SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT JULY 2023 WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT INTERVENTIONS TO INCREASE WOMEN’S ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT IN SOUTH ASIA? CARE POLICES AND CARE SERVICES Najaf ZahraŦ, Amna JavedŦ, and Ana Maria Munoz BoudetŦ The World Bank’s South Asia Region Gender Innovation For the review, care responsibilities are defined as activities Lab is conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis that keep women engaged in looking after members of their of interventions with direct or indirect effects on mea- household. Particularly, the review explores care activities sures of women’s economic empowerment. The review that prevent women of working age from entering the focuses on changes in labor force participation, employ- labor force, both at the extensive and intensive margins. ment, income, and empowerment outcomes. The goal Household care activities include childcare, elder care, and is to document what has and has not worked for women care for the sick and disabled. The research for this review in the region (covering all countries: Afghanistan, Ban- accounts for interventions that reduce this burden of care gladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and on women and enable them to enter or re-enter the work Sri Lanka), the types of interventions implemented, and force. First, this includes childcare services—those provid- identifiable gaps in knowledge and action. The review ed by the government, non-governmental organizations organizes interventions in five broad categories: Skills (NGOs), private and employer-provided, or supported on- trainings, Asset transfers and property laws, Financial site childcare. Second, it accounts for policies or mandates products, Care policies and Care services, and Empow- that provide women with care services and childcare man- erment (self-help groups)1. This brief summarizes key dates. It also includes additional mandates that provide findings from the Care category. families with tax breaks, vouchers, and subsidy benefits to help with care responsibilities, and it accounts for labor market regulations, such as leave, family-friendly policies, and arrangements. Lastly, the review excludes policies or WHAT IS INCLUDED? programs that provide education to school-age children beyond the pre-school level. The review includes experimental and quasi-experimental evidence for policies and programs that have either di- The review includes English-language studies published rectly or indirectly changed women’s economic outcomes between January 1990 and July 2022 across white and regarding labor force participation, employment, income, gray literature (peer-reviewed journals, working papers, and empowerment. The Care category covers inter- program or agency reports, and academic thesis, among ventions and mandates that reduce the care burden on others) identified via an extensive search of multiple da- women and, consequently, enable them to participate as tabases2. Intervention inclusion was not limited by time, active economic agents. duration, frequency, or method of exposure. Figure  1 Ŧ World Bank 1 Previously, the interventions were divided into six categories. However, the Credit and Entrepreneurship categories have been pooled into the Financial products theme. The Labor markets theme has been replaced with a Care category (i.e., this brief). This replacement was made due to a lack of studies uniquely associated with the Labor markets theme. 2 The search spanned databases that included Econlit, Web of Science, Science Direct, National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), Google Scholar, World Bank e-Library, UNU-WIDER, Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL), Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), Center for Global Development (CGD), International Growth Center (IGC), American Economic Association (AEA), AEA Registry, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3iE), RePEc Research Papers in Economics IDEAS database, and JSTOR. Figure 1: Search Methodology Identi cation A preliminary list of Backward and forward Resources were rechecked Stage 2: Snowballing databases was searched snowballing was conducted using the World Bank Stage 1: Base Search library lists and the Stage 3: Recheck connected paper’s website Studies were stored in a The process was repeated Final studies were added snowballing repository un�l no new studies were to a thema�c database Screening iden�fied Eligibility decisions were made a�er reading the �tle and abstract of each resource. Addi�onal scoping was done to iden�fy outcomes and methodology for some ar�cles. Each study outcome was assigned to a category, either Eligibility employment, empowerment, or income. Poten�al papers were also checked for their iden�fica�on strategy. Key informa�on about programs and par�cipants was extracted for each study including type of interven�on, sample popula�on, econometric methodology, and impact details. All studies added were given unique IDs based on interven�on type, popula�on, econometric methodology/specifica�on, year, and outcomes. If a study reported impact es�mates using more than one specifica�on, it was coded using different