were Conclusion all recorded among women miners and their communities. To help address these systemic Social norms, cultural beliefs, gendered labor health issues, government departments, universi- structures, biological differences, societal roles, ties, and NGOs worked with the women miners to and the domestic responsibilities of women have develop a training curriculum that focused on their rendered women at higher and differentiated risks self-defined needs and gaps in OHS knowledge. of negative OHS impacts in ASM. The sustainable The training methods included body mapping development of the ASM sector has the potential exercises and role playing and used local dialects to bring about positive change, when conducted during teaching. This approach allowed the project in an inclusive manner—through the creation of to educate the women miners on both OHS and suitable legal frameworks and the implemen- responsible mining techniques, accounting for their tation of interventions that increase access to differentiated impacts and needs. finance, credit, markets, training, capacity building, and through the formation of associations. An The final and 14th case study of the report by Pact inclusive gender-responsive version of sector and Rwanda Women In/And Mining Organization development can address the various OHS chal- (WIAMO) looks at the gendered impacts of poor lenges that women face in the sector. Through lighting on the OHS and participation of women in the development of legislation that enhances Rwanda’s ASM sector. Through in-depth research by women’s access to and ownership of land, women the Illuminating Small-Scale Mining in Rwanda (ISMR) in ASM will be empowered to actively and mean- State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 115 ingfully participate in the sector without fear. The sion making. By elevating the position of women sustainable development of ASM can also support in ASM, development approaches could in effect gender equality through interventions that create disrupt the gendered social norms and cultural conditions for women in ASM to graduate from barriers that have allowed for the acceptance and hazardous lower-earning peripheral jobs, which pervasiveness of gender discrimination and GBV has constrained them from participating in deci- in ASM communities. END NOTES Biswas, A., Harbin, S., Irvin, E., Johnston, Duvvury, N., Callan, A., Carney, P. and Mozambique’s Buzi Basin, Global Water H., Begum, M., Tiong, M., Apedaile, D., Raghavendra, S. (2013). 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Impactful Environmental and occupational health Vieira, E.R., Serra, M.V.G.B., de Songbono, J., Stokes-Walters, R., Women: Examining Opportunities hazards associated with artisanal and Almeida, L.B., Villela, W.V., Scalon, J.D. Klemm, R.D., Nordhagen, S. and Winch, and Constraints for Women in Mining small-scale gold mining. and Quemelo, P.R.V. (2015). Symptoms P.J., 2020. Food security in artisanal Organizations Worldwide. World Bank. mining communities: An exploration and risks for musculoskeletal disorders World Health Organization (WHO). among male and female footwear World Wildlife Fund (2023) Extracted (2021). Violence Against Women of rural markets in northern Guinea. industry workers. International Journal forests - unearthing the role of Prevalence Estimates, 2018: Global, Foods, 9 (4), p. 479. of Industrial Ergonomics, 48, pp.110-116. mining-related deforestation as a Regional And National Prevalence 118 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites CASE STUDY #12 Credit: Sara Geenen THE WOMEN WHO AGE TOO FAST: EMBODIED EXPERIENCES IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO AUTHORS: Sara Geenen,1,2 Fiz Mussa Bashizi,1 Gracia Kabilambali,1 Gabriel Aganze Muhanzi,1 Bossissi Nkuba,1,2 Elisa Vanlerberghe, 3 and Franck Mugisho Zahinda1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Centre d’Expertise en Gestion Minière (CEGEMI), Université Catholique de Bukavu, DRCongo, 2 Institute of Development Policy, University of Antwerp, Belgium, 3University of Ghent, Belgium INTRODUCTION “We look like old women and yet we are not old,” one female worker moaned during a focus group discussion. Other women agreed that their work exhausts their bodies, they become “skinny” and “tired.” In 2021, we started an action research project on artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) and health in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). A multidisciplinary team with backgrounds in agronomy, biology, medicine, public health, economics, and anthropology collected qualitative data from 23 focus groups and 154 individual interviews during two one-week stays in the gold mining town of Kamituga. The research is embedded in the Centre d’Expertise en Gestion Minière’s (CEGEMI) ongoing engagement with the mines in the region, which not only includes data collection, but also training sessions, science communication, and sensitization (Geenen et al, 2022a; Geenen et al, 2022b; Nkuba et al, 2022). State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 119 In the past decade, the role of women in ASGM woman or mother, and the Swahili “minyangala” for has been more widely acknowledged, both in waste) spend their days sitting in, often polluted, academic research and in policy. However, very few water to sort mineralized from non-mineralized studies focus specifically on the health and safety stones. They complain about urinary