Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 1 BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 2 May 2024 © 2024 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, D.C. 20433 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved Printed and manufactured in Washington, D.C. First Printing: [May 2024] This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be at- tributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to mem- bers of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting por- tions or all this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encour- ages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 3 CONTENTS Acknowledgments  4 Abbreviations  5 1. Introduction  6 2. Legal and institutional framework  7 3. Endowments  11 3.1 Health  11 3.2 Education  16 4. Economic opportunities  21 4.1 Labor market participation and employment status  21 4.2 Need and provision of care  25 4.3 Labor market segregation  28 4.4 Wage gap  29 4.5 Neet  30 4.6 Entrepreneurship and financial inclusion.  31 5. Voice and agency  33 5.1 Attitudes towards women  33 5.2 Political participation  35 5.3 Economic leadership  36 5.4 Violence against women  36 6. Conclusions  38 7. References  40 Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is one of six Western Balkans Country Gender Assessments (CGAs) prepared by a team led by Anna Fruttero and comprising of Chiara Broccolini, Armanda Car- cani, Alexandru Cojocaru, Roxanne Hakim, Olivera Kovacevic, Sanchi Kumal, Sel- ma Ljubijankic, Leonardo Lucchetti, Trang Nguyen, Ana Maria Oviedo, Ifeta Smajic, Bekim Ymeri, Zurab Sajaia, Marija Bashevska (North Macedonia), Bergin Kulenovic (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Juna Miluka (Albania and Kosovo), Jelena Žarković and Marko Vladisavjevic (Montenegro and Serbia), Dominik Koehler (SOGI), Emilia Ga- liano and Isabel Santagostino (WBL), Adela Llatja (GIZ), and Ermira Lubani (UN Women, Gender Responsive Budgeting). Designed by Human Indeed Studio. The team thanks Daniel Halim, Daniel Kirkwood, Lisa Kolovich (IMF), Miriam Muller and Will Seitz for their peer review; and Lundrim Aliu, Samra Bajramovic, Odeta Bulo, Besart Myderrizi, Mjellma Recaj, Jasminka Sopova, Evis Sulko, Sanja Tanic, Eranda Toque, and Dragana Varesic for support with the organization of consultations. The team is also grateful for guidance and support from Varalakshmi Vemuru (Practice Manager, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), Ambar Narayan and Sal- man Zaidi (Practice Managers, Poverty and Equity), Massimiliano Paolucci (Coun- try Manager, Kosovo and North Macedonia), Nicola Pontara (Country Manager, Serbia), Emanuel Salinas (Country Manager, Albania), Christopher Sheldon (Coun- try Manager, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro), Richard Record and Ind- hira Santos (Program Leaders). The team undertook consultations with and benefited from insights from various agencies of governments, civil organizations, donors, and international organiza- tions. The team thanks the many stakeholders who shared their knowledge and helped shape the contents of these Country Gender Assessments. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 5 ABBREVIATIONS BHAS Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina BiH Bosnia and Herzegovina FBiH Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina EU European Union EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions GAP Gender Action Plan GEGI Gender Employment Gap Index HCI Human Capital Index ILOSTAT International Labor Organization Statistics IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union ISCED International Standard Classification of Education LBTI Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex LFP Labor Force Participation LGBTI Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex LITS Life in Transition Survey NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PISA Programme for International Student Assessment STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics UN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 6 1. INTRODUCTION Fostering gender equality and enabling women’s economic participation is crit- ical for Bosnia and Herzegovina’s development trajectory. Actively engaging, nurturing, and optimizing the diverse talents and capabilities of the population, especially of inactive segments, is paramount to sustained progress in poverty reduction and shared prosperity. Over the past decade, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) has made strides in gender equality, including narrowing gender gaps in ed- ucation, increasing female life expectancy and female political participation, and reducing fertility rates. However, significant disparities persist in the labor market, entrepreneurship, earnings, occupational segregation, unpaid labor, and violence against women. This Country Gender Assessment provides empirical evidence and analyzes gen- der equality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Methodologically, the report adopts the Gender Assessment framework proposed by the World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development (WDR 2012). Through this lens, the report scrutinizes recent progress and lingering challenges across three critical dimen- sions: Endowments, Economic opportunities, and Voice and Agency. Extensive research was conducted drawing from various data sources to gauge indicators such as health, education, labor market dynamics, and gender-based violence, among others.1 This report updates and complements past work on gender equality in BiH, in- cluding the 2015 CGA (World Bank 2015). The analysis relies primarily on the WDI, 2021 Labor Force Survey (LFS), 2023 Life in Transition Survey, 2019 Enterprise Survey, 2021 Global Findex and other data available through the World Bank Gen- der Data portal, as well as a variety of secondary sources, which provide a broad picture of the key gender issues in BiH. The results of the analysis suggest that there are significant gender disparities in human capital and access to economic opportunities. The highlights can be summarized as follows: 1 This note focuses on gender disparities specifically hindering the well-being and economic welfare of women in BiH. However, gender gaps can arise in the outcomes and opportunities enjoyed by females and males across several dimensions (WDR 2012). In many instances, men—rather than women—may suffer as a result of gender disparities. Regardless of whether these inequalities create disadvantages for men or for women, gender equality matters intrinsically, as well as instrumentally, to foster economic efficiency and development outcomes (WDR 2012). Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 7 • The extremely limited availability of sex-disaggregated data in BiH hampers effective evidence-based policy making in BiH.2 • BiH could reap substantial economic benefits from reducing gender gaps, as highlighted by the value of 24 percent of the Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI), identifying the potential rise in long-run GDP per capita from equaliz- ing employment rates between genders. • Gender gaps persist in economic opportunities, with female labor force participation significantly lower than male. Women are more likely to hold part-time jobs. Family care responsibilities primarily fall on women, impact- ing their labor force participation and their careers, with institutional care scarcely used. • Women dominate tertiary education enrollment, but men have higher over- all educational attainment, though recent improvements are seen among younger age groups. Girls outperform boys in reading and digital skills, and while fewer women pursue STEM fields, these disparities are less pro- nounced compared to the EU. • A phenomenon known as motherhood penalty is observable in BiH. The tran- sition to adulthood differs for young men and women: young men typically experience a decrease in inactivity rates and an increase in employment, while young women often transition from school to inactivity. Employment rates between men and women diverge at the time of family formation. Addressing gender equality offers opportunities. In addition to its intrinsic value, promoting gender equality is a central priority towards achieving inclusive growth and reducing poverty. Promoting women’s economic opportunities, access to en- dowments, and voice and agency is fundamental in tackling some of BiH’s main policy challenges, including raising labor productivity, promoting private sector development, and fostering resilience. The structure of the report is as follows. Section 2 delves into the legal and insti- tutional framework. Section 3 assesses gender equality from the perspective of human endowments. Section 4 discusses progress and challenges in economic opportunities. Section 5 focuses on issues related to voice and agency. 