codes for methodology/specifica�on. Key Information summarizes the three-stage identification process. The the child in their own homes. Center-provided care first stage filtered papers that were relevant to the region includes employer-provided care (both on-site and and programs that targeted interventions that reduced the off-site), government-run childcare centers (including burden of care. The second stage filtered for intervention community-based models implemented in support with type, and the third stage for methodology. Two reviewers an NGO or government agencies) and private childcare independently searched for and extracted data on impact provision (including informal for-profit centers). Faith- effects, design, and intervention components from the based providers of care and parents’ cooperatives are list of finalized articles. Additional outcome-specific data, included too. such as units of reporting, coefficient significance, and standard errors, were also extracted. If a study reported • Evaluated an Early Childhood Development (ECD) impact estimates using more than one specification, all program that freed up the time that women spent on were recorded; however, only the researchers’ preferred care activities for children. These include public and specification is used in this brief. private nurseries and pre-school programs. Eligible studies met at least one of the following conditions: • Evaluated mandates that provided employers, childcare centers, and/or parents with incentives and/or subsidies • Evaluated a program that provided women with for childcare provision. This includes financial support childcare services. This includes home-based care, arrangements (for example, subsidies and vouchers) for center-provided care programs and improvised and parents and providers. Also included are preferential tax unremunerated family and community arrangements. regimes, such as childcare tax credits. Home-based care includes registered or unregistered home-based providers or childminders, who take care • Evaluated a legislation that provided women or men with of a group of babies, toddlers, and/or older children access to flexible work arrangements or certain benefits at the caregiver’s home. Home-based care also to attend to care responsibilities. This includes maternity includes nannies and au pairs employed to care for leave, parental leave, and paternity leave. 2  |  Systematic Review on Women’s Economic Empowerment • Evaluated any program designed to relieve the care This translates into less time spent on education, self-care, burden of the elderly or the sick. and employment. Providing care support to women frees up time spent disproportionally on care responsibilities at In addition, the studies were required to have: home. Women can use this time to pursue economically productive activities. • Used experimental or quasi-experimental evaluation methods. Our systematic review documents three childcare models: Home-based care, center-provided care programs, and • Reported outcomes for women, either because they improvised and unremunerated family and community were the direct target population or as a subpopulation. arrangements. In South Asia, the childcare landscape is constrained by issues related to accessibility, affordability, • Reported required outcomes for employment (includ- and quality (Women, Business and the Law 2022). Bangla- ing labor market outcomes, income, earnings, self-em- desh is the only country in the region that has regulations ployment) and empowerment (including agency, in place for both public and private provision of childcare well-being, and happiness). services, including mechanisms for licensing, accredita- tion, and penalties for non-compliance. However, the The database search process identified 247,538 potential fee structures and financial support mechanisms are not studies after using key words for all filter types. After skim- regulated by law in any country in the region. Nepal only ming the title and abstract, researchers saved 36 studies regulates private childcare services, with the law requiring for further review. After briefly reviewing the titles and inspections to ensure compliance to laws and quality abstracts, researchers shortlisted 7 of the 36 studies for standards. While employer-provided childcare exists in an in-depth review. They obtained a core list of 5 studies Nepal, it is mandated only in some instances. Bangladesh, to scope in-depth for eligibility. The final database has 5 India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka mandate employers to pro- impact evaluations—all studies evaluate the impact of vide childcare services3, with only India and Bangladesh childcare interventions on selected women empower- providing tax benefits to employers. No country has laws ment outcomes. The final details on the papers included regulating hours of operation or offering flexible hours of in this review are in table A.1. All studies cover India, as the service. Table 1 shows the landscape of childcare in South search identified no evaluated programs in other countries Asia. in the region. Even in areas where legislation exists, there is limited capacity to monitor and enforce childcare laws. In cases where employer-provided