infections. of women (Lynas, 2018; Cossa et al, 2021), and if “Mamans twangaises” or manual grinders (from the they do, they tend to single out the reproductive Swahili verb “kutwanga” for pounding) run the risk problems caused by mercury. We used qualitative of injuring their hands and are constantly exposed research methods to collect data about women’s to silica through dust. Women transporting stones embodied experiences. We argue that ASGM has to the ball mills are at risk of being injured by these gendered effects on the workforce’s health, and machines or the heavy loads they carry on their that to better protect female workers we need to backs and shoulders. We have summarized the take a holistic approach to their health problems main health risks and their causes in Table 9. and address structural constraints such as women’s socioeconomic and cultural marginalization. Apart from the specific risks mentioned above, poor nutrition and sanitation, hard physical work, and discrimination negatively affect the health of both the female workers and their families. As an example, How women’s bodies are affected mothers have no choice but to get back to work very It is important to understand the specific tasks soon after giving birth, leaving infants under the women carry out in particular mines, from stone care of older siblings. Weaning starts very early and sorting and washing to manual grinding and trans- puts the children’s health at risk. The porridge they portation. These all lead to different embodied are fed, made of cassava or sorghum with added experiences. The “mamans minyangala” or stone sugar, contains little nutrients. One woman testified: sorters (from the French “maman” referring to “At two weeks old, I prepare cassava porridge in hot TABLE 9. Pathologies and specific health risks faced by female workers Causes Risks Lack of clean water Diarrhea Poor sanitation and hygiene Typhoid fever, schistosomiasis and malaria Urinary infections Skin diseases Poor nutrition and weaning Undernutrition Weakened immunity Health and development consequences Unprotected sex Sexually transmitted infections Unavailability and misinformation of (free) contraception Hard physical work Physical trauma (sore, hardened palms and split nails) Unprotected use of machines Injuries from using machines Fatigue and muscular pain Pregnant women: spontaneous abortion Silica exposure from manual grinding and ball mills (increasing the risk of tuberculosis) Discrimination Psychosocial trauma (Domestic) violence 120 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites FIGURE 23. Comic strip Translation: Wabiwa [the main female character who manages an underground pit] can get back to work, without fear of being obstructed. She gathers her team. “Ladies and gentlemen, this is a big day for us. We have won a major fight. From now on, women and men can work together in the pits, hand in hand. And that’s what we will do. Let’s get to work!” Credit: Yves Kulondwa Kayene water and give it to my children either once or twice untrained staff that do not always provide appropriate a day, depending on what I have found.” advice. One woman explains: “These medicines will help you for one or two days, but after that you will One “maman twangaise” told us that she has still feel tired so you will have to take more.” sleeping problems because she continuously repeats the same movement in her sleep: “You Many women we interviewed suffer from psychoso- arrive home too tired because the work is too cial trauma. The stigma attached to their gender, the heavy. You will even prepare the food and you will lack of respect, and the feeling of inferiority affect have no appetite. During the whole night you will their mental health. As one interviewee explained: be remembering the “mutwangiyo” (stick they use “Because you are a woman, you have no value in to pound, from the same verb “kutwanga”). This will front of the men here.” However, we also found disturb your sleep and affect your health.” instances of women who suffer from repeated domestic violence, and for whom the workplace The physical exhaustion also has wider conse- becomes a refuge: “Personally, I feel better when I quences. Many women shared stories about how this am at work than when I am with my husband, I often fatigue impacts their libido and sexual performance, don’t like to go home and stay with my husband.” leading to disputes at home. Some say their husband This should draw our attention to the fact that some will not understand and “beat you when you refuse of these women accept the work in the mines as the to sleep with him.” To fight against this fatigue, many “best of the bad choices” and should not be treated workers take drugs they buy from local pharma- as mere victims. Every day they make remarkable cies. However, these pharmacies are often run by efforts to provide for their families. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 121 How women’s bodies can be sensitize the broader population about the harmful better protected effects of discriminatory norms. In this research we have produced a comic strip to do so, as shown on We argue for a holistic approach to understand and Figure 23. Yet, some women do challenge discrim- address the health problems of female workers. inatory norms and stand up for the rights of other Our analysis covered different aspects of women’s women. One important effort we can make is to well-being. We observe that the health dimension support these women in their collective struggles, is very much entangled with the socioeconomic starting with their recognition as important actors in dimension (lack of alternatives, need for family the gold production system. survival), the sociocultural dimension (discrimi- natory norms, violence against women), and the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Geenen, S.; Nkuba, B. & Radley, B. environmental dimension (polluted air and water). (2022b) Technologies and transforma- Our gratitude goes out to the people These impose significant constraints, resulting in of Kamituga, including all interviewees tions. Traces from a collective research project. The Extractive Industries and insufficient protection of these women in the work- and participants in the focus group discussions giving us their time and Society 12: 101184. place. Strategies for better protection need to take trust, as well as to local authorities facilitating access and medical staff Lynas, D. (2018). A good business or a risky business: Health, safety and these different dimensions into account. Otherwise, helping us understand health issues. quality of life for women small-scale Special thanks also goes to the other miners in PNG. In K. Lahiri-Dutt (Ed.), proposals risk being unrealistic or ill adapted to members of the research team. Between the plough and the Pick (pp. 151-170). ANU Press. the local context. For instance, many development Funding was provided by the Flemish Nkuba, B.; Muhanzi, A.G. & Zahinda, F. practitioners have come up with alternative liveli- Interuniversity Council (VLIR-UOS) under the Global Minds program of the (2022). How do technological changes in artisanal and small-scale gold mining hood programs to lead women out of the mines. University of Antwerp, and Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) under affect the environment and communi- Such programs have had some success when grant G056718N. ties’ health? The Extractive Industries and Society 12: 101178. adapted to local socioeconomies, but many have Ofosu, G.; Torbor, M. & Sarpong, D. REFERENCES failed to provide realistic and attractive options Boateng, A. (2017). Rethinking alterna- (2022). Gender and artisanal and small-scale mining: Exploring women’s (Boateng, 2017; Ofosu et al., 2022; Perks, 2011; tive livelihood projects for women of livelihood and occupational roles in the pits: the case of Atiwa. Academic formalised settings. Journal of Rural Siegel and Veiga, 2010; Stoop et al, 2016). This Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies Studies 96: 121-128. depends, of course, on factors beyond these 6 (2): 17-25. Perks, R. 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Working Paper 2016.09. 122 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites CASE STUDY #13 Credit: WIM Ghana IMPROVING HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES IN FORMALIZED ASM OPERATIONS THROUGH PROMOTING RESPONSIBLE MINING PRINCIPLES AUTHORS: Georgette Barnes AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): Women in Mining Ghana INTRODUCTION The “Promoting responsible and sustainable artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) among women in Northern Ghana” project focused on women because they are the most economically and socially disadvantaged group in the mining community. Co-developed with the World Bank’s Extractive Global Programmatic Support (EGPS) Emergency Response for Artisanal Mining Communities Impacted by COVID-19 program, the project adopted a multi-disciplinary and multi-stakeholder collaborative approach drawn from more than 40 different stakeholder organizations from Ghana’s mining sector, including government, private, and civil society at the local/community, national, and international levels. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 123 The project had two main interrelated objectives: Working with local stakeholders to realize developmental and 1. Research for policy advocacy. health outcomes 2. Capacity building to promote responsible From December 2020 through May 2021, the mining to bring about greater health, social, project conducted several interrelated research and economic, environmental, and, therefore, training activities. Through stakeholder interviews better community development outcomes and focus group discussions, the project devel- derived from mining. oped a curriculum with training aimed at filling the identified gaps in women’s general and technical knowledge along the themes of key responsible Why is promoting responsible mining mining principles, namely, health, environmental, social, and economic impacts. The broad range of in Ghana important? gaps required working with several different local “Responsible mining” is the internationally accepted stakeholders. standard of mining, which “respects and protects the interests of all stakeholders, human health and In collaboration with the government regulator, the the environment, and contributes clearly and fairly Minerals Commission (MiniCom), the project team to broad economic development to the country opted to initiate the project in the Bole district, the and to benefit local communities while embracing sole district in Northern Ghana included under the best international practices and upholding the rule Community Mine Scheme. The Community Mine of law of the land.” (Arvanitidis et al., 2017) Scheme is one of the three primary government programs developed to tackle the growing