2 See World Bank, Gender Data Portal which explores availability of the 900+ indicators in the portal for every country in the last 5 years, last 10 years, or since 1960 for 14 topics (assets, children 0-14, education, employment and time use, entrepreneurship, environment, health, leadership, norms and decision-making, population, SDGs, technology, violence, youth 15-24). In the case of Kosovo, out of all the indicators assessed on the portal for each topic, only the 6 percent are available for the category “gen- der-based violence”, 13 percent for “education”, “norms and decision-making” and “health” and 33 percent for “assets”. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 8 2. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK While BiH has made progress in its European Union accession process, there remains ample room for improvement in gender equality. Despite increasing at- tention in the political and legislative sphere, gender discrimination still poses challenges for women, despite the ratification of numerous international treaties. Nonetheless, even after having taken substantial steps to align the country’s legal system with international standards, it still poses obstacles for women and does not safeguard against gender discrimination. Disparities in laws across different political entities, poor implementation, inconsistent enforcement, and a lack of effective monitoring impede greater gender equality.3 BiH’s legislative framework for gender equality has made significant progress, re- ceiving an overall score of 85 out of 100 in 2023 from the World Bank’s Women, Business, and the Law (WBL) 1.0. index.4 This marks a notable improvement from 1975 (Figure 1). Until 1998, women had just over half the legal rights in access to economic opportunities compared to men (WBL index 58.1). While there were im- provements in the late 1990s and early 2000s, the country has progressed slower than the EU-27 average. It ranks among the lowest in the Western Balkans, along- side North Macedonia and Montenegro. BiH received a perfect score in 2023 concerning freedom of movement constraints, laws affecting women’s work decision, women’s pay, marriage-related constraints, business establishment constraints, and gender differences in property and inher- itance (Figure 2). However, when it comes to women’s work after having children, and laws affecting the size of a woman’s pension, the country could consider re- forms to improve legal equality for women. For example, one of the lowest scores is on the indicator measuring laws affecting women’s pay; women are not allowed to work at night5 or in an industrial job in the same capacity as men.6 Similarly, women cannot retire with partial pension benefits at the same age as men,7 and periods of absence due to childcare are not accounted for in pension benefits. The Gender Action Plan (GAP 2018-2022) primarily drives the policy framework 3 Source: USAID, 2016 4 The WBL 1.0. index assesses how laws and regulations impact women’s economic opportunities across various areas, including Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. The score is calculated by taking the average of each index, with 100 being the highest possible score. The index is based on the analysis of the domestic laws and regulations, updated to October 2023. 5 Labor Code, Art. 41 6 Labor Code, Art. 59 7 Law on Pension and Disability Insurance of 21 February 2018, Arts. 142, 143 and 145 Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 9 on gender equality, serving as a comprehensive medium-term strategy for gender equality and women’s empowerment. It aims to guide ministries and institutions in integrating gender equality principles into their work under the Law on Gender Equality. BiH institutions are expected to adopt annual operation plans to facilitate systematic and coordinated action in mainstreaming gender, based on the GAP. The institutional mechanism network for gender issues in BiH includes legislative and executive authorities at all levels. Figure 1. WBL Index 1.0 (1975-2023) Source: World Bank, Women, Business and the Law, 2024 100 90 80 70 60 50 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 ALB XKX MNE SRB EU27 MKD BIH According to the new Women, Business, and the Law legal frameworks index (WBL 2.0), 8 women in Bosnia have 77.5 percent of the legal rights of men. This update provides a deeper insight into the legal underpinnings of gender equality, reveal- ing a notable decrease in Bosnia’s scores compared to the previous WBL 1.0 index (Figure 3). Key areas such as entrepreneurship support, pay equality, women’s pension lag behind. Even with equal laws in place, inadequate implementation and weak enforcement create significant barriers to women’s rights and opportunities. The WBL 2.0 sup- portive framework assesses the gaps between laws in theory and in practice (de jure vs de facto), identifying the tools meant to facilitate law implementation, such as national policies, plans, programs, services, budgets, special procedures, and sanctions for noncompliance with certain standards. Data for Bosnia and Herze- govina reveal that the supportive frameworks necessary for the implementation of 8 The new WBL 2.0. index includes two additional indicators – Safety and Childcare – and new and revised questions under the original WBL indicators. The analysis continues to be based on domestic laws and regulations. The new Safety indicator expands the measurement legislation on violence against women. Previously, WBL 1.0. addressed only two forms of violence: sexual ha- rassment in employment (under Workplace indicator) and domestic violence (under Marriage indicator). The new Safety indicator now covers two additional forms of violence against women: child marriage and femicide. The new Childcare indicator assesses childcare services offered in center-based settings to children from birth to two years and 11 months. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 10 laws could be strengthened across all indicators. In particular, supportive frame- works could be more robust in critical areas such as laws affecting occupational segregation and the gender wage gap (Pay Indicator), laws affecting the size of a woman’s pension (Pension Indicator), and property and inheritance laws (Assets Indicator), while they are completely missing for the legal frameworks governing the provision of childcare (Childcare Indicator) and legislation on violence against women (Safety Indicator) (Figure 4). Figure 2. WBL 1.0. Score by Indices (1975-2023) Source: World Bank, Women, Business and the Law, 2024 100 80 60 40 20 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Workplace Mobility Pay Marriage Parenthood Entrepreneurship Assets Pension Figure 3. WBL 2.0. Legal Score by Indices (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 NM WBL 2.0 legal score, EU-27 average 80 60 40 20 0 Mobility Workplace Pay Marriage Parenthood Assets Safety Entrepreneurship Pension Childcare Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 11 Figure 4. WBL 2.0. Supportive Frameworks Score (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 60 40 20 0 Mobility Marriage Entrepreneurship Pension Workplace Parenthood Assets Safety Childcare Pay SPOTLIGHT 1 – Gender-Responsive Budgeting Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) is an approach to budgeting that seeks to promote gender equality by ensuring that public policies and expenditures are designed and implemented in ways that consider the different needs and priorities of women and men. It is an important tool to improve the transparency, accountability, effectiveness, effi- ciency, and equity of public expenditure. GRB brings into focus issues that are frequently overlooked within budget analysis and decision-making. These issues include the role that unpaid work plays in economic and social outcomes, especially the unequal distribution of and responsibility for unpaid work that is placed on women and the extent to which women can voice their needs and participate in decision-making on budgets. GRB not only assists governments in innovating when it comes to the resources for financing the SDGs but also allows them to track allocations for gender equality and to assess the extent to which they are making this information publicly available and transparent. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, GRB has been included in the legislative framework since 2009. Work to integrate gender equality considerations into the budget planning process began in 2011 and was closely linked to the public finance reform whereby GRB was part of the regular budget planning and distribution practice. Using the budget reform process as an instrument to advance gender equality saw GRB initiated as part of the regular budget planning and distribution practice, hence it’s mainstreaming and use as an analytical and control tool. The gender responsive- ness of programs has been reported in line with the Law on Budget Execution since 2017. Bosnia and Herzegovina provides online GRB courses, which were made available to more than 17,000 civil servants. Having GRB as a key principle in the Bosnia and Herzegovina Gender Action Plan 2018–2022 was a major achievement. The country continues to respect this as one of its most important achievements. In 2020, the Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina issued a detailed declaration on the development of GRB, and this was included in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) Budget Framework Paper (2021–2023). Source: UN Women Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 12 3. ENDOWMENTS BiH has achieved improvements in health outcomes, such as increases in life ex- pectancy and reductions in infant mortality rates. Nevertheless, certain aspects of public health still lag behind peer countries. Moreover, while there have been no- table advancements in female education, with enrollment rates surpassing those of men, men have been falling behind in educational attainment. Gender segrega- tion persists in educational fields. The 2020 Human Capital Index9 reveals that in BiH a girl born today will only reach 59 percent of her potential productivity as she grows up due to limitation in educa- tion and health, compared to 57 percent for a boy. These figures fall below the Eu- ropean and Central Asia regional averages of 70 percent for girls and 60 percent for boys as well as the EU-27 averages (75 and 71 percent, respectively) (Figure 5). Figure 5 Human Capital Index (2020) Source: World Bank, 2020. 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% BOSNIA ECA EU-27 Women Men 3.1 HEALTH In terms of health, BiH has made strides. Life expectancy has risen steadily for both genders, though it remains higher for women. In 2021, women in BiH had a life expectancy of 77.5 years, compared to 73.1 years for men (Figure 6). Despite men still having a shorter lifespan, their life expectancy has increased more rapidly 9 Source: World Bank (2020). The HCI calculates the contributions of health and education to worker productivity. The final index score ranges from zero to one and measures the productivity as a future worker of child born today relative to the benchmark of full health and complete education. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 13 since 2000. However, both genders in BiH have lower life expectancies compared to the EU-27 average. Access to prenatal care and institutional births are widespread, contributing to improvements in maternal and infant health outcomes (Figures 7 and 8). BiH has the second lowest maternal mortality ratio among Western Balkan countries, after North Macedonia and together with Montenegro.10 Infant mortality rates have also decreased over the past two decades for both genders, narrowing the gender gap. Figure 6. Life Expectancy at Birth by Gender (years) (2000-20201) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 85 80 75 70 65 60 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women- BiH Men - BiH Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Figure 7. Maternal Mortality Rate (per 100,000 live births) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group, and UNDESA/Population Division, World Health Organization, 2023. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 North Macedonia Montenegro Albania Serbia BiH EU27 10 While infant mortality continues to be more prevalent among boys than girls, this might be in line with sex differences in genetic and biological conditions, with boys being biologically weaker and more susceptible to diseases or premature death. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 14 BiH is grappling with health challenges linked to unhealthy behaviors, such as a troubling rise in obesity rates across genders. While men historically had lower obesity rates, this gender gap has been narrowing, with 18.4 percent of women and 17.1 percent of men classified as obese by 2016. Despite this, BiH still main- tains comparatively lower obesity rates, particularly among men, compared to neighboring Western Balkan countries (Figure 9).11 Figure 8. Infant Mortality Rate by Sex (per 1,000 births) (2000-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population Division) at www.childmortality.org. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - BIH Men - BIH Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Figure 9. Prevalence of Obesity (percent of the population 18 years old and over) (2000-2016) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization (WHO): Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 18 16 14 12 10 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 Women Men 11 Data is not available for Kosovo. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 15 Figure 10. Fertility Rate (2001-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Albania EU27 Kosovo Montenegro North Macedonia Serbia Figure 11. Adolescent Fertility Rate (births per 1,000 women aged 15 – 19) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Albania EU27 Kosovo Montenegro North Macedonia Serbia The fertility rate remains below replacement levels, stagnating at about 1.5 chil- dren per woman since 2001 (Figure 10), lower than the EU average. Between 2000 and 2021, the adolescent fertility rate decreased from 17.8 to 9.9 children born by women aged 15-19 per 1,000 women in the same age bracket (Figure 11), almost at par with the EU. Population projections indicate a significant decline by 2050 due to low fertility rates and outmigration, posing challenges such as labor shortages and social sta- bility, with approximately 30 percent of citizens of retirement age.12 While the child dependency ratio decreased from 28 to 22 percent between 2000 and 2021,13 the 12 World Bank (2020) 13 World Bank, World Development Indicators. Accessed: January 12, 2024. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 16 old age dependency ratio has consistently increased from 16 percent to 27 per- cent. This increase is likely to further burden women as primary caregivers. Tobacco use, while decreasing overall, remains higher among men, with 42.0 per- cent of men and 28.0 percent of women reported as smokers in 2020. Both BiH and the EU have seen declines in tobacco use, but rates are generally lower in the EU, especially among men (Figure 12a). Since 2000, suicide rates among men in BiH have been on the rise, while rates for women have remained stable. Men consistently experience significantly higher suicide rates compared to women in BiH. From 2000 to 2019, the rate among men increased from 14.3 per 100,000 to 17.6 per 100,000, surpassing the EU average (Figure 12b). Figure 12a. Prevalence of Current Tobacco Use (percent of the population 15 years old and over) (2000-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January 8, 2024 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 BiH 2000 BiH 2020 EU-27 2000 EU-27 2020 Men Women Figure 12b. Suicide Mortality Rate (per 100,000 population) (2000-2019) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 25 20 15 10 5 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Women - BiH Men - BiH Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 17 4. EDUCATION In the room of education, there remains ample opportunity for enhancement.. As of 2020, gender parity had not been reached in preprimary education (Figure 13). However, a notable shift had occurred in tertiary education (Figure 14). Despite some initial progress, tertiary enrollment rates have stagnated since 2016, remain- ing notably lower than EU averages for both genders. BiH ranks the lowest in the Western Balkans in terms of tertiary enrollment rates. Data on primary and sec- ondary education enrollment rates are unavailable. Figure 13. Gender Parity Index for Gross Enrollment Rates for Preprimary School (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS. Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Note: The gender parity index for gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary is the ratio of girls to boys enrolled in public and private schools. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 1 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.9 BiH EU-27 2000/01 2020/21 Figure 14. Gross Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Education (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS. Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed: January 8, 2024. 80 60 40 20 0 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Women - BiH Men - BiH Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 18 Despite women outnumbering men in tertiary enrollment, men aged 25 and above tend to have higher educational attainment levels. In 2020, 79.5 percent of men in this age group had completed upper secondary education, compared to 59.4 per- cent of women (Figure 15). This trend persists across lower secondary and primary education levels, particularly among older generations. Girls consistently outperform boys in school performance, with a 9-point gap fa- voring girls in overall school performance (Figure 16). However, PISA scores indi- cate that both genders in BiH fall significantly below the OECD averages across subjects. There is a substantial 89-point gap with OECD average scores for girls in science, an 84-point gap in mathematics, and an 80-point gap in reading. Sim- ilarly, there is an 87-point gap with OECD average scores for boys in science, an 85-point gap in mathematics, and a 78-point gap in reading. Socio-economic fac- tors influence the achievement gap, with urban and higher-income students out- performing their rural and lower-income counterparts. There are notable dispari- ties between top and bottom-income students, with the latter trailing by 65 PISA points. Additionally, students from urban areas outperform their rural peers, with 47 percent of urban students achieving basic proficiency in reading compared to 33 percent in rural areas.14 Women’s enrollment and graduation rates in STEM fields are significantly higher than in EU-27. In 2018, 49 percent of STEM graduates were women compared to 33.4 percent in the EU-27. By 2020, 42 percent of women in tertiary education were concentrated in fields related to education, health and welfare, and human- ities and arts. This percentage was much lower for men at 22 percent. These lev- els were comparable with the EU, where 42.9 percent of women and 20.9 percent of men were enrolled in similar fields (Figure 17). 14 World Bank (2021) Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 19 Figure 15: Educational Attainment, Population 25+, (cumulative percentage) (2020) Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat. Accessed: January 8, 2024. Doctorate At least Master At least BA At least short cycle tert. At least post sec. At least upper sec. At least lower sec. At least primary 0 20 40 60 80 100 Women Men Figure 16. Student Performance 15 Years. Harmonized Test and PISA Scores (2018) Source: PISA scores, 2018 (No data available for 2022) Harmonized test scores Science Mathematics 0 100 200 300 400 500 BIH Girls BIH Boys EU-27 Boys EU-27 Girls Figure 17. Graduated Students, Master and Ph.D. in Educational Field (2020) Source: Agency of Statistics of BiH (2022) Men Women 0 20 40 60 80 100 Education Human and Art Social Aciences B. Admin and Law Nat. Sc., Math, & Stats ICT Engineer, Manufacturing, & Construction Agric., Forestry, & Vet Health, & Social Welfare Services Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 20 Gender gaps in digital skills are apparent, though relatively minor. Younger women typically demonstrate higher levels of basic or above-basic digital skills compared to their male counterparts. Among those aged 16-24, women hold an 8.8 per- centage point advantage (Table 1). However, for older groups, men tend to sur- pass women in digital proficiency, with the largest gap of 3.6 percentage points observed in the 55-74 age group. While digital skills tend to improve with higher education levels for both genders, women generally lag behind men across ed- ucational levels, albeit by a small margin. Despite these advancements, BiH still trails behind the EU-27 average and other regional countries in terms of digital skill proficiency. Table 1. Individuals with Basic Digital Skills or Above (percent, by sex, age group,and level of education) (2021) Source: Eurostat, 2021. Accessed: January, 9 2024.   BiH EU-27   Men Women Men Women AGE-GROUPS 16-24 years old 72.1 80.9 70.3 72.2 25-54 years old 52.2 52.1 62.4 61.8 55-74 years old 10.2 6.6 38.6 31 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Low formal education 14.9 11.5 35.0 28.8 Medium formal education 38.3 38.5 51.6 47.6 High formal education 61.2 59 80.6 77.6 5. ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES Significant and enduring gender disparities persist in labor market outcomes in BiH. The Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI),15 which measures the potential in- crease in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates between genders, stood at 24 percent in 2022. This highlights the considerable economic 15 Source: Penning (2020). GEGI index measure of gender employment gaps equal to the long-run GDP per capita gains from in- creasing women’s employment rates, so they are equal to men’s. The basic GEGI is defined as the gap between male and female employment as a share of total employment. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 21 and social implications of closing the gender employment gap. SPOTLIGHT 2 - School Hours Parents of young children face the daunting task of juggling childcare responsibilities with earning an income. The scarcity of childcare facilities exacerbates this challenge, leaving parents with few options, such as relying on untrained caregivers, reducing work hours, or even quitting their jobs altogether. This issue extends beyond early childhood care; even when children reach primary school age, parents continue to grapple with the balance between work and childcare due to school hours and breaks. This struggle is amplified for single parents or house- holds where both parents work full-time. Analyzing school calendars in the Western Balkans reveals that children spend only half the working hours of a full-time employee in school annually. This underscores the necessity for accessible and affordable preschool and afterschool care. The lack thereof not only impedes parents’ ability to work but also forces them into difficult deci- sions regarding their children’s care quality. Thus, the shortage of accessible and affordable preschool and afterschool care can have a profound impact on parents and families. It can limit parents’ ability to return to work or force them to make difficult choices about the quality of care their children receive. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 22 5.1 LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS Since 2000, female labor force participation has remained stagnant, consistently lagging behind male participation. In 2021, there was a significant 22-percentage point difference in the labor force participation rates (72.3 percent for males ver- sus 49.5 percent for females), as shown in Figure 18. BiH exhibits a wider gender gap in labor force participation compared to the EU-27 and has the most signifi- cant gender gap in labor force participation rates among Western Balkans coun- tries, except for North Macedonia. Gender gaps in labor force participation favoring men are particularly pronounced among poorer and rural populations. The 2015 World Bank Gender Assessment revealed a 20-percentage point gap in labor force participation among the wealth- iest 60 percent of the population, widening to 31 percentage points among the poorest 40 percent. This gap was more pronounced in rural areas, where the gen- der disparity could reach as high as 30 percentage points in favor of men, com- pared to 16 percentage points among urban residents. Similarly, gender gaps persist in employment rates. Over the past six years, the employment-to-population ratio for males aged 15-64 has consistently exceeded that of females. In 2022, female and male employment rates stood at 37 percent and 63 percent (Figure 19), respectively, reflecting a persistent gender gap of around 20 percentage points in employment rates since 2015. BiH exhibits the highest gender gap in employment rates among Western Balkan countries. Figure 18. LFP Rate (percent population 15-64 years old) (2000-2021) Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 9, 2024. 100 80 60 40 20 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - BiH Men - BiH Women- EU27 Men - EU27 Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 23 Figure 19. Employment to Population Ratio by Sex (percent population 15-64 years old) (2015-2022) Source: See Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 9, 2024 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Women Men In BiH, both men and women encounter challenges when transitioning from edu- cation to employment. The proportion of youth not in education, employment, or training (NEET) is similar between genders, with rates of 19.9 percent for women and 18.8 percent for men. Although these rates have been steadily decreasing since 2016, they still significantly exceed those in the EU, with an 8.8 percent- age point difference for men and a 9.8 percentage point difference for women (Figure 20). Figure 20. NEET Rates (percent of the youth population, 15-24 years old) (2006-2021) Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: International Labor Organization. “Labor Force Statistics database (LFS)” ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 9, 2024. 40 30 20 10 0 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - BiH Men - BiH Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Family formation affects labor market participation differently for men and women. While young men often experience an increase in employment after completing their education, young women in BiH frequently transition from schooling to a pe- riod of inactivity, abstaining from joining the labor force (Figures 21 and 22). This Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 24 transition coincides with family formation, which typically begins in the late teens and continues into their thirties (Figures 23 and 24). Consequently, the percent- age of men disengaged from work, education, or training stabilizes or decreases, while the NEET rate for women rises, persisting until around age 40. This pat- terns reflects the broader caregiving and household responsibilities shouldered by women, particularly in BiH, consistent with the “motherhood penalty” identified in countries across the world, where the employment trajectories diverge signifi- cantly between men and women following parenthood (Kleven et al. 2023). Figure 21. NEET Rates by Age (2021) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Women Men Figure 22. Employment Rates by Age (2021) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 25 Figure 23. Family Formation by Age (2021) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Women Men Figure 24. Share of Adults with Children 0-17 y.o. by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Women Men Inactivity among men primarily stems from market-related factors, such as educa- tion and training or the perception of a lack of available jobs. In contrast, for wom- en, it is predominantly due to family obligations. Over 19 percent of men attribute their status to market reasons, compared to just 5 percent for women. Conversely, personal or family responsibilities are cited as the main reasons for 76 percent of women, in contrast to only 35 percent of men (Figure 25). Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 26 Figure 25. Reasons for Inactivity by Sex (age 25-64 y.o.) (2021) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. Women Men 0 20 40 60 80 100 Care/Family Education Believe no work available Other Figure 26. Incidence of Part-Time Employment by Sex (2013-2022) Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 9, 2024. 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2013 2016 2022 Women Men Gender disparities in the labor market extend further: women participate less fre- quently and are more likely to work part-time (Figure 26). However, despite lower employment rates among women, they are less inclined to engage in precarious employment than men. In 2019, men held 12.6 percent of non-agricultural infor- mal sector jobs16, while women occupied only 7.8 percent of such positions17 Both genders have witnessed a significant decline in informal employment since 2006 when rates were at 27.6 percent for men and 18.9 percent for women. Notably, BiH has the lowest proportion of informal employment for both genders when com- pared to Albania and Serbia. In 2021, the percentage of vulnerable workers was 16 This includes all jobs in unregistered and/or small-scale private unincorporated enterprises that produce goods or services meant for sale or barter. Self-employed street vendors, taxi drivers, and home-based workers, regardless of size, are all considered en- terprises However, agricultural and related activities, households producing goods exclusively for their use, and volunteer services rendered to the community are excluded. 17 Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 9, 2024. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 27 higher among women (22 percent) than men (17.3 percent). These figures surpass the averages for European countries (8.8 percent for women and 12.6 percent for men) and align with the Western Balkans’ averages (20.7 percent for women and 24.3 percent for men).18 5.2 NEED AND PROVISION OF CARE One of the primary factors influencing women’s economic participation is the division of caregiving responsibilities along gender lines. Social norms heavily shape expectations within personal relationships, often resulting in women taking on a greater share of caregiving duties compared to men. This situation persists when access to high-quality caregiving services is limited or resources for hiring paid caregivers are scarce. Due to their disproportionate involvement in unpaid caregiving, women frequently encounter time constraints, which limit their avail- ability for paid employment or the opportunity to work longer hours. Balancing paid and unpaid labor can hinder women’s educational pursuits, their ability to secure well-paying jobs, and their capacity to invest time in starting or growing businesses. Consequently, women may find themselves pushed into informal and lower-paying job sectors. Notably, 54.9 percent of men and 46.8 percent of wom- en in BiH agree that women should do most of the household chores even if their husbands are not working.19 Additionally, there is a growing demand for childcare services, including care for elderly family members, due to longer life expectan- cies and changing demographics. With declining birth rates and an aging popu- lation, women may face increased caregiving responsibilities within households. Figure 27. Care Need in Households (percent of the population living in households with children, elderly, and disabled by country (2016) Source: LFTS IV (2024) Albania Bosnia and Herz. Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 10 20 30 40 Only childcare Only elderly care Childcare &elderly care 18 Source: World Bank Gender Data Portal. Original Source: ILOSTAT 19 LITS IV (2023) Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 28 In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is more common for people to live with older adults (aged 65+) than with young children (aged 0-6). Specifically, 26.8 percent of the population resides with an older adult, while only 10.9 percent live with young children.20 While living with an older adult may suggest an increased demand for caregiving responsibilities among other household members, it can also lead to a reduced need for childcare if the older adult provides care for their grandchildren. According to the Life in Transition Survey (LITS) IV, in BiH, 10.5 percent of the popu- lation resides in households with childcare needs, 3.14 percent in households with elderly care needs, and 0.36 percent in households requiring care for disabled individuals (Figure 27).21 Compared to other countries in the Western Balkans, BiH exhibits the lowest level of demand for various types of care. In BiH, most care- giving happens within families, rather than through outside services like nannies, relatives, or friends. While some children (about 16.7 percent) receive care in in- stitutions, this is entirely absent for elderly individuals in need of care. The most common reasons for not using childcare facilities are that household members take care of the children and the cost of the service. Similarly, when it comes to caring for elderly family members, reasons for not choosing institutional facilities more commonly involve care within the household, utilizing live-in support, and factors such as distance (Figure 28). 20 LITS IV (2023) 21 The LITS IV includes a question asking whether each household member needs care and whether they use institutional care facilities. . The question is asked for all children (0-6 years old), and elderly people. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 29 Figure 28. Reasons for not Using Care Facilities by Type of Care Needed (2023) Source: LFTS IV (2023) A. Childcare (% of the population living in households with childcare needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo Nort Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality Safety concerns All places taken All children cared in the HH Other reasons B. Elderly care (% of the population living in households with elderly care needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo Nort Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality All places are taken Cared for in the family Cared for with live-in support Other reasons 5.3 LABOR MARKET SEGREGATION Men tend to dominate industries traditionally considered male-dominated, like construction (93 percent of men compared to 7 percent of women), mining, quar- rying, and utilities (96 percent of men compared to 4 percent of women), and transportation (88 percent of men compared to 12 percent of women), as illus- trated in Figure 29. On the other hand, women are more likely to work in sectors traditionally seen as female-dominated, such as education (69 percent of women compared to 31 percent of men), and health and social work (67 percent of women compared to 33 percent of men). This concentration of women in specific indus- tries results in occupational segregation. Additionally, women often work as un- paid contributing family workers and are limited to low-paying positions with few opportunities for advancement and subpar working conditions. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 30 Figure 29. Share of Employment by Sectors and Gender (2020) Source: Agency of Statistics of BiH (2022) Agr, forestry, fishing Mining & quarry Manufacturing Electricity, gas supply Water supply/sewerage Construction Wholesale & retail Transp. & storage Hotel & food service ICT Financial services Real estate Professionals, scientist, tech. Administrative support PA Education Health & social work Entretainment Other services Household act. as employers Extraterritorial organ. 0 20 40 60 80 5.4 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND FINANCIAL INCLUSION In BiH, ownership and management of firms are predominantly male-dominated. According to the 2019 World Bank Enterprise survey,22 women were involved in the ownership of only 24.9 percent of enterprises. Their participation in ownership was higher in medium-sized firms at 35.8 percent compared to large firms, where it stood at 17.7 percent. Female entrepreneurs in BiH face an unfavorable female-to-male ratio in total entrepreneurial activity and opportunities. They encounter significant financial obstacles, including limited initial capital, insufficient startup and business devel- opment resources, a lack of entrepreneurial capital, and uncooperative attitudes from banks (UN Women, 2022). The COVID-19 crisis worsened these challenges, with women bearing a disproportionate burden of family care responsibilities, af- fecting their career progression and labor market participation. Survey data indi- cates that 68.4 percent of women-owned businesses in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and 76.3 percent in Republika Srpska had to cease activities during the pandemic. Women-owned businesses also experienced more substan- tial revenue declines in 2020, highlighting structural issues in accessing finance, such as loans, compared to men.23 Between 2018 and 2020, women registered only 13 percent of the total patents and secured just 27 percent of 104 royalty and intellectual property rights. Approx- imately 92 percent of women-owned companies in BiH operate in service sectors. 22 Accessed: January 9, 2024. 23 See USAID/BiH Monitoring and Evaluation Support Activity (MEASURE) Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 31 Female-led businesses generally have lower value-added compared to male-led ones, with an average of BAM 206,749 compared to BAM 1.3 million for male-led businesses.24 Additionally, over 90 percent of female-led enterprises are sole pro- prietorships and tend to be microenterprises. Access to financial resources and credit is crucial for entrepreneurship. Women’s lower rates of enterprise ownership correlate with lower rates of financial account ownership and limited access to loans. In 2021, 70.4 percent of women in BiH had a financial account, compared to 88.7 percent of men. Although the gender gap in financial account ownership decreased from 2011 to 2017, it has since widened. The share of individuals with financial institution accounts in BiH is lower than in EU-27 countries for both genders (Figure 30). BiH ranks second-lowest among Western Balkans countries in terms of financial account ownership for both men and women. Figure 30. Financial Institution Account Ownership, by Sex (percent) (population 15+) (2011-2021) Source: Global Findex (2021). 100 90 80 70 60 50 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 BiH Women BiH Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men In BiH, most women and men resort to informal channels for borrowing, often turn- ing to family or friends for financial support. While borrowing rates from informal sources were comparable for women and men in 2014 and 2017, there was a not- shift in 2021, with men being more inclined to borrow from family and friends (22.5 percent compared to 19.4 percent for women) (Table 2). Furthermore, women in BiH exhibit slightly higher rates of borrowing from formal financial institutions than men, resulting in a 6.3 percentage points gender gap in 2021. 