childcare is available, many INTERVENTIONS AND POLICIES TO women opt-out of these services fearing unsafe practices, REDUCE THE BURDEN OF CARE ON unpredictable work hours, and long commutes to work of- WOMEN fices (Devercelli and Beaton-Day 2020). In some countries, such as Bangladesh and India, childcare services are also provided by international and national NGOs. Caring for family members is a responsibility that is dispro- portionately borne by women. Time use surveys conducted In addition to childcare, other family policies are designed in Pakistan and India show that men’s share of unpaid care to provide support to those who have care responsibilities work is less than 10 percent (8.9 and 9.5 percent), which is toward newborns and children. These include maternity far less than the global average of 27.5 percent (Charmes and paternity leave policies, child benefits such as grants/ 2019). This unequal division of responsibility is evident in government subsidies, tax rebates, vouchers, and other many South Asian countries, where entrenched sociocul- monetary incentives provided to caregivers of children, and tural norms and patriarchal traditions view women as the breastfeeding policies. Maternity leave policies specifically primary caretakers of children and other family members. support new mothers and their newborns by providing 3 These laws are also constrained by a minimum threshold of employees for the enforcement to be legally binding JULY 2023  |  3 Table 1: Landscape of Childcare Mandates in South Asia Country Law regulating Law regulating Law mandates Paid leave of at Paid leave Length of paid Length of paid public provision private provision employers least 14 weeks available to maternity leave paternity leave of childcare of childcare to provide or available to fathers (days) (days) services services support childcare mothers services Bangladesh ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ 112 0 Bhutan ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ 60 14 India ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗ 182 0 Nepal ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓ 98 21 Pakistan ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗ 112 0 Sri Lanka ✗ ✗ ✓ ✗ ✗ 84 0 Afghanistan - - - ✗ ✓ 90 14 Maldives - - - ✗ ✓ 60 3 Note: Mandates are reported at the national level. Source: Women, Business, and Law, 2023 mothers with paid time off from work to recuperate from well-researched. A study by Evans, et al. (2021) highlights childbirth and to attend to the needs of the newborn. the paucity of evidence on studies that measure the im- It also provides mothers with job security and ensures pact of ECD interventions on women’s labor market and sustained income and wages. Paternity leave policies en- empowerment outcomes. Of the 478 studies, globally, courage fathers to play a greater role in caring for children that evaluated an ECD-related intervention, only 4 percent and aim to shift the gendered attitude toward childcare. (19 studies) account for maternal labor market outcomes, Encouraging men to take an equal responsibility for child- and 1 percent (6 studies) report outcomes for women caring enables women to enter/re-enter the labor force empowerment. with minimal breaks in their career trajectories. Further, these policies may reduce discrimination against women in the workplace, particularly in hiring. Table 1 shows the state of family friendly policies in South Asia, in line with PROGRAM DESIGN the benchmarks mandated by the International Labour Or- ganization (ILO). Most countries mandate maternal leave The review of care interventions maps five studies, all of for women workers; however, only four countries provide which evaluate childcare interventions. The five evalua- the ILO mandated minimum of 14 weeks. Most countries tions explore cases of subsidized childcare services and in South Asia have no legal provision for paternity leave at preschool programs provided through a government pro- the national level4. vider, an NGO, and a private provider. Of the five programs, two evaluate the effectiveness of childcare provided This review found no studies that evaluated the impact of through the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) leave policies on the economic empowerment dimensions (Jain 2016, Friedman, et al. 2017). Richardson, et al (2018) for women. and Nandi, et al. (2020) evaluate a community-based daycare program with an NGO called Seva Mandir. Lastly, This paucity of research on economic outcomes for Ranganathan and Pedulla (2021) look at a case of employ- women is also evident in the early childhood intervention er-provided daycare on site by a garment factory in India. landscape. ECD interventions, when carefully designed, have shown impacts on children’s physical, cognitive, and All five childcare programs targeted women that belonged socioemotional development. However, their indirect to rural and marginalized backgrounds. Most women effects on mothers and other household members are not had never attended school and reported unfavorably on 4 In Pakistan, the revised leave rules provide paternity leave for a maximum of seven days only in the province of Punjab only. 4  |  Systematic Review on Women’s Economic Empowerment