chal- Irresponsible mining practices, such as those lenges in the sector such as environmental degrada- observed in this project, have negative impacts tion, illegal mining, water pollution, and other issues on land and water, which are vital for agriculture, food security, and safe living environments. This can lead to contaminated resources, poor health FIGURE 24. Training methods used on the project and well-being, rising food prices, and food inse- curity. Therefore, there is an urgent need for interventions to address the negative effects of mining on affected communities and safeguard the ecological integrity of their surroundings. This can only be done by educating the ASM community, Role Playing using Body mapping personal protective exercises and along several dimensions, to make the transition to equipment (PPE) diagrams responsible mining practices. Furthermore, women can be significant beneficiaries of such interven- tions given that this population group often lacks skills and education. Among the women who participated in this Curriculum project: 96% did not have any professional development based on stakeholder Local dialects as skills, 93% did not attend school. consultations, the language of – WOMEN IN MINING GHANA, 2021 interviews, and instruction focus group discussions 124 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites that affect human health and safety. The Wenchi working, exposing them to significant health risks. cooperative mining site in the Tinga mining area They manually mix the black sand, which contains was identified by the MiniCom as it is one of the gold concentrate, with mercury to improve gold six licensed small-scale mining sites in the north of recovery, and then burn the resulting amalgam for Ghana. Subsequently, the project worked closely with a period. The women stated that they rely on touch the concession owner and chair of the Tinga Mining to determine if all the gold has been trapped in the Association to facilitate project implementation. black sand, and they burn the amalgam in an open area and keep a distance due to the harmful fumes. In collaboration with the MinCom, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Water Resources The project team was joined by Firm Health Commission (WRC), the training included principles Ghana to provide sessions on the effects of of mining responsibly and sensitization sessions on mercury and mercury-free processing in compli- the process of acquiring mining, water and environ- ance with the Minamata Convention on Mercury. mental licenses as well as on the impact of mining Additionally, WIM, in collaboration with Professor on the environment. Unfortunately, the nearest EPA Richard K. Amankwah of the University of Mines and WRC offices to the site are at the regional level, and Technology, conducted metallurgical studies limiting the number of site visits for enforcement on Tinga Community Mine samples to determine or sensitization. the optimal conditions for maximizing profit, safe mercury usage in gold processing, innovative mercury-free techniques, and the miners’ expo- sure to the hazardous effects of mercury. WIM On mining-related health issues also collaborated with Dr. Amadu Cashmed of CK During the project, it was established that mining-re- Tedam University of Technology Applied Sciences lated illnesses are the primary cause of health to offer sessions on basic geological knowledge to problems. Of the problems identified, mercury enhance mineral extraction. exposure-related illness, followed by respiratory diseases and poor nutrition are the most harmful to the health of the women in the group. LIMITED ACCESS TO COVID-RELATED HEALTHCARE FACILITIES MAKES COVID IMPACT DIFFICULT TO ASSESS The nearest hospital from the mining area is at the As confirmed by the Ghana Health Service from district level in Bole, about 60 km away. Interviews the neighboring community, there were only four with the community nurse surfaced a trend of reported cases of COVID-19 during the project malnutrition among the young babies of ASM period. They also stated that testing was only women. The project team observed limited options available at the regional level in the capital of the for food on-site as there were few food vendors Northern Region in Tamale, which is 240 km away. and the sites were quite far from the main town Consequently, this is likely to be the main reason areas. The concession owner also noted limited for the low case count. Another major factor for access to potable drinking water, which was also the low COVID case count could be the expenses made worse by poor access roads to the town. The related to hospital care. Among the women, 85% workers generally drank a lot of energy drinks with said that it was too expensive to go to the hospital, low nutritional value and high sugar content, which so the majority (55%) go to the pharmacy or clinics contributed to poor nutrition. (24%) instead if in need of some type of care. The project engaged the Ghana Health Service (GHS) in the Sawla-Kunla community to provide training MERCURY USE WAS THE STANDARD ON THE SITE on common COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 health Focus group discussions revealed that 100% of issues in mining environments. the women had no prior knowledge of the extent of the dangers posed by mercury. The women, The negative impact of COVID-19 was found to be known as “bushers”, were handling mercury while more on