24 World Bank (2018) Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 32 Table 2. Borrowing from Formal and Informal Channels by Sex (percent) (population 15+) (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion     2011 2014 2017 2021 Borrowed from family Female 16.5 6.4 7 19.4 or friends Male 14.5 6.8 7.6 22.5 Borrowed from a formal Female 12.7 18 12.7 18.7 financial institution Male 13.5 17.2 16.9 24 Men are more frequent users of digital payments. In 2014, 27 percent of women and 40 percent of men made digital payments (Figure 31). The rates increased for both women and men in 2017 to 45 percent for women and 56 percent for men. In 2021, the rates of digital payments increased even further to 56 percent of wom- en and 77 percent of men. However, BiH lags significantly behind the EU in digital payment activity for both genders. Figure 31. Made Digital Payments in the Last Year, by Sex (percent population 15+) (2014-2021) Source: Global Findex (2021). 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 BiH 2014 BiH 2017 Euro Area 2017 BiH 2021 Euro Area 2021 Women Men Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 33 SPOTLIGHT 3 - SOGI The Western Balkan countries have made strides in protecting fundamental rights, including those of sexual and gender minorities. However, the European Commission emphasizes the need for stronger implementation to combat discrimination and violence. The EU enlargement process offers an opportunity for SOGI inclusion, with support from various development partners. Limited data on SOGI reveal the profound impact of discrimination, exclusion, and vio- lence on LGBTI individuals and the region as a whole. Endowments - LGBTI individuals in the Western Balkans face significant challenges in education, employment, and ac- cessing essential services due to discrimination, bullying, and violence. A 2018 World Bank survey revealed alarming rates of negative comments and conduct towards LGBTI people in schools, with a notable impact on mental health, including increased suicide rates. Discrimination extends to healthcare, where nearly 40% of respondents reported mistreatment or avoided treatment due to fear of discrimination. Widespread violence against LGBTI individuals further exacerbates the situation, with many cases going unreported. Additionally, accessing housing presents hurdles, as evidenced by higher refusal rates for same-sex couples compared to heterosexual counterparts. Montenegro’s recent passage of a same-sex partnership law signals progress towards equality in various domains. Economic Opportunity - Data on labor market outcomes for LGTBI people remains extremely limited across the West- ern Balkans. A 2019 World Bank study in Serbia found that 15 percent of LGBTI people have experienced discrimina- tion at work. Discrimination adversely affects their socio-economic outcomes; 10 percent of respondents have quit a paid job, and 7 percent have taken unexpected leave from work due to the discrimination they experienced. The same survey found that LGBTI people who reported experiences of workplace discrimination also reported lower incomes. A 2020 survey by the EU Fundamental Rights Agency found that LGBTI people in North Macedonia and Serbia fre- quently experience discrimination in the workplace: 25 percent of respondents in North Macedonia and 24 percent in Serbia respectively. Voice and Agency - Discrimination, exclusion, and violence remain widespread, and LGBTI people often lack trust in the institutions designed to protect their human rights. Research in Serbia, for example, found that the vast majority of LGBTI people have low trust in the political system (95 percent), the legal system (93 percent), and the police (91 percent). The World Bank approaches sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) inclusion through its commitments to gender equality as well as social inclusion – two crucial components of the World Bank’s twin goals to eradicate extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity. Like heterosexual and cisgender women and girls, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) people are held to and impacted by prevailing restrictive gender norms and thus struggle to equally participate in markets, services, and spaces. In the Western Balkans, the same restrictive norms that hinder women and girls from achieving their full potential lie at the root of stigma, prejudice, and violence against LGBTI people. Sources: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2020. A long way to go for LGBTI equality. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ fra_uploads/fra-2020-lgbti-equality-technical-report_en.pdf World Bank Group. 2018. Life on the Margins: Survey Results of the Experiences of LGBTI People in Southeastern Europe. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30607 World Bank Group. 2019. A Comparative Analysis of the Socioeconomic Dimensions of LGBTI Exclusion in Serbia. World Bank. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 34 Despite equal rights for women and men to own real estate, data suggest that women exercise this right less frequently. According to 2015 data, only 30 percent of women were owners or co-owners of real estate, including land and buildings, which directly affects their access to traditional financing. When women do own land, it is often considered family property, limiting their autonomy over its use. This discrepancy is largely attributed to entrenched patriarchal norms and traditions. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 35 6. VOICE AND AGENCY 6.1 ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN Social norms significantly shape gender roles and stereotypes, often limiting women’s participation and influence both in public life and within households. While most people see women and men as equally capable in business execu- tive roles, a more noticeable gender gap exists in perceptions of political lead- ership (Figure 32). Figure 32. Beliefs Related to Women’s Role in Public Life (2023) Source: LITS IV (2023) A. Women are as competent as men to be business executives (% of the population agreeing (agree/strongly agree)) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Serbia Montenegro Women Men B. Men make better political leaders than women do (% of the population agreeing – agree/strongly agree) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Women Men Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 36 6.2 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION In the 2018 General Election, there were 7,497 political candidates vying for vari- ous positions in state, entity, and cantonal governments. Among these candidates, 3,119 were women, making up 41 percent of the candidate pool.25 However, the representation of women elected to various governmental bodies varied: in the BiH Parliamentary Assembly’s House of Representatives, it was 26 percent, while in the House of the Peoples, it stood at 20 percent. In the FBiH Parliament, wom- en constituted 28 percent of elected officials, compared to 22 percent in the RS People’s Assembly.26 From 2003 to 2021, the proportion of seats held by women rose from 17 percent to 26 percent. However, in 2022, this figure experienced a decline, dropping back to 16 percent (Figure 33). Women’s presence in cantonal assemblies ranged from 13 percent to 47 percent across different cantons, with an average representation of 31 percent. In the Council of Ministers of BiH, two out of nine ministries were led by women, representing 22 percent. In the FBiH Gov- ernment, women held 19 percent of ministerial positions, heading three out of 16 ministries.27 Conversely, in RS, women accounted for a relatively higher proportion of ministers at 37.5 percent, but by 2022, this figure had dropped to 16.7 percent. Figure 33. The Portion of Seats Held by Women (2003-2022) Source: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) (www.ipu.org). Note: Women in parliaments are the percentage of parliamentary seats held by women in a single or lower chamber. Accessed: January 9, 2024 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 25 European Commission, 2019 26 Agency for Statistics of BiH, 2022 27 See Kadribašić, A. et al. (2020). See also Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2020 Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 37 Figure 34. Proportion of Women in Ministerial Level Positions (percent) (2005-2020) Source: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Women in Politics. Note: Women in