empowerment outcomes and emotional and physical the evaluation reports lower participation of children in abuse by their partners. The interventions also targeted preschool, despite the same children being enrolled for women in low-skilled occupations. other ICDS services including daily supplementary feeding, vaccination, and health checkups. Jain (2016) shows that In addition to childcare services, programs also provided children from scheduled caste households are less likely complementary services to children at the daycare cen- to participate in preschool services and attributes this ters. The ICDS program provided additional services, such discrepancy to discrimination against marginalized castes. as supplementary nutrition support, immunization, health The primary reason for parents not using the daycare checkups, referral services, pre-school education and services is distance and difficulty in dropping off and nutrition and health education. Ranganathan and Pedulla picking up the child. The ICDS daycare centers also have (2021) also reported additional food and health services operational issues. Parents report inconsistent functioning that included breakfast, lunch and afternoon snacks from and poor quality as reasons for not sending their child to the factory canteen and health checks with a nurse on site. the ICDS daycare. Friedman, et al. (2017) highlight quality concerns at the centers. These include limited availability While basic modalities of childcare provision are similar of clean drinking water, inadequate hygiene protocols, across programs, this review reports differences in both and limited nutrition and cleanliness support for food. An structure and operational activities. additional process evaluation reveals shortages of play material, water, and sanitation facilities at the centers. Launched in 1975, the ICDS program caters through centers Lastly, many care providers are inadequately trained to across India. A caretaker and helper run each center, with manage and run the centers. both receiving three months of institutional training and four months of community-based training. The communi- There is a similar pattern of service utilization for NGO-pro- ty-run daycare centers run by Seva Mandir are operated by vided daycare centers. Richardson, et al (2018) and Nandi, local women called sanchalikas who are hired and trained et al. (2020) show an uptake of 41 percent to 43 percent by Seva Mandir. The centers are open for five days a week, for the Seva Mandir daycare centers in India. This modest six hours a day. The childcare center at the garment fac- uptake is attributed to other structural barriers beyond tory is run by two women who are trained to take care of the lack of affordable daycare. However, in contrast to children and infants. The on-site center provides children the ICDS program, qualitative interviews with parents re- with health and sanitation facilities, educational learning garding service provision show satisfactory opinions of the activities, and meal services. However, due to capacity service and security provided, including the nutrition and constraints, the center can only accommodate 100 children education components. For employer-provided childcare, at a time. To qualify, mothers are put on a waitlist that is Ranganathan and Pedulla (2021) report full utilization of managed by the company’s human resources department. on-site daycare. The utilization of childcare services varies across programs. The three-year evaluation of the ICDS program by Fried- man, et al. (2017) showed an 8-percentage point increase PROGRAM IMPACTS in the utilization of the daycare services. This increase could be attributed to complementary interventions such Program impacts are categorized into two groups: 1) Labor as provision of cooking gas and construction of latrines market and 2) Broader empowerment. during the same period. On average, each center catered to 10 children, and this increased over time. However, A. LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES daily attendance was not consistent and was affected by seasonal changes, migration, and festivities. When com- All five studies report labor market outcomes for women. paring utilization between different services of the ICDS Jain (2016) reports a 6-percentage point increase in the program, Jain (2016) picked up discrepancies. For instance, maternal labor supply in rural India5. These results are 5 This increases to 13.9*** percentage point if combined with daily supplementary feeding, which includes foods other than breast milk. JULY 2023  |  5 mostly driven by impacts from central rural India, where programs such as ICDS in India8. Studies report an uptake the provision of preschool has resulted in a 10-percentage between 40-52 percent. Uptake and attendance of chil- point increase in women’s labor force supply. Similar find- dren varies geographically across India and is impacted ings are reported by Friedman, et al. (2017) and Rangana- by migration and seasonal activities. It is also impacted than and Pedulla (2021) who report that access to daycare by the nature of jobs. The target women in the reviewed improves the likelihood of work6 among caregivers by studies are young, from low-income backgrounds, and 