financial and other non-health aspects of State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 125 the women’s lives. Thirty-two percent of the women allowed the project to provide education and said that COVID has disrupted the children’s school training specific to the needs of the group. life, consequently impacting the women’s work-life balance. Next, 20% said they had seen a drop in The project also facilitated an opportunity to work income during this period, and 16% cite “a decrease closely with the government regulator MinCom in gold prices”. However, according to the Ghana on gender issues. Among the recommendations Chamber of Mines, unlike oil, one of Ghana's other made coming out of the project was the need to main commodities—which saw prices plummet, the highlight gender issues and women’s participation gold price increased significantly during the COVID in the policy, legal, and institutional frameworks period. Another way in which COVID impacted related to ASM. The project team also pointed out their lives was through the closure of borders: 16% that the existing governance framework for the said that “the buyers were not coming.” According ASM industry in Ghana inadequately accounts for to the women, these buyers typically come from gender-related aspects. Although the establish- neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso. ment of a gender desk at the MinCom headquarters is a positive step, the present framework falls short in effectively addressing and enforcing concerns KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH AND SAFETY MEASURES involving gender in the ASM sector. AND EQUIPMENT WAS NEGLIGIBLE ON THE SITE During work, none of the women wore any personal protective equipment (PPE). Moreover, there was Our call to action no provision of a first aid kit on-site, which could be crucial in case of accidents or emergencies. The More effort is needed to support women miners. concession owner complained of the prevalence This should involve a multi-actor approach including of snakes on-site and subsequently snake bites. miners associations, civil society, nongovernmental Indeed, just before the project team arrived on-site, organizations, and government at the local and a young man had to be rushed to the hospital for national level including its various agencies. treatment from a snake bite. It also meant that, for REFERENCES the miners to protect themselves, any wildlife would Arvanitidis, Nikolaos; Boon, Jan; Nurmi, most likely be killed and not protected or returned Pekka; Di Capua, Giuseppe (2017). White Paper on Responsible Mining. to a protected area. International Association for Promoting Geoethics Women in Mining Ghana. (2021). As on-site risks and hazards are numerous, the Changing Perceptions on Small-Scale project team arranged for the Ghana Ambulance Artisanal Mining (ASM) in Ghana. Service in Tinga to provide first aid training to the women and selected leaders of the Tinga mining community. Conclusion With the understanding that health and environ- mental reasons alone are not enough to change behavior, the project used the COVID emergency and government’s desire to improve formalized operations to deliver a holistic multi-pronged approach that improves both health and business outcomes. A custom curriculum, based on a first- hand understanding of the knowledge gaps of the women, versus a standardized top-down approach, 126 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites CASE STUDY #14 Credit: James McQuilken ILLUMINATING SMALL-SCALE MINING IN RWANDA AUTHORS: James McQuilken,1 Aline Providence Nkundibiza, 2 Laine Munir, and Ildephonse Niyonsaba1 AFFILIATED ORGANIZATION(S): 1Pact, 2WIAMO, 3Arizona State University, and African Leadership University INTRODUCTION The Illuminating Small-Scale Mining in Rwanda (ISMR) program (2022–ongoing) shines a light on some of the world’s most marginalized and hidden mining workforces. ISMR does this by addressing key market system failures that leave many of Rwanda’s approximately 57,000 small-scale mining workers1 (NISR, 2021) without affordable and appropriate lighting needed to work below and above ground safely, efficiently, and productively. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 127 Through seven months (November 2021 to May BOX 4. Livelihood and economic dynamics 2022) of desk and field research, the international of mining in Rwanda development organization Pact, local women-led NGO Rwanda Women In/And Mining Organization - 34,000–65,000 people directly (WIAMO), and the government agency responsible work in ASM. for mining, the Rwanda Mines, Petroleum and Gas Board (RMB), mapped the mining and lighting - 1.1 million people (8.7% of the market system in Rwanda. This included a quanti- population) rely on ASM. tative and qualitative survey with 454 stakeholders across 39 small-scale mining sites, culminating in a - Women comprise 11–20% of the ASM multistakeholder workshop in Kigali. workforce. This case study outlines ISMR’s research findings - Most miners are paid based on to introduce affordable, rechargeable helmet- production, but some are salaried, mounted headtorches and close the gender wage earning $1.75–2.50 per day. and personal safety gap at mines by enabling women to take on night shifts, feel safer to enter - ASM contributes 1–2% of GDP deep tunnels, and improve their personal security. each year. - In 2019, ASM generated $169 million to GDP. Pact’s research estimates 15-30 