ministerial level positions is the proportion of women in ministerial or equivalent positions (including deputy prime ministers) in the government. Prime Ministers/Heads of Government are included when they hold ministerial portfolios. Vice-Presidents and heads of governmental or public agencies are excluded. Accessed: January 9, 2024 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 BiH lacks female prime ministers at any level of government the proportion of women in ministerial positions increased from 11 percent in 2005 to 19 percent in 2020 (Figure 34. Women’s representation in cantonal governments is notably low, with only a limited number of female cantonal ministers. During the 2020 local elections, there were 29 female candidates compared to 396 male candidates vying for the position of mayor, and only five of them were elected. While women made up 42.27 percent of election lists for local councils, the percentage of wom- en elected in local elections stood at 20.6 percent across BiH as a whole (with 21.8 percent in the FBiH and 17 percent in the RS). Minority women are significantly underrepresented in decision-making processes.28 6.3 ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP According to a recent study, women held 23 percent of management positions in public companies at the national level in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), though the percentages varied across regions (20 percent in FBiH, 15 percent in RS, and 33 percent in BD). However, when it came to general managers of public com- panies in BiH, women represented just 5.5 percent.29 In 2020, among the top 10 companies listed on the stock market in BiH, women occupied managerial roles in only 17 percent of them. Notably, only one out of ten companies had a female president. Additionally, among the 10 members of the Governing Board of the BiH Central Bank, only 2 were women. 28 European Commission, 2020 29 Dizdar, A. (2021) Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 38 6.4 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND SOCIAL NORMS Gender-based violence remains a concern. According to a 2018 survey conduct- ed by the OSCE across eight countries, nearly half (48 percent) of BiH women reported experiencing some form of violence, such as intimate partner violence, non-partner violence, stalking, and sexual harassment since the age of 15 (Figure 35).30 Specifically, 15 percent of women reported physical or sexual violence from their partner or a non-partner since the age of 15. Non-partner physical or sexual violence during a lifetime was reported by 14 percent of women, while one in ten women experienced intimate partner physical violence from a current or former partner since turning fifteen. Psychological violence, experienced by 36 percent of women, was the most prevalent form of intimate partner violence. Despite the severe consequences, many women do not report violence (Figure 36). Following a serious incident of intimate partner violence, the majority (95 percent) experienced strong emotional reactions such as anger, fear, shock, and embarrassment. Additionally, nearly three in four women suffered long-term psy- chological consequences, including depression, anxiety, panic attacks, sleep dis- turbances, and concentration difficulties. More than half of women (56 percent) experienced physical consequences. However, only a small proportion of women reported the most serious incident of violence perpetrated by their current partner to the police (5 percent), and even fewer contacted other institutions or organiza- tions. In total, 84 percent of women did not seek support from any institution or organization. The main reasons for not seeking support services included perceiving the inci- dent as minor or manageable independently, feelings of shame, embarrassment, fear of further victimization, lack of trust in institutions, and a desire to keep the matter private.31 The survey also confirmed the enduring role of gender stereo- types and attitudes that still reflect the subordinate position of women, along with a tendency to blame victims and view such matters as private. A quarter of women believed that domestic violence should be dealt with privately within the family, 13 percent thought that the victim often provoked violence against women, and 11 percent believed that a wife has an obligation to have sex with her husband even when she does not want to. Additionally, 24 percent of women agreed with the statement that it is important for a man to assert dominance in the relationship. 30 OSCE, 2019 31 Ibid. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 39 Figure 35: Different Forms of Violence Against Women (percent) (2019) Source: OCSE (2019) Stalking Intimate partener or non intimate partner phyisical and/or sexual violence Sexual harassment Intimate partner phsycological violence Any 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Since the age of 15 12 months prior to the survey Figure 36: Reporting Violence (2016) Source: OCSE (2019) Sexual harassment Previous partner Current partner Non-partner violence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Reporting the most serious incidents. % of women who Reporting most serious incidents. % of women who did reported it themselves to the police not contact police/other organization The first national survey on violence against women analyzed factors influencing violence across age groups, poverty levels, regions, and social values. It found that young women, especially those aged 18-24, had a higher prevalence rate of vio- lence (56 percent) compared to older women (44 percent). Rural women faced a higher risk (49 percent) compared to urban women (around 44 percent). Economic disadvantage and poor health also increased vulnerability. Partner characteristics, like education levels and patriarchal views, influenced violence likelihood. Marginalized groups of women, such as victims of war-related rape, domestic vi- olence, human trafficking, and women from minority groups like Roma, LBTI indi- viduals, and pregnant women, face higher vulnerability. BiH ratified the Istanbul Convention in 2013 to address this issue, but implementation is inconsistent. Civil society organizations provide vital support through hotlines, shelter, and legal aid, but their services lack uniform regulation and implementation. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 40 New forms of gender-based violence, including femicide and violence against fe- male politicians, activists, human rights defenders, and LGBTI persons, both in the media and in the digital environment, are raising concerns. 7. CONCLUSIONS Bosnia and Herzegovina has taken significant steps toward gender equality, rec- ognizing its importance for economic development. Progress in narrowing gen- der gaps in education, extending women’s life expectancy, and increasing female political engagement marks substantial advancement. These achievements are instrumental in harnessing the diverse talents of BiH’s population, laying the foun- dation for sustained economic growth and prosperity. However, the path to full gender equality encounters significant challenges. Per- sistent gender disparities in the labor market, with women’s participation notably trailing behind men’s, pose hurdles. The impact of the motherhood penalty further complicates women’s career trajectories post-family formation. Addressing the remaining challenges requires fostering environments that not only promote women’s economic participation but also tackle educational dispar- ities, particularly in tertiary education, faced by men. Ensuring equitable access to education and economic opportunities for both genders is essential for maximizing BiH’s human capital. By promoting inclusivity and equity, Bosnia and Herzegovina can nurture a resilient and dynamic economy that thrives on the contributions of all its citizens, thus unlocking its full potential for sustainable economic growth. Country Gender Assessment Bosnia Herzegovina 41 8. REFERENCES Adsera, Alicia. 2004. “Changing Fertility Rates in Dahl, Gordon B., Katrine V. Loken, Magne Mogstad, Developed Countries. 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