0.637 days and leads to a 5.5 percentage point increase tend to be engaged in low-skill occupations. Most low- in women’s attendance at work7, respectively. Richardson, skill jobs don’t offer consistent contracts, and the work et al. (2018) and Nandi, et al. (2020) report a reduction is either seasonal or irregular and offers compensation in women’s time spent performing care work. However, in daily wages. while Richardson, et al (2018) do not find any effect on women’s paid work, Nandi, et al. (2020) find an increase Third, the reviewed studies show encouraging results of 2.3 percentage points in the proportion of women for labor market outcomes for women. Four of the five working for cash paid jobs in the last 12 months and, a studies show improved maternal labor supply, both at the 2.6 percentage point increase in the proportion of women extensive and intensive margins, and most significantly who engaged in any paid work in the last 24 hours. for women from marginalized backgrounds. Results also illustrate a reduction in time women spend on housework B. BROADER EMPOWERMENT OUTCOMES and care activities for family members. Access to childcare services also improved women’s attendance at work. Inter- Only one study reports other empowerment outcomes estingly, Ranganathan and Pedulla (2021) explore benefits for women. Richardson, et al. (2018) report the impact from employer-provided childcare for women with and of childcare services on mother’s agency, mental health, without non-work social networks. They find that women and incidence of violence. Access to affordable daycare who have less support from non-work networks for child- has resulted in a 11 percent reduction in mental distress care support, specifically women with daughters, are more among women, in comparison to women in the control likely to benefit from employer-provided childcare. This group. While intervention impacts on measures of agency may be because, in societies where sons are preferred, are not significant, the study reports a 3-percentage point women with daughters have only limited support from reduction in Intimate Partner Violence among women their social networks in providing informal childcare. Only exposed to the treatment, which is primarily meditated one study from India shows no impact on women’s labor by a reduction in controlling partner behavior (5 percent- market outcomes, which the authors attribute to structural age points) and psychological abuse (4 percentage point barriers that go beyond the childcare landscape. Last, only decrease). one study evaluates the impact of childcare interventions on women’s general empowerment, with positive impacts on several outcomes. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION While the labor market results seem promising, the pool of studies is small and limited only to India. This lack of Our review of the childcare landscape highlights several rigorous impact evaluations can be partly attributed to the insights. First, the studies in this review include only nascent institutional childcare landscape in South Asia. childcare interventions delivered either by an NGO or While all countries for which data are available, except for government program. Researchers found no evaluations Bhutan, regulate at least one of the three types of formal of laws, mandates, and care benefits. Second, uptake childcare providers—public, private and employers, only of childcare provision is mixed, even for large scale one country, Bangladesh, regulates all three. 6 Probability of work in last week. 7 Additional calculations indicate that the attendance of women with daughters went up by 7.5 percentage points in response to receiving access to childcare, whereas the attendance of women with sons went up by 2.5 percentage points 8 The program targets children between the ages of 3 and 6. The ICDS program has faced several operational challenges, the key one being its inability to reach children below the age of three. Ages 0-3 is most critical for early childhood development. 6  |  Systematic Review on Women’s Economic Empowerment Even though we have a small pool of studies, we have many structure and social hierarchies may also determine de- useful insights that shed light on the relationship between mand for childcare. Women living in bigger families may childcare and women’s economic empowerment: have an increased responsibility to care for extended fam- ily members and perform household chores but may also In the presence of other constraints, the impact of childcare have more childcare support from other family members. on women’s economic empowerment may be muted. Similarly, the number of children a woman has may also be a determining factor for childcare demand. Women with The positive link between childcare provision and women’s multiple children may want to enroll their older children in economic empowerment, while evident to some degree daycare centers to leave them free to attend to the needs from the studies included in this review, may be muted by of the younger ones. Hence, having access to childcare factors outside the childcare landscape. The burden and un­ may free up time for women, but not necessarily translate equal distribution of domestic responsibilities and