million disposable batteries are used by Rwanda’s - Pact’s research estimates in 2015, small-scale miners annually and are improperly artisanal miners contributed discarded causing pollution. $39.5 million to local economies through their expenditures. - Most mining in Rwanda is ASM with few industrial operations. - 2019 Rwanda mineral export revenue: - Tin ore $71.2m (5.2%) - Tantalum ore $61m (4.5%) - Tungsten ore $18.3m (1.36%) - 3T minerals from ASM in Rwanda are in global electronics supply chains— including headtorches. Credit: James McQuilken 128 Account for gendered differences in occupational health and safety efforts at mine sites Improving lighting to formalize With better lighting women can small-scale mines increase their participation in ASM Improving lighting in small-scale mines is an Our research found that most mines (50% surveyed) important part of formalizing ASM activities globally use poor-quality plastic hand torches that break and key to ensuring the full participation of women easily, are often shared between two people, and in the sector to achieve SDG 5. As ISMR shows, generate little light. The torches are powered by better lighting can help improve SDG indicators disposable “Tiger Head” batteries lasting one to 5.2.2 “…violence against women from persons two days, after which they are discarded improp- other than an intimate partner” and 5.5.2 “…propor- erly causing pollution. Based on the assumption of tion of women in managerial positions.” ~57,000 miners using one or two batteries per day in one hand torch, we estimate 15 to 30 million Tiger Women are estimated to comprise 16–20% of Head disposable batteries could be used each Rwanda’s mining labor force (NISR, 2023). Through year by miners in Rwanda. RMB’s 2022 Gender Strategy for the mining sector (RMB, 2022), the government of Rwanda has The second most common lighting at mines was resolved to protect women’s rights and increase mains or diesel generator-powered overhead their participation to 30% by 2027. The strategy lighting (31%). But these mines still use hand torches includes measures such as “ensuring proper as a backup during power outages as they are more development of mines for tunnels, pits and shafts reliable in damp and deep tunnels and for individual to become women’s convenient working environ- miner safety. The remaining mines (15%) use hand ment” and upgrading to “modern equipment which can be easily manipulated by women.” Additional advisory measures include installing separate changing and washrooms and facilities for preg- Lighting use at surveyed mines shows FIGURE 25. nant and breastfeeding women. hand torches are main source Rwanda has some of the most gender-sensitive legislation in the world: the 2003 Constitution (GoR, Other 2015) sets a minimum quota of 30% women, which 4% in 2022 was exceeded with 61% of seats in parlia- Handtorch ment being held by women (Sharma, 2022); the 50% Gender Monitoring office and the National Women’s Mains/ Council was established to ensure the implementa- generator powered tion of constitutional principles on gender equality; lighting and Rwanda has a national gender policy updated 31% in 2021 (MIGEPROF, 2021). To operationalize this conducive policy environment, interventions are needed to increase women’s full participation in Rwanda’s mining sector. One area of formalization that could improve women’s partici- pation in ASM is better lighting. As far back as 1987, the World Bank (Noetstaller, 1987) identified inad- Handtorch and equate lighting as a pressing health, safety, and headtorch productivity challenge in the sector, but the majority 8% Rechargeable of ASM sites, including underground mines, do not headtorch 7% have access to adequate lighting. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 129 torches and/or head torches. These sites are more “Good lighting ensures the health and safety professionalized ASM sites demonstrating there is of miners, but it is also good for women to awareness of alternatives to hand torches and the work in mining. Now, of 40 miners, we only potential to change if market conditions allow. have two females who go underground (which is better paid work). Others work Reliable, affordable, and practical lighting from on the surface because they fear entering helmet-mounted rechargeable headtorches—the tunnels because it is dark.” same as those used in large-scale mining—is (MINE MANAGER) needed to help miners easily identify mineral deposits and work effectively, efficiently, and safely as well as improve security. Conclusion We found that women in mining are disproportion- In partnership with RMB and WIAMO, Pact’s ISMR ally negatively impacted by poor lighting than men. program is now piloting the introduction of recharge- Our research shows better quality lighting can help able headtorches to replace disposable battery-pow- close the gender wage and personal safety gap at ered hand torches with the aim of improving mines by enabling women to take on night shifts, occupational and personal safety, security, efficiency, feel safer to enter deep tunnels, and improve their and productivity of Rwanda’s mining sector. personal security. Women feel unsafe working underground with poor lighting and may be more By introducing helmet mounted headtorches easily harassed in the dark and are worried about recharged by solar energy or through the national their vulnerability to gender-based violence (GBV). grid connection, ISMR will help achieve the twin This issue is compounded when small, poorly lit program goals of: tunnels necessitate crawling and crouching. The women interviewed during the research also stated 1. Improved, more resilient livelihoods for miners they fear traveling to and from mines in the dark, and communities. meaning they are limited in the shifts and jobs they can work. 2. More sustainably and responsibly-mined tin, tungsten, and tantalum (3Ts) that are key minerals for the manufacture of consumer elec- tronics and clean energy technologies needed for the just energy transition. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS the professionalization of the sector. Institute of Statistics of Rwanda: https:// Sharma, K. (2022). Rwandan revo- The term “small-scale mining” (SSM) www.statistics.gov.rw/publication/ lution: World’s highest women’s The authors of this case study would is therefore used in this case study labour-force-survey-annual-report-2020 participation in Parliament. Retrieved like to thank the Rwanda Mines as defined by the national law. from The Sunday Guardian: Petroleum and Gas Board (RMB) for NISR. (2023). Labour Force Survey: https://www.magzter.com/stories/ their partnership and support with 2022 annual report (Kigali, March newspaper/The-Sunday-Guardian/ the project, fieldwork, and expertise. REFERENCES 2023, p. 103). Retrieved from National RWANDAN-REVOLUTION-WORLDS- Thanks also to all national and local Institute of Statistics of Rwanda: https:// HIGHEST-WOMENS-PARTICIPATION- government agencies and private GoR. (2015). The Constitution of the statistics.gov.rw/publication/1919 IN-PARLIAMENT sector companies and other project Republic of Rwanda of 2003 revised in 2015. Official Gazette (Special Number Noetstaller, R. (1987). Small-Scale stakeholders for their participation in of 24/12/2015), 158. Mining: A Review of the Issues the research, guidance, and support. A (World Bank Technical Paper Number special thank you also goes to the mine MIGEPROF. (2021). Revised National 75). Retrieved from ResearchGate: owners, miners, and communities for Gender Policy: Accelerating the https://www.researchgate.net/ their time and sharing their experiences Effectiveness of Gender Mainstreaming profile/Richard-Noetstaller/publi- of work in mining. Funding for the ISMR and Accountability for National cation/265167399_Small-Scale_ research and project is provided by Transformation. Retrieved from Ministry Mining_A_Review_of_the_Issues/ IKEA Social Entrepreneurship. of Gender and Family Promotion: links/54034f460cf2c48563b02c2e/ https://www.migeprof.gov.rw/fileadmin/ Small-Scale-Mining-A-Review-of-the- END NOTES user_upload/Migeprof/Publications/ Issues.pdf Guidelines/Revised_National_ 1 The 2018 Rwanda Mining and RMB. (2022). Gender strategy for the Gender_Policy-2021.pdf Quarrying Law removed the artisanal mining sector in Rwanda. Retrieved license category, leaving small- NISR. (2021). Labour Force Survey: from Rwanda Mines, Petroleum and Gas scale, medium-scale, and large-scale 2020 annual report (Kigali, March 2021, Board: https://rmb.gov.rw/fileadmin/ mining license categories to promote pp. 64 and 65). Retrieved from National user_upload/GENDER_STRATEGY.pdf 130 CONCLUSION As evidenced in the 2023 State of the ASM Sector report, the obstacles confronting women in ASM are formidable: spanning legal, social, and economic domains. Gender discrimination in ASM takes root first and foremost in the legal frameworks governing the mining sector and more generally in economic ways of life. Therefore, as argued more generally for advancing SDG 5, reforms to the legal frameworks concerned with mining is critical to recognizing and therefore protecting the rights of women in ASM. But as has also been shown in the report, legislative amendments are not that easy to tackle given the relative dearth of data (and therefore understanding) of women’s contribution to the sector. Most often, women’s work happens around the mine site, perhaps out of view, and the international community has yet to narrow the tremendous gaps in gender-specific research required to paint a much more accurate picture of women’s labor in ASM. The result is that without a clear understanding of women’s needs, it is incredibly difficult to ensure meaningful legislative reforms to improve their standing in ASM. Moreover, the ongoing lack of specific gender data leads to development interventions that are often gender blind. State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 131 In the 2023 State of the ASM Sector report, the much-needed body of literature on gender in issue of gender-specific ASM data was tackled ASM. The findings of the qualitative and quantita- head on. Drawing on a review of mining and legal tive methods were structured according to three frameworks in 21 countries and a survey with over main domains: i) ASM legal frameworks; ii) social 1,900 participants from government, women in protections at work and home; and iii) gender mining groups, and miners themselves, the 2023 differences in OHS. Key recommendations leading report seeks to make women’s work in ASM more to improved SDG 5 outcomes in ASM are summa- visible, and by consequence, to contribute to the rized here below. Recommendation Description Make mining legal frameworks To establish gender parity in the ASM sector and surmount these barriers, it is imperative to proactively gender inclusive promote and bolster gender equality within mining laws. This