broader into increased labor market participation. social norms in general may add constraints to where and how women can work. Hence, even in the presence of child- Quality of care is underregulated and understudied but care services, many women may not engage in paid work likely an important factor. outside the family home. Quality of childcare services can significantly influence Aggregate effects hide heterogeneity. parental decision-making to utilize childcare services, and consequently determine women’s decision to re-enter/ The utilization of childcare depends on a wide variety of enter the labor market. While the relationship between factors that relate to economic status, social norms about the quality of childcare and women’s decision to work is the societal role of women, and household structure. not widely researched, a few studies done in high-income Women who are intrinsically motivated to stay in the countries indicate that quality is important (Baker, Gruber labor force will have a higher demand for childcare and and Milligan 2008; Haeck, Lefebvre and Merrigan 2015). In will expect to gain more from the service. Existing job op- South Asia, only Bangladesh mandates some quality stan- portunities, the availability of flexible work arrangements, dards for public and private childcare provision (while Nepal and social norms about women’s mobility will also add to has similar regulations in place for private centers); however, a woman’s decision to access childcare. Socioeconomic implementation of standards is still weak. Quality measures status adds another layer of complexity. If women’s include structural quality such as teacher-to-student ratios, work outside the family home is stigmatized, women professional development of caregivers, and infrastructure from high-income backgrounds may choose to not enter facilities. The hours of operation and flexibility in service or return to the labor force. In contrast, women from hours are also crucial aspects. Lastly, lack of parental trust marginalized backgrounds might not have a choice, and and concerns with safety may impact the demand for child- could benefit from low-cost childcare options. Household care services and, consequently, women’s decision to work. STAY CONNECTED We gratefully acknowledge funding from the South Asia Trade Facilitation Program (SARTFP) and the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE). SARTFP is a trust fund administered by the World Bank with financial contribution from the Government of Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. UFGE is a multi-donor trust fund administered by the World SARGENDERLAB@WORLDBANK.ORG Bank to advance gender equality and women's empowerment through experimentation and WORLDBANK.ORG/SARGENDERLAB knowledge creation to help governments and the private sector focus policy and programs on scalable solutions with sustainable outcomes. The UFGE is supported with generous contributions from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the Wellspring Philanthropic Fund. APPENDIX Table A.1: Included Studies and Program Details ID Title and Author(s) Methodology Region Implement- Intervention Intervention Population Sample ing Partner Type 1 The effect of Cluster India, Seva Mandir Commu- Community members were offered full-time, Women were, on affordable daycare Randomized Rajasthan (NGO) nity based community-run affordable daycare services, average, 30 years of on women’s mental Control Trial childcare called “balwadis.” Each balwadi provided age; majority were health: evidence from (RCT) centers childcare, nutritious meals, preschool from scheduled tribes a cluster randomized education, and linkage to health services and had many had trial in rural India. (e.g., immunizations) to children between never attended school. one and six years of age. The centers were These women also Robin A. Richardson, run by local women, called “sanchalikas,” reported experiencing Sam Harper, Norbert who were trained by the implementing some form of intimate Schmitz, Arijit Nandi, NGO. Members using the services were partner violence. 2019 charged a fee of Rs. 150 per child, which was used to purchase the needed items for the center. The centers were open 5 days a week, for 6 hours every day. 2 Access to affordable Cluster India, Seva Mandir Commu- Community members were offered Women from daycare and women’s Randomized Rajasthan (NGO) nity-based full-time, community-run affordable daycare low-income economic opportuni- Control Trial childcare services, called “balwadis.” Each balwadi backgrounds and had ties: evidence from a (RCT) centers provided childcare, nutritious meals, never attended school. cluster- preschool education, and linkage to health services (e.g., immunizations) to children randomized interven- between one and six years of age. The tion in India centers were run by local women, called Arijit Nandi, Parul “sanchalikas,” who were trained by the Agarwal, Anoushaka implementing NGO. Chandrashekar & Sam Harper, 2020 3 Public Preschooling Randomized India, rural Integrated Public The ICDS program has a long history of Women between ages and Maternal Labor Control Trial areas in the Child pre-school providing numerous services to under- 15-49 years of age Force Participation in (RCT) central and Development centers privileged women in India. These services from rural regions. Rural India. south Scheme include supplementary nutrition, health Most women had at (ICDS) check-ups, immunization, and preschool least one child. Monica Jain, 2016 services. Pre-schooling Is provided in childcare centers or anganwadis,” located in villages. Each center is run by an anganwadi worker and one helper— they undergo three months of institutional training and four months of community-based training. 4 Evaluating Integration Randomized India, Integrated Public The ICDS program has a long history of Women between ages in the ICDS: Impact Control Trial Madhya Child pre-school providing numerous services to under- 15-49 years of age Evaluation of an (RCT) Pradesh Development centers privileged women in India. These services from rural regions. AWC-cum-creche pilot Scheme include supplementary nutrition, health Most women had at in Madhya Pradesh. (ICDS check-ups, immunization, and preschool least one child. services. Pre-school is provided in childcare Jed Friedman, Harold centers or “anganwadis,” located in villages. Alderman, Mohini Each center is run by an anganwadi worker Kak, and Ramesh and one helper, who undergo three months Govindaraj, 2017 of institutional training and four months of community-based training. 5 Work-Family Programs Randomized India, Private Employer A large garment factory in India employs Low-skilled female gar- and Non-Work Net- Control Trial Bengaluru garment provided on- 1,800 women and specializes in producing ment factory workers. works: Within-Group (RCT) factory site childcare menswear. The factory provides on-site Many of the women Inequality, Network center childcare to women workers. Run by two in the sample use Activation, and Labor women trained in the care of children and informal, neighbor- Market Attachment. infants, the center provides educational hood-based childcare learning, meals, and health services free of centers before Aruna Ranganathan charge. gaining access to the and David S. Pedulla, employer-provided 2021 childcare center. 8  |  Systematic Review on Women’s Economic Empowerment Table A.2: Reported Outcomes Outcome Category Reporting Units Outcome Measurement Effect (reported) Effect (change from mean of control) (Richardson et al. 2018) The effect of affordable daycare on women’s mental health: evidence from a cluster randomized trial in rural India. Labor market Time, hours Total work hours -0.12 -7.20 min Farm work 0.09 05.40 min Paid work -0.02 -01.20 min Housework -0.01 -00.60 min Caring for children, -0.16 -09.60 min elderly, disabled Women’s empowerment, Average of 12 sub-indicators from the General Health Mental distress -0.21 -10.61 perc mental health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) Women’s empowerment, Average of all agency types across 23 sub-indicators Overall agency 0.02 -15.38 perc agency Average of 9 sub-indicators Household decision 0.02 -66.67 perc making Average of 5 sub-indicators Freedom of movement 0.02 -11.76 perc Average of 6 sub-indicators Participation in the 0.01 -33.33 perc community Average of 3 sub-indicators Attitudes and perceptions 0.02 -28.57 perc Women’s empowerment, Average of 6 sub- indicators from the Demographic and Intimate partner violence -0.03 -03.85 perc violence, and abuse Health Survey’s Domestic Violence Module Physical abuse -0.01 -03.70 perc Psychological abuse -0.04 -12.50 perc Controlling behavior -0.05 -06.94 perc (Nandi et al. 2020) Access to affordable daycare and women’s economic opportunities: evidence from a cluster-randomised intervention in India Labor Market Worked in the past 7-day, percentage point Employment -0.40 -00.65 perc Self-employed, percentage point Employment -0.50 -01.44 perc Works year-round, percentage point Employment 2.00 22.47 perc Paid in cash for work in the last 12 months, percentage Employment 2.30 24.21 perc point Any time on paid work in the last 24 hours, percentage Employment 2.60 48.15 perc point Income Money, rupees Total household income -770.1 -01.41 perc (Jain 2016) Public Preschooling and Maternal Labor Force Participation in Rural India. Labor market, Working in the last 7 days, percentage points Rural India 6.00*** 17.65 perc employment Rural South and West 5.00* 11.63 perc Rural North 1.00 3.85 perc Rural East 5.00* 19.23 perc Rural Northeast 5.00 21.74 perc Rural Central 10.00* 20.83 perc ( Friedman et al. 2017) Evaluating Integration in the ICDS: Impact Evaluation of an AWC-cum-creche pilot in Madhya Pradesh Labor market Worked at all in the past week, percentage points Employment -0.40* - Number of days worked in the last week, days Employment -0.50 - Care provided, percentage points Household care 2.00* - responsibilities (Ranganathan and Pedulla 2021) Work-Family Programs and Non-Work Networks: Within-Group Inequality, Network Activation, and Labor Market Attachment Labor Market Present at work, log Attendance 0.536* 70. 91 Perc Note: Richardson, et al. (2018) and Nandi, et al. (2020) do not report significance values, only 95% confidence intervals. 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The World Bank Group. https://wbl.worldbank.org/ en/wbl. 10  |  Systematic Review on Women’s Economic Empowerment