requires a comprehensive reevaluation and amendment of gender-blind or gender-neutral mining codes and national mining policies to ensure the acknowledgment and safeguarding of women miners’ rights. Specifically, the forthcoming abrogation of the ILO Underground Work (Women) Convention 1935 (No. 45), which bars female employment in underground mine work, provides a clear catalyst for dialogue and reforms to be built upon. Furthermore, reinforcing legal frameworks that shield women from discrimination and detrimental practices is vital for fostering a more inclusive and equitable environment. In the sphere of land rights and resource access, a fundamental transformation of both statutory land ownership systems and customary tenure arrangements is essential. This transformation enables women to transition from peripheral roles in the ASM value chain to ownership, thereby guaranteeing they receive the same economic benefits as their male counterparts. Ownership enables women to access capital and credit to grow their operations, buy equipment, and invest in technology to generate higher value from mining and lead the decision making regarding operational and financial management for the benefit of both women and men. Advance women’s social Advancing social protections for women in ASM provides a critical mechanism to support gender equality protections at the mine and women’s empowerment in ASM. Women in ASM are faced by a multitude of socioeconomic challenges and home beginning from childhood—young girls face barriers in accessing education; in adolescence, many are forced to leave school early and some are at risk of early pregnancies; and then in adulthood, women are faced with unequal treatment and precarious and unsafe working conditions, including sexual and gender- based violence (SGBV) at mines and at home. Governments and civil society organizations must partner to develop programs and interventions that facilitate greater access for women to educational and livelihood training programs to realize decent work, financial literacy programs that can build economic resilience and independence, and comprehensive sexual and reproductive health support, including access to education, contraceptives, medication, and unrestricted abortion services. Tackling SGBV in ASM through social protection measures is imperative. Robust legal frameworks and specific mine site measures to safeguard the safety and well-being of women are fundamental to their inclusion in ASM, while the deeply ingrained culture of masculinity in mining and ASM also needs tackling through awareness campaigns and education. Account for gendered differences Gender inequalities in OHS result in women being differentially and more greatly exposed to risks in ASM. in occupational health and safety The differences are due to socio-cultural beliefs that may prevent women’s full and direct participation efforts at mine sites in mining activities and confine them to certain roles such as breaking rocks, carrying heavy loads on heads, panning, and mercury use in gold amalgamation. These roles have heightened risks of repetitive and muscular skeletal injuries and exposure to chemical toxins, especially for pregnant and breastfeeding women. Mine site organization, infrastructure, and PPE designed with men in mind also adversely impacts women in ASM. A lack of separate changing and washing facilities, no childcare options, and poorly fitting PPE can prevent women’s equal participation and endanger their lives and that of their children they may have to bring to the mine. To address these issues and achieve gender equality in ASM, an in-depth understanding of the specific risks and needs women in ASM face is needed with which to design ASM sites and PPE that account for gendered differences, train and sensitize miners, government, and development partners to enable women’s equal and safe participation in all roles. 132 Conclusion In advancing these actions and achieving reforms, revising gender-blind mining laws to challenging the role of professional mining groups like Women cultural and societal norms. It is critical to prioritize in Mining cannot be understated. Their role as key gender equality in the ASM sector and collabora- interlocutors for government in the development tively create an environment where women can of interventions and as an advocate to represent fully participate, flourish, and enjoy their rights the interests of women in mining has been well without discrimination or hindrance. validated through the report’s survey and case studies. Governments must continue to empower, legitimize, and professionalize these gender-spe- END NOTE (Mine Site Questionnaire, 79% women). A total of 16 local partner cific groups in order to improve women’s visibility 1 The survey includes three question- naires with 1,935 participants from organizations undertook the data collection, 11 of which were women in ASM and advance gender equality. 22 countries, including government in mining groups. The 14 case officials (Government Questionnaire, studies cover 12 countries: two on 54% women), leaders of Women Latin America and the Caribbean, Overcoming the barriers faced by women in in Mining (WIM) groups (WIM Questionnaire, 100% women) and eight on Africa, and two on East Asia and Pacific. ASM demands a comprehensive approach, from artisanal and small-scale miners State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector 2023 